In the oceans.

Typical ocean forage fish are small, silvery schooling oily fish such as herring, anchovies and menhaden, and other small, schooling baitfish like capelin, smelts, sand lance, halfbeaks, pollock, butterfish and juvenile rockfish. Herrings are a preeminent forage fish, often marketed as sardines or pilchards.  The term “forage fish” is a term used in fisheries, and is applied also to forage species that are not true fish, but play a significant role as prey for predators. Thus invertebrates such as squid and shrimp are also referred to as "forage fish". Even the tiny shrimp-like creatures called krill, small enough to be eaten by other forage fish, yet large enough to eat the same zooplankton as forage fish, are often classified as "forage fish".  Forage fish utilise the biomass of copepods, mysids and krill in the pelagic zone to become the dominant converters of the enormous ocean production of zooplankton. They are, in turn, central prey items for higher trophic levels. Forage fish may have achieved their dominance because of the way they live in huge, and often extremely fast cruising schools.  Though forage fish are abundant, there are relatively few species. There are more species of primary producers and apex predators in the ocean than there are forage fish.

Ocean food webs.

Forage fish occupy central positions in the ocean food webs. The position that a fish occupies in a food web is called its trophic level (Greek "trophē" = food). The organisms it eats are at a lower trophic level, and the organisms that eat it are at a higher trophic level. Forage fish occupy middle levels in the food web, serving as a dominant prey to higher level fish, seabirds and mammals.  Ecological pyramids are graphical representations, along the lines of the diagram at the right, which show how biomass or productivity changes at each trophic level in an ecosystem. The first or bottom level is occupied by primary producers or autotrophs (Greek "autos" = self and "trophe" = food). These are the names given to organisms that do not feed on other organisms, but produce biomass from inorganic compounds, mostly by a process of photosynthesis.  In oceans, most primary production is performed by algae. This is a contrast to land, where most primary production is performed by vascular plants. Algae ranges from single floating cells to attached seaweeds, while vascular plants are represented in the ocean by groups such as the seagrasses. Larger producers, such as seagrasses and seaweeds, are mostly confined to the littoral zone and shallow waters, where they attach to the underlying substrate and are still within the photic zone. Most primary production in the ocean is performed by microscopic organisms, the phytoplankton.  Thus, in ocean environments, the first bottom trophic level is occupied principally by phytoplankton, microscopic drifting organisms, mostly one-celled algae, that float in the sea. Most phytoplankton are too small to be seen individually with the unaided eye. They can appear as a green discoloration of the water when they are present in high enough numbers. Since they increase their biomass mostly through photosynthesis they live in the sun-lit surface layer (euphotic zone) of the sea.  The most important groups of phytoplankton include the diatoms and dinoflagellates. Diatoms are especially important in oceans, where they are estimated to contribute up to 45% of the total ocean's primary production. Diatoms are usually microscopic, although some species can reach up to 2 millimetres in length.  The second trophic level (primary consumers) is occupied by zooplankton which feed off the phytoplankton. Together with the phytoplankton, they form the base of the food pyramid that supports most of the world's great fishing grounds. Zooplankton are tiny animals found with the phytoplankton in oceanic surface waters, and include tiny crustaceans, and fish larvae and fry (recently hatched fish). Most zooplankton are filter feeders, and they use appendages to strain the phytoplankton in the water. Some larger zooplankton also feed on smaller zooplankton. Some zooplankton can jump about a bit to avoid predators, but they can't really swim. Like phytoplankton, they float with the currents, tides and winds instead. Zooplanktons can reproduce rapidly, their populations can increase up to thirty percent a day under favourable conditions. Many live short and productive lives and reach maturity quickly.  Particularly important groups of zooplankton are the copepods and krill. These are not shown in the images above, but are discussed in more detail later. Copepods are a group of small crustaceans found in ocean and freshwater habitats. They are the biggest source of protein in the sea, and are important prey for forage fish. Krill constitute the next biggest source of protein. Krill are particularly large predator zooplankton which feed on smaller zooplankton. This means they really belong to the third trophic level, secondary consumers, along with the forage fish.  Together, phytoplankton and zooplankton make up most of the plankton in the sea. Plankton is the term applied to any small drifting organisms that float in the sea (Greek "planktos" = wanderer or drifter). By definition, organisms classified as plankton are unable to swim against ocean currents; they cannot resist the ambient current and control their position. In ocean environments, the first two trophic levels are occupied mainly by plankton. Plankton are divided into producers and consumers. The producers are the phytoplankton (Greek "phyton" = plant) and the consumers, who eat the phytoplankton, are the zooplankton (Greek "zoon" = animal).

Diet.

Forage fish feed on plankton. When they are eaten by larger predators, they transfer this energy from the bottom of the food chain to the top and in this way are the central link between trophic levels.  Forage fish are usually filter feeders, meaning that they feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water. They usually travel in large, slow moving, tightly packed schools with their mouths open. They are typically omnivorous. Their diet is usually based primarily on zooplankton, although, since they are omnivorous, they also take in some phytoplankton.  Young forage fish, such as herring, mostly feed on phytoplankton and as they mature they start to consume larger organisms. Older herrings feed on zooplankton, tiny animals that are found in oceanic surface waters, and fish larvae and fry (recently hatched fish). Copepods and other tiny crustaceans are common zooplankton eaten by forage fish. During daylight, many forage fish stay in the safety of deep water, feeding at the surface only at night when there is less chance of predation. They swim with their mouths open, filtering plankton from the water as it passes through their gills.  Ocean halfbeaks are omnivores which feed on algae, plankton, marine plants like seagrass, invertebrates like pteropods and crustaceans and smaller fishes. Some tropical species feed on animals during the day and plants at night, while others alternate summer carnivory with winter herbivory. They are in turn eaten by billfish, mackerel, and sharks.

Predators.

Forage fish are the food that sustains larger predators above them in the ocean food chain. The superabundance they present in their schools make them ideal food sources for top predator fish such as tuna, striped bass, cod, salmon, barracuda and swordfish, as well as sharks, whales, dolphins, porpoises, seals, sea lions, and seabirds.

Schooling.

Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. These sometimes immense gatherings fuel the ocean food web. Most forage fish are pelagic fish, which means they form their schools in open water, and not on the bottom (benthic fish) or near the bottom (benthopelagic fish). They are short-lived, and go mostly unnoticed by humans, apart from an occasional support role in a documentary about a great ocean predator. While we may not pay them much attention, the great marine predators are keenly focused on them, acutely aware of their numbers and whereabouts, and make migrations that can span thousands of miles to connect with them. After all, forage fish are their food.  Herring are among the most spectacular schooling fish. They aggregate together in huge numbers. Schools have been measured at over four cubic kilometres in size, containing about four billion fish. These schools move along coastlines and traverse the open oceans. Herring schools in general have very precise arrangements which allow the school to maintain relatively constant cruising speeds. Herrings have excellent hearing, and their schools react very fast to a predator. The herrings keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a vacuole which can look like a doughnut from a spotter plane. The intricacies of schooling is far from fully understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as better orientation, synchronized hunting, predator confusion and reduced risk of being found. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the breathing media and oxygen and food depletion. The way the fish array in the school probably gives energy saving advantages, though this is controversial.  On calm days, schools of herring can be detected at the surface a mile away by little waves they form, or from several meters at night when they trigger bioluminescence in surrounding plankton. Underwater recordings show herring constantly cruising at high speeds up to 108 cm per second, with much higher escape speeds.  They are fragile fish, and because of their adaptation to schooling behaviour they are rarely displayed in aquaria. Even with the best facilities aquaria can offer they become sluggish compared to their quivering energy in wild schools.

Hunting copepods.

Copepods are a group of small crustaceans found in ocean and freshwater habitats. Many species are planktonic (drifting in the ocean water), while others are benthic (living on the sea floor). Copepods are typically one millimetre (0.04 in) to two millimetres (0.08 in) long, with a teardrop shaped body. Like other crustaceans they have an armoured exoskeleton, but they are so small that this armour, and the entire body, is usually transparent.  Copepods are usually the dominant zooplankton. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on the planet. The other contender is the Antarctic krill. But copepods are smaller than krill, with faster growth rates, and they are more evenly distributed throughout the oceans. This means copepods almost certainly contribute more secondary production to the world's oceans than krill, and perhaps more than all other groups of marine organisms together. They are a major item on the forage fish menu.  Copepods are very alert and evasive. They have large antennae. When they spread their antennae they can sense the pressure wave from an approaching fish and jump with great speed over a few centimeters.  Herrings are pelagic feeders. Their prey consists of a wide spectrum of phytoplankton and zooplankton, amongst which copepods are the dominant prey. Young herring usually capture small copepods by hunting them individually— they approach them from below. The (half speed) video loop at the left shows a juvenile herring feeding on copepods. In the middle of the image a copepod escapes successfully to the left. The opercula (hard bony flaps covering the gills) are spread wide open to compensate the pressure wave which would alert the copepod to trigger a jump.  If prey concentrations reach very high levels, the herrings adopt a method called "ram feeding". They swim with their mouth wide open and their opercula fully expanded. Every several feet, they close and clean their gill rakers for a few milliseconds (filter feeding). In the photo on the right, herring ram feed on a school of copepods. The fish all open their mouths and opercula wide at the same time (the red gills are visible—click to enlarge). The fish swim in a grid where the distance between them is the same as the jump length of their prey, as indicated in the animation below.  In the animation, juvenile herring hunt the copepods in synchronization: The copepods sense with their antennae the pressure-wave of an approaching herring and react with a fast escape jump. The length of the jump is fairly constant. The fish align themselves in a grid with this characteristic jump length. A copepod can dart about 80 times before it tires out. After a jump, it takes it 60 milliseconds to spread its antennae again, and this time delay becomes its undoing, as the almost endless stream of herrings allows a herring to eventually snap the copepod. A single juvenile herring could never catch a large copepod.

Migrations.

Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern Norway, their feeding ground in Iceland, and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring.  Fertile feeding grounds for forage fish are provided by ocean upwellings. Oceanic gyres are large-scale ocean currents caused by the Coriolis effect. Wind-driven surface currents interact with these gyres and the underwater topography, such as seamounts and the edge of continental shelves, to produce downwellings and upwellings. These can transport nutrients which plankton thrive on. The result can be rich feeding grounds attractive to the plankton feeding forage fish. In turn, the forage fish themselves become a feeding ground for larger predator fish. Most upwellings are coastal, and many of them support some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Regions of notable upwelling include coastal Peru, Chile, Arabian Sea, western South Africa, eastern New Zealand and the California coast.  Capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between Iceland, Greenland, and Jan Mayen. The migration is affected by ocean currents. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January.  The diagram on the right shows the main spawning grounds and larval drift routes. Capelin on the way to feeding grounds is coloured green, capelin on the way back is blue, and the breeding grounds are red. In a paper published in 2009, researchers from Iceland recount their application of an interacting particle model to the capelin stock around Iceland, successfully predicting the spawning migration route for 2008.

Predator attacks.

Schooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African sardine run. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern coastline of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration.  Sardines have a short life-cycle, living only two or three years. Adult sardines, about two years old, mass on the Agulhas Bank where they spawn during spring and summer, releasing tens of thousands of eggs into the water. The adult sardines then make their way in hundreds of shoals towards the sub-tropical waters of the Indian Ocean. A larger shoal might be long, wide and deep. Huge numbers of sharks, dolphins, tuna, sailfish, Cape fur seals and even killer whales congregate and follow the shoals, creating a feeding frenzy along the coastline.  When threatened, sardines instinctively group together and create massive bait balls. Bait balls can be up to in diameter. They are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 20 minutes. As many as 18,000 dolphins, behaving like sheepdogs, round the sardines into these bait balls, or herd them to shallow water (corralling) where they are easier to catch. Once rounded up, the dolphins and other predators take turns plowing through the bait balls, gorging on the fish as they sweep through. Seabirds also attack them from above, flocks of gannets, cormorants, terns and gulls. Some of these seabirds plummet from heights of, plunging through the water leaving vapour-like trails behind like fighter planes.  The eggs, left behind at the Agulhas Banks, drift northwest with the current into waters off the west coast, where the larvae develop into juvenile fish. When they are old enough, they aggregate into dense shoals and migrate southwards, returning to the Agulhas banks in order to restart the cycle.

Forage fisheries.

History.

Herring has been known as a staple food source since 3000 B.C. In Roman times, anchovies were the base for the fermented fish sauce called "garum." This staple of cuisine was produced in industrial quantities and transported over long distances.  Fishing for sardela or sardina ("Sardina pilchardus") is an ongoing activity on the Croatian Adriatic coasts of Dalmatia and Istria. It traces its roots back thousands of years. The region was then largely a Venetian dominion, part of the Roman Empire. The area has always been sustained through fishing mainly sardines. Along the coast towns still promote the traditional practice of fishing by lateen sail boats for tourism and festivals.  Pilchard fishing and processing thrived in Cornwall between 1750 and 1880, after which stocks went into an almost terminal decline. Recently (2007) stocks have been improving. The industry has featured in many works of art, including Stanhope Forbes and other Newlyn School artists.

Contemporary.

Traditional commercial fisheries were directed towards high value ocean predators such as cod, rockfish and tuna, rather than forage fish. As technologies developed, fisheries became so effective at locating and catching predator fish that many of the stocks collapsed. The industry compensated by turning to species lower in the food chain.  In former times, forage fish were more difficult to fish profitably, and were a small part of the global marine fisheries. But modern industrial fishing technologies have enabled the removal of increasing quantities. Industrial-scale forage fish fisheries need large scale landings of fish to return profits. They are dominated by a small number of corporate fishing and processing companies.  Forage fish populations are very vulnerable when faced with modern fishing equipment. They swim near the surface in compacted schools, so they are relatively easy to locate at the surface with sophisticated electronic fishfinders and from above with spotter planes. Once located, they are scooped out of the water using highly efficient nets, such as purse seines, which remove most of the school.  Spawning patterns in forage fish are highly predictable. Some fisheries use knowledge of these patterns to harvest the forage species as they come together to spawn, removing the fish before they have actually spawned. Fishing during spawning periods or at other times when forage fish amass in large numbers can also be a blow to predators. Many predators, such as whales, tuna and sharks, have evolved to migrate long distances to specific sites for feeding and breeding. Their survival hinges on their finding these forage schools at their feeding grounds. The great ocean predators find that, no matter how they are adapted for speed, size, endurance or stealth, they are on the losing side when faced with the machinery of contemporary industrial fishing.  Altogether, forage fish account for 37 percent (31.5 million tonnes) of all fish taken from the world's oceans each year. However, because there are fewer species of forage fish compared to predator fish, forage species fisheries are the largest in the world. Seven of the top ten fisheries target forage fish. The total world catch of herrings, sardines and anchovies alone in 2005 was 22.4 million tonnes, 24 percent of the total world catch.  The Peruvian anchoveta fishery is now the biggest in the world (10.7 million tonnes in 2004), while the Alaskan pollock fishery in the Bering Sea is the largest single species fishery in the world (3 million tonnes). The Alaskan pollock is said to be the largest remaining single species source of palatable fish in the world. However, the biomass of pollock has declined in recent years, perhaps spelling trouble for both the Bering Sea ecosystem and the commercial fishery it supports. Acoustic surveys by NOAA indicate that the 2008 pollock population is almost 50 percent lower than last year's survey levels. Some scientists think this decline in Alaska pollock could repeat the collapse experienced by Atlantic cod, which could have negative consequences for the entire Bering Sea ecosystem. Salmon, halibut, endangered Steller sea lions, fur seals, and humpback whales eat pollock and depend on healthy populations to sustain themselves.

Use as animal feed.

Eighty percent of the forage fish caught are fed to animals, in large part due to the high content of beneficial long chain omega-3 fatty acids in their flesh. Ninety percent is processed into fishmeal and fish oil. Of this, 46 percent was fed to farmed fish, 24 percent to pigs, and 22 percent to poultry (2002). Six times the weight of forage fish is fed to pigs and poultry alone than the entire seafood consumption of the U.S. market. One of the most promising alternatives to fish oil as a source of long chain omega-3 fatty acids and certain amino acids is algal oil from microalgae, the original source of these fatty acids in forage fish.  According to Turchini and De Silva (2008), another 2.5 million tonnes of the annual forage fish catch is consumed by the global cat food industry. In Australia, pet cats eat 13.7 kilograms of fish a year compared to the 11 kilograms eaten by the average Australian. The pet food industry is increasingly marketing premium and super-premium products, when different raw materials, such as the by-products of the fish filleting industry, could be used instead.

Environmental issues.

In 2008 the Sea Around Us Project completed a nine-year study of forage fish led by the fisheries scientists Jacqueline Alder and Daniel Pauly. They concluded that... In 2015 sardine populations crashed along the west coast of the United States, causing the fishery to close early and remain closed through the 2015–2016 season. A key reason for the population crash, was overfishing due to the demand of fish meals and fish oil used in feed for aquaculture and for human nutritional supplements. In an effort to provide some relief from the pressure put on forage fish populations, the World Bank along with the University of Arizona, Monterey Bay Aquarium and the New England Aquarium has sponsored a competition called the F3 (Fish-Free Feed) Challenge, which will award $200,000 to the most successful fish feed manufacturer who develops aquaculture feeds not made from fish.

In lakes and rivers.

Forage fish also inhabit freshwater habitats, such as lakes and rivers, where they serve as food for larger freshwater predators. Usually smaller than 15 centimetres (6 in) in length, these small bait fish make up most of the fish found in lakes and rivers. The minnow family alone, consisting of minnows, chubs, shiners and daces, consists of more than fifty species. Other freshwater forage fish include suckers, killifish, shad, bony fish as well as fish of the sunfish family, excluding black basses and crappie, and smaller species of the carp family. There are also anadromous forage fish, such as eulachon.  In the context of human activity, within any fresh or saltwater ecosystem, there will always be both desirable and undesirable fishes, and this varies from country to country, and often from region to region within a country. Sport fishermen divide freshwater predators of forage fish into those:  "Rough or coarse fish" usually refers to fish that are not commonly eaten, not sought after for sporting reasons, or have become invasive species reducing the populations of desirable fish. They compete for forage fish with the more popular sport fish. They are often regarded as a nuisance, and are not usually protected by game laws. Forage fish generally are not considered rough or coarse fish because of their usefulness as bait.  The term "rough fish" is used by U.S. state agencies and anglers to describe undesirable predator fish. In North America, anglers fish for salmon, trout, bass, pike, catfish, walleye and muskellunge. The smallest fish are called panfish, because they can fit in a standard cooking pan. Some examples are crappies, rock bass, perch, bluegill and sunfish.  The term "coarse fish" originated in the United Kingdom in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, recreational fishing was the sport of the gentry, who angled for trout and salmon which they called "game fish". Fish other than game fish were disdained as "coarse fish". These days, "game fish" refers to Salmonids (other than grayling) — that is, salmon, trout and char. Coarse fish are made up mostly of the larger species of Cyprinids (carp, roach, bream) as well as pike, catfish, gar and lamprey. Coarse fish are no longer disdained; indeed, fishing for coarse fish has become a popular pastime.

Bait and feeder fish.

Forage fish are sometimes referred to as "bait fish" or "feeder fish". Bait fish is a term used particularly by recreational fishermen, although commercial fisherman also catch fish to bait longlines and traps. Forage fish is a fisheries term, and is used in the context of fisheries. Bait fish, by contrast, are fish that are caught by humans to use as bait for other fish. The terms overlap in the sense that most bait fish are also forage fish, and vice versa. Feeder fish is a term used particularly in the context of fish aquariums. It refers essentially to the same concept as forage fish, small fish that are eaten by larger fish, but the term is adapted to the particular requirements of working with fish in aquariums.

Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small pelagic fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the food chain on plankton, often by filter feeding. They include particularly fishes of the family Clupeidae (herrings, sardines, shad, hilsa, menhaden, anchovies, and sprats), but also other small fish, including halfbeaks, silversides, smelt such as capelin and goldband fusiliers.

Le poisson fourrage est un nom donné aux petits poissons, qu'ils soient d'eau douce du genre ablette, gardon ou d'eau de mer, et qui servent de nourriture aux poissons carnassiers.


