Life and career.

Born into an ordinary family in Yuzhou, Henan province, Zhang joined the military at the age of 17. After four years in the army, he went back to his hometown to work on a farm. He then went to school at the Northeastern Heavy Machinery Institute (now Yanshan University). After graduating, he obtained a state-assigned job at the No. 3 Machinery Ministry, working as an aerospace engineering technician. At a research institute under the ministry, Zhang quickly made a name for himself and rose through the ranks, eventually becoming leader of the institute. In 1991, he was identified as a young talent by the party organization. He was transferred to Beijing to work for the Ministry of Supervision, then was transferred to the China National Food and Packaging Machinery Corporation to serve as chief executive.  In August 1995, Zhang was sent to Yunnan province to become assistant to the governor, then vice-governor, overseeing science and technology. Two years later, Zhang headed back to Beijing to serve as deputy minister, and later minister, of transport from 1998 to 2005.  In 2005, Zhang became the Communist Party secretary of Hunan province. In 2006, Zhang simultaneously took on the role of chairman of the Hunan Provincial People's Congress. Zhang replaced Wang Lequan as secretary of the Communist Party of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in April 2010 and was replaced by Zhou Qiang in his role as secretary of the Communist Party and chairman of the provincial People's Congress. Zhang was credited with bringing bus rapid transit (BRT) to Urumqi's major thoroughfares, the construction of the Xinjiang International Convention Centre, and the resumption of internet connections in the region following a one-year long ban in the aftermath of the July 2009 Ürümqi riots.  He has been a member of the 16th, 17th and 18th Central Committees. He was elected to the 18th Politburo of the Communist Party of China in 2012.  Zhang is known for his use of a popular microblog service supported by Tencent, which spiked in usage during the 2011 National People's Congress. He was the highest-ranking Chinese official of his generation to maintain a microblog.

After Xinjiang.

After Zhang departed Xinjiang, he was named the deputy leader of the Leading Group for Party Building, a group headed by Liu Yunshan. Political analysts noted that his involvement in party cohesion and organization was a promotion, possibly even an indication that he would be groomed to take on a more substantial party affairs role following the 19th Party Congress. His first public appearance as part of the Party Building group was a visit to the Communist revolutionary heartland of Yan'an. However, other observers have interpreted the move more pessimistically, noting that it in fact mirrors Wang Lequan's own departure from Xinjiang six years earlier when he was given a seemingly token role as a deputy to then security-tsar Zhou Yongkang. Zhang was considered a candidate for ascension to the Politburo Standing Committee at the Congress in 2017, but ultimately did not make the cut. He relinquished his Politburo membership in 2017 but maintained his Central Committee membership.  On March 17, 2018, Zhang was elected as the Vice Chairperson of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.

Zhang Chunxian (born May 1953) is a Chinese politician, best known for his term as the Communist Party Secretary of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, and the Political Commissar of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps from 2010 to 2016. From 2005 to 2010 he was the Party Secretary of Hunan Province.

Zhang Chunxian, né en 1953 à Yuzhou dans la province du Henan, est un homme politique chinois. Il appartient au comité central du Parti communiste chinois et est le ministre des Communications de la République populaire de Chine.


Description.

The geoid surface is irregular, unlike the reference ellipsoid (which is a mathematical idealized representation of the physical Earth), but is considerably smoother than Earth's physical surface. Although the physical Earth has excursions of +8,848 m (Mount Everest) and −11,034 m (Marianas Trench), the geoid's deviation from an ellipsoid ranges from +85 m (Iceland) to −106 m (southern India), less than 200 m total.  If the ocean were isopycnic (of constant density) and undisturbed by tides, currents or weather, its surface would resemble the geoid. The permanent deviation between the geoid and mean sea level is called ocean surface topography. If the continental land masses were crisscrossed by a series of tunnels or canals, the sea level in those canals would also very nearly coincide with the geoid. In reality, the geoid does not have a physical meaning under the continents, but geodesists are able to derive the heights of continental points above this imaginary, yet physically defined, surface by spirit leveling.  Being an equipotential surface, the geoid is, by definition, a surface to which the force of gravity is everywhere perpendicular. That means that when traveling by ship, one does not notice the undulations of the geoid; the local vertical (plumb line) is always perpendicular to the geoid and the local horizon tangential to it. Likewise, spirit levels will always be parallel to the geoid.  On a long voyage, spirit leveling indicates height variations even though the ship is always at sea level (neglecting the effects of tides). That is because GPS satellites, orbiting about the center of gravity of the Earth, can measure heights only relative to a geocentric reference ellipsoid. To obtain one's geoidal height, a raw GPS reading must be corrected. Conversely, height determined by spirit leveling from a tidal measurement station, as in traditional land surveying, is always geoidal height. Modern GPS receivers have a grid implemented in the source of the geoid (e.g. EGM-96) height over the World Geodetic System (WGS) ellipsoid from the current position. Then, they are able to correct the height above WGS ellipsoid to the height above EGM96 geoid. When height is not zero on a ship, the discrepancy is caused by other factors such as ocean tides, atmospheric pressure (meteorological effects) and local sea surface topography.

Simplified example.

The gravitational field of the earth is not uniform. An oblate spheroid is typically used as the idealized earth, but even if the earth were perfectly spherical, the strength of gravity would not be the same everywhere, because density (and therefore mass) varies throughout the planet. This is due to magma distributions, mountain ranges, deep sea trenches, and so on.  If that perfect sphere were then covered in water, the water would not be the same height everywhere. Instead, the water level would be higher or lower depending on the particular strength of gravity in that location.

Undulation.

Undulation of the geoid is the height of the geoid relative to a given ellipsoid of reference. The undulation is not standardized, as different countries use different mean sea levels as reference, but most commonly refers to the EGM96 geoid.

Relationship to GPS/GNSS.

In maps and common use the height over the mean sea level (such as orthometric height) is used to indicate the height of elevations while the ellipsoidal height results from the GPS system and similar GNSS.  The deviation formula_1 between the ellipsoidal height formula_2 and the orthometric height formula_3 can be calculated by  Likewise, the deviation formula_5 between the ellipsoidal height formula_2 and the normal height formula_7 can be calculated by

Spherical harmonics representation.

Spherical harmonics are often used to approximate the shape of the geoid. The current best such set of spherical harmonic coefficients is EGM96 (Earth Gravity Model 1996), determined in an international collaborative project led by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency (now the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, or NGA). The mathematical description of the non-rotating part of the potential function in this model is:  where formula_10 and formula_11 are "geocentric" (spherical) latitude and longitude respectively, formula_12 are the fully normalized associated Legendre polynomials of degree formula_13 and order formula_14, and formula_15 and formula_16 are the numerical coefficients of the model based on measured data. Note that the above equation describes the Earth's gravitational potential formula_17, not the geoid itself, at location formula_18 the co-ordinate formula_19 being the "geocentric radius", i.e., distance from the Earth's centre. The geoid is a particular equipotential surface, and is somewhat involved to compute. The gradient of this potential also provides a model of the gravitational acceleration. EGM96 contains a full set of coefficients to degree and order 360 (i.e. formula_20), describing details in the global geoid as small as 55 km (or 110 km, depending on your definition of resolution). The number of coefficients, formula_15 and formula_16, can be determined by first observing in the equation for V that for a specific value of n there are two coefficients for every value of m except for m = 0. There is only one coefficient when m=0 since formula_23. There are thus (2n+1) coefficients for every value of n. Using these facts and the formula, formula_24, it follows that the total number of coefficients is given by  For many applications the complete series is unnecessarily complex and is truncated after a few (perhaps several dozen) terms.  New even higher resolution models are currently under development. For example, many of the authors of EGM96 are working on an updated model that should incorporate much of the new satellite gravity data (e.g., the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment), and should support up to degree and order 2160 (1/6 of a degree, requiring over 4 million coefficients).  The NGA has announced the availability of EGM2008, complete to spherical harmonic degree and order 2159, and contains additional coefficients extending to degree 2190 and order 2159. Software and data is on the Earth Gravitational Model 2008 (EGM2008) - WGS 84 Version] page.

