Early life.

Magbanua's date of birth is variously reported as 13 October 1863, 13 October, 1868, or 4 November 1871. She was born in Pototan, Iloilo, Philippines, to affluent parents. "Don" Juan Magbanua, a judge, sat on the Court of First Instance in Iloilo City, while Doña Alejandra Ferraris was the daughter of Captain Benito Ferraris. Teresa was the Magbanua's second child, joining her sisters María and Paz, and younger brothers Manuel, Pascual and Elias. Magbanua was recorded to have been a precocious child, remembered by one of her sisters as a "dynamic personality, restless, and unafraid of any man."  Magbanua studied teaching in college, first at the Colegio de San José in Jaro, Iloilo, and later in Manila, where she studied at three different girls' schools: Colegio de Santa Rosa (1894), Santa Catalina College (1886), and Colegio de Doña Cecilia. She earned a teaching certificate at Colegio de Doña Cecilia in 1894 and a master's degree soon after from the University of Santo Tomás. She then returned home to Pototan and began teaching, where her students knew her as a disciplinarian. After four years of teaching in Pototan, Magbanua moved north to Sara, Iloilo, and became a schoolteacher there, meeting Alejandro Balderas whom she married in 1898. Balderas was a wealthy landowner, and after she married, Magbanua quit her teaching job and became a housewife. While working on her husband's lands, Magbanua learned how to shoot a pistol and ride a horse. Her horseback skills improved to the point that she would ride on horseback from Sara to her hometown of Pototan, a distance over rugged terrain.

Philippine Revolution.

War broke out between the Filipinos and Spanish in 1896, and Magbanua became a member of the Katipunan revolutionaries. While the Katipunan "largely excluded (women) from the revolutionary army", the movement also recognized the role women had played in the struggle against the Spanish, so much that the Katipunan organized a woman's chapter as early as 1893.  In October 1898, the war entered Iloilo province and two of her brothers joined the revolutionary army. While Magbanua wanted to help out the war effort, her husband was against it. Magbanua didn't listen; however, and went to her uncle, Major General Perfecto Poblador, who commanded the Northern Zone at the time. Magbanua asked him to join the Army and who would later take charge of the Administrative Division. While hesitant at first, General Poblador eventually gave in to his niece and gave Magbanua command of a battalion of bolo troops.  Magbanua fought in several key battles during the revolution. On 3 December 1898, her forces fought and defeated Spanish troops at the Battle of Barrio Yoting, which took place in Pilar, Capiz. She led her troops into this, her first battle, on horseback. Her efforts during the Battle of Barrio Yoting earned Magbanua the nickname "Visayan Joan of Arc". She was also affectionately known among her troops as "Nanay Isa" or "'Nay Isa" ("Nanay" being the Visayan word of "mother", and "Isa" a shortening of her name.)  On 3 December 1898. Magbanua lead her troops against Spanish forces at the Battle of Sapong Hills near Sara. Magbanua prevailed, despite the odds being heavily in favor of the Spanish. After these battles, Magbanua's forces were joined by revolutionary forces from Antique, under the command of General Leandro Fullon, for a march on Iloilo City.  On 24 December 1898, Magbanua participated in the liberation of Iloilo City, alongside Generals Martin Delgado, Roque Lopez, Quintin Salas and others. Along with the other generals, Magbanua helped circle Iloilo City, allowing General Delgado to enter and retake the city from the Spanish.

Philippine–American War.

During the Philippine–American War, Magbanua participated in several battles against American forces, as did her brothers. Her brothers were both ranking officers—Pascual was a general while Elias was a major. On 11 February 1899, Magbanua fought in the Battle of Iloilo City. Along with General Martin Delgado, Magbanua defended Iloilo City against the advancing forces of Brigadier General Marcus Miller. This battle ended in defeat for Magbanua and Delgado, as American forces took Iloilo without a single reported casualty. On 10 March 1899, Magbanua participated in the Battle of Balantang, Jaro, along with her brother Pascual. This battle resulted in Philippine forces retaking Jaro from the Americans. For her valor, Magbanua was given a prominent place in the celebration that followed, and led her troops into the city while riding a white horse. Also in 1899, Magbanua participated in the defense of the Balantang-Tacas-Jiabo-an line.  The celebrations would not last long, and Magbanua soon suffered personal tragedy. General Pascual Magbanua died in December 1899 at the age of 24, under mysterious circumstances. Her other brother, Major Elias Magbanua, also died mysteriously at the age of 19, and both deaths dealt a blow to Magbanua. She began using guerrilla tactics after the Filipino's regional headquarters in Santa Barbara fell to the Americans. She surrendered her troops to the American forces in 1900 and returned to farming.  There is no official record that proves Magbanua was a commissioned officer; however, she is referred to by the honorific "general" in many texts.

Later life.

While not an active fighter during World War II, Magbanua did what she could to resist Japanese forces during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines. She sold her personal belongings to purchase food and supplies, which she would then give to the local guerrillas. Shortly after the outbreak of the war, her husband Alejandro Balderas died and Magbanua sold her property in Iloilo to help finance the guerrillas.

Death.

Magbanua moved to Pagadian, Zamboanga in Mindanao, after the end of World War II and lived there with her sister Maria. She never remarried after Baldaras' death, and their marriage produced no children. Magbanua died on an unknown date in August 1947. Her burial was attended only by her close friends; there were no announcements made of her death at the time.

Legacy.

While not as well known as her brothers, Magbanua was recognized for her courage and service. There are streets named after Magbanua in Pototan and Iloilo City. Several awards are also given out in her name, including the Gawad Teresa Magbanua Award given to teachers in Davao, and the Teresa Magbanua award for women's and children's rights given to Ilonggos in Iloilo. October 13 is officially Teresa Magbanua Day in Pototan; it was first observed in 2006.

Teresa Ferraris Magbanua (born Teresa Magbanua y Ferraris; October 13, 1868 – August 1947), better known as Teresa Magbanua and dubbed as the "Visayan Joan of Arc", was a Filipino schoolteacher and military leader. Born in Pototan, Iloilo, Philippines, she retired from education and became a housewife shortly after her marriage to Alejandro Balderas, a wealthy landowner from Sara, Iloilo. When the 1896 Philippine Revolution against the Spanish Empire broke out, she became one of only a few women to join the Panay-based Visayan arm of the Katipunan, the initially secret revolutionary society head by Andrés Bonifacio.

Teresa Ferraris Magbanua, née Teresa Magbanua y Ferraris entre 1863 et 1871 à Pototan et morte en à Pagadian, était une enseignante, révolutionnaire et militaire philippine. Surnommée la « Jeanne d’Arc bisaya », elle fut l’une des rares femmes à prendre les armes contre l’Espagne lors de la révolution philippine de 1896-1898. Elle combattit ensuite contre les États-Unis dans la guerre américano-philippine et soutint la résistance à l’occupation japonaise durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


Background.

In the second half of the 13th century, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had established the Neumark along the lower Warthe (Warta) river. In 1374/1388, the Lords of Wedel transferred their rights on territories around Schivelbein and Falkenburg to the Teutonic Order state, their eastern neighbor.  On September 29, 1402, Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary and Margrave of Brandenburg, who inherited Neumark after the death of his brother John of Görlitz in 1396, pawned the whole of the Neumark to the Teutonic Order. After the First Peace of Thorn (1411), Grand Master (Hochmeister) Heinrich von Plauen intended to pawn the Neumark to the Polish king, and prepared a respective treaty. The noble estates of the Neumark however, on the basis of their privileges, prevented the ratification of the treaty.  On September 8, 1429, the Teutonic Order acquired the pawn as a full possession from Sigismund of Luxembourg. In February 1454, the Order was at the verge of the Thirteen Years' War following a rebellion of the Prussian Confederation, who was allied with the Kingdom of Poland. The Order's military and financial weakness resulted in an urgent need for money to attract and pay mercenaries. To that end, the Grand Master Ludwig von Erlichshausen pawned the Neumark to Brandenburg and many of his Prussian holdings to mercenary groups in 1454.

Treaties.

On 22 February 1454, a treaty was concluded in Cölln (now part of Berlin) between elector Frederick II of Brandenburg and the Landvogt (Landkomtur) Friedrich von Polenz (Polentz) in the name of Grand Master, wherein the Neumark was pawned to Brandenburg for 40,000 Rhenish guilders. On 6 March, Frederick II arrived at Landsberg an der Warthe to receive the homage of the estates. The nobles accepted the treaty on 31 March. The Polish king Casimir IV Jagiellon had also announced an interest in receiving the Neumark and upon hearing of the Teutonic offer to Brandenburg, entered negotiations with the Neumark nobles. Yet the estates and the Grand Master had favoured the Elector of Brandenburg.  In June, the noble estates of the Schivelbein area approached the Brandenburgian elector for protection against frequent Polish and Pomeranian raids. They argued that because of the Teutonic Order's crisis the vogt of the Neumark was unable to keep a sufficient number of men in arms. During the following year, Frederick II continued his efforts to permanently re-gain the Neumark for Brandenburg. Without success, he held talks with the Polish king in Bromberg (Bydgoszcz) about a peace between Poland and the Order. The latter had not handed over the Schivelbein and Driesen areas with the rest of the Neumark after the Cölln treaty to pressure Frederick II to assist it in the war, also had the Holy Roman Emperor asked Frederick to mediate in the dispute. On 7 April 1455, Frederick II received the hommage of the estates and asserted their privileges.  On 16 September 1455, another treaty was concluded at the Order's castle in Mewe between Frederick II and Ludwig von Erlichshausen, wherein the Neumark was sold to Frederick for 100,000 Rhenish guilder. The Schivelbein and Driesen areas were explicitly included. The payment of 40,000 guilder resulting from the treaty of Cölln was included in the sum agreed on in Mewe. The Order was granted the right to buy the Neumark back after Frederick II's death. Brandenburg further granted the Order's forces safe conduct.

