History.

Town founder William T. Newby joined the Great Migration of 1843, later claiming land in 1844 on the present site of McMinnville in what was known as the Oregon Country. He built a grist mill in 1853 at what would become the west end of Third Street. On May 5, 1856 Newby platted a town and named it after his hometown of McMinnville, Tennessee. Newby would later make a substantial donation of land for the founding of an institution of higher learning in the town, originally called McMinnville College but known today as Linfield University.  McMinnville was incorporated as a town in 1876 and became a city in 1882. County residents voted to move the county seat of Yamhill County from Lafayette to McMinnville in 1886.

Geography.

McMinnville is from Lincoln City on the Pacific Ocean, from Portland, and from Salem, the state capital.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of, all of it land.

Economy.

In 2019 the Oregon International Air Show switched to the McMinnville Municipal Airport. The airshow promotes Aviation while honoring Military and Veterans. In addition to the economic surge provided by the Air Show, the Oregon International Air Show involves the community and provides grants for McMinnville. Since 1988 more than $3 million has donated back throughout McMinnville (Yamhill County), Hillsboro (Washington County), and throughout Oregon. Express Employment Professionals, Stoller Family Estates, and Xenium are the lead sponsors for the upcoming 2020 Air Show.  In the early 60's, Kelton Peery, Chuck Colvin and Willard Cushing felt it was time for the city to have a private golf course and began to search for property. They soon persuaded Captain Francis Michelbook this was a proper use for his land, a dairy farm that was later used for raising turkeys. Captain Michelbook did have some conditions to proceed, one that it would perpetually bear the family name "Michelbook" and with the swipe of a pen was the beginning of Michelbook Country Club. Michelbook Country Club was developed on the land of Captain Francis Michelbook. Land development in the area of the country club has been a factor in McMinnville's growth".  Since 1968, McMinnville has been home to Cascade Steel, a Schnitzer Steel Industries company. The Cascade Steel Rolling Mills is a manufacturing facility turning recycled metal into high-quality finished steel products. Cascade Steel Rolling Mills utilizes electric arc furnace (EAF) mini-mill production for a wide range of hot rolled products including rebar, coiled reinforcing bar, wire rod, and merchant bar.  In 2016, Organic Valley purchased Farmers Cooperative Creamery in McMinnville, Oregon. It serves 72 co-op members in Oregon and Washington. Organic Valley is the nation's largest farmer-owned organic cooperative and one of the world's largest organic consumer brands.  Since 1993 McMinnville has been home of Golden Valley Brewery and Pub. Golden Valley Brewery and Pub serves Angus beef raised on their family ranch. Heater Allen Brewing, located outside of McMinnville's historic Granary District, crafts one of the world's top rated Pilsners. McMinnville is home to 6 craft breweries, including 2 gluten-free breweries.  Since the 1990s, the majority of the vineyards of the Willamette Valley American Viticultural Area (AVA) are in the area surrounding McMinnville, giving this city a claim to the title of the capital of Oregon's wine industry. In January 2005, a McMinnville AVA was established after an application from Youngberg Hill Vineyards. The AVA includes 14 wineries and within the Willamette Valley AVA. The city is at the northeastern border of its AVA namesake.  Real estate continues to be an economic factor in the growth of McMinnville and Yamhill county. The median per square foot cost for real estate is now over $200.

Climate.

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, McMinnville has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. The normal monthly mean temperature ranges from in December to in August. Annual precipitation averages, with normal monthly precipitation peaking in November. The lowest temperature recorded is on January 31, 1950, while the highest is, most recently on July 9–10, 1926.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 32,187 people, 11,674 households, and 7,779 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 12,389 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 82.2% White, 0.7% African American, 1.2% Native American, 1.5% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 10.7% from other races, and 3.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20.6% of the population.  There were 11,674 households of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.2% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.4% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.4% were non-families. 26.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.14.  The median age in the city was 34 years. 25.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 12.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.7% were from 25 to 44; 22.2% were from 45 to 64; and 14.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.2% male and 51.8% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 26,499 people living in the city, among 9,367 households and 6,463 families. The population density was 2,675.8 people per square mile (1,033.5/km2). There were 9,834 housing units at an average density of 993.0 per square mile (383.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 86.39% White, 1.39% Native American, 1.25% Asian, 0.68% Black or African American, and 0.18% Pacific Islander. 14.64% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 7.26% identify themselves as from other races, and 2.86% from two or more races.  There were 9,367 households out of which 35.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.5% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.0% were non-families. 23.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.13.  In the city, the population was spread out with 26.3% under the age of 18, 14.7% from 18 to 24, 26.9% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $38,953, and the median income for a family was $44,013. Males had a median income of $33,517 versus $24,405 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,085. 12.9% of the population and 8.2% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 14.0% of those under the age of 18 and 7.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Arts and culture.

Annual cultural events.

Turkey Rama is a three-day festival held in downtown McMinnville celebrating the ongoing tradition of the turkey barbecue. The barbecue was started in 1938 by turkey farmers in Yamhill County, when the county's main source of wealth was the turkey-farming industry. Today, commercial exhibitions have replaced the "turkey exhibitions", and the turkey-judging competitions and turkey races have been eliminated in favor of more "turkey-friendly" rides, booths, and outdoor entertainment.  The International Pinot Noir Celebration has been held every July since 1987 on the Linfield University campus. The IPNC is a three-day event in which winemakers, northwest chefs, media, epicures and wine lovers gather at Linfield University.  In 2018, the McMinnville Noon Rotary Club partnered with the Willamette Valley Cancer Foundation for an annual event promoting McMinnville community projects culminating the MAC Food Truck Festival. The festival is a celebration of local businesses and the best food trucks of Oregon while showcasing the wide array of beer and wine scene of the Willamette Valley. Hagan Hamilton, Lum's Buick GMC Cadillac, Citizens Bank, Hyder Dental, Oregon Oncology, Willamette Valley Medical Center, Online NW, Recology, Morris Carpet Cleaning, and Physicians Medical Center are sponsors.  Established in 1993, the Sip! McMinnville Wine & Food Classic is a three-day event held at the Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum benefiting the St. James School of McMinnville. It features local winemakers and vintners alongside chefs from the Pacific Northwest, and attendees can taste and purchase wine and food.

Museums and other points of interest.

The Evergreen Aviation and Space Museum in McMinnville is best known as the home of the "Spruce Goose", the world's largest propeller-driven seaplane, built by the famed aviator Howard Hughes. The museum, home to another 80 historic aircraft and exhibits, is a pair of large symmetrical buildings with glass facades, a local landmark which can be seen for miles. Additional major exhibits include a SR-71 "Blackbird", a Titan II SLV Missile (with its launch control center), and a Grumman F6F3 "Hellcat." There is also an "IMAX class" digital 3D theater, the Wings & Waves indoor waterpark (containing wave pool, 4 slides emerging from 747 on building's roof, and educational displays), and the newly built Boy Scout Jamboree park. The space museum also used to house classrooms for the Engineering and Aerospace Academy of McMinnville High School, before the classes were moved back onto the main MHS campus.  The Yamhill Valley Heritage Center Museum - Located just outside of downtown McMinnville at the intersection of HWY 18 and Durham Lane. One of 2 museums operated by the Yamhill County Historical Society striving to protect, preserve and share the heritage of Yamhill County www.YamhillCountyHistory.org  Featuring a working Blacksmith Shop, Sawmill, Steam Traction Engine, Hutchcroft School House, Logging and Dairy Displays and Educational Programs. The Museum hosts many annual events including Farm Fest in early April and Harvest Fest in mid August.

McMinnville UFO photographs.

McMinnville is known among UFO researchers for photographs published on the front page of the June 9, 1950, edition of the city's newspaper, the "News-Register" (then known as the "Telephone-Register"), reportedly of an unidentified flying object seen almost a month earlier, May 11. "The Oregonian" published the photographs the next day, and within a month they were published in "LIFE" magazine.  Although these images have come to be known as the "McMinnville UFO photographs", the Trent farm was just outside Sheridan, Oregon, nine miles (15 km) southwest of McMinnville. The heated debate which followed between UFO researchers and skeptics made the town's name famous and has spurred an annual "UFO Festival" in McMinnville, the second largest such gathering in the United States to that of Roswell, New Mexico.

Parks and recreation.

