Accident.

The accident, at 10:01 a.m. Singapore Standard Time (02:01 UTC), was caused by an uncontained failure of the port inboard (No. 2) engine, while en route over Batam Island, Indonesia.  Shrapnel from the engine punctured part of the wing and damaged the fuel system causing leaks and a fuel tank fire, disabled one hydraulic system and the anti-lock braking system, caused No. 1 and No. 4 engines to go into a "degraded" mode, and damaged landing flaps and the controls for the outer left No. 1 engine.  The crew, after finding the plane controllable, decided to fly a holding pattern close to Singapore Changi Airport while assessing the status of the aircraft. It took 50 minutes to complete this initial assessment. The first officer and supervising check captain (SCC) then input the plane's status to the landing distance performance application (LDPA) for a landing 50 tonnes over maximum landing weight at Changi. Based on these inputs the LDPA could not calculate a landing distance. After discussion the crew elected to remove inputs related to a wet runway, in the knowledge that the runway was dry. The LDPA then returned the information that the landing was feasible with 100 metres of runway remaining. The flight then returned to Changi Airport, landing safely after the crew extended the landing gear by a gravity drop emergency extension system, at 11:45 a.m. Singapore time. As a result of the aircraft landing 35 knots faster than normal, four tyres were blown.  Upon landing, the crew was unable to shut down the No. 1 engine, which had to be doused by emergency crews until flameout was achieved. The pilots considered whether to evacuate the plane immediately after landing as fuel was leaking from the left wing onto the brakes, which were assumed to be extremely hot from maximum braking. The SCC pilot, David Evans, noted in an interview, "We’ve got a situation where there is fuel, hot brakes and an engine that we can’t shut down. And really the safest place was on board the aircraft "until such time" as things changed. So we had the cabin crew with an alert phase the whole time through ready to evacuate, open doors, inflate slides at any moment. As time went by, that danger abated and, thankfully, we were lucky enough to get everybody off very calmly and very methodically through one set of stairs." The plane was on battery power and had to contend with only one VHF radio to coordinate emergency procedure with the local fire crew.  There were no injuries reported among the 440 passengers and 29 crew on board the plane. On Batam Island, some debris fell on a school and houses, and on a car.

Aircraft.

The aircraft involved was an Airbus A380-842, registration number VH-OQA, serial number 014. Having entered service in September 2008, it was the first A380 delivered to Qantas and had four Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines; it was named "Nancy-Bird Walton" in honour of an Australian aviation pioneer. After completing repairs in Singapore, estimated at A$139 million, the aircraft returned to Sydney in April 2012.

Flight crew.

The pilot in command of the aircraft, Captain Richard Champion de Crespigny, has been credited in the media as "having guided a heavily damaged double-decker jet to the safety of Singapore Changi Airport and averting what could have been a catastrophe". At the time of the accident he had 35 years of flying experience.He was commended for debriefing the passengers in the passenger terminal after the flight, disclosing details of the flight and offering care for his passengers. In 2016, Champion de Crespigny was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia for significant service to the aviation industry both nationally and internationally, particularly to flight safety, and to the community.  In 2010, Richard Woodward, a vice president of the Australian and International Pilots Association, reported that there were five pilots in the cockpit of this flight. In addition to the normal crew of captain, first and second officer, there were two additional check captains: the captain who was being trained as a check captain (CC) and the supervising check captain, who was training the CC. Captain de Crespigny concentrated on flying and managing the aircraft and monitoring the (100 ECAM) checklists being sifted through by the first officer. The supernumerary pilots monitored all actions and assisted where necessary.

Aftermath.

Stock markets.

Immediately after the accident, shares in the engine's manufacturer, Rolls-Royce Holdings, fell 5.5% to 618.5 pence on the London Stock Exchange, their sharpest fall in 18 months. The fall in the share price was directly attributed to this occurrence. Shares in Airbus, then known as European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS), also fell.  By mid-morning on Monday, 8 November 2010, Rolls-Royce shares had fallen by more than 10% since the accident on the previous Thursday.

Grounding of aircraft and replacement of engines.

Both Qantas and Singapore Airlines, which uses the same Rolls-Royce engine in its A380 aircraft, temporarily grounded their A380 fleets after the occurrence and performed further inspections. Singapore Airlines resumed operations the following day.  Investigation of all four other operational Qantas A380s revealed concerns with two engines. Those engines were to be replaced, after which operation was expected to be resumed. The problems with one of these engines "could have potentially led to a repeat of Thursday's incident on QF32". On 8 November 2010 the CEO of Qantas, Alan Joyce, stated that the A380 fleet would remain grounded because new issues in the engines appeared, including oil leaks within the engines, something Joyce said was "beyond normal tolerances". Singapore Airlines, which initially stated it "did not find any issues of concern" after inspecting the engines of its A380s, announced on 10 November it planned to replace three engines on three separate planes, grounding the aircraft in question until the issues were resolved. The airline allowed the planes to return to Singapore after discovery of the anomaly. On 10 November, Lufthansa announced the replacement of an engine on its first A380 which it termed "precautionary". On 3 December, Qantas announced that a total of 16 Trent 900 engines needed to have repairs made or be replaced entirely; at the time of the announcement, the airline said five had already been replaced.  On 23 November, Qantas announced that it would begin to partially return its fleet of A380s to service, beginning on 27 November. Initially two of its six A380s were brought back into use while the rest of the fleet stayed grounded pending inspections and engine changes. The two aircraft entered service on the Sydney–Singapore–London route, where the engines use less than maximum thrust. Qantas initially refrained from using the aircraft on routes between Los Angeles and Australia, the longest routes globally served by the A380, where highest engine performance was required on take-off. After talks with the manufacturers and regulators indicated the aircraft was safe to use, Qantas resumed using the A380 on the Los Angeles routes in January 2011. By the end of January, Qantas operated all but one of its A380s. VH-OQA, the aircraft damaged in the accident, returned to service in April 2012.

Reactions regarding significance.

Tom Ballantyne, a writer on "Orient Aviation Magazine", described the accident as "certainly the most serious incident that the A380 has experienced since it entered operations", and concerns have been voiced that this occurrence may be due to a "major problem", rather than being maintenance-related. Qantas CEO Alan Joyce stated on 5 November that Qantas considered the likely cause "some kind of material failure or a design issue".  The damage, described in "The Sydney Morning Herald" as "potentially life-threatening and extremely rare", caused aircraft engineer Peter Marosszeky, from the University of New South Wales to state that "I rarely ever see a failure like this on any engine", while Paul Cousins, the federal president of the Australian Licensed Aircraft Engineers Association stated that "fewer than 5% of engine failures involved debris leaving the casing of the engine", as was the case in this occurrence.  Carey Edwards described the QF32 flight as "one of the finest examples of airmanship in the history of aviation".

Operational history.

This Airbus A380 occurrence followed two previous incidents involving Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engines. In September 2009, an engine malfunctioned on a Singapore Airlines flight from Paris to Singapore, and a Tokyo-Frankfurt Lufthansa flight in August 2010 had engine trouble that resulted in one engine being shut down due to low oil pressure. In September 2017 an Air France A380 powered by Engine Alliance turbofans (made by General Electric Aircraft Engines and Pratt & Whitney) suffered an engine failure on a flight from Paris to Los Angeles.  An airworthiness directive was issued by the European Aviation Safety Agency on 4 August 2010 that required inspection of certain aspects of the Rolls-Royce Trent 900 engine.

Investigation.

The investigation by the Australian Transport Safety Bureau (ATSB) indicated that "fatigue cracking" in a stub pipe within the engine resulted in oil leakage followed by an oil fire in the engine. The fire led to the release of the Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) disc. It also said the issue is specific to the Trent 900.  Rolls-Royce determined that the direct cause of the oil fire and resulting engine failure was a misaligned counter bore within a stub oil pipe leading to a fatigue fracture. The ATSB's preliminary investigation report confirmed Rolls-Royce's findings.  Airbus determined that the IPT disc released three different high energy fragments, resulting in structural and systems damage. It also concluded that segregated wiring routes were cut by two out of the three individual pieces of disc debris and as a result, engine No. 1 could not be shut down after landing.  On 10 November 2010, the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) issued an Emergency Airworthiness Directive, ordering airlines using the Trent 900 engine to conduct frequent and stringent tests: extended ground idle runs, Low Pressure Turbine (LPT) stage one blade and case drain inspections and High Pressure/Intermediate Pressure (HP/IP) structure air buffer cavity and oil service tube inspections. However, on 22 November, the EASA eased its inspection guidelines, citing progress in the investigation. It dropped requirements for extended ground idle runs and requirements for repetitive inspections of the LPT stage one blades and case drain. On 2 December 2010, the ATSB recommended a one-off inspection of the "relevant" Trent 900 engines within two flight cycles.  On 3 December 2010, the ATSB issued a preliminary report which contained a key finding of a manufacturing flaw: An area of fatigue cracking was found within a stub pipe that feeds oil to the engine HP/IP bearing structure. Bearing lubricating oil leaked from the crack, causing the subsequent engine fire and failure of the IPT disc. The fatigue fracture was a result of the misalignment of the stub pipe during the counter-boring process. That inaccurate alignment resulted in one side of the same stub pipe becoming too thin to resist fatigue fracturing. This "could lead to an elevated risk of fatigue crack initiation and growth, oil leakage and potential catastrophic engine failure from a resulting oil fire," according to the agency.  The findings were determined to be a "critical safety issue," and the ATSB recommended immediate inspections of in-service Trent 900 engines. On 8 December the ATSB reported that 45 Trent 900 engines had been inspected, and 3 of these engines had failed inspection and had been removed from service. On 18 May 2011, the ATSB released an interim factual report which states that 53 Trent 900 engines were removed from service — 11 due to out-of-tolerance oil-feed stub pipes and 42 due to lack of measurement records relating to the oil-feed stub pipe.

Compensation and repairs.