Aftermath.

When by the Second Peace of Thorn (1466) the Teutonic Order State lost several territories to Poland, Frederick II was concerned that a Polish king might in place of the Order claim the right to buy the Neumark according to the Mewe treaty. He wrote down a respective memorandum, directed at his successors, wherein the latter were urged to not accept such claims, keep the Neumark within the "German lands and the Holy Roman Empire and the worthy Electorate Mark of Brandenburg" and not have it "brought to non-German tongue".  In 1517, Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg and Albert (Albrecht), Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, agreed in Berlin that the Order relinquished its right to purchase back the Neumark from Brandenburg, in turn, Joachim I obliged himself to aid Albert with 500 horse and 600 foot in the expected war with Poland-Lithuania.

The Treaties of Cölln and Mewe, concluded in 1454 and 1455, transferred the Neumark (New March) from the State of the Teutonic Order to the Electorate of Brandenburg. The Teutonic Knights had received the area as a pawn from Brandenburg in 1402, and as a possession in 1429. Financial shortages due to the onset of the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) forced Ludwig von Erlichshausen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, to pawn the Neumark to Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg, by the Treaty of Cölln on 22 February 1454, and to subsequently sell it by the Treaty of Mewe on 16 September 1455.

Les Traités de Cölln et Mewe, conclus respectivement en 1454 et en 1455, transférèrent la Nouvelle-Marche de Brandebourg de l'État monastique des chevaliers teutoniques à la Marche de Brandebourg. <br>


Events.

Background: the Reformation.

The modern use of Presbyterian or Episcopalian implies differences in both governance and doctrine but this was not the case in the 17th and 18th centuries. "Episcopalian" structures were governed by bishops, usually appointed by the monarch; "Presbyterian" implied rule by Elders, nominated by their congregations. Arguments over the role of bishops were as much about politics and the power of the monarch as religious practice.  The Protestant Reformation created a Church of Scotland or kirk Presbyterian in structure and governance and predominantly Calvinist in doctrine. The addition of an Episcopalian system in 1584 resulted in a situation where bishops presided over Presbyterian structures, while local lairds or heritors controlled the appointment of clergy in their districts. Tensions between these three power centres drove many of the political and religious conflicts that dominated the 17th century.  In 1567, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots was exiled to England, where she was imprisoned and later executed. She was replaced by her one-year-old son James VI who was brought up as a Protestant; by the 1630s, Catholicism was largely restricted to members of the aristocracy and remote Gaelic-speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands.

Covenants and the Civil Wars.

James claimed his authority as monarch and head of the kirk came from God; when he also became King of England in 1603, a unified Church of Scotland and England governed by bishops became the first step in his vision of a centralised, Unionist state. Although both were nominally Episcopalian, they were very different in governance and doctrine; Scottish bishops were doctrinal Calvinists who viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism.  Since Calvinists believed a 'well-ordered' monarchy was part of God's plan, the vast majority of Scots agreed monarchy itself was divinely ordered but disagreed on who held ultimate authority in clerical affairs. The Covenanter view was summarised by Andrew Melville as '...Thair is twa Kings and twa Kingdomes in Scotland... Chryst Jesus the King and this Kingdome the Kirk, whose subject King James the Saxt is.' Royalists tended to be 'traditionalists' in religion and politics but there were many other factors, including nationalist allegiance to the kirk and individual motives were very complex.  In 1618, the General Assembly reluctantly approved the Five Articles of Perth; these included forms retained in England but largely abolished in Scotland and were widely resented. When Charles I succeeded James, unfamiliarity with Scotland made him even more reliant on the bishops, especially the Archbishop of St Andrews and prone to sudden decisions. The 1625 Act of Revocation cancelling all grants of land made by the Crown since 1540 was done without consultation and alienated large parts of the Scottish nobility and clergy.  Despite the small number of Scottish Catholics, fear of 'Popery' remained widespread, partly due to the close cultural and religious links between Scots and French Huguenots. Increasing restrictions by the French state led to a series of Huguenot rebellions, while many Scots also fought in the 1618 to 1648 Thirty Years' War, a religious conflict that caused an estimated 8 million deaths.  These concerns were heightened when Charles married Henrietta Maria, a French Catholic and accepting the first Papal envoy since the Reformation. In 1636, John Knox's Book of Discipline was replaced by a new Book of Canons, with the threat of excommunication for anyone who denied the King's supremacy in church matters. When followed in 1637 by a Book of Common Prayer, the result was anger and widespread rioting, said to have been set off with the throwing of a stool by Jenny Geddes during a service in St Giles Cathedral.  A perception the kirk itself was under threat prompted representatives from all sections of society to sign a National Covenant on 28 February 1638, objecting to liturgical 'innovations.' Support for the Covenant was widespread except in Aberdeen and Banff, the heartland of Episcopalian resistance for the next 60 years. The Marquess of Argyll and six members of Charles' Privy Council backed the Covenant and in December the General Assembly expelled the bishops and established the Kirk on a full Presbyterian basis.  The attempt by Charles to impose his authority led to the Bishop's Wars; in 1639, the Covenanters defeated Scottish Royalist forces, followed by an English army in 1640, leaving them in control of Scotland. Lack of money forced Charles to recall the English Parliament, which had been suspended since 1629 and ultimately resulted in the outbreak of the First English Civil War in 1642. The Scots remained neutral at first but sent troops to Ulster to support their co-religionists in the Irish Rebellion; the bitterness of this conflict radicalised views in Scotland and Ireland.  The Covenanter faction led by Argyll saw religious union with England as the best way to preserve a Presbyterian Kirk and in October 1643, the Solemn League and Covenant agreed a Presbyterian Union in return for Scottish military support. Royalists and moderates in both Scotland and England opposed this on religious and nationalist grounds, as did the religious Independents like Oliver Cromwell who were against any state-ordered church. The Covenanters and their English Presbyterian allies viewed the Independents who dominated the New Model Army as a bigger threat than the Royalists and when Charles surrendered in 1646, they began negotiations to restore him to the English throne.  In December 1647, Charles agreed to impose Presbyterianism in England for three years and suppress the Independents but his refusal to take the Covenant himself split the Covenanters into Engagers and Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores. Defeat in the Second English Civil War resulted in the execution of Charles in January 1649 and the Kirk Party taking control of the General Assembly. In February 1649, the Scots proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland and Great Britain; under the terms of the Treaty of Breda, the Kirk Party agreed to restore Charles to the English throne and in return he accepted the Covenant. Defeats at Dunbar and Worcester resulted with Scotland being incorporated into the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland in 1652.

Commonwealth.

After defeat in 1651, the kirk split into two factions. Over two-thirds of the ministry supported the Resolution of December 1650 re-admitting Royalists and Engagers and were known as 'Resolutioners.' 'Protestors' were largely former Kirk Party fundamentalists or Whiggamores who blamed defeat on compromise with'malignants.' Differences between the two were both religious and political, including church government, religious toleration and the role of law in a godly society.  Following the events of 1648-51, Cromwell decided the only way forward was to eliminate the power of the Scottish landed elite and the kirk. The Terms of Incorporation published on 12 February 1652 made a new Council of Scotland responsible for regulating church affairs and allowed freedom of worship for all Protestant sects. Since Presbyterianism was no longer the state religion, kirk sessions and synods functioned as before but its edicts were not enforced by civil penalties.  For religious and political reasons, Presbyterians were hostile to sects like the Congregationalists or Quakers because they advocated separation of church and state. Apart from a small number of Protestors known as Separatists, the vast majority of the kirk could not accept these changes and Scotland was incorporated into the Commonwealth without further consultation on 21 April 1652.  Contests for control of individual presbyteries made the split increasingly bitter and in July 1653 each faction held its own General Assembly in Edinburgh. The English military commander in Scotland Robert Lilburne used the excuse of Resolutioner church services praying for the success of Glencairn's insurrection to dissolve both sessions. No further Assemblies were held until 1690, the Resolutioner majority instead meeting in informal 'Consultations' and Protestors holding field assemblies or Conventicles outside Resolutioner-controlled kirk structures.  When the Protectorate was established in 1654, Lord Broghill the head of the Council of State for Scotland summarised his dilemma; 'the Resolutioners love Charles Stuart and hate us, while the Protesters love neither him nor us.' Neither side was willing to co-operate with the Protectorate except in Glasgow where Protestors led by Patrick Gillespie used the authorities in their contest with local Resolutioners. Since the Resolutioners controlled 750 of 900 parishes, Broghill recognised they could not be ignored; his policy was to isolate the 'extreme' elements of both factions and create a new, moderate majority.  Broghill accordingly sought to encourage the kirk's internal divisions, such as having Gillespie appointed Principal of Glasgow University against the wishes of the James Guthrie and Warriston-led Protestor majority. The Protectorate authorities effectively became arbitrators between the factions, each of whom appointed representatives to argue their case in London. The repercussions affected the kirk for decades to come.  While toleration was not formally extended to either Episcopalians or Catholics, they were largely left alone, although the Quakers were the only non-conformists to establish a presence. Attempts were made to convert the largely Catholic, Gaelic-speaking Highlands and Islands to Presbyterianism, with the first Gaelic catechism published in 1653 and the first Psalm book in 1659. This period was later viewed as very positive for religion, since being barred from politics meant ministers spent more time with their congregations and emphasised preaching that emulated the sects.