Determination.

Calculating the undulation is mathematically challenging. This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level.  The precise geoid solution by Vaníček and co-workers improved on the Stokesian approach to geoid computation. Their solution enables millimetre-to-centimetre accuracy in geoid computation, an order-of-magnitude improvement from previous classical solutions.  Geoid undulations display uncertainties which can be estimated by using several methods, e.g. least-squares collocation (LSC), fuzzy logic, artificial neutral networks, radial basis functions (RBF), and geostatistical techniques. Geostatistical approach has been defined as the most improved technique in prediction of geoid undulation.

Anomalies.

Variations in the height of the geoidal surface are related to density anomalous distributions within the Earth. Geoid measures help thus to understand the internal structure of the planet. Synthetic calculations show that the geoidal signature of a thickened crust (for example, in orogenic belts produced by continental collision) is positive, opposite to what should be expected if the thickening affects the entire lithosphere.

Time-variability.

Recent satellite missions, such as the Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) and GRACE, have enabled the study of time-variable geoid signals. The first products based on GOCE satellite data became available online in June 2010, through the European Space Agency (ESA)’s Earth observation user services tools. ESA launched the satellite in March 2009 on a mission to map Earth's gravity with unprecedented accuracy and spatial resolution. On 31 March 2011, the new geoid model was unveiled at the Fourth International GOCE User Workshop hosted at the Technische Universität München in Munich, Germany. Studies using the time-variable geoid computed from GRACE data have provided information on global hydrologic cycles, mass balances of ice sheets, and postglacial rebound. From postglacial rebound measurements, time-variable GRACE data can be used to deduce the viscosity of Earth's mantle.

Other celestial bodies.

The concept of the geoid has been extended to other planets and also moons, as well as asteroids.  The "areoid" (the geoid of Mars) has been measured using flight paths of satellite missions such as Mariner 9 and Viking. The main departures from the ellipsoid expected of an ideal fluid are from the Tharsis volcanic plateau, a continent-size region of elevated terrain, and its antipodes.

The geoid () is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity and rotation of Earth alone, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent. This surface is extended through the continents (such as with very narrow hypothetical canals). According to Gauss, who first described it, it is the "mathematical figure of the Earth", a smooth but irregular surface whose shape results from the uneven distribution of mass within and on the surface of Earth. It can be known only through extensive gravitational measurements and calculations. Despite being an important concept for almost 200 years in the history of geodesy and geophysics, it has been defined to high precision only since advances in satellite geodesy in the late 20th century.

Un géoïde est une surface équipotentielle de référence du champ de pesanteur terrestre. Un géoïde est déterminé à terre par nivellement géométrique en utilisant aussi les mesures de gravimétrie ; les repères de nivellement des marégraphes sont, si possible, rapportés à un géoïde, en pratique la surface de référence du nivellement terrestre, « géoïde du nivellement terrestre ». En mer, le même géoïde peut être prolongé à l'aide de mesures gravimétriques. Un argument important pour l'utilisation d'un géoïde en tant que référence pour la marée est le fait que la référence verticale des modèles mathématiques utilisés pour simuler la dynamique des océans est une équipotentielle du champ de pesanteur. En tout point la verticale locale est perpendiculaire au géoïde. Une erreur très courante consiste à le confondre avec la surface moyenne océanographique (SMO). Ces deux surfaces doivent en effet être distinguées car la SMO est, par rapport au géoïde, affectée par des phénomènes, qualifiés ici de « météorologiques et océaniques ». Le géoïde de référence qui en résulte a la forme d'un ellipsoïde, légèrement déformé, aplati au niveau des pôles d'environ 0,335 %. C'est une représentation de la surface de la Terre plus précise que l'approximation sphérique ou ellipsoïdale.


Scriptural basis.

"Hudud" crimes are defined in the "Quran" and the "Sunnah".

Quran.

The Qur'an describes several "hudud" crimes and in some cases sets out punishments not to be carried out by anyone other than the court of law. The "hudud" crime of theft is referred to in Quranic verse 5:38: The crime of "robbery and civil disturbance against Islam" inside a Muslim state, according to some Muslim scholars, is referred to in Quranic verse 5:33: The crime of illicit consensual sex is referred to in several verses, including Quranic verse 24:2:  The crime of "accusation of illicit sex or rape against chaste women without four witnesses" and a "hudud" punishment is based on Quranic verses 24:4, 24:6, 9:66 and 16:106, among others Quranic verse.

Hadiths.

The crime of intoxication is referred to in Quranic verse 5:90, and "hudud" punishment is described in "hadiths": The "sahih hadiths", a compilation of sayings, practices and traditions of Muhammad as observed by his companions, are considered by Sunni Muslims to be the most trusted source of Islamic law after the Quran. They extensively describe "hudud" crimes and punishments. In some cases Islamic scholars have used hadiths to establish "hudud" punishments, which are not mentioned in the Quran. Thus, stoning as punishment for zina is based on hadiths that narrate episodes where Muhammad and his successors prescribed it. The tendency to use existence of a "shubha" (lit. doubt, uncertainty) to avoid "hudud" punishments is based on a hadith that states "avert "hadd" punishment in case of "shubha"".

"Hudud" offences and punishments.

The offences subject to "hudud" punishment:  There are a number of differences in views between the different "madhhabs" with regard to the punishments appropriate in specific situations and the required process before they are carried out.  Marja' following Shia jurisprudence generally believe that "hudud" punishments can be changed by appropriately qualified jurists.  Murder, injury and property damage are not "hudud" crimes in Islamic Penal Law, and are subsumed under other categories of Islamic penal law, which are:

History.

Because the stringent traditional restrictions on application of "hudud" punishments, they were seldom applied historically. For example, aside from "a few rare and isolated" instances from the pre-modern era and several recent cases, there is no historical record of stoning for zina being legally carried out. Criminals who escaped "hudud" punishments could still be sanctioned under the system of "tazir", which gave judges and high officials discretionary sentencing powers to punish crimes that did not fall under the categories of "hudud" and "qisas". In practice, since early on in Islamic history, criminal cases were usually handled by ruler-administered courts or local police using procedures that were only loosely related to sharia. During the 19th century, sharia-based criminal laws were replaced by statutes inspired by European models nearly everywhere in the Islamic world, except some particularly conservative regions such as the Arabian peninsula.  Under pressure from Islamist movements, recent decades have witnessed re-introduction of "hudud" punishments and by 2013 about a dozen of the 50 or so Muslim-majority countries had made "hudud" applicable, mostly since 1978. In 1979 Pakistan instituted the Hudood Ordinances. In July 1980 the Islamic Republic of Iran stoned to death four offenders in Kerman. By the late 1980s, Mauritania, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates had "enacted laws to grant courts the power to hand down hadd penalties". During the 1990s Somalia, Yemen, Afghanistan, and northern Nigeria followed suit. In 1994 the Iraqi president Saddam Hussein (who had persecuted and executed many Islamists), issued a decree "ordering that robbers and car thieves should lose their hands". Brunei adopted hudud laws in 2014.  Enforcement of "hudud" punishments has varied from country to country. In Pakistan and Libya, "hudud" punishments have not been applied at all. In Nigeria local courts have passed several stoning sentences for zina, all of which were overturned on appeal or left unenforced.  During the first two years when Shari'a was made state law in Sudan (1983 and 1985), a "hudud" punishment for theft was inflicted on several hundred criminals, and then discontinued though not repealed. Floggings for moral crimes have been carried out since the codification of Islamic law in Sudan in 1991 and continue. In 2012 a Sudanese court sentenced Intisar Sharif Abdallah, a teenager, to death by stoning in the city of Omdurman under article 146 of Sudan's Criminal Act after charging her with "adultery with a married person". She was held in Omdurman prison with her legs shackled, along with her 5-month-old baby. (She was released on July 3, 2012 after an international outcry.)  The "hudud" punishment for "zināʾ" in cases of consensual sex and the punishment of rape victims who failed to prove the coercion, which has occurred in some countries, have been the subject of a global human rights debate. The requirement of four male witnesses before a rape victim can seek justice has been criticized as leading to "hundreds of incidents where a woman subjected to rape, or gang rape, was eventually accused of "zināʾ"" and incarcerated, in Pakistan. Hundreds of women in Afghanistan jails are victims of rape or domestic violence, accused of zina, when the victim failed to present witnesses. In Pakistan, over 200,000 "zina" cases against women under the Hudood laws were under way at various levels in Pakistan's legal system in 2005. In addition to thousands of women in prison awaiting trial for "zina"-related charges, rape victims in Pakistan have been reluctant to report rape because they feared being charged with "zina". The resulting controversy prompted the law to be amended in 2006, though the amended version has been criticized for continuing to blur the legal distinction between rape and consensual sex.  Crucifixion in modern Islam, at least in Saudi Arabia, takes the form of displaying beheaded remains of a perpetrator "for a few hours on top of a pole." They are far fewer in number than executions. One case was that of Muhammad Basheer al-Ranally who was executed and crucified on December 7, 2009 for "spreading disorder in the land" by kidnapping, raping and murdering several young boys. ISIS has also reportedly crucified prisoners.