On 22 June 2011 Qantas announced that it had agreed to a compensation of AUD 95 million (£62 million/US$100 million) from Rolls-Royce. VH-OQA was repaired at an estimated cost of 139 million (~US$145m). The aircraft has four new engines, a repaired left wing (including 6 km of wiring replaced), and had extensive on-ground testing and two test flights. It returned to Australia on 22 April, and was scheduled to return to service on 28 April 2012. The repairs added roughly to the gross weight of the aircraft.

Airworthiness directive.

During repairs following the occurrence, cracks were discovered in the wings of the aircraft. As a result of the discovery, an Airworthiness Directive was issued affecting twenty A380-841, A380-842 and A380-861 aircraft that had accumulated over 1,300 hours flight. Those aircraft with under 1,800 hours flight were to be inspected within 6 weeks or 84 flights (whichever occurred first), while those with more than 1,800 hours flight were to be examined within four days or 14 flights. On 8 February 2012, the checks were extended to cover all 68 A380 aircraft in operation.

<section begin="summary" />Qantas Flight 32 was a regularly scheduled passenger flight from London to Sydney via Singapore. On 4 November 2010, the aircraft operating the route, an Airbus A380, suffered an uncontained failure in one of its four Trent 900 engines. The failure occurred over Batam Island, Indonesia, four minutes after takeoff from Singapore Changi Airport. After holding for almost two hours to assess the situation, the aircraft made a successful emergency landing at Changi. There were no injuries to the passengers, crew or people on the ground, despite debris from the aircraft falling onto houses in Batam.

Le, l'Airbus A380 assurant le vol Qantas 32 entre Singapour et Sydney a connu une défaillance non-contenue d'un de ses réacteurs, obligeant l'appareil à retourner à l'aéroport de Singapour pour y effectuer un atterrissage d'urgence.


Early life and education.

Marie-Louise Jacotin was the daughter of a lawyer for a French bank, and the grand-daughter (through her mother) of a glassblower from a family of Greek origin. Her mathematics teacher at the lycée was a sister of mathematician Élie Cartan, and after passing the baccalaureate she was allowed (through the intervention of a friend's father, the head of the institution) to continue studying mathematics at the Collège de Chaptal. On her second attempt, she placed second in the entrance examination for the École Normale Supérieure in 1926 (tied with Claude Chevalley), but by a ministerial decree was moved down to 21st position. After the intervention of Fernand Hauser, the editor of the Journal of the ENS, she was admitted to the school. Her teachers there included Henri Lebesgue and Jacques Hadamard, and she finished her studies in 1929.  With the encouragement of ENS director Ernest Vessiot she traveled to Oslo to work with Vilhelm Bjerknes, under whose influence she became interested in the mathematics of waves and the work of Tullio Levi-Civita in this subject. She returned to Paris in 1930, married another mathematician, Paul Dubreil, and joined him on another tour of the mathematics centers of Germany and Italy, including a visit with Levi-Civita. The Dubreils returned to France again in 1931.

Career and research.

While her husband taught at Lille, Dubreil-Jacotin continued her research, finishing a doctorate in 1934 concerning the existence of infinitely many different waves in ideal liquids, under the supervision of Henri Villat. Before her, the only women to obtain doctorates in mathematics in France were Marie Charpentier in 1931 (also in pure mathematics) and Edmée Chandon in 1930 (in astronomy and geodesy).  Following her husband, she moved to Nancy, but was unable to obtain a faculty position there herself because that was viewed as nepotism; instead, she became a research assistant at the University of Rennes. She was promoted to a teaching position in 1938, and became an assistant professor at the University of Lyon in 1939, while also continuing to teach at Rennes. In 1943 she became a full professor at the University of Poitiers, the first woman to become a full professor of mathematics in France, and in 1955 she was given a chair there in differential and integral calculus. In 1956 she moved to the University of Paris and after the university split she held a professorship at Pierre and Marie Curie University.  In the 1950s, motivated by the study of averaging operators for turbulence, Dubreil-Jacotin's interests turned towards abstract algebra, and she later performed research in semigroups and graded algebraic structures. She was the author of two textbooks, one on lattice theory and the other on abstract algebra. As well as her technical publications, Jacotin was the author of a work in the history of mathematics, "Portraits of women mathematicians".

Legacy.

Rue Marie-Louise-Dubreil-Jacotin, a street in the 13th arrondissement of Paris within Paris Diderot University, is named after her, and the University of Poitiers also has a street with the same name. In semigroup theory, the Dubreil-Jacotin semigroups are also named after her, as is the Dubreil-Jacotin–Long equation, "the standard model for internal gravity waves" in fluid mechanics.

Marie-Louise Dubreil-Jacotin (7 July 1905 – 19 October 1972) was a French mathematician, the second woman to obtain a doctorate in pure mathematics in France, the first woman to become a full professor of mathematics in France, and an expert on fluid mechanics and abstract algebra.

Marie-Louise Dubreil-Jacotin, née Jacotin le à Paris, en France et morte le à Paris, est une mathématicienne française, spécialiste d'algèbre.


Colonials de George Washington (basket-ball)

History.

1990s.

Mike Jarvis was hired as head coach in 1990. Led by future NBA player Yinka Dare, the Colonials received an at-large bid to the 1993 NCAA Tournament, the Colonials first NCAA Tournament appearance since 1961. GW advanced to the Sweet Sixteen before losing to the Fab Five Michigan team (which later vacated its wins due to NCAA rule violations).  The Colonials would also make NCAA Tournament appearances in 1994, 1996, and 1998 under Jarvis. Jarvis would leave the school in 1998 to accept the head coaching position at St. John's.  The school then hired recently fired Texas head coach, Thomas Penders. Penders would spend three years at GW, before resigning amidst accusations of NCAA rules violations.

2000s.

GW would then turn to Karl Hobbs on May 2, 2001 as head coach. Hobbs, who spent eight years an assistant at Connecticut, led GW to back to the national stage in 2004 after defeating No. 9 Michigan State and No. 12 Maryland in back-to-back games to win the 2004 BB&T Classic. That year, the men's basketball team went on to win the Atlantic 10 West title and the Atlantic 10 Tournament, earning an automatic bid to the 2005 NCAA Tournament. The team received a No. 12 seed, losing to No. 5 seed Georgia Tech in the First Round.  The team began the 2005–06 season ranked 21st in the Associated Press poll, reaching as high as sixth in the polls and closed out the year ranked 19th in the nation. With a 26–2 going into the 2006 NCAA Tournament. They received an at-large bid to the Tournament as a No. 8 seed where they came back from an 18-point second-half deficit to defeat No. 9 seed UNC-Wilmington. However, in the Second Round, they lost to Duke, the top overall seed. J. R. Pinnock was drafted in the 2006 NBA Draft and two other Colonials from that team played in the NBA. Pops Mensah-Bonsu played for the Dallas Mavericks, Houston Rockets, San Antonio Spurs, and Toronto Raptors and Mike Hall played for the Washington Wizards.  The 2006–07 basketball season was considered by many to be a rebuilding year for the Colonials after graduating their entire starting front court and losing Pinnock to the NBA. Coach Karl Hobbs and Senior guard Carl Elliott led the team to a 23–8 record, winning the 2007 Atlantic 10 Tournament, once again earning an automatic bid to the NCAA Tournament. The Colonials were received a No. 11 seed and lost to No. 6-seed Vanderbilt.  The Colonials would struggle the next three years and after finishing the 2010–11 season with a record of 17–14, capped by a disappointing 71–59 overtime loss to Saint Joseph's in the conference tournament, Karl Hobbs was dismissed as head coach.

2010s.

On May 11, 2011, Mike Lonergan, former head coach of Vermont, was hired to replace Hobbs.  The 2011–12 basketball season, Lonergan's first with the Colonials, resulted in a 10–21 record (5–11 in Atlantic 10). By the 2013–14 season, Lonergan had rebuilt the program and finished third in the Atlantic 10 with a 24–8 record (11–5 in Atlantic 10). The team received an at-large bid to the 2014 NCAA Tournament, its first NCAA Tournament since 2007. They received a No. 9 seed in the East Region and would lose to Memphis in the Second Round (formerly known as the First Round).  The Colonials regressed the following year, finishing 22–12. They did, however, receive a bid to the NIT where they defeated Pittsburgh before losing in the second round to Temple.  In 2016, the Colonials again missed the NCAA Tournament and again received a bid to the NIT. This time the Colonials would defeat Hofstra, Momouth, and Florida to reach the NIT final four at Madison Square Garden. In the NIT semifinal, they defeated San Diego State to advance to the championship game. In the championship game, they cruised to the NIT championship with a 76–60 win over Valparaiso.  However, the Colonials could not build on their NIT success as the school fired head coach Mike Lonergan on September 16, 2016 after an investigation found him guilty of verbally and emotionally abusing his players.  The school named assistant coach Maurice Joseph interim coach for the 2016–17 season. The Colonials finished the 2017 season 20–15, 10–8 in A-10 play and received a bid to the College Basketball Invitational where they defeated Toledo in the first round before losing to UIC.On March 27, 2017, the school removed the interim tag and named Maurice Joseph full-time head coach.  Joseph was fired after the 2018–19 season. He had an overall 44–57 record (.436) at GW including 21–33 (.389) in the Atlantic 10.  On March 21, 2019, former Siena head coach Jamion Christian was hired as the new head coach.

Postseason.

NCAA tournament results.

The Colonials have appeared in the NCAA Tournament 11 times. Their combined record is 4–11.

NIT results.

The Colonials have appeared in the National Invitation Tournament (NIT) six times. Their combined record is 6–5. They won the NIT championship in 2016.

CBI results.

The Colonials have appeared in the College Basketball Invitational (CBI) two times. Their combined record is 1–2.

Coaches.

The Colonials have had 27 coaches in its history including two seasons with two head coaches.

Significant games in Colonials men's basketball history.