McMinnville Community Center is headquarters for the McMinnville Parks and Recreation Department, which administers 18 parks throughout the city. The largest city park is the 100-acre sports field complex and community park named after a longtime city manager Joe Dancer. Joe Dancer Park has a dozen baseball and softball fields. The park also features soccer fields, playground equipment, and the Drew Ottley Memorial Skate Park.  Additionally since 1956 the McMinnville Parks and Recreation Department has overseen the Aquatic Center which includes two indoor swimming pools, a hot tub and the Fitness Center. The Aquatic Center is home of the McMinnville High School Grizzly Swim Team and the McMinnville Swim Club. McMinnville Parks and Recreation Department partners with Chemeketa Community College as students may earn college credits through the use of the Aquatic Center.  On the outskirts of McMinnville is the Bayou Golf Course. Bayou Golf Course is a 9 Hole Regulation Par 3 Course with a Driving Range along with Putting & Chipping Practice Area. Bayou Golf Course offers a Junior Golfer program include age 5+ on the Par 3, age 8+ on the Regulation Course. The Bayou Golf course was established in 1964 by Dr. White and Family and is situated along the South Yamhill River. Winter rainfall makes the course ideal for play from Spring until late fall along tree lined fairways, bunkers, and water features.  Michelbook is a private 18-hole par 72 championship golf course. The golf course has a driving range, practice facility, golf shop and a Class A PGA Professional.  City Park is within walking distance from the downtown business district. It opened 1910, when the city sold $3,000 in park bonds to finance construction of a bandstand and a small zoo featuring bears, deer and other local animals. Near the site of Lower City Park, along Cozine Creek, there was a large flour mill, called the Star Mill that closed in 1921 and was damaged by fire in 1927. The City of McMinnville sold $8,500 in bonds to finance the purchase of the property. The tract ran from Star Mill Way to Cozine Creek and West Second Street, to the Mill pond site. The pond site is now occupied by tennis courts. Wortman Park is a large forested park with a small stream running through it. A disc golf course was installed 1991 and is home to the annual Squirrel Open, an Oregon Disc Sports Association's Oregon Series tournament.

Education.

McMinnville is served by the McMinnville School District. McMinnville High School (MHS) is a comprehensive high school with an enrollment of approximately 2,000 students. At one point McMinnville was home to two campus locations, McMinnville High School and Media Arts & Communications Academy (MACA). MACA campus location closed in 2011. Along with MHS, the school district offers two middle schools and five elementary schools in the city. MSD is also charged with the oversight, administration, and maintenance of Wascher Elementary in neighboring town of Lafayette, Oregon.  The McMinnville school district is nearing a student population of nearly 7,000 children. It serves an area of 140 square miles and over 40,000 residents. The McMinnville School District's superintendent is Maryalice Russel. The state of Oregon abolished the office of state Superintendent in 2011 thereby ending a 138-year oversight of schools in the state.  In 1858, Linfield University was founded as Baptist College of McMinnville. Later renamed McMinnville College and then Linfield College, in 2020 the Board of Trustees renamed the school Linfield University. Linfield is an independent, comprehensive institution of higher education for undergraduate and graduate studies in 56 unique majors. Linfield University is located on the edge of town on nearly 200 acres with over 60 facilities. The University has nearly 2,000 students from 24 states. The Linfield University athletic program is part of the Northwest Conference, NCAA Division III rostering varsity sports, along with intercollegiate sports and activities.  The McMinnville campus of Chemeketa Community College is an institution of higher education accredited by The Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities located in McMinnville. Chemeketa Community College has served McMinnville since 1974 and expanded to a new campus in 2011. The main campus of Chemeketa Community College is in Salem, Oregon. Chemeketa Community College offers the following degrees; Associate of Arts Oregon Transfer Degree, Associate of Applied Science, Associate of Science, Associate of Science/Oregon Transfer Business, Associate of Science/Oregon Transfer Computer Science, Associate of General Studies, along with Oregon Transfer Module and Dual Enrollment programs. The Chemeketa Community College Yamhill Valley Campus offers a number of career & technical education programs including Basic Nurse Assistant, Medical Assistant, Hemodialysis, Hospitality & Tourism Management, and Speech Language Pathology.  Private schools in McMinnville include the McMinnville Montessori School, McMinnville Christian Academy and St. James Catholic Elementary School.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

McMinnville is on Oregon Route 99W approximately south of downtown Portland and approximately north of Corvallis. Oregon Route 18 forms a bypass around the city along its southern border and connects McMinnville with the Oregon Coast just north of Lincoln City approximately west. Oregon Highway 18 is also known as Three Mile Lane from its McMinnville city center interchange east to the McMinnville Municipal Airport. The southern end of Oregon Route 47 is just northeast of city limits and connects McMinnville with Washington County.  Major thoroughfares in McMinnville are Highway 99W and Adams and Baker Streets which form a north–south couplet through the center of the town; Lafayette Avenue (which was at one time the route of U.S. Highway 99W), East Third Street (the main street through the downtown core), and West Second Street (the main street connecting downtown with the western residential areas). Baker Creek Road, Evans Street, Riverside Drive, South Davis Street, Fellows Street, Cypress Street and Booth Bend Road are also important collector streets connecting industrial or residential areas with the downtown core or the primary arterial streets.  McMinnville Municipal Airport is owned and operated by the City of McMinnville. McMinnville Airport is home to Evergreen International Aviation and a fixed-base operator. While it primarily is used by private pilots and the occasional private jet, it can handle larger aircraft. For example, Evergreen Airlines flew in an empty 747-100 cargo aircraft into the airport so it could be used as part of the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum's water park feature.  The Portland & Western Railroad serves McMinnville on its Westside Branch. Major railroad shippers include Cascade Steel Rolling Mills, Land O'Lakes Purina LLC, RB Rubber Products and McMinnville Gas. P&W maintains a depot in downtown McMinnville, itself a remnant from the Red Electric interurban passenger service which served McMinnville from 1914–1929. McMinnville is a hub for P&W, with trains operating between McMinnville and Newberg, Willamina, Dallas and Albany.  Historically, McMinnville had a landing for riverboats traveling up the Yamhill River. The Yamhill Lock near Lafayette helped facilitate river navigation up to McMinnville. However, the use of the Yamhill River for commercial purposes was short-lived; the city's only recreational boat dock has been unusable for years. River levels are unpredictable and difficult for boaters (water levels can be very high in winter and very low in summer).  Public Transit is provided by the Yamhill County Transit Area. Three city routes provide Monday–Friday service starting at 6:30 AM and continuing through 7:50 PM. A Saturday "Loop" runs from 10:00 AM through 6:00 PM. YCTA also provides intercity service to all communities in Yamhill County on four different routes; hourly weekday and infrequent Saturday service to Newberg and Tigard, and weekday commuter trips to Hillsboro and Salem.  Intercity bus service is also provided by Caravan Airport Transportation and Valley Retriever between Portland and Newport, each with one daily trip in each direction stopping in McMinnville. Greyhound Bus formerly served McMinnville until 2004 with a stop on its Portland–San Francisco route, ending nearly 80 years of service on the route dating back to the Southern Pacific Railroad's rail and bus passenger service.

Water and electricity.

Since 1888, the city has been served by McMinnville Water and Light, a municipal utility.

Health care.

Willamette Valley Medical Center, along the outskirts of McMinnville, is an 88-bed acute-care, full-service facility, accredited by The Joint Commission.

McMinnville is the county seat of and largest city in Yamhill County, Oregon, United States. According to "Oregon Geographic Names", it was named by its founder, William T. Newby (1820–1884), an early immigrant on the Oregon Trail, for his hometown of McMinnville, Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 32,187.

McMinnville est une ville américaine, siège du comté de Yamhill dans l'Oregon. Le nom de la ville provient de son fondateur, William T. Newby, qui a baptisé la ville du nom de sa ville d'origine McMinnville dans le Tennessee. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


History.

Kostanay was founded by Russian settlers in 1879 and named Nikolaevsk, in honor of Tsar Nicholas II. In 1888, the town had more than 3,000 inhabitants involved in the building of a mill and a brewery, which are still operational. In 1893, Kostanay was granted city status. The Red Army took control in 1918 and changed the city's name to Kostanay. The Kostanay Region was established in 1936 with its administrative center in Kostanay. In 2009, the city population was

Geographic location.

The city is located in the steppe zone in the north of the Turgay plateau, in the south-eastern part of the West Siberian Plain, on the Tobol River, 571 km north-west of Nur-Sultan city (704 km along the highway). The nearest million-plus city is Russian Chelyabinsk, located 260 km (along the highway over 300 km) to the north-west of Kostanay.

Public institutions.

In Kostanay, there are five institutions of higher education. There are also 22 high schools which educate over 12,200 students. The state network of culture lists 381 libraries, 201 club establishments, 8 museums, and 2 theatres. Athletic facilities include 2 sports arenas, 26 stadiums, 10 sports complexes and 567 sports halls.

Climate.

Kostanay has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: "Dfb"), with hot, dry summers and cold snowy winters. Average July temperature: +20.9 ° C; January: −14.5 ° C; sharp changes in temperature during the day are characteristic; the average wind speed is 3.2 m / s, mainly in the south in winter and in the north in summer. Precipitation on average per year: 300-350 mm, maximum precipitation occurs in the summer. The average annual humidity is 71%. The growing season is about 170 days.

Culture.