Biography.

Lidia Senra took Baccalaureate studies in Monforte de Lemos and then began to collaborate with the Committees of Axuda to Loita Labrega in the mid-1970s. In 1984, during the second congress of Comisións Labregas, she was elected to be responsible for organization and finance. Five years later, in the third congress, she acceded to the general secretariat of the Sindicato Labrego Galego (SLG). At that time, the Sindicato Labrego Galego-Comisións Labregas was in the orbit of the Galician People's Union (UPG), the Marxist-Leninist party that constituted the nucleus of the Galician Nationalist Bloc (in fact, it was the UPG that chose the union's secretaries general), and the SLG constituted the agrarian front of the BNG. Senra was re-elected three times. In 2007, she announced that she would not run for re-election. As secretary general of the SLG, she was a member of the executive of the Coordination Paysanne Européenne (transformed in 2008 into the European Coordination of Via Campesina, the world peasant movement that brings together organizations from the Americas, Asia, Africa, and Europe). In addition, she actively participated in the European Social Forums of Florence (2002), Paris (2003), and London (2004).  Despite her initial closeness to the UPG, she distanced herself from this organization. Thus, during the stage of the Galician bipartite (2005–2009), the union maintained a confrontation with the Xunta de Galicia's Ministry of Rural Affairs, in the hands of the UPG. Senra was integrated into the current Encontro Irmandiño in 2009, sponsored by Xosé Manuel Beiras. Senra left the Galego Nationalist Bloc in 2012, at the same time as the supporters of Beiras, who later formed the Anova–Nationalist Brotherhood.  After the internal vote in which Anova narrowly decided to stand for the 2014 European Parliament elections at the hands of the United Left (with which it formed the Galician Left Alternative in the Parliament of Galicia), Senra was proposed as its head of list in the candidacy of the Plural Left by the leader of Anova, Xosé Manuel Beiras, and endorsed mostly by the militants. Senra was in fifth place in the candidature, being one of the six elected MEPs. After the constitution of the chamber, she joined the Confederal Group of the European United Left–Nordic Green Left (GUE-NGL), and was part of the Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development. On 4 March 2017, Lidia Senra left the Confederal Group of the GUE-NGL.

Lidia Senra Rodríguez (born 14 June 1958) is an agrarian and political unionist from Galicia. She was secretary general of the Sindicato Labrego Galego (SLG) for 18 years and, since 2014, has been a Member of the European Parliament.

María Lidia Senra Rodríguez (née le à A Pobra do Brollón) est une femme politique espagnole d'Alternative galicienne de gauche.


Setting.

The "Yakuza" games are primarily set in Kamurocho, a fictionalized version of the real life Kabukichō district in Tokyo. Throughout the series, characters visit other areas of Japan, such as Osaka in "Yakuza 2", "5" and "0", Okinawa in "Yakuza 3", Nagasugai, part of the fictional Fukuoka based on Nakasu, Tsukimino, part of the fictional Sapporo based on Susukino and Kin'eicho, part of the fictional Nagoya based on Sakae in "Yakuza 5", and Hiroshima in "Yakuza 6". The districts and towns in the games correlate to the appearance of each in real life during the year each game comes out, often being renovated and remodeled in new entries. Stores and buildings are often different from their real life counterparts, replacing them with real-life product placements or plot-important locations.

Gameplay.

All "Yakuza" games feature three distinct yet connected modes called Event, Adventure and Battle. The main character randomly encounters foes on their path, triggering an Encounter Battle. In fights, the player character uses hand-to-hand combat, using skills such as Rush Combos, grabs, throws and Finishing Moves, and some games allow the player character to select from and use multiple fighting styles. Weapons and objects can also be wielded, though firearms are rare. Winning some of these battles can result in obtaining money or items which can be sold or used to purchase equipment or a variety of items in shops, gamble, or play mini-games. Encounter Battles caused by the story can end quicker by finishing the leader of the enemies, as well as by using powerful moves called Heat Actions, which require the filling of the 'Heat Gauge' to become usable. Some of these tend to include quick time events. As the player character fights, they gain experience that can be used to increase their stats and become a stronger fighter. The newest installment in the series, "Yakuza: Like a Dragon", includes a new battle system where the player character recruits party members to fight alongside them in turn-based role-playing game battles against enemies, and to play alongside them in mini-games.  The series has a high number of entertaining sub-stories, which often complement the main story. These give the player extra EXP. There are many mini-games, which range from activities like bowling, darts, and arcade games, to much more complex ones, like professions, which can take a number of hours over the course of several sessions to complete. Examples include: A recurring superboss known as Amon appears in most of the games. Depending on the title, there may be more than one. For example, "Yakuza 5" features an Amon for each playable character, including an idol version for Haruka to face off against.

Characters.

The primary protagonist of the "Yakuza" series is Kazuma Kiryu, who is playable in every numbered entry through "Yakuza 6". Some games, such as "Yakuza 4" and "Yakuza 5", feature multiple playable characters, with players switching between them at predetermined points in the story. Beginning with "Yakuza: Like a Dragon", Ichiban Kasuga became the new series protagonist, through Kiryu continues to appear in a non-playable capacity.  Other characters have appeared as the protagonists of various spin-off titles. The samurai-era titles "Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!" and "Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!" are based around fictionalized versions of historical figures Miyamoto Musashi and Sakamoto Ryōma respectively, both of whom are modeled after Kiryu. The "Kurohyō: Ryū ga Gotoku" subseries features its own protagonist, street punk Tatsuya Ukyo, while "Judgment" follows private detective Takayuki Yagami.

Kazuma Kiryu.

is a yakuza who takes the blame for his boss' death to protect his best friend, resulting in his expulsion from the clan and a ten-year stay in prison. After leaving prison, Kiryu realizes the crime world has changed and fights against the new threats in his life. As the years pass, Kiryu attempts to put his past behind him and live a normal life, but frequently finds himself unwillingly pulled back into the world of the yakuza.

Haruka Sawamura.

Haruka Sawamura is a young orphan girl looking for her missing mother. Kiryu finds her and takes her in, and goes on to raise her as a daughter throughout the series. While she appears as a non-playable character in a majority of series entries, she makes her first playable appearance in "Yakuza 5".

Goro Majima.

Introduced as a member of the Tojo clan, Goro Majima takes an interest in Kiryu, seeing him as a rival and continually seeking to fight against him. The two gradually bond over time, and he eventually becomes one of Kiryu's staunchest allies. Majima's character is explored in more detail during the prequel Yakuza 0, in which he is a 24-year-old former Yakuza and a playable protagonist along with Kiryu. In this game, Majima has a calmer demeanor that develops during a war between multiple families in a fight for a patch of land known as the empty lot. An additional story featuring a playable Majima was added to the remake of "Yakuza 2", "Yakuza Kiwami 2".

Ichiban Kasuga.

Ichiban Kasuga is a member of Tojo Clan's Arakawa Family, who is asked by the family's patriarch Masumi Arakawa to go to prison for a murder that he didn't commit. Ichiban accepts, hoping that this will make him a hero in the Tojo Clan. Kasuga is released from prison 18 years later, only to find that nobody remembers him; he goes to confront Arakawa, who shoots him in the chest. Several days later, Kasuga wakes up half-naked under a pile of trash and eventually finds out that he is in the Yokohama district of Isezaki Ijincho.

Takayuki Yagami.

Introduced in "Judgment", Takayuki Yagami is a former defense attorney who resigned after a client he successfully defended is convicted of murder. Three years later, Yagami is a private detective in his own "Yagami Detective Agency" and investigates a serial killer whose victims' eyes are removed from their corpses.

Games.

, the "Yakuza" series includes eight main games, released in chronological order (with the exception of the prequel "Yakuza 0"), with each new installment following the events of the previous title; the series is primarily exclusive to the PlayStation series of consoles, beginning with the PlayStation 2.  There are also several spin-off titles. One, "Kenzan!", relates Kazuma Kiryu's supposed ancestor, historic figure Miyamoto Musashi from the 16th and 17th centuries; another, "Dead Souls", follows a zombie invasion of Kamurocho, the primary setting for the series; a PlayStation Portable spinoff series, "Kurohyō", is about a teenage street fighter from Kamurocho that ends up in a fight where he kills a Tojo clan yakuza.  With the exception of the "Kurohyō: Ryū ga Gotoku" titles, which were developed by Syn Sophia, all games were developed by Sega's CS1 R&D team, later renamed Ryū ga Gotoku Studio.

Main series.

The storytelling of the series is inspired by yakuza films, one of the most popular cinematic genres in Japan. The stories of the first two games in the series were supervised by novelist Hase Seishu, a writer of crime fiction. The main story is presented in chapters, much like Kinji Fukasaku's classic yakuza movie "Sympathy for the Underdog" and is expanded upon with around a hundred subplots per game. The depth this provides leads to the series having a large cast of characters, including many which recur in minor roles.

"Yakuza".

The first game follows the story of Kazuma Kiryu (桐生 一馬 Kiryū Kazuma), a formerly promising "yakuza" who is released from a ten-year prison sentence in December 2005, having taken the fall for the murder of his family's patriarch to protect his sworn brother. The Tojo Clan he was once a member of has had ¥10 billion (approximately US$100 million) stolen from their vault. The search for the money, undertaken by the entire Japanese underworld, results in Kiryu being forced back into the brutal, lawless world of the "yakuza". A mysterious young girl would lead Kiryu to the answers, if he can keep her alive.

"Yakuza 2".

In December 2006, Kazuma Kiryu has left his post as the Fourth Chairman of the Tojo Clan, Japan's most violent crime syndicate. When an all-out war erupts, Kiryu must return and uphold the honor of his former clan, with brutal clashes with rival gangs, the police, and the Korean mafia through the back alleys and neon-lit nightclubs of Tokyo and Osaka.

"Yakuza 3".

In March 2009, Kazuma Kiryu now runs the Morning Glory Orphanage in Okinawa where he raises nine children, including his surrogate daughter Haruka Sawamura. When an impending business deal threatens to tear down the orphanage, Kiryu travels from the beaches of Okinawa to the darkest side of Tokyo as he is pulled back to a life he thought he had left behind.

"Yakuza 4".