"GW 97, No. 5 West Virginia 93 – February 17, 1960"  After falling to the Mountaineers earlier in the season, an announced crowd of 6,400 watched the Colonials host Jerry West and the nation's fifth-ranked basketball team. Despite giving up 40 points, 13 rebounds and 7 assists to West, GW Athletic Hall of Famer Jon Feldman exploded for a career-high 42 points on 17–25 shooting to stun West Virginia.  "GW 111, No. 12 Syracuse 104 (OT) – November 16, 1994"  The Colonials were invited to participate in the pre-season NIT at Manley Field House at Syracuse, and though they gave up a last-second three-pointer to allow the Orangemen to send the game to overtime, the Colonials controlled the extra period to secure the win on national television.  "GW 78, No. 1 UMass 75 – February 4, 1995"  President Bill Clinton joined the Colonials at Charles E. Smith Center when John Calipari and the top-ranked Massachusetts Minutemen came to Washington. Kwame Evans scored 27 points, including his 1,000th and fans rushed the court as the Colonials scored their first-ever upset of a number one team.  "GW 78, No. 18 Xavier 73 – OT, January 14, 1998" The Colonials hosted James Posey and the 18th ranked Musketeers at the Charles E. Smith Center. After trailing most of the game, Xavier took control of the game midway through the second half. GW forward Yegor Mescheriakov sprained his right ankle jumping for a rebound and limped off the court with 16:32 remaining. Without its leading scorer, and with Koul on the bench with four fouls, GW sagged. With GW's offense sputtering, Mike King entered the game and rescued the Colonials. King scored eight straight points and tied the game at 63-63. The clock then showed all zeros and the GW men's basketball team trailed 18th-ranked Xavier 68-66. King, a freshman playing his third collegiate game after achieving academic eligibility, calmly made two free throws - sending the game into overtime and the Smith Center into a frenzy. In the overtime, King continued his heroics scoring 8 of GW's 10 points in OT to a 78-73 win over Xavier.  "GW 77, Xavier 74 – February 27, 1999"  With the Atlantic 10 West Division Title on the line in the final game of the regular season, the Colonials hosted the Xavier Musketeers. Seniors Shawnta Rogers and Yegor Mescheriakov were playing their final home games. Despite missing a game-winning three with five seconds left Rogers received a pass following a Mike King rebound and broke the 74–74 tie as time expired to win the game and the division. The Colonials would later receive an at-large bid to the NCAA Tournament under first-year coach Tom Penders.  "GW 96, No. 11 Michigan State 83 – December 4, 2004"  "GW 101, No. 12 Maryland 92 – December 5, 2004"  In the 2004 BB&T Championship, the Colonials upset ranked teams on two consecutive days, winning each by at least 9 points. Karl Hobbs guided his team to wins over the Michigan State Spartans and Maryland Terrapins. Pops Mensah-Bonsu scored 23 points in the first game and T.J. Thompson poured in 27 against the Terrapins for the Colonials. The next week, the Colonials entered both national polls for the first time in six years.  "GW 76, Saint Joseph’s 67 – March 12, 2005"  The Colonials clinched their first-ever Atlantic 10 Tournament title in 2005 behind 20 points from Omar Williams. The Colonials were given a 12th seed and faced Georgia Tech in the first round of the NCAA Tournament.  "No. 6 GW 86, Charlotte 85 (OT) – March 4, 2006"  The sixth-ranked Colonials secured a perfect Atlantic 10 record and Charles E. Smith Center record when Carl Elliott tipped-in an errant Noel Wilmore three-point shot to finish a 26–1 regular season, solidifying the nation's best record, and the best regular season record in Colonials history.  "(8) GW 88, (9) UNC-Wilmington 85 (OT) – March 16, 2006" After drawing a surprising 8-seed following its 26–1 regular season campaign and reaching as high as 6th in the nation, the Colonials were sent to take on UNC-Wilmington in nearby Greensboro, North Carolina. Pops Mensah-Bonsu returned from a meniscus injury and helped the Colonials overcome an 18-point second half deficit to take on top-seeded Duke in the second round of the 2006 tournament. "GW 78, Rhode Island 69 – March 10, 2007"  The Colonials controlled the entire second half in winning their second Atlantic 10 Tournament championship in school history (and second in three years), giving the Colonials their third consecutive NCAA Tournament bid and first time in school history with three consecutive 20-win seasons. The Colonials drew an 11th seed and travelled to Sacramento to play 6th-seeded Vanderbilt.  "GW 49, Saint Louis 20 – January 10, 2008"  The Colonials held the Saint Louis Billikens to just 20 points for the entire game, which set the record for the lowest point total since the inception of the shot clock in Division I College Basketball. Saint Louis was held to 14.6% shooting for the game, and made only one of nineteen three-point attempts. They had seven points in the first half.  "GW 66, Memphis 71 – March 21, 2014" The Colonials drew the Memphis Tigers in the East Regional of the NCAA Tournament. The game was held in Raleigh, NC. The Colonials trailed Memphis for the bulk of the game but had two shots to tie in the final minute that didn't connect leaving them with a loss in their first NCAA Tournament Appearance since 2007.  "GW 73, No. 6 Virginia 68 − November 16, 2015"  Hosting UVA a year after losing 59-42 in Charlottesville, the Colonials held a lead for most of the game and knocked off Virginia for their first win over a top 10 team since defeating UMass 20 years prior. It was the third straight year GW had beaten a ranked team, and a sold-out crowd at the Smith Center stormed the court as GW pulled off the upset. Patricio Garino led GW with 18 points and had many key buckets to spur momentum the Colonial's way.  "(4) GW 76, (1) Valparaiso 60 - March 31, 2016"  The Colonials made their way through the NIT tournament as a 4 seed by beating 3 higher seeds than them. They won their first National Invitation Tournament and first postseason title starting 3 foreign players and player of the tournament Tyler Cavanaugh. GW set a new school record with 28 wins with this game.

The George Washington Colonials men's basketball team represents George Washington University in the United States' capital, Washington, D.C. It plays its home games in the Charles E. Smith Center, which is also shared with other George Washington Colonials athletic programs. The school's team currently competes in the Atlantic 10 Conference. The head coach is Jamion Christian.

L'équipe de basket-ball des Colonials de George Washington représente l'université George Washington de Washington DC dans les compétitions de basket-ball. Ils jouent à domicile au Charles E. Smith Center, qu'ils partagent avec les autres sections des Colonials de George Washington. L'équipe évolue en NCAA I et fait partie de l'Atlantic 10 Conference. Ils ont joué dans le Championnat NCAA de basket-ball division I de 2007. L'entraîneur des Colonials est Mike Lonergan.


Biography.

David Rittenhouse was born on April 8, 1732 in Roxborough Township, Philadelphia County, near a small village within Philadelphia called Rittenhousetown. This village is located near Germantown, along the stream Paper Mill Run, which is a tiny tributary of the Wissahickon Creek.  When his uncle, William Rittenhouse, died, David inherited his uncle's carpentry tools and instructional books. At a young age, David showed a high level of intelligence by creating a working scale model of his great-grandfather William Rittenhouse's paper mill. He built other scale models in his youth, like a working waterwheel. David never attended elementary school—he was self-taught from his family's books, and he showed great ability in science and mathematics. When David was 13 years of age, he had mastered Isaac Newton's laws of motion and gravity.  At around the age of 17, David constructed a clock with wooden gears. At the age of 19, he started a scientific instrument shop at his father's farm in what is now Valley Forge Medical Center & Hospital, located in East Norriton Township, Pennsylvania. His skill with instruments, particularly clocks, led him to construct two orreries (scale models of the solar system), the first for The College of New Jersey (now known as Princeton University), the second for the College of Philadelphia (now known as the University of Pennsylvania). David was prevailed upon to construct the second orrery by his friend, the Reverend William Smith, the first provost of the College of Philadelphia, who was upset that David would deliver such a device to a college located in the rural area of New Jersey, rather than in Philadelphia, which was seeking to be one of the important centers of the 18th century enlightenment and for the study of "natural philosophy" such as astronomy. Both of these orreries still exist, with each being held by their original recipients: one in the library of the University of Pennsylvania and the other at Peyton Hall of Princeton University.

Clubs and societies.

Astronomers who had been studying the planet Venus chose Rittenhouse to study the transit path of Venus in 1769 and its atmosphere. Rittenhouse was the perfect person to study the mysterious planet, as he had a personal observatory on his family farm. "His telescope, which he made himself, utilized grating intervals and spider threads on the focus of the telescope." His telescope is very similar to some modern-day telescopes. Rittenhouse served on the American Astronomical Society, and this was another factor in being chosen to study Venus. Throughout his life he had the honour to serve in many different clubs and committees.  In 1768, Rittenhouse was elected to membership in the American Philosophical Society. He served as librarian, secretary, and after Benjamin Franklin's death in 1790, he became Vice president then served as president of the society until 1796. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782.  Another one of his interests was the Royal Society of London of which he was a member. It was very rare for an American to be a member of this exclusive British society.  In 1786, Rittenhouse built a new Georgian-style house on the corner of 4th and Arch streets in Philadelphia, next to an octagonal observatory he had already built. At this house, he maintained a Wednesday evening salon meeting with Benjamin Franklin, Francis Hopkinson, Pierre Eugene du Simitiere and others. Thomas Jefferson wrote that he would rather attend one of these meetings "than spend a whole week in Paris."

Family.

David Rittenhouse was married twice. He married Eleanor Coulston February 20, 1766, and they had two daughters: Elizabeth (born 1767) and Ester (born 1769). Eleanor died February 23, 1771, at age 35 from complications during the birth of their third baby, who died at birth.  David married his second wife Hannah Jacobs in late 1772. They had an unnamed baby, who died at birth in late 1773. Hannah survived David by more than three years, dying in late 1799.  David's grandson (son of Ester) was named David Rittenhouse Waters.

Notable contributions to the United States.

David Rittenhouse made many breakthroughs of importance to the United States. During the first part of his career he was a surveyor for Great Britain, and later served in the Pennsylvania government. His 1763–1764 survey of the Delaware–Pennsylvania border was a 12-mile circle about the Court House in New Castle, Delaware, to define the northern border of Delaware. Rittenhouse's work was so precise and well-documented that it was incorporated without modification into Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon's survey of the Pennsylvania–Maryland border.  Later Rittenhouse helped establish the boundaries of several other states and commonwealths both before and after the Independence, including the boundaries between New Jersey, New York and Pennsylvania. In 1763 Mason and Dixon began a survey of the Pennsylvania–Maryland border, but this work was interrupted in 1767. In 1784 Rittenhouse and Andrew Ellicott completed this survey of the Mason–Dixon line to the southwest corner of Pennsylvania. When Rittenhouse's work as a surveyor ended, he resumed his scientific interests.