Kostanay has a rich historical-cultural heritage. The regional center includes a Sunni mosque, the Regional Administration Building, Kostanay State University, the Kostanay Regional Memorial Museum of Altynsarin, the Kazakh Drama Theatre, Central Square and a railway station. Historical monuments include the Ybyrai Altynsarin monument, the Akhmet Baitursynov monument, a memorial dedicated to victims of the Second World War, the "Execution wall" (where Alexander Kolchak's army officers were executed by Red Army soldiers), and the Alexander Pushkin monument.  The city has 173 monuments of historical and cultural significance. Of these, 3 are of republican significance, 48 local, 25 obelisks and busts and 97 memorial plaques.[http://kostanay.kostanay.gov.kz/o-gorode/pasport-goroda/ <nowiki>[3]</nowiki>]

Transportation.

Kostanay is connected by road with the following cities in Russia: Chelyabinsk, Magnitogorsk, Troitsk, Yekaterinburg, Kurgan and Tyumen. It is also connected to Nur-Sultan and Almaty in Kazakhstan. Fifty-three railway stations carry passengers and cargo from the city. Oil is delivered by rail from Russia as well as oil refineries in Kazakhstan.  Kostanay International Airport handles common and charter flights to many cities in Kazakhstan, former Soviet republics, Germany (Frankfurt and Hanover), the United Arab Emirates, Turkey, and other countries. The airport also functions as a local port of entry and customs checkpoint.

Sport.

Kostanay is home to the FC Tobol football club, based in the Kostanay Central Stadium, which participates in the Kazakhstan Super League. Kostanay also has a basketball team, BK Tobol Kostanay, which participates in the Kazakhstan Basketball Cup. The city has an ice rink for winter sports, and in 2016, a team participated in the national bandy championship in Khromtau for junior players born in 1999–2000.

Twin towns.

Kostanay is twinned with:

Kostanay (, قوستاناي; ) is a city located on the Tobol River in northern Kazakhstan. It was known as Nikolayevsk () until 1895 and then as Kustanay () until 1997. Kostanay is the administrative center of the Kostanay Region.

Kostanaï (en ) ou Qostanai (en ), jusqu'en 1997 Koustanaï (en ), est une ville du Kazakhstan et la capitale administrative de l'oblys de Kostanaï. Sa population s'élève à habitants en 2009. La ville possède un centre culturel français.


Early life and education.

Hashim Thaçi was born in the village of Broćna, Srbica (Albanian Skenderaj), SR Serbia (now Buroja, Skenderaj, Kosovo). Srbica is located in the Drenica valley, a historical region resistant of Serbian rule. Drenica would become the birthplace of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) in the early 1990s.  Thaçi studied philosophy and history at the University of Pristina. By 1993, he was living in Switzerland, where he joined the Albanian political émigré group. He registered for postgraduate studies at the University of Zürich in the departments of history and international relations and later got his masters.

Role in KLA.

In 1993, Thaçi became a member of the inner circle of the KLA. The charisma of leaders such as Thaçi helped the KLA gain support from Kosovo Albanians. Thaçi ("nom de guerre" "Gjarpëri" - "The Snake") was responsible for securing financial means and armaments, and training recruits in Albania to be dispatched to Kosovo. On 11 July 1997, Thaçi was tried in absentia and convicted by the District Court in Pristina for terrorism associated with his activities in the KLA, sentenced to 10 years in prison.  In March 1999, Thaçi participated in the Rambouillet negotiations as the leader of the Kosovar Albanian team. Thaçi was perceived by western diplomats during the negotiations as the "voice of reason" within the KLA: his attendance at the negotiations demonstrated a willingness to accept autonomy for Kosovo within Serbia at a time when other rebel leaders rejected any solution short of full national independence.  Thaçi emerged from the final diplomatic settlement as the leader of the strongest faction within a KLA rife with factionalism. He moved quickly to consolidate power, unilaterally naming himself prime minister within a provisional government and allegedly ordering the assassination of the leaders of rival armed factions.

Controversies.

Thaçi is alleged to have extensive criminal links. During the period of time when he was head of the Kosovo Liberation Army, "The Washington Times" reported that the KLA was financing its activities by trafficking the illegal drugs of heroin and cocaine into western Europe. The KLA received large funds from the Albanian diaspora in Europe and the United States. It is estimated that those funds amounted from $75 million to $100 million. There is a possibility that among donators to the KLA were people involved in illegal activities such as drug trafficking, however insufficient evidence exists that the KLA itself was involved in such activities.  The BBC reported in 2000 that Thaçi is allegedly central to the criminal activities of the Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC), who reportedly extorted money from businessmen under the guise of "taxes" for his self-appointed government. While the KLA was officially disbanded at the end of armed conflict in Kosovo in 1999, the new Kosovo Protection Corps was composed primarily of former KLA fighters and the Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK). The party was formed largely from the political leadership of the KLA. A near monopoly on the means of force, based on the absorption of the KLA into the KPC, allowed the Democratic Party of Kosovo to seize control of the machinery of government at the municipal level. The PDK has regularly used violence and intimidation of political rivals to maintain local political control and protect criminal enterprises that depend upon cooperation from friendly local authorities.  In 2001, the Democratic Party of Kosovo suffered electoral defeat in the first free elections in the province in 2001. The BBC said at the time, "The tumbling reputation of the former KLA was to have a disastrous effect on the PDK because of the perceived overlap between its political leadership and post-KLA organised crime."  A recent analysis of organised crime in Kosovo prepared by the German intelligence service BND and a confidential report contracted by the German military, the Bundeswehr, accuse Thaçi, Ramush Haradinaj, and Xhavit Haliti, the majority leader of the Kosovo parliament, of far-reaching involvement in organised crime. The BND writes: "The key players (including Haliti, Haradinaj, and Thaçi) are intimately involved in inter-linkages between politics, business, and organised crime structures in Kosovo." The report accuses Thaçi of leading a "criminal network operating throughout Kosovo" by the end of the 1990s. The BND report accuses Thaçi of contacts with the Czech and Albanian mafias. It says that he, together with Haliti, ordered killings by a professional hit man, 'Afrimi', who is responsible for at least 11 contract murders.  According to the 8 March 2016 issue of the French newspaper "Le Figaro", Thaçi is likely to be charged by the ICTY for a wide range of atrocities, including organs trafficking. The paper also claims that former UNMIK administrator for Kosovo, Bernard Kouchner, might be summoned to testify. Kouchner himself has been regularly accused of "turning a blind eye" on the atrocities committed by the KLA members.

Council of Europe accusations.

A report to the Council of Europe, written by Dick Marty, issued on 15 December 2010 states that Hacim Thaçi was the leader of the "Drenica Group" in charge of trafficking organs taken from Serbian prisoners. As reported by several international, Serbian, Kosovan and Albanian news agencies, in an interview for Albanian television on 24 December 2010, Thaçi said he would publish information about Marty and Marty's collaborators' names.  BBC news reported having seen a draft of the Council of Europe document, and asserts that it names "Hashim Thaci, Kosovo's current Prime Minister and wartime political leader of the KLA, 27 times in as many pages". They said the report charges the former KLA commanders of serious human rights abuses, including organ and drug trafficking. In 2011, Marty retreated from earlier reports and said that his report never implicated Thaçi directly.

Prime Minister of Kosovo.

Victory in 2007 election and declaration of Kosovar independence.

Kosovo elections were held on 17 November 2007. After early results based on 90 percent of the votes, Hashim Thaçi, who was on course to gain 34 percent, claimed victory for the PDK. He stated his intention to declare independence without delay on 10 December, the date set by the United Nations for the end of negotiations with Serbia. At 45 percent, the turnout at the election was particularly low, as most Serbs refused to vote.  On 19 November 2007, several EU foreign ministers warned Thaçi and his allies against proceeding with their declaration of independence without consultations. Luxembourg's Jean Asselborn and Sweden's Carl Bildt urged the PDK not to make any hasty moves, while the EU foreign policy chief Javier Solana stressed the importance of proper preparations prior to formal independence. After EU talks on Kosovo in London on 19 November 2007, the UK's Europe minister, Jim Murphy, said independence without foreign support could isolate the breakaway province. Hashim Thaçi was designated as the next leader of Kosovo's government on 11 December 2007 by the Kosovar President Fatmir Sejdiu and told to form a government "as soon as possible". His Democratic Party of Kosovo (PDK) began coalition talks with the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK) as well as the Alliance for New Kosovo (AKR). Those parties together control 75 seats of 120 in the assembly.  On 9 January 2008, Thaçi was elected as Prime Minister by parliament, with 85 votes in favor and 22 against. On this occasion, he stated his intention to achieve independence for Kosovo in the first half of 2008.  On 16 February 2008, Thaçi announced that the next day, 17 February, would be key for "implementing the will of the citizens of Kosovo", strongly implying the province would declare independence from Serbia. On 17 February 2008, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. Thaçi became Prime Minister of the newly independent state.  On 6 June 2008, a gunman broke into Thaçi's home in Pristina, while the latter was not present.

President of Kosovo.

2016 presidential election.

Thaçi was elected the President of Kosovo in February 2016, and took office on 7 April 2016. In August 2019, Thaçi asserted that his nation would hold parliamentary elections on October 6. The President cited that the nation is in need of a "functional and accountable government," which is capable enough to face challenges of the state and society.