In March 2010, Kazuma Kiryu is again involved in an incident in Kamurocho. First, a man is fatally shot on the turf of the powerful Tojo Clan. Then, a man investigating the murder is stabbed to death. These events spark a full-blown struggle for money, power, and above all, honor, in a story experienced through the eyes of four characters.

"Yakuza 5".

In December 2012, the seventh chairman of the Omi Alliance is on his deathbed. His death would end the truce between the Tojo Clan and the Omi Alliance, leading to a war between the clans. To prepare, the Tojo Clan is forced to strengthen their organization by aligning themselves with older clans based in other major cities across Japan to create a new organization, rivaling that of the Omi Alliance. This new alliance would breach the old traditional barriers of clan territories, leading Daigo Dojima to head for Fukuoka.

"Yakuza 0".

In December 1988, many years before the original "Yakuza", a young Kazuma Kiryu is framed for the murder of a civilian, leading him to be hunted by members of the Tojo clan. At the same time, Goro Majima finds himself protecting a helpless blind girl whom he was ordered to assassinate, making him a target himself. The two must each attempt to protect themselves and uncover the truth, including how both incidents are tied to the mysterious "Empty Lot".

"Yakuza 6".

In 2016, after willingly spending three years in prison for his past crimes, Kazuma Kiryu is released only to discover that his adoptive daughter Haruka has disappeared, later found comatose and critically injured after a hit-and-run incident. A devastated Kiryu decides to travel to Onomichi Jingaicho in Hiroshima, hoping to find the truth behind what happened to Haruka.

"Yakuza: Like a Dragon".

In 2019, Ichiban Kasuga, a former member of the Tojo Clan's Arakawa Family who is released after 18 years in prison for a crime he did not commit, ends up in Yokohama after the police and the Omi Alliance join forces.

Spin-offs.

"Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!".

The first "Yakuza" series spin-off, "Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!" is set in Kyoto during the Edo period, in 1605, and follows the life of legendary swordsman Miyamoto Musashi. The game was released in Japan and Asia on March 6, 2008.

"Kurohyō: Ryū ga Gotoku Shinshō".

Formerly known under the working title "Project K", "Ryū ga Gotoku Shinshō" (also known as "Yakuza: Black Panther") is a spin-off that follows Tatsuya Ukyo, a street punk who gets into trouble with the Tojo Clan after accidentally killing one of their captains. Co-developed by Syn Sophia, it was released in Japan on September 22, 2010 for the PlayStation Portable.

"Yakuza: Dead Souls".

"Yakuza: Dead Souls", known as "Ryū ga Gotoku Of The End" in Japan, is a non-canon story set during a zombie outbreak in Kamurocho. It was initially scheduled for Japanese release on March 17, 2011, but the release was delayed to June 9, 2011 following the Tohoku earthquake on March 11, 2011. The game was later released in the west in March 2012.

"Kurohyō: Ryū ga Gotoku Ashura Hen".

"Kurohyō 2: Ryū ga Gotoku Ashura hen" is a sequel to "Kurohyō: Ryū ga Gotoku Shinshō". It was released in Japan on March 22, 2012.

"Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!".

"Ryū ga Gotoku Ishin!" is a spin-off set during Japan's Bakumatsu period (between 1853 and 1867) that follows the adventures of samurai Sakamoto Ryōma. It was released in Japan on PlayStation 3 and as a launch title for PlayStation 4 on February 22, 2014.

"Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise".

"Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise", known in Japan as "Hokuto ga Gotoku", is a spin-off for the PlayStation 4, based on the series "Fist of the North Star". The game was released in Japan on February 22, 2018, and worldwide on October 2, 2018. This is the first "Ryu ga Gotoku" title since "Yakuza" to release with an English dub, and the first overall with dual audio options. Kazuma Kiryu appears as an equippable DLC skin, while other "Yakuza" characters make minor cameo appearances.

"Ryu ga Gotoku Online".

"Ryu ga Gotoku Online" is a free-to-play spin-off released on Android, iOS, and PC on November 21, 2018. The game features both Kazuma Kiryu and new protagonist Ichiban Kasuga.

"Judgment".

"Judgment", known in Japan as "Judge Eyes: Shinigami no Yuigon", is a legal thriller set in the "Yakuza" world, in Kamurocho, and follows private detective Takayuki Yagami, who investigates a serial murder case. It stars Japanese actor Takuya Kimura. Sega released a demo of "Judgment" on the Japanese PlayStation Network. The game employs a fighting system similar to the one from "Yakuza 0" where players can change into different styles. Additionally, it features an investigation mode where the player has to find traces of the criminal. It was released for PlayStation 4 on, with a Western release following in June 2019.

Rereleases and remakes.

"Ryū ga Gotoku 1&2 HD Edition".

A high-definition remaster of the first two games in the series was released in Japan on for PlayStation 3. The high-definition remaster was ported to Wii U and released in Japan on under the title "Ryū ga Gotoku 1&2 HD for Wii U". Both versions of the compilation were only released in Japan.

"Yakuza Kiwami".

"Yakuza Kiwami", a remake of the first "Yakuza" game, was released in Japan on January 21, 2016 for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4; the PS4 version received a Western release in August 2017. The two versions were the top two best-selling games in Japan during their release week, selling 103,256 copies for PlayStation 4 and 60,427 for PlayStation 3. The game was later released for Microsoft Windows via Steam on February 19, 2019.

"Yakuza Kiwami 2".

"Yakuza Kiwami 2", a remake of "Yakuza 2", was released for the PlayStation 4 on December 7, 2017 in Japan, and in North America and Europe on August 28, 2018. The game runs on the Dragon Engine, which was previously used in "Yakuza 6: The Song of Life". The remake also adds new story chapters that feature Goro Majima as a playable character, continuing stories of his that were previously established in "Yakuza 0".

"Yakuza Remastered Collection".

A compilation rerelease, titled "The Yakuza Remastered Collection", was announced and released digitally in English-speaking territories on August 20, 2019 for the PlayStation 4. The collection contains the remastered versions of "Yakuza 3", "Yakuza 4", and "Yakuza 5", which were released in Japan individually between 2018 and 2019. The remasters feature re-translated game scripts and content removed from the original English releases restored, though some content was removed from all versions, such as a set of missions in "Yakuza 3" featuring a transphobic character depiction. At the time of the collection's launch, only "Yakuza 3" was available; "Yakuza 4" was released on October 29, 2019, and "Yakuza 5" was released on February 11, 2020. A physical release containing all three games was released alongside "Yakuza 5" with a collectible PlayStation 3 styled case for "Yakuza 5", which came out digitally in the west.

Production.

Toshihiro Nagoshi brought his story for "Yakuza" to scenario writer Hase Seishu two years before the game started development. Seishu had been a video game player since the days of "Space Invaders", but over the past four or five years he had lost interest, as he was less concerned with 3D visuals and gameplay than he was with story. "Yakuza" caught his attention though, and he decided to accept the project even though it came at the busiest point of his professional writing career. Nagoshi wanted players to get enjoyment from merely walking through Kamurocho. Touching upon the game's name, Nagoshi revealed that it was his concoction. The original Japanese name "Ryū ga Gotoku" translates to "Like a Dragon", as Nagoshi felt that dragons have a strong image about them, and that when players sample it, they would, as the title suggests, get a feel for the strength and manliness of the main character.

Marketing.

The series is known for its expanding video game tie-in and product placement. An example of this is the Don Quijote discount store, whose in-game stores are based on the stores in the equivalent real-life districts. This strategy allows to support the game's costly production and at the same time gives a realistic aspect to the environments which are based on real locations in Tokyo, Osaka and Naha. In promoting the game, Sega hired Takashi Miike, who directed the live-action "Like a Dragon" film. There were no problems in doing this due to a member from the team who was originally from the film industry who worked with Toei Company on V-cinema. Sega went to a lot of companies to try to get brands into the game, like car companies and fashion companies, but because of the nature of the "Yakuza" game, they were turned down by most of them. However, the company Suntory accepted them. Suntory wanted to sell whiskey, and they felt the game's demographic and the whiskey-drinking demographic would mesh nicely.

Voice cast.

The game's original voice actors are Japanese celebrities which can be voice actors, singers, "tarento", film or TV series actors, radio or television celebrities. Cabaret girls and alike characters have featured models, gravure idols and adult actresses as voice actresses and likenesses. Since the 2008 spin-off "Ryū ga Gotoku Kenzan!", the game series' main characters have their face modeled in 3D after their voice actors. As in the "Virtua Fighter" series, Western main and minor characters do not speak in Japanese, but rather in English. Minor Chinese and Korean characters also often speak their native tongues.  The first game in the series to be released to the United States and PAL regions was dubbed in English. However, due to criticism of the English voice acting, each subsequent Western release has retained the original Japanese voice acting. Later spinoff titles such as "Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise" and "Judgment" have featured dual language voiceover support.  The PlayStation 3 installments' realistic character design is based on Cyberware 3D scanner, Softimage XSI 6.5 3D models and Sega's Magical V-Engine.

Localization changes.

When the series was internationalized and localized to fit the Western market several changes occurred. These include changing the title of the game ("Like a Dragon" 龍が如く, "ryū ga gotoku" became "Yakuza") and the names of several characters (Shintaro Kazama is Shintaro Fuma, Akira Nishikiyama is Akira Nishiki, Futoshi Shimano is Futo Shimano, Sai no Hanaya is Kage).  "Yakuza 4" adjusted several of these localisation changes, following criticism of the previous games, and in particular the content excised from the Western release of "Yakuza 3". Producer Noguchi noted that there was an attempt to "bring a more complete localization that was more faithful to the source material". This included reversing several name changes. In addition, some conventions were changed; in previous Western localisations, protagonist Kazuma Kiryu had been referred to primarily by his first name. In "Yakuza 4", he is referred to primarily by his family name, Kiryu, which more closely reflects the original dialogue.

Music.

The three "Yakuza" original soundtrack albums are composed by Hidenori Shoji, Hideki Sakamoto "et alii" and are published by Wave Master. Additional soundtrack features songs from Japanese artists Crazy Ken Band, Zeebra, Ketsumeishi and Eikichi Yazawa.

Adaptations.