Transit of Venus.

In 1768, the same year that he became a member of the American Philosophical Society, Rittenhouse announced plans to observe a pending transit of Venus across the Sun from several locations. The American Philosophical Society persuaded the legislature to grant £100 towards the purchase of new telescopes, and members volunteered to man half of the 22 telescope stations when the event arrived.  The transit of Venus occurred on 3 June 1769. Rittenhouse's great excitement at observing the infrequently occurring transit of Venus (for which he had prepared for a year) resulted in his fainting during the observation. In addition to the work involved in the preparations, he had also been ill the week before the transit. Lying on his back beneath the telescope, trained at the afternoon sun, he regained consciousness after a few minutes and continued his observations. His account of the transit, published in the American Philosophical Society's "Transactions", does not mention his fainting, though it is otherwise meticulous in its record and documented.  Rittenhouse used the observations to calculate the distance from Earth to the Sun to be 93 million miles. (This is the approximate average distance between Earth and the Sun.) The published report of the transit was hailed by European scientists, and Rittenhouse would correspond with famous contemporary astronomers, such as Jérôme Lalande and Franz Xaver von Zach.

Orrery.

In 1770, Rittenhouse completed an advanced orrery. In recognition of the achievement, the College of New Jersey granted Rittenhouse an honorary degree. The college then acquired ownership of the orrery. Rittenhouse made a new, more advanced model which remained in Philadelphia. The State of Pennsylvania paid Rittenhouse £300 as a tribute for his achievement. One of Rittenhouse's hands or helpers with the project was Henry Voigt, the clockmaker and Chief Coiner under Rittenhouse at the mint. Voigt later repaired the orrery in 1806 and was an earlier co-inventor of the first practical steamboat with John Fitch.

United States Mint.

David Rittenhouse was treasurer of Pennsylvania from 1777 to 1789, and with these skills and the help of George Washington, he became the first director of the United States Mint. On April 2, 1792, the United States Mint opened its doors, but would not produce coins for almost four months. Rittenhouse believed that the design of the coin made the coin a piece of artwork. The first coins were made from flatware that was provided by Washington himself on the morning of July 30, 1792. The coins were hand-struck by Rittenhouse, to test the new equipment, and were given to Washington as a token of appreciation for his contributions to making the United States Mint a reality. The coin design had not been approved by Congress. Coin production on a large scale did not begin until 1793. Rittenhouse resigned from the Mint on June 30, 1795, due to poor health. In 1871 Congress approved a commemorative medal in his honor.

Additional contributions.

In 1781 Rittenhouse became the first American to sight Uranus.  In 1785 Rittenhouse made perhaps the first diffraction grating using 50 hairs between two finely threaded screws, with an approximate spacing of about 100 lines per inch. This was roughly the same technique that Joseph von Fraunhofer used in 1821 for his wire diffraction grating.

Notable events.

Other notable events in Rittenhouse's life include:

Jefferson's "Notes on Virginia".

In his book "Notes on the State of Virginia", Thomas Jefferson listed Rittenhouse alongside Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as examples of New World genius when disputing French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon's claim that the environment and climate of North America had stunted the intellect of peoples living there both native and European.

In popular culture.

A fictionalized version of David Rittenhouse, portrayed by Armin Shimerman, appeared in the tenth episode of the first season of the NBC television series "Timeless" (2016–2018). The series re-imagines Rittenhouse as the founder of a sinister secret society that bears his name.

David Rittenhouse (April 8, 1732 – June 26, 1796) was an American astronomer, inventor, clockmaker, mathematician, surveyor, scientific instrument craftsman, and public official. Rittenhouse was a member of the American Philosophical Society and the first director of the United States Mint.

David Rittenhouse ( – ) est un astronome, inventeur, horloger, mathématicien, géomètre, fabricant d'instruments scientifiques et agent public américain. Rittenhouse est membre de l'American Philosophical Society et premier directeur de l'United States Mint.


History.

In June 1929, a special Act of Parliament established the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada to oversee postgraduate medical education in Canada. At first, the Royal College offered just two specialty qualifications: Fellowship in general medicine and Fellowship in general surgery. By 2014, the Royal College had expanded its activities to recognize 80 disciplines, granting Fellowships in 30 specialties, 35 subspecialties, two special programs and 13 Areas of Focused Competence (AFC-diplomas).  From the 1940s to the 1970s, the Royal College conducted examinations at two levels in most specialties: Fellowship, the higher qualification, or Certification, a lesser designation. In 1972, the Royal College abolished this dual standard and began to offer a single certification that continues today: Fellowship.  In 1968, the Royal College established the McLaughlin Examination and Research Centre at the University of Alberta and Laval University to research and develop modern techniques for evaluating specialist physicians. In 1987, the Royal College merged the centre into a bilingual McLaughlin Centre based in Ottawa, Ontario.  Since the mid-1980s, the Royal College has broadened its activities to study areas of special interest in Canadian healthcare, including injury prevention and patient safety. In 2005, the Royal College set a specific goal to improve the health of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.  Today, the headquarters for the Royal College is located at 774 Echo Drive in Ottawa, Ontario. The building, constructed in 1921, was formerly the monastery of the Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood.

Objectives.

The work of the Royal College centres around its prime objective — to ensure the highest possible standards of specialist training and specialist care. The Royal College undertakes work under the following six areas:

Membership.

In 2014 the Royal College had more than 44,000 members worldwide, including Fellows, residents, and honorary, retired, and emeritus members. However, about 90% of certified physicians decide to become Fellows within two years of their certification.  Fellows of the Royal College use the designation FRCPC (Fellow of The Royal College of Physicians of Canada) or FRCSC (Fellow of The Royal College of Surgeons of Canada) depending on their qualifications. Since 1997, the Royal College has also offered category of resident membership called "resident affiliate” in an attempt to engage residents at an early stage of their careers. Those who choose to join the Royal College receive complimentary membership during the time they are registered in a Royal College-accredited residency program. Approximately 2,000 members are designated as resident members.  The Royal College website includes a directory of all current and retired Fellows.

International medical graduates.

An international medical graduate is someone who has completed his or her medical training outside of Canada or the United States and whose medical training is recognized by the World Health Organization. There are 29 international jurisdictions that the Royal College has assessed and deemed as having met Royal College criteria. For the graduates of these particular jurisdictions, the College assesses their training to determine the extent to which they have successfully met and completed the Royal College training requirements. When the training is deemed comparable and acceptable, the IMGs are ruled eligible to take the Royal College certification examination. Success at the certification examination will lead to Royal College certification. The Royal College accepts training from some international jurisdictions that have similar residency training accreditation systems to Canada.

Work with other medical organizations.

The Royal College maintains close working relations with the 17 Canadian university medical schools, numerous national professional associations, voluntary health organizations and governmental agencies where it has a respected and influential voice in discussions affecting medical education, medical research and the delivery of high-quality health care to Canadians. In some cases, the Royal College accredits training programs conjointly with other professional organizations. In addition, Royal College training programs are sometimes cited as requirements for specific levels of remuneration for resident physicians.

Continuing professional development.

The Royal College develops and administers a continuing professional development program called Maintenance of Certification (MOC) that requires Fellows to engage in certain activities to maintain their competence throughout their careers. Introduced in 2000, MOC is a core service delivered by the Royal College and is also open to health care professionals who are not Fellows and not physicians. The program awards credits to participants who engage in learning activities that enhance their practice. Elements of the MOC Program are recognized by medical associations in other countries, including the American Medical Association (which allows its members to convert certain MOC credits to AMA PRA Category 1 credits) and the American College of Physicians.

CanMEDS.

In 1996, the Royal College adopted CanMEDS, a medical education framework it developed that emphasizes the essential competencies of a physician. Revised in 2005, the CanMEDS competencies have now been integrated into the Royal College's accreditation standards, objectives of training, final in-training evaluations, exam blueprints, and the Maintenance of Certification program. All 17 medical schools in Canada also use the framework to assess the abilities of their residents. The Royal College is now updating the framework to further align it with a competency-based approach to medical education. The revised CanMEDS framework launched in 2015.  Since its creation, CanMEDS has been adopted and adapted around the world. CanMEDS is an educational framework identifying and describing seven roles that lead to optimal health and health care outcomes: medical expert (central role), communicator, collaborator, manager, health advocate, scholar and professional. The overarching goal of CanMEDS is to improve patient care.

Competency-based medical education.

Competency-based medical education, or CBME, is an outcomes-based approach to the design, implementation, assessment and evaluation of a medical education program using an organizing framework of competencies. In 2012, the Royal College began a multi-year plan to design, develop, implement and sustain a program of CBME. Under CBME, medical education (for residents in training and specialist physicians who pursue lifelong learning) progresses not according to how much time a resident or certified physician has practised certain skills, as has been the case in the past in Canada. Instead, it progresses under a system in which residents and certified physicians must achieve and demonstrate core competency levels called "milestones” before they move on, receive credit or are otherwise recognized by the system.  In 2013, the Royal College announced Competence by Design, the name that the organization has given to its reorientation toward a CBME model of learning and assessment (The CanMEDS Framework, first introduced in 1997, sets out the competencies and principles considered essential for Canadian physicians). As of 2014, the Royal College's move toward CBME and Competence by Design was received with mixed reactions from Royal College Fellows.

Health and educational policy work.

The Royal College engages regularly in work to affect health policy, especially in the areas of physician employment and resident duty hours.  Physician employment: In 2013, the Royal College released the results of a Canada-wide study that showed an increasing number of specialists cannot find jobs relevant to their skills and training.  Resident Duty Hours: In 2013 the National Steering Committee on Resident Duty Hours, hosted by the Royal College with funding from Health Canada, released a report called Fatigue, Risk and Excellence: Toward a Pan-Canadian consensus on resident duty hours. The steering committee's research process and subsequent report were widely received as robust and a major step forward in the controversial debate about duty hours.