Foreign policy.

In January 2018, Thaçi said that Kosovo would have supported U.S. President Trump's decision to relocate the U.S. embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which would have made it the only Muslim-majority nation to do so. But Thaçi told the Albanian newspaper "Express" that if his country was handed full membership of the global body, it would vote "all the time" with the U.S., even on the resolution motioned last month to protest Trump's decision. Thaçi met with Donald Trump on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2017 in New York, and invited Trump to visit Pristina, the capital of Kosovo. According to local media, he said their meeting was "exceptionally friendly, warm."  “The Head of State thanked President Trump for his personal support for Kosovo,” his office said in a statement, calling the U.S. a "strategic partner" and saying the support of Washington was "crucial to the peace, stability and overall development of Kosovo and the region." Thaçi told Pristina-based broadcaster "RTV21", "President Trump, like all other U.S. presidents, has a clear vision for Kosovo. It is unique support to our country. He said that Kosovo is a wonderful country and that we are a wonderful people."  On 26 November 2019, an earthquake struck Albania. President Thaçi was part of a presidential delegation that visited the earthquake epicentre and expressed his condolences on behalf of Kosovo.

Countries visited.

List of state visits made by Hashim Thaçi as president.  Also on 20 June, Thaçi was awarded the Honorary Citizen of the city of Vlorë, for his "historic role in making Kosovo an independent state".

Honors and awards.

In January 2015 Hashim Thaçi was awarded the Doctor Honoris Causa from the University of Tirana, for his contribution in peace-building in Western Balkans, promoting the process of European integrations and achieving the historic Brussels Agreement with Serbia. On 4 October 2016 the President of Kosovo was awarded Honorary Citizenship of Shkodër, in a ceremony led by the Mayor of this northern Albanian city.

Hashim Thaçi (; born 24 April 1968) is a Kosovar politician who has been the President of Kosovo since April 2016. He was the first Prime Minister of Kosovo and the Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister in the new cabinet led by Isa Mustafa, which assumed office on December 12, 2014.

Hashim Thaçi (né le à Srbica (désormais Skenderaj), au Kosovo) est un homme d'État kosovar. Il est président de la République depuis le.


Company history.

The Novelis company was spun off from Canadian mining and aluminum manufacturer, Alcan Inc. and incorporated in 2005. The company was acquired by India's Hindalco Industries for $6 billion in 2007. The acquisition made Hindalco one of the world's top integrated aluminum players. This makes Novelis a member of the Aditya Birla Group.

Operations.

Novelis is the world’s largest producer of rolled aluminum sheet, with operations spanning 11 countries and nearly 11,000 employees. The company divides its operations into four regions: North America, Europe, Asia, and South America. The regional headquarters are Atlanta, Zurich, Seoul, and Sao Paulo. Novelis also has operations in UK, Germany, Italy, France, Canada, China, Malaysia and Vietnam. Demand for aluminum is increasing with the continued development of emerging nations, urbanization, and the increasing substitution of aluminum for other materials, making expansion a key consideration. The company invested $100 million in its first manufacturing facility in China, which opened in 2014. In response to global demand for aluminum sheet for automotive, electronics and beverage cans, the company has announced capital investments including a $400 million expansion in Asia, a $300 million expansion in Brazil and $200 million expansion in North America. In July 2014, it announced that Reynolds Consumer Products Inc., a subsidiary of the Rank Group of New Zealand, purchased the North American consumer products division of Novelis, for CAD $33.75mn.  Novelis recycles more than 70 billion used beverage cans each year.

Production.

Automotive & Transportation.

Aluminum structures and components for transportation products in automotive, automotive heat exchanger and mass transportation.  Auto sheet customers include:

Sustainability.

In 2012, Novelis released its second annual sustainability report. The report stated:  The Novelis report received an A rating from the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), the world's most widely used framework for sustainability reporting.

Acquisitions.

On 15 April 2020, Hindalco Industries subsidiary Novelis Inc. acquired Aleris Corporation for $2.8 billion. Through acquisition Novelis' entered into the high-end aerospace segment.

Novelis Inc. is an industrial aluminum company, headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, United States Novelis is a leading producer of rolled aluminum and the global leader in beverage can recycling. The company serves customers in sectors including beverage cans, automotive, consumer electronics, construction, foil and packaging.

Novelis est une entreprise d'aluminium créée par la scission d'Alcan en 2005. Elle a été rachetée par Hindalco en 2007.


Geography.

Cumberland Island forms part of Camden County, Georgia (30°51′N, 81°27′W). Cumberland Island constitutes the westernmost point of shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean in the United States. The island is long, with an area of 36,415 acres (147.37 km or 56.25 square miles), including of marsh, mudflats, and tidal creeks. There is no bridge to the island; it is reached by the Cumberland Ferry from St. Marys.

Ecology.

The island has three major ecosystem regions. Along the western edge of the island there are large areas of salt marshes. One will also see gnarled live oak trees covered with Spanish moss and the palmetto plants at the edge of Cumberland's dense maritime forest. Cumberland Island's most famous ecosystem is its beach, which stretches over. The island is home to many native interesting animals, as well as non-native species. There are white-tailed deer, squirrels, raccoons, nine-banded armadillos, wild boars, feral hogs, American alligators, as well as many marshland inhabitants. It is also famous for its feral horses roaming free on the island.

History.

Native American settlement.

The first inhabitants were indigenous peoples who settled there as early as 4,000 years ago. Later inhabitants participated in the Savannah archaeological culture and spoke the Timucua language. Its inhabitants were part of the Mocama, a Timucua group who spoke the Mocama dialect. In the 17th century the island and the adjacent coast were controlled by the Tacatacuru chiefdom. The main village, known as Tacatacuru, was located towards the southern end of the island; during the time of European colonization, the Spanish recorded the names of at least six more villages on the island, and eleven more were located on the mainland.

Colonial settlement.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cumberland Island was part of the Mocama missionary province of Spanish Florida. When the Spanish arrived in the 1550s, they named the island San Pedro. They built a garrison and mission, San Pedro de Mocama, in 1603. It was one of the main mission centers, situated at a major Mocama site. Another Spanish mission on Cumberland was Puturiba, which operated from 1595–1597. An additional mission, San Phelipe, was relocated from the North Newport River to the northern end of Cumberland from 1670–1684.  Historical records indicate that until 1681, there were approximately 300 natives and several Spanish missionary priests living on Cumberland Island. In 1683, |French] pirates attacked Cumberland Island, looting and burning many of the buildings. Many of the natives and the Spanish missionaries fled the island. An attack in 1684 by the Spanish pirate Thomas Jingle led to the final abandonment of the island. Survivors retreated to St. Augustine to the south. During the colonial years, many had died of exposure to European infectious diseases, to which they had no natural immunity. The Tacatacuru relocated closer to St. Augustine, and Cumberland Island was thereafter occupied by the Yamasee. By then most of the Mocama had converted to Roman Catholicism as taught to them by the Spanish priests before the island was abandoned.  English General James Oglethorpe arrived at the Georgia coast in 1733. The name of Cumberland Island was given the following year by a young Yamacraw named "Toonahowi" (the nephew of Chief Tomochichi who visited England with Oglethorpe.) He suggested the island be named for William Augustus, the 13-year-old Prince William, Duke of Cumberland, son of King George II.  Oglethorpe established a hunting lodge called Dungeness, named after a headland in Kent, England. A fort was erected at the southern point of the island called Fort William. At the northern end of the island, Oglethorpe built Fort St. Andrews. For a decade the small village of Berrimacke existed near the fort. The forts were built to defend English settlements to the north from the Spanish in Florida.  After the English defeated the Spanish in the Battle of Bloody Marsh in 1742, the need for the forts ended. They abandoned the forts and eventually the village disappeared. No trace remains today of Fort William, and most signs of Fort St. Andrews have been washed away.  In the 1760s, the island was divided into royal grants but saw little activity. When naturalist William Bartram visited the island in 1774, the island was mostly uninhabited.

The plantation era.

