Histoire militaire de l'Argentine pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale

History.

First years.

At the beginning of World War Two, in 1939, Roberto María Ortiz was the president of Argentina. The country was in a period of political conservatism and economic crisis known as the "Infamous Decade". The "Concordancia" was accused of electoral fraud and corruption. The Radical Civic Union was divided between FORJA, a line supporting the deposed radical president Hipólito Yrigoyen, and the official leadership of Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, close to the "Concordancia". The Socialist Party and the Progressist Democracy were conservative as well. The Communist Party was initially close to the trade unions but gave priority to advancing the interests of the Soviet Union.  The Argentine army was highly Germanophile, an influence that predated both world wars, having been steadily growing since 1904. It did not involve a rejection of democracy but rather an admiration of German military history, which combined with an intense Argentine nationalism influenced the main stance of the army towards the war: maintaining neutrality. The arguments in favor ranged from Argentine military tradition (as the country had been neutral during both World War I and the War of the Pacific), to Anglophobia, and to a rejection of foreign attempts to coerce Argentina into joining a war perceived as a conflict between foreign countries with no Argentine interests at stake. Only a handful of military leaders were actually supporters of Adolf Hitler. The war resulted in a small boost to the Argentine economy, as imports from Britain was reduced. Thus began a process of import substitution industrialization, which had some antecedents during the Great Depression. This led to a process of internal migration as well, with people living in the countryside or in small villages moving to urban centers.

Growing divisions.

Reactions and stances towards the war became more complex as the conflict developed. The main political parties, newspapers and intellectuals supported the Allies, yet Vice-President Ramón Castillo maintained neutrality. Ortiz, who was ill of diabetes, was unable to serve as president, but did not resign. The position of Argentina vis-à-vis the war generated disputes between them, with Castillo prevailing. The FORJA supported neutrality and saw it as an opportunity to get rid of what it considered British meddling with the Argentine economy. Some Trotskyists promoted the fight against the Third Reich as an early step of an international class struggle. The army and some nationalists supported industrialization and promoted neutrality as a way to oppose the United Kingdom. Plans were made to invade the British-held Falkland Islands, but were never put into operation. On the other hand, the newspaper "El Pampero", financed by the German embassy, supported Hitler.  There is a number of interpretations of Castillo's reasons for staying neutral. One such perspective focuses on the Argentine tradition of neutrality. Others see Castillo as a nationalist, not being influenced by the power structure in Buenos Aires (since he was from Catamarca), so, with the support of the army, he could simply defy the pressure to join the Allies. A similar interpretation considers instead that Castillo simply had no power to go against the wishes of the army, and if he declared war he would be deposed in a military coup. A third point of view considers that the United States was the sole promoter of Argentina's entry into the war, whereas the United Kingdom benefited from Argentine neutrality as it was a major supplier of livestock. This, however, fails to acknowledge the constant requests to declare war from Anglophile factions. Most likely, it was a combination of the desires of the British diplomacy and the Argentine army, which prevailed over the pro-war factions.  Socialist deputy Enrique Dickmann created a commission in the National Congress to investigate a rumored German attempt to seize Patagonia and then conquer the rest of the country. The conservative deputy Videla Dorna claimed that the real risk was a similar Communist invasion, and FORJA believed that a German invasion was only a potential risk, whereas British dominance of the Argentine economy was a reality.  A diplomatic mission by the British Lord Willingdon arranged commercial treaties whereby Argentina sent thousands of cattle to Britain at no charge, decorated with the Argentine colours and with the phrase "good luck" written on them. Alvear, "El Pampero" and FORJA criticised this arrangement, and Arturo Jauretche said that there were Argentine provinces suffering from malnutrition.  The situation changed dramatically after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and Washington's subsequent declaration of war upon Japan. The United States wanted every Latin American country to join the Allies in order to generate a continent-wide resistance. The Argentine refusal to comply motivated an embargo and blockade against Argentina. Castillo did, however, declare a state of emergency after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

Military plots.

Castillo's term was due to end in 1944. Initially, it was arranged that Agustín Pedro Justo would run for president for a second time, but after his unexpected death in 1943 Castillo was forced to seek another candidate to propose, finally settling on Robustiano Patrón Costas. The army was neither willing to support the electoral fraud that would be necessary to secure Costas's victory, nor to continue conservative policies, nor to risk Costas breaking the neutrality. A number of generals reacted by creating a secret organization called the United Officers' Group (GOU) in order to oust Castillo from power. Future president Juan Perón was a member of this group but did not support an early coup, recommending instead to postpone the overthrowing of the government until the plotters had developed a plan to make necessary reforms. The coup was to take place close to the elections, should the electoral fraud have been confirmed, but it was instead carried out earlier in response rumors of the possible sacking of the minister of war, Pedro Pablo Ramírez.  It is unknown whether Costas would have maintained neutrality or not. Some weak declarations of support to Britain and his ties with pro-allied factions may suggest instead that had he become president he would have declared war.  The military coup that deposed Castillo took place on 4 June 1943. It is considered the end of the "Infamous Decade" and the starting point of the "Revolution of '43". Arturo Rawson took power as "de facto" president. The nature of the coup was confusing during its first days: German embassy officials burned their documentation fearing a pro-Allied coup, while the United States embassy considered it a pro-Axis coup.  Rawson met with a delegate from the British embassy on 5 June and promised that he would break relations with the Axis powers and declare war within 72 hours. This turn of events enraged the GOU, as did Rawson's choices for his cabinet. A new coup took place, replacing Rawson with Pedro Pablo Ramírez. Thus, Rawson became the shortest non-interim president in Argentine history.

Revolution of 1943.

The new government proceeded with both progressive and reactionary policies. Maximum prices were established for popular products, rents were reduced, the privileges of the Chadopyff factory were annulled and hospital fees were abolished. On the other hand the authorities intervened trade unions, closed the Communist newspaper "La Hora" and imposed religious education at schools. Juan Perón and Edelmiro Julián Farrell, hailing from the Ministry of War, fostered better relations between the state and the unions.  The Communist Party aligned itself with the diplomatic policies of the Soviet Union. As a result, it supported neutrality and opposed the British influence in Argentina during the early stages of the war, in line with the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union. The launching of Operation Barbarossa and the consequent Soviet entry in the war changed that attitude. The Communists became pro-war and halted its support for further labour strikes against British factories located in Argentina. This switch redirected workers' support from the Communist Party to Perón and the new government.  As a result, the Communist Party turned against the government, which it viewed as pro-Nazi. Perón countered Communist complaints by declaring that "The excuses they seek are very well known. They say we are 'nazis', I declare we are as far from Nazism as from any other foreign ideology. We are only Argentines and want, above all, the common good for Argentines. We do not want any more [electoral] fraud, nor more lies. We do not want that those who do not work live from those who do".  The government held diplomatic discussions with the United States, with Argentina requesting aircraft, fuel, ships and military hardware. The Argentine chancellor Segundo Storni argued that, although Argentina refrained from participating in the war, it remained closer to the Allies, sending them food, and that up to then the Axis powers had not taken action against the country to justify a declaration of war. Secretary of State Cordell Hull replied that Argentina was the only Latin American country to not have broken relations with the Axis, that Argentine food was sold at lucrative return, and that United States military hardware was intended for countries already at war, some of which were facing more severe fuel shortages than was Argentina. Storni resigned after this rejection. The United States took further measures to increase pressure on Argentina. All Argentine companies suspected of having ties with the Axis powers were blacklisted and boycotted, and the supply of newsprint was limited to pro-Allied newspapers. American exports of electronic appliances, chemical substances and oil production infrastructure were halted. The properties of forty-four Argentine companies were seized, and scheduled loans were halted. Hull wanted to weaken the Argentine government or force its resignation. Torn between diplomatic and economic pressure as opposed to an open declaration of war against Argentina, he opted for the former in order to avoid disrupting the supply of food to Britain. Nevertheless, he also saw the situation as a chance for the United States to have a greater influence over Argentina than Britain.  The United States also threatened to accuse Argentina of being involved with the coup of Gualberto Villarroel in Bolivia, and a plot to receive weapons from Germany after the allied refusal, to face the possible threat of invasion either by the United States itself or Brazil acting on their behalf. However, it would be unlikely that Germany would provide such weapons, given their fragile situation in 1944. Ramírez called a new meeting of the GOU, and it was agreed to break diplomatic relations with the Axis powers (albeit without yet a declaration of war) on 26 January 1944.  The break in relations generated unrest within the military, and Ramírez considered removing both the influential Farrell and Perón from the government. However, their faction discovered Ramírez's plan. They broke up the GOU, to avoid letting the military loyal to Ramírez know they were aware of his plot, and then initiated a coup against him. Edelmiro Julián Farrell became then the new president of Argentina on 24 February.  The United States refused to recognise Farrell as long as he maintained the neutralist policy, which was ratified by Farrell on 2 March, and the United States broke relations with Argentina two days later. Winston Churchill complained about the harsh policy of the United States against Argentina, pointing out that Argentine supplies were vital to the British war effort and that removing their diplomatic presence from the country would even force Argentina to seek Axis protection. British diplomacy sought to guarantee the supply of Argentine food by signing a treaty covering it, while US diplomatic policy sought to prevent such a treaty. Hull ordered the confiscation of Argentine goods in the United States, suspension of foreign trade with her, prohibited US ships from mooring at Argentine ports, and denounced Argentina as the "nazi headquarters in the Western hemisphere".  At this point, the Washington was considering supporting Brazil in an attack against Argentina, rather than attacking Argentina themselves. The Brazilian ambassador in Washington pointed out that Buenos Aires could be completely destroyed by the Brazilian air force. This would have allowed Argentina to be dominated without the open intervention of the United States, who would support Brazil by providing ships and bombs.

End of the war.