Awards and grants.

The Royal College's awards and grants program distributes $1 million a year in awards, grants, fellowships and visiting professorships. Awards recognize the importance and potential impact of specialist physicians' work and categories include original research, personal achievements and visiting professorships. Grants support professional development and research, with categories covering continuing professional development grants, travelling fellowships and medical education grants.  Among the more notable Royal College awards is the Teasdale-Corti Humanitarian Award which recognizes physicians and surgeons who, while providing health care or emergency medical services, go beyond the accepted norms of routine practice, which may include exposure to personal risk. The award is named in honour of Dr. Lucille Teasdale and Dr. Piero Corti, a physician couple who devoted their professional careers to healing, teaching, and improving the condition of the population residing in the poverty stricken Gulu region of Uganda. Past recipients have worked throughout the world, including in Africa, Europe and South America.

The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (Royal College) (French: Collège royal des médecins et chirurgiens du Canada) is a regulatory college which acts as a national, nonprofit organization established in 1929 by a special Act of Parliament to oversee the medical education of specialists in Canada.

Le Collège royal des médecins et chirurgiens du Canada {en anglais : "Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada"), est un organisme sans but lucratif pan-canadien créé en 1929 par une loi spéciale du Parlement du Canada pour superviser la formation des spécialistes médicaux et chirurgicaux au Canada.


History.

It was founded at the beginning of the 15th century by Jan from Czernina, a descendant of the Wierzbno family, a knight of king Władysław II Jagiełło. At the end of the 17th century the town and its environs were owned by well-known magnates, the Leszczyński and then the Sułkowski families, whose investment in the town resulted in its current nickname as "the pearl of the Polish baroque".

Rydzyna Castle.

The most historically important site in Rydzyna is Rydzyna Castle, formerly the residence of king Stanisław I and the Sułkowski princes. The castle in Rydzyna was built at the beginning of 15th century by Jan of Czernina. At the end of the 17th century, Italian architects Joseph Simon Bellotti and Pompeo Ferrari erected the present Baroque castle on its ancient foundations. The first owners of the castle were the Leszczyński family. Together with its park and surrounding areas, it was one of the most splendid palaces in Poland. Between 1704 and 1709 it was a residence of the Polish king Stanisław I. In 1709, during the Great Northern War, the castle was partly burnt by the tsar's soldiers. However wall-paintings and stucco works in representative rooms, made by the best Italian artists, were not destroyed completely, and the castle was restored and expanded by Prince August Sułkowski, who purchased the Leszczyński estates in 1738. The castle, together with its adjacent park and the surrounding terrain, forms one of the most valuable castle-park complexes in Poland.

Other historical sites.

Other historical monuments within the town boundaries are baroque tenement houses around the market square together with the town hall and the baroque parish church, all built in the 18th century and designed by the same architects as the castle. The evangelical church building now serves as a concert hall. In the center of the market square a unique statue representing the Trinity was erected in 1761 by the sculptor Andrew Schmidt in memory of the plague that decimated the town in 1709. The monumental former annexes to the castle, facing its north side, are in Classic style. All the monuments are the works of prominent architects brought in from all over Europe by the Leszczyński and Sułkowski families.  At one time there were over 40 windmills around Rydzyna, Today only one remains, renovated in 2003 it now houses the Museum of Agriculture and Milling.

Rydzyna () is a Polish town that was the seat of king Stanisław I during his first short reign from 1704 to 1709. Rydzyna is commonly referred to as "the pearl of the Polish baroque".

Rydzyna (prononciation polonaise: [rɨˈd͡zɨna]) (en allemand : ) est une ville de la Voïvodie de Grande-Pologne et du powiat de Leszno.


History.

Microsoft has offered family safety features since March 2006 when a preview of Windows Live OneCare Family Safety was first offered to 3000 beta testers. After over a year and a half of testing, the final version was released on November 6, 2007. On 15 December 2008, Microsoft released an updated version 2009 of the software, and rebranded it as Windows Live Family Safety, removing it from the discontinued Windows Live OneCare family of products. Web Filtering and Activity Reporting were previously features in Windows Vista Parental Controls. They were removed from the Windows 7 release when they were moved to Windows Live. On September 30, 2010, Windows Live Family Safety 2011 (Wave 4) was released as part of Windows Live Essentials 2011.  On May 14, 2012, Microsoft announced that Windows Live Family Safety will be renamed to "Microsoft Family Safety" and will be built-in as part of its Windows 8 operating system.  In August 2015, Microsoft Family Safety was renamed Microsoft Family Features and the family features offering was expanded beyond that of just family safety to include Windows Store funding.  On December 16, 2015 Microsoft added new features to Windows 10 which included screen time extensions and the ability to manage settings for both Windows 10 PC and Mobile in one place.  In addition, Microsoft added a unified management center for recent activity, browsing history, app and game purchasing and downloading history and made it possible for a parent account to locate their child's Windows 10 phone.

Microsoft family features (includes family safety features formerly known as Microsoft Family Safety, formerly Parental Controls in Windows 7 and Vista), is a free set of features available on Windows 10 PC and Mobile that is bundled with the Windows 10, Home edition operating system.

Microsoft Family Safety (anciennement Windows Live Family Safety), est un logiciel de contrôle parental et de filtrage d'Internet développé par Microsoft. Il intégrait Microsoft Windows sous la branche Windows Live.


History.

Early years.

The airport of Bari was originally a military airfield, built in the 1930s, by the Regia Aeronautica. During World War II Italian Campaign, it was seized by the British Eighth Army in late September 1943, and turned into an Allied military airfield. Until the end of the war in May 1945, it was used by the Royal Air Force and the United States Army Air Forces Twelfth and Fifteenth Air Forces both as an operational airfield as well as a command and control base. In addition, the airfield was used by the Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force (Aviazione Cobelligerante Italiana, or ACI), or Air Force of the South (Aeronautica del Sud). After the war, it was turned over to the postwar Air Force of the Italian Republic (Aeronautica Militare Italiana).  In the 1960s, it was opened to civil flights and Alitalia schedules regular flights to Rome, Catania, Palermo, Ancona, Venice. The routes were later taken over by ATI, using a Fokker F27 airplane. When ATI put into operation, the new DC-9-30 it became necessary to create a new runway, while the military complex was still used as passenger terminal.  In 1981, a new building was completed, originally intended to be used as a cargo terminal, but it became in fact the airport's new passenger terminal.

Development since the 1990s.

In 1990, with the Football World Cup, the runway was extended and the terminal was upgraded, going through a further renovation in 2000. However, the traffic increase showed the infrastructural limitations of the airport and in 2002 the founding stone of the new passenger terminal was laid out. At the same time, flight infrastructures (aircraft parking areas, runway etc.) were upgraded. In 2005, the new terminal was completed and opened to passengers.  In 2005, construction works for a new control tower began and they were completed the following year. In 2006, a further extension of the runway was begun, and in 2007, the planning of an extension of the passenger terminals was commissioned. They were upgraded in 2005–2006 with the opening of a new passenger terminal equipped with 4 jet bridges and a multistorey car park.

Airlines and destinations.

Passenger.

The following airlines operate regular scheduled, seasonal and charter flights to and from Bari Palese Airport

Ground transportation.

Road.

The airport can be reached by the ring road of Bari and from the A14 motorway.

Rail.

The Bari metropolitan railway service connects the Airport with the Bari Centrale railway station in the city centre.

Bus.

AMTAB buses provide public transportation to the airport from the city centre (Line 16). Pugliairbus is a seasonal bus transportation service which operates interconnection service with Brindisi and Foggia airports. Pugliairbus also reaches turistic locations.

Bari Karol Wojtyła Airport () is an airport serving the city of Bari in Italy. It is approximately northwest from the town centre. Named after Pope John Paul II, who was born Karol Wojtyła, the airport is also known as Palese Airport () after a nearby neighbourhood. The airport handled 3,958,815 passengers in 2015.

L'aéroport de Bari, encore appelé aéroport Bari-Palese Macchie ou aéroport Karol Wojtyła, est le plus grand aéroport de la région des Pouilles, en Italie. Il est situé à au nord-ouest de Bari.


Description.

The Emin Minaret was constructed by local craftsmen using local materials. The structure itself is made of wood and brick. It is an elegant, circular, tapered Islamic dome, with a diameter over 14 meters (46 feet) at its base and tapering to 2.8 meters at the top. The exterior is of sun-dried yellow bricks that narrow in shape as the tower rises. The richly textured bricks are carved into intricate, repetitive, geometric and floral mosaic patterns, such as stylized flowers and rhombuses. This mixture of Chinese and Islamic features is seen only in minarets in China. The unique geometric patterns are characteristic of Islamic architecture and have no counterparts in the architecture of China other than in Muslim structures. Positioned in the tower are several long, narrow windows at different heights and facing different directions that provide light and ventilation. The minaret has no stories. Inside, the spiraling internal support serves as a winding 72-step staircase to the top.  The Emin Minaret is on the northeast corner of the Uyghur Mosque, a rectangular structure with an iwan or mihrab, a pointed-arch niche enclosed on three sides but open to a large covered courtyard on the fourth. The mosque is divided into an inner hall for use in colder months and larger outer halls for warmer months. The outer halls are built with elegant, tall, thin, wooden pillars and beams supporting its exposed timber frame, and are open and spacious, while the inner hall is small and enclosed. Unlike Chinese structures, there are no images.

Islam.

The towering architectural shape of a minaret, always taller than it is wide, is a clear sign of the presence of Islam as are the abstract, geometric decorative elements. Although the minaret has served many functions over time, in Islam its primary function has always been as the main lookout around which to draw members of the community. The ground floor of a minaret is always square while the higher parts may be of varying shapes, including round, square, or octagonal. The minaret is the most distinctive feature of any mosque and this is no different in the case of the Emin Minaret.

