Goals, composition, methods.

The group's efforts are directed towards knocking down oil production in the Niger-Delta region and claims to expose exploitation and oppression of the people of the Niger-Delta and devastation of the natural environment as a result of public-private partnerships between the Federal Government of Nigeria and corporations involved in the production of oil in the Niger Delta. Its composition includes members of the "Ijaw" who accuse the government and overseas oil firms with promoting massive economic inequalities, fraud, and environmental degradation. MEND’s methods include kidnap-for-ransom of oil workers, staging armed assaults on production sites, pipeline destruction, murder of Nigerian police officers, and draining off of oil and sell it to the black market.  MEND's other goals include localizing control of Nigeria's oil and securing reparations from the federal government for pollution caused by the oil industry. In an interview with one of the group's leaders, who used the alias Major-General Godswill Tamuno, the BBC reported that MEND was fighting for "total control" of the Niger-Delta's oil wealth, saying local people had not gained from the riches under the ground and the region's creeks and swamps."  MEND has been linked to attacks on petroleum operations in Nigeria as part of the conflict in the Niger-Delta, engaging in actions including sabotage, theft, property destruction, guerrilla warfare, and kidnapping.  In a January 2006 email, MEND warned the oil industry -- "It must be clear that the Nigerian government cannot protect your workers or assets. Leave our land while you can or die in it... Our aim is to totally destroy the capacity of the Nigerian government to export oil."Additionally MEND called upon then President, Olusegun Obasanjo, to free two jailed Ijaw leaders — Mujahid Dokubo-Asari, who was in jail at the time on charges of treason, and Diepreye Alamieyeseigha, a former governor of Bayelsa State convicted of corruption. Obasanjo's successor, President Umaru Musa Yar'Adua authorised the release of Dokubo-Asari and Alamieyeseigha in 2007.

Recent tactics.

MEND's attacks involve substantially more sophisticated tactics than those of previous militant groups in the Niger Delta. MEND's recent tactics include:  The militant group has repeatedly bombed pipelines, triggering an international increase in the cost of oil.

Origins and context.

For the roughly fifty years since Nigeria declared independence from British colonial rule, oil has been produced in Nigeria. Throughout this period, corporate politics has intersected with successive dictatorships. Under these dictatorships the Nigerian government has signed laws that appropriated oil resources and placed these under the control of multinational oil companies, such as Chevron Corporation and Royal Dutch Shell.  From the point of view of MEND, and its supporters, the people of the Niger Delta have suffered an unprecedented degradation of their environment due to unchecked pollution produced by the oil industry. As a result of this policy of dispossessing people from their lands in favor of foreign oil interests, within a single generation, many now have no ability to fish or farm. People living in the Niger Delta have found themselves in a situation where their government and the international oil companies own all the oil under their feet, the revenues of which are rarely seen by the people who are suffering from the consequences of oil extraction.  Kenneth Roth, Executive Director of Human Rights Watch, has said of the situation: The oil companies can't pretend they don't know what's happening all around them. The Nigerian government obviously has the primary responsibility to stop human rights abuse. But the oil companies are directly benefiting from these crude attempts to suppress dissent, and that means they have a duty to try and stop it. Eghare W.O. Ojhogar, chief of the Ugborodo community, said: "It is like paradise and hell. They have everything. We have nothing... If we protest, they send soldiers."  Over the last twenty years various political movements and activists have emerged in opposition to the perceived injustices perpetrated upon the people of the Niger Delta by the government and the oil companies. These were usually nonviolent; Ken Saro-Wiwa was the most famous activist. Saro-Wiwa was an Ogoni poet-turned-activist who was executed by the Nigerian government in 1995 on what many believe to be deliberately false charges with the aim of silencing his vocal opposition to the oil interests in Nigeria. In Saro-Wiwa's footsteps came others who, having seen the government's reaction to nonviolent activism, advocated violence as resistance to what they regarded as the enslavement of their people. Militants in the delta enjoy widespread support among the region's approximately 20 million people, most of whom live in poverty despite the enormous wealth generated in the oil-rich region.  With this background, a series of meetings In November 2005 between representatives from the Federation of Niger Delta Ijaw Communities (FNDIC), the Niger Delta Peoples Volunteer Force (NDPVF), along with fighters from Cult groups such as Klansmen Konfraternity (KK) and Greenlanders led to the emergence of a new group called MEND. An agreement was also made to start using militant force to attack oil installations.  Following a string of Boko Haram bombings in Nigeria in the 2010s, and many attacks against Christian targets, MEND threatened to bomb mosques and assassinate Muslim clerics. MEND spokesman Jomo Gbomo said a campaign will start on 31 May "to save Christianity in Nigeria from annihilation. The bombings of mosques, haj camps, Islamic institutions, large congregations in Islamic events and assassinations of clerics that propagate doctrines of hate will form the core mission of this crusade." However, Operation Barbarossa would be called off if Christian organisations and the Henry Okah intervene; it further called on Boko Haram to stop attacking Christians and churches. It then announced a suspension of the plans after calls from religious groups and prominent citizens such as Henry Okah.

Constituency and organization.

MEND is closely connected with Asari's Niger Delta People's Volunteer Force, a rebel group with similar aims. MEND reportedly seeks "a union of all relevant militant groups in the Niger Delta." However, the identity of MEND is somewhat obscure since its leaders like to remain faceless and its cause has been taken up by completely unrelated groups inspired by the original MEND, one of which is claiming responsibility for some of the violence that has occurred. However, the original members of MEND (recognized as MEND by the United States government and Chevron security), have claimed that impostors are causing some of the violence that is now occurring.  MEND's evolving approach to conducting warfare has been described as "open source", so called because it is analogous to the decentralized communal development process now prevalent in the software industry, making it extremely quick to innovate and move new technologies and tactics rapidly from cell to cell without the direction of a vulnerable leadership hierarchy. Former United States Air Force "counter-terrorism" officer, technology analyst, and software entrepreneur, John Robb, in a Wired Magazine interview about the emergence of "open source guerrillas", alleged that MEND "doesn’t even field its own guerillas. They hire their experts and fighters mostly from criminal gangs and tribal warrior cults to do their operations."

Timeline of activities.

2006.

Nine officials for the Italian petrol company Eni SpA were killed when armed members of MEND attacked Eni SpA's security forces in Port Harcourt. MEND militants briefly occupied and robbed a bank near the Eni SpA base, leaving at about 3:30 p.m, about an hour after they showed up.  A company official stated, "Eni has temporarily evacuated staff and contractors from the area of the base affected by the incident and the situation is currently under control."  MEND issued a statement regarding the oil workers: "Be assured therefore that the hostages in return, will remain our guests... the hostages are in good health and have adapted fairly well to the conditions under which the people of the Niger Delta have been kept."  On May 10, 2006, an executive with the United States-based oil company Baker Hughes was shot and killed in the south-eastern city of Port Harcourt. At the time of the shooting, it was not immediately known if MEND had any involvement or not. Witnesses say the attacker appeared to be specifically targeting the US executive.  On June 2, 2006, a Norwegian rig offshore Nigeria was attacked and 16 crew members were kidnapped. According to the news agency Reuters, MEND has not taken responsibility for this attack.  On August 20, 2006, 10 MEND members were killed by the Nigerian military. The members were working on releasing a Royal Dutch Shell hostage. In an email to REUTERS, MEND stated, "Our response to Sunday's killings will come at our time, but for certain it will not go unpunished."  On October 2, 2006, 10 Nigerian soldiers were killed off the shore of the Niger Delta in their patrol boat by a MEND mortar shell. Earlier that day a Nigerian/Royal Dutch Shell convoy was attacked in the Port Harcourt region resulting in some people being wounded.  On October 3, 2006, a militant group abducted four Scots, a Malaysian, an Indonesian and a Romanian from a bar in Akwa Ibom state.  On October 4, 2006, Nigerian soldiers attacked a militant camp, in the ensuing battle nine Nigerian soldiers were killed.  On November 22, 2006, Nigerian soldiers attempted a rescue of kidnapped oil workers which resulted in one soldier being killed.

2007.

On May 1, 2007, at 4:15 a.m., MEND attacked Chevron's Oloibiri floating production, storage, and offloading vessel off the coast of the southern Bayelsa state. After one hour of fighting with security boats, resulting in the death of 10 people, MEND seized six expatriate workers, consisting of four Italians (Mario Celentano, Raffaele Pasceriello, Ignazio Gugliotta, Alfonso Franza), an American (John Stapelton), and a Croat (Jurica Ruic). On the same day, MEND published photos of the captives seated on white plastic chairs in a wooden shelter around the remains of a campfire.  On May 3, 2007, MEND seized eight foreign hostages from another offshore vessel. The hostages were released less than 24 hours later, stating they had intended to destroy the vessel and did not want more hostages.  23 May 7 hostages were taken from a pipelay barge of Nimbe area of Bayelsa they were released 23 days later. they included Brittins Americans and one South African.  On May 8, 2007, three major oil pipelines (one in Brass and two in the Akasa area) were attacked, shutting down oil production and cutting power to a facility run by Italian oil company Agip, part of the ENI energy group. An e-mail statement from a MEND spokesperson said, "Fighters of the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) attacked and destroyed three major pipelines in Bayelsa state... We will continue indefinitely with attacks on all pipelines, platforms and support vessels."  On September 23, 2007, a MEND spokesperson named Jomo Gbomo announced, through a communiqué to the Philadelphia Independent Media Center, that media reports of his arrest and detention were false; and then further informed, through the letter, that MEND had officially declared war, effective 12 midnight, September 23, 2007, and that they would be commencing "attacks on installations and abduction of expatriates."  On November 13, 2007, MEND militants attacked Cameroonian soldiers on the disputed Bakassi peninsula, killing more than 20 soldiers; three days after this incident, a southern Cameroonian rebel group claimed responsibility for the attack.

2008.