Restoration.

Restoration settlement.

After the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, Scotland regained control of the kirk, but the Rescissory Act 1661 restored the legal position of 1633. This removed the Covenanter reforms of 1638-1639 although another Act renewed the ability of kirk sessions, presbyteries and synods to impose civil penalties, suggesting some compromise was possible. The restoration of Episcopacy was proclaimed by the Privy Council of Scotland on 6 September 1661.  James Sharp, minister of Crail, then in London representing the Resolutioners accepted the position of Archbishop of St. Andrews. He was consecrated along with Robert Leighton as Bishop of Dunblane and soon an entire bench of bishops had been appointed. In 1662, the kirk was restored as the national church, independent sects banned and all office-holders were required to renounce the Covenant; about a third, or around 270 in total, lost their positions. Most occurred in the south-west of Scotland, an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies; some took to preaching in the open fields, or conventicles, which often attracted thousands of worshippers.

Toleration and persecution.

The government responded by alternating persecution and toleration; in 1663, a Parliamentary Act declared dissenting ministers'seditious persons' and imposed heavy fines on those who failed to attend the parish churches of the "King's curates". In 1666 a group of men from Galloway captured the government's local military commander and marched on Edinburgh and were defeated at the Battle of Rullion Green. Around 50 prisoners were taken, while a number of others were arrested; 33 were executed and the rest transported to Barbados.  The Rising led to the replacement of the Duke of Rothes as King's Commissioner by John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale who followed a more conciliatory policy. Letters of Indulgence were issued in 1669, 1672 and 1679, allowing evicted ministers to return to their parishes, if they agreed to avoid politics. A number returned but over 150 refused the offer, while many Episcopalians were alienated by the compromise.  Pre-1660, Glasgow had been a stronghold of the Protestor faction; in 1670, Robert Leighton was appointed Archbishop of Glasgow in an attempt to bring dissenters back into the kirk. He failed to make progress; this was not simply due to the Protestor resistance but also that of Episcopalians, deriving from the presbytery struggles of the 1650s. This meant a return to persecution; preaching at a conventicle was made punishable by death, while attendance attracted severe sanctions. In 1674, heritors and masters were made responsible for the 'good behaviour' of their tenants and servants; from 1677, this meant posting bonds for those living on their land. In 1678, 3,000 Lowland militia and 6,000 Highlanders, known as the "Highland Host", were billeted in the Covenanting shires, especially those in the South-West, as a form of punishment.

Rebellion and the Killing Time.

In 1679, a group of Covenanters killed Archbishop Sharp. The incident led to a rising that grew to 5,000 men. They were defeated by forces under James, Duke of Monmouth, the King's illegitimate son, at the Battle of Bothwell Bridge. Two ministers were executed and 250 followers shipped to Barbados, 200 drowning when their ship went down off Orkney. The rebellion eventually led to the fall of Lauderdale, who was replaced by the King's brother, the openly Catholic James, known in Scotland as the Duke of Albany.  The dissenters, led by Donald Cargill and Richard Cameron called themselves the Society People, but would be become known after their leader as the Cameronians. Reduced in number, hiding out in the moors, they became increasingly radical. On 22 June 1680, the Sanquhar Declaration was posted in Sanquhar, renouncing Charles II as king. Cameron was killed the next month. Cargill excommunicated the King, Duke of Albany and other royalists at the Torwood Conventicle and his followers now separated themselves from all other Presbyterian ministers. Cargill was captured and executed in May 1681.  The government passed a Test Act, forcing every holder of public office to take an oath of non-resistance. Eight Episcopal clergy and James Dalrymple, Lord President of the Court of Session resigned and the leading nobleman Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll was forced into exile. In 1684, the remaining Society People posted an "Apologetical Declaration" on several market crosses, which informed servants of the government that they pursued the lives of its members at the risk of their own. In response to this new element of outright political sedition, the Scottish Privy Council authorised extrajudicial field executions of those caught in arms or those who refused to swear loyalty to the King. This more intense phase of persecution, later known in Protestant historiography as "the Killing Time", led to dissenters being summarily executed by the dragoons of James Graham, Laird of Claverhouse or sentenced to transportation or death by Sir George Mackenzie, the Lord Advocate.

Glorious Revolution.

Regime change.

The Scottish Succession Act of August 1681 confirmed the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir'regardless of religion,' the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king and the independence of the Scottish Crown. It went beyond simply ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was also to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without '...the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war.' At the same time, the 1681 Scottish Test Act confirmed the primacy of the kirk; it required all public officials and MPs to swear unconditional loyalty to the King but with the crucial qualifier that they 'promise to uphold the true Protestant religion.'  James became King in April 1685 with widespread support in Scotland, despite his Catholicism due to fears of civil war if he were bypassed, while opposition to re-opening past divisions within the kirk helped in the rapid defeat of Argyll's Rising in June 1685. In 1687, James now threatened to do the same by his Letters of Indulgence; these extended 'tolerance' to dissident Presbyterians, many of whom had backed Argyll but excluded the Society People, whose leading minister James Renwick was executed in 1688. He thus alienated his Episcopalian base for little gain, while use of the Royal Prerogative to promote Catholics seemed to go against previous commitments and fed the perception he could not be trusted.  It was also badly timed; Scotland in particular had long-standing links with French Huguenots, who were expelled from France under the October 1685 Edict of Fontainebleau. This was followed in 1686 by the killing of some 2,000 Vaudois Protestants; while only a tiny percentage of Scots were practicing Catholics, such events reinforced fears Protestant Europe was threatened by a Catholic counter-reformation.  In June 1688, two events turned dissent into a crisis; the birth of James Francis Edward on 10 June created a Catholic heir, excluding James' Protestant daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. Prosecuting the Seven Bishops seemed to go beyond tolerance for Catholicism and into an assault on the Episcopalian establishment; their acquittal on 30 June destroyed James' political authority. Representatives from the English political class invited William to assume the English throne; when he landed in Brixham on 5 November, James' army deserted him and he left for France on 23 December.  In Edinburgh, key Royal officials like the Earl of Perth, Lord Chancellor of Scotland, fled the capital due to rumours of Orange plots. This left a power vacuum and rioters stormed Holyrood Abbey, destroyed its Catholic chapel and damaged the tombs of the Stuart kings; others burnt an effigy of the Pope and took down the heads of executed Covenanters from above the city gates. Order was restored when news came James had gone into exile; while there was little domestic Scottish involvement in the coup, Scots were well represented among those who returned with William, while his invasion force included the Dutch Scots Brigade. Members of the Scottish Privy Council went to London and on 7 January 1689, they asked William to take over the responsibilities of government, pending a Scottish Convention in March.  While a large majority of the English Parliament agreed Mary should replace her father, William's demand he be made joint monarch and sole ruler if she died was only narrowly approved. In Scotland, the split within the kirk made William more important because his Calvinism meant Presbyterians saw him as a natural ally, while the Episcopalian minority could only retain control with his support.

Revolution settlement.

The Scottish Convention that convened on 14 March in Edinburgh was dominated by the Presbyterians. On 4 April, it passed the Claim of Right and the 'Articles of Grievances', which held James forfeited the Crown by his actions; on 11 May, William and Mary became co-monarchs of Scotland. The kirk's General Assembly meeting in November 1690 was the first since 1654 and even before it convened, over 200 Episcopalian ministers had been removed from their livings.  The 1690 Settlement eliminated episcopacy and created two commissions for the south and north of the Tay, which over the next 25 years removed almost two-thirds of all ministers. However, nearly one hundred clergy took advantage of Acts of indulgence in 1693 and 1695 to return to the kirk, while many others were protected by the local gentry. In 1673, Michael Fraser was appointed minister at Daviot and Dunlichty and was still there when he died in 1726, despite being evicted in 1694, as well as joining the 1715 and 1719 Jacobite Risings. Those who remained outside the kirk eventually formed the Scottish Episcopal Church.

Popular Protestantism.