The Emin Minaret or Emin Tower stands by the Uyghur mosque located in Turfan, Xinjiang, China. At 44 meters (144 ft) it is the tallest minaret in China. The Qing Empire conquered this largely Muslim region in the 1750s by defeating the Dzungar Mongols with their superior weaponry in a series of battles. The Uyghurs under Emin Khoja 額敏和卓 joined the Qing Empire for protection against the Dzungars and the Emin minaret was named after Emin Khoja.

Le minaret d'Emin (), également appelé minaret de Sugong ) est un minaret situé à Tourfan (Gaochang) dans la régions autonomes de la République Populaire de Chine. Avec une hauteur de 44 mètres, c'est le plus haut minaret de Chine. Il mesure plus de 14 mètres de diamètre à la base et presque 3 m au sommet. Ce minaret a été construit en 1777.


Religion.

History.

Islam first arrived in Burundi from the East African coast as part of the Arab slave trade in the late 19th century. The Arabs were prevented from entering the Kingdom of Burundi by a successful campaign of resistance led by "mwami" (king) Mwezi IV Gisabo. However, they did establish settlements at Ujiji and Uvira close to the country's current borders. The number of Muslims in Burundi increased under German colonial rule (1894–1916) and the German administration favoured the use of Kiswahili, spoken mostly by the Muslim population, over Kirundi. By the outbreak of World War I, the capital Usumbura (now Bujumbura) was a majority Muslim city. The religion declined under Belgian colonial rule (1916–62) as a result of the spread of Christianity (especially Catholicism) and urbanisation which brought non-Muslim Burundians into the cities.

Today.

Today the Muslim population is strongly urbanised and focused in Bujumbura, especially in the "communes" (districts) of Buyenzi and Bwiza, as well as the towns of Gitega, Rumonge, Nyanza, Muyinga, and Makamba. The great majority are Sunni while a small minority are Shia and Ibadi. Most are Kiswahili speakers although they may speak other national languages as well. Native Burundian Muslims belong to both of the country's major ethnic groups (Hutu and Tutsi) and largely avoided becoming involved in the Burundian genocides and other inter-ethnic violence since independence. However, a significant proportion of the community are recent immigrants to the country from West Africa, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Middle East, and Pakistan.  The Republic of Burundi is officially secular but several Muslim festivals, including Eid ul-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, are celebrated as national holidays alongside Christian observances. Despite being only a small proportion of the national population, Muslims are represented in senior positions in Burundian politics and society, especially since the end of the Burundian Civil War.

Islam is a minority religion in Burundi where approximately 90 percent of the national population are followers of Christianity. Between 2–5 percent of the population identifies as Muslim, according to a 2010 estimate by the United States Department of State. The same year, the Pew Research Centre estimated that there were 230,000 Muslims in Burundi, equivalent to 2.8 percent of Burundi's 8.4 million inhabitants.

Entre 2 % et 10 % de la population du Burundi est musulmane. Le Burundi est un État laïc par sa constitution. L’Aïd el-Fitr fait partie des jours fériés nationaux.


History.

Shaw Organisation has a long history in Singapore since its founding in 1925. They bought the land which the Shaw House now stands in the year 1952. The plot of land was originally granted to William Scott in 1845. About 500,000 square feet of land was levelled original Shaw House and the adjacent Lido Theatre.  The company managed single-screen cinemas until the late 1980s, when it decided to build cineplexes to give more flexibility in offering different types of films. The first cineplexes built were the Prince and Jade cineplexes in Shaw Towers, opened in February 1988. Cineplexes have now become the standard for cinemas offering varied shows for smaller crowds.  The Shaw Organisation was founded in 1924 when Tan Runme Shaw (1901–1985) arrived in Singapore from Shanghai. He was the third of seven children of a Shanghai textile merchant, Shaw Yuh Hsuen (1867–1920).  In Shanghai, Runme's eldest brother Runje Shaw had founded the Tianyi Film Company (aka Unique). Not satisfied with the domestic market, the Shaw brothers sought business opportunities elsewhere, especially South-East Asia. Runme, as distribution manager was tasked to search for a suitable investment city. Runme's original destination was Indochina where he hoped to meet with the film distributors. However, he was denied permission to land there and instead, he ended up in Singapore, creating the Shaw Organisation. He was joined by his younger brother Sir Run Run Shaw two years later.  After the Great Depression, the Shaws decided to diversify their risk by branching out from their entertainment business into areas like amusement parks. They brought in ideas from abroad and modelled the parks after those in Shanghai, which proved to be popular amongst the local population.  From the mid 30s to the 80s, Shaw operated two popular fairgrounds – the Great World Amusement Park and the New World Amusement Park.  At its height, the company owned multiple cinemas and amusement parks throughout Singapore, Malaysia and Borneo, and spawned Shaw Brothers Studio in Hong Kong to feed its then-burgeoning operation.  By August 2000, a computerised ticketing system developed jointly with Singapore Computer Systems was launched. This system linked all Shaw theatres into a single network for automated telephone credit card purchases. With her extensive infrastructure, Shaw is now the biggest distributor of Asian cinema. Today, it manages and runs 70 screens in 7 locations in Singapore.

Business operations.

Cinemas.

Shaw Theatres has 7 cinemas and 70 screens in Singapore currently. Shaw Theatres Lot One and Shaw Theatres Balestier are currently closed for renovations and will reopen in 2020 and 2021 respectively.

Commercial properties.

Besides its involvement in film distribution, Shaw Organisation had investments in properties as well. The most prominent one is the Shaw House located at 350 Orchard Road with Isetan as its anchor tenant. The Shaw House is actually the organisation's largest project to date in Singapore. It took three years to construct and was finally completed in 1993.  Other than the Shaw House, the Shaw Organisation also owns other commercial properties including the Shaw Plaza, Shaw Centre, Shaw Corner, Oriental Plaza, Balestier Warehouse, North Bridge Road Shophouse and Mackenzie Road Shophouse.

Residential projects.

Shaw Organisation also owns residential properties in Singapore. The two notable ones are Twin Heights and Hullet Rise. The others are single houses (With the exception of Jalan Sampurna which is a plot of land with two houses).

Subsidiaries.

Shaw Organisation Pte Ltd owns the Shaw Properties Pte Ltd and Shaw Theatres Pte Ltd. Shaw Properties Pte Ltd oversees the operations in property development, acquisition and leasing whilst Shaw Theatres Pte Ltd oversees the operations in film purchase, distribution and the cinema's food and beverages.

Charity.

Shaw Foundation.

The Shaw Foundation was set up in 1957 by the Shaw brothers and is currently one of the largest philanthropic organisations in the world. Most of the money comes from its revenue from the properties under Shaw Properties Pte Ltd. All earnings from the Shaw Centre since the late 70s have been given to charitable organisations.  The largest amount that the Shaw Foundation has ever set aside was SGD 17.7 million in the year 1999. The largest share of the funding went to the National Kidney Foundation and most of its recipients were in the healthcare sector.  In the educational sector, the Shaw Foundation has been a regular donor to the National University of Singapore (NUS) since 1987, awarding around 240 scholarships to date.  Dr Shaw Vee Meng is currently the chairman of the Shaw Foundation. He is also the eldest son of Run Run Shaw.

National Kidney Foundation Singapore scandal.

The major recipient of Shaw Foundation's donations, the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) of Singapore was caught in a scandal mainly involving the misuse of donation funds of NKF. The incident circled around then chief executive officer, T.T Durai understating NKF's reserves and exaggerating the number of patients to encourage more donations, using the funds for personal reasons such as maintaining his personal car, travelling frequently on first class flights and an installation of a 'golden tap' in his private office suite. Durai dropped NKF's claims against the Singapore Press Holdings on 13 July 2005 after making several confessions during the trial and the entire board of NKF resigned on 14 July 2005.  Since the incident, there has been a said irreversible effect on trust issues for donations to charitable organisations in Singapore, including Shaw Foundation. For NKF itself, donations plummeted from $73 million in 2004 to $21 million in 2013 – signifying the lasting impact of the incident.

Shaw Organisation is a film distribution company and cinema chain founded by brothers Runme Shaw and Run Run Shaw who went to Singapore in the 1920s to expand their family business founded by Runje Shaw. The company originally operated as a distributor for the Shaw brothers' Tianyi Film Company (also called Unique) in Shanghai. Run Run Shaw later moved to Hong Kong in the 1950s to run Shaw Brothers Studio, whilst Runme Shaw stayed in Singapore to continue Shaw Organisation's operations. Unlike Tianyi, Shaw Organisation does not produce films but distribute them in their theatres.

La Shaw Organisation est une société de cinéma singapourienne fondée par Runme Shaw et Run Run Shaw en 1925 à Singapour.


Details of the climbs.

The "historic" ascent, as used in the early Tours de France, is from Saint-Maurice-sur-Moselle (north). From here, the ascent is 9.0 km long climbing 619 m at an average of 6.9%.  From the south, the climb starts at Malvaux, 4.5 km north of Giromagny. The climb is 12.4 km long, gaining 643 m at an average of 5.2%.  From Sewen (east), the climb is 13.2 km long, at an average of 5.1%, gaining 678 m in height. This climb starts on the D466 and joins the route from the south after 10 km, at the col du Langenberg (). The middle section (between 4 and 9 km) is steep, in excess of 8%.

Tour de France.