Requirements for conviction.

Illegal sex.

There are certain standards for proof that must be met in Islamic law for "zina" punishment to apply. In the Shafii, Hanbali, and Hanafi law schools Rajm (public stoning) or lashing is imposed for religiously prohibited sex only if the crime is proven, either by four male adults witnessing at first hand the actual sexual intercourse at the same time or by self-confession. For the establishment of adultery, four male Muslim witnesses must have seen the act in its most intimate details. Shia Islam allows substitution of one male Muslim with two female Muslims, but requires that at least one of the witnesses be a male. The Sunni Maliki school of law consider pregnancy in an unmarried woman as sufficient evidence of "zina", unless there is evidence of rape or compulsion. The punishment can be averted by a number of legal "semblances" ("shubuhat"), however, such as existence of an invalid marriage contract or possibility that the conception predates a divorce. The majority Maliki opinion theoretically allowed for a pregnancy lasting up to seven years, indicating a concern of the jurists to shield women from the charge of "zina" and to protect children from the stigma of illegitimacy. These requirements made zina virtually impossible to prove in practice.  If a person alleges "zina" and fails to provide four consistent Muslim witnesses, or if witnesses provide inconsistent testimonies, they can be sentenced to eighty lashes for unfounded accusation of fornication ("qadhf"), itself a "hadd" crime." Rape was traditionally prosecuted under legal categories requiring less stringent evidentiary rules. In Pakistan, the Hudood Ordinances of 1979 subsumed prosecution of rape under the category of zina, making rape extremely difficult to prove and exposing the victims to jail sentences for admitting illicit intercourse. The resulting controversy prompted the law to be amended in 2006, though the amended version is still criticized by some for blurring the legal distinction between rape and consensual sex.

Theft.

Malik ibn Anas, the originator of the Maliki judicial school of thought, recorded in The Muwatta of many detailed circumstances under which the punishment of hand cutting should and should not be carried out. Commenting on the verse in the Quran on theft, Yusuf Ali says that most Islamic jurists believe that "petty thefts are exempt from this punishment" and that "only one hand should be cut off for the first theft." Islamic jurists disagree as to when amputation is mandatory religious punishment. This is a fatwa given by Taqī al-Dīn ʿAlī b. ʿAbd al-Kāfī al-Subkī (d. 756/1356), a senior Shafi scholar and judge from one of the leading scholarly families of Damascus: The Imam and Shaykh, may God have mercy on him, said: It has been agreed upon that the "Hadd" [punishment] is obligatory for one who has committed theft and [for whom the following conditions apply]: All of this was said by ʿAlī b. Aḥmad b. Saʿīd (probably Ibn Ḥazm, d. 1064). And the Imam and Shaykh added: and it is also on the condition that [the thief's] confession not precede the testimony and then after it he retracts [his confession]. For if the thief does that first and then direct evidence ("bayyina") is provided of his crime and then he retracts his confession, the punishment of amputation is dropped according to the more correct opinion in the Shafi school, because the establishment [of guilt] came by confession not by the direct evidence. So his retraction is accepted.

Efficacy.

Amputation.

Those arguing in favor of that the hudud punishment of amputation for theft often describe the visceral horror/fear of losing a hand as providing strong deterrence against theft, while at the same time the numerous requirements for its application make it seldom used and thus more humane than other punishments. Supporters include Abdel-Halim Mahmoud, the rector of Azhar from 1973 to 1978, who stated it was not only ordained by God but when implemented by Ibn Saud in Saudi Arabia brought law and order to his land — though amputation was carried out only seven times.  However, according to historian Jonathan A.C. Brown, at least in the mid-1100s in the Iraqi city of Mosul the Muslim jurists found the punishment less than effective. Faced with a crime wave of theft the ulama "begged their new sultan... to implement harsh punishments" outside of sharia. The hands of arrested thieves were not being cut off because evidentiary standards were so strict, nor were they deterred by the ten lashes (discretionary punishment or tazir) that Shariah courts were limited to by hadith.

Disputes and debates over reform.

A number of scholars/reformers have suggested that traditional "hudud" penalties "may have been suitable for the age in which Muhammad lived" but are no longer, or that "new expression" for "the underlying religious principles and values" of Hudud should be developed. Tariq Ramadan has called for an international moratorium on the punishments of "hudud" laws until greater scholarly consensus can be reached.  Many contemporary Muslim scholars think that the "hudud" punishments are not absolute obligations as it is an act of "mu'amalah" (non-worship), thus, they think that "hudud" is the maximum punishment.  "Hudud" punishments have been called incompatible with international norms of human rights and sometimes simple justice. At least one observer (Sadakat Kadri) has complained that the inspiration of faith has not been a guarantee of justice, citing as an example the execution of two dissidents for "waging war against God" ("Moharebeh") in the Islamic Republic of Iran—the dissidents waging war by organizing unarmed political protests. The Hudood Ordinance in Pakistan led to the jailing of thousands of women on zina-related charges, were used to file "nuisance or harassment suits against disobedient daughters or estranged wives". The sentencing to death of women in Pakistan, Nigeria, Sudan for zina caused international uproar, being perceived as not only as too harsh, but an "odious" punishment of victims not wrongdoers.  Among the questions critics have raised about the modern application of hudud, include: why, if the seventh-century practice is divine law eternally valid and not to be reformed, have its proponents instituted modern innovations? These include use of general anesthetic for amputation (in Libya, along with instruction to hold off if amputation might "prove dangerous to [the offender's] health"), selective introduction (leaving out crucifixion in Libya and Pakistan), using gunfire to expedite death during stoning (in Pakistan). Another question is why they have been so infrequently applied both historically and recently. There is only one record of a stoning in the entire history of Ottoman Empire, and none at all in Syria during Muslim rule. Modern states that "have so publicly enshrined them over the past few decades have gone to great lengths to avoid their imposition." There was only one amputation apiece in Northern Nigeria and Libya, no stonings in Nigeria. In Pakistan the "country's medical profession collectively refused to supervise amputations throughout the 1980s", and "more than three decades of official Islamization have so far failed to produce a single actual stoning or amputation." (Saudi Arabia is the exception with four stonings and 45 amputations during the 1980s.)  Among two of the leading Islamist movements, the Muslim Brotherhood has taken "a distinctly ambivalent approach" toward "hudud" penalties with "practical plans to put them into effect... given a very low priority;" and in Pakistan, Munawar Hasan, then "Ameer" (leader) of the Jamaat-e-Islami, has stated that "unless and until we get a just society, the question of punishment is just a footnote."  Supporting "hudud" punishments are Islamic revivalists such as Abul A'la Maududi who writes that in a number of places the Quran "declares that sodomy is such a heinous sin... that it is the duty of the Islamic State to eradicate this crime and... punish those who are guilty of it." According to Richard Terrill, "hudud" punishments are considered claims of God, revealed through Muhammad, and as such immutable, unable to be altered or abolished by people, jurists or parliament.  Opposition to hudud (or at least minimizing of hudud) within the framework of Islam comes in more than one form. Some (such as elements of the MB and JI mentioned above) support making its application wait for the creation of a "just society" where people are not "driven to steal in order to survive." Another follows the Modernist approach calling for "hudud" and other parts of Sharia to be re-interpreted from the classical form and follow broad guidelines rather than exact all-encompassing prescriptions. Others consider hudud punishments "essentially deterrent in nature" to be applied very, very infrequently.  Others (particularly Quranists) propose excluding ahadith and using only verses in the Quran in formulating Islamic Law, which would exclude stoning (though not amputation, flogging or execution for some crimes). The vast majority of Muslims and most Islamic scholars, however, consider both Quran and sahih hadiths to be a valid source of Sharia, with Quranic verse 33.21, among others, as justification for this belief.