The Liberation of Paris in August 1944 gave new hopes to the pro-Allied factions in Argentina, who saw it as an omen of the possible fall of the Argentine government and called for new elections. The demonstrations in support of Paris soon turned into protests against the government, leading to incidents with the police. It was rumored that some Argentine politicians in Uruguay would create a government in exile, but the project never came to fruition. President Franklin Roosevelt supported Hull's claims about Argentina with similar statements. He also cited Churchill when he stated that history would judge all nations for their role in the war, both belligerents and neutrals.  By early 1945, World War II was nearing its end. The Red Army had captured Warsaw and was closing in on East Prussia, and Berlin itself was under attack. Allied victory was imminent. Perón, the strong man of the Argentine government, foresaw that the Allies would dominate international politics for decades and concluded that although Argentina had successfully resisted the pressure to force it to join the war, remaining neutral until the end of the war would force the country into isolationism at best or bring about a military attack from the soon to be victorious powers.  Negotiations were eased by the departure of Hull as Secretary of State, replaced by Edward Stettinius, Jr., who demanded that Argentina hold free elections, declare of war to the Axis powers, eradicate all Nazi presence in the country and give its complete cooperation to international organizations. Perón agreed, and German organizations were curtailed, pro-Nazi manifestations were banned, and German goods were seized. The Argentine merchant navy was instructed to ignore the German blockade. These measures eased relations with the United States. When the Allies advanced into Frankfurt, Argentina finally formalized the negotiations. On 27 March, per Decree 6945, Argentina declared war on Japan and, by extension, on Germany, an ally of Japan. Then, FORJA distanced itself from the government, but Arturo Jauretche would understand the reasons a year later. Jauretche reasoned that the United States opposed Argentina because of its perceived Nazism by refusing to declare war although neutrality was based instead on Argentine interests; which were no longer at stake with a declaration of war when the country would not actually join the conflict. Jauretche admitted that Perón's pragmatism was better for the country than his own idealistic perspective of keeping a neutral stance to the end of the war.  A few days later, on 10 April, the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the other Latin American countries restored diplomatic relations with Argentina. Still, diplomatic hostility against Argentina from the United States resurfaced after the unexpected death of Roosevelt, who was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Ambassador Spruille Braden would organize opposition to the government of Farrell and Perón.  The final Axis defeat in the European Theatre of World War II took place a month later and was greeted with demonstrations of joy in Buenos Aires. Similar demonstrations took place in August, after the surrender of Japan, bringing World War II to its final end. Farrell lifted the state of emergency declared by Castillo after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor.

Argentines in World War II.

During World War II, 4,000 Argentines served with all three British armed services, even though Argentina was officially a neutral country during the war. Over 600 Argentine volunteers served with both the Royal Air Force and the Royal Canadian Air Force, mostly in No. 164 (Argentine) squadron, whose shield bore the sun from the Flag of Argentina and the motto, ""Determined We Fly (Firmes Volamos)"".  Maureen Dunlop, born in Quilmes, left her Australian/English parents to join the Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA). She recorded over 800hrs service, ferrying Spitfires, Mosquitos P-51 Mustangs, Typhoons, and bomber types including the Wellington and Lancaster to the frontline RAF stations. After being photographed exiting her Fairey Barracuda, she featured on the cover of "Picture Post" on September 16, 1942 and became a wartime pin-up. Dunlop returned to Argentina after the war, and continued work as a commercial pilot who also flew for and trained pilots of the Argentine Air Force. She later raised pure-blood Arab horses with her husband on their stud farm, "Milla Lauquen Stud".  Nearly 500 Argentines served in the Royal Navy around the world, from the North Atlantic to the South Pacific. Many were part of the special forces, such as John Godwin.  Many members of the Anglo-Argentine community also volunteered in non-combat roles, or worked to raise money and supplies for British troops. In April 2005, a special remembrance service was held at the RAF church of St Clement Danes in London.  On May 9, 2015, the remains of the Argentine volunteer Group Captain Kenneth Langley Charney DFC & Bar, were repatriated and buried in the British Cemetery in Buenos Aires. Charney was born in Quilmes, Argentina, in 1920, and died in Andorra in 1982.

Nazi presence.

Before the war Argentina hosted a strong, well-organized pro-Nazi element that was controlled by the German ambassador. In the late 1940s, under Peron's leadership the government quietly allowed entry of a number of war criminals fleeing Europe after Nazi Germany's collapse. The number of Nazi fugitives that fled to Argentina surpassed 300. In May 1960, Holocaust administrator Adolf Eichmann was kidnapped in Argentina by the Israeli Mossad and brought to trial in Israel. He was executed in 1962.

The history of Argentina during World War II is a complex period of time beginning in 1939, following the outbreak of war in Europe, and ending in 1945 with the surrender of Japan. German and Italian influence in Argentina was strong mainly due to the presence of numerous immigrants from both countries, and Argentina's traditional rivalry with Great Britain furthered the belief that the Argentine government was sympathetic to the German cause. Because of the close ties between Germany and Argentina, the latter stayed neutral for most of World War II, despite internal disputes and pressure from the United States to join the Allies. However, Argentina eventually gave in to the Allies' pressure, broke relations with the Axis powers on January 26, 1944, and declared war on March 27, 1945.

L' histoire de l' Argentine pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale est une période complexe qui commence en 1939, après le déclenchement de la guerre en Europe et se termine en 1945 avec la capitulation du Japon. L'influence allemande et italienne en Argentine est forte, principalement en raison de la présence de nombreux immigrants des deux pays. La rivalité traditionnelle de l'Argentine avec la Grande-Bretagne renforce la conviction que le gouvernement argentin soit favorable à la cause allemande. En raison des liens étroits entre l'Allemagne et l'Argentine, malgré les différends internes et les pressions des États-Unis pour rejoindre les Alliés, cette dernière reste neutre pendant la majeure partie de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Cependant, l'Argentine finit par céder à la pression des Alliés et le rompt les relations avec les puissances de l'Axe et leur déclare la guerre le.


Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Pennsylvania

Hamilton Township (comté de Franklin, Pennsylvanie)

History.

The township has the name of James Hamilton (1710–1783), mayor of Philadelphia and lieutenant-governor of Pennsylvania.  The Bridge between Guilford and Hamilton Townships was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988.

Geography.

Hamilton Township is in central Franklin County and is bordered to the northeast by the borough of Chambersburg, the county seat. South of Chambersburg, Conococheague Creek forms the eastern boundary of the township. Back Creek, a tributary of Conococheague, forms the southwestern boundary. The township extends northwest as far as the crest of Broad Mountain, the easternmost ridge in the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians in this part of the state.  U.S. Route 30 crosses the center of the township, leading east into Chambersburg and west to McConnellsburg.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 8,949 people, 3,476 households, and 2,648 families residing in the township. The population density was 250.8 people per square mile (96.8/km2). There were 3,612 housing units at an average density of 101.2/sq mi (39.1/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 94.97% White, 2.57% African American, 0.11% Native American, 0.74% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.50% from other races, and 1.03% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.42% of the population.  There were 3,476 households, out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.8% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.8% were non-families. 18.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.93.  In the township the population was spread out, with 25.3% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 95.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.3 males.  The median income for a household in the township was $43,153, and the median income for a family was $47,049. Males had a median income of $32,879 versus $25,082 for females. The per capita income for the township was $21,122. About 4.9% of families and 6.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 4.9% of those age 65 or over.

Hamilton Township is a township in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 10,788 at the 2010 census, up from 8,949 at the 2000 census.

Hamilton Township est un township situé au centre du comté de Franklin, en Pennsylvanie, aux États-Unis. En 2010, il comptait une population de.


Definition.

The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral  is defined when formula_2 is Borel-measurable and bounded and formula_3 is of bounded variation in and right-continuous, or when is non-negative and is monotone and right-continuous. To start, assume that is non-negative and is monotone non-decreasing and right-continuous. Define and (Alternatively, the construction works for left-continuous, and ).  By Carathéodory's extension theorem, there is a unique Borel measure on which agrees with on every interval. The measure arises from an outer measure (in fact, a metric outer measure) given by  the infimum taken over all coverings of by countably many semiopen intervals. This measure is sometimes called the Lebesgue–Stieltjes measure associated with.  The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral  is defined as the Lebesgue integral of with respect to the measure in the usual way. If is non-increasing, then define  the latter integral being defined by the preceding construction.  If is of bounded variation and is bounded, then it is possible to write  where is the total variation of in the interval, and. Both and are monotone non-decreasing. Now the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral with respect to is defined by  where the latter two integrals are well-defined by the preceding construction.

Daniell integral.

An alternative approach is to define the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral as the Daniell integral that extends the usual Riemann–Stieltjes integral. Let be a non-decreasing right-continuous function on, and define to be the Riemann–Stieltjes integral  for all continuous functions. The functional defines a Radon measure on. This functional can then be extended to the class of all non-negative functions by setting  For Borel measurable functions, one has  and either side of the identity then defines the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral of. The outer measure is defined via  where is the indicator function of.  Integrators of bounded variation are handled as above by decomposing into positive and negative variations.

Example.

Suppose that is a rectifiable curve in the plane and is Borel measurable. Then we may define the length of with respect to the Euclidean metric weighted by ρ to be  where formula_14 is the length of the restriction of to. This is sometimes called the -length of. This notion is quite useful for various applications: for example, in muddy terrain the speed in which a person can move may depend on how deep the mud is. If denotes the inverse of the walking speed at or near, then the -length of is the time it would take to traverse. The concept of extremal length uses this notion of the -length of curves and is useful in the study of conformal mappings.

Integration by parts.