The "Yakuza" franchise includes various types of merchandise and adaptations outside of the video games. This includes a direct-to-video movie, a feature film, original soundtracks, official guides, Kamutai Magazines (pre-order campaign limited book) and other licensed products such as Cropped Heads long tee shirts and parkas based on main characters tattoos, limited edition PlayStation 3 console packs, Kubrick toys and action figures manufactured by Maitan.

Books.

With the original game in 2005, Sega created a pre-order campaign limited item called "Kamutai Magazine" (カムタイマガジン). This color book was a monography dedicated to the game with Mai, a sub-scenario female character, as the cover girl. This character's physical aspect was inspired by its voice actor, Mihiro, a Japanese adult video idol acting in porno films. Each new game release coincides with a new "Kamutai Magazine" issue featuring a voice actress as cover girl. Hence this December 2005 issue was followed by a December 2006 issue (cover girl is Japanese porn star Nana Natsume), a March 2008 issue (cover girl is Taiwanese porn star Yinling of Joytoy) and a February 2009 issue (cover girls are Shizuka Mutou, Sayaka Araki and Rina Sakurai). The fifth issue was bundled with "Ryu Ga Gotoku 4" and released in March 2010.

Original video.

Takeshi Miyasaka directed an original video during the promotion period for the western release of the game which depicted Kazuma, Nishiki and Yumi growing up at the Sunflower Orphanage and leaving for Tokyo. This short film called "" (龍が如く 〜序章〜, "ryu ga gotoku -joshou-") serve as a prequel and set up the events which take place in the game.

Feature film.

A film adaptation was released in Japanese theaters on March 2, 2007, called "Like a Dragon: The Movie" (龍が如く 劇場版, "ryu ga gotoku: gekijoban"). It is based on the first installment of the series and was directed by Takashi Miike. The movie premiered in the United States on June 23 at IFC theater. American distributor Tokyo Shock, a Media Blasters affiliate, released a licensed DVD on February 23, 2010.

Radio dramas.

Since September 2008, Japanese voice actors from the "Yakuza" series, including Takaya Kuroda (Kazuma Kiryu) and Hidenari Ugaki (Goro Majima), are running a radio drama which is known as "Ryu Ga Gotoku Presents Kamuro-cho Radio Station" (龍が如くPresents神室町RADIOSTATION). The second season "Shin Kamuro-cho Radio Station" (新・神室町RADIOSTATION), which covers 2009~2010, is ongoing with back number episodes available for download as podcasts. Past episodes from the 2008~2009 season, "Kamuro-cho Radio Station" (神室町RADIOSTATION), are also available as archived podcasts.

Web TV.

The "Kamurocho Caba Jou TV" (神室町キャバ嬢 T V) is a Japanese web television dedicated to the series's cabaret girls. Main contents are audition and girls profile, but it can also be related to other aspect of the game series; for example volume 15 focuses on its soundtrack artists. All shows, called "volumes", are archived within the web TV's official website.

Reception.

The original game was heavily acclaimed in Japan for combining innovative gameplay with cinema-like storytelling and character development on the back of Japan's criminal underground. Weekly Famitsu gave high scores to the series, "Yakuza" scored 37/40 (92.5/100), "Yakuza 2" scored 38/40 (95/100), "Ryū Ga Gotoku Kenzan!" scored 37/40 (92,5/100), "Yakuza 3" scored 38/40 (95/100) and "Yakuza 4" scored 38/40 (95/100). "Yakuza 5" scored (40/40) which has the highest score out of all of the "Yakuza" installments. "Yakuza 6: The Song of Life" scored (39/40).  Each installment earned an excellence award at the Japan Game Awards and had a PlayStation the Best re-release in both Japanese, Asian and Korean markets. The Japanese entertainment industry gave "Yakuza 3" the "Award for Excellence" in the 2009 Japan Game Awards "Games of the Year Division" for its "dramatic story development, freedom of the story and the graphics elaborated up to the details of the work. In addition, amusement found in every portion of the game including the vast number of sub-stories and mini games. This work was awarded the prize for the high quality of entertainment". In 2010, the Japan Game Awards once again gave a "Yakuza" series game the "Award for Excellence". "Yakuza 4" won due to "a rich story with a high degree of freedom that is developed from the different perspectives of the 4 characters. There are also many play spots that boast several sub-stories and mini games. The astounding quality and volume provide a high level of entertainment and was the reason for granting this award". As the protagonist of the series, Kazuma Kiryu is often recognized as a PlayStation mascot.  The western localized versions were released between one and three years after the originals and received generally favorable reviews.

Sales.

The series sold 3.2 million games worldwide as of 2009 and 4 million copies as of September 2010; the best sellers being the first two games which sold between 500,000 – 1 million worldwide, each winning the PlayStation Gold Award. "Yakuza 3" sold 500,000 copies in the Asian markets as of 2010, also winning SCEJ's PlayStation Gold Award. However, after "Yakuza 4", Sega said that sales were slow in North America and Europe due to "the adverse market condition", noting "sluggish personal consumption" in those regions.  By June 2015, the "Yakuza" series sold over 7 million units worldwide. As of 2019, the series has sold over 12 million copies.

Yakuza, known in Japan as, is an action-adventure beat 'em up video game franchise created, owned and published by Sega. The series originated from Toshihiro Nagoshi's desire to create a game that would tell the way of life of the yakuza. Nagoshi initially struggled to find a platform for the project, until Sony showed interest in the prospect.

Yakuza, connue au Japon sous le titre, est une série de jeux vidéo d'action-aventure issue de la franchise du même nom, créée et détenue par Sega.


History.

"Tongki fuka akū hergen".

According to the "" (; ), in 1599 the Jurchen leader Nurhaci decided to convert the Mongolian alphabet to make it suitable for the Manchu people. He decried the fact that while illiterate Han Chinese and Mongolians could understand their respective languages when read aloud, that was not the case for the Manchus, whose documents were recorded by Mongolian scribes. Overriding the objections of two advisors named Erdeni and G'ag'ai, he is credited with adapting the Mongolian script to Manchu. The resulting script was known as () — the "script without dots and circles".

"Tongki fuka sindaha hergen".

In 1632, Dahai added diacritical marks to clear up a lot of the ambiguity present in the original Mongolian script; for instance, a leading "k", "g", and "h" are distinguished by the placement of no diacritical mark, a dot, and a circle, respectively. This revision created the standard script, known as () — the "script with dots and circles". As a result, the Manchu alphabet contains little ambiguity. Recently discovered manuscripts from the 1620s make clear, however, that the addition of dots and circles to Manchu script began before their supposed introduction by Dahai.  Dahai also added the "tulergi hergen" ("foreign/outer letters"): ten graphemes to facilitate Manchu to be used to write Chinese, Sanskrit, and Tibetan loanwords. Previously, these non-Manchu sounds did not have corresponding letters in Manchu. Sounds that were transliterated included the aspirated sounds k' (Chinese pinyin: k, ), k (g, ), x (h, ); ts' (c, ); ts (ci, ); sy (si, ); dz (z, ); c'y (chi, ); j'y (zhi, ); and ž (r, ).

19th century – present.

By the middle of the nineteenth century, there were three styles of writing Manchu in use: standard script ("ginggulere hergen"), semi-cursive script ("gidara hergen"), and cursive script ("lasihire hergen"). Semicursive script had less spacing between the letters, and cursive script had rounded tails.  The Manchu alphabet was also used to write Chinese. A modern example is in "Manchu: a Textbook for Reading Documents", which has a comparative table of romanizations of Chinese syllables written in Manchu letters, Hànyǔ Pīnyīn and Wade–Giles. Using the Manchu script to transliterate Chinese words is a source of loanwords for the Xibe language. Several Chinese-Manchu dictionaries contain Chinese characters transliterated with Manchu script. The Manchu versions of the "Thousand Character Classic" and "Dream of the Red Chamber" are actually the Manchu transcription of all the Chinese characters.  In the "Imperial Liao-Jin-Yuan Three Histories National Language Explanation" ( ) commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor, the Manchu alphabet is used to write Evenki (Solon) words. In the "Pentaglot Dictionary", also commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor, the Manchu alphabet is used to transcribe Tibetan and Chagatai (related to Uyghur) words.

Method of teaching.

Despite the alphabetic nature of its script, Manchu was traditionally taught as a syllabary. Like the Mongols, Manchu children were taught to memorize all the syllables in the Manchu language separately as they learned to write, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels. When learning the language, Manchus were taught to say right away ""la", "lo"", etc., instead of saying ""l", "a" — "la""; ""l", "o" — "lo""; etc. As a result, the syllables contained in their syllabary do not contain all possible combinations that can be formed with their letters. They made, for instance, no such use of the consonants "l", "m", "n" and "r" as English; hence if the Manchu letters "s", "m", "a", "r" and "t" were joined in that order, a Manchu would not pronounce them as "smart".  Today, the opinion on whether it is alphabet or syllabic in nature is still split between different experts. In China, it is considered syllabic, and Manchu is still taught in this manner, while in the West it is treated like an alphabet. The alphabetic approach is used mainly by foreigners who want to learn the language, as studying the Manchu script as a syllabary takes longer.

Punctuation.

The Manchu alphabet has two kinds of punctuation: two dots (), analogous to a period; and one dot (), analogous to a comma. However, with the exception of lists of nouns being reliably punctuated by single dots, punctuation in Manchu is inconsistent, and therefore not of much use as an aid to readability.  The equivalent of the question mark in Manchu script consists of some special particles, written at the end of the question.

Jurchen script.

The Jurchens of a millennium ago became the ancestors of the Manchus when Nurhaci united the Jianzhou Jurchens (1593–1618) and his son subsequently renamed the consolidated tribes as the "Manchu". Throughout this period, the Jurchen language evolved into what we know as the Manchu language. Its script has no relation to the Manchu alphabet, however. The Jurchen script was instead derived from the Khitan script, itself derived from Chinese characters.

Unicode.

The Manchu alphabet is included in the Unicode block for Mongolian.

The Manchu alphabet () is the alphabet used to write the now nearly-extinct Manchu language. A similar script is used today by the Xibe people, who speak a language considered either as a dialect of Manchu or a closely related, mutually intelligible language. It is written vertically from top to bottom, with columns proceeding from left to right.