Hudud (Arabic: "Ḥudūd", also transliterated "hadud", "hudood"; plural of hadd, ) is an Arabic word meaning "borders, boundaries, limits". In the religion of Islam it refers to punishments that under Islamic law (shariah) are mandated and fixed by God. These punishments were rarely applied in pre-modern Islam, and their use in some modern states has been a source of controversy.

Les hudûd (arabe : ḥadd pl. ḥudūd "limite; borne; définition") sont, en droit musulman, les peines légales prescrites par le Coran ou la Sunna : le juge ne peut pas les moduler car elles sont ordonnées par Dieu, contrairement aux peines qui restent modulables par la juridiction (ta'zîr). Ces peines ont été rarement appliquées dans la période pré-moderne de l'Islam.


Early history.

Lézignan-la-Cèbe in France, Orce in Spain, Monte Poggiolo in Italy and Kozarnika in Bulgaria are amongst the oldest Palaeolithic sites in Europe and are located around the Mediterranean basin.  There is evidence of stone tools on Crete, 130,000 years BC, which proves that early man was capable of using boats to reach the island.  The cultural stage of civilization (organised society structured around urban centers) first arises in Southwest Asia, as an extension of the Neolithic trend, from as early as the 8th millennium BC, of proto-urban centers such as Çatal Hüyük. Urban civilizations proper begin to emerge in the Chalcolithic, in 5th to 4th millennium Egypt and in Mesopotamia.  Gold artifacts in the Balkans appear from the 4th millennium BC, such as those found in a burial site from 4569–4340 BC and one of the most important archaeological sites in world prehistory - the Varna Necropolis near Lake Varna in Bulgaria, thought by one source (La Niece 2009) to be the earliest "well-dated" find of gold artifacts. As of 1990, gold artifacts found at the Wadi Qana cave cemetery of the 4th millennium BC in the West Bank were the earliest from the Levant.  The Bronze Age arises in this region during the final centuries of the 4th millennium. The urban civilizations of the Fertile Crescent now have writing systems and develop bureaucracy, by the mid-3rd millennium leading to the development of the earliest Empires. In the 2nd millennium, the eastern coastlines of the Mediterranean are dominated by the Hittite and Egyptian empires, competing for control over the city states in the Levant (Canaan).  The "Bronze Age collapse" is the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, expressed by the collapse of palace economies of the Aegean and Anatolia, which were replaced after a hiatus by the isolated village cultures of the Dark Age period in history of the ancient Near East. Some have gone so far as to call the catalyst that ended the Bronze Age a "catastrophe". The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region, beginning with precocious iron-working in what is now Romania in the 13th and 12th centuries. The cultural collapse of the Mycenaean kingdoms, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia and Syria, and the Egyptian Empire in Syria and Israel, the scission of long-distance trade contacts and sudden eclipse of literacy occurred between 1206 and 1150 BC. In the first phase of this period, almost every city between Troy and Gaza was violently destroyed, and often left unoccupied thereafter (for example, Hattusas, Mycenae, Ugarit). The gradual end of the Dark Age that ensued saw the rise of settled Neo-Hittite Aramaean kingdoms of the mid-10th century BC, and the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.  While the cultural advances during the Bronze Age had mostly been confined to the eastern parts of the Mediterranean, with the Iron Age, the entire coastal region surrounding the Mediterranean now becomes involved, significantly due to the Phoenician expansion from the Levant, beginning in ca. the 12th century. Fernand Braudel remarked in "The Perspective of the World" that Phoenicia was an early example of a "world-economy" surrounded by empires. The high point of Phoenician culture and sea power is usually placed ca. 1200–800 BC. Many of the most important Phoenician settlements had been established long before this: Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, Simyra, Arwad, and Berytus, all appear in the Amarna tablets.  The Phoenicians and the Assyrians transported elements of the Late Bronze Age culture of the Near East to Iron Age Greece and Italy, but also further afield to Northwestern Africa and to Iberia, initiating the beginning of Mediterranean history now known as Classical Antiquity. They notably spread alphabetic writing, which would become the hallmark of the Mediterranean civilizations of the Iron Age, in contrast to the cuneiform writing of Assyria and the logographic system in the Far East (and later the abugida systems of India).

Classical antiquity.

Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states and the Phoenicians. The Greeks expanded throughout the Black Sea and south through the Red Sea. The Phoenicians spread through the western Mediterranean reaching North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. From the 6th century BC up to including the 5th century BC, many of the significant Mediterranean peoples were under Persian rule, making them dominate the Mediterranean during these years. Both the Phoenicians and some of the Greek city states in Asia Minor provided the naval forces of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Persian dominance ended after the Greco-Persian War in the 5th century BC and Persia was crippled by Macedonia in the 4th century BC. The Odrysian Kingdom existed between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD as the most important and powerful thracian state formation.

Persian period.

From the 6th century BC up to including the first half of the 4th century BC, many of the significant Mediterranean peoples came under Achaemenid Persian rule, making them dominate the Mediterranean during all these years. The empire, founded by Cyrus the Great, would include Macedonia, Thrace and the western Black sea coast (modern day southeastern and eastern Bulgaria), Egypt, Anatolia, the Phoenician lands, the Levant, and many other basin regions of the Mediterranean later on. Darius the Great (Darius I) is to be credited as the first Achaemenid king to invest in a Persian fleet. Even by then no true "imperial navy" had existed either in Greece or Egypt. Persia would become the first empire, under Darius, to inaugurate and deploy the first regular imperial navy. Both the Phoenicians and the Greeks provided the bulk of the naval forces of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, alongside the Cypriots and Egyptians. Full Persian dominance in the Mediterranean ended after the Greco-Persian War in the 5th century BC, and Persia eventually lost all her influence in the Mediterranean in the late 4th century BC following Alexander's conquests.

Hellenistic period.