The Ballon d'Alsace was first crossed by the Tour de France on the second stage of the 1905 tour, from Nancy to Dijon. In the first two Tours de France, the cycle race had crossed the Col de la République () south of Saint-Etienne. Following violent incidents at the Col de la République in 1904, the tour's organiser Henri Desgrange decided to look elsewhere for challenges for the riders and at the same time gain publicity for the tour and distract the public from the cheating that had taken place in 1904.  Although only 17 metres higher than the Col de la République, the climb to the Ballon d'Alsace was steeper and Desgrange declared that no cyclist would be able to ride over it. Despite Desgrange's "over-dramatic" concerns, René Pottier crossed the summit first by riding all the way to the top and, although he was passed by Hippolyte Aucouturier before the finish at Besançon, Pottier became the leader of the tour. Unfortunately, the pace of his ascent exacerbated injuries that he had sustained in a fall on Stage 1, and Pottier was forced to withdraw from the race the next day. Following the 1905 tour's successful passage over the Ballon d'Alsace, Desgrange declared:the ascent of the Ballon d'Alsace... was one of the most thrilling sights I have ever witnessed, and confirms my opinion that man's courage knows no limits and a highly trained athlete can aspire to remarkable performances.  Thus was the myth born that the Col d'Alsace was the first mountain crossing in the history of the Tour de France, which is still maintained in the Tour's official history.  The Tour returned to the Ballon d'Alsace the following year and Pottier was again the first rider over the summit. He arrived at Saint-Maurice-sur-Moselle in a group of 19 riders: according to "L'Auto": "At the foot of the climb, Pottier bolted, as if the bell had sounded the final lap of a track race. He hadn't reached the first hairpin before the group was torn apart." The other riders soon dropped away with only Augustin Ringeval able to briefly keep in contact with Pottier although even he was dropped well before the summit: Pottier and Ringeval are alone now. A brief but terrifying duel breaks out, until, making a final demand from his boundless reserves, the leader pulls away into the teeth of the gradient. Ringeval loses ground, makes it up again with a magnificent effort, then drops back again, done for! Pottier crossed the summit alone, over four minutes ahead of the next rider and maintained his lead into the stage finish at Dijon, going on to win the whole race in Paris three weeks later. Those of us who witnessed his interminable, solitary, high-speed ride were left wondering whether it had not all been a dream, and asking ourselves what mysterious force it is that possesses the human organism and allows it to push back the boundaries of the possible.  Pottier was found hanged at his home the following January, having committed suicide. Following his death, a monument to him was erected at the summit of the Col du Ballon d'Alsace.

Passages in the Tour de France.

The Tour de France crossed over the Col du Ballon d'Alsace every year between 1905 and 1914, and then five times in the 1930s. Since World War II, the crossings have been less frequent, with the most recent being in 2005 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the first passage. The tour has crossed the mountain twenty times in its history.

Tour de France stage finishes.

Between 1967 and 1979, the tour had four mountain top finishes at the summit of the Col du Ballon d'Alsace.

Amateur cycling.

The Col du Ballon d'Alsace is also used by amateur cyclists on the "Trois Ballons" sportive ride held in June (together with the climbs over the Grand Ballon and the Ballon de Servance).

The Col du Ballon d'Alsace () is a mountain pass situated close to the summit of the Ballon d'Alsace () in the Vosges Mountains of France. It connects Saint-Maurice-sur-Moselle (Vosges) with Masevaux (Haut-Rhin) and Belfort.

Le col du Ballon d'Alsace () est un col du massif des Vosges, entre le département des Vosges et le Territoire de Belfort. Il doit son nom au Ballon d'Alsace, plus haut sommet du Territoire de Belfort, qu'il contourne par l'ouest.


History.

It hit the small screen on 30 March 2006 in la Sexta, and since then, together with "Sé lo que hicisteis..." and "Late Motiv", is part of a group of programs of this channel dedicated to hot news and related subjects, apart from being, in conjunction with the previously mentioned shows, one of the most watched programs.  It is a humorous program of current issues that started being weekly -(2 hours of duration)- and that, later, move on to be on emission from Mondays to Thursdays -(during an hour)-.  In its first season (spring of 2006), as a weekly recorded program; had as collaborators, Juan Luis Galiardo and.  Since the season 2006–2007, as a live daily program, "El Gran Wyoming" presented the program in collaboration with Beatriz Montañez,, Yolanda Ramos, Cristina Peña and Usun Yoon.  In September 2008, Yolanda Ramos and Cristina Peña left the program and two new collaborators joined it: and the Argentinian Lara Ruiz. Besides, the show increased its daily emissions to Friday's night. At the beginning, the program was hosted by. In February 2009, the program counted on the incorporation of (who had been co-presenter of months earlier, when the show was retired from emission), in substitution of in Friday's emission.  In September 2009; on the verge of the beginning of a new season, it was confirmed the abandonment of Lara Ruiz and and the incorporation of as new reporter, substituting those aforementioned.  On 21 October 2009, the program started emitting in. On 3 December 2009, Andreu Buenafuente and "El Gran Wyoming", exchanged their programs for a day, presenting Buenafuente Wyoming's program, and vice versa.  On 17 February 2010, it was published the new of abandoning the show after signing up with Telecinco. In March 2010, Fridays’ edition was cancelled and, instead, la Sexta, started to emit films, which caused the leaving of.  On 1 September 2010, the show started its new season using a completely new set and incorporating to its collaborators.  On 29 August 2011, a new season was released, counting on Dani Mateo as a new member of the show.  On 21 December 2011, Beatriz Montañez left the program and Sandra Sabatés substitutes her since 9 January 2012.  On 27 June 2013, Usun Yoon saw off tho the program after 7 seasons to focus on her career as an actress.  In February 2014, Joaquín Reyes incorporated to teamwork to carry out his parodies of well-known characters of the Spanish politics.  On 9 November 2016, Guillermo Fesser joins the show, carrying out his usual collaborations in the program from the United States, coinciding with Donald Trump's victory in the Presidential elections in this country.

Audience.

"El intermedio" has a robust health when talking about audiences. Currently, it has a television rating that oscillates between 8–9%, which is above the average of the channel, achieving peaks of over 2 million spectators.  Its historical record of viewers corresponds to the emission of the Monday 25 May 2015, with 3.291.000 spectators, (17.4% of share), the day after the Local elections and with the visit of the candidate to Madrid's City Hall Manuela Carmena.  However, its historical record of share was registered during the program on Tuesday, 26 May 2015, with 17.6% of television ratings.  These have been the average audiences of the fourteen seasons of the show "El intermedio".

Awards.

This program has received numerous awards from the "" of Spain:

Content.

The structure of the program is simple: at the beginning, "El Gran Wyoming" says the phrase of its opening:  After it, appears the header of the show. Sandra Sabatés starts with the news of the day. In the case of the collaborators, usually appears Dani Mateo at first, and showing up at last (although the order is not always like that. After that, Wyoming says his farewell discourse:  Mañana más, pero no mejor, porque es imposible.  Finally, appear the credits in which usually are shown the manipulated videos and, at last the Copyright.  The show does not only tells which events have happened during the week, but also how they have been treated by the media. Therefore, current news are exposed in the program, providing also insight into other issues that, without having a lot of impact in the media, are intriguing. Every content is related with the media scene. Therefore, in El intermedio, issues as phobias, civil wars, the interrelationship between the different social groups, etc. are treated.  "El Gran Wyoming" also talks about the zapping and the mistakes that some reporters discover in the media. Since its first program in 2011, its structure changed and starts a section called "La actualidad en 1 minuto" in which the news and events that happen all around the world are described in barely a minute.  Since the season 2013–2014, this section has been substituted by an overview of the main news without a stipulated timing, in which the different collaborators participate alternatively, with the exception of Thais Villas (interviews), who appears at the end.

El Intermedio ("The Intermission" in Spanish) is a news satire television program produced by "Globomedia" (a Spanish TV producer) and broadcast in "La Sexta". It is the work of Miguel Sánchez Romero, who is the responsible of the creation of several successful TV programs such as "El club de la comedia", "Noche Hache" or "59 segundos"

El intermedio (« L'intermédiaire » ou « L'intermède » en espagnol) est une émission de télévision produite par Globomedia et diffusée par le canal télévisé espagnol laSexta, qui propose un traitement humoristique de l'actualité combinant reportages journalistiques classiques et sketches réalisés avec trucage. Le programme est présenté par El Gran Wyoming, entouré de divers collaborateurs, comme actuellement Sandra Sabatés, Thais Villas, Usun Yoon, Gonzo et Dani Mateo.


Description.

For a type II error probability of, the corresponding statistical power is 1 −. For example, if experiment E has a statistical power of 0.7, and experiment F has a statistical power of 0.95, then there is a stronger probability that experiment E had a type II error than experiment F. This reduces experiment E's sensitivity to detect significant effects. However, experiment E is consequently more reliable than experiment F due to its lower probability of a type I error. It can be equivalently thought of as the probability of accepting the alternative hypothesis (formula_2) when it is true — that is, the ability of a test to detect a specific effect, if that specific effect actually exists. Thus,  If formula_2 is not an equality but rather simply the negation of formula_1 (so for example with formula_7 for some unobserved population parameter formula_8 we have simply formula_9) then power cannot be calculated unless probabilities are known for all possible values of the parameter that violate the null hypothesis. Thus one generally refers to a test's power "against a specific alternative hypothesis".  As the power increases, there is a decreasing probability of a type II error, also called the "false negative rate" () since the power is equal to 1 −. A similar concept is the type I error probability, also referred to as the "false positive rate" or the level of a test under the null hypothesis.  Power analysis can be used to calculate the minimum sample size required so that one can be reasonably likely to detect an effect of a given size. For example: "How many times do I need to toss a coin to conclude it is rigged by a certain amount?" Power analysis can also be used to calculate the minimum effect size that is likely to be detected in a study using a given sample size. In addition, the concept of power is used to make comparisons between different statistical testing procedures: for example, between a parametric test and a nonparametric test of the same hypothesis.  In the context of binary classification, the power of a test is called its "statistical sensitivity", its "true positive rate", or its "probability of detection".

Background.

Statistical tests use data from samples to assess, or make inferences about, a statistical population. In the concrete setting of a two-sample comparison, the goal is to assess whether the mean values of some attribute obtained for individuals in two sub-populations differ. For example, to test the null hypothesis that the mean scores of men and women on a test do not differ, samples of men and women are drawn, the test is administered to them, and the mean score of one group is compared to that of the other group using a statistical test such as the two-sample "z"-test. The power of the test is the probability that the test will find a statistically significant difference between men and women, as a function of the size of the true difference between those two populations.

Factors influencing power.