On May 3, 2008, MEND militants attacked Shell-operated pipelines in Nigeria, forcing the company to halt of exports of Bonny Light crude.  On June 20, 2008, MEND naval forces attacked the Shell-operated Bonga oil platform, shutting down 10% of Nigeria's oil production in one fell swoop. The oil platform, Shell's flagship project in the area capable of extracting a massive of oil a day, was widely assumed to be outside the reach of the militants due to its location 120 km off-shore. This attack has demonstrated a level of prowess and sophistication never before seen by the rebels and it is now known that all of Nigeria's oil platforms are within range of MEND attack.  On September 14, 2008, MEND inaugurated the Operation Hurricane Barbarossa with an ongoing string of militant attacks to bring down the oil industry in Rivers State.  In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an "oil war" throughout the Niger Delta against both pipelines and oil production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. In the statement MEND claimed to have killed 22 Nigerian soldiers in one attack against a Chevron-owned oil platform. The Nigerian government confirmed that their troops were attacked in numerous locations, but said that all assaults were repelled with the infliction of heavy casualties on the militants. On September 27, a week after declaring an oil war and destroying several significant oil production and transportation hubs in the delta, the group declared a ceasefire until "further notice" upon the intervention of Ijaw and other elders in the region.

2009.

MEND called off its ceasefire on January 30, 2009.  Equatorial Guinea blamed MEND for an attack on the presidential palace in Malabo on February 17, which resulted in the death of at least one attacker. MEND denied involvement.  On May 15, 2009, a military operation undertaken by a Joint Task Force (JTF) began against MEND. It came in response to the kidnapping of Nigerian soldiers and foreign sailors in the Delta region. Thousands of Nigerians have fled their villages and hundreds of people may be dead because of the offensive.  MEND has claimed responsibility for pipeline attacks on June 18–21 on three oil installations belonging to Royal Dutch Shell in the Niger Delta. In a campaign labeled by the group as "Hurricane Piper Alpha", Chevron was also warned that it would "pay a price" for allowing the Nigerian military use of an oil company airstrip.  On June 18, MEND claimed they had blown up a Shell pipeline, as a warning to Russian president Dmitry Medvedev who was arriving to Nigeria the next day and to any potential foreign investors  On June 26, MEND attacked the Shell Billie/Krakama pipeline as a warning to foreign investors timed with the visit to Nigeria of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev. On the 29th, MEND attacked two well clusters in an oil facility belonging to Royal Dutch Shell, at its Estuary Field.  July 6, MEND claimed responsibility for an attack on the Okan oil manifold. The pipeline was blown up at 8:45 p.m. (3:45 p.m. ET) Sunday. The militants claim that the manifold carried some 80 percent of Chevron Nigeria Limited's off-shore crude oil to a loading platform.  In a separate action on the same day, the group said that three Russians, two Filipinos and an Indian were seized Sunday from the Siehem Peace oil tanker about from the southern port city of Escravos.  MEND carried out its first attack in Lagos late July 11. Rebels attacked and set on fire the Atlas Cove Jetty on Tarkwa Bay, which is a major oil hub for Nigeria. Five workers were killed in the strike.  As at 17th of Oct, reliable sources stated that The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) would resume its hostilities against the Nigerian oil industry, the Nigerian Armed Forces and its collaborators with effect from (no time specified) hours, Friday, October 16, 2009," the group's spokesman, Jomo Gbomo, said in the statement.  Oct 25 MEND announces unilateral truce and accepts the government's proposal for reintegration.  Nov 24 MEND gunmen hijacked the oil carrier "Cancale Star". 2 sailors were killed while another was wounded. When the gunmen fled the ship one gunman was overpowered by the ship's crew.

2010.

Jan 30: MEND called off its unilateral truce and threatened an "all-out onslaught" against the oil industry.  March 15: Two bombs exploded at a Government House of Nigeria during the Post Amnesty Dialogue in Warri. The bombs killed three people and injured six more. The explosion damaged the Government House and other buildings in the area. MEND claimed responsibility for this attack.  August 27: High ranking MEND commander Soboma George is killed by some of his own soldiers. His killers say they killed him because he ordered a hit on Rivers State governor Rotimi Amaechi. October 1: Two bombs exploded at Abuja during a parade. 12 killed 17 injured. Bomb was 1 km away from president Goodluck Jonathan. MEND claimed responsibility and also claim to have sent warning in the form of an email to a journalist half-an-hour before the bombs detonated.  October 2: MEND leader Henry Okah is arrested in Johannesburg, South Africa.  November 8: Gunmen raid an oil rig off Nigeria, kidnapping Two Americans, two Frenchmen, two Indonesians, and a Canadian. MEND claimed responsibility.  November 15: MEND attack on an Exxon Mobil oil platform, kidnapping seven Nigerian workers.  November 21: The rebels say they have sabotaged an oil pipeline feeding the refinery in Warri in the Niger Delta.

2011.

March 16: A bomb exploded on an oil platform Agip in southern Nigeria. This is for the first MEND attack on a major bombing campaign.  May 19: MEND leader John Togo was killed during an airstrike by the Nigerian Air Force.  September 14: 14 Filipino and 9 Spanish sailors were kidnapped off the oil tanker "MT Mattheos I" by MEND gunmen. All 23 men were later released on September 26.  October 13: 20 Russian sailors were kidnapped off the oil vessel "MT Cape Bird". All 20 sailors were later released.  October 19: MEND gunmen hijacked the ExxonMobil tanker "AHST Wilbert Tide" near Opobo. The gunmen kidnapped the captain before stealing large amounts of oil. The captain was released soon after.  November 1: 3 British sailors were kidnapped off an oil vessel operated by Chevron. All 3 were released a month later in December.

2012.

January 12: MEND militants bomb a hotel in Warri. No people were reported injured.  February 2: MEND gunmen attempted to hijack an oil carrier but are repelled by gunfire from the vessel.  February 4: MEND militants sabotage an oil pipeline belonging to Agip in Bayelsa State.  February 13: MEND gunmen shot dead the captain and chief engineer of a cargo ship off the coast of Nigeria.  February 29: 3 Dutch sailors were kidnapped off the coast of Rivers State after 8 MEND gunmen stormed the ship.  July 27: MEND gunmen attacked an oil carrier operated by Agip off the coast of Bayelsa State leaving 1 sailor dead.  August 4: 1 Iranian, 1 Malaysian, and 1 Thai sailors were kidnapped off an oil carrier off the Nigerian coast. During a gun battle with the Nigerian Navy 2 Nigerian soldiers were killed by the militants.  September 5: MEND gunmen hijacked the oil tanker "Abu Dhabi Star" off the coast of Nigeria. The gunmen managed to steal a large amount of oil and narrowly escaped capture by the Nigerian Navy.  October 6: An oil tanker off the coast of the Ivory Coast was hijacked by pirates affiliated to MEND. The pirates held the 25-man crew for 3 days before they stole of oil from the ship.  October 15: MEND gunmen kidnapped 7 sailors aboard the "Bourbon Liberty 249". All 7 were released on November 1 for an unknown amount of ransom.  December 13: MEND gunmen attacked the oil carrier "PM Salem", killing 1 and injuring 2.  December 17: 5 Indian sailors aboard the "SP Brussels" were kidnapped by MEND militants. The entire ship was looted and set ablaze about from shore. All 5 men were later released on January 27, 2013 for ransom.  December 20: 4 South Korean oil workers were kidnapped by MEND gunmen from an oil plant in the Niger Delta. All 4 men were released on December 23.  December 23: 3 Italian sailors aboard the "Asso Ventuno" were kidnapped during a raid on the ship. All 3 men were released on January 9, 2013.  December 30: MEND gunmen attacked an oil barge operated by Agip in Rivers State. No oil workers were killed or kidnapped.

2013.