L'alphabet mandchou (mandchou :, translit. Möllendorff : ', taiqing : ', Grand dictionnaire : ) est un alphabet dérivé à partir de 1599 du mongol bitchig, l'écriture traditionnelle mongole, elle-même dérivée de l'alphabet ouïghour, pour les besoins de retranscription phonétique de la langue mandchoue, par le gouvernement chinois mandchou de la Dynastie Qing. Il est basé sur l'écriture mongole traditionnelle.


College.

Trost attended Saint Louis University where he led the Billikins to the 1969 and 1970 NCAA championships. In 1967, Trost's freshman year, St. Louis made it to the title game, which was ended due to weather with the score 0–0. St. Louis and Michigan State were declared co-champions that season. In 1969, Trost earned NCAA Tournament Offensive MVP honors. Trost was also a two-time Hermann Trophy recipient as the collegiate player of the year in 1969 and 1970. Ironically, he was only selected as a first team All American in 1970. On September 30, 2009, Trost was named to SLU's Half-Century Team.

Olympics and national teams.

While Trost finished his collegiate career in 1970, he chose not to turn pro in order to be eligible for the 1972 Summer Olympics. The U.S. began qualification for the games in 1971 and Trost was an integral part of the Olympic team, playing eight of the U.S.'s eleven games. He scored twice, first in the August 22, 1971 3–1 victory over and the next game, a September 18 1–0 victory over El Salvador. Trost played two of the three games at the Munich Olympics, the 0–0 tie with Morocco and the crushing 0–7 defeat at the hands of West Germany.  Trost continued playing for the national team after the Olympics. He earned his first cap, and scored his only goal, with the senior team on August 12, 1973, in a 1–0 victory over Poland. He went on to captain the U.S. through the failed 1974 and 1978 World Cup qualifying campaigns. His last game with the national team came against Portugal in Lisbon on Sept. 20, 1978.

NASL.

In 1973, Trost began his professional playing career with the St. Louis Stars of the North American Soccer League. He had initially been drafted by the Stars in the 1968 college draft; however, the near-collapse of the NASL and Trost's desire to maintain hi amateur eligibility precluded his signing with the team prior to 1973. After the 1977 season, the Stars gave up on St Louis and moved to Anaheim, California, to play the 1978 season as the California Surf. Despite leading the Surf in scoring, the team traded him to the Seattle Sounders in January 1979 for Tony Chursky. Trost played the 1979 season with the Sounders, scoring only one goal in eleven games. On 28 September 1979, Trost left the Sounders and the NASL. During his time in the league, he was a second team All Star in 1976 and received honorable mention in 1973 and 1977. Trost ended his NASL career number 72 on the NASL points list with 100 off 38 goals and 24 assists.

MISL.

After leaving the NASL, Trost played a single season for the New York Arrows of Major Indoor Soccer League in 1979–1980. In 1981, the St. Louis Steamers hired Trost to replace Pat McBride who left the team in a contract dispute during the 1980–1981 post-season. Trost continued coaching the Steamers during the 1981–1982 season when he took the team to the MISL championship series, which it lost to Trost's old team, the New York Arrows. When the team began the 1982–1983 season 5–9, Trost was fired on January 4, 1983.

High school coaching.

Trost began his coaching career with the McCluer North High School (Florissant, Missouri) boys' soccer team, while playing for the St. Louis Stars. In 1974, he took the team to the Missouri state championship. He currently coaches the Parkway South High School boys' and girls' soccer teams. In February 2016, Trost announced he will retire from teaching and as head coach at Parkway South. He is still active in the St. Louis soccer community as he continues to coach soccer camps in the area.  In 1994, he was inducted into the Saint Louis University Athletics Hall of Fame. In 2006, he was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame.

Alan Trost (born February 7, 1949) is a retired U.S. soccer midfielder. He played collegiate soccer at Saint Louis University where he won the 1969 and 1970 Hermann Trophy as the player of the year. His professional career includes years in both the North American Soccer League (NASL) and Major Indoor Soccer League (MISL). He also was a member of the 1972 U.S. Olympic soccer team. He went on to earn 14 caps with the U.S. national team, scoring one goal. He coached professionally with the St. Louis Steamers of MISL and continues to coach youth soccer. He is a member of the National Soccer Hall of Fame.

Alan Philip Trost (né le à Saint-Louis dans le Missouri) est un joueur américain de soccer reconverti comme entraîneur. Il remporta en 1969 et en 1970 le Trophée Hermann. Il participa aux Jeux olympiques 1972 et a été international américain à quatorze reprises, inscrivant un but. Il est membre du National Soccer Hall of Fame.


History.

The school opened on September 14, 1908. Its founding was urged by Joseph Pulitzer, following lobbying by Walter Williams, the editor of the Columbia (Missouri) Herald and a university curator. Williams became the official founder. This came 13 years after the defeat in the Missouri State Senate of a bill to establish a chair of journalism at the University of Missouri. Previously newspapers usually required apprenticeships. The Missouri Press Association began supporting the proposal in 1896.  The first day's class published the first issue of the "University Missourian," which was to become the "Columbia Missourian". Williams was the first dean. Among the original faculty members was Charles Griffith Ross, who would become press secretary for President Harry S. Truman. It was initially based in Switzler Hall.  In 1910, the school began its Journalism Week celebration. On March 10, Kappa Tau Alpha was founded.  In 1919, Jay Holcomb Neff Hall, the first building formally assigned to the school, was built by a donation from Andrew Neff, a 1913 journalism graduate, in honor of his late father, a former Kansas City, Missouri mayor and publisher. At the time, it was the largest donation in the university history.  In 1921, the school offered the world's first master's degree in journalism. In 1930, it created the Missouri Honor Medal for Distinguished Service in Journalism. In 1934, it offered the world's first Doctor of Philosophy degree in journalism. In 1936, the school began offering broadcast courses in conjunction with KFRU, the radio station owned by the "St. Louis Star-Times".  In 1944, Professor Clifton C. Edom and his wife Vi, in association with the school, developed the "News Pictures of Year Competition and Exhibition," now "Pictures of the Year International". A year later, they started the "College Photograph of the Year" program.  In 1953, the university launched KOMU-TV, the only university-owned full-power commercial television station in the US, used as a training lab for students who provide its news programming. In 1958, the school opened the Freedom of Information Center, the world's first academic center dedicated to the topic. In 1971, the school switched its radio news programming to KBIA, a National Public Radio station.  In 1957, George McElroy, a pioneering black journalist from Texas, became the first African American to receive a master's degree in journalism from the university.  In 1981, the school was ranked the top journalism school in the country, under dean Roy M. Fisher. In February 2004, the Donald W. Reynolds Foundation awarded the School $31 million, the largest private donation ever to the University of Missouri, to create The Reynolds Journalism Institute. In 2008, the Reynolds Institute opened, offering advanced studies of journalism and its role in democratic societies.  In 2010, the school revamped its curriculum so undergraduate students could choose from an array of more than 30 interest areas. These are designed to build expertise in areas in which journalism and strategic communication majors.

Facilities.

The Missouri School of Journalism has eight buildings dedicated to the practice and teaching of journalism. These are Jay H. Neff Hall (1920), Walter Williams Hall and the Journalism Arch (1937), KOMU-TV (1953), Neff Annex (1962), Gannett Hall (1979), Lee Hills Hall (1995) and the Donald W. Reynolds Journalism Institute (2008).  The classrooms and equipment include two high-tech design labs; three writing labs; a digital television editing lab; two major auditoriums with state-of-the-art audiovisual capabilities; an electronic photojournalism laboratory; an advanced computer lab for producing Web-based text, audio and video materials; more than 550 computers; and wireless network access. The Futures Lab and Technology Demonstration Center at the Reynolds Journalism Institute allow students to work alongside professionals and researchers to discover new ways to serve democracy through journalism.

Media outlets.

At Missouri, real-world media experience is part of the curriculum. As part of the "Missouri Method" of hands-on journalism education, undergraduate and graduate students work at the School's community-based real-media outlets. News is delivered using traditional, digital, online and mobile formats. The outlets include the "Columbia Missourian", a daily general-circulation newspaper and website; KOMU-TV, the NBC affiliate for mid-Missouri; KBIA-FM, an NPR member station; "Vox", a monthly entertainment magazine; Missouri Business Alert, a digital newsroom that publishes the top business news from across the state; Missouri Digital News, a state government reporting program based in Jefferson City; "Global Journalist", a converged newsroom producing digital, broadcast, print and mobile content for local and global audiences; Mojo Ad, a student-staffed agency that focuses on the 18-to-24 age Youth and Young Adult (YAYA) market; and AdZou, the strategic communication capstone agency.

Reynolds Journalism Institute.

The Reynolds Journalism Institute (RJI) is a center for researching and testing new models of journalism in an era of technological advances. RJI makes the most of its location at the Missouri School of Journalism and the extensive resources at the university. It also takes advantage of the collective creativity of visiting professionals and researchers.  RJI was launched in 2004 with an initial grant of $31 million from the Donald W. Reynolds Foundation. In conjunction with the centennial celebration of the School, it dedicated its world headquarters on September 12, 2008. This facility has state-of-the-art resources to test and demonstrate new technologies, experiment with convergence news production and delivery systems, and conduct real-time and virtual seminars and conferences.  RJI's work crosses diverse specialties within journalism, including media convergence, editorial content and methods, the evolution of advertising, innovation in management and the impact of new technologies. It also includes varied fields on campus such as law, computer science, marketing, education and other disciplines.  In the Futures Lab, interdisciplinary teams of journalism, business, and computer science students work together to create the future of journalism.

Endowed chairs.