The Revolutionary War hero Nathanael Greene founded most of southern Cumberland Island as a result of a business deal used to finance the army. Greene died in 1786. His wife, Catharine Littlefield Greene, remarried Phineas Miller ten years later; and they built a huge, four-story tabby mansion on top of a Native American shell mound. She named it Dungeness, after Oglethorpe's hunting lodge.  The mansion featured thick walls at the base, four chimneys and 16 fireplaces, and was surrounded by of gardens. Dungeness was the site of many special social galas, where statesmen and military leaders enjoyed the Millers' hospitality. When the island was briefly occupied during the War of 1812, the British used Dungeness as their headquarters. They also freed the American slaves on the island. The Millers' Dungeness burned down in 1866.  The Millers were the first major planters of Sea Island cotton on Cumberland. They held a total of 210 slaves to work the plantation. Catharine and Phineas Miller helped Eli Whitney develop the cotton gin, debuted in 1793.  While Sea Island cotton was by far the largest and most valuable commercial crop, other documented agricultural products such as indigo, rice, and food crops were also grown. Rice sloughs are still visible on the island through satellite imagery. According to national oral history, live oak wood from the island was used to build the USS Constitution, "Old Ironsides," in the 1790s.  In 1818, an ill General "Lighthorse" Harry Lee, a Revolutionary War hero and old friend of Catharine Greene, was returning from the West Indies when he asked to be taken to Dungeness. After a month of illness, he died on March 25 and was buried on the island. His son, Confederate General Robert E. Lee, had a tombstone placed over the grave and visited his father's final resting place several times. In 1913, the body of Harry Lee was reinterred at Lexington, Virginia, to lie beside his famous son, but his gravestone was left on Cumberland Island.  By the time of the Civil War, Robert Stafford had become the major planter and landowner on Cumberland Island and one of the largest planters in Camden County. His grave is on the main road of the island.

The Carnegie Family Era.

In the 1880s Thomas M. Carnegie, brother of steel magnate Andrew Carnegie, and his wife Lucy bought land on Cumberland for a winter retreat. In 1884, they began building a mansion on the site of Dungeness, though Carnegie never lived to see its completion. Lucy and their nine children continued to live on the island, naming their mansion Dungeness after that of Greene. Dungeness was designed as a 59-room Scottish castle. They also built pools, a golf course, and 40 smaller buildings to house the 200 servants who worked at the mansion. The last time Dungeness was used was for the 1929 wedding of a Carnegie daughter. After the Crash and the Great Depression, the family left the island and kept the mansion vacant. It burned in a 1959 fire, believed to have been started by a poacher who had been shot in the leg by a caretaker weeks before. Today, the ruins of the mansion remain on the southern end of the island. The Carnegie family owned 90% of the island.  Lucy Carnegie had additional estates built on the island for her children. These include:

The north end.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, small farmers settled on the north end of the island. Other island residents at this time worked as innkeepers and pilots for St. Andrews Sound. One of these pilots, James Clubb, directed the "Wanderer" (the last ship to bring slaves from Africa to the United States) to nearby Jekyll Island in 1858. These north end families owned some slaves, and during the Civil War, most of these people moved to the mainland when Union forces occupied the island.  Former slaves and their descendants continued to live on the island after the Civil War. According to historian Mary Bullard, one community existed in the Brick Hill area of the island between 1862–1891. Many of these freedmen were farmers. In the 1880s, another community formed at what is now called "The Settlement". It was a residential area for black workers, as Georgia had passed laws requiring racial segregation of housing and public facilities. The First African Baptist Church, established in The Settlement in 1893, was rebuilt in the 1930s. It is one of the few remaining structures of this community.  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, innkeeping was the primary business on the north end. The most prosperous hotel was located in the High Point area and attracted guests who belonged to the rising middle class. Visitors arrived on steamboats and enjoyed activities such as fishing, hunting, and going to the beach. At the height of the innkeeping era in the 1890s, guests numbered around 750. Black residents of the north end staffed the hotel: they served as waiters, cooks, laundresses, and drivers of the horse-drawn trolleys that transported guests. Hotel Cumberland at High Point was sold in 1918 and became a private club. The Candler family of Atlanta, associated with Coca-Cola, owned part of the north end.  John F. Kennedy Jr. and Carolyn Bessette were married on Cumberland Island in 1996, in the First African Baptist Church with their reception taking place at the historic Greyfield Inn. While they filled the church's eight pews with friends and family, no media were permitted at the event

Present-day conservation.

In 1954 some of the members of the Carnegie family invited the National Park Service to the island to assess its suitability as a National Seashore. In 1955 the National Park Service named Cumberland Island as one of the most significant natural areas in the United States and plans got underway to secure it. Simultaneously, the State of Georgia was working on plans to secure the island as a state park. Plans to create a National Seashore were complicated when, in October 1968, Carnegie descendants sold three thousand acres of the island to the real estate developer Charles Fraser, who had developed part of Hilton Head Island, South Carolina. Fraser met with conservationist and then Sierra Club executive director, David Brower, on the island to discuss how to develop the area. This meeting and discussions between Fraser and Brower was documented in one of the three parts of the book "Encounters with the Archdruid" by John McPhee who traveled with Fraser and Brower as they toured Cumberland Island. Brower pushed for a 90/10 split, with 90% of the land to remain undeveloped. However, the thought of any additional development on the island beyond the structures already erected by the Carnegies and Sam Candler, who also owned part of the island, caused activists, politicians, members of the Carnegie and Candler families, and a number of organizations, including the Georgia Conservancy and the Sierra Club, to band together and push Fraser to sell to the National Park Foundation. They, along with others, also helped push a bill through the US Congress that established Cumberland Island as a national seashore. The bill was signed by President Richard Nixon on October 23, 1972. The Carnegie family sold the island to the federal government. With donations from the Mellon Foundation, Cumberland Island became a national park.

Current land ownership.

Cumberland Island is really two islands—the island proper and Little Cumberland Island—connected by a marsh. While sometimes confused to be a part of Cumberland Island, Little Cumberland is a separate island and is not a part of Cumberland Island. As are the private properties on Cumberland Island, for over 60 years Little Cumberland Island has been maintained with a nature and conservation mission. Historically, portions of Cumberland Island remain in private hands. Large areas were deeded to the National Parks Foundation by members or heirs of the Carnegie family in 1971. Other lands in private ownership were purchased with funds provided by the Mellon Foundation and Congress, and in 1972 Cumberland Island was designated a national seashore. A small number of property owners, principally property owners who preserved the island and protected it from massive commercial development, still own their homes and other fee simple private property on the southern, western and northern regions of the island. Some, however, have sold their property to the National Park Service (NPS), with an agreement that retains their ownership and full property rights during their lifetime. Eventually, their property will be owned by the National Park Service.  Local Issues in the Cumberland Island Seashore  Since the national seashore was established, a Navy nuclear submarine base has been built on the mainland opposite, which requires frequent dredging to the river so that it will be deep enough. There is also a proposed spaceport on the mainland where rockets could malfunction while traveling out over the island, and Navy exercises and oil exploration that may bring loud blasting noise into waters offshore. This area hosts endangered right whales as well as many other forms of sea life, including sea turtles and dolphins.

Cumberland Island, Georgia, is the largest of the Sea Islands of the southeastern United States. The long-staple Sea Island cotton was first grown here by a local family, the Millers, who helped Eli Whitney develop the cotton gin. With its unusual range of wildlife, the island has been declared a National Park and a National Seashore. Little Cumberland Island is connected to the main island by a marsh. John F. Kennedy Jr. and Carolyn Bessette were married in the First African Baptist Church on Cumberland Island in 1996.

L' Île de Cumberland est une île de l'océan Atlantique rattachée à l'archipel des Sea Islands. Elle se trouve au large de la Géorgie et dépend du comté de Camden (30°51′ N, 81°27′ O). Elle a 28 km de longueur et sa superficie est de 147.37 km2, dont 68.19 km2 de marais, d'estrans, et de criques submergées à marée haute. L'île est seulement desservie par une navette accostant dans la petite ville de Saint-Marys.


Language.

Suquamish people traditionally speak a dialect of Lushootseed, which belongs to the Salishan language family.

Culture.

Like many Northwest Coast indigenous peoples pre-European contact, the Suquamish enjoyed the rich bounty of land and sea west of the Cascade Mountains. They fished for salmon and harvested shellfish in local waters and Puget Sound. The cedar tree provided fiber used to weave waterproof clothing and beautiful utilitarian items, and provided wood for longhouses, seagoing canoes and ceremonial items.  The Suquamish traditionally lived on the western shores of Puget Sound, from Apple Tree Cove in the north to Gig Harbor in the south, including Bainbridge Island and Blake Island. They had villages throughout the region, the largest centered on Old Man House, the largest winter longhouse in the Salish Sea and, indeed, the largest longhouse ever known.  Today, the Suquamish continue to fish and harvest in their traditional territory, and a new generation of local artists — among them Ed Carriere, Betty Pasco, and Andrea Wilbur-Sigo — carry on the ways of their ancestors in creating beautiful carved or woven items that help tell the story of the Suquamish people.

Early history.

The first contact between Suquamish and European peoples came in 1792 when George Vancouver explored Puget Sound and met members of the Suquamish Tribe, possibly including Schweabe and Kitsap. More regular contact with non-Natives came with the establishment of British trading posts in Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia in the early 19th century.

19th century.