January 9: MEND militants and the Nigerian soldiers got into a gun battle in Ogun State after they were seen stealing oil out of a pipeline. The gun battle resulted in the explosion of the pipeline killing 7 militants and 3 Nigerian soldiers as well as 40 people in a nearby village.  February 4: MEND militants hijacked a Filipino operated oil vessel near Bonny Island. 1 sailor was killed and another was kidnapped.  February 5: MEND militants were responsible for attacking and destroying an oil barge operated by an Indian company. During the ensuing battle 4 Indian oil workers were killed.  February 7: 2 Russians and 1 Romanian sailors were kidnapped from a British cargo ship. The gunmen looted and heavily damaged the ship. The 3 men were later released on March 13.  February 7: MEND militants attacked and briefly hijacked the "Armada Tugas" oil carrier. No sailors were kidnapped or injured.  February 10: MEND militants attacked the "Walvis 7" oil carrier. No sailors were kidnapped or injured.  February 17: 6 Russian sailors were kidnapped aboard the "Armada Tuah 101" cargo ship. All 6 men were released on February 26 for 200 million Naira ($1.3 million) ransom.  February 22: 2 Pakistani sailors were kidnapped off of an oil carrier. 1 of the sailors was released on March 7 while the other has yet to be released.  March 1: The Nigerian Navy captured 33 pirates affiliated to MEND off the coast of Lagos.  March 2: MEND gunmen attacked the fishing vessel "Orange 7" off shore. No sailors were taken captive.  March 4: MEND militants were responsible for sabotaging an oil pipeline operated by Royal Dutch Shell.  March 5: MEND gunmen hijacked an oil carrier. The gunmen looted and heavily damaged the ship while stealing large amounts of oil and money.  March 7: 3 Malaysian sailors were kidnapped aboard the "Armada Tuah 22". The 3 men were freed on March 22 after the Joint Task Force raided a MEND camp while also capturing 4 militants.  March 20: MEND militants sabotaged an oil pipeline operated by Chevron in Delta State near Warri.  March 26: MEND leader Henry Okah is sentenced to 24 years in prison by a South African court for the October 2010 Abuja attacks. MEND threatens violence and has said "The gates of hell have just been let loose."  March 31: The Joint Task Force captured 12 MEND gunmen while stealing oil out of a pipeline.  April 4: MEND spokesmen Jomo Gbomo sent an email to president Goodluck Jonathan stating that starting on April 5 MEND would resume hostilities on Nigerian oil installations.  April 5: MEND militants who had accepted amnesty 4 years earlier stormed the Nigerian National Assembly demanding more than what the government had given them. The ex-militants threatened to return to fighting if their demands were not met.  April 6: 12 Nigerian Police officers were killed by MEND gunmen in Bayelsa State. The police were shot at while escorting an ex-militant who had stolen money from MEND a year earlier.  April 11: 3 MEND militants were arrested in Bayelsa State for the murder of 12 police officers 5 days earlier.  April 13: MEND militants bomb and destroy Oil Well 62 operated by Royal Dutch Shell in Bayelsa State.  April 16: MEND spokesman Jomo Gbomo sent an e-mail to Bloomberg News threatening to "bomb mosques, hajj camps, and other Islamic institutions." Gbomo calls this "Operation Save Christianity" and says this is in response to the bombings of churches in northern Nigeria.  April 22: 21 MEND militants were captured by the Joint Task Force in a boat containing of stolen oil.  April 22: 2 Russian and 2 Ukrainian sailors were kidnapped by MEND gunmen off the coast of Bayelsa State. All 4 men were released on May 26 after the camp they were held in was seized by the Joint Task Force.  April 23: Nigerian soldiers invade Bayelsa communities in search of MEND militants. This has thrown the Niger Delta into a state confusion and panic due to the past massacres in Odi and Zaki Biam.  April 27: The Joint Task Force raided 7 MEND camps in Bayelsa State but were unable to capture any militants. The JTF later destroyed the camps by setting them on fire.  April 28: 76 MEND militants were captured by the Joint Task Force while stealing oil out of a pipeline near the city of Yenagoa.  April 28: 9 oil workers were kidnapped by MEND gunmen off an oil installation operated by Royal Dutch Shell. The kidnappers are thought to be responsible for the murder of 12 police officers 3 weeks earlier.  April 29: 3 Sri Lankan, 1 Russian, and 1 Burmese sailors were kidnapped by MEND gunmen off the coast of Brass. Reports say 14 MEND gunmen raided the cargo ship stealing money, electronics, and a watch-dog. All of the men were released on May 14 after a ransom was paid.  May 5: 8 ex-militants were killed by MEND gunmen in Yenagoa after they were found out to be collaborating with the Joint Task Force. A gunfight erupted when the MEND gunmen were spotted by Nigerian Police.  May 12: MEND gunmen kidnapped the daughter of Nigerian supreme court judge Bode Rhodes-Vivour. A ransom was paid 2 hours after her abduction and the militants released her soon after.  May 14: MEND gunmen attacked 10 passenger boats on the Niger River while on their way to a funeral. All of the passengers were robbed of their belongings and one man was doused in petrol and almost set on fire when he refused to hand over his cell phone.  May 28: 12 Pakistani and 5 Nigerian sailors were kidnapped off the oil tanker "MT Matrix" off the coast of Bayelsa State. The entire crew was released on June 6 without a ransom being paid.  June 13: Pirates affiliated to MEND hijacked the French oil tanker "Adour" off the coast of Togo. The pirates took one sailor hostage before fleeing from the Nigerian Navy. The sailor was eventually freed on June 18 when the Joint Task Force seized the pirates camp.  June 15: MEND militants succeeded in blowing up 2 gasoline tankers in Abaji, south of Abuja. MEND spokesman Jomo Gbomo warned drivers of gasoline tankers to "keep a safe distance from their trucks".  June 19: 2 Indian and 2 Polish sailors were kidnapped by pirates affiliated to MEND after the oil vessel "MDPL Continental One" was attacked off the Nigerian coast.  July 14: Militants detonate and destroy a crude oil pipeline in Rivers State. The perpetrators are thought to affiliated to MEND.  July 16: Pirates hijacked the Turkish oil carrier "MT Cotton " off the coast of Port-Gentil, Gabon. The pirates took the 24-man crew hostage before fleeing back to Nigeria with their captives and large amounts of crude oil.  August 15: Pirates hijacked the Saint Kitts and Nevis flagged oil vessel "MT Notre". The pirates were able to keep the entire crew hostage for 4 days until a Nigerian Navy vessel intercepted the ship and killed 12 pirates while 4 surrendered peacefully.

The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) is one of the largest militant groups in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.

Le Mouvement pour l'émancipation du delta du Niger ou MEND (de l'anglais "Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta") est un mouvement militant nigérian qui lutte contre « l'exploitation et l'oppression des peuples » du delta du Niger. Le MEND lutte particulièrement contre les compagnies pétrolières et contre le gouvernement fédéral du Nigeria.


Ancient geography.

Herodotus (430 BC) had only vaguely heard of the Cassiterides, "from which we are said to have our tin," but did not discount the islands as legendary. Later writers — Posidonius, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and others – call them smallish islands off ("some way off," Strabo says) the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula, which contained tin mines or, according to Strabo, tin and lead mines. A passage in Diodorus derives the name rather from their nearness to the tin districts of Northwest Iberia. Ptolemy and Dionysios Periegetes mentioned them – the former as ten small islands in northwest Iberia far off the coast and arranged symbolically as a ring, and the latter in connection with the mythical Hesperides. The islands are described by Pomponius Mela as rich in lead; they are mentioned last in the same paragraph he wrote about Cadiz and the islands of Lusitania, and placed "in Celtici". Following paragraphs describe the Île de Sein and Britain.  Probably written in the first century BC, the verse "Circumnavigation of the World", whose anonymous author is called the "Pseudo-Scymnus," places two tin islands in the upper part of the Adriatic Sea and mentioned the market place Osor on the island of Cres, where extraordinarily high quality tin could be bought. Pliny the Elder, on the other hand, represents the "Cassiterides" as fronting Celtiberia.  At a time when geographical knowledge of the West was still scanty, and when the secrets of the tin trade were still successfully guarded by the seamen of Gades (modern Cadiz) and others who dealt in the metal, the Greeks knew only that tin came to them by sea from the far West, and the idea of tin-producing islands easily arose. Later, when the West was better explored, it was found that tin actually came from two regions: Galicia, in the northwest of the Iberia, and Devon and Cornwall in southwest Britain. Diodorus reports: "For there are many mines of tin in the country above Lusitania and on the islets which lie off Iberia out in the ocean and are called because of that fact the Cassiterides." According to Diodorus tin "also" came from Britannia to Gaul and thence was brought overland to Massilia and Narbo. Neither of these could be called small islands or accurately described as off the northwest coast of Iberia, and so the Greek and Roman geographers did not identify either as the Cassiterides. Instead, they became a third, ill-understood source of tin, conceived of as distinct from Iberia or Britain.  Strabo says that a Publius Crassus was the first Roman to visit the Tin Islands and write a first-hand report. This Crassus is thought to be either the Publius Licinius Crassus Dives who was a governor in Hispania in the 90s, or his grandson by the same name, who in 57–56 BC commanded Julius Caesar's forces in Armorica (Brittany), which places him near the mouth of the Loire river.

Modern attempts at identification.

Modern writers have made many attempts to identify them. Small islands off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula, the headlands of that same coast, the Isles of Scilly, Cornwall, and the British Isles as a whole, have all in turn been suggested, but none suits the conditions. Neither the Iberian islands nor the Isles of Scilly contain tin, at least in significant quantities. It seems most probable, therefore, that the name "Cassiterides" represents the first vague knowledge of the Greeks that tin was found overseas, somewhere in, off, or near Western Europe.  Gavin de Beer has suggested that Roger Dion had solved the puzzle by bringing to bear a chance remark in Avienus' late poem "Ora maritima", which is based on early sources: the tin isles were in an arm of the sea within sight of wide plains and rich mines of tin and lead, and opposite two islands — a further one, Hibernia, and a nearer one, Britannia. "Before the estuary of the Loire became silted up in late Roman times, the Bay of Biscay led into a wide gulf, now represented by the lower reaches of the river Brivet and the marshes of the Brière, between Paimboeuf and St. Nazaire, in which were a number of islands. The islands and shores of this gulf, now joined together by silt, are crowded with Bronze Age foundries that worked tin and lead; Pénestin and the tin headland are just north of them; and there can be no doubt that the famous tin islands were there." De Beer confirms the location from Strabo: the Cassiterides are ten islands in the sea, north of the land of the Artabrians in the northwest corner of Hispania.  E. Thomas from the French BRGM showed in a 2004 report that tin mines were probably operated by the Romans at La Hye, near Ploërmel. This tin might have transited down the Oust river and the Vilaine river to the sea, where it could be transferred on seagoing ships, possibly at Pénestin, giving some support to de Beer's suggestion above.

The Cassiterides (“Tin Islands”, from Greek κασσίτερος, "kassíteros" “tin”), are an ancient geographical name of islands that were regarded as situated somewhere near the west coasts of Europe.

Les îles Cassitérides, c'est-à-dire les « Îles de l'étain », (du mot grec kασσίτερος/kassiteros qui signifie étain), étaient, dans la géographie antique, le nom d'îles considérées comme étant situées quelque part près des côtes occidentales de l'Europe.


Early years.

Bryan Loren was born on Long Island, New York in 1966. He moved to South Philadelphia at a young age. Loren became interested in music at age 5 and began playing drums and other percussion instruments, eventually appearing on ten Michael Jackson albums as drummer and percussionist. Loren expanded his musical prowess becoming a multi-instrumentalist. He was able to play all of the instruments used for recording a complete album. Loren said that he remembers being influenced by the South Philly music scene; recalling "TSOP and Phila. International" and songwriting artists "Stevie Wonder, Steely Dan and Herbie Hancock" as specific inspiring examples.

Music career.

Loren began pursuing music professionally from a young age. He was able to compose music by age 12, was a professional session artist from age 15, and even signed his first recording contract at age 17.

As Bryan Hudson.