Scottish Protestantism in the seventeenth century was highly focused on the Bible, which was seen as infallible and the major source of moral authority. In the early part of the century the Genevan translation was commonly used. In 1611, the Kirk adopted the Authorised King James Version and the first Scots version was printed in Scotland in 1633, but the Geneva Bible continued to be employed into the late seventeenth century. Many Bibles were large, illustrated and highly valuable objects. They often became the subject of superstitions, being used in divination. Family worship was strongly encouraged by the Covenanters. Books of devotion were distributed to encourage the practice and ministers were encouraged to investigate whether this was being carried out.  The seventeenth century saw the high-water mark of kirk discipline. Kirk sessions were able to apply religious sanctions, such as excommunication and denial of baptism, to enforce godly behaviour and obedience. In more difficult cases of immoral behaviour they could work with the local magistrate, in a system modelled on that employed in Geneva. Public occasions were treated with mistrust and from the later seventeenth century there were efforts by kirk sessions to stamp out activities such as well-dressing, bonfires, guising, penny weddings and dancing. Kirk sessions also had an administrative burden in the system of poor relief. An act of 1649 declared that local heritors were to be assessed by kirk session to provide the financial resources for local relief, rather than relying on voluntary contributions. By the mid-seventeenth century the system had largely been rolled out across the Lowlands, but was limited in the Highlands. The system was largely able to cope with general poverty and minor crises, helping the old and infirm to survive and provide life support in periods of downturn at relatively low cost, but was overwhelmed in the major subsistence crisis of the 1690s, known as the seven ill years. The kirk also had a major role in education. Statutes passed in 1616, 1633, 1646 and 1696 established a parish school system, paid for by local heritors and administered by ministers and local presbyteries. By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas. In the seventeenth century the pursuit of witchcraft was largely taken over by the kirk sessions and was often used to attack superstitious and Catholic practices in Scottish society. Most of the accused, some 75 per cent, were women, with over 1,500 executed, and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women. The most intense witch hunt was in 1661–62, which involved some 664 named witches in four counties. From this point prosecutions began to decline as trials were more tightly controlled by the judiciary and government, torture was more sparingly used and standards of evidence were raised. B. P. Levack suggests that there may also have been a growing scepticism and with relative peace and stability the economic and social tensions that contributed to accusation may have reduced. There were occasional local outbreaks like that in East Lothian in 1678 and 1697 at Paisley. The last recorded executions were in 1706 and the last trial in 1727. The British parliament repealed the 1563 Act in 1736.

Catholicism.

The numbers of practising Catholics probably continued to reduce in the seventeenth century and the organisation of the Church deteriorated. Some were to convert to Roman Catholicism, as did John Ogilvie (1569–1615), who went on to be ordained a priest in 1610, later being hanged for proselytism in Glasgow and often thought of as the only Scottish Catholic martyr of the Reformation era. An Irish Franciscan mission in the 1620s and 1630s claimed large numbers of converts, but these were confined to the Western Isles and had little impact on the mainland. A college for the education of Scots clergy was opened at Madrid in 1633, and was afterwards moved to Valladolid. In 1653, the remaining five or six clergy were incorporated under William Ballantine as prefect of the mission. There were a small number of Jesuits active in Strathgrass from the 1670s. The Pope appointed Thomas Nicolson as the first Vicar Apostolic over the mission in 1694 and the situation of Catholicism began to improve. Nicholson divided Scotland into districts, each with its own designated priests and he undertook visitations to ensure the implementation of Papal legislation. In 1700, his "Statuta Missionis", which included a code of conduct for priests and laymen, were approved by all the clergy. By 1703, there were 33 Catholic clergy.

Scottish religion in the seventeenth century includes all forms of religious organisation and belief in the Kingdom of Scotland in the seventeenth century. The 16th century Reformation created a Church of Scotland or kirk, which was predominantly Calvinist in doctrine and Presbyterian in structure, to which James VI added a layer of bishops in 1584.

La religion écossaise au comprend toutes les formes d'organisations religieuses et de croyances dans le Royaume d'Écosse au. Au cours du, l'Écosse avait subi une réforme protestante responsable de la création d'une Église nationale (Église d'Écosse) majoritairement Calviniste, aux perspectives fortement presbytériennes. Jacques VI favorisait la doctrine calviniste, mais aussi le système épiscopalien. Son fils Charles autorisa un livre de droit canonique qui fit de lui le chef de l'Église et imposa l'utilisation d'une nouvelle liturgie, considérée comme une version anglaise d'un livre de prières. En réponse à la rébellion les évêques écossais furent officiellement expulsés de l'Église et plusieurs représentants des différentes sections de la société Écossaise élaborèrent le Covenant National. Dans les guerres des évêques qui suivirent, les covenantaires écossais apparurent pratiquement comme d'indépendants souverains. L'échec de Charles I conduisit indirectement à la première révolution anglaise. Les covenantaires intervinrent en faveur du Parlement, et furent victorieux, mais se séparèrent de plus en plus du régime Parlementaire. Les défaites écossaises suivant les deuxième et troisième guerres civiles menèrent à l'occupation anglaise et à la fusion de l'Écosse avec le Commonwealth d'Angleterre, dirigé par Oliver Cromwell à partir de 1652, et également à l'imposition de la tolérance religieuse pour les protestants. Les covenantaires écossais se divisèrent en deux parties, les Résolutionnaires (en accord) et les Manifestants (en désaccord).


History.

What is now the borough of Beachwood dates its settlement to a 1914 plan backed by the publishers of the "New-York Tribune", under which of Berkeley Township were purchased and sectioned off as a summer colony called "Beachwood". Buyers paid $19.60 for a plot of land measuring and received a six-month subscription to "The Tribune" as a bonus. The first residents of the community moved in during April 1915, and work on a Club House, the Pier, the Bath House, the Lodge, a dining hall and a railroad station were planned to be completed by the end of May. Other offerings within the development included tennis courts, and facilities along the beach and on the river for canoeing, sailing and swimming. The first "cottages" in the community were constructed during that first summer season.  A Property-Owner's Association was established in 1916. In addition to overseeing local services within the development, the organization also advocated that the community should become an independent municipality. Legislation was passed by the Legislature on March 22, 1917, and a referendum approving the establishment of the borough passed on April 12. On May 11, the borough's first council was elected, along with Joseph H. Senior, who was chosen by the voters as Beachwood's first mayor. A Board of Education was formed the following year, with school transportation provided on the back of a truck outfitted with wooden benches.  In December 2008, the Beachwood Historical Alliance was established, with the goal of the creation of an official town-run Preservation Commission for the purpose of recognizing, restoring and preserving aspects of Beachwood's formation, history and heritage.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had a total area of 2.849 square miles (7.377 km), including 2.848 square miles (7.376 km) of land and 0.001 square miles (0.001 km) of water (0.02%).  The borough borders the Ocean County municipalities of Berkeley Township, Pine Beach and South Toms River.

Demographics.

2010 Census.

The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $78,611 (with a margin of error of +/− $5,668) and the median family income was $83,083 (+/− $4,210). Males had a median income of $58,981 (+/− $3,686) versus $46,632 (+/− $5,031) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $28,366 (+/− $1,915). About 5.2% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.9% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.

2000 Census.

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 10,375 people, 3,475 households, and 2,818 families residing in the borough. The population density was 3,757.3 people per square mile (1,451.4/km). There were 3,623 housing units at an average density of 1,312.1 per square mile (506.8/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 95.66% White, 0.97% African American, 0.13% Native American, 1.13% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.11% from other races, and 0.94% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.22% of the population.  There were 3,475 households, out of which 42.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.0% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.9% were non-families. 15.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.98 and the average family size was 3.31.  In the borough the population was spread out, with 28.5% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.1 males.  The median income for a household in the borough was $59,022, and the median income for a family was $64,190. Males had a median income of $41,204 versus $30,189 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $21,247. About 2.9% of families and 4.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.6% of those under age 18 and 2.7% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Local government.

Beachwood was originally governed under the Walsh Act commission form of government, which was maintained until the mid-1970s. Beachwood is now governed under the Borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 of 565 municipalities statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of a Mayor and a Borough Council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The Borough Council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The Borough form of government used by Beachwood is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council. , the Mayor of Beachwood is Republican Ronald F. Roma Jr., whose term of office ends December 31, 2023. Members of the Beachwood Borough Council are Council President Edward Zakar (R, 2022), William J. Cairns (R, 2021), Beverly Clayton (R, 2021), Gregory Feeney (R, 2020), Steven Komsa (R, 2020) and Gerald (Jerry) LaCrosse (R, 2022),.  Bill Cairns was appointed to fill the vacant seat expiring in December 2015 of Thomas Miserendino, who died in office in June 2015.

Federal, state and county representation.

Beachwood is located in the 3rd Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 9th state legislative district.

Politics.

As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 6,714 registered voters in Beachwood, of which 1,329 (19.8%) were registered as Democrats, 1,661 (24.7%) were registered as Republicans and 3,718 (55.4%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 6 voters registered to other parties. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 60.8% (vs. 63.2% in Ocean County) were registered to vote, including 81.5% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 82.6% countywide).  In the 2012 presidential election, Republican Mitt Romney received 51.9% of the vote (2,264 cast), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 47.0% (2,048 votes), and other candidates with 1.1% (48 votes), among the 4,397 ballots cast by the borough's 6,979 registered voters (37 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 63.0%. In the 2008 presidential election, Republican John McCain received 51.5% of the vote (2,610 cast), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 46.2% (2,342 votes) and other candidates with 1.3% (68 votes), among the 5,064 ballots cast by the borough's 7,008 registered voters, for a turnout of 72.3%. In the 2004 presidential election, Republican George W. Bush received 58.9% of the vote (2,755 ballots cast), outpolling Democrat John Kerry with 40.0% (1,869 votes) and other candidates with 0.6% (38 votes), among the 4,676 ballots cast by the borough's 6,492 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 72.0.  In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 71.4% of the vote (2,064 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 27.1% (782 votes), and other candidates with 1.5% (43 votes), among the 2,960 ballots cast by the borough's 6,897 registered voters (71 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 42.9%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 64.3% of the vote (2,169 ballots cast), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 27.8% (937 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 5.2% (175 votes) and other candidates with 1.7% (57 votes), among the 3,375 ballots cast by the borough's 6,933 registered voters, yielding a 48.7% turnout.

Education.