In the northernmost part of ancient Greece, in the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, technological and organizational skills were forged with a long history of cavalry warfare. The "hetairoi" (Companion cavalry) was considered the strongest of their time. Under Alexander the Great, this force turned east, and in a series of decisive battles, it routed the Persian forces and took over as the dominant empire of the Mediterranean. Their Macedonia empire included present-day Greece, Bulgaria, Egypt, the Phoenician lands and many other basin regions of the Mediterranean and Asia Minor.  The major centres of the Mediterranean at the time became part of Alexander's empire as a result. His empire quickly disintegrated, and the Middle East, Egypt, and Greece were soon again independent. Alexander's conquests spread Greek knowledge and ideas throughout the region.

Roman–Carthaginian rivalry.

These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those farther west. In North Africa, the former Phoenician colony of Carthage rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings. However, it was a city on the Italian Peninsula, Rome, that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the Punic Wars, despite Hannibal's famous efforts against Rome in the Second Punic War.  After the Third Punic War, Rome then became the leading force in the Mediterranean region. The Romans soon spread east, taking Greece, and the Greek heritage played an important role in the Roman Empire. By this point the coastal trading cultures were thoroughly dominant over the inland river valleys that had once been the heart of the great powers. Egyptian power moved from the Nile cities to the coastal ones, especially Alexandria. Mesopotamia became a fringe border region between the Roman Empire and the Persians.

Roman "Mare Nostrum".

When Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Mediterranean sea began to be called "Mare Nostrum" (Latin: "Our Sea") by the Romans. Their empire was centered on this sea and all the area was full of commerce and naval development. For the first time in history, an entire sea (the Mediterranean) was free of piracy. For several centuries, the Mediterranean was a "Roman Lake", surrounded on all sides by the empire.  The empire began to crumble, however, in the fifth century and Rome collapsed after 476 CE.

Sasanian and Byzantine times.

and The Eastern Roman or Byzantine empire began its domination of the Levant during its wars with neighbouring Sassanid Persia. The rule through the 6th century CE saw climatic instability, causing inconsistent production, distribution, and a general economic decline. The Sasanians gained territory on Mediterranean land regularly, but the Eastern Romans remained superior in the Mediterranean sea for centuries. In the first quarter of the 7th century CE, the Sasanians took swaths of the Mediterranean region from the Eastern Romans during the Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, though the Sasanians lost territories by the end of the war. Ultimately, Byzantine domination in the region was forever finished by invasions of the Arabs and later the Turks.

Middle Ages.

Another power was rising in the east, that of Islam, whilst the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare during the Roman–Persian Wars. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Arab armies, motivated by Islam and led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by more than half and completely engulfing the Persian lands.  The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while cutting the trade route with Oriental lands. This however had the indirect effect of promoting the trade across the Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world. Oriental goods like silk and spices were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt. However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of oriental goods at Venice.  The powerful and long-lived Bulgarian Empire was the main European rival in the region of the Mediterranean Balkan peninsula between the 7th and the 14th centuries, creating an important cultural, political, linguistic and religious legacy during the Middle Ages.  In Anatolia, the Muslim expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Tervel of Bulgaria. The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 3/4 of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea. Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centers in the Middle East, but Al Andalus and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and became highly advanced societies in their own right. Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the Christian Normans, the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Latin and Byzantine influences. Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.  The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions Amalfian merchants living in Cairo. Another letter states that the Genoese had traded with Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in place of the Latin hospice.  Europe was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the holy land. The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Seljuk Turks and later to the Ottoman Turks. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.  The Crusades led to flourishing of trade between Europe and the "outremer" region. Genoa, Venice and Pisa created colonies in regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued.

Slavery.

Slavery was a strategic and very important part of all Mediterranean societies during the Middle Ages. The threat of becoming a slave was a constant fear for peasants, fishermen and merchants. Those with money or who had financial backing only feared the lack of support, should they be threatened with abduction for ransom.  There were several things which could happen to people in the Mediterranean region of the Middle Ages:  Emperors would take large numbers of prisoners, parade them through the capital, hold feasts in honour of their capture and parade diplomats in front of them as a display of victory.

Late Middle Ages.

The "Repubbliche Marinare" (Maritime republics) of Amalfi, Gaeta, Venice, Genoa, Ancona, Pisa and Ragusa developed their own "empires" in the Mediterranean shores. The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Genoese and the Venetians, who profited immensely from it. The Republic of Pisa and later the Republic of Ragusa used diplomacy to further trade and maintained a libertarian approach in civil matters to further sentiment in its inhabitants.  The republic of Venice got to dominate the eastern mediterranean shores after the Fourth Crusade.  Between 1275 and 1344 a struggle for the control of the Strait of Gibraltar took place. Featuring the Marinid Sultanate, the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, the Crown of Castile, the Crown of Aragón, the Kingdom of Portugal and the Republic of Genoa, it was characterized by changing alliances between the main actors. The iberian cities of Tarifa, Ceuta, Algeciras or Ronda and the African port of Ceuta were at stake. The Western Mediterranean sea was dominated by the Crown of Aragon: thanks to their possessions of Sicily, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Balearic Islands, the Duchy of Athens the Duchy of Neopatria, and several northern African cities.  In 1347 the Black Death spread from Constantinople across the mediterranean basin.  Ottoman power continued to grow, and in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the fall of Constantinople. The Ottomans already controlled Greece, Bulgaria and much of the Balkans and soon also began to spread through North Africa. North Africa had grown wealthy from the trade across the Sahara Desert, but the Portuguese, who, along with other Christian powers, had been engaged in a long campaign to evict the Muslims from Iberia, had found a method to circumvent this trade by trading directly with West Africa. This was enabled by a new type of ships, the caravel, that made trade in the rough Atlantic waters profitable for the first time. The reduction in the Saharan trade weakened North Africa, and made them an easy target for the Ottomans.  Ceuta was ultimately taken by the Kingdom of Portugal in 1415, searching to undermine Castilian, Aragonese, and Genoese interests in the area.  During the Middle Ages, rival Christian and Muslim kingdoms forbade the trade of particular goods to enemy kingdoms including weaponry and other contraband items. The popes forbade the export of these commodities to the Islamic world. The Ottomans too forbade the export of weapons and other strategic items, declaring them "memnu eşya" or "memnu olan" to Christian states even in peace treaties, however friendly states could import some of the prohibited goods through capitulations. Despite these prohibitions, trade of contraband occurred on both sides. The European merchants traded in illegal goods with Muslims. The Ottomans were unable to suppress the trade with smuggling being undertaken mainly in the winter when the Ottoman Navy stationed at the Istanbul Arsenal was unable to stop Ottoman and non-Ottoman vessels from indulging in the trade.

Modern era.