From 1981, Loren was a session musician at Alpha International Studios. While there, Loren recorded professionally under the tutelage of Nick Martinelli. He recorded with ensembles like Nona Hendrix, Tavares, and Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes. His credits are as Bryan Hudson for all of his early musical contributions.

Fat Larry's Band.

Fat Larry's Band was the first band that Loren joined as a member. He played synthesizers, and recorded on their 1982 album "Breakin’ Out" and 1983's "Straight From the Heart". This is where Loren coined the nickname for his keyboard wizardry. The success of these recordings warranted a national album tour, but Loren was too young to join them on the road. He was replaced in the band, though he would record with Fat Larry's Band again; in 1986 for their album, "Nice".

Cashmere.

Loren was also a member of Cashmere where he composed music for the 1983 album, "Let the Music Turn You On". Loren provided backing vocals as well, showing himself as a talented vocalist. The owner of Alpha International Studios took notice of Loren's potential, offering him a solo recording contract with Philly World Records. Loren signed the contract, and began performing as Bryan Loren. This would endure as his professional name throughout the rest of his career.

As Bryan Loren.

In 1984, Loren released his self-titled debut on Philly World Records. The album featured two hit singles "Lollipop Luv", which peaked at number 23 on "Billboard" R&B chart, and "Do You Really Love Me", peaking at number 68. Loren performed and recorded all of the music and vocal tracks on the debut album; handling all executive production, mixing, and engineering for the initial release. The album, "Bryan Loren", was re-released in 2012 by BBR Records.  In 1992, Loren released a follow-up solo album on Arista Records called "Music from the New World". One song, "To Satisfy You", featured Michael Jackson on background vocals. According to an excerpt from Kit O'Toole's book, "Michael Jackson FAQ: All That's Left to Know About the King of Pop", Jackson passed on this song when presented by Loren during the "Dangerous" sessions, but agreed to sing backup when Loren kept the song for himself. This song was later renamed "Satisfy You" and covered by Damion Hall, a former member of the New Jack Swing group Guy, for his solo album "Straight to the Point" in 1994. His version also featured Chantè Moore. "Doesn't Mean That I Don't Love You" had a brief stint on Billboard as this album's only known single. It is also known, according to an upload on Loren's MySpace page, that "For You" was initially given to Janet Jackson during her Rhythm Nation 1814 sessions in 1989. Under the title "Work", the demo was eventually not used, despite its industrial-mechanical feel. "Music for the New World" was released commercially only in Japan, but peer to peer (P2P) sites like Napster and Audiogalaxy had the song files available for a brief moment after its release.

Collaborations.

Loren collaborated with other top recording artists including in 1990, when he produced, sung background vocals on, and co-wrote (along with an uncredited Michael Jackson) the song "Do the Bartman" from "The Simpsons Sing the Blues". Jackson was a fan of The Simpsons, and had agreed to write a song for the planned release of "The Simpsons Sing the Blues", but because he had recently signed a lucrative deal with Sony Records, giving them exclusivity in exchange for what The Guinness Book of Records recognized as the largest contract ever, reportedly worth $890 million, and the Simpsons album was being released on Geffen Records, Jackson chose to not be credited in any manner on the album. "Do the Bartman" became a number one hit in both the UK and New Zealand, reached number 2 in the Netherlands, and number 4 in Belgium. Though it was never released as a single in the US, it did spend nine weeks on "Billboard" airplay chart, peaking at number 11. Loren worked with Michael Jackson again, in 1991, on Jackson's album "Dangerous". He played drums, and other percussion instruments, on that album. He continued writing songs for other well known performers, including Whitney Houston's "Feels so Good", and producing music with other well known artists, Eric Benét, Barry White, and Sting.

Awards.

In 1990 Bryan Loren won the Sony Innovator's award in Sound as reported in July's issue of "Ebony". In giving the award, George Benson said of Loren: "Bryan's got the power of talent, his imagination will take him far." concluding with "We're betting on it."

Discography.

Studio albums

Bryan Loren Hudson (born May 5, 1966) is an American singer-songwriter, recording artist and record producer. Hudson is professionally known as Bryan Loren, although he started his music career using his given name, and has significant accomplishments credited as Bryan Hudson, and as well. When Hudson was offered a solo recording contract, he began professionally using Bryan Loren for his attributions. This became the moniker Loren used throughout his music career into the present day. Loren's credits include the number one single "Do the Bartman" (1990), and the number 23 R&B single "Lollipop Luv" (1984) and the smash hit single "Do You Really Love Me?" peaking at number 16 on the R&B charts. The latter stayed on the R&B chart for 17 weeks. In addition to Loren's success as a solo artist, he has also collaborated with superstar-performers such as Michael Jackson and Whitney Houston.

Bryan Loren, né le 5 mai 1966 à Long Island, dans l'État de New York aux États-Unis, est un compositeur, producteur, interprète et musicien américain.


Biography.

Early life.

Kung was born during the late Qing dynasty into a prosperous banking and trading family in Taigu County, Shanxi Province, where he attended a mission school in spite of his family's doubts. He then attended North China Union College in Tongzhou, near Beijing, where he took courses in mathematics, physics and chemistry, subjects which were not offered in traditional Chinese schools. Upon hearing of the Boxer attacks, he returned to Taigu, but his family prevented him from leaving the house. After the Taiyuan Massacre, which included members of the Oberlin Band, he carried letters from several of the murdered missionaries to Beijing by hiding them between the layers of his cloth shoes. Returning to Taigu, by using the powers of the Boxer Indemnity, he distributed relief to the families of those killed, buried the dead, and confiscated the estate of a family which had supported the Boxers.  In the summer of 1901, Luella Miner, a missionary and Oberlin graduate, arranged for Kung to travel to Oberlin for further study. Upon landing in San Francisco, however, because of the Chinese Exclusion Act, Kung and his companion were locked up for several weeks before the Chinese Consul-General posted bond, and they were then not allowed to go to Oberlin for another year. Their railway passage took them into Canada, but only by strong intervention from an Ohio Congressman were they allowed to re-enter the United States. Kung graduated from Oberlin in 1906, then proceeded to take a master's degree in economics from Yale University.  After completing his education abroad, Kung returned to his home province in China. During the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, Kung mobilized forces in support of Yan Xishan, helping Yan to overthrow the authority of the Qing imperial government in Shanxi. After 1911, Kung became one of Yan's most trusted advisors, and Yan was soon recognized as the military governor of Shanxi by Yuan Shikai, and effectively controlled Shanxi until 1949, when the Communists took control of mainland China. Kung's influence on Yan's thinking from 1911 onward was significant, and was a major factor in Yan's subsequent determination to modernize Shanxi. The reforms that Yan subsequently conducted won Yan widespread acclaim, and Shanxi gained a reputation during the Warlord Era as being the "Model Province".  After 1911, Kung helped to establish Ming Hsien, a complex of Christian schools in Taigu on the land Kung had acquired through the Boxer Indemnity. Kung became principal, and married Han Yu-mei, a fellow graduate of the North China Union College, who died of tuberculosis. In 1913, he met Soong Ai-ling, one of the Soong sisters, and married her the following year. Supporters in Oberlin established the Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association, to which Kung made regular and substantial contributions.  In 1922, Shanxi experienced a serious famine. Kung worked closely with the American Red Cross and missionary organizations like American Mission Board and the China International Famine Relief Commission to deliver relief supplies and to improve Shanxi's infrastructure to make the delivery of relief easier. According to foreign members of the Famine Relief Commission, the collective efforts of all involved were successful in preventing what otherwise would have been an "appalling calamity", and by 1923 conditions in Shanxi returned to normal.

Minister in the Nationalist government.

Kung was an early supporter of Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), including early leaders such as Wang Jingwei. He developed close family ties. His wife was a sister of Soong Tse-ven. Soong Ching-ling, another sister, married Sun Yat-sen in 1915 and Chiang Kai-shek became Kung's brother-in-law in 1927 when he married Soong Mei-ling. The Soong sisters and their husbands had the reputation of being one of the Four Big Families of the time.  Kung began his career in the Nationalist government of the Republic of China as Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928 in the Wuhan Nationalist Government, led by Wang Jingwei during the Northern Expedition as a leftist rival to Chiang's faction. After the fall of Wang's government, Kung served as the Minister of Industry and Commerce from 1928-1931 in the Nanking Government, and later as the Minister of Finance, from 1933–1944. Kung was Governor of the Central Bank of China from 1933–1945. In 1927 one of his first acts in government was to balance the national budget. To raise the capital required, Kung increased the taxes on cigarettes by 50%. Several Shanghai cigarette factories protested against these taxes with shutdowns. Kung also threatened to increase the salt tax by 28%.  Kung joined the central executive committee of the KMT in 1931. He served as Premier of the Republic of China from 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939. Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during the Bretton Woods Conference at the Mount Washington Hotel, in New Hampshire, United States. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the World Bank Group.  After his move to the central government, Kung continued to advocate for good relations between Chiang Kai-shek and Yan Xishan. Yan's opposition to Chiang during the 1930 Central Plains War caused Yan to formally retire from all positions of leadership in Shanxi, and to flee to Dalian. Kung's tireless advocacy for Yan within the central government was successful, as Chiang allowed Yan to return to Shanxi in 1931. Chiang clearly recognized Yan as the "de facto" ruler of Shanxi by 1934.  In 1934, Kung stated, in response to the American "nationalization of silver", that "We also would like to nationalize silver but for China this is impossible because our Government is hampered by extraterritorial treaties. We do not want the price to skyrocket, for silver is vital to our national life."

Diplomacy with Axis powers.