Public school students in kindergarten through twelfth grade attend the Toms River Regional Schools, a regional public school system based primarily in Toms River Township that is the state's largest suburban district. In addition to students from Toms River, the district also serves the boroughs of Beachwood, Pine Beach and South Toms River. Students in kindergarten through 5th grades attend either Beachwood Elementary School in Beachwood or Pine Beach Elementary in the neighboring community of Pine Beach. Intermediate school students attend Toms River Intermediate School South in Beachwood for grades 6–8. High school students attend Toms River High School South in Toms River Township for grades 9–12. The district's board of education has nine members; seats are allocated based on population, with one seat allocated to Beachwood.

Transportation.

Roads and highways.

, the borough had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Ocean County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.  The Garden State Parkway passes through the borough, connecting Berkeley Township in the south to South Toms River in the north.

Public transportation.

NJ Transit offers local bus service to and from Atlantic City on the 559 route.

Notable people.

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Beachwood include:

Beachwood is a borough in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the borough's population increased to 11,045, reflecting an increase of 670 (+6.5%) from the 10,375 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 1,051 (+11.3%) from the 9,324 counted in the 1990 Census. the highest recorded in any decennial census.

Beachwood est une municipalité américaine située dans le comté d'Ocean au New Jersey. Lors du recensement de 2010, sa population est de. La municipalité s'étend sur une superficie de.


Description.

"Devonshire" displaced at standard load and at deep load. The ship had an overall length of, a beam of and a draught of. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving four shafts, which developed a total of and gave a maximum speed of. Steam for the turbines was provided by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers. "Devonshire" carried a maximum of of fuel oil that gave her a range of at. The ship's complement was 784 officers and men.  The ship mounted eight 8-inch (203 mm) guns in four twin gun turrets, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. Her secondary armament consisted of four QF Mk V anti-aircraft (AA) guns in single mounts. "Devonshire" also mounted four single 2-pounder (40 mm) light AA guns ("pom-poms"). The ship was equipped with two quadruple torpedo tube above-water mounts for torpedoes.  "Devonshire" was only lightly protected with little more than a single inch of plating protecting vital machinery. Her magazines were the exception and were protected by of armour. Space and weight was reserved for one aircraft catapult and its seaplane, but they were not fitted until after she was completed.

Construction and career.

"Devonshire", the fifth ship of her name to serve in the Royal Navy, was named for the county. The ship was laid down at Devonport Dockyard on 16 March 1926 and was launched on 22 October 1927. Completed on 18 March 1929, she was assigned to the 1st Cruiser Squadron (CS) of the Mediterranean Fleet together with her three sister ships. "Devonshire" spent the bulk of the interbellum period there, aside from a 1932–33 tour with the China Station.  While off the island of Skiathos in the Aegean, she suffered a serious accident on 26 July 1929 during gunnery training. There was a misfire in the left gun of "X" turret; when the breech block was opened the propellant charge inside the barrel detonated, which ignited the charge for the next round. The ensuing explosion killed 18 men. "Devonshire" returned to England for repairs in August with "the turret swung 'round and the guns awry". In 1929–30 she received a High-Angle Control System, used to direct her anti-aircraft guns, and a catapult was fitted in 1931–32. Four more single four-inch AA guns in addition to a pair of quadruple Vickers.50-calibre (12.7 mm) Mark III machine guns were added in 1936–37.  During the Spanish Civil War, "Devonshire" brought a Nationalist emissary to Menorca on 7 February 1939. The following day, the Republicans surrendered the island to the Nationalists aboard the cruiser and she sailed to Marseille, France, with 452 Republican refugees on board.

Second World War.

"Devonshire" was in the Mediterranean when the war began in September 1939 until she was transferred to the Home Fleet some months later. After the armed merchant cruiser was sunk by the German battleships and on 23 November, "Devonshire" and the battleships and sailed from the Clyde on a fruitless attempt to find the German ships. In March 1940 she became the flagship of the 1st CS, and flew the flag of the future First Sea Lord, Vice-Admiral John H. D. Cunningham. During this time the squadron was tasked to cover Scotland, the Faeroe Islands and Iceland. As part of the Allied plans to occupy parts of Norway and interdict the iron ore traffic from Narvik to Germany (Operation Wilfred and Plan R 4), "Devonshire" and the rest of the squadron were assigned to ferry British troops from Rosyth to Stavanger and Bergen and to be ready to sail on the morning of 8 April, but these plans were partially preempted by the German invasion that same day.

Norwegian campaign.

The Admiralty ordered that the troops, but not their equipment, be unloaded from the cruisers on the evening of the 8th, and that the cruisers were to search forthwith for the German ships known to be at sea. This was later cancelled and the squadron was ordered to rendezvous with the main body of the Home Fleet. Later that day, German bombers attacked the British ships and "Devonshire" suffered a near-miss. On the 11th, the squadron was detached on an unsuccessful search for German ships in the area around Trondheim and rejoined the fleet two days later. Cunningham's ships were then detached to Tromsø where he conducted negotiations with local officials to refuel there and to bring Norwegian troops west from Kirkenes. The squadron arrived there on the afternoon of the 15th and escorted Norwegian troopships back to Tromsø. "Devonshire" covered the evacuation of British and French troops from Namsos at the beginning of May and was nearly hit when the evacuation forces were attacked by German aircraft as they were withdrawing on 3 May.  "Devonshire" evacuated King Haakon VII, Crown Prince Olav, and Norwegian government officials, including the Prime Minister, Johan Nygaardsvold, from Tromsø on 7 June. On board were 461 passengers. The ship passed within of the action in which the aircraft carrier and two destroyers were sunk by "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau". Although an enemy sighting report had been received in "Devonshire", Cunningham's orders were to get Haakon VII to safety, and the cruiser sped up and continued on her course.

Operation Menace.

In preparation for Operation Menace, a British naval attack on Dakar, Senegal, prior to a planned landing by the Free French, the ship was detached from the Home Fleet on 28 August and was assigned to Force M, the Royal Navy component of the operation. Still Cunningham's flagship, she departed the Clyde on the 31st, escorting the troop convoy en route to Gibraltar where they arrived on 3 September. On the 14th, Cunningham dispatched the 1st CS, augmented by the aircraft carrier, in an unsuccessful attempt to locate and turn back a Vichy French cruiser squadron bound for Dakar; by this time he had hoisted his flag in the battleship. "Devonshire" and her Australian sister ship engaged the French cruisers and destroyers as they manoeuvred in the harbour on the second day of the battle, with negligible effect in poor visibility. After "Barham" was lightly damaged during the action, Cunningham transferred back to "Devonshire" for the next day's battle during which the ship fired 200 shells from her main guns without scoring a single hit against French ships obscured by smoke screens.  After the attack was abandoned, she was employed to escort a British troop convoy to Douala, French Cameroons, in early October and then blockaded the coast of Gabon when Free French forces invaded in early November. On 7 November, her Supermarine Walrus seaplane helped to sink the Vichy submarine off Gabon.

1941.

"Devonshire" remained in the South Atlantic and participated in the unsuccessful hunt for the German commerce raider in January 1941. The ship subsequently transferred to the Home Fleet and was refitted in Liverpool 19 February–22 May. During this refit her single 2-pounder guns were replaced by two octuple mounts and an early-warning Type 281 radar. She escorted British carriers when they raided Kirkenes and Petsamo in Norway and Finland in late July. The following month, "Devonshire" provided distant cover for the first convoy to Russia, Operation Dervish, before she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet. Before her departure, the ship received a pair of Oerlikon light AA guns in September. On 2 November, the ship led a force that captured a Vichy convoy bound for French Indochina off South Africa. Twenty days later, "Devonshire" sank a German commerce raider, the auxiliary cruiser, north of Ascension Island.

1942–43.

The ship was subsequently refitted in Norfolk, Virginia from 24 January to 7 March 1942, where she received a Type 273 gunnery radar and six more Oerlikons. After the completion of her refit, "Devonshire" was sent to join the 4th Cruiser Squadron of the Eastern Fleet and escorted a convoy from Charleston, South Carolina, to Freetown, Sierra Leone en route. On 25 April, the ship escorted a convoy from Durban, South Africa to Madagascar as part of Operation Ironclad, which was launched to preempt a possible Japanese occupation of the island. The Vichy French had allowed Japanese forces to use air bases in French Indochina to launch the airstrikes that sank the capital ships "Repulse" and "Prince of Wales", so it was quite possible they would permit the Japanese access to military facilities on Madagascar had they requested them. During late 1942, "Devonshire"s single four-inch AA guns were replaced with twin-gun mounts for Mark XVI guns of the same calibre. The ship remained in the Far East until May 1943, covering troop convoys from Suez to Australia. By this time, her quadruple.50-calibre machineguns and six single-Oerlikon mounts had been replaced by another pair of octuple two-pounder mounts and a dozen twin-Oerlikon mounts. She returned home that month and began a lengthy refit that lasted until 20 March 1944. During this refit, 'X' turret and one twin Oerlikon mount were replaced by two additional octuple two-pounder mounts and eight single-Oerlikon mounts. Her radar suite was modernized with Type 281B replacing Type 281 and the full range of anti-aircraft gunnery radars were installed. To accommodate all the new equipment, her catapult was removed.

1944–45.