A function is said to be "regular" at a point if the right and left hand limits and exist, and the function takes at the average value  Given two functions and of finite variation, if at each point either at least one of or is continuous or and are both regular, then an integration by parts formula for the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral holds:  Here the relevant Lebesgue–Stieltjes measures are associated with the right-continuous versions of the functions and ; that is, to formula_17 and similarly formula_18 The bounded inverval may be replaced with an unbounded interval, or provided that and are of finite variation on this unbounded interval. Complex-valued functions may be used as well.  An alternative result, of significant importance in the theory of stochastic calculus is the following. Given two functions and of finite variation, which are both right-continuous and have left-limits (they are càdlàg functions) then  where. This result can be seen as a precursor to Itô's lemma, and is of use in the general theory of stochastic integration. The final term is which arises from the quadratic covariation of and. (The earlier result can then be seen as a result pertaining to the Stratonovich integral.)

Related concepts.

Lebesgue integration.

When for all real, then is the Lebesgue measure, and the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral of with respect to is equivalent to the Lebesgue integral of.

Riemann–Stieltjes integration and probability theory.

Where is a continuous real-valued function of a real variable and is a non-decreasing real function, the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral is equivalent to the Riemann–Stieltjes integral, in which case we often write for the Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral, letting the measure remain implicit. This is particularly common in probability theory when is the cumulative distribution function of a real-valued random variable, in which case

In measure-theoretic analysis and related branches of mathematics, Lebesgue–Stieltjes integration generalizes Riemann–Stieltjes and Lebesgue integration, preserving the many advantages of the former in a more general measure-theoretic framework. The Lebesgue–Stieltjes integral is the ordinary Lebesgue integral with respect to a measure known as the Lebesgue–Stieltjes measure, which may be associated to any function of bounded variation on the real line. The Lebesgue–Stieltjes measure is a regular Borel measure, and conversely every regular Borel measure on the real line is of this kind.

En théorie de la mesure, lintégrale de Lebesgue-Stieltjes généralise les intégrales de Riemann-Stieltjes et de Lebesgue, avec les avantages de la première méthode dans un contexte de théorie de la mesure plus général. L'intégrale de Lebesgue-Stieltjes est l'intégrale de Lebesgue classique faite selon une mesure dite de Lebesgue-Stieltjes, qui peut être associée à une fonction à variation bornée sur la droite réelle. La mesure de Lebesgue–Stieltjes est une mesure de Borel régulière, et réciproquement, toute mesure de Borel régulière sur la droite réelle est d'un tel type.


Virology.

Four HCoV-OC43 genotypes (A to D), have been identified with genotype D most likely arising from genetic recombination. The complete genome sequencing of two genotype C and D strains and bootscan analysis shows recombination events between genotypes B and C in the generation of genotype D. Of 29 strains identified, none belong to the more ancient genotype A. Molecular clock analysis using spike and nucleocapsid genes dates the most recent common ancestor of all genotypes to the 1950s. Genotype B and C date to the 1980s. Genotype B to the 1990s, and genotype C to the late 1990s to early 2000s. The recombinant genotype D strains were detected as early as 2004.  Comparison of HCoV-OC43 with the most closely related strain of Betacoronavirus 1 species, bovine coronavirus, indicated that they had a most recent common ancestor in the late 19th century, with several methods yielding most probable dates around 1890, leading authors to speculate that an introduction of the former strain to the human population might have caused the 1889–1890 flu pandemic.

Pathogenesis.

Along with HCoV-229E, a species in the genus "Alphacoronavirus", HCoV-OC43 are among the known viruses that cause the common cold. Both viruses can cause severe lower respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy and those with HIV/AIDS.

Epidemiology.

Coronaviruses have a worldwide distribution, causing 10–15% of common cold cases (the virus most commonly implicated in the common cold is a rhinovirus, found in 30–80% of cases). Infections show a seasonal pattern with most cases occurring in the winter months.

Human coronavirus OC43 (HCoV-OC43) is a member of the species "Betacoronavirus 1" which infects humans and cattle. The infecting coronavirus is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus which enters its host cell by binding to the N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid receptor.

Le coronavirus humain OC43 (sigle HCoV-OC43) est un membre de l'espèce "Betacoronavirus 1", dans le genre "Betacoronavirus", qui infecte les humains et les bovins. Son ancêtre pourrait être un coronavirus « bovin » ayant par mutation acquis une aptitude à infecter l'Homme, et d'après les études d'horloge moléculaire cette émergence serait relativement récente, leur ancêtre commun le plus récent étant daté de 1890 environ.


Early life.

Lin was born in Putian City, Fujian Province, in southern China.  Lin Lanying was the first child born into a large and prestigious family, which could be traced back to the Ming dynasty 600 years before. Her sisters became child brides or were killed. Before she was six years old, Lanying was required to wash clothes and cook for the whole family.  Her ancestor Lin Run was an imperial censor during the Ming Dynasty. This was an official position that controlled and supervised other government officials. During his career he faced two influential persons who challenged state authority. By helping the emperor deal with these two challengers, the emperor gave him money to build a house in Putian, which is now called the Old House of Lin Run. Lin were all born and raised in this house.

Education.

At age six, she wanted to go to school rather than housework and chatting with other women all day. The only escape was via education. Her mother was deeply influenced by Chinese social gender norms and forbid her to get an education. Lin locked herself in her room and swore that she would not eat unless she was allowed to go to school. Her mother was moved by her insistence, and finally allowed her to attend Liqing primary school. Lin often got the best grade in her class, while she was required to do all the washing and cooking. Then came studying that often kept her up to 12 AM. She got up to cook and then went to school. Her habit of sleeping six hours continued throughout her life.  She fought a similar battle to continue to Liqing middle school. Her mother said that as a female, literacy did not matter. She convinced her mother that if she did not need money to study, she could go. This middle school provided scholarships for students who got the three best grades each semester. Lin earned her scholarship every semester.  After finishing middle school, she enrolled in Putian high school. Her mother finally accepted her studies because of her success in middle school. However, Lin stayed in this school for only one year. Japan started war with China and killed many Chinese. A lot of the students became angry and held many parades to boycott Japan. Many Japanese soldiers and agents were in China, so the parades were suppressed and some students were killed. Lin transferred to a women’s school called Hami Lton School. One of her teachers came from American and could not speak Chinese very well, so many of her classmates could not understand his courses. Lin helped the teacher as an assistant. When the teacher taught something in English, Lanying Lin would translate. Because of this, she was called ‘little teacher’.  She continued her study at Fukien Christian University, a top university at that time in China. She graduated at age 22 with a bachelor's degree in Physics as one of the best in her class. She worked at the university for 8 years, four years as an assistant to teach some fundamental courses such as mechanics. Her first book was "Course for Experiments in Optics" and earned certification as a professor.

Education in America.

Fukien Christian University had exchange programs with New York University at that time and many teachers who worked more than 2 years could study abroad. However, because she was not a Christian, she was excluded. So she applied to attend Dickinson College and earned a full scholarship and another bachelor's degree in mathematics with the help of her workmate Lairong Li in 1931. She then studied solid state physics at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1955, she received a doctorate degree there in solid-state physics and became the first Chinese national in a hundred years to earn a doctorate degree there. She thought that compared with math, physics was more applicable and more useful for China.

Career.

America.

Lanying wanted to return to China after graduation. However, the Chinese political situation was not good. At that time, America had many opportunities for scientists and including international students. Many Chinese students were not allowed to repatriate. Through the recommendation of her professor at the University of Pennsylvania, she decided to work as a senior engineer at the Sylvania Company which mainly manufactured semiconductors. At that time, the company had failed several times in making mono-crystalline silicon. Lanying discovered the problems and helped the company successfully engineer the silicon technology.

China.

After Lin had worked in America for a year, China signed a treaty during the Geneva Conference in 1956 that covered international students. On 6 January 1957, Lin returned to China after eight years. Just before she boarded, the Federal Bureau of Investigation approached her and threatened to withhold her earnings for the year of US$6,800, to persuade her to stay. Lin accepted this and boarded the ship.  Her family stayed poor because her salary was only 207 RMB, or 20 dollars a month. Her workplace had little money. However, she never gave up. In 1957, her workplace-Institute of Semiconductor CAS—finished making the first mono-crystalline germanium in China. By virtue of her experience in Sylvania Company, she knew the processes for making mono-crystalline silicon. However, she could not get equipment because of embargoes from other countries. She changed the process and made China's first mono-crystalline silicon in 1958. China became the third country to make mono-crystalline silicon. In 1962, she designed the mono-crystal furnace. This furnace was licensed to many countries. In the same year, she made the first mono-crystalline gallium arsenide in China. Lin’s gallium arsenide achieved the highest mobility until that time.  The Cultural Revolution intervened. From 1966-1976, billions of people in China suffered from it. All educators and scientists were suppressed. Lin was not allowed to do research and had to stay in her room under the monitoring of authorities. Lin’s educator father died during an assaulted by young people.  Despite the tragedy, she worked at age 60 after the Cultural Revolution. She found that the dislocation density of existing gallium arsenide was large due to gravity and not good enough to use, so she decided to make the experiment in artificial satellites. This was a dangerous experiment because the melting point of gallium arsenide is 1,238 Celsius degrees. However, she finished successfully and became the world's first to do so. Because of this work in gallium arsenide, the Chinese government named a gallium arsenide company(Chinese: 中科稼英) after her in 2001.  At age 78, in 1996, she was diagnosed with cancer. She had been working on building the semiconductor base in the southern part of China. When she was diagnosed, she asked, “Can someone give me another ten years? In ten years, I can definitely finish what I am doing and I can die with no regrets!” She wanted those years to offset the ten years lost to the Cultural Revolution. At 1:00 p.m. on March 4, 2003, she died.

Opinions about gender issues.

Throughout her life, she faced difficulties as a female. After she returned from the US, she joined the All-China Women's Federation. She held a lot of conferences and talked about gender issues. As a woman, she never accepted gender roles and always fought for herself. She believed that in the science field, women and men are equal and that the reason why fewer women are in this field is that women are more easily distracted by e.g., gossip, so women have to memorize more unrelated things and cannot focus on work.