In 1937, as the Minister of Finance of the Republic of China, Kung and two other KMT officials visited Germany and were received by Adolf Hitler on June 13. Hitler told Kung, "I understand that people in China think the Soviet Union is their friend. But from our talk I understand that you, Herr Doktor, realize the danger of Communist doctrines." Kung also convinced Hitler to cancel a scheduled speech at a Nazi conference by Prince Chichibu, the Japanese Emperor's brother. Kung said, "I was able to make Hitler understand that Japan wanted to dominate the world... I was able to make Hitler think twice before getting too close to Japan." While he was in Germany, Kung stated his "deep satisfaction" with Hitler.  Hitler, Hermann Göring and Hjalmar Schacht bestowed upon Kung an honorary degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. Hitler, Göring, and Schacht earmarked for Chinese students 100,000 reichsmarks for studying in Germany after they persuaded an industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Kung, in favor of commercial credits, refused an international loan offer by Hitler.  Kung also met Hjalmar Schacht while in Germany. Schacht told him that "German-Chinese friendship stemmed in good part from the hard struggle of both for independence." Kung said, "China considers Germany its best friend... I hope and wish that Germany will participate in supporting the further development of China, the opening up of its sources of raw materials, the upbringing of its industries and [its] means of transportation."  Kung also visited U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Italian leader Benito Mussolini in 1937. Kung said, "I thought Mussolini was doing great things for Italy... We got along well. I thought he would be a good ally of our Government."

During the Second Sino-Japanese War.

By the time of the Second Sino Japanese War (1937–45), Kung had achieved a reputation as an exceptionally powerful and manipulative figure within the Nationalist government, sometimes in alliance with his brother-in-law, Soong Tse-ven and his sister-in-law, Soong Mei-ling, and sometimes in rivalry with them. By the time the Nationalist government had moved to Chongqing, Kung was running his own secret service. Zhou Enlai, while serving as the Communist Party's ambassador to the KMT in Chongqing, was notably successful in gaining the confidence of Kung's advisor, Hu Egong, allowing Zhou to conduct his intelligence work more efficiently.  In January 1938, Kung, a 75th-generation descendant of Confucius, greeted his relative, Kung Te-cheng, who was also a descendant of Confucius, after Kung Te-cheng had fled to Hankou after the Japanese invasion of Shandong. After Kung Te-cheng fled, the Japanese blew up his residence on Mount Tai. "TIME" magazine addressed Kung Te-cheng by the title "Duke Kung", and referred to his residence as the "ducal seat".  After a string of Japanese mishaps in 1938, Kung gave a radio address in which he stated that "God is helping China!" Kung's radio speech came after reports that a Japanese attempt to seize Hankou had failed; and, with constant Chinese guerrilla activity, Chinese forces had seized territory captured by Japan.  In 1944, Kung gave a speech at China House in New York with one of Mencius's direct descendants, Meng Chih. Both were alumni of American universities.  After the KMT retreated to Taiwan in 1949 at the end of the Chinese Civil War, Kung moved to the United States. He died in 1967 in Locust Valley, New York.

Personal life.

Kung had a habit of smoking stogies. "TIME" magazine claimed that Kung smoked "15 Havana cigars" a day. He was a Christian.  Kung was a 75th generation descendant of Confucius, as indicated by the generation name "hsiang" (祥; "xiáng"). Kung's father was (; 1861–1911), a 74th generation descendant of Confucius, indicated by the generation name "fan" (繁; "fán").  Kung first married Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914, Kung married his second wife, Soong Ai-ling, the eldest of the Soong sisters. Kung and Soong had two sons and two daughters:  The children all have the generation name "ling" (令; "lìng") in their names to indicate that they are 76th generation descendants of Confucius.  The Kung family residential compound, a well-preserved example of mid-Qing dynasty architecture, is now a tourist attraction in Taigu County, Shanxi.

Kung Hsiang-hsi (; September 11, 1881 – August 16, 1967), often known as Dr. H. H. Kung, was a Chinese banker and politician in the early 20th century. He married Soong Ai-ling, the eldest of the three Soong sisters; the other two married President Sun Yat-sen and the later President Chiang Kai-shek. Together with his brother-in-law, Soong Tse-ven, he was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the Kuomintang-led Nationalist government of the Republic of China in the 1930s and 1940s.

Kǒng Xiángxī, K'ung Hsiang-hsi ou H. H. Kung (tra/si : 孔祥熙;) (Shanxi, 1880/1881 – New York, ), fut l’un des principaux artisans de la politique financière et économique de la Première République chinoise, ainsi qu’un délégué officieux du gouvernement de Nankin pour les achats d’armes en vue des luttes anti-communiste et anti-japonaise. Banquier et homme d’affaires éduqué aux États-Unis, allié à Tchang Kaï-chek par sa femme Song Ailing, sœur de Madame Tchang, il fut, entre autres, cadre du Guomindang, ministre de l’Industrie et du Commerce (1928-1933), ministre des Finances (1933-1944), gouverneur de la Banque centrale de Chine (1933-1945), Premier ministre (1938-1939) et membre du Comité international olympique (1939-1955). Les mesures qu’il prit permirent au gouvernement nationaliste de tenir bon une dizaine d’années, mais s’avérèrent à long terme défavorables aux couches les plus fragiles de la population. Il profita de ses fonctions pour enrichir considérablement sa famille, gagnant la réputation d’être l’« homme le plus riche de Chine », et dut démissionner de la plupart de ses fonctions entre 1944 et 1945 pour conflits d’intérêt. Il se retira aux États-Unis en 1947. Après un séjour de quatre ans à Taïwan (1962-1966), il rentra à New York où il mourut en 1967.


Etymology.

The term "Walloon" is derived from "*walha", a Proto-Germanic term used to refer to Celtic and Latin speakers.  "Walloon" originated in Romance languages alongside other related terms, but it supplanted them. Its oldest written trace is found in Jean de Haynin's "Mémoires de Jean, sire de Haynin et de Louvignies" in 1465, where it refers to Roman populations of the Burgundian Netherlands. Its meaning narrowed yet again during the French and Dutch periods and, at Belgian independence, the term designated only Belgians speaking a Romance language (French, Walloon, Picard, etc.) The linguistic cleavage in the politics of Belgium adds a political content to "the emotional cultural, and linguistic concept". The words "Walloon" and "Wallons" can be seen in the book of Charles White, "The Belgic Revolution" (1835): "The restless Wallons, with that adventurous daring which is their historical characteristic, abandoned their occupations, and eagerly seizing the pike and the musket marched towards the centre of the commotion.". The Spanish terms of Walon and Walona from the 17th century referred to a Royal Guard Corps recruited in the Spanish Flanders. They were involved in many of the most significant battles of the Spanish Empire.  Albert Henry wrote that although in 1988 the word "Walloon" evoked a constitutional reality, it originally referred to Roman populations of the Burgundian Netherlands and was also used to designate a territory by the terms "provinces wallonnes" or Walloon country (Pays wallon), from the 16th century to the Belgian revolution, and later Wallonia. The term 'Walloon country' was also used in Dutch viz. "Walsch land". The term existed also in German, perhaps "Wulland" in Hans Heyst's book (1571) where "Wulland" is translated by Wallonia in English (1814). In German it is however generally "Wallonenland" : "Le païs de Valons, Belgolalia, Wallonenland, in "Le Grand Dictionnaire Royal" Augsbourg, 1767"; "The name of the churches' consecration is in Touraine "assemblées", in Brittany "pardons", in the northern Departments sometimes "kermesses", sometimes as in the Walloon country, "ducasses" (from dedicatio) " In English, it is Walloon country (see further James Shaw). In French (and France (Wand)), it is "le Pays wallon": "The Walloon country included the greatest part of to-day's Belgium, the Province of Flandre orientale, the Province of Flandre occidentale both named "Flandre wallonne", the Province of Namur, the Hainaut, the Limbourg, the pays de Liège and even the Luxembourg" For Félix Rousseau, Walloon country is, after "le Roman pays" the old name of the country of the Walloons and the nickname "Romande" was commonly used to describe Walloons until the late 19th century.

Institutional aspects.

The term ""state reform"" in the Belgian context indicates a process towards finding constitutional and legal solutions for the problems and tensions among the different segments of the Belgian population, mostly Dutch-speakers of Flanders and French-speakers of Wallonia. In general, Belgium evolved from a unitary state to a federal state with communities, regions and language areas.

Conceptual and emotional aspects.

Wallonia.

The extent of Wallonia, the area defined by the use of the language, has shifted through the ages. The low-lying area of Flanders and the hilly region of the Ardennes have been under the control of many city-states and external powers. Such changing rule brought variations to borders, culture, and language. The Walloon language, widespread in use up until the Second World War, has been dying out of common use due to growing internationalisation. Although official educational systems do not include it as a language, the French government continues to support the use of French within the "Francophonie" commonwealth.  This is complicated by the federal structure of Belgium, which splits Belgium into three communities with the privilege of using their own tongues in official correspondence, but also into three autonomous regions. The communities are: French community (though not Walloon, but sometimes controversially called "Wallonia-Brussels"), Flemish community (which uses Dutch), and German-speaking community. The division into political regions does not correspond with the communities: Flemish Region, Walloon Region (including the German community but generally called Wallonia), and the bilingual (French-Dutch) Brussels-Capital Region.

Brussels - not Walloon but mostly French-speaking.

Many non-French-speaking observers (over)generalize "Walloons" as a term of convenience for all Belgian French-speakers (even those born and living in the Brussels-Capital Region). The mixing of the population over the centuries means that most families can trace ancestors on both sides of the linguistic divide. But, the fact that Brussels is around 85% French-speaking, but is located in Dutch-speaking Flanders, has led to friction between the regions and communities. The local dialect in Brussels, "Brussels Vloms", is a Brabantic dialect, reflecting the Dutch heritage of the city.  Walloons are historically credited with pioneering the industrial revolution in Continental Europe in the early 19th century. In modern history, Brussels has been the major town or the capital of the region. Because of long Spanish and minor French rule, French became the sole official language. After a brief period with Dutch as the official language while the region was part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the people reinstated French after achieving independence in 1830. The Walloon region, a major coal and steel-producing area, developed rapidly into the economic powerhouse of the country. Walloons (in fact French-speaking elites who were called "Walloons") became politically dominant. Many Flemish immigrants came to work in Wallonia. Between the 1930s and the 1970s, the gradual decline of steel and more especially coal, coupled with too little investment in service industries and light industry (which came to predominate in Flanders), started to tip the balance in the other direction. Flanders became gradually politically and economically dominant. In their turn, Walloon families have moved to Flanders in search of jobs. This evolution has not been without political repercussions.