She returned to duty with the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow in April 1944. From July until the end of hostilities in May 1945, "Devonshire" escorted the carrier raids that were mounted on shipping and other targets in Norwegian waters (Operations Mascot, Goodwood, and Hardy).  With the end of hostilities in Europe, "Devonshire", now the flagship of Rear-Admiral James Ritchie, the future Flag Officer Norway, sailed on 12 May to Oslo. She then went to Copenhagen the next day, and from there she escorted the German cruisers and to Wilhelmshaven on 24–26 May. In June, "Devonshire" was again the flagship of the 1st Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Vice-Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor, which returned King Haakon to Norway, arriving in Oslo on 7 June. The king himself sailed in her half-sister,. Later that month, she was outfitted for use as a troopship, and she was used to transport personnel to and from Australia for the rest of the year. On 29 September, "Devonshire" helped to rescued the survivors of, a freighter loaded with Greek refugees bound from Port Said, Egypt, to Greece, that had caught fire.

Post-war.

The ship was converted into a cadet training ship in 1947 and served in this role until 1954. As part of this reconstruction most of her armament was removed; by 1949 it consisted of a single eight-inch gun turret, two four-inch gun turrets and single examples of the quadruple two-pounder, single- and twin-Oerlikon mounts, plus a single Bofors light AA gun. In 1953 she took part in the Fleet Review to celebrate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. "Devonshire" was sold for scrap on 16 June 1954 and arrived at Newport, Wales on 12 December 1954 where she was broken up by John Cashmore Ltd.

HMS "Devonshire", pennant number 39, was a heavy cruiser of the "London" sub-class built for the Royal Navy in the late 1920s. The ship spent most of her pre-World War II career assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet aside from a brief tour with the China Station. She spent the first two months of the Second World War in the Mediterranean until she was transferred to the Home Fleet and became flagship of a cruiser squadron. "Devonshire" took part in the Norwegian Campaign in mid 1940 and evacuated much of the Norwegian Government in June. Several months later, she participated in the Battle of Dakar, a failed attempt to seize the Vichy French colony of Senegal in September. The ship remained in the South Atlantic afterwards and supported Free French efforts to take control of French Equatorial Africa in addition to searching for German commerce raiders.

Le HMS "Devonshire" (pennant number 39) est un croiseur lourd de classe County (sous-classe "London") construit pour la Royal Navy à la fin des années 1920.


Plot.

The film tells the story of Ariel Perelman (Daniel Hendler). While he has an easygoing lifestyle, he's trying to find his way in life in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He works at a university as a law professor. The film begins with a long narration of the way things stand in his life. He describes his father, Bernardo Perelman (Arturo Goetz), in detail. Perelman, as he's known, is a popular public defender who meets his clients where they work or in restaurants so he can determine what they are "all about." Most of his clients are generally poor. He's very close to his secretary (Adriana Aizemberg) since his wife died fifteen years ago. Work fills Perelman's days, and Ariel is astonished by his energy.  After lusting after Sandra (Julieta Díaz), an attractive woman who takes his class, Ariel decides to chase her and takes the Pilates class she teaches. Not much happens until Sandra is sued for teaching Pilates without the approval of the company who hold the rights to teach Pilates in Argentina. Ariel (known as Perelman to Sandra) reaches out to his father for help and wins the law suit.  In the process, Sandra falls in love with the younger Perelman and they marry. She begins to decorate their home for a few years and they have a child they name Gastón (Eloy Burman), who is a quite charming young boy.  Ariel's university building is shut down for a month because it had collapsed, and he is given some time off. However, he doesn't share this news with his wife. During this time his father starts spending some quality time with Ariel, which makes him think something must be wrong. Ariel is asked by the Swiss kindergarten school Gastón attends to participate in a play and swim classes with the other fathers. Ariel first rebels but gives in.  The film ends with his father's death and burial and a long introspective look at Ariel Perelman's life in his 30s.

Background.

"Derecho de familia" is part of a loose trilogy of films. The other two are: "Esperando al mesías" (2000) and "El abrazo partido" (2004). All were written and directed by Burman and star Daniel Hendler. They are largely autobiographical, dealing with the life of a young Jew in contemporary Buenos Aires.  Like the characters in the film, Burman's own father was a lawyer and he also went to law school.  Eloy Burman who plays Gastón Perelman is the young son of director Daniel Burman.

Distribution.

The film was first presented at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 10, 2006. It was first screened in Argentina on March 16, 2006 at the Mar del Plata Film Festival. It opened wide in Argentina on March 23, 2006.  The film was shown at various film festivals, including: the Toulouse Latin America Film Festival, France; the Moscow Film Festival, Russia; the Karlovy Vary Film Festival, Czech Republic; the Edinburgh Film Festival, Scotland; the Helsinki International Film Festival, Finland; Films From The South Festival, Norway; the Chicago International Film Festival, USA; the Warsaw Film Festival, Poland; and others.  The film was released on DVD in Argentina on July 7, 2006 by Argentina Video Home.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Family Law" garnered mostly positive reviews from film critics. On review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an overall 73% "Certified Fresh" approval rating based on 41 reviews, with a rating average of 6.7 out of 10. The site's consensus is: "What "Family Law" lacks in overt drama and conflict, it more than makes us with warm performances and smart, sharp dialogue." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 0–100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 66 based on 18 reviews, classified as a generally favorably reviewed film.  Jonathon Holland, film critic of "Variety" magazine, liked the film's story and wrote, "A deft, witty and emotionally rewarding study of a thirtysomething man in his roles as father and son, Daniel Burman's intensely personal "Family Law" completes his fatherhood trilogy. The second installment, "Lost Embrace", won the Silver Bear at Berlin in 2004. Again featuring an outstanding Daniel Hendler (best actor in 2004) and a script that fuses sharp observation with the intimacy of a lightly rewritten autobiography, pic effortlessly takes the viewer through a range of thoughts and moods. Fans of "Embrace" might lament the relative absence of social context this time, but pic's multiple merits should consolidate helmer's [sic] burgeoning offshore reputation."  The senior film writer at the "San Francisco Chronicle", Ruthe Stein, liked the comedy-drama's screenplay, the direction and acting, writing, ""Family Law"—a subtly perceptive charmer that was Argentina's entry for a best foreign film Oscar and might have been nominated in a less competitive year—is in no particular hurry to get where it's going...Although Hendler and Goetz don't really look alike, they manage to convey a family resemblance in their mannerisms, particularly the erect way they carry themselves, as if they're somebody...Aizemberg works wonders. You get the sense from her radiance that the secretary has always had a thing for her boss. His wife's death allowed her to finally express it physically, and she's overjoyed by their intimacy...Ultimately this is a movie about a son's discovery of the man he knows mostly as a father. It's a serious subject handled with humor—not the ha-ha kind, but the hard laughter that comes from recognizing parts of yourself in the Perelmans."  Critics Frederic and Mary Ann Brussat, of the website "Spirituality and Practice" like the film and wrote, "Family Law explores in a realistic and touching way the emotional barriers that often block intimate conversation between fathers and sons...It's easy today to send e-mails and faxes anywhere in the world, yet we rarely speak to those who live in our neighborhood. We have cellular telephones and pagers, yet we spend very little time in deep conversation with those in our immediate family. This strange phenomenon is depicted very poignantly in this snappy and satisfying film from Argentina written and directed by Daniel Burman. We were very impressed with his "Lost Embrace" about a father and son reunion after years apart. This one also deals with a father and son relationship."

Awards.

Wins  Nominations

Family Law () is a 2006 Argentine, French, Italian, and Spanish, comedy-drama film, written and directed by Daniel Burman. The picture was produced by Diego Dubcovsky, José María Morales, and Marc Sillam, and co-produced by Amedeo Pagani. "Family Law" was Argentina official submission for the 2004 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film

Les Lois de la famille (titre original : "Derecho de familia") est un film argentin, coproduit avec l'Espagne, l'Italie et la France, réalisé par Daniel Burman et sorti en 2006.


History.

The first scientific writings of this behaviour dates back to 1831. American ornithologist John James Audubon described wild juvenile turkeys that "wallowed" in abandoned ant hills. Another description was published by a naturalist in 1847 in a manuscript called "Bird of Jamaica". In it the author describes how ants remove parasites from a tame crow, while the crow is foraging for food. In 1934 an Alexander Hugh Chisholm described in "Bird Wonders of Australia", a strange relationship birds had with ants. Erwin Stresemann in German as "Einemsen" then described this behaviour in the German ornithology journal "Ornithologische Monatsberichte" (Volume XLIII, p. 138) in 1935. Indian ornithologist Salim Ali interpreted an observation by his cousin Humayun Abdulali in the 1936 volume of "Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society" and included a reference to the Stresemann's paper suggesting that the German term could be translated into English as "anting".

Modes.

Active.

Anting most commonly occurs on the ground but in some species, birds practice anting on tree branches. A bird will place the tip of its wing on the ground and rub its bill containing an ant from the tip of the wing up. The tail is usually tucked between the legs and under the body, which results in the bird being unstable. Birds use one ant at a time and only rub a feather once with an ant. However, there are some cases where an ant is used more than once but never exceeds three uses. There are some exceptions to this as starlings often take a ball of ants in their bills to be used for anting. Active anting happens very quickly and can often be mistaken for regular feather maintenance. This type of anting can last anywhere from just several minutes to half an hour. Most species of birds practice active anting and do this individually or in small groups. Birds may also use'substitutes' in active anting. Birds have been seen to use snails, grasshoppers, amphipods and even larvae.

Passive.

Passive anting occurs when a bird rubs its wings and tail on an anthill. Once a bird has found an anthill it will then spread both of its wings forward at the same time. It will then sit on its tails which attracts the ants to come. Once the ants are on their wing feathers they provoke the ants by rubbing their head or beak through their feathers where the ants are. To prevent ants from crawling onto a bird's head or beak the bird will shake its head very quickly. The birds allow the ants to roam freely around its feathers. This type of anting is less common and is mostly seen in robins and ravens.