Once the Washington Territory was established in 1853, the U.S. government began signing treaties with area indigenous leaders to extinguish aboriginal claims and make land available for non-Native settlement. In the Point Elliott Treaty signed on January 22, 1855, the Suquamish agreed to cede land to the United States in exchange for certain payments and obligations. They reserved for themselves the land that became designated as the Port Madison Indian Reservation, near their winter village on Agate Pass. They also reserved the right to fish and harvest shellfish in their Usual and Accustomed Areas, and reserved certain cultural and natural resource rights within their historical territory. Today, the Suquamish Tribe is a co-manager with the State of Washington of the state's salmon fishery.  Two members of the Suquamish came to be recognized across the region as great leaders. One was Kitsap, who led a coalition of Puget Sound Tribes against the Cowichan Tribes of Vancouver Island around 1825. Another was Seattle (also spelled Si-ahl, Sealth, See-ahth, and Seathl, pronounced ), son of Schweabe, who was a peacekeeper during the turbulent times of the mid-19th century.

Later leaders.

Martha George served as chairwoman of the Suquamish Tribe from the late 1920s to the early 1940s.  Lawrence Webster (1899-1991) served as chairman of the Suquamish Tribe from 1979-1985. In 1979, he traveled to Washington, D.C., to represent Native Americans at an event commemorating the 15th anniversary of the government program, VISTA. In 1983, he helped establish the Suquamish Museum. Earlier in his life, he was a noted baseball catcher, playing on a Suquamish team in 1921 that was sent by a national sporting-goods company on a goodwill tour of Japan.  Leonard Forsman, an anthropologist and archeologist who has served as the Suquamish Tribe’s chairman since 2005, is a governor-appointed member of the state Board on Geographic Names and an Obama appointee to the U.S. Advisory Council on Historic Preservation.  Cindy Webster-Martinson, a former Suquamish Tribal Council member, is vice president of the North Kitsap School Board (elected in 2013 to a four-year term) and is believed to be the first Native American elected to non-Tribal public office in Kitsap County. She is a granddaughter of Lawrence Webster.  The Suquamish Tribe is governed by a seven-member council, elected by citizens of the Suquamish Tribe. Government departments include administration, child support enforcement, community development, court, early learning center, education, fisheries, human services, legal, natural resources, police. (The Tribe contracts with local fire districts for fire protection service.)  Economic contributions (in 2012): $52.2 million in wages and benefits paid to employees; $46.8 million in goods and services purchased; $18.6 million in capital project investment. Community contributions (in 2012): $694,033 awarded to 201 organizations.

Recent history.

Port Madison Enterprises, the Tribe’s economic development arm, is the second-largest private-sector employer in Kitsap County with 752 employees, surpassed only by Harrison Medical Center.  Port Madison Enterprises is governed by a seven-member board of directors, which includes a Tribal Council liaison. Ventures: Suquamish Clearwater Casino Resort, White Horse Golf Club, Kiana Lodge, PME Retail, Property Management. Subsidiaries: Port Madison Enterprises Construction Corporation. The PME Fund sets aside non-gaming funds for distribution as grants to organizations that “[improve] the lives of community members” and “support worthy programs in the region.”  The Tribe has reacquired land lost during the allotment era, and “the Tribe and Tribal members now own more than half of the land on the reservation for the first time in recent history,” Suquamish Tribe communications director April Leigh said. Major acquisitions include White Horse Golf Club in 2010, placed into trust in March 2014; and 200 acres known as the Place of the Bear, in the Cowling Creek watershed, in November.  As of 2014, the reservation area consists of 7,657 acres, of which 1,475 acres are owned by the Suquamish Tribe, 2,601 acres are owned by individual citizens of the Suquamish Tribe, and 3,581 acres are owned by non-Indians.  In 2011, the Suquamish Tribal Council voted unanimously to approve same-sex marriage.

The Suquamish are a Lushootseed-speaking Native American people, located in present-day Washington in the United States. They are a southern Coast Salish people. Today, most Suquamish people are enrolled in the federally recognized Suquamish Tribe, a signatory to the 1855 Treaty of Point Elliott. Chief Seattle, the famous leader of the Suquamish and Duwamish Tribes for which the City of Seattle is named, signed the Point Elliot Treaty on behalf of both Tribes. The Suquamish Tribe owns the Port Madison Indian Reservation.

Les Suquamish sont une tribu amérindienne vivant dans l'Ouest de l'État de Washington, aux États-Unis. Le langage fait partie de la famille des langues salish. Les Amérindiens vivaient de la pêche et construisaient de grandes habitations pour se protéger des hivers humides à l'ouest de la chaîne des Cascades. Ils s'installaient traditionnellement sur la rive occidentale du Puget Sound et avaient tendance en hiver à se regrouper dans un même village.


Early life.

Aldus Manutius was born close to Rome in Bassiano between 1449 and 1452. He grew up in a wealthy family during the Italian Renaissance and in his youth was sent to Rome to become a humanist scholar. In Rome, he studied Latin under Gaspare da Verona and attended lectures by Domizio Calderini in the early 1470s. From 1475 to 1478, Manutius studied Greek in Ferrara with Guarino da Verona as his teacher.  Most of Manutius's early life is rather unknown. According to the "1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 17", Manutius was granted citizenship of the town of Carpi on 8 March 1480 where he owned local property, and in 1482 he traveled to Mirandola for a time with his longtime friend and fellow student, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, where he stayed two years to study Greek literature. Pico recommended Manutius to become the tutor of his nephews, Alberto and Leonello Pio, princes of the town of Carpi. In Carpi, Manutius shared a close bond with his student, Alberto Pio. At the end of the 1480s, Manutius published two works addressed to his two pupils and their mother, Caterina Pico — both works were published in Venice by Baptista de Tortis: "Musarum Panagyris" with its "Epistola Catherinae Piae" (March/May 1487 to March 1491) and the "Paraenesis" (1490).  Giovanni Pico and Alberto Pio's families funded the starting costs of Manutius's printing press and gave him lands in Carpi. Manutius determined that Venice was the best location for his work, settling there in 1490. In Venice, Manutius began gathering publishing contracts, at which point he met Andrea Torresani, who was also engaged in print publishing. Torresani and Manutius became lifelong business partners, and for their first contract together Manutius hired Torresani to print the first edition of his Latin grammar book the "Institutiones grammaticae", published on 9 March 1493.

Aldine Press.

The Aldine Press, established in 1494, had its first publication in March 1495: "Erotemata cum interpretatione Latina" by Constantine Lascaris. Andrea Torresani and Pier Francesco Barbarigo, nephew of the Doge, Agostino Barbarigo, each held fifty percent of the press. Of Torresani's fifty percent, Manutius was given one-fifth, but accounts are unclear as to whether Manutius's one-fifth refers to ten percent of the Aldine Press or ownership exclusively to one-fifth of Torresani's share.  The press's first great achievement was a five-volume folio edition of Aristotle. Manutius started the first volume of his Aristotle edition in 1495. Four more volumes were published together in 1497 and 1498. The Aldine Press produced nine comedies of Aristophanes in 1498, and Pietro Bembo edited Petrarch's poems that Manutius published in July 1501. In addition to editing Greek manuscripts, Manutius corrected and improved texts originally published in Florence, Rome, and Milan.  The Second Italian War suspended the press for a time. During that time, Desiderius Erasmus asked Manutius to publish his translations of "Hecuba" and "Iphigenia in Aulis" through the Aldine Press. Erasmus's original letter to Manutius inquires about the printer's proposed plans: a Greek Plato and a polyglot bible. Through correspondence, the two came to an agreement. In December 1507, the Aldine Press published "Iphigenia in Audlis" in an 80-page octavo with Erasmus's translation from Greek into Latin. With the success and accuracy of their first collaboration, Manutius agreed to publish the expanded version of the "Adagiorum collectanea" Erasmus was working on. Erasmus traveled to Venice, where he spent his first ten months working at the Aldine Press. He lived in Manutius and Torresani's home, where he shared a room with Girolamo Aleandro. His research using Manutius's resources and Greek scholars enabled him to expand his collection of proverbs from 819 entries to 3,260 entries. The Aldine press published this newly expanded collection of proverbs, "Adagiorum Chiliades", in 1508. After the publication of "Adagiorum Chiliades", Erasmus helped Manutius proofread a Greek edition of Plutarch's "Moralia" along with many other Aldine Press publications.  Manutius relied on Marcus Musurus, Ioannis Grigoropoulos, and other Greek collaborators to translate for the Aldine Press. He published an edition of minor Greek orators (1508) and the lesser works of Plutarch (1509). Printing work halted again while the League of Cambrai tried to lessen Venice's influence. Manutius reappeared in 1513 with an edition of Plato that he dedicated to Pope Leo X in a preface that compares the miseries of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the student's life.  With the Aldine Press's increasing popularity, people would come to visit the shop, interrupting Manutius's work. Manutius put up a sign that read, "Whoever you are, Aldus asks you again and again what it is you want from him. State your business briefly and then immediately go away."  Manutius strove for excellence in typography and book design while publishing lower-cost editions. This was carried out under continual difficulties, including problems arising from strikes among his workmen, unauthorized use of Manutius's materials by rivals, and frequent interruptions by war.

Greek classics.