Personal relationships.

Family members.

Her family included more than 20 people. Her mother and father influenced her most. Her father Jianhua Li was an educator. As a youth he moved far from home and studied at the university. Although he did not stay with Lanying, he often wrote letters to her and bought some books for her. Jianhua led Lanying into studying. Lanying’s mother was Shuixian Zhou, who was a tough woman because she had to manage the whole family. Lanying learned from her and became persistent. Although Shuixian was deeply influenced by traditional gender roles, she helped Lanying to be a persistent person, so Lanying could conquer many difficulties in her life. Lanying had two brothers. After she came back from America, she helped raise two nieces because she had no child of her own.

Qichang Guan and Cheng Lin.

Lin did not marry, but she loved two men. The first was Qichang Guan. Lanying and Qichang were in different classes of the same middle school. After graduation Qichang went to another city with his parents, so they separated. But they continued their relationship by mail. Qichang told Lanying that he wanted to marry her and work as teachers in a middle school. However, Lanying was more ambitious. They gradually stopped writing to each other. At the age of 17, Qichang died due to leukemia.  She also loved Cheng Lin. They met at Fukien Christian University. They had the same interests and both were ambitious. After graduation, they both stayed at this university and worked as teachers. However, because Lanying wanted to learn more things and decided to go to America, they separated. Cheng Lin married after Lin went to America. Their story has been told in the novel "The Second Handshake".

Attributions and honors.

Lin was recognized in many forums:

Social activities.

Her social activities include:

Political activities.

Lin participated in various political activities:

Selected publications.

Among her many publications are:

Lin Lanying (; February 7, 1918 – March 4, 2003), was a Chinese electrical engineer, materials scientist, physicist, and politician. She is called the "mother of aerospace materials" and the "mother of semiconductor materials" in China.

Lanying Lin ( Chinois : 林兰英; -), est une ingénieur électricienne chinoise, spécialiste des matériaux, une physicienne et politicienne. Elle est surnommée la "mère des matériaux aérospatiaux" et la "mère des matériaux semi-conducteurs" en Chine.


Locations and basis.

More than four hundred acupuncture points have been described, with the majority located on one of the main meridians, pathways which run throughout the body and according to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) transport life energy (qi, ). TCM recognizes twenty meridians, cutaneous and subcutaneous in nature, which have branching sub-meridians believed to affect surrounding tissues. Twelve of these major meridians, commonly referred to as "the primary meridians", are bilateral and are associated with internal organs. The remaining eight meridians are designated as "extraordinary", and are also bilateral except for three, one that encircles the body near the waist, and two that run along the midline of the body. Only those two extraordinary meridians that run along the midline contain their own points, the remaining six comprise points from the aforementioned twelve primary meridians. There are also points that are not located on the fourteen major meridians but do lie in the complete nexus referred to as "jing luo" (). Such outliers are often referred to as "extra points".  Although many hypotheses have been proposed, the anatomical and physiological basis for acupuncture points and meridians remains elusive. Hypotheses include neural signaling, with possible involvement of opioid peptides, glutamate, and adenosine, and correspondence to responsive parts in the central nervous system; or mechanical signaling, with involvement of connective tissue (fascia), and mechanical wave activation of the calcium ion channel to beta-endorphin secretion. In practice, acupuncture points are located by a combination of anatomical landmarks, palpation, and feedback from the patient.

Eight Extraordinary Meridians.

The eight extraordinary meridians () are of pivotal importance in the study of Qigong, T'ai chi ch'uan and Chinese alchemy. Though many are listed, only the Governing Vessel and the Conception Vessel meridians have points not associated with the previous 12 meridians.

Nomenclature.

In east Asian countries practitioners commonly refer to acupuncture points by their traditional names. Some points have several names. When acupuncture was adopted in the western world, a standard nomenclature was developed to unambiguously identify the acupuncture points on meridians. This model achieved wide acceptance and today virtually every book on acupuncture refers to acupuncture points using it. The World Health Organization (WHO) published "A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature Report" in 1991, listing 361 classical acupuncture points organized according to the fourteen meridians, eight extra meridians, 48 extra points, and scalp acupuncture points, and published "Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature" in 1993, focused on the 361 classical acupuncture points. Each acupuncture point is identified by the meridian on which it is located and its number in the point sequence on that channel. For example, "Lu-9" identifies the 9th acupuncture point on the lung meridian, "tài yuān" () or "gui xin" (), two names used for this same point. The only glitch with this unique systemized method can be found on the urinary bladder meridian, where the outer line of 14 points found on the back near the spine are inserted in one of two ways; following the last point of the inner line along the spine () and resuming with the point found in the crease of the buttocks (), or following the point in the center of the crease of the knee () and resuming with the point just below that (), found in the bifurcation of the gastrocnemius muscle. Although classification of the extra points often tries to utilize a similar shortcut method, where a numbered sequence along an assigned body part is used, there is no commonly agreed-upon system and therefore universal identification of these points relies on the original naming system of traditional Chinese characters.  The tables in this article follow the standard numbering scheme to identify the acupuncture points of the main channels. For extra points the tables follow the numbering scheme found in "A Manual of Acupuncture".

Lung meridian.

Abbreviated as LU, named "The Lung channel of Hand, Greater Yin". This refers to the meridian starting in the arm, the lung's association with yin, and that it is considered more easy to find.

Large intestine meridian.

Abbreviated as LI or CO (colon), named "The Large Intestine channel of Hand, Yang Bright".

Stomach meridian.

Abbreviated as ST, named "The Stomach channel of Foot, Yang Bright".

Spleen meridian.

Abbreviated as SP, named "The Spleen channel of Foot, Greater Yin".

Heart meridian.

Abbreviated as HE, HT or H, named "The Heart channel of Hand, Lesser Yin".

Small intestine meridian.

Abbreviated as SI, named "The Small Intestine channel of Hand, Greater Yang".

Bladder meridian.

Abbreviated as BL or UB (urinary bladder), described in Chinese as "The Bladder channel of Foot, Greater Yang".  An alternative numbering scheme for the "appended part" (beginning with Bl-41 in the list below), which places the outer line along the spine after Bl-35 () instead of Bl-40 (), will be noted in the Alternative names column.

Kidney meridian.

Abbreviated as KI or K, described in Chinese as or "The Kidney channel of Foot, Lesser Yin".

Pericardium meridian.

Abbreviated as PC or P, named "The Pericardium channel of Hand, Faint Yin".

Triple burner meridian.

Also known as San Jiao, triple-heater, triple-warmer or triple-energizer, abbreviated as TB or SJ or TE and named "The Sanjiao channel of Hand, Lesser Yang".

Gallbladder meridian.

Abbreviated as GB, this meridian is named "The Gallbladder channel of Foot, Lesser Yang".

Liver meridian.

Abbreviated as LR or LV, named "The Liver channel of Foot Jueyin".

Governing vessel.

Also known as Du, abbreviated as GV and named "The Governing Vessel".

Conception vessel.

Also known as Ren, abbreviated as CV and named "The Conception Vessel".

Extra points.

There is no agreed-on naming scheme for extra points on the body.  This first table follows the numbering scheme of Peter Deadman. This second table names meridians as they appear in the table.

This article provides a comprehensive list of acupuncture points, locations on the body used in acupuncture, acupressure, and other treatment systems based on Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM).

Cet article fournit une liste complète des points d'acupuncture et de leur emplacement sur le corps d'après la médecine traditionnelle chinoise (MTC).


Life.

Huitfeldt was born into an aristocratic family from Scania, part of the Kingdom of Denmark at the time. He was partly educated in Germany and France, made his career as a state official and was, from 1573 to 1580, First Secretary to the Danish Chancellery, the King's central administrative organ. From 1583 to his death he was also superintendent at Herlufsholm School, the first Danish boarding school. In 1586 he achieved his highest appointment, becoming "Rigskansler" (Chancellor of the Realm, the very approximate equivalent to a modern Minister of Justice), until shortly before his death. Huitfeldt also owned several manor estates and handled a number of diplomatic assignments. As a politician and as an official he appears to have been studious, conservative, and sociable, avoiding overt clashes with his colleagues.

Historical works.

What has made Huitfeldt famous, however, is his contribution as a historian. He wrote the first great History of Denmark in vernacular Danish – "Danmarks Riges Krønike" ("Chronicle of the Kingdom of Denmark", 8 vols, 1595-1603), thus taking up the weighty legacy of Saxo Grammaticus. Huitfeldt was no official Danish historiographer, but at his time several official attempts at writing a comprehensive History of Denmark in Latin had come to little. Huitfeldt created a work that supplanted all earlier Latin attempts and more or less became "the" referential history work on Denmark until the time of Ludvig Holberg.  The Chronicle deals with Denmark from what was then a time of legend until 1559. It is mostly structured around the reigns of the various kings and was published in non-chronological order, beginning with the time of Christian III. Through published rather quickly, his work seems to have been prepared across several years. Being a state official with access to documents and with the possibility of using help from scribes, Huitfeldt did have many writing advantages. The form of his Chronicle is annalist but not narrowly limited to each single year. What makes it still more important is that Huitfeldt reproduces many documents and sources the originals of which are now lost. In that way his book is also a significant source collection.  In the Chronicle Huitfeldt reveals himself as a pragmatic aristocrat. A central view of his is that history repeats itself, but in aspects such as his emphasis on judicial and constitutional factors, he shows himself rather in advance of his time. At bottom, he remains subjective: his own ideal is that of the aristocratic state, in which the King respects the role and power of the nobility. Thus he may be held responsible for the extremely negative picture of Christian II, and the corresponding idealized version of Christian III, which for many years dominated Danish historical thinking. Yet as a whole, Huitfeldt is sober and calm, using plain and relatively unaffected language. While transmitting the ancient legends and myths he often shows scepticism as to their reliability, an attitude he halso partly displays toward later sources. His prefaces to the separate volumes of his history are themselves worth noting, as an additional testimonial to his political ideals.