The School has 10 endowed chairs:  1982: Goldenson Chair in Local Broadcasting The Goldenson Chair in Local Broadcasting helps develop research programs and educate communities through local broadcast stations. The chair is named for Leonard Goldenson (1905–1999), who founded the American Broadcasting Company.  1986: Meredith Chair in Service Journalism The Meredith Corporation, based in Des Moines, Iowa, established an endowed chair in service journalism at the Missouri School of Journalism in 1986.  1995: Lee Hills Chair in Free-Press Studies Lee Hills had a long and varied newspaper career; he worked as a reporter, foreign correspondent, news editor, editorial writer, editor, managing editor, executive editor, and publisher and CEO of two major newspapers, the "Detroit Free Press" and the "Miami Herald". Hills, who attended the Missouri School of Journalism between 1927 and 1929, was also the first chairman and CEO of Knight-Ridder Newspapers.  1997: Knight Chair in Journalism The John S. and James L. Knight Foundation helped fund an endowed chair and program in editing, recognizing editors as central to the success of a newspaper. The Knight Chair in Journalism and the Knight Center for Editing Excellence, which stimulates innovations in teaching and research on editing, was partially funded by the state of Missouri, which provided a $1.5 million matching grant. Programming at the Knight Center is aimed at educating and assisting high school students, undergraduates, graduate students and mid-career professionals.  1997: Maxine Wilson Gregory Chair in Journalism Research Maxine Wilson Gregory, an alumna of the Missouri School of Journalism, died in New York City in 1995. She earned a bachelor's degree from the University of Kansas, after which she attended MU, graduating in 1930. Gregory worked as an editor on various book projects after graduation, and a bequest made after her death was used to fund the endowed chair that bears her name.  1998: Houston Harte Chair in Journalism The family of Houston Harte, co-founder of the Harte-Hanks newspaper group, established the Houston Harte Chair in Journalism. Harte, who graduated in 1915, bought his first newspaper while still a student at the Missouri School of Journalism. At the time of his death, he was executive chairman of Harte-Hanks Newspapers, Inc., which owned 19 newspapers and one television station. The Houston Harte Chair works as a teaching editor at the "Columbia Missourian", the general-circulation daily newspaper staffed by professors and students.  1998: Curtis B. Hurley Chair in Public Affairs Reporting When Edgar A. McLaughlin graduated from the Missouri School of Journalism in 1931, he said, "If I ever make any money, I am going to do something for this place." Years later a gift from the E.A. and Lucile McLaughlin estate recognized Curtis B. Hurley, the country editor who, in 1927, both encouraged McLaughlin to study journalism at Missouri, and also lent him $400 to do so. McLaughlin credited Hurley and his experience at the School of Journalism with turning his life around, and left the bulk of his estate to the School.  2000: Missouri Chair in Community Newspaper Management More than 100 community publishers, alumni of the school, and friends of Missouri Press Association and the school made contributions to make this endowed chair possible. The Chair in Community Newspaper Management is a joint effort by the School and the MPA to strengthen and promote the teaching of community newspapering.  2000: Society of American Business Editors and Writers Endowed Missouri Chair in Business and Financial Journalism The SABEW Chair in Business and Financial Journalism is a joint effort by the School and the Society of American Business Editors and Writers to strengthen and promote the teaching of business journalism. Headquartered at the Missouri School of Journalism, SABEW is an organization of more than 3,200 dedicated business and financial writers and editors.  2008: Donald W. Reynolds Endowed Chair in Business Journalism The Donald W. Reynolds Foundation awarded the School a $2 million grant to establish the Donald W. Reynolds Endowed Chair in Business Journalism in 2008. The chair is the second in business journalism at the School, joining the Society of American Business Editors and Writers Chair, established in 2000. Working with other faculty and staff of Reynolds Journalism Institute, the Reynolds Chair helps develop, test and write about new digital models of journalism and advertising.

Student groups.

Students can participate in more than a dozen student groups, most affiliated with national organizations. These include AAF Mizzou, American Copy Editors Society; Association for Women in Sports Media; Journalism Ambassadors; Journalism Student Council; Kappa Alpha Mu; Magazine Club; National Association of Black Journalists (Alé Chapter); Online News Association; Queer Media Association (QMA); Radio Television Digital News Association; Society of Professional Journalists; the Student Society of News Design; and Women in Media.

Professional organizations.

Ten professional organizations and programs affiliated with the School allow students to interact with working journalists and news-related organizations:

The Missouri School of Journalism at the University of Missouri in Columbia is a journalism school which is one of the oldest formal journalism schools in the world. The school provides academic education and practical training in all areas of journalism and strategic communication for undergraduate and graduate students across several media including television and radio broadcasting, newspapers, magazines, photography, and new media. The school also supports a robust advertising and public relations curriculum.

Le Missouri School of Journalism de l'université du Missouri-Columbia à Columbia est une école de journalisme fondée en 1908, la plus ancienne des États-Unis et dans le monde avec l’École de Journalisme de Paris (EJS) créé en 1899. L'école dispense un enseignement universitaire et une formation pratique dans les domaines du journalisme, les communications et les médias, notamment la télévision, la radio, les journaux, la photographie, internet et les nouveaux médias.


History.

Formation.

The Azure Window developed through sea erosion of a cliff face. The progress starts with an initial notch resulting from wave action. This space devoid of rock then causes tensile stresses that lead to the formation of a vertical joint extending upwards from the notch. This joint would progressively become wider, first forming a cave and eventually an arch. The end of the lifecycle of the arch is reached when erosion finally progressed so far that the roof of the arch gets heavier than the pillars can support. It is not known exactly when the arch came to being, but the entire process is believed to have taken around 500 years.  The arch is not mentioned in 17th- and 18th-century descriptions of the Dwejra area, which was already famous due to the nearby Fungus Rock, so it probably did not exist then. Giovanni Francesco Abela's 1647 book "Della Descrizione di Malta" and De Soldanis' 1746 manuscript "Il Gozo Antico-Moderno e Sacro-Profano" both mention a "Tieqa Żerqa" (written archaically as "Tieka Szerka") or "Għar iż-Żerqa", but this referred to the cave entrance to the nearby Inland Sea. Therefore, it is likely that when the Azure Window formed it inherited its name from this other cave.  The earliest known record of the Azure Window is in an 1824 illustration of the nearby Dwejra Tower. However, it is shown in the background of the image, and it is unclear whether it was still a cave or if it had already developed into an arch. A pencil drawing by Lt Col. Richard Irton of a fully formed Azure Window probably dates to 1830. In 1866, artist Edward Lear visited Dwejra and stated in his journal that "the coast scenery is not nearly as fine as that of Malta." The earliest recorded photographs of the natural arch were probably taken by Richard Ellis, and they are found in an album belonging to Michael Dundon dated 26 July 1879. The photo by Ellis was published in a book in 2011, showing contrasting difference with 20th and 21st century photos.  Throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries, the arch was one of Malta's main tourist landmarks, and it was a popular backdrop in photographs. It was included in a Special Area of Conservation, and in 1998, included on Malta's tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites, along with the rest of Dwejra Bay.

Deterioration and partial collapses.

Between the 1980s and the 2000s, parts of the top slab of the arch collapsed, significantly widening the arch. A large slab of rock on the outer edge of the cavity collapsed in April 2012, further increasing the size of the window. Another rock fall occurred in March 2013. Four months later a geological and geotechnical report was prepared by consultant Peter Gatt, who represented local firm Geoscience Consulting Ltd, and it determined that the arch was "relatively stable and will continue to remain so for a number of years", and that there was no "imminent" risk of collapse, although it warned that rock falls will continue and it might be hazardous for people to go close to the arch.  Further rock falls and fissures were reported in subsequent years. Fishermen avoided going near the arch with their boats, and warning signs were put up to discourage people from walking on top. However, many people still went on the arch regularly, and videos were uploaded on YouTube of people cliff diving from the window as rocks were falling down.  In March 2016, Gatt warned that the illegal use of explosives at the nearby Inland Sea could have an effect on the already weak structure of the nearby Azure Window. These comments were made in the wake of an investigation by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority which revealed that explosive material was "probably used" to do rock cutting in the tunnel leading to the Inland Sea. It was suspected that the illegal cutting was aimed at widening the entrance to allow larger boats to sail through.  In December 2016, an emergency order was published prohibiting people from going on the arch, trespassers facing a fine of €1500. However, this law was not enforced, and visitors were still walking on top of the arch days before it collapsed in March 2017.

Final collapse.

The arch collapsed at about 9:40 am local time (8:40 am UTC) on 8 March 2017 after a period of heavy storms, leaving nothing visible above the water. The pillar gave way first, causing the top part of the arch to collapse along with it. The pillar shattered into large chunks of rock as it collapsed. The collapse was said to have been inevitable. The collapse was reported in both local and international media. Prime Minister Joseph Muscat and Leader of the Opposition Simon Busuttil both tweeted about the collapse of the Azure Window, and it also became the subject of many Internet memes on Maltese social media. The Environment and Resources Authority called the collapse a major loss to Malta's natural heritage. The Church's Environment Commission said that the collapse should make the Maltese people reflect on their national heritage. The San Lawrenz local council urged the government to establish a management plan for the entire Dwejra area, which includes several other notable features despite the loss of the Azure Window.  On the day of the collapse, police appealed to the public not to visit the area. Diving in the area was temporarily banned, although this was not enforced and footage of the remains of the arch underwater emerged a few days after the collapse. The remains of the arch have formed a number of features which have been called a "divers' paradise", although Transport Malta and the Environment and Resources Authority still advised the public to keep away from the area until surveys and inspections are carried out.  Following the collapse, Gatt said that following his report, he had requested the arch and pillar to be monitored over a long period of time, in a bid to study the area and establish whether the pillar supporting the arch was moving, "but there wasn't any follow-up and the condition of the pillar remained unknown."

Aftermath.

On 9 March 2017, the government announced that it would launch an international initiative on the future of Dwejra. The options being considered include leaving the site as is, retrieving the remains of the window from the seabed and exhibiting them, creating an artificial or an augmented reality reconstruction of the window, establishing an interpretation centre or creating an art installation at the site. The government stated that the rock formation will not be rebuilt. The only response to this international call was by Gozitan developer Joseph Portelli, proposing to construct a hotel within a quarry close to the site of the Azure Window. The project would also include an interpretation area, a diving centre, an interactive museum, a sky observation centre and transport facilities. In August 2018 it was announced that the government does not plan to proceed with this proposal.  In late 2018, the Russian architect Svetozar Andreev of Hoteì Russia, in collaboration with Elena Britanishskaya, announced a proposal to construct a steel structure on the site of the Azure Window. Entitled "The Heart of Malta", the project consists of a structure with polygonal mirrored steel faces, having its size and proportions based on that of the former natural arch. The structure is to include five floors containing over of exhibition space, with each floor representing a period of Maltese history. A central spiral will connect the floors together. This proposal drew mixed reactions from the public. Most respondents to online polls were in favour. However, the project has also been criticized since the area is a marine park and the intervention would destroy the underwater remains of the original Azure Window. Moreover, the foundations would have to rest in the sea at a depth of over, and the site is prone to heavy storms.  In August 2019, a new street in the nearby village of San Lawrenz was named "Triq it-Tieqa tad-Dwejra" (Dwejra Window Street) in memory of the natural landmark.