Before Manutius, there were fewer than ten Greek titles in print, most of which had to be imported from the Accursius Press of Milan. Only four Italian towns were authorized to produce Greek publications: Milan, Venice, Vicenza, and Florence, and they only published works by Theocritus, Isocrates, and Homer. Venice printer John Speyer produced Greek passages but required the minimal Greek letters to be left blank and later filled in by hand.  Manutius desired to “inspire and refine his readers by inundating them with Greek." He originally came to Venice because of its many Greek resources; Venice held Greek manuscripts from the time of Constantinople and was home to a large cluster of Greek scholars who traveled there from Crete. Venice was also where Cardinal Bessarion, in 1468, donated his large Greek manuscript collection. To preserve ancient Greek literature, the Aldine Press commissioned a typeface based on classical Greek manuscripts so that readers could experience the original Greek text more authentically.  While publishing Greek manuscripts, Manutius founded the New Academy, a group of Hellenist scholars, in 1502 to promote Greek studies. The "Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition" writes that the New Academy's "rules were written in Greek, its members spoke Greek, their names were Hellenized, and their official titles were Greek." Members of the New Academy included Desiderius Erasmus, Pietro Bembo, and Scipio Fortiguerra. M.J.C. Lowry, a lecturer in history at the University of Warwick, has a different view, regarding the New Academy as a hopeful dream rather than an organized institute.  Manutius spoke Greek in his household, and employed thirty Greek speakers at the Aldine Press. Greek speakers from Crete prepared and proofed manuscripts and their calligraphy was a model for the casts used for Greek type. Instructions for typesetters and binders were written in Greek, and the prefaces to Manutius's editions were also in Greek. Manutius printed editions of "Hero and Leander" by Musaeus Grammaticus, the "Galeomyomachia", and the Greek "Psalter." He called these "Precursors of the Greek Library" because they served as guides to the Greek language. Under Manutius's supervision, the Aldine Press published 75 texts by Classical Greek and Byzantine authors.

Latin and Italian classics.

Along with Greek classics, the Aldine Press published Latin and Italian authors. Manutius launched Pietro Bembo's career as a writer by publishing "De Aetna" in 1496, which was the Aldine Press's first Latin publication by a contemporary author. The Bembo family hired the Aldine Press to produce accurate texts of Dante and Petrarch using Bernardo Bembo's personal manuscript collection. Pietro Bembo worked with Manutius from 1501 to 1502 to provide an accurate edition of Dante and Petrarch and also introduced punctuation. Bembo later made a diagram of sins to illustrate the 1515 Aldine edition of Dante.  Manutius did not hold the same power of innovation over Latin classics as with Greek classics because publication of these works started 30 years before his time. To promote the Aldine editions in Latin, Manutius promoted the quality of his publications through his prefaces. Manutius was on the lookout for rare manuscripts, but often found instead missing parts of previously published works. Cuspinianus let Manutius publish the missing parts of Valerius Maximus's work, which Cuspinianus "had found in a manuscript in Vienna." Francesco Negri let Manutius publish the missing text of "Julius Firmicus", which Negri found in Romania, and "a manuscript from Britain made an improved edition of Prudentius possible."  The press printed first editions of Poliziano's collected works, Pietro Bembo's "Asolani", Francesco Colonna's "Hypnerotomachia Poliphili", and Dante's "Divine Comedy". The 1501 publication of Virgil introduced the use of italic print and was produced in higher-than-normal print runs (1,000 rather than the usual 200 to 500 copies).

Imprint and motto.

Manutius adopted the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor as his publisher's device in June 1502. The dolphin-and-anchor symbol is associated with the phrase "festina lente," meaning "make haste slowly," indicating quickness combined with firmness in the execution of a great scheme. The symbol and phrase were taken from a Roman coin minted during Emperor Vespasian's reign that was given to Manutius by Pietro Bembo.  Manutius's editions of the classics were so highly respected that the dolphin-and-anchor device was almost immediately pirated by French and Italian publishers. Many modern organizations use the image of a dolphin wrapped around an anchor. The device has been used by the nineteenth-century London firm of William Pickering, and by Doubleday. The international honor society for library and information science, Beta Phi Mu, uses the dolphin and anchor as its insignia.

Enchiridia.

Manutius described his new format of books as "libelli portatiles in formam enchiridii" ("portable small books in the form of a manual"). Enchiridion, described in "A Legacy More Lasting than Bronze", also refers to a handheld weapon, a hint that Aldus intended the books in his Portable Library to be the weapons of scholars. It was for these pocket-sized classics Aldus designed the italic font.  Manutius converted to the smaller format in 1501 with the publication of Virgil. As time went on, Manutius self-advertised his portable format through the dedication pages he published.  Many scholars consider the development of the portable book as Manutius's most celebrated contribution to printing and publishing. These mobile books were the first known appearance of an "editio minor", a straightforward text. During the 15th century, books were often chained to a reading platform to protect valuable property, requiring the reader to stay stationary. Publishers often added commentary to their published classics. Thus, pages became overloaded with scholarship and serious material which produced a large book that was difficult to transport. The Aldine Press removed these inconveniences; Manutius’s books were "published without commentary and in smaller sizes, usually octavos of five by eight or four by six inches." His famous octavo editions are often regarded as the first prototype of the mass-market paperback.  The octavos were moderately priced considering the known average salaries of the time, but they were not cheap. Manutius's priced his Latin octavos at 30 soldi, which was a fourth of a ducat. His Greek octavos were double the price at 60 soldi. For context, a master mason would earn about 50 soldi a day to make between 50–100 ducats a year.

Typefaces.

Everyday handwriting in Venice was in cursive, but at the time, printed works imitated formal manuscript hands, either blackletter or the humanistic littera antica. Manutius commissioned typefaces designed to look like the handwriting of humanists both in Latin and Greek in order to uphold the manuscript tradition. In the "New Aldine Studies," Harry George Fletcher III, Pierpont Morgan Library's curator for printed books and bindings, writes that Manutius intended "to make available in type a face comfortable for its readers" with the cursive typeface.  Manutius commissioned the punchcutter Francesco Griffo of Bologna to create the new typeface. The handwriting reproduced for the many Aldine Press typefaces is a topic of conflicting opinions by scholars; the "1911 Encyclopædia Britannica" suggests Petrarch's handwriting, while the "New Aldine Studies" presumes the handwriting of scribes Pomponio Leto and Bartolomeo Sanvito was the inspiration for the typeface. Other scholars believe the first Greek typeface was derived from the handwriting of Immanuel Rhusotas, another scribe during the time of Manutius. The Aldine Press commissioned the first Greek script designed "with accents and letters cast separately and combined by the compositor." The typeface was first used in publishing "Erotemata" by Constantine Lascaris in 1495. The Roman typeface was finished later the same year and Pietro Bembo's "De Aetna" was the first book published in the new Roman script.  Manutius and Griffo's original typeface is the first known model of italic type and was used by Manutius until 1501. Five italic words were printed in "St. Catherine of Siena" in 1500 and in 1501 an "Opera" by Virgil was the first completed book in italic type. A falling out between Manutius and Griffo brought Griffo to leave and supply other publishers with the italic type originally commissioned by the Aldine Press. Griffo only made one set of punches for the Aldine Press, which were used until 1559. Griffo's original italic type did not include capital letters, so many of the Aldine Press publications forwent capital letters.  The 1502 publication of the "Metamorphoses" included Manutius's privilege from the Doge of Venice indicating that any use or imitation of Manutius's Greek and Italic typefaces was forbidden. Despite trying to have the typeface protected legally, Manutius could not stop printers outside of Venice from using his work, which led to the typeface's popularity outside of Italy.

Counterfeits and piracy.

As the Aldine Press grew in popularity, Aldine counterfeits also increased. Manutius acquired privileges for his printing press from the Venetian Senate, specifically, for "his types, his pioneering octavo format, and even individual texts." Pope Alexander VI in 1502 and Pope Julius II in 1514 granted Manutius printing privileges from the papacy. This did not stop Aldine Press counterfeits, as there was little penalty for piracy at the time.  Manutius attempted to discourage piracy with blunt warnings at the end of his publications, as in "Sylvarum libri quinque", by Publius Papinius Statius, where he warned "no one is allowed to print this without penalty." In the Bibliothèque du Roi on 16 March 1503, Manutius tried to warn off those who plagiarized his content, "it happens that in the city of Lyon our books appeared under my name, but full of errors... and deceived unwary buyers due to the similarity of typography and format...Furthermore, the paper is of poor quality and has a heavy odor, and the typography, if you examine it closely, exudes a sort of (as one might phrase it) 'Frenchiness'." He described the counterfeit's typographical errors in detail so that readers might distinguish a real Aldine from a fake. In spite of his efforts, the Lyonese printers were quick to use Manutius's critique to improve their counterfeits.

Illuminated manuscripts and Aldine prefaces.