Arild Huitfeldt (Arvid) (11 September 1546 – 16 December 1609) was a Danish historian and state official, known for his vernacular Chronicle of Denmark.

Arild Huitfeldt (né le à Bergen, décédé le à Næstved) était un historien danois et homme d'état. Huitfeldt est né sur dans la Forteresse de Bergenhus à Bergen, où son père était suzerain. Il a obtenu plusieurs fiefs en Scanie, et en 1586, il a pris son siège dans le conseil national. Sous Christian IV, il a été chancelier, avec des responsabilités judiciaires pour le royaume. En 1606, il a fait une crise d'apoplexie l'obligeant à mettre un terme à ses fonctions.


Système de transport rapide Johor Bahru–Singapour

History.

Planning and development.

The idea of a Mass Rapid Transit between Singapore and Johor Bahru was first suggested in 1991 when then Singapore Minister for Communications Mah Bow Tan said that the Woodlands Extension, now part of the North South line, would be designed to accommodate such an extension. The idea was endorsed and agreed to in principle by both countries.  The rapid transit system was then revisited two decades later and proposed during the Singapore-Malaysia Leaders' Retreat on 24 May 2010. The RTS would link Tanjung Puteri, Johor Bahru and Singapore, aiming to ease traffic congestion on the Johor–Singapore Causeway and enhance connectivity between the two countries. It was targeted to be operational by 2018.

Concrete steps.

In June 2011, Singapore proposed to Malaysia that the proposed cross border rail link be connected to the northern-most station of the Thomson-East Coast line, Woodlands North.  A tender was called in November 2011 to conduct design and engineering study on the RTS link, which aimed to determine the technical parameters and options for the alignment and proposals for the system. A consortium of Aecom Perunding, Aecom Singapore and SA Architects subsequently won the tender. The first part of a preliminary engineering study was completed in March 2014.  In September 2014, the Johor Public Works, Rural and Regional Development committee chairman Datuk Hasni Mohammad announced that Malaysia had chosen Bukit Chagar as its terminating station, over Tanjung Puteri, JB Sentral 1 and JB Sentral 2. The terminal would have its own Customs and Immigration clearance facilities, separate from the existing facilities at Sultan Iskandar Building. He also mentioned that Singapore had given no indication of the final alignment of the link from a total of three options. Singapore's Ministry of Transport then responded that they were unable to finalise the alignment of the crossing as there was no confirmation of the location of Malaysia’s RTS terminus.  At a joint news conference between Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and Malaysia Prime Minister Najib Razak held on 13 December 2016, it was announced that the link will adopt the Thomson–East Coast MRT line's system including the four core systems — trains, signalling system, communication system and Integrated Supervisory Control System in order to reap economies of scale. A high-bridge crossing was chosen for the RTS to cross the Straits of Johor. The link would be operated by a corporate entity and its fare would be market-based and set by the operator as well.  At the 13th meeting of the Malaysia-Singapore Joint Ministerial Committee for Iskandar Malaysia in July 2017, officials from both countries announced that the link would start operating by 31 December 2024 and that they have agreed to jointly appoint an operating company to run and maintain the RTS operating systems, including its trains, tracks and signalling system. Singapore's SMRT Corporation and Malaysia's Prasarana Malaysia were appointed as operators for the link by the respective governments and both were negotiating terms for the joint venture which would have a first concession period of 30 years. Each government would also appoint an infrastructure company to fund, build, own, maintain and upgrade the civil infrastructure and stations in their own countries. Daily shuttle train service from Woodlands Train Checkpoint to Johor Bahru would also cease operating after the RTS Link opens. However, according to Datuk Ismail Ibrahim, CEO of the Iskandar Regional Development Authority, the completion date is targeted for 2022.  However, in August 2017, the Sultan of Johor Ibrahim Ismail expressed serious reservations on the proposed design of the rail track, citing that the overall curve-shaped design and height would disrupt the city skyline along the Johor Straits. He also questioned the need for both countries to engage separate contractors to build portions of the link in their respective countries and the involvement of Prasarana Malaysia in the joint operating company with SMRT Corporation instead of the Johor state government. As such, he wanted the overall plan to be reviewed to ensure that it would be "logical, economical and sustainable".  A memorandum of understanding between SMRT Corporation and Prasarana Malaysia was signed in September 2017 to form a joint venture company to operate the link. Details such as control of the operating company were yet to be worked out.  On 16 January 2018, Singapore and Malaysia signed a bilateral agreement on the project. Signed by Singapore's Transport Minister and Coordinating Minister for Infrastructure Khaw Boon Wan and Malaysia's Minister in the Prime Minister's Department Abdul Rahman Dahlan. It was witnessed by Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong and his Malaysian counterpart Najib Razak during the 8th Singapore-Malaysia Leaders' Retreat, the agreement finalised certain aspects of the project, including its maintenance facilities, operator, and customs facilities. Construction of the 4 km link is set to begin in 2019.

2018 Malaysian general election.

After the Malaysian general election, 2018, despite efforts to reduce the national debt, Malaysia's then Transport Minister Loke Siew Fook mentioned in end-May 2018 that Malaysia remains committed to the project but the Ministry of Finance would be looking at ways to reduce the cost of the project. However, in mid-July 2018, Singapore Transport Minister Khaw Boon Wan said in Parliament that Singapore had not heard anything official from the new Malaysian government despite Loke's comments. A joint operating company between Singapore's SMRT Corporation and Malaysia's Prasarana Malaysia was supposed to be incorporated by June 30, 2018 but did not occur either as discussions between the two companies were suspended after Malaysia's general election.  In end-July 2018, Malaysia's then Transport Minister Loke Siew Fook expressed hope that the project would proceed as planned and that the Malaysian cabinet has given in-principle approval to the project but are still looking into the cost and other details. He also mentioned that the issue of compensation did not apply as the joint operating company was not set up yet. A working paper on the project would be presented to the cabinet soon and the joint operating company would be set up once the full approval is given by the cabinet. Despite the delay, he said that the project would still be completed on time by 2024.  On 13 October 2018, it was reported that Singapore's Land Transport Authority has called for tender for the construction of a 1.1 km tunnel and overhead bridge to Johor in end-September 2018. Construction is scheduled to begin in the middle of 2019.  On 14 January 2019, Singapore's Transport Minister, Khaw Boon Wan informed that the project is not progressing well, with Malaysia missing deadlines that were set in the bilateral meeting in 2018. Deadlines were extended as soon as they were negotiable - the first until September 2018, then December 2018, then February 2019.  On 8 April 2019, Khaw Boon Wan, together with Malaysia's then Transport Minister Loke Siew Fook, held a joint press conference to announce that the two countries were working towards a "supplemental agreement" to temporarily suspend the project for 6 months, allowing Malaysia to review "key parameters" of the project. The suspension would be approached in the same way as was done for the suspension of the Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high speed rail.

Delay.

On 21 May 2019, the two countries agreed to suspend the project for 6 months until 30 September, after which the project was to continue. This will result in Malaysia paying Singapore more than $600,000 of abortive costs incurred due to the suspension. Should nothing be done, the project will be deemed to have been terminated by Malaysia, and thus Malaysia will have to pay more than $66 million. The suspension will also affect the joint venture signed in 2018.  On 28 September 2019, Malaysia announced the extension of suspension to 31 October 2019 so as to study for financial implications should the project resume, with no costs incurred by Malaysia this time. The extension was confirmed by Singapore's Ministry of Transport two days later. Should further extensions be requested by Malaysia, Singapore reserves the right to claim any additional costs incurred beyond 30 September 2019.  On 11 October 2019, Malaysia announced in its budget that it will still go ahead with the RTS as a long-term solution for cross-border traffic, in addition to RM85 million for decongesting the Causeway and the Second Link.  On 31 October 2019, Malaysia's then Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad announced that the project will go ahead with a 36 per cent cost cut from the original RM4.93 billion to RM3.16 billion. Some of the proposals include involving the developers/owners of the Bukit Chagar land to waive land costs; thereby reducing costs as well as using a LRT (Light Rail Transit) system similar to Ampang LRT line to reduce costs instead of the Thomson–East Coast MRT line systems. Prasarana will still be the joint-venture partner for the RTS, which will work with SMRT on the project. Details are still being worked out in preparation for a future agreement.  On 2 May 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was agreed that the project be suspended further, until 31 July 2020.

The Johor Bahru–Singapore Rapid Transit System or Singapore–Johor Bahru Rapid Transit System (RTS Link) is a planned cross-border rapid transit system that would connect Woodlands, Singapore and Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia, crossing the Straits of Johor.

Le système de transport rapide Johor Bahru–Singapour (en anglais "Johor Bahru–Singapore Rapid Transit System"), plus couramment désigné par l'acronyme RTS link, est un projet de ligne de métro transfrontalière devant relier la cité-état de Singapour à la ville de Johor Bahru, en Malaisie, en traversant le détroit de Johor.


Childhood and education.

Liette Vasseur was born on April 29, 1963 on a farm in Laval, north of Montreal. Her father and paternal grandfather were florists.  Liette's primary studies began in 1969 at John XXIII School and Simon Vanier School. She did her first two years of secondary school at St-Martin and finally completed her third, fourth and fifth year at St-Maxime. She did her CEGEP at Ahuntsic College.  She graduated from Sherbrooke University with a degree in biology and ecology. She graduated in 1985.  Liette then studied Biology at the University of Quebec in Montreal (UQAM) where she graduated in 1987. She then worked on the conservation of wild garlic. She was able to do part of a research team at the Université de Montréal in population genetics with Jean-Pierre Simon.  She then completed her Ph.D. in Biology at Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) and graduated in 1991. She eventually began a postdoctoral fellowship with Catherine Potvin at McGill University.

