Early life.

Shannon Leto was born in Bossier City, Louisiana, to Constance Leto (née Metrejon). His mother has Cajun ancestry. "Leto" is a stepfather's surname. His parents divorced when he was a child, and he and his younger brother Jared lived with their mother and their maternal grandparents William Lee Metrejon and Ruby Russell. His father remarried and committed suicide when Shannon was ten. Leto moved frequently with his family from his native Louisiana to different cities around the country. He has two younger half-brothers from his father's second marriage.  Constance joined the hippie movement and encouraged her sons to get involved in the arts. Leto became interested in percussions from the moment he and his brother started playing music together at early age, and his models were artists of many different mediums. "I come from a pretty artistic family," he explained, "There were canvases and paint everywhere, instruments, and all sorts of stuff. It just kind of made sense. I started playing on pots and pans at a very early age, so I just kind of flowed into it. It was just a natural progression." He received his first drum kit when he was ten years old and began teaching himself, developing his own style.  Leto has described his adolescence as a troubled time, in which he used drugs and dropped out of school. He said, "I was in a mess, I felt I didn't belong anywhere", calling himself as an "outsider" who hated conformity and rules, and "took any opportunity to break them." Ultimately, Jared helped him recover from drugs.

Music career.

Leto formed the rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars in 1998 in Los Angeles, California with his brother Jared. Their debut album had been in the works for a couple of years and was recorded in rural Wyoming during 2001 and early 2002. Their work led to a number of record labels being interested in signing Thirty Seconds to Mars, which eventually signed to Immortal Records. The band worked with producers Bob Ezrin and Brian Virtue on their debut album "30 Seconds to Mars", which was released on August 27, 2002 in the United States through Immortal and Virgin. It reached number 107 on the US "Billboard" 200 and number one on the US Top Heatseekers. Upon its release, "30 Seconds to Mars" was met with mostly positive reviews; music critic Megan O'Toole felt that the band has "managed to carve out a unique niche for themselves in the rock realm." The album was a slow-burning success, and eventually sold two million copies worldwide as of March 2011. It took two years to record their next release "A Beautiful Lie", with the band traveling to four different continents to accommodate Jared Leto's acting career. "A Beautiful Lie" was released on August 30, 2005 in the United States. It has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and has reached platinum and gold status in several countries, with a sales total of over four million. The band heavily toured in support of the album and played at several major festivals, including Roskilde, Pinkpop, Rock am Ring, and Download.  In August 2008, during the recording process of the band's third studio album, Thirty Seconds to Mars attempted to sign with a new label, prompting EMI (the parent label of Virgin), to file a $30 million breach of contract lawsuit. After nearly a year of legal battles, the band announced on April 28, 2009, that the suit had been settled following a defence based on the De Havilland Law. Thirty Seconds to Mars then signed a new contract with EMI and released their third album "This Is War" in December 2009 to critical acclaim.  "This Is War" reached the top ten of several national album charts and earned numerous music awards. The band began their Into the Wild Tour in February 2010 and was among the hardest-working touring artists of the year. In December 2011, they entered the "Guinness World Records" for most live shows during a single album cycle, with 300 shows. In September 2012, Leto released a remixed version of "Night of the Hunter", a track featured on "This Is War". The musician explained that he wanted to "reinvent" the song, to "shed a different light on it by bringing a dance element to it."  Thirty Seconds to Mars released their fourth album, "Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams", in May 2013 through Universal. It received generally positive reviews and reached the top ten in more than fifteen countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States. The band promoted the album by embarking on their Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams Tour and the Carnivores Tour, co-headlining with Linkin Park. In April 2014, Thirty Seconds to Mars announced that they have parted from Virgin Records after tumultuous years with the label.

Artistry.

Leto is known for his energetic live performances and his ability to blend traditional and experimental drum techniques. During the production of Thirty Seconds to Mars first studio album, he played almost exclusively electronic drums and drew influence from bands such as Pink Floyd, The Cure, Led Zeppelin, and The Who, which he considers "mostly big conceptional bands; bands that had depth; bands that were dynamic." Bob Ezrin, producer of the album, felt that Leto is "one of the most inventive drummers I've worked with. He isn't satisfied with simply adding a beat; his drum parts are an integral part of the orchestration of the record. He's also a great live drummer who is lots of fun to watch, with a presence and energy level that are mesmerizing." Leto switched to a mostly acoustic set-up on the band's next release "A Beautiful Lie". His equipment consists of a hybrid kit that combines both acoustic and electric elements. His drum technician Joseph Ciccone, better known as Kentucky, stated that Leto's "sound is his technique. He's an animal behind that kit, so I love giving him tons of things to beat up." During the production of "This Is War", Leto widened his style with an abundance of electronic sounds and synth textures created by himself. He wrote the instrumental track "L490" and played every instrument on it, including all guitars and a singing bowl. He experimented with different instruments and drew influences from a varied range of styles in "Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams". Steve Lillywhite, who co-produced two band's albums, felt that Leto treats drumming "unlike most drummers do in rock bands. His cross rhythms explode in a guttural way... very musical, extremely unique."  Leto was largely an autodidact on drums; "I've always wanted to find my way of doing things," he explained, "Discovering what I can contribute with my own voice. There were so many styles that I was into at a young age. I didn't want to get locked into just one thing." During his youth, Leto had been a devoted fan of progressive rock and blues music, listening to artists such as Fleetwood Mac, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, Pink Floyd, Led Zeppelin, and Boz Scaggs. He is inspired by electronic music, including Depeche Mode and The Cure. His major influences also include jazz band Steely Dan, as well as heavy metal groups Mountain, Iron Maiden and Kiss. According to Leto, these artists were commercially viable but also respected for their statements and contributions. He explained that he "never focused on the drummers," saying that he felt more connected to music than a particular drummer.  When Thirty Seconds to Mars first started, the Leto brothers experimented to try and create a specific sound, whose process was described as "very organic". They were attempting to produce a "feeling" rather than a sound, in order to recreate the sense of community that marked their childhood. Leto also stated that the band's concerts are a direct reflection of that period of his early life.  Journalist Kelly King, a long-time contributor with "Drumhead" magazine, opined that