Before the printing press and during the Italian Renaissance, illuminated manuscripts were individually created by a credited artist. When print publishing became popular, woodcuts were used to mass-illuminate works. The woodcuts were often reused in several editions, thereby decreasing their value. These woodcuts soon came to Venice and were viewed as part of the "new humanist manuscript." The woodcut images "included aspects of both continuity and discontinuity that involved the activity of Manutius, who was called upon to wholly explicate the new potential of the printed book and deal with the crisis of the illumination." Many of the Aldine Press's publications contained illumination, but Manutius let patrons decide the illumination details while he worked to translate and publish.  Prefatory letters, popular in first editions of Latin works years before, were also common for Aldine editions. Manutius used the Aldine editions to ask scholarly questions and provide information for his readers. In the preface of Ovid (1502), he argues that Heroides 17, 19, and 21 (the letters of Helen, Hero, and Cudippe, respectively) were the work of the poet Sabinus, whom Ovid refers to as Amores. In another preface Manutius explains how a sundial works.

Personal life.

In 1505, Manutius married Maria, the daughter of Andrea Torresani of Asola. Torresani and Manutius were already business partners, but the marriage combined the two partners' shares in the publishing business. After the marriage, Manutius lived at Torresani's house. Shrinking in popularity, in 1506 the Aldine Press was moved to a house now covered by a bank building in the Venice square, "Campo Manin".  In March 1506, Manutius decided to travel for six months in search of new and reliable manuscripts. While traveling with a guide, Manutius was stopped by border guards of the Marquisate of Mantua who were looking for two criminals. Manutius's guide ran in fear, taking with him all of Manutius's personal effects. This suspicious activity led the guards to arrest Manutius. Manutius knew the Marquis of Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, and wrote letters to him to explain the situation, but it took six days until Manutius's imprisonment was brought to Gonzaga's attention. While waiting, Manutius spent five days in jail in Casal Romano and another night in Canneto. He was eventually released by Geoffroy Carles, president of the Milanese Senate. A new, improved edition of Horace (after 30 March 1509) with an accompanying work by Manutius on Horatian metrics dedicated to Carles was contingent on this experience and Manutius's connection with Carles.  Manutius wrote his will on 16 January 1515 instructing Giulio Campagnola to provide capital letters for the Aldine Press's italic type. He died the next month, 6 February, and "with his death the importance of Italy as a seminal and dynamic force in printing came to an end." Torresani and his two sons carried on the business during the youth of Manutius's children, and eventually Paulus, Manutius's son, took over the business. The publishing symbol and motto were never wholly abandoned by the Aldine Press until the expiration of their firm in its third generation of operation by Aldus Manutius the Younger.  Manutius dreamed of a trilingual Bible but never saw it come to fruition. However, before his death Manutius had begun an edition of the Septuagint, also known as the Greek Old Testament translated from Hebrew, the first ever to be published; it appeared posthumously in 1518.

Modern influence.

1994 marked the 500th anniversary of Aldus Manutius's first publication. On Manutius, Paul F. Grendler wrote, "Aldus ensured the survival of a large number of ancient texts and greatly facilitated the diffusion of the values, enthusiasms, and scholarship of Italian Renaissance Humanism to the rest of Europe". "He jettisoned commentary because he felt that it prevented the dialogue between author and reader that the Renaissance prized."

Legacy.

The Aldine Press produced more than 100 editions from 1495 to 1505. The majority were Greek classics, but many notable Latin and Italian works were published as well.  Erasmus was impressed by Manutius; "in a long passage he extols the 'tireless efforts' of Manutius in restoring ancient learning, truly 'a Herculean task,' and he announces that 'Aldus is building up a library which has no other limits than the world itself'."  The Palazzo dei Pio chapel in Carpi has a painted mural that includes Aldus Manutius along with Alberto and Leonello Pio. In Bassiano, Manutius's birthplace, a monument was erected to commemorate the 450th year since Manutius's death. The inscription is Manutius's own words: "for the abundance of good books which, we hope, will finally put to flight all ignorance."  The quality and popularity of Manutius's work made it more expensive in the 20th century than others published around the same time. In 1991, Martin Lowry found that an auction in New York took place where "initial prices of $6,000 – $8,000 and $8,000 – $12,000 were quotes on copies of "Decor Puellarum" and "Aulus Gellius" in Jenson’s editions: Aldus' "Hypnerotomachia Polifili" started at $25,000 – $30,000."

Publications.

A partial list of works translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision.

Greek editions.

Greek editions published during Manutius's lifetime:

Latin classics.

Partial list of Latin editions published during his lifetime:

Humanist works.

Partial list of Humanist authors translated and published by the Aldine Press under Manutius's supervision:

Archives.

For substantial collections of Aldus Manutius's publications, see Aldine Press Collections.

Aldus Pius Manutius (; ; 1449/14526 February 1515) was an Italian humanist, scholar, educator, and the founder of the Aldine Press. Manutius devoted the later part of his life to publishing and disseminating rare texts. His interest in and preservation of Greek manuscripts mark him as an innovative publisher of his age dedicated to the editions he produced. His enchiridia, small portable books, revolutionized personal reading and are the predecessor of the modern paperback.

Aldo Manuzio (Aldus Manutius en latin, Alde l’Ancien ou Alde Manuce en français), né en 1449 à Bassiano dans les Marais pontins et mort le à Venise, est un imprimeur-libraire italien installé à Venise, qui a joué un rôle fondamental dans la diffusion de la culture humaniste dans la péninsule italienne, et particulièrement de la littérature grecque.


Early life.

Peeters was born in a family of Dutch immigrants in Edmonton, Alberta. At a young age, he valued swimming more than hockey. It was not until he was 18 that Peeters was committed to junior hockey. In 1975, Peeters joined a struggling Medicine Hat Tigers team. He would stay with the Tigers for two years before being drafted. Peeters was drafted 135th overall by the Philadelphia Flyers in the 1977 NHL amateur draft after showing scouts that he had what it took to play at an NHL level. He played for two years in the AHL winning the Harry "Hap" Holmes Memorial Award for best GAA in the league and he was also selected to the First All-Star Team.

Playing career.

Philadelphia Flyers.

Peeters was called up by the Flyers in 1980 sharing the net with Phil Myre. Peeters started with a 22–0–5 record before losing his first game of the season on February 19. The Flyers went a NHL record 35 straight games without a loss that season. Peeters finished the season with a 29–5–5 record with a 2.73 GAA. He led the Flyers all the way to the Stanley Cup Finals before losing to the New York Islanders on an overtime goal by Bob Nystrom. For his effort, Peeters was selected to play in the NHL All-Star Game.  The following season, expectations were high for Peeters but he did not meet them. Over the next two years his GAA rose and his playoff success diminished. In 1982, Peeters was traded to the Boston Bruins for defenceman Brad McCrimmon.

Boston Bruins.

Peeters joined the Boston Bruins for the 1982–83 season. Peeters had perhaps his best year as he played in 62 games and posting a 40–11–9 record with 8 shutouts and a decade-best 2.36 GAA. At one point, Peeters went 31 games without a loss. He won the Vezina Trophy for his spectacular play and was selected First All-Star Team goalie. He also played in the All-Star Game in his first season with Boston. Surprisingly, Peeters finished 2nd in voting for the Hart Memorial Trophy to Wayne Gretzky. Next season, expectations were high again for Peeters and, like in Philadelphia, he did not meet them. He played for two more years with the Bruins with his GAA inflating and the losses piling up.

1984 Canada Cup.

Peeters was invited to Team Canada for the 1984 Canada Cup. Despite having a sprained ankle, Peeters was able to play in four tournament games including both best-of-three final games against Sweden and the memorable overtime win against the Soviets in the semifinal.

Washington Capitals.

After the Canada Cup experience, Peeters had trouble readjusting his game to the NHL level. After a slow start in the 1985–86 season, Peeters was traded to the Washington Capitals in exchange for goaltender Pat Riggin. Peeters provided the Caps with solid goaltending for the next five seasons. But in the playoffs, Peeters did not find much success again.

Return to Philadelphia.

Peeters returned to Philadelphia in 1990 by way of free agency. He remained there for the last two seasons of his career sharing the net with Ron Hextall and Ken Wregget. Peeters would hang up the pads in 1991.

Coaching.

At the end of his playing career, Peeters returned to the family farm in Edmonton. He then got into coaching, serving as a goaltender coach to the Minnesota North Stars, Winnipeg Jets, Phoenix Coyotes, and the Edmonton Oilers. From July 2009 to June 2013 he was the goaltending coach for the Anaheim Ducks, a position which had been left vacant following the departure of François Allaire.

Family.

Peeters' son Trevor (born July 2, 1987) played 36 games over four seasons (2003 – 2007) as a goaltender in the Western Hockey League for the Red Deer Rebels, Swift Current Broncos, and Saskatoon Blades.

Pete Peeters (born August 17, 1957) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. He was selected by the Philadelphia Flyers in the eighth round (135th overall) of the 1977 NHL amateur draft. and went on to play 13 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Philadelphia Flyers, Boston Bruins and Washington Capitals.

Peter H. Peeters (né le à Edmonton) est un gardien de but canadien de hockey sur glace en Ligue nationale de hockey dans les années 1980.