Career.

Since 2014, she has held the UNESCO Chair on Community Sustainability: From Local to Global at Brock University, which was recently renewed in 2018.  Her research program is highly interdisciplinary and links issues such as community-based ecosystem management, climate change adaptation and resilience and sustainable agriculture both nationally and internationally.  In Canada, her research areas include impacts of climate change including extreme events on natural and managed ecosystems as well as rural communities, use of new alternatives in sustainable agriculture, and ecosystem/landscape sustainable development, conservation, and resilience in rural communities in Canada and abroad.  She was part of the co-direction committee of a large project on Coastal Communities Challenges in the face of Climate Change, funded by the Social and Humanities Research Council of Canada, which looked at resilience and ecosystem-based adaptations in ten coastal communities of Atlantic Canada.  She also works in China, where she is a Minjiang Scholar at Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, and in Ecuador, where she focuses on the community sustainability and ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change of rural native communities in the Andean region of the Chimborazo.  Vasseur has also been involved in projects in other countries such as Vietnam, Cambodia, Panama, Brazil, Burkina Faso, in Africa.  Since June 2018, she has been the President of the Canadian Commission for UNESCO, where she was previously Chair of the Sectoral Commission on Social, Human and Natural Sciences. She is the vice-chair for North America on the steering committee of the Commission for Ecosystem Management at the International Union for Conservation of Nature and leads the thematic group on Ecosystem Governance.

Publications.

She has produced over one hundred publications and more than 250 presentations as a researcher.

Special interests.

Vasseur is also very involved in issues related to women in science, engineering, trades and technology. On this topic, she has produced several publications on this topic as well as organized some events and projects to promote gender equality. She is the Past-President (President from 2014 to 2018) of the Canadian Coalition of Women in Engineering, Science, Trades and Technology.

Liette Vasseur (born Laval, Quebec. 29 April 1963) is a full professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada. She is also a member of the Women and Gender Studies program and the Environmental Sustainability Research Centre. She is the President of Canadian National Commission to UNESCO.

Liette Vasseur (née à Laval, Québec, le 29 avril 1963) est professeure titulaire au département des sciences biologiques de l'Université Brock à Saint Catharines, en Ontario, au Canada. Elle est également membre du programme d'études sur les femmes et le genre et du Centre de recherche sur la durabilité de l'environnement. Elle est présidente de la Commission canadienne pour l'UNESCO.


Original experiment.

In Simon's original study, two lights (the stimulus) were placed on a rotating circular panel. This device would be rotated at varying degrees (away from the horizontal plane). Simon wished to see if an alteration of the spatial relationship, relative to the response keys, affected performance. Age was also a probable factor in reaction time. As predicted the reaction time of the groups increased based on the relative position of the light stimulus (age was not a factor). The reaction time increased by as much as 30%. (Simon & Wolf, 1963).  However, what is usually seen as the first genuine demonstration of the effect that became known as the Simon effect is by Simon & Rudell (1967). Here, they had participants respond to the words "left" and "right" that were randomly presented to the left or right ear. Although the auditory location was completely irrelevant to the task, participants showed marked increases in reaction latency if the location of the stimulus was not the same as the required response (if, for example, they were to react left to a word that was presented in the right ear).

Method.

A typical demonstration of the Simon effect involves placing a participant in front of a computer monitor and a panel with two buttons on it, which he or she may press. The participant is told that they should press the button on the right when they see something red appear on the screen, and the button on the left when they see something green. Participants are usually told to ignore the location of the stimulus and base their response on the task-relevant color.  Participants typically react faster to red lights that appear on the right hand side of the screen by pressing the button on the right of their panel (congruent trials). Reaction times are typically slower when the red stimulus appears on the left hand side of the screen and the participant must push the button on the right of their panel (incongruent trials). The same, but vice versa, is true for the green stimuli.  This happens despite the fact that the position of the stimulus on the screen relative to the physical position of the buttons on the panel is irrelevant to the task and not correlated with which response is correct. The task, after all, requires the subject to note only the colour of the object (i.e., red or green) by pushing the corresponding button, and not its position on the screen.

Explanation.

According to Simon himself (1969), the location of the stimulus, although irrelevant to the task, directly influences response-selection due to an automatic tendency to'react towards the source of the stimulation'. Although other accounts have been suggested (cf. Hommel, 1993), explanations for the Simon effect generally refer back to the interference that occurs in the response-selection stage of decision making. Neurologically there could be involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the Anterior cingulate cortex, which is thought to be responsible for conflict monitoring. The Simon Effect shows that location information cannot be ignored and will affect decision making, even if the participant knows that the information is irrelevant.  Logical argument for response selection:  The challenge in the Simon effect is said to occur during the response selection stage of judgment. This is due to two factors which eliminate the stimulus identification stage and the execution state. In the stimulus identification stage the participant only needs to be cognitively aware that a stimulus is present. An error would not occur at this stage unless he or she were visually impaired or had some sort of stimulus deficit. As well, an error or delay cannot occur during the execution state because an action has already been decided upon in the previous stage (the response selection stage) and no further decision making takes place (i.e. you cannot make a change to your response without going back to the second stage).

Practical implications.

A knowledge of the Simon effect is useful in the design of human-machine interfaces. Aircraft cockpits, for example, require a person to react quickly to a situation. If a pilot is flying a plane and there is a problem with the left engine, an aircraft with a good human-machine interface design (which most have) would position the indicator light for the left engine to the left of the indicator light for the right engine. This interface would display information in a way that matches the types of responses that people should make. If it were the other way around, the pilot might be more likely to respond incorrectly and adjust the wrong engine.

In psychology, the Simon effect is the finding that the difference in accuracy or reaction time between trials in which stimulus and response are on the same side and trials in which they are on opposite sides, with responses being generally slower and less accurate when the stimulus and response are on opposite sides. It is named for J. R. Simon who first published the effect in the late 1960s. Simon's original explanation for the effect was that there is "an innate tendency to respond toward the source of stimulation".

En neuroscience, l'effet Simon correspond à notre capacité à répondre à un stimulus. Il est identifié en 1969 par J.R. Simon'.


Design and description.

A British design, the "Bangor"-class minesweepers were smaller than the preceding s in British service, but larger than the in Canadian service. They came in two versions powered by different engines; those with a diesel engines and those with vertical triple-expansion steam engines. "Ingonish" was of the latter design and was larger than her diesel-engined cousins. "Ingonish" was long overall, had a beam of and a draught of. The minesweeper had a displacement of. She had a complement of 6 officers and 77 enlisted.  "Ingonish" had two vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, using steam provided by two Admiralty three-drum boilers. The engines produced a total of and gave a maximum speed of. The minesweeper could carry a maximum of of fuel oil.  British "Bangor"-class minesweepers were armed with a single 12-pounder () 12 cwt HA gun mounted forward. For anti-aircraft purposes, the minesweepers were equipped with one QF 2-pounder Mark VIII and two single-mounted QF 20 mm Oerlikon guns. As a convoy escort, "Ingonish" was deployed with 40 depth charges launched from two depth charge throwers and four chutes.

Operational history.

The minesweeper was ordered as part of the British 1940 construction programme. The ship's keel was laid down on 6 June 1941 by North Vancouver Ship Repairs at their yard in North Vancouver, British Columbia. Named for a community in Nova Scotia, "Ingonish" was launched on 30 July 1941. Transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy, the ship was commissioned on 8 May 1942 at Vancouver.  Following work ups, the minesweeper joined Esquimalt Force in May 1942, the local patrol and convoy escort force operating out of Esquimalt, British Columbia. "Ingonish" was one of the warships added to the west coast patrol force after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The main duty of "Bangor"-class minesweepers after commissioning on the West Coast was to perform the Western Patrol. This consisted of patrolling the west coast of Vancouver Island, inspecting inlets and sounds and past the Scott Islands to Gordon Channel at the entrance to the Queen Charlotte Strait and back. The minesweeper was later transferred to Prince Rupert Force, the patrol and escort unit operating out of Prince Rupert, British Columbia and remained on the Pacific coast until March 1943, when "Ingonish" was ordered to the Atlantic Coast of Canada.  After arriving at Halifax, Nova Scotia on 30 April 1943, the minesweeper was assigned to the Western Local Escort Force as a convoy escort. In June, "Ingonish" transferred to Halifax Force, the local escort and patrol force operating from Halifax. That November, the warship was sent to Baltimore, Maryland for a refit, which took nine weeks to complete. In May 1944, the minesweeper joined Sydney Force, the local patrol and escort force working out of Sydney, Nova Scotia and remained with the unit until February 1945. The vessel returned to Halifax Force in February and underwent a second refit at Saint John, New Brunswick.  Following the refit, "Ingonish" was sent to Bermuda for work ups and then sailed for the United Kingdom in June 1945. The minesweeper was paid off and returned to the Royal Navy at Sheerness on 2 July 1945. Never entering service with the Royal Navy, the vessel was placed in reserve. "Ingonish" was sold on 1 January 1948 to Clayton & Davie for scrap and broken up at Dunston, Tyne and Wear.

HMCS "Ingonish" (pennant J69) was a initially constructed for the Royal Navy during the Second World War. Loaned to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1942, the vessel served on both coasts of Canada as a convoy escort and patrol vessel. Following the war, the minesweeper was returned to the Royal Navy and laid up. "Ingonish" was discarded in 1948.

Le NCSM "Ingonish (pennant number J69) (ou en anglais HMCS "Ingonish) est un dragueur de mines de la Classe Bangor lancé pour la Royal Navy (RN), mais transféré à la Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) avant sa mise en service et qui a servi pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


History.

Beginnings.