Statistical power may depend on a number of factors. Some factors may be particular to a specific testing situation, but at a minimum, power nearly always depends on the following three factors:  A significance criterion is a statement of how unlikely a positive result must be, if the null hypothesis of no effect is true, for the null hypothesis to be rejected. The most commonly used criteria are probabilities of 0.05 (5%, 1 in 20), 0.01 (1%, 1 in 100), and 0.001 (0.1%, 1 in 1000). If the criterion is 0.05, the probability of the data implying an effect at least as large as the observed effect when the null hypothesis is true must be less than 0.05, for the null hypothesis of no effect to be rejected. One easy way to increase the power of a test is to carry out a less conservative test by using a larger significance criterion, for example 0.10 instead of 0.05. This increases the chance of rejecting the null hypothesis (i.e. obtaining a statistically significant result) when the null hypothesis is false; that is, it reduces the risk of a type II error (false negative regarding whether an effect exists). But it also increases the risk of obtaining a statistically significant result (i.e. rejecting the null hypothesis) when the null hypothesis is not false; that is, it increases the risk of a type I error (false positive).  The magnitude of the effect of interest in the population can be quantified in terms of an effect size, where there is greater power to detect larger effects. An effect size can be a direct value of the quantity of interest, or it can be a standardized measure that also accounts for the variability in the population. For example, in an analysis comparing outcomes in a treated and control population, the difference of outcome means formula_10 would be a direct estimate of the effect size, whereas formula_11 would be an estimated standardized effect size, where formula_12 is the common standard deviation of the outcomes in the treated and control groups. If constructed appropriately, a standardized effect size, along with the sample size, will completely determine the power. An unstandardized (direct) effect size is rarely sufficient to determine the power, as it does not contain information about the variability in the measurements.  The sample size determines the amount of sampling error inherent in a test result. Other things being equal, effects are harder to detect in smaller samples. Increasing sample size is often the easiest way to boost the statistical power of a test. How increased sample size translates to higher power is a measure of the efficiency of the test — for example, the sample size required for a given power.  The precision with which the data are measured also influences statistical power. Consequently, power can often be improved by reducing the measurement error in the data. A related concept is to improve the "reliability" of the measure being assessed (as in psychometric reliability).  The design of an experiment or observational study often influences the power. For example, in a two-sample testing situation with a given total sample size, it is optimal to have equal numbers of observations from the two populations being compared (as long as the variances in the two populations are the same). In regression analysis and analysis of variance, there are extensive theories and practical strategies for improving the power based on optimally setting the values of the independent variables in the model.

Interpretation.

Although there are no formal standards for power (sometimes referred to as ), most researchers assess the power of their tests using = 0.80 as a standard for adequacy. This convention implies a four-to-one trade off between -risk and -risk. ( is the probability of a type II error, and α is the probability of a type I error; 0.2 and 0.05 are conventional values for and ). However, there will be times when this 4-to-1 weighting is inappropriate. In medicine, for example, tests are often designed in such a way that no false negatives (type II errors) will be produced. But this inevitably raises the risk of obtaining a false positive (a type I error). The rationale is that it is better to tell a healthy patient "we may have found something—let's test further," than to tell a diseased patient "all is well."  Power analysis is appropriate when the concern is with the correct rejection of a false null hypothesis. In many contexts, the issue is less about determining if there is or is not a difference but rather with getting a more refined estimate of the population effect size. For example, if we were expecting a population correlation between intelligence and job performance of around 0.50, a sample size of 20 will give us approximately 80% power ( = 0.05, two-tail) to reject the null hypothesis of zero correlation. However, in doing this study we are probably more interested in knowing whether the correlation is 0.30 or 0.60 or 0.50. In this context we would need a much larger sample size in order to reduce the confidence interval of our estimate to a range that is acceptable for our purposes. Techniques similar to those employed in a traditional power analysis can be used to determine the sample size required for the width of a confidence interval to be less than a given value.  Many statistical analyses involve the estimation of several unknown quantities. In simple cases, all but one of these quantities are nuisance parameters. In this setting, the only relevant power pertains to the single quantity that will undergo formal statistical inference. In some settings, particularly if the goals are more "exploratory", there may be a number of quantities of interest in the analysis. For example, in a multiple regression analysis we may include several covariates of potential interest. In situations such as this where several hypotheses are under consideration, it is common that the powers associated with the different hypotheses differ. For instance, in multiple regression analysis, the power for detecting an effect of a given size is related to the variance of the covariate. Since different covariates will have different variances, their powers will differ as well.  Any statistical analysis involving multiple hypotheses is subject to inflation of the type I error rate if appropriate measures are not taken. Such measures typically involve applying a higher threshold of stringency to reject a hypothesis in order to compensate for the multiple comparisons being made ("e.g." as in the Bonferroni method). In this situation, the power analysis should reflect the multiple testing approach to be used. Thus, for example, a given study may be well powered to detect a certain effect size when only one test is to be made, but the same effect size may have much lower power if several tests are to be performed.  It is also important to consider the statistical power of a hypothesis test when interpreting its results. A test's power is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false; a test's power is influenced by the choice of significance level for the test, the size of the effect being measured, and the amount of data available. A hypothesis test may fail to reject the null, for example, if a true difference exists between two populations being compared by a t-test but the effect is small and the sample size is too small to distinguish the effect from random chance. Many clinical trials, for instance, have low statistical power to detect differences in adverse effects of treatments, since such effects may be rare and the number of affected patients small.

"A priori" vs. "post hoc" analysis.

Power analysis can either be done before ("a priori" or prospective power analysis) or after ("post hoc" or retrospective power analysis) data are collected. "A priori" power analysis is conducted prior to the research study, and is typically used in estimating sufficient sample sizes to achieve adequate power. "Post-hoc" analysis of "observed power" is conducted after a study has been completed, and uses the obtained sample size and effect size to determine what the power was in the study, assuming the effect size in the sample is equal to the effect size in the population. Whereas the utility of prospective power analysis in experimental design is universally accepted, post hoc power analysis is fundamentally flawed. Falling for the temptation to use the statistical analysis of the collected data to estimate the power will result in uninformative and misleading values. In particular, it has been shown that "post-hoc" "observed power" is a one-to-one function of the "p"-value attained. This has been extended to show that all "post-hoc" power analyses suffer from what is called the "power approach paradox" (PAP), in which a study with a null result is thought to show "more" evidence that the null hypothesis is actually true when the "p"-value is smaller, since the apparent power to detect an actual effect would be higher. In fact, a smaller "p"-value is properly understood to make the null hypothesis "relatively" less likely to be true.

Application.

Funding agencies, ethics boards and research review panels frequently request that a researcher perform a power analysis, for example to determine the minimum number of animal test subjects needed for an experiment to be informative. In frequentist statistics, an underpowered study is unlikely to allow one to choose between hypotheses at the desired significance level. In Bayesian statistics, hypothesis testing of the type used in classical power analysis is not done. In the Bayesian framework, one updates his or her prior beliefs using the data obtained in a given study. In principle, a study that would be deemed underpowered from the perspective of hypothesis testing could still be used in such an updating process. However, power remains a useful measure of how much a given experiment size can be expected to refine one's beliefs. A study with low power is unlikely to lead to a large change in beliefs.

Example.

The following is an example that shows how to compute power for a randomized experiment: Suppose the goal of an experiment is to study the effect of a treatment on some quantity, and compare research subjects by measuring the quantity before and after the treatment, analyzing the data using a paired t-test. Let formula_13 and formula_14 denote the pre-treatment and post-treatment measures on subject formula_15, respectively. The possible effect of the treatment should be visible in the differences formula_16 which are assumed to be independently distributed, all with the same expected mean value and variance.  The effect of the treatment can be analyzed using a one-sided t-test. The null hypothesis of no effect will be that the mean difference will be zero, i.e. formula_17 In this case, the alternative hypothesis states a positive effect, corresponding to formula_18 The test statistic is:  where  Now suppose that the alternative hypothesis is true and formula_26. Then, the power is  For large, formula_28 approximately follows a standard normal distribution when the alternative hypothesis is true, the approximate power can be calculated as  According to this formula, the power increases with the values of the parameter formula_30 For a specific value of formula_31 a higher power may be obtained by increasing the sample size.  It is not possible to guarantee a sufficient large power for all values of formula_32 as formula_31 may be very close to 0. The minimum (infimum) value of the power is equal to the confidence level of the test, formula_34 in this example 0.05. However, it is of no importance to distinguish between formula_35 and small positive values. If it is desirable to have enough power, say at least 0.90, to detect values of formula_36 the required sample size can be calculated approximately:  from which it follows that  Hence, using the quantile function  where formula_40 is a standard normal quantile; refer to the Probit article for an explanation of the relationship between formula_41 and z-values.

Extension.

Bayesian power.

In the frequentist setting, parameters are assumed to have a specific value which is unlikely to be true. This issue can be addressed by assuming the parameter has a distribution. The resulting power is sometimes referred to as Bayesian power which is commonly used in clinical trial design.

Predictive probability of success.

Both frequentist power and Bayesian power use statistical significance as the success criterion. However, statistical significance is often not enough to define success. To address this issue, the power concept can be extended to the concept of predictive probability of success (PPOS). The success criterion for PPOS is not restricted to statistical significance and is commonly used in clinical trial designs.

Software for power and sample size calculations.

Numerous free and/or open source programs are available for performing power and sample size calculations. These include

The power of a binary hypothesis test is the probability that the test rejects the null hypothesis (formula_1) when a specific alternative hypothesis (formula_2) is true. The statistical power ranges from 0 to 1, and as statistical power increases, the probability of making a type II error (wrongly failing to reject the null hypothesis) decreases.

La puissance statistique d'un test est en statistique la probabilité de rejeter l'hypothèse nulle (par exemple l'hypothèse selon laquelle les groupes sont identiques au regard d'une variable) sachant que l'hypothèse nulle est incorrecte (en réalité les groupes sont différents). On peut l'exprimer sous la forme 1-β où β est le risque de c'est-à-dire le risque de ne pas démontrer que deux groupes sont différents alors qu'ils le sont dans la réalité.