The growing naval prowess of the European powers confronted further rapid Ottoman expansion in the region when the Battle of Lepanto checked the power of the Ottoman navy. However, as Braudel argued forcefully, this only slowed the Ottoman expansion instead of ending it. The prized island of Cyprus became Ottoman in 1571. The last resistance in Tunisia ended in 1574 and almost a generation long siege in Crete pushed Venetians out of this strategic island in 1669.  A balance of power was then established between Spain and Ottoman Empire until the 18th century, each dominating their respective half of Mediterranean, reducing Italian navies as naval powers increasingly more irrelevant. Furthermore, the Ottoman Empire had succeeded in their objective of extending Muslim rule across the North African coast.  The development of long range seafaring had an influence upon the entire Mediterranean. While once all trade from the east had passed through the region, the circumnavigation of Africa allowed gold, spices, and dyes to be imported directly to the Atlantic ports of western Europe. The Americas were also a source of extreme wealth to the western powers, from which some of the Mediterranean states were largely cut off.  The base of European power thus shifted northward and the once wealthy Italy became a peripheral area dominated by foreigners. The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the increasing power of Austria and Russia.  By the nineteenth century the European States were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa. France spread its power south by taking Algeria in 1830 and later Tunisia. Britain gained control of Egypt in 1882. Italy conquered Libya from the Ottomans in 1911. Greece achieved independence in 1832. The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the First World War, and its holdings were carved up among France and Britain. The rump state of the wider Ottoman Empire became the independent state of Turkey in 1923. Yugoslavia was created from the former Austro-Hungarian empire at the end of the First World War.  During the first half of the twentieth century the Mediterranean was at the center of the expansion of the Kingdom of Italy, and was one of the main areas of battle during World War II between the Axis and the Allies. Post-world war period was marked by increasing activity in the Eastern Mediterranean, where naval actions formed part of ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict and Turkey had occupied the northern part of Cyprus. Cold War tensions split the Mediterranean into pro-American and pro-Soviet factions, with Turkey, Greece, Spain, Italy and France being NATO members. Syria was socialist and a pro-Soviet regime, offering the Soviets a port for their navy from an agreement in 1971. Yugoslavia was Communist but in neither the Soviet nor American camps. Egypt tilted towards the Soviets during the time of Nasser but then turned towards American influence during the time of Sadat. Israel and Egypt both received massive American military aid. American naval power made the Mediterranean a base for the United States Sixth Fleet during the Cold war.  Today, the Mediterranean Sea is the southern border of the European Union and represents one of the largest area by Trade in the World. The Maltese prime minister described the Mediterranean sea as a "cemetery" due to the large amounts of migrants who drown there. Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government, has decided to strengthen the national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorizing Operation Mare Nostrum, a military and humanitarian operation in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.

The Mediterranean Sea was the central superhighway of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples encompassing three continents: Western Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe. The history of the cultures and people of the Mediterranean Basin is important for understanding the origin and development of the Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Canaanite, Phoenician, Hebrew, Carthaginian, Greek, Persian, Thracian, Etruscan, Iberian, Roman, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Arab, Berber, Ottoman, Christian and Islamic cultures.

Le bassin méditerranéen est, avec les bassins de l'Indus, du Gange, du fleuve Jaune et du Yangtsé, l'une des régions plus importantes pour l'histoire du monde. Elle constitue le point de départ de plusieurs grandes civilisations, dont s'est nourrie la civilisation occidentale. Dès que l'homme a su construire des barques, des navires, la Méditerranée s'est transformée en lien entre continents, la navigation permettant de rejoindre deux points plus aisément que la marche, et de transporter des charges bien plus lourdes. Théra est l'un des plus anciens vestiges d'une thalassocratie : la Crète, mais bien d'autres se sont succédé : Phénicie, Carthage, Grèce, Rome, Vandales, Byzance, les peuples Arabes, les Normands de Sicile, les Génois, les Vénitiens, les Catalans et les Ottomans l'ont été et en ont fait le tour. Le monde grec avait un « nombril », Delphes, et de là rayonnait vers les extrémités de la Méditerranée qui, pour ses peuples, étaient les « extrémités du monde » : les Colonnes d'Hercule ouvrant sur la « mer Océane », le détroit des Dardanelles ouvrant, par la Propontide et le Bosphore, sur le Pont Euxin, et le Nil ouvrant sur les mystérieuses terres chaudes de l'« Aethiopie ». Toutefois la civilisation méditerranéenne n'a jamais été repliée sur elle-même : à l'Ouest, les Carthaginois connaissaient Tartesse et les « îles à étain » c'est-à-dire l'archipel britannique ; à l'Est, la « route de la soie » aboutissait dans les ports du bassin levantin tandis que partant d'Égypte, la « route des épices et des pierres précieuses » menait jusqu'aux Indes et la « route de l'encens et de l'ivoire » jusqu'à la côte orientale de l'Afrique. Après avoir été un « lac romain » ("Mare Internum" en latin), la Méditerranée, divisée par les invasions et les rivalités religieuses, devint un enjeu central dans l'affrontement géostratégique des pouvoirs qui la bordèrent, jusqu'à ce que son intérêt soit supplanté par les océans, révélés par les "Grandes découvertes".


History.

According to temple worship rules, or (Agamas), dance and music are the necessary ingredients of daily puja for temple deities. Devadasis were known by various local terms such as "basivi" in Karnataka, "matangi" in Maharashtra, and "kalavantin" in Goa. Devadasis were also known as "jogini", "venkatasani", "nailis", "muralis", and "theradiyan". Devadasi is sometimes referred to as a caste; however, some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasi themselves there exists a devdasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti (sub-caste). Later, the office of devdasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). In Europe the term "bayadere" (from, from, literally "dancer") was occasionally used.

Ancient and medieval period.

The definite origin of the Devadasi tradition is unknown. The first known mention of a Devadasi is to a girl named Amrapali, who was declared nagarvadhu by the king during the time of the Buddha. Many scholars have noted that the tradition has no basis in scriptures. A.S. Altekar states that, "the custom of association of dancing girls with temples is unknown to "Jataka" literature. It is not mentioned by Greek writers, and the Arthashastra, which describes in detail the life of "Ganik", is silent about it."  The tradition of female artists in temples is said to have developed during the 3rd century AD. A reference to such dancers is found in the Meghadūta of Kālidāsa, a classical poet and Sanskrit writer of the Gupta Empire. Other sources include the works of authors such as Xuanzang, a Chinese traveller, and Kalhana, a Kashmiri historian. An inscription dated to the 11th century suggests that there were 400 "Devadasi" attached to the Tanjore temple in South India. Similarly, there were 500 "Devdasi" at the "Someshwer" shrine of Gujarat. Between the 6th and 13th centuries, "Devadasi" had a high rank and dignity in society and were exceptionally affluent as they were seen as the protectors of the arts. During this period royal patrons provided them with gifts of land, property, and jewellery.

Devdasis in South India and the Chola Empire (Devar Adigalar).

The Chola empire supported the Devdasi system; in Tamil Devdasis were known as "Devar Adigalar", ("Dev" means "Divine" and "Adigalar" "Servants", i.e. "Servants of the Divine"). Both male and female Devadasi were dedicated to the service of a temple and its deity. The Chola empire developed the tradition of music and dance employed during temple festivals.  Inscriptions indicate that 400 dancers, along with their gurus and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadeesvarar temple, Thanjavur, with munificent grants including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves, and nuts. Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasis during their performances. The Nattuvanars conducted the orchestra while the Devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions indicate that Nattuvanars taught the Chola princess Kuntavai.  As the Chola empire expanded in wealth and size, more temples were built throughout the country. Soon other emperors started imitating the Chola empire and adopted Devadasi systems of their own.

Natavalollu.

A community of Karnataka living in Andhra Pradesh, the "Natavalollu" were are also known as "Nattuvaru", "Bogam", "Bhogam", "Kalavanthulu etc."  It was customary in the Krishna district of Tenali for each family to give one girl to the Devadasi system. These dancers were known as "Jakkulas". As part of a social reform, a written agreement was made to formely end the practice.  "Ādapāpas" were female attendants to the ladies of the families of Zamindars. Ādapāpas led a life of prostitution as they were not allowed to marry. In some places such as the Krishna and Godāvari districts, Ādapāpas were known as "Khasa" or "Khasavandlu".  "Natavalollu"/"Kalawants" were a community that was distributed throughout the state of Andhra Pradesh. They were also referred to as "Devadasi", "Bogamvallu", "Ganikulu", and "Sani". "Kalavantulu" means one who is engaged in art. Davesh Soneji writes that, "By the early twenty-first century, large numbers of women in the Kalavanthulu community had converted to Christianity, because this promised them a stable monthly income as members of the new rehabilitation programs of these missions."

Mahari Devadasi of Odisha.