It was constituted on the initiative of Mark Sykes who, in December 1915, reported to London that, in a recent tour of the Middle East from Egypt to India, he had discovered that the German and Turkish Governments were widely distributing anti-British wartime propaganda that countered British imperialism. Sykes was concerned because British command posts in the Middle East were generally uncooperative and thus far unable to produce counterpropaganda. Sykes proposed the creation of a London office under his auspices to gather, filter, and distribute intelligence on the German and Turkish Middle East policy and "co-ordinate propaganda in favour of Great Britain among non-Indian Moslems."

Support.

Sykes' proposal was welcomed by Gilbert Clayton, the director of civilian and military intelligence in Egypt and Sudan. Clayton believed that such an office might not only discover and counter enemy propaganda but be capable of overseeing a wider collection of political and military information regarding the Middle East and in turn produce easily understood reports to inform policymaking in Cairo and London toward the Ottoman Arab territories.

Opposition.

Clayton's preference for locating the Arab Bureau in Cairo met with resistance from the Indian Government (under the Viceroy Charles Hardinge) and the India Office (under the Secretary of State for India, Austen Chamberlain), who did not want interference in their control of territories around the Persian Gulf and particularly the Iraq provinces that they planned to occupy and cultivate for grain production for India. Newly discovered oil deposits located around the North Gulf brought further attention to the region. But the director of Naval Intelligence in Britain, Captain Reginald 'Blinker' Hall, supported Clayton's concept and urged government approval.

Establishment.

The result was a compromise. In January 1916, the Arab Bureau was established as a section of Sudan Intelligence in Cairo, ultimately answering to the High Commissioner in Egypt (Henry McMahon) who in turn was overseen by the Foreign Office and the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (Edward Grey) in London. It was staffed by Middle East experts from military intelligence, Egypt Force who shared Clayton's outlook.

Closure.

Arnold Wilson later wrote that: The Arab Bureau in Cairo died unregretted in 1920, having helped to induce His Majesty's Government to adopt a policy which brought disaster to the people of Syria, disillusionment to the Arabs of Palestine and ruin to the Hijaz.

Staff.

Gilbert Clayton was named head or "chief" of the Arab Bureau. David Hogarth, a naval intelligence officer, was acting director of the Arab Bureau and Kinahan Cornwallis his deputy. Herbert Garland, George Ambrose Lloyd, George Stewart Symes, Philip Graves, Gertrude Bell, Aubrey Herbert, William Ormsby-Gore, Thomas Edward Lawrence, Alfred Guillaume and Tracy Philipps were also part of the Arab Bureau.  In 1920, Garland was appointed director, under High Commissioner to Egypt Lord Allenby.

The Arab Bureau was a section of the Cairo Intelligence Department established in 1916 during the First World War, and closed in 1920, whose purpose was the collection and dissemination of propaganda and intelligence about the Arab regions of the Middle East.

Le Bureau arabe () est une section du Département du renseignement du Caire créé en 1916 pendant la Première Guerre mondiale et fermé en 1920, et dont le but était la diffusion de propagande et la collecte de renseignements dans les régions arabes du Moyen-Orient.


Life.

She was born Maria Teresa Scandola in 1849 in Verona, the daughter of Antonio Scandola and Giuseppina Leso. She met Daniel Comboni – later to be declared a saint – in 1871, who discussed with her his work of evangelization in Central Africa, and his vision of involving women in the mission. Scandola agreed to enter the religious order he envisioned to accomplish this, to be called the Institute of the Pious Mothers of Africa. She was the second woman to join the new foundation. In January of the following year, she entered the novitiate of the new religious order which Comboni had established in Verona, being given the religious habit and her new religious name of Maria Giuseppa. She professed perpetual religious vows on 19 March 1877.  Scandola and four other Comboni Sisters left Verona with Comboni the following 12 December for their mission in Africa, the first European women to serve as missionaries in that region of Africa. She then worked to help children with their education and spiritual development in various towns of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. On 21 June 1903 she arrived in Lul, located on the banks of the White Nile, for her new mission, where she learned the Shilluk language. She taught the people that "there is no greater love than to lay down one's life for another" and that true love is this: "to know the Father and Jesus Christ who wants everyone to be saved".  Shortly after her arrival there, Scandola offered her own life to God in exchange for that of a young missionary priest, Giuseppe Beduschi, who, thanks to her generosity was then able to continue for many years his apostolic mission in Africa. She died in Lul on 1 September 1903 at the age of 54.

Veneration.

The cause for Scandola's beatification commenced in Verona after the Diocese of Malakal, where she had died, transferred the cause to her native Diocese of Verona on 7 October 1997. She received the title of Servant of God after the formal approval of the cause was granted by the Holy See on 23 April 2001. The process in Verona was ratified in 2003 and resulted in the submission of two parts of the "positio" to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in 2009 and 2010, which then began to have the documentation evaluated.  A miracle attributed to Scandola's intercession was presented for investigation and the process was ratified on 17 October 2013. Pope Francis approved the formal decree that her life was one of heroic virtue on 12 June 2014, due to which she is considered Venerable – a step in the process of beatification. A miracle attributed to her is currently under investigation by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints.

Maria Giuseppa Scandola, M.S.V., (26 January 1849 – 1 September 1903) was an Italian member of the Missionary Sisters of Verona, also known as the Comboni Missionary Sisters. She served in what is now South Sudan, where she offered up her life in 1903.

Maria Teresa Scandola, en religion sœur Maria Giuseppa Scandola, née le, morte le, est une religieuse italienne, membre de la congrégation des Sœurs Missionnaires de Vérone, également appelées Sœurs missionnaires comboniennes. Elle sert comme missionnaire dans le sud du Soudan, dans l'actuel Soudan du Sud. Elle intervient dans les différentes villes du pays, s'occupe des enfants mal nourris, diffuse les notions d'hygiène et d'économie domestique, enseigne l'Évangile, et apprend la langue locale.


Early life.

Gallagher was born in Glasgow in 1940, the son of Irish parents Dan and Annie (née Duffy) from County Donegal. He first played for St. John's (Gorbals) Boys' Guild in 1952, Holyrood Senior Secondary in 1953, before joining Kilmarnock Amateurs in 1955 and Yoker Athletic in 1958. Charlie was a modest player with undeniable talent.

Professional career.

Gallagher was recommended to Celtic by his Physical Education teacher, John Murphy. Murphy had connections with Celtic and doubled as an announcer at Parkhead on match days.  On 20 September 1958, Gallagher provisionally signed for Celtic and made his full debut on 6 March 1959. Jock Stein signed him as a full professional on the same day. Gallagher was part of the Lisbon Lions squad that won the 1967 European Cup Final, where he scored 4 goals. The same year, Gallagher became the first Scottish-born player to play for the Republic of Ireland when he travelled to Ankara on 22 February 1967 to represent Ireland against Turkey.  Gallagher played for Celtic for over a decade, making a total of 171 appearances and scoring 32 goals. This included 106 Scottish League appearances and 17 league goals. He also played in 13 European games. Gallagher remained at Celtic until 1 May 1970, when he transferred to Dumbarton. He retired from playing in April 1973. Gallagher worked as a scout for Celtic from April 1976 to April 1978.

Personal life.

He has a brother, Danny, and a sister, Eileen, and is a cousin of fellow Celtic player Paddy Crerand. Charlie now lives in Bishopbriggs with his wife Maryrose. He has 3 children (Paul, Kieron and Claire) and 8 grandchildren. In 2016 a biography, "Charlie Gallagher? What A Player" written by David W. Potter and published by Celtic Quick News appeared.

Charles Gallagher (born 3 November 1940 in Glasgow, Scotland) is a former footballer, who played as a forward. Although he was born in Scotland, he represented Republic of Ireland at international level, making two appearances for the team in 1967.

Charlie Gallagher, né le à Glasgow, est un footballeur international irlandais. Bien qu'il soit né en Écosse, il représente la République d'Irlande au niveau international.


Plot.

After a successful Sydney bank robbery, with the robbers wearing pig masks and wielding shotguns, the man in charge, "The Boss" (Bryan Marshall), plans a further and larger payroll robbery for two days later worth at least $1.5 million, hoping that he can trust his less-than-competent gang headed by Whitey (David Argue) and Moustache (John Ley) to do the job properly, with anyone who doesn't answering to him.  Two young BMX experts, P.J. (Angelo D'Angelo) and Goose (James Lugton), meet Judy (Nicole Kidman), who is working as a trolley collector at the Warringah Mall during the school holidays in order to be able to buy her own BMX bike, and accidentally get Judy fired from her job when they crash into trolleys pushed away by the local "Creep" (Brian Sloman). The three go out in Goose's dad's runabout on the harbour searching for cockles to sell in order to fix their own crashed bikes, as well as getting Judy her own, and stumble onto and steal a box of police-band walkie talkies that the bank robbers were hoping to use to monitor on police traffic. After stealing the box, the kids pass Whitey and Moustache who are on their way in their high-powered motorboat to pick it up.  Judy, P.J. and Goose sell the walkie-talkies to other kids in the area. The Bayside Police are able to hear the kids using the walkie talkies. Judy, P.J. and Goose are also unaware that the robbers know who stole the box. After they are spotted and chased late at night through a cemetery by Whitey and Moustache wearing monster masks (going formal, according to Whitey), they manage to escape. The next day, P.J. and Goose pick up their newly repaired bikes whilst Judy buys her bike. Judy is caught the next day by Whitey and Moustache while getting a second walkie talkie for The Creep, but escapes with the help of P.J. and Goose. The goons chase the Bandits in a cartoonish chase across opportunistic sites around Sydney, including a memorable escape down the Manly Waterworks water slides, complete with BMX bikes.  The trio are finally arrested but escape police custody and, with the help of the local kids, launch their own plan to foil the planned payroll robbery. Using the walkie-talkies, the Bandits pinpoint the meeting place for the robbers, then proceed to ambush and apprehend the robbers. The Boss, Whitey and Moustache escape in a removal truck with Judy as a hostage, with P.J. and Goose taking chase. They cause the truck to crash, with police soon arriving to arrest The Boss, Whitey and Moustache.  The police build a BMX track as thanks for the capture. In its opening meeting, the BMX Bandits sweep the main awards.