Walloon identity.

The heartland of Walloon culture are the Meuse river and Sambre valleys, Charleroi, Dinant, Namur (the regional capital), Huy, Verviers, and Liège.

Regional language statistics.

The Walloon language is an element of Walloon identity. However, the entire French-speaking population of Wallonia cannot be culturally considered Walloon, since a significant portion in the west (around Tournai and Mons) and smaller portions in the extreme south (around Arlon) possess other languages as mother tongues (namely, Picard, Champenois, Luxembourgish, and Lorrain). All of them can speak French as well or better.  A survey of the "Centre liégeois d'étude de l'opinion" pointed out in 1989 that 71.8% of the younger people of Wallonia understand and speak only a little or no Walloon language; 17.4% speak it well; and only 10.4% speak it exclusively. Based on other surveys and figures, Laurent Hendschel wrote in 1999 that between 30 and 40% people were bilingual in Wallonia (Walloon, Picard), among them 10% of the younger population (18–30 years old). According to Hendschel, there are 36 to 58% of young people have a passive knowledge of the regional languages. On the other hand, Givet "commune", several villages in the Ardennes "département" in France, which publishes the journal "Causons wallon" (Let us speak Walloon); and two villages in Luxembourg are historically Walloon-speaking.

Walloons in the Middle Ages.

Since the 11th century, the great towns along the river Meuse, for example, Dinant, Huy, and Liège, traded with Germany, where "Wallengassen" (Walloons' neighborhoods) were founded in certain cities. In Cologne, the Walloons were the most important foreign community, as noted by three roads named "Walloonstreet" in the city. The Walloons traded for materials they lacked, such as copper, found in Germany, especially at Goslar.  In the 13th century, the medieval German colonization of Transylvania (central and North-Western Romania) also included numerous Walloons. Place names such as "Wallendorf" (Walloon Village) and family names such as "Valendorfean" (Wallon peasant) can be found among the Romanian citizens of Transylvania.

Walloons in the Renaissance.

In 1572 Jean Bodin made a funny play on words which has been well known in Wallonia to the present: Translation: "We are called "Walloons" by the Belgians because when the ancient people of Gallia were travelling the length and breadth of the earth, it happened that they asked each other: 'Où allons-nous?' [Where are we going? : the pronunciation of these French words is the same as the French word "Wallons" (plus 'us')], i.e. 'To which goal are we walking?.' It is probable they took from it the name "Ouallons" ("Wallons"), which the Latin speaking are not able to pronounce without changing the word by the use of the letter G." One of the best translations of his (humorous) sayings used daily in Wallonia is "These are strange times we are living in."  Shakespeare used the word Walloon: "A base Walloon, to win the Dauphin's grace/Thrust Talbot with a spear in the back." A note in "Henry VI, Part I" says, "At this time, the Walloons [were] the inhabitants of the area, now in south Belgium, still known as the 'Pays wallon'." Albert Henry agrees, quoting Maurice Piron, also quoted by A.J. Hoenselaars: "'Walloon' meaning 'Walloon country' in Shakespeare's 'Henry VI'..."

Walloons in Sweden.

Starting from the 1620s, numerous Walloon miners and iron-workers, with their families, settled in Sweden to work in iron mining and refining. Walloon methods of iron production were incorporated into Swedish practice, to supplement the existing German techniques. Many Walloon workers settled around the mine at Dannemora producing Öregrund iron which represented 15 per cent of Sweden's iron production at that time.  They were originally led by the entrepreneur Louis de Geer, who commissioned them to work in the iron mines of Uppland and Östergötland. The wave of migration continued substantially into the 18th century. Walloons became gradually integrated into Swedish society, but it was not until the end quarter of the 20th century when they were fully integrated, when the Swedish legislation allowed Catholics to become civil servants. Walloon ancestry is traceable through Walloon surnames. Some people of Walloon descent belong to the "Sällskapet Vallonättlingar" (Society of Walloon Descendants).

Walloons and the Enlightenment.

A 1786 history of the Netherlands noted, "[The] Haynault and Namur, with Artois, now no longer an Austrian Province, compose the Walloon country. The Walloon name and language are also extended into the adjacent districts of the neighbouring Provinces. A large part of Brabant, where that Province borders on Haynault and Namur, is named Walloon Brabant. The affinity of language seems also on some occasions to have wrought a nearer relation."

The Belgian revolution of 1830.

The Belgian revolution was recently described as firstly a conflict between the Brussels municipality which was secondly disseminated in the rest of the country, "particularly in the Walloon provinces". We read the nearly same opinion in Edmundson's book: The royal forces, on the morning of September 23, entered the city at three gates and advanced as far as the Park. But beyond that point they were unable to proceed, so desperate was the resistance, and such the hail of bullets that met them from barricades and from the windows and roofs of the houses. For three days almost without cessation the fierce contest went on, the troops losing ground rather than gaining it. On the evening of the 26th the prince gave orders to retreat, his troops having suffered severely. The effect of this withdrawal was to convert a street insurrection into a national revolt. The moderates now united with the liberals, and a Provisional Government was formed, having amongst its members Rogier, Van de Weyer, Gendebien,, Félix de Mérode and Louis de Potter, who a few days later returned triumphantly from banishment. The Provisional Government issued a series of decrees declaring Belgium independent, releasing the Belgian soldiers from their allegiance, and calling upon them to abandon the Dutch standard. They were obeyed. The revolt, which had been confined mainly to the Walloon districts, now spread rapidly over Flanders. Jacques Logie wrote: "On the 6th October, the whole Wallonia was under the Provisional Government's control. In the Flemish part of the country the collapse of the Royal Government was as total and quick as in Wallonia, except Ghent and Antwerp." Robert Demoulin, who was Professor at the University of Liège, wrote: "Liège is in the forefront of the battle for liberty", more than Brussels but with Brussels. He wrote the same thing for Leuven. According to Demoulin, these three cities are the "républiques municipales" at the head of the Belgian revolution. In this chapter VI of his book, "Le soulèvement national" (pp. 93–117), before writing "On the 6th October, the whole Wallonia is free", he quotes the following municipalities from which volunteers were going to Brussels, the "centre of the commotion", in order to take part in the battle against the Dutch troops: Tournai, Namur, Wavre (p. 105) Braine-l'Alleud, Genappe, Jodoigne, Perwez, Rebecq, Grez-Doiceau,, Nivelles (p. 106), Charleroi (and its region), Gosselies, Lodelinsart (p. 107), Soignies, Leuze, Thuin, Jemappes (p. 108), Dour, Saint-Ghislain, (p. 109) and he concluded: "So, from the Walloon little towns and countryside, people came to the capital.." The Dutch fortresses were liberated in Ath ( 27 September), Mons (29 September), Tournai (2 October), Namur (4 October) (with the help of people coming from Andenne, Fosses, Gembloux), Charleroi (5 October) (with people who came in their thousands).The same day that was also the case for Philippeville,, Dinant, Bouillon. In Flanders, the Dutch troops capitulated at the same time in Brugge, Ieper, Oostende, Menen, Oudenaarde, Geeraardsbergen (pp. 113–114), but nor in Ghent nor in Antwerp (only liberated on 17 October and 27 October). Against these interpretation, in any case for the troubles in Brussels, John W. Rooney Jr wrote: It is clear from the quantitative analysis that an overwhelming majority of revolutionaries were domiciled in Brussels or in the nearby suburbs and that the aid came from outside was minimal. For example, for the day of 23 September, 88% of dead and wounded lived in Brussels identified and if we add those residing in Brabant, it reached 95%. It is true that if you look at the birthplace of revolutionary given by the census, the number of Brussels falls to less than 60%, which could suggest that there was support "national" (to different provinces Belgian), or outside the city, more than 40%.But it is nothing, we know that between 1800 and 1830 the population of the capital grew by 75,000 to 103,000, this growth is due to the designation in 1815 in Brussels as a second capital of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the rural exodus that accompanied the Industrial Revolution. It is therefore normal that a large part of the population of Brussels be originating provinces. These migrants came mainly from Flanders, which was hit hard by the crisis in the textile 1826-1830. This interpretation is also nationalist against the statements of witnesses: Charles Rogier said that there were neither in 1830 nor nation Belgian national sentiment within the population. The revolutionary Jean-Baptiste Nothomb ensures that "the feeling of national unity is born today." As for Joseph Lebeau, he said that "patriotism Belgian is the son of the revolution of 1830.." Only in the following years as bourgeois revolutionary will "legitimize ideological state power.

In the Belgian State.

A few years after the Belgian revolution in 1830, the historian Louis Dewez underlined that "Belgium is shared into two people, Walloons and Flemings. The former are speaking French, the latter are speaking Flemish. The border is clear (...) The provinces which are back the Walloon line, i.e.: the Province of Liège, the Brabant wallon, the Province of Namur, the Province of Hainaut are Walloon [...] And the other provinces throughout the line [...] are Flemish. It is not an arbitrarian division or an imagined combination in order to support an opinion or create a system: it is a fact..." Jules Michelet traveled in Wallonia in 1840 and we can read many times in his "History of France" his interest for Wallonia and the Walloons pp 35,120,139,172, 287, 297,300, 347,401, 439, 455, 468 (this page on the Culture of Wallonia), 476 (1851 edition published online)

Relationship with the German-speaking community.

The Walloon Region institutionally comprises also the German-speaking community of Belgium around Eupen, in the east of the region, next to Germany which ceded the area to Belgium after the First World War. Many of the 60,000 or so inhabitants of this very small community reject being considered as Walloon and – with their community executive leader Karl-Heinz Lambertz want to remain a federating unit, and to have all the powers of the Belgian Regions and Communities. Even if they do not want them absolutely and immediately (10 July 2008, official speech for the Flanders' national holiday).