Geology.

The Azure Window was a natural arch with a height of about and a span of around. It was at the tip of a headland known as Dwejra Point. The arch was within the Lower Coralline Limestone Formation, a succession of sedimentary rocks that is widespread on the Maltese Islands and was deposited during the Oligocene. The Formation is subdivided into two Members, Member A and Member B. Member A formed the arch's base and pillars, and Member B formed much of the unsupported top of the arch.  Member A, ca. 20 m in thickness, mainly consists of the fossils of coralline red algae within a calcite cement. At the arch, it included four facies, numbered A-1 to A-4, with A-2 being the thickest. Deposition of these sediments was slow and occurred in water depths > with moderate currents.  Member B was ca. in thickness and included five facies, numbered B-1 to B-5. B-1 forms a thin layer of white limestone between Member A and the rest of Member B which is rather soft and therefore more easily eroded, it therefore formed a depression around the window. It was deposited in shallow water with high wave action. B-2 and B-3 formed a -thick bed of horizontal and cross-bedded packstone to grainstone, which are porous and therefore less compact. B-5 was a -thick layer of packstone to wackestone limestone, and formed the upper unsupported part of the arch. The facies of Member B contained a number of fossils, including "Scutella", "Pecten", large echinoid spines and large benthic foraminifera. All of the beds of Member B were penetrated by two joints. A hybrid layer overlaid by Globigerina Limestone was found on top of facies B-5, but this was heavily eroded.  The arch was near the Inland Sea, a large circular sinkhole reached by a small arch that developed along a joint in the rocks. Fungus Rock, an islet that was formed when the bridge of a natural arch collapsed leaving a stack, is also nearby. The area also contains the Dwejra Tower, a 17th-century coastal watchtower built by the Order of St. John. Another natural arch, the Wied il-Mielaħ Window, is about northeast of Dwejra. It is, however, less known than the Azure Window.

Media appearances.

The Azure Window features in a number of films, including "Clash of the Titans" (1981), "The Count of Monte Cristo" (2002) and the 2010 Tamil language Indian film Vinnaithaandi Varuvaaya. It can also be seen in the television miniseries "The Odyssey" (1997). It was used as a filming location for the Dothraki wedding scene in the first season of HBO's TV series "Game of Thrones". The filming of "Game of Thrones" resulted in controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor. Cliff diver David Colturi is featured in a 2017 Hugo Boss advert video at the Azure Window and the Wied il-Mielaħ Window.

The Azure Window (), also known as the Dwejra Window (), was a natural arch on the island of Gozo an island just off Malta. The limestone feature, which was in Dwejra Bay close to the Inland Sea and Fungus Rock, was one of the island's major tourist attractions until it collapsed in stormy weather on 8 March 2017. The arch, together with other natural features in the area, has appeared in a number of international films and media productions.

La Fenêtre d'Azur (en maltais "Tieqa Żerqa" ou "Tieqa tad-Dwejra" et "Azure Window" en anglais) était une arche naturelle calcaire située sur l'ile de Gozo à Malte. La Fenêtre d'Azur se trouvait dans une zone géologique intéressante autour du village de Qawja, zone très populaire auprès des touristes, qui regroupe dans un petit périmètre, en plus de la fenêtre, les falaises, la mer intérieure, la baie de Dwejra et l'îlot Fungus Rock sans oublier des cart-ruts sur les falaises et le "Blue Hole" ou la "Cave of Darkness" pour les plongeurs sous-marins. La Fenêtre d'Azur s'est écroulée le après une forte tempête.


Background.

After his death in 997 during a mission among the pagan Prussian tribes, Bishop Adalbert of Prague was quickly canonized by the common effort of Duke Bolesław I and Emperor Otto III. Thus, Adalbert became the first Slavic bishop to become a saint. His body, bought back by Bolesław from the Prussians for its weight in gold, was put into a tomb at Gniezno Cathedral, which became the ecclesiastical center of Poland.  According to the chronicles of Thietmar of Merseburg, Otto III, who had been a friend and pupil of Adalbert, committed to a pilgrimage from Italy to St. Adalbert's tomb in Gniezno; in his attempt to extend the influence of Christianity in Eastern Europe, and to renew the Holy Roman Empire based on a federal concept (""renovatio Imperii Romanorum"") with the Polish and Hungarian duchies upgraded to eastern "federati" of the empire. As part of this policy he also invested Grand Prince Stephen I of Hungary with the king's crown (the Crown of Saint Stephen).  The Polish Piast dynasty under Mieszko I had extended their domains beyond the Oder river, where their claims to power collided with the interests of the Saxon margrave Gero. After his defeat by Gero's troops in 963, Mieszko I decided to come to terms with Emperor Otto I and agreed to pay tribute for this part of his lands. In turn he gained the title of "amicus imperatoris" ("Friend of the Emperor") and the acknowledgment of his position as a "Dux" of Poland. He continued his policy of convergence with the Empire by marrying Oda, the daughter of the Saxon margrave Dietrich of Haldensleben, in 978 and by marrying his son Bolesław I to a daughter of Margrave Rikdag of Meissen. As a precaution however, shortly before his death in 992 he placed his realm (Civitas Schinesghe) under the protection of Pope John XV according to the "dagome iudex" regest.  When his son Bolesław succeeded him, Poland remained an ally of the Empire in the campaigns against the Polabian Lutici tribes. Emperor Otto II, father of Otto III, died at age 28 in 983 and his widow Theophanu and grandmother reigned for the child-king Otto III. In 996 Otto III was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor at Rome. By the time of the congress at Gniezno in 1000 AD, he was 20 years old.

The act.

On the pilgrimage to Gniezno, Emperor Otto III was received by Bolesław at the Polish border on the Bóbr river near Małomice. Bishop Unger of Poznań escorted him to Gniezno. Between the 7th and 15th of March Otto invested Bolesław with the titles "frater et cooperator Imperii" ("Brother and Partner of the Empire") and "populi Romani amicus et socius" as rendered in the 1115 "Gesta principum Polonorum" by the Kraków chronicler Gallus Anonymus, the first author of Polish history. Whether the act implemented an elevation of Bolesław to the status of "king" has not been conclusively established. In any case, Bolesław had himself crowned King of Poland at Gniezno Cathedral in 1025.  On the same visit, Otto III raised Gniezno to the rank of an archbishopric. Three new dioceses subordinate to Gniezno were created: the Bishopric of Kraków (assigned to Bishop Poppo), the Bishopric of Wrocław (assigned to Bishop Jan) and the Bishopric of Kołobrzeg in Pomerania (assigned to bishop Reinbern). St. Adalbert's brother Radzim Gaudenty became the first archbishop of Gniezno. Otto III gave Bolesław a replica of his Holy Lance, part of the Imperial Regalia, and Bolesław presented the Emperor with a relic, an arm of St. Adalbert in exchange.  The status of the Bishopric of Poznań of Bishop Unger, whose diocese had also comprised Gniezno before and who had not supported the creation of a separate archdiocese in Gniezno, is also subject to historical debate. One view holds that it stayed independent and with Unger as a missionary bishop directly subordinate to the pope while another one holds that it was attached to the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, the nearest German ecclesiastical province. However, generally, the congress is seen as having established complete ecclesiastical independence of the Polish church from Magdeburg.  Bolesław subsequently accompanied Otto III on his way back to Germany. Both proceeded to the grave of Charlemagne at Aachen Cathedral, where Bolesław received Charlemagne's throne as a gift. Both arranged the betrothal of Bolesław's son Mieszko II Lambert with the Emperor's niece Richeza of Lotharingia.

Aftermath.

Due to Otto's early death in 1002, his "renovatio" policies were not fully realized. King Henry II, Otto's successor, changed the empire's policies. Bolesław supported Henry's rival, Margrave Eckard I of Meissen, expanded the Polish realm into the March of Lusatia and the Milceni lands, and also took the Bohemian throne at Prague, interfering with Henry's interests. During a meeting with Henry II in Merseburg, Bolesław was attacked by Henry's men and narrowly escaped with his life. As a consequence, the excellent relations between the Empire and Poland marked by the Congress of Gniezno turned into a state of hostility that soon emerged into a German-Polish War which finally ended with the 1018 Peace of Bautzen.  It wasn't until Henry's death in 1024, that Bolesław was able to acquire the papal consent for his coronation as Polish king. The Pomeranian diocese of Kołobrzeg, founded as a consequence of the Congress of Gniezno, was overthrown by a pagan resurgence of the Pomeranians around 1007, and bishop Reinbern was forced to return to Boleslaw's court.  The creation of the separate Archdiocese of Gniezno, as directly subordinate to the Holy see rather than a German archdiocese, kept Poland independent from the Holy Roman Empire throughout the Middle Ages. Around 1075 the Bishopric of Poznań became a suffragan diocese of Gniezno. The archdiocese then controlled the whole Piast realm, as confirmed by the papal Bull of Gniezno in 1136.

The Congress of Gniezno (, or "Gnesener Übereinkunft") was an amical meeting between the Polish Duke Bolesław I the Brave and Emperor Otto III, which took place at Gniezno on 11 March 1000. Scholars disagree over the details of the decisions made at the convention, especially whether the ruler of Poland was pledged the king's crown or not.

Le congrès de Gniezno (en ', en'ou "Gnesener Übereinkunft") désigne la rencontre qui eut lieu entre l'empereur Otton III et le duc Boleslas de Pologne qui s'est déroulée le à Gniezno en Grande-Pologne. La réunion conduit à la création de l’archidiocèse de Gniezno et à l’élévation de Boleslas au rang de roi de Pologne.