Production.

The film was originally going to be written and directed by Russell Hagg, only it was going to be about nine year old characters. He was unable to raise finance. The project passed to produced Tom Broadbridge who hired Hagg's frequent collaborator Patrick Edgeworth to rewrite the script and make it about teenagers.  Brian Trenchard-Smith was hired after the producers had been impressed by his handling of action in "Turkey Shoot". He says the script was originally set in Melbourne but he persuaded them to re-set it in Sydney to take advantage of that city's locations. He set it on the northern beaches and wrote action sequences based on "my concept for the BMX action being putting BMX bikes where BMX bikes aren’t meant to be." The movie was shot over 41 days, a longer than normal shoot because of the labour restrictions caused by the fact many of the cast were under 16. Trenchard-Smith:  I wanted to capture the spirit of the Ealing comedies and British films of the ‘50s and ‘60s that were clearly aimed at children and delivered action and fun in a largely cartoonish way. If you look at the basic premise of the plot, the crooks clearly want to or intend to kill the children at some point, so how do you disguise that and make that palatable to an audience of kids and parents? You make the crooks buffoonish, the gang that couldn’t shoot straight, so that takes the curse off the underlying purpose.  Nicole Kidman sprained her ankle during filming. No female stunt double that looked like her could be found so her bike stunts were performed by an 18-year-old man in a wig.

Box office.

Director Trenchard-Smith states during the Blu-ray commentary that "BMX Bandits" grossed more than $1 million in its first 6 weeks and was the 5th highest-grossing film in England for the year of its release. Kidman's performance led to her being cast in the TV series "Five Mile Creek" where she was directed by Trenchard-Smith in some episodes.

Critical reception.

The film was released in the UK. "The Guardian" wrote: "there's a girl called Nicole Kidman who's rather good".

Home media.

"BMX Bandits" was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in August 2010. The DVD is compatible with all region codes and includes special features such as the trailer and audio commentary with Brian Trenchard-Smith, Eric Trenchard-Smith & Chalet Trenchard-Smith. A bonus disc includes a photo gallery, press clippings, Nicole Kidman discussing the film on "Young Talent Time", and a featurette titled "BMX Buddies" with Brian Trenchard-Smith, Tom Broadbridge, Patrick Edgeworth, Russell Hagg and James Lugton.  In 2013 region free DVD and Blu-ray was released as an updated version which includes all footage and bonus material from previous versions on one disc.  A regular edition was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in January 2012 without the bonus disc.

References in popular culture.

American rock band Wheatus has a song titled "BMX Bandits" on their album "Too Soon Monsoon". The song has been dedicated to Nicole Kidman, and includes the lyrics "Hey Nicole" in the chorus. In the song's animated music video, there is an animated caricature of Kidman.  The show "That Mitchell and Webb Look" parodied the film in the recurrent adventures titled "Angel Summoner and BMX Bandit".  The Scottish Indie-rock band BMX Bandits are named after the film.

BMX Bandits (released as Short Wave in the United States) is a 1983 Australian crime comedy action film directed by Brian Trenchard-Smith and starring Nicole Kidman.

Le Gang des BMX ("BMX Bandits", ou "Short Wave" aux États-Unis) est un film australien réalisé par Brian Trenchard-Smith, sorti en 1983. Il est principalement connu pour la présence de Nicole Kidman dans l'un de ses premiers rôle.


Early life.

Born the illegitimate son of Lieutenant Colonel the Hon. Edmund Nugent (who was the only son of Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent) and a Ms. Fennings. His father had another illegitimate son, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Charles Edmund Nugent. His father's half sister, Mary Elizabeth Nugent, married George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 1st Marquess of Buckingham. Through his Mary, he inherited the title of Earl Nugent. Lord Buckingham’s aunt, Hester Grenville, had married William Pitt, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.  Nugent was educated at Charterhouse School and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.

Military career.

He was commissioned as an ensign in the 39th Regiment of Foot on 5 July 1773 and was posted to Gibraltar. He transferred the 7th Regiment of Foot at New York with promotion to lieutenant in September 1777 and saw action at the Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery in October 1777 and then took part in the Philadelphia campaign during the American Revolutionary War. He continued to serve in North America and became a captain in the 57th Regiment of Foot on 28 April 1778 and a major in the same regiment on 3 May 1782.

Flanders and Ireland.

Promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1783, Nugent was appointed commanding officer of the 97th Regiment of Foot and returned to England, but in the post-war cost reductions the regiment was disbanded and he instead became commanding officer of the 13th Regiment of Foot in 1787. He became an aide-de-camp to his brother-in-law, the Marquess of Buckingham, who was serving as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in November 1787. On Buckingham's departure from Ireland, Nugent became commanding officer of the 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards in 1789. Nugent became Member of Parliament for Buckingham in 1790. He exchanged into the Coldstream Guards as a company commander in October 1790 and served at the Siege of Valenciennes in May 1793, the Battle of Lincelles in August 1793 and the Siege of Dunkirk also in August 1793 under the Duke of York during the Flanders Campaign.  The War Office recalled Nugent to supervise the raising of the Buckinghamshire Volunteers in March 1794. He commanded the regiment under Sir Ralph Abercromby in the actions of St. Andria and Thuyl on the river Waal and participated in the disastrous retreat from the Rhine. Promoted to major general on 1 May 1796, he became Captain of St Mawes Castle on 5 November 1796 and served in that role until his death. He went on to be commander of the northern district of Ireland in 1798, in which post he played an important part in placating the people of Belfast during the Irish Rebellion that year, and became Adjutant-General in Ireland in August 1799. He also represented Charleville in the last Irish House of Commons before the Acts of Union 1800.

Later career.

Nugent became Governor of Jamaica in April 1801 with promotion to local lieutenant general on 29 May 1802. While serving there, he strengthened the fort that the Spanish slave agent in Jamaica, James Castillo, had built in 1709 in Harbour View. Named Fort Nugent, the fort guarded the eastern entrance of the city of Kingston Harbour, although all that remains there now is a Martello tower that was added after Nugent's departure. Promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 25 September 1803, Nugent returned to England in February 1806 and became commander of the Western District in England in August 1806. He was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Aylesbury on 3 November 1806 and created a baronet of Waddesdon in the county of Buckinghamshire on 11 November 1806. He bought Westhorpe House in Buckinghamshire in October 1808 and became commander of the Kent District in England in July 1809.  Nugent stood down from his seat in Parliament to become Commander-in-Chief, India in January 1811 and, having been appointed a Knight of the Order of the Bath on 1 February 1813 and promoted to full general on 4 June 1813, he was replaced as Commander-in-Chief by Lord Moira in October 1813. Nugent was relegated to the role of Commander of the Bengal Army but instead chose to return to England in October 1814. On return he unleashed a "skin-full of venom" against Lord Moira who in turn complained to the Prince Regent about Nugent's hostile behaviour. He was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815 and, having been elected Member of Parliament for Buckingham again in July 1818, he was awarded an honorary DCL by the University of Oxford in 1819. He finally retired from Parliament in 1832.  Nugent also served as honorary colonel of the 85th (Bucks Volunteers) Regiment of Foot, then as honorary colonel of the 62nd Regiment of Foot and later as honorary colonel of the 6th Regiment of Foot. Promoted to field marshal on 9 November 1846.

Personal life.

On 16 November 1797, Nugent was married to Maria Skinner (1771–1834) in Belfast. Maria was a daughter of Cortlandt Skinner, the Attorney-General of New Jersey and a descendant of the Schuyler and Van Cortlandt families of British North America, Together, they had three sons and two daughters, including:  George and Maria Nugent lived at Stowe and enjoyed a close friendship with his aunt and uncle, Lord and Lady Buckingham.  Lady Nugent, who died in 1834, wrote a journal of her experiences in Jamaica first published in 1907. Sir George died at Westhorpe House on 11 March 1849 and was buried at St John the Baptist Church in Little Marlow.

Descendants.

Through his eldest son, he was a grandfather of Sir Edmund Charles Nugent, 3rd Baronet and through his daughter Louisa, he was a grandfather of Thomas Fremantle, 2nd Baron Cottesloe, Admiral Hon. Edmund Fremantle, and Hon. Augusta Mary Fremantle (wife of William Brodrick, 8th Viscount Midleton).

Field Marshal Sir George Nugent, 1st Baronet, GCB (10 June 1757 – 11 March 1849) was a British Army officer. After serving as a junior officer in the American Revolutionary War, he fought with the Coldstream Guards under the Duke of York during the Flanders Campaign. He then commanded the Buckinghamshire Volunteers in the actions of St. Andria and Thuyl on the river Waal and participated in the disastrous retreat from the Rhine. He went on to be commander of the northern district of Ireland, in which post he played an important part in placating the people of Belfast during the Irish Rebellion, and then became Adjutant-General in Ireland. He went on to be Governor of Jamaica, commander of the Western District in England, commander of the Kent District in England and finally Commander-in-Chief, India.

Le maréchal Sir George Nugent, baronnet, GCB ( - ) est un officier de l'armée britannique. Après avoir servi en tant qu'officier subalterne pendant la Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis, il combat avec les Coldstream Guards sous le duc d'York pendant la campagne de Flandre. Il commande ensuite les Volontaires du Buckinghamshire dans les actions de St. Andria et Thuyl sur la rivière Waal et participe à la retraite désastreuse du Rhin. Il est ensuite commandant du district nord de l'Irlande, puis est devenu Adjudant-général en Irlande. Il est ensuite gouverneur de la Jamaïque, commandant du district occidental en Angleterre, commandant du district de Kent en Angleterre et enfin commandant en chef de l'Inde.