In the eastern state of Odisha Devadasis were known colloquially as Maharis of the Jagannath temple complex. The term "Devadasi" referred to the women who danced inside the temple. Devadasi, or mahari, means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)." Mahari means "Mahan Nari" that is, the woman belonging to God. Sri Chaitanayadev had defined Devadasis as "Sebayatas" who served God through dance and music. Pankaj Charan Das, the oldest guru of Odissi classical dance and who comes from a Mahari family, defines Mahari as "Maha Ripu-Ari", one who conquers the five main ripus - enemies.  Unlike other parts of India, the Odia Mahari Devadasis were never sexually liberal and were expected to remain celibate upon becoming Devadasis. However, there are records of Odia Mahari Devadasi having relationships and children. It is said that the daughters of the Maharis of the Jagannath temple took to other professions such as nursing in the mid-20th century due to stigma attached to their inherent profession, which may suggest prostitution.  The 1956 Orissa Gazette lists nine Devadasis and eleven temple musicians. By 1980, only four Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilaprabha, Parashmani, and Shashimani. By 1998, only Shashimani and Parashmani were still alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped, although Shashimani and Parashmani served in a few of the yearly temple rituals such as "Nabakalebara", "Nanda Utsava", and "Duara Paka" during "Bahuda Jatra". The last of the Devadasis, Shashimani, died on 19 March 2015, at the age of 92.

Yellamma Cult of Karnataka in South India.

In the southern Indian state of Karnataka the Devadasi system was practiced for over 10 centuries. Chief among them was the Yellamma cult.  There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most popular story indicates that Renuka was the daughter of a Brahmin, married the sage Jamadagni, and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the Malaprabha river for the sage's worship and rituals. One day at the river she saw a group of youths engaged in water sports and forgot to return home in time for her husband's worship and rituals, which made Jamadagni question her chastity. He ordered their sons one by one to punish their mother, but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become eunuchs and had Renuka beheaded by his fifth son, Parashuram. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle inspired her four eunuch sons as well as others to become her followers and worship her head.

Colonial Era.

Reformists and abolitionists.

Reformists and abolitionists considered the Devadasi a social evil due to their way of life, which seemed like prostitution according to the western eye. The first anti-Nautch and anti-dedication movement began in 1882. The portrayal of the Devadasi system as "prostitution" was done to advertise the supposed grotesqueness of Indian culture for political means, even though the British colonial authorities officially maintained most brothels in India.  As the Devadasi were equated with prostitutes, they also became associated with the spread of the venereal disease syphilis in India. During the British colonial period many British soldiers were exposed to venereal diseases in brothels, and Devadasis were misunderstood to be responsible. In an effort to control the spread of venereal disease the British Government mandated that all prostitutes register themselves. Devadasis were forced to register, as they were thought to be prostitutes by the British Government.  In addition to obligatory registration, the British Government also established institutions known as Lock Hospitals where women were brought in order to be treated for venereal diseases. However, many of the women admitted to these hospitals, including many Devadasi, were identified through the registry and then brought to the hospitals against their will. A number of these women were never seen again by their families.  Today, Sitavva Joddati of Karnataka helps former Devadasi find a foothold in mainstream society. In 1982 she was made a Devadasi at age seven. In 1997 she began the non-governmental organisation MASS (Mahila Abhivrudhi-Samrakshana Sansthe) in the Belagavi district of Ghataprabha to help women like her escape the Devadasi system and live a life of dignity. Between 1997 and 2017 MASS helped over 4,800 Devadasis reintegrate into mainstream society. In 2018 she received the Padmashri award at age 43.

Evolution of Bharathanatyam.

Rukmini Devi Arundale, a theosophist trained in ballet, sought to re-appropriate the Devadasi dance traditions in a context perceived respectably by Indian society which had by then adopted the western morales. She altered the dance repertoire to exclude pieces perceived as erotic in their description of a deity. She also systematized the dance in a way that incorporated the extension and use of space associated with dance traditions such as ballet. The product of this transformation was a new version of Bharatnatyam, which she taught professionally at the "Kalakshetra" school she established in Madras. Bharatnatyam is commonly seen as a very ancient dance tradition associated with the Natyasastra. However, Bharatnatyam as it is performed and known today is actually a product of Arundale's recent endeavour to remove the Devadasi dance tradition from the perceived immoral context associated with the Devadasi community and bring it into the upper caste performance milieu. She also adopted a lot of technical elements of Ballet into the modified form of Bharathanatyam.

Legislative Initiatives.

The first legal initiative to outlaw the Devadasi system dates back to the 1934 Bombay Devadasi Protection Act. This act pertained to the Bombay province as it existed in the British Raj. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. In 1947, the year of Indian independence, the Madras Devadasi (Prevention of Dedication) Act outlawed dedication in the southern Madras Presidency. The Devadasi system was formally outlawed in all of India in 1988, although some Devadasis still practice illegally.

Devadasi practices.

From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu or "tali-tying" dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiated a young girl into the Devadasi profession and was performed in the temple by a priest. In the Brahminical tradition, marriage is viewed as the only religious initiation ("diksha") permissible to women. Thus, the dedication was a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity.  In the "sadanku" or puberty ceremonies, the Devadasi initiate began her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-in bridegroom. From then onward, the Devadasi was considered a "nitya sumangali", a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were not only a religious occasion, but also a community feast and celebration in which the local elites also participated.

Odisha.

The 1956 Orissa Gazette references Devadasis dances. They had two daily rituals. The "Bahara Gaaunis" would dance at the "Sakaala Dhupa". After breakfast Lord Jagannatha would give Darshana to the "bhaktas" (the devotees). In the main hall, a Devadasi, accompanied by musicians and the Rajaguru (the court guru), would dance standing near the Garuda stambha (pillar). They would perform only pure dance, and could be watched by the audience. The "Bhitara Gaunis" would sing at the "Badashinghara", the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. At bedtime, Lord Jagannatha would first be served by male Sebayatas, who would fan him and decorate him with flowers. After they left, a "Bhitara Gaauni" would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Vijaya), sing Gita Govinda songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. Later she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and the guard would close the main gate.

Social status.

Traditionally, no stigma was attached to a Devadasi or to her children, and other members of their caste received them on terms of equality. The children of a Devadasi were considered legitimate, and Devadasis themselves were outwardly indistinguishable from married women of their own community.  Furthermore, a Devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called "akhanda saubhagyavati" ("woman never separated from good fortune"). Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings and was regarded as a bearer of good fortune. At weddings, people would receive a string of the "tali" (wedding lock) prepared by her, threaded with a few beads from her own necklace. The presence of a Devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of an upper caste member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect, and was presented with gifts.

Contemporary statistical data.

Indian National Commission for Women, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, collected information on the prevalence of Devadasi culture in various states. The government of Odisha stated that the Devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. There is only one Devadasi in Odisha, in a Puri temple. In March 2015, a newspaper report said that the last devadasi, Sashimoni, attached to Jagannath temple had died, bringing the curtain down on the institution.  Similarly, the government of Tamil Nadu wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no Devadasis in the state. Andhra Pradesh has identified 16,624 Devadasis within its state and Karnataka has identified 22,941. The government of Maharashtra did not provide the information as sought by the Commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and 2,479 Devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance.  According to a study by the Joint Women's Programme of Bangalore for National Commission for Women, girls who have to accept becoming a Devadasi, few reasons were provided, which included dumbness, deafness, poverty, and others. The life expectancy of Devadasi girls is low compared to the average of the country, it is rare to find Devadasis older than fifty.

In Southern India, a devadasi was a female artist who was dedicated to worship and serve a deity or a temple for the rest of her life. The dedication took place in a Pottukattu ceremony that was somewhat similar to a marriage ceremony. In addition to taking care of the temple and performing rituals, these women also learned and practiced classical Indian artistic traditions such as Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, and Odissi dances. Their social status was high as dance and music were an essential part of temple worship.