Walloon culture.

The Manifesto for Walloon culture in 1983 was a major event of the History of Wallonia quoted in the important books about the region's history.

Famous Walloons.

This list includes people from the region before it became known as Wallonia.

Walloons (; ; ) are a Romance ethnic group native to Belgium, principally its southern region of Wallonia, who primarily speak "langues d'oïl" such as Belgian French, Picard and Walloon. Walloons are a distinctive ethnic community within Belgium. Important historical and anthropological criteria (ancestry, religion, language, traditions, folklore) bind Walloons to the French people.

Les Wallons sont les habitants de la Région wallonne (entité territoriale) et de la Wallonie (entité culturelle) partageant une « "identité construite" » basée sur les idées du Mouvement wallon. Au sein du peuple wallon, la langue wallonne est pratiquée principalement dans des activités littéraires, musicales et théâtrales.


Topics.

"Casti connubii" was a response to the Lambeth Conference of 1930 in which the Anglican Communion approved the use of birth control in limited circumstances. It covered four major topics: the sanctity of marriage, opposition to eugenics, positions on birth control and the purpose of sexuality, and reaffirmation of the prohibition on abortion.

Sanctity of marriage.

Pope Pius XI's encyclical references and confirms "Arcanum" (1880) on Christian marriage by Pope Leo XIII. Catholic doctrine has always considered matrimony to be a most holy state of life for those called to the married life (Thomas Aquinas "Summa Theologica"; Augustine of Hippo "On the Goods of Marriage"). This encyclical reaffirms that marriage is a sacrament, and a means to sanctifying grace.  The encyclical also affirms the church's opposition to adultery and divorce, and its support of wives as homemakers. It calls for wives to be obedient to their husbands, while commanding husbands to love their wives as "Christ loved His Church".  This... does not deny or take away the liberty which fully belongs to the woman both in view of her dignity as a human person, and in view of her most noble office as wife and mother and companion; nor does it bid her obey her husband's every request if not in harmony with right reason or with the dignity due to wife;... For if the man is the head, the woman is the heart, and as he occupies the chief place in ruling, so she may and ought to claim for herself the chief place in love.

Opposition to eugenics.

"Casti connubii" speaks out against the eugenics laws, then popular, that forbade those deemed 'unfit' from marrying and having children: "Those who act in this way are at fault in losing sight of the fact that the family is more sacred than the State and that men are begotten not for the earth and for time, but for Heaven and eternity."  It also took a strong stand against forced sterilizations. Pius XI stated that if no crime has taken place and there is no cause present for grave punishment, magistrates have no direct power over the bodies of their subjects. He cited Thomas Aquinas: St. Thomas teaches this when inquiring whether human judges for the sake of preventing future evils can inflict punishment, he admits that the power indeed exists as regards certain other forms of evil, but justly and properly denies it as regards the maiming of the body.

Birth control and the purpose of sexuality.

Prior to this encyclical, it was believed by some Catholics that the only licit reason for sexual intercourse was an attempt to create children. At the time, there was no official church position on any non-procreative purposes of intercourse. "Casti connubii" does repeat several times that the conjugal act is intrinsically tied with procreation: However, "Casti connubii" also acknowledges the unitive aspect of intercourse as licit: "Casti connubii" also reaffirms the dignity of the human conjugal act as distinct from the conjugal acts of animals, by its volitive nature; that is, the act is not merely biological but rooted in the will and therefore a personal act.  The 'natural reasons of time or of certain defects' are universally accepted as meaning menopause and infertility. This paragraph thus means menopausal and infertile couples may morally engage in intercourse, even though there is no possibility of children resulting from the act, as long as it is done for serious reasons, and not merely as a contraceptive.  The 'natural reasons of time' is interpreted by some to also mean the infertile portion of a woman's menstrual cycle. The practice of avoiding pregnancy by abstaining from sexual relations when the woman is fertile (natural family planning) was first addressed in rulings by the Sacred Penitentiary in 1853 and 1880, which declared the practice moral. However, a few Catholic theologians continued to hold that such practices were equivalent to contraception and thus immoral, and some historians consider two 1951 speeches by Pope Pius XII to be the first explicit church acceptance of natural family planning. The church's view of contraception was explored further in the 1968 encyclical "Humanae vitae" by Pope Paul VI, and by Pope John Paul II's lecture series later entitled Theology of the Body.

Abortion.

This encyclical repeats the church's condemnation of abortion in all circumstances. It also draws a connection between contracepting couples and couples that have abortions: "... those wicked parents who seek to remain childless, and failing in this, are not ashamed to put their offspring to death."

Reactions and impact.

In a 1932 article published in "The Nation", Margaret Sanger gave her personal reaction to the encyclical, saying that it was an obstacle to general approval of the birth-control movement by political leaders unwilling to oppose the leadership of the church. She also asserts that it is "not in accord with science and definitely against social welfare and race improvement".  "Casti connubii" is most noted for its anti-contraception position. Unlike major Protestant denominations, the Catholic Church has continued its opposition to artificial birth control. This encyclical, along with "Humanae vitae", has come to represent that stance.

Casti connubii (Latin: "of chaste wedlock") is a papal encyclical promulgated by Pope Pius XI on 31 December 1930 in response to the Lambeth Conference of the Anglican Communion. It stressed the sanctity of marriage, prohibited Catholics from using any form of artificial birth control, and reaffirmed the prohibition on abortion. It also explained the authority of church doctrine on moral matters, and advocated that civil governments follow the lead of the church in this area.

Casti connubii (littéralement « chaste union », de par les premiers mots qui débutent l'encyclique « Combien grande est la dignité de la chaste union conjugale ») est une encyclique écrite le 31 décembre 1930 par le pape Pie XI sur le sens authentique du mariage chrétien.


Publication history.

It was later ported to Mega Drive in 1991 by Realtime Games Software. Designed by Damon Slye, the game is a 3D vehicle simulation of the M1 Abrams tank. The port from MS-DOS to Sega Genesis was performed by Realtime Games Software Ltd in the UK using their own 3D games engine that was earlier used in Carrier Command with some tweaks to adapt it to the Genesis and the needs of the tank scenario.

Gameplay.

Although the simulation depicts the four crew positions, and is advertised as a simulation, gameplay is not actually very realistic; the missions are arcade game-like with a fixed sequence of actions to perform. The graphics were very good for their time, but reviews are mixed, with many players enjoying the "fun factor" introduced by the lack of realism, and others decrying it for the same reason.

Reception.

In 1989, "Dragon" gave the MS-DOS version of the game 3 out of 5 stars. "Computer Gaming World" gave the game two and a half stars out of five, stating that "Abrams Battle Tank" was a good game but a poor simulation. The magazine cited the commanding officer's briefings, at one point threatening failure with execution, as unprofessional and offensive to military personnel. In a 1994 survey of wargames the magazine gave the title two out of five stars, stating that newer games had superseded it and criticizing the simulation of a single tank instead of a company or squad. "Compute!" agreed that the game was not very realistic, but advised players to "accept the game as a graphically excellent, tactically complex simulation".  In 1994, "PC Gamer US" named "Abrams Battle Tank" the 50th best computer game ever.

Abrams Battle Tank, M-1 Abrams Battle Tank for the Sega version, is a computer game developed by Dynamix and published by Electronic Arts in 1988 for MS-DOS.

Abrams Battle Tank (ou M1 Abrams Battle Tank pour la version de Sega) est un jeu vidéo de simulation de char M1 Abrams développé par Dynamix et publié en 1988 sur PC. Un portage du jeu sur Mega Drive est ensuite développé par Realtime Games Software et publié par Sega en 1991. Par l’intermédiaire du clavier ou d’un joystick, le joueur y commande un char M1 Abrams et son équipage, composé d’un tireur, d’un conducteur, d’un préposé au rechargement des canons et d’un commandant. Le jeu propose huit missions individuelles et une campagne ayant pour cadre une troisième guerre mondiale hypothétique. Au cours de ces missions, le joueur affrontent un quinzaine de véhicules de combats russes différents. Outre les combats, il doit notamment gérer son stock de carburant et de munitions.


Application.

A guitar neck made of wood is prone to bending due mainly to atmospheric changes, and the pull created by changing to a different gauge of guitar strings and/or different tuning. A truss rod keeps the neck straight by countering the pull of the strings and natural tendencies in the wood.  When the truss rod is loosened, the neck bends slightly in response to the tension of the strings. Similarly, when tightened, the truss rod straightens the neck by resisting string tension.  Guitar technicians usually adjust a guitar neck to have a slight relief (forward bend) to achieve reasonably low action in high fretboard positions, while letting strings ring clearly in low positions. A lower action in the high fret positions also facilitates more accurate intonation with less compensation at the bridge.  Relief achieved through the truss rod combines with the height of the bridge to affect the playability of the instrument. The two should be adjusted in concert with each other. Too much relief can make a neck feel floppy, slow and lifeless—while too little can make the strings buzz on the frets. Relief is typically measured as the distance between the string and the 7th fret while holding down the first and last fret. The amount of relief many guitar manufacturers prefer for an electric guitar is about.007 inches at the 7th fret.  Truss rods are required for instruments with steel (high tension) strings. Without a truss rod, the guitar's wooden neck would gradually warp (i.e. bend) beyond repair due to applied high tension. Such devices are not normally needed on instruments with lower tension strings, such as the classical guitar, which uses nylon (previously catgut) strings.  Truss rods also allow builders to make instrument necks from less rigid materials, such as cheaper grade of wood, or man-made composites. Without a truss rod, many of these materials would be unable to properly handle string tension at normal neck dimensions. The neck can also be made thinner, which may improve playability. In fact, the 1923 patent touts the possibility of using cheaper materials as an advantage of the truss rod. Before truss rods, builders had to make the neck out of a very rigid wood, and achieve relief by laboriously planing the fingerboard.  The truss rod is not specifically for adjusting intonation or action (height of the strings above the fingerboard) though adjusting it can make an instrument more easily playable.