Functions.

Ridding of ectoparasites.

Anting to get rid of ectoparasites is another hypothesis for anting in songbirds. This hypothesis suggests that birds use the chemical secretions that come from ants to control and rid of parasites in their feathers. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi can destroy a bird's feathers if their numbers get large enough. Formic acid is commonly produced chemical by ants, and it was found to inhibit growth of feather destroying microorganisms. However, there is little evidence that chemicals from ants help to remove or deter other parasites such as feather lice and mites.

Feather grooming.

The hypothesis that anting is a form of feather maintenance suggests that anting brings saliva to the bird's feathers for use in preening. This helps to remove old preen oil and other substances.

Food preparation.

The food preparation hypothesis suggests that birds rub the ant in its feathers to remove a substance on the ant. Ants produce formic acid as a defense mechanism. Thus, when an ant feels threatened like being in the beak of a bird it will spray formic acid. It is suggested that birds then rub the ants in their feathers to remove the harmful formic acid. The bird will then ingest the ant. This can be seen in European starlings, "Sturnus vulgaris".

Sensory self-stimulation.

Anting has been compared to human activities such as smoking and other external stimuli that serve no biological purpose and is just for self-stimulation. This hypothesis has been suggested as anting as no obvious function, it is non-adaptive, birds are said to achieve pleasure from anting and anting has characteristics of a habit. Some studies have also suggested that anting serves as a sensual or sexual function. However, there is no definitive evidence that sensory self-stimulation is the purpose of anting in birds. There have been several studies that claim to prove this hypothesis while others say just the opposite.

Functions in molt.

It has been found that passerine birds molt in the summer months. These birds often focus much of the anting on their wings and tails. This is where the largest feathers emerge, and it has been suggested that anting helps stimulate the growth of these feathers during molt. Not all birds that ant do so during molt.

Species of ants used.

Ants that spray and produce Formic Acid for defense are more often than not used for anting. Species from the subfamily Formicinae are the most commonly chosen by birds. Species from Dolichoderinae and Myrmicinae subfamilies are also used for anting however, not as common as Formicinae. If given a choice a bird will choose an ant in the subfamily Formicinae over all other species. In total there are 24 ant species birds use for anting.

Substitutes of ants.

Some birds participate in this anting behaviour but with other organisms and even objects. Some of the organisms birds use are garlic snails, amphipods, millipedes, dermapterans, caterpillars, grasshoppers, hemipterans, mealworm larvae, and wasps.

Related behaviours.

Dusting with soil from ant-hills has been considered by some as equivalent to anting.  Some birds like antbirds and flickers not only ant, but also consume the ants as an important part of their diet. Other opportunist ant-eating birds include sparrows, wrens, grouse and starlings. European honey-buzzards have been found to gather fresh maple branches on the ground and then spread themselves over it and it has been suggested that this might be a case of tool-use to attract ants for anting.  Similar to anting may be the observed habit some birds show of picking up cigarette butts, sometimes lit, and rubbing themselves with them.

Anting is a maintenance behaviour during which birds rub insects, usually ants, on their feathers and skin. The bird may pick up the insects in its bill and rub them on the body (active anting), or the bird may lie in an area of high density of the insects and perform dust bathing-like movements (passive anting). The insects secrete liquids containing chemicals such as formic acid, which can act as an insecticide, miticide, fungicide, or bactericide. Alternatively, anting could make the insects edible by removing the distasteful acid, or, possibly supplement the bird's own preen oil. Instead of ants, birds can also use millipedes. More than 200 species of bird are known to ant. A possibly related behaviour, self-anointing, is seen in many mammals.

Le bain de fourmis, " en anglais, est un comportement spécifique aux Passeriformes, bien que des comportements similaires soient observés chez d'autres oiseaux (en particulier des Piciformes) et des primates. Ce comportement est caractérisé par un transfert par l'oiseau considéré de fourmis sur son plumage via un positionnement à proximité de fourmis (forme passive du bain) ou directement à l'aide de son bec (forme active du bain). Une variante de ce comportement reposant sur des de fourmis a également été décrite. Le bain de fourmis a été observé chez plus de 210 espèces de Passeriformes.


Biography.

Born in Turin to Guido and Agata, Argentero grew up in neighboring Moncalieri. After completing high school at the Catholic "Collegio San Giuseppe", he worked as a bartender in a local nightclub while earning a degree in Economy & Commerce in 2004. Argentero rose to fame in 2003 as a participant in the third season of the popular reality TV series "Grande Fratello" (Big Brother), arriving to the final and earning third place, with 9% of the Italian votes. After this experience, Argentero began guest appearing on a variety of television shows and worked as a model, posing for a sensual calendar made by the Italian monthly magazine "Max".  In 2005, Argentero made his debut as an actor in the television series "Carabinieri", in which he portrayed the character of Marco Tosi in the fourth, fifth, and sixth seasons. In 2006, he played the main character in the short film "Il Quarto Sesso" ("The Fourth Sex"). That same year, Argentero also made his cinematic debut in "A Casa Nostra" ("Our Country"), directed by Francesca Comencini. In 2007, he was in "Saturno Contro" ("Saturn in Opposition"), a film by Ferzan Özpetek, playing the role of a homosexual man. The same year, Argentero also appeared in "Lezioni di Cioccolato", a film by Claudio Cupellini. In addition, he appeared on television as one of the two main characters in the miniseries "La Baronessa di Carini".  In 2008, Argentero took the role of the protagonist in the film "Solo un padre", directed by Luca Lucini. Production on this movie began in January 2008 in Argentero's hometown of Turin. In 2009 he was in "Diverso da Chi?" ("Different from Whom?"), in which he again portrayed a gay man. This role earned Argentero his first David di Donatello nomination as best actor.

Luca Argentero (born 12 April 1978) is an Italian actor, model and television personality. He has appeared in more than 18 films since 2006.

Luca Argentero (né le à Turin) est un acteur italien. Il est apparu dans plus de 18 films depuis 2006.


Presentation.

Symptoms usually begin insidiously between adolescence and age 45. Syringomyelia develops in the center of the spinal cord, causing a central cord syndrome. Pain and temperature sensory deficits occur early but may not be recognized for years. The first abnormality recognized may be a painless burn or cut. Syringomyelia typically causes weakness, atrophy, and often fasciculations and hyperreflexia of the hands and arms; a deficit in pain and temperature sensation in a capelike distribution over the shoulders, arms and back is characteristic. Light touch and position and vibration sensation are not affected. Later, spastic leg weakness develops. Deficits may be asymmetric.  Syringobulbia may cause vertigo, nystagmus, unilateral or bilateral loss of facial sensation, lingual atrophy and weakness, dysarthria, dysphagia, hoarseness, and sometimes peripheral sensory or motor deficits due to medullary compression.

Cause.

A syrinx results when a watery, protective substance known as cerebrospinal fluid, that normally flows around the spinal cord and brain, transporting nutrients and waste products, collects in a small area of the spinal cord and forms a pseudocyst.  A number of medical conditions can cause an obstruction in the normal flow of cerebrospinal fluid, redirecting it into the spinal cord itself. For reasons that are only now becoming clear, this results in syrinx formation. Cerebrospinal fluid fills the syrinx. Pressure differences along the spine cause the fluid to move within the cyst. Physicians believe that it is this continual movement of fluid that results in cyst growth and further damage to the spinal cord.  In the case of syringomyelia, the syrinx can expand and elongate over time, destroying the spinal cord. Since the spinal cord connects the brain to nerves in the extremities, this damage may result in pain, weakness, and stiffness in the back, shoulders, arms, or legs. Other symptoms may include headaches and a loss of the ability to feel extremes of hot or cold, especially in the hands. Each patient experiences a different combination of symptoms. These symptoms typically vary depending on the extent and, often more critically, to the location of the syrinx within the spinal cord.  Syrinxes usually result from lesions that partially obstruct CSF flow. At least 1⁄2 of syrinxes occur in patients with congenital abnormalities of the craniocervical junction (e.g. herniation of cerebellar tissue into the spinal canal, called Chiari malformation), brain (e.g. encephalocele), or spinal cord (e.g. myelomeningocele—see Congenital Neurologic Anomalies: Brain Anomalies). For unknown reasons, these congenital abnormalities often expand during the teen or young adult years. A syrinx can also develop in patients who have a spinal cord tumor, scarring due to previous spinal trauma, or no known predisposing factors. About 30% of people with a spinal cord tumor eventually develop a syrinx.  Syringomyelia is a paramedian, usually irregular, longitudinal cavity. It most often affects the cervical and thoracic regions but may extend further down or up into the brainstem (syringobulbia). Syringobulbia, which is rare, usually occurs as a slitlike gap within the lower brain stem and may disrupt or compress the lower cranial nerves or ascending sensory or descending motor pathways.

Diagnosis.

A syrinx is suggested by an unexplained central cord syndrome or other characteristic neurologic deficits, particularly pain and temperature sensory deficits in a capelike distribution. MRI of the entire spinal cord and brain is done. Administration of intravenous Gadolinium during the MRI examination is useful for detecting any associated tumor.

Treatment.