En Inde du Sud, les devadasi étaient, dans l'hindouisme, des femmes consacrées au temple dès leur plus jeune âge, considérées comme des épouses de la divinité, surnommées « femmes à jamais favorables » (leur mari, le dieu, ne pouvant mourir de leur vivant) qui jouissaient de libertés sexuelles auxquelles les autres femmes mariées à un « mortel » n'avaient pas accès.


Club career.

Nantes.

Born in Machecoul, Landreau graduated from the Nantes Atlantique "Centre of Excellence" in La Jonelière. His first professional match for Nantes was a 0–0 draw against Bastia on 2 October 1996 and saved the penalty from Ľubomír Moravčík. Since 1996, he remained a mainstay in the Nantes starting line-up, and consistently produced excellent performances. At age 19, Landreau became captain. He was selected to represent the France youth national team at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship.  In the next ten years, he hardly missed a mandatory meeting, completed in July 2005 his 300th Point game and was an important support for his team during their successes around the turn of the millennium. Having won two consecutive Coupe de France trophies in 1999 and 2000 (captained in the 2000 final), Nantes were crowned 2001 Ligue 1 champions for the first time since 1995. In the same when Nantes won the Ligue 1, Landreau signed a new contract, keeping him until 2006. His good performance at Nantes led Landreau drew strong interest from clubs like Barcelona, Monaco, Roma, Juventus, Marseille, Manchester United and Celtic.  On 11 October 2003, Landreau had an operation on his articular disk which was a serious injury in his football career. On 22 November 2003, Landreau made his return in a 3–1 win over his (first match in his career) against Bastia. In the semi-final of the 2004 French Cup, Landreau produced several saves, but to no avail as the team could not score and were eliminated from the competition. In the final of Coupe de la Ligue against Sochaux-Montbéliard, the match was 1–1 and played until the penalty shootout. Landreau scored the seventh penalty, only to be saved by Teddy Richert. Nantes lose the game when Pascal Delhommeau miss, allowing Benoît Pedretti to score the winning penalty. After the match, Landreau says he has regret nothing on missing the penalty.  At the end of the 2005–06 Ligue 1 season, Landreau's contract with Nantes was set to expire but Nantes was set to offer Landreau a new contract along with Mauro Cetto and Jérémy Toulalan. He gave a press conference and announced that after thirteen years, he would leave FC Nantes to meet new challenges in a more important team. He announced his intention to leave his first club just before the end of the 2005–2006 season. As his contract expired, Arsenal and A.C. Milan were among interested signing him. During his last match at Stade de la Beaujoire on 6 May 2006, he received a tribute from the fans who saluted his dedication and loyalty to the club for thirteen years. The season following his departure, Nantes was relegated to Ligue 2 for the first time since 1963.

Paris Saint-Germain.

Landreau then joined Paris Saint-Germain on a free transfer, signing a four-years contract on 15 May 2006. After his move to Paris, Landreau says moving to Paris could earn him a call up from France.  At Paris Saint-Germain, Landreau established himself as a first choice goalkeeper beating Jérôme Alonzo and youngster Nicolas Cousin He also became a fan favorite. On 5 August 2006, Landreau made his debut for PSG in a 3–2 loss against Lorient. In the 2006–07, the 2007–08 and the 2008–09 season, Landreau played all 38 appearance in his PSG Career. At his last appearance at PSG in a match against AS Monaco which resulted in a 0–0 draw and his last clean sheet, he thanked the fans for his time at the club and they passed him with a rare standing ovation. After the 2007–08 season ended, Landreau had been linked with a move away from the club after Grégory Coupet remained keen to play abroad at PSG, who could replaced him as a first choice goalkeeper. However, Charles Villeneuve said he had not confirmed Landreau's place in the squad for next season and had hinted at an interest in Coupet but Sebastien Bazin (the chairman of PSG's majority shareholders Colony Capital) insisted Landreau will not be leaving the club. Reports claims Landreau could be set to move to Real Madrid in order to become Iker Casillas’ understudy. Coupet eventually move to Paris Saint-Germain putting Landreau’s future in doubt.

Lille.

After the 2009–10 season, Lille OSC made a €2 million (£1.7 million) offer for Landreau who wanted him to replace the veteran goalkeeper Grégory Malicki who left Lille to join Dijon on a free transfer and was the first choice goalkeeper for Lille in the 2008–09 season. The move was agreed and was completed. Five days after signing for Lille, he suffered a massive blow by damaging cruciate ligaments during a training session which kept him out of action for around six months. During his absence due to injury, Ludovic Butelle get more playing time and played about 10 matches until Landreau returned and he later became the first choice-goalkeeper ever since. On 22 October 2009, Landreau was back on the bench in Europa League during the match against Genoa (3–0) and made his league debut for Lille in a 2–0 win over Grenoble on 30 October 2009.  In the 2010–11 season, Landreau was involved the Lille squad that won the Ligue 1 for the third time in club history and the first time since 1954. He made history by becoming the first player ever to compete in the Trophée des champions with three clubs.  On 7 November 2012, he allowed six goals from Bayern Munich during a Champions League match. In December 2012 as a remaining first choice goalkeeper, Landreau left Lille by mutual consent after a strained relationship with general manager Frederic Paquet. In the press conference, Landreau says ""The most important thing is to blossom on the pitch. I could not anymore. And a year and a half is a long way to go when you have hard days."" and left the club both sportingly and psychologically.

Bastia.

On 23 December 2012, Landreau signed a six-month contract with the Corsican club SC Bastia. Upon moving to Bastia, he revealed that he had turned down a move to Italian side Inter Milan. On 4 December 2013, Landreau broke the record for the most appearances by any player in Ligue 1 or Division 1 - the top flight in French football - when he started in the match against AC Ajaccio. It was Landreau's 603rd Ligue 1 match. Three days earlier, he had equalled the previous record of 602 Ligue 1 or Division 1 matches held by former AS Monaco goalkeeper Jean-Luc Ettori when he appeared in the SC Bastia-Evian TG match.

Management.

In August 2016, Landreau was appointed assistant manager to Réginald Ray at Championnat National club Paris FC. In May 2017, he was given a four-year contract at Lorient, newly relegated to Ligue 2. He quit that job halfway through his deal, having finished sixth and therefore missed out on the objective of promotion.

International career.

Landreau was part of the France squad that won the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup in South Korea and Japan. He made his debut in his only appearance of the tournament, a 4–0 win over Mexico in the final group game on 3 June. He did not play again until the 2003 edition that the team won again on home soil, taking part in a 5–0 win over New Zealand at the exact same stage at the Stade de France.  At UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Landreau wore France's number one jersey despite being the third-choice goalkeeper behind Fabien Barthez and Grégory Coupet and unused in both tournaments as a result. He played half of the 12 matches in UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying, but was overlooked for the final tournament in Austria and Switzerland, where Sébastien Frey and Steve Mandanda backed up Coupet.  Landreau was recalled to the French national team in September 2012 by newly appointed manager Didier Deschamps for upcoming 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification matches against Finland on 7 September and Belarus on 11 September. It was his first national call-up since November 2007. He went to the finals in Brazil, as third choice behind Hugo Lloris and Stéphane Ruffier. After the tournament, he retired from club and international football at the age of 35, to spend more time with his family.

Honours.

Club.

Nantes  Paris Saint-Germain  Lille

International.

France

Mickaël Vincent André-Marie Landreau (; born 14 May 1979) is a French former footballer who played as a goalkeeper, and is a manager.

Mickaël Landreau, né le à Machecoul dans le département de la Loire-Atlantique, est un footballeur international puis entraîneur français. Sa carrière professionnelle de gardien de but s'étend de 1996 à 2014.