Construction and action.

Truss rods are frequently made out of steel, though graphite and other materials are sometimes used.  The truss rod can be adjusted to compensate for expansion or contraction in the neck wood due to changes in humidity or temperature, or to compensate for changes in the tension of the strings (the thicker the guitar string, the higher its tension when tuned to correct pitch) or using different tunings (the lower the pitch of each string, the lower its tension).  Usually, the truss rod of a brand-new instrument is adjusted by the manufacturer before sale. Normally, turning the truss rod's adjustment bolt clockwise tightens it, counteracting the tension of the strings and straightening the neck or creating a backward bow. Turning the bolt counter-clockwise loosens it, allowing string tension to act on the neck and creating a forward bow (higher string action).  Some guitars (notably Rickenbackers) come with dual truss rods that are more stable and not affected by seasonal climate changes. These rods are regarded as being more difficult to adjust.

Location and adjustment.

The truss rod tension is usually controlled using an adjustment bolt (a hex nut or allen key). Depending on the model of guitar, this bolt can be located:  Modern designs also include adjustment from the side of the heel of a bolt-on neck. When looking from the body of the guitar to the head, counterclockwise adjustment decreases the truss rod tension (correct an underbow) and clockwise adjustment increases the truss rod tension (correct an overbow).  Installing a truss rod in a newly constructed guitar requires woodworking capabilities. Special tools are required including a router with a variety of bits and ability to work with metals. Completed truss rods can be purchased through suppliers or manufactured according to specifications given in literature.

Dual action truss rod.

A dual action (also known as "two way" or "double expanding") truss rod is a more modern design and it is currently being used by some luthiers in lieu of the vintage single truss rod. The dual action rod is installed in a straight channel in the wood as opposed to the curved channel used by vintage rods. The two-way rod can warp the neck in either direction, either creating more relief or less.  A neck with a two way rod installed is often more stable and less influenced by climate changes, as well as being able to restraighten twisted necks, which can be a hefty repair for other guitars. However, some players believe the dual action truss system has an adverse effect on the tone of the instrument, due to the weight of the second rod and the additional wood removal required for installation (although not all two-way systems use a second rod.)

References.

Simple guide on how and why to adjust the truss rod created by Guitarbitz Guitar Sho

The truss rod is component of a guitar or other stringed instruments that stabilizes the lengthwise forward curvature (also called "relief"), of the neck. Usually it is a steel bar or rod that runs inside the neck, beneath the fingerboard. Some are non-adjustable, but most modern truss rods have a nut at one or both ends that adjusts its tension. The first truss rod patent was applied for by Thaddeus McHugh, an employee of the Gibson company, in 1921, though the idea of a "truss rod" appears in patents as early as 1908.

La barre de réglage (ou "truss rod" en anglais) est une tige métallique présente à l'intérieur du manche des guitares et des instruments avec des cordes sous forte tension. Cette pièce sert à stabiliser la forme du manche soumis à de fortes tensions et à en ajuster la courbure. Elle est généralement en acier avec un boulon à son extrémité pour modifier sa tension. La première version officielle de la barre de réglage (plus tard commercialisé sous le nom de "Spoke Wire") remonte au avec un brevet déposé par Thaddeus J. McHugh, un employé de Gibson.


Central Library.

The predecessor of Minneapolis's public library was a private library called the Minneapolis Athenæum. It was organized by Minneapolis businessmen in 1859 as a subscription library, and its shares were traded on the local stock market. After T. B. Walker moved to Minneapolis he bought shares in the Athenæum and gave away memberships to it, promoting the idea of a free public library for the city. Other stock holders raised objections, but the technique worked and soon the city financed a free library for the public with a one mill property tax. When the Minneapolis Public Library was established in 1885 the Athenæum became a partner of it and still exists as a separate nonprofit organization sharing space with the library.  Three central libraries have been built in Minneapolis, each replacing the last with a bigger and more up-to-date building. The first opened in 1889, the second in 1961 and the third and current building in 2006.  On November 7, 2000, Minneapolis voters approved a $140 million package to improve library services, including funding a new Central Library building. The building was designed by Cesar Pelli, along with the Minneapolis firm Architectural Alliance, It opened to the public on May 20, 2006. At a cost of $250 per square foot, the library features a host of energy-efficient measures, including a roof garden and substantial daylight. While the building was under construction, most services were provided at the interim Central Library Marquette location, on two floors in Marquette Plaza (formerly the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis). Cost of providing an interim site while the old library was demolished and rebuilt exceeded $10 million.  Until the 2002 closure and demolition of the old central library, the Minneapolis Planetarium found its home there, possessing a projector machine literally older than the space age itself (originally delivered and installed in 1954, three years before the launch of Sputnik I). In 2005, the Minnesota Legislature apportioned funding for a new planetarium, then planned to be on the roof of the new Central Library building. Instead, the planetarium is now planned to be part of a new Bell Museum of Natural History building, on the University of Minnesota's Saint Paul campus.

Community libraries.

The first two branches of the Minneapolis Public Library opened in 1890, one each on the north and south sides of Minneapolis. A branch in the basement of North High School opened on February 27, 1890, and one at 17th and Franklin Ave on April 23. By 2002 there were fourteen branches or community libraries. Each library had a staff member who was assigned to local schools to discuss the services available at the library.  The 2002 referendum also included funds to renovate community libraries, supplementing an existing program. The community libraries and their renovation status are:

Historic buildings.

Many of the buildings built by the Minneapolis Public Library system are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In some cases, the libraries have been demolished and moved to new, more modern buildings. Of this list, all but the North Branch library were built under the leadership of the city's head librarian, Gratia Countryman. Franklin, Sumner, and Thirty-Sixth Street were built with funds from Andrew Carnegie.

Cataloging.

Unusually for a public library, the Minneapolis Public Library used the Library of Congress Classification. Prior to 1969 it used the Dewey Decimal System, although around 1890, the library switched to the early and short-lived Putnam Classification System, developed by Minneapolis librarian Herbert Putnam. He later became Librarian of Congress, and revised his Putnam system into the current Library of Congress classification system.

2000–2008.

2000 referendum.

In 2000 Minneapolis voters approved a $140 million package to fund a new $110 million Central Library building, and spend $30 million on improvements to community libraries. The referendum began as a framework for discussion called "Outlook Twenty Ten: A Discussion Plan to Improve All Minneapolis Community Libraries", submitted to the Minneapolis Public Library Board in July 1999, and drafted in anticipation of voters approving the referendum. The framework was submitted to the board by Amy Ryan, Chief of Community Libraries. When the referendum was approved, the Library Board turned to the plan which contained a profile of each of the fourteen community libraries, including highlights of patron surveys. It also contained at least three suggestions for every community library, entitled Options 'A', 'B', 'C' and onward. An update on the plan came out in 2004.

"Adamson v. Minneapolis Public Library".

"Adamson v. Minneapolis Public Library" was a civil complaint of 23 March 2003 by a dozen librarians against the library's management for a claimed failure to prevent sexual harassment over many years by library patrons having unlimited use of library computers for accessing pornography. The case followed an EEOC determination on 23 May 2001 that "the Respondent did subject the Charging Party to sexually hostile work environment. This is in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended." The case settled when the library agreed to pay the plaintiffs $435,000 and to take corrective action to prevent further harassment.

Funding crisis and merger.

Despite city funding and some private support, the library had suffered from reduced funding from external sources, including the federal government and Local Government Aid (LGA) from the State of Minnesota. In the recession of the 2000s following the Dot-com bubble, hours were drastically cut and money for acquisitions sharply declined. Because Minnesota library card holders could borrow from other systems in the state, MPL also duplicated services offered by Hennepin County Library (HCL), which saw shared use by MPL patrons. This was especially apparent on Mondays, when Minneapolis libraries were closed.  In 2007, the Minneapolis Library Board agreed to pursue a merger with the county system. The Minneapolis Library Board and Minneapolis City Council approved the merger in March 2007, the Hennepin County Board approved the merger in April 2007, and on May 19, 2007 the Minnesota State Legislature approved a bill merging the systems during 2008. The merged system is the Hennepin County Library with 41 locations. On January 1, 2008, the library was merged into the Hennepin County Library. The last meeting of the Minneapolis Public Library Board of Trustees took place on December 19, 2007.

Directors.

There were 11 full-time directors in the history of the MPL.

The Minneapolis Public Library (MPL) was a library system that served the residents of Minneapolis, Minnesota in the United States. It was founded in 1885 with the establishment of the Minneapolis Library Board by an amendment to the Minneapolis City Charter. Lumber baron and philanthropist T. B. Walker and other city leaders such as Thomas Lowry were members of the first library board. In 2008, after some financial difficulties, the library was merged into the Hennepin County Library system. At the time of its merger, the library included Central Library in downtown Minneapolis and fourteen branch libraries. Its collection numbered about 3.1 million items with about 2.2 million of these housed in the central library.

La Minneapolis Public Library and Information Center (MPL) ("bibliothèque publique et centre d'information de Minneapolis") est un ensemble de bibliothèques desservant les résidents de Minneapolis (Minnesota, États-Unis). Sa création date de 1860 sous le nom de Minneapolis Athenæum. La MPL comprend aujourd'hui une bibliothèque centrale située en centre ville et quatorze bibliothèques secondaires - ou « communautaires » (seules neuf sont en activité en avril 2007). Chaque bibliothèque dispose d'une équipe de direction chargée de discuter des services disponibles à la bibliothèque avec les écoles de leur secteur. Selon le rapport du conseil d'administration de 2004, les collections contiennent environ 3,1 millions d'articles dont 2,2 millions à la bibliothèque centrale. La MPL de Minneapolis doit fusionner avec la Hennepin County Library en 2008. L'ensemble prendra le nom de "Hennepin County Library".