Underlying problems (e.g. craniocervical junction abnormalities, postoperative scarring, spinal tumors) are corrected when possible. Surgical decompression of the foramen magnum and upper cervical cord is the only useful treatment, but surgery usually cannot reverse severe neurologic deterioration.

Etymology.

Syrinx is taken directly from the ancient Greek word for "tube." It is the root of the word "syringe."

A syrinx is a rare, fluid-filled neuroglial cavity within the spinal cord (syringomyelia), in the brain stem (syringobulbia), or in the nerves of the elbow, usually in a young age.

Un syrinx est une cavité neurogliale remplie de fluide à l'intérieur de la moelle épinière (dont l'atteinte peut être responsable d'une syringomyélie), dans le tronc cérébral (dont l'atteinte peut être responsable d'une syringobulbie), ou dans les nerfs du coude, habituellement chez la personne jeune.


Career.

Pope was a high school star at Newport High School in Bellevue, Washington and played two years at the University of Washington (UW). He earned Pac-10 Freshman of the Year honors in 1992 after setting a UW freshman single-season record with 8.1 rebounds per game. He transferred to the University of Kentucky, where he was a member of the 1996 NCAA Men's Basketball Championship team. Pope was a second round pick of the Indiana Pacers in the 1996 NBA Draft. The 2004-05 season was his last, as he was cut in training camp with the Denver Nuggets the following season.  In 2006, Pope enrolled in medical school at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York City. In 2009, he left medical school and joined Mark Fox's coaching staff at the University of Georgia. Fox was an assistant coach when both were at UW. The following season (2010–11), Pope moved to Wake Forest University to serve as an assistant under Jeff Bzdelik.  In May 2011, Pope was hired as an assistant to Dave Rose at Brigham Young University. Pope replaced Dave Rice, who left the Cougars to assume the head coach position at UNLV.  In March 2015, Pope was hired as the new head basketball coach at Utah Valley University, replacing the retiring Dick Hunsaker.  In April 2019, Pope replaced Rose as the new head basketball coach at BYU.

Personal life.

Pope and his wife, Lee Anne, a former assistant to talk show host David Letterman, have four daughters. Lee Anne is the daughter of the late Lynn Archibald, who was the head basketball coach at the University of Utah from 1983-1989 and was an assistant at BYU in the 1990s. Pope is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Mark Edward Pope (born September 11, 1972) is an American basketball coach and former player who is the head coach for the BYU Cougars. He played college basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats, where he was part of a national championship team, and the Washington Huskies, where he was the Pac-10 Freshman of the Year. He later played professionally in the National Basketball Association for the Indiana Pacers, Milwaukee Bucks and Denver Nuggets.

Mark Pope, né le, à Omaha, au Nebraska, est un joueur et entraîneur américain de basket-ball. Il évoluait au poste d'ailier fort.


History.

The community was first settled in 1874 by the Parker and Van Blaricom families. Cousins Judson Weed and Ozias Cherrington, both of Ohio, arrived in 1876. Sometime afterwards, the question of a name for the community came up, and Cherrington suggested the name of his daughter (Vernona) in Ohio, which was adopted. Due to a clerical error during the incorporation process, an "i" was inserted into the name. Cherrington died in a farming accident in 1894, never having seen his daughter since his departure from Ohio.  Vernonia started to become more than an isolated farming community on July 10, 1924, when the Oregon-American Lumber Company opened a state-of-the-art lumber mill, which was supported by a railroad line connecting Vernonia to the rest of the country. Oregon-American merged with Long-Bell Lumber Company in May 1953, which itself merged with International Paper in November 1957. International Paper judged the mill antiquated, and closed it on December 20, 1957.  The city has been severely impacted by floods on multiple occasions. The rains that caused the Willamette Valley Flood of 1996 flooded Vernonia as well; some homes in the floodplain were elevated, and some flooring materials were replaced, mitigating some damage from later flooding. In 2007, heavy storms that impacted the Pacific Northwest washed out roads and destroyed homes, cars, and communications infrastructure. Despite preparations in 1996, in some parts of town flood water reached above the 100 year base flood elevation. In the wake of the 2007 flood, Vernonia School District voters approved a $13 million bond in 2009 to build a new K-12 school in Vernonia. The new school opened in fall 2012.

Community events.

The Friendship Jamboree is an annual event inaugurated in 1957 and currently held on the first full weekend of August.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Climate.

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Vernonia has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 2,151 people, 822 households, and 571 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 962 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 94.1% White, 0.3% African American, 1.3% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 0.8% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.2% of the population.  There were 822 households of which 35.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.6% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.5% were non-families. 25.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.09.  The median age in the city was 38.2 years. 26.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 29.2% were from 45 to 64; and 10.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.0% male and 49.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,228 people, 789 households, and 583 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,444.2 people per square mile (558.6/km2). There were 880 housing units at an average density of 570.4 per square mile (220.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.38% White, 0.18% African American, 1.39% Native American, 0.49% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 0.54% from other races, and 1.93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.24% of the population. 19.6% were of German, 14.7% English, 9.5% American, 8.6% Irish and 5.3% Scottish ancestry according to Census 2000.  There were 789 households out of which 41.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.4% were married couples living together, 10.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.0% were non-families. 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.82 and the average family size was 3.29.  In the city, the population was spread out with 34.0% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 9.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $41,181, and the median income for a family was $48,563. Males had a median income of $37,447 versus $24,219 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,647. About 8.6% of families and 9.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.0% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.

Transportation.

Oregon Route 47 is the only major highway serving Vernonia, providing access from the lower Columbia River and Route 30 to the north, and from Oregon Highway 26 to the south. The Banks–Vernonia State Trail, a rails-to-trails conversion featuring a raised path for bicyclists, pedestrians, and horseback riders, roughly parallels Route 47 to the south of Vernonia. The Crown Zellerbach trail is a conversion of old logging roads (themselves a conversion from old railroad way) to a trail for mountain biking, hiking, and horseback riding. This trail extends over Vernonia to Scappoose.

Public transit.

Very limited public transit service provided by the Columbia County Rider (or CC Rider), a service of the county's Transit Division, connects Vernonia with the Willow Creek MAX light rail station and bus transit center of TriMet in Hillsboro. Called the Nehalem Valley Fixed-Route Service, the bus route was introduced on July 1, 2009, and currently operates on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, twice per day (as one round trip in each rush hour).

Airport.

Vernonia Municipal Airport (FAA: 05S) is a city-owned, public-use airport located two nautical miles (3.7 km) west of the central business district of Vernonia.

In popular culture.

The December 2007 flooding in Vernonia was featured in the first season of the television show "Ax Men".  Vernonia has also appeared in several films, including "Ring of Fire" (1961), "The Vernonia Incident" (1989), "Thumbsucker" (2005), "Tillamook Treasure" (2006), and "Twilight" (2008).

Vernonia is a city in Columbia County, Oregon, United States. It is located on the Nehalem River, in a valley on the eastern side of the Northern Oregon Coast Range that is the heart of one of the most important timber-producing areas of the state. Logging has played a large role in the history of the city. The population was 2,151 at the 2010 census.

Vernonia est une municipalité américaine située dans le comté de Columbia en Oregon. Lors du recensement de 2010, sa population est de. Située sur la, la municipalité s'étend sur une superficie de, dont d'étendues d'eau.


History.

Elkmont began as a stop known as "Fort Hampton" along the newly-constructed Tennessee and Alabama Central Railroad in 1859. The name was changed to "Elkmont," after the elk that once flourished in the area, in 1866. The Tennessee and Alabama Central eventually became part of the L&N Railroad system, which built the current depot (now used as a community center) in 1887. The railroad tracks have since been removed, and are now part of the Richard Martin Trail. Elkmont incorporated in 1873.  During the Civil War, the Battle of Sulphur Creek Trestle was fought just south of Elkmont in September 1864. The site is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Geography.

Elkmont is located at (34.930155, -86.977086). The town is concentrated around the intersection of County Road 49 (Upper Fort Hampton Road) and the old railroad line (now the Richard Martin Trail), several miles north of Athens, and a few miles south of the Alabama-Tennessee state line. Interstate 65 passes to the east of Elkmont, and the Elk River passes to the west. State Route 127 runs along a portion of Elkmont's western municipal boundary.  According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 470 people, 172 households, and 136 families residing in the town. The population density was 292.9 people per square mile (113.4/km). There were 189 housing units at an average density of 117.8 per square mile (45.6/km). The racial makeup of the town was 83.40% White, 15.11% Black or African American, 1.06% from other races, and 0.43% from two or more races. 1.28% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 172 households out of which 40.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.0% were married couples living together, 9.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9% were non-families. 19.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.73 and the average family size was 3.10.  In the town, the population was spread out with 28.3% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 32.1% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.6 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $31,771, and the median income for a family was $35,000. Males had a median income of $33,750 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,654. About 15.9% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.9% of those under age 18 and 13.9% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Elkmont is home to the Belle Chevre artisanal goat cheese maker, as well as VINYL Revival-a record/HI-FI and local music scene establishment.  The Richard Martin Trail passes through Elkmont along the old rail line.  The ELECTRICFIL Corporation, a subsidiary of French Group EFI Automotive, employs nearly 150 people in the Elkmont area.

Elkmont is a town in Limestone County, Alabama, United States, and is included in the Huntsville-Decatur Combined Statistical Area. As of the 2010 census, the population of the town was 434, down from its record high of 470 in 2000.

Elkmont est une municipalité américaine située dans le comté de Limestone en Alabama. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de. La municipalité s'étend sur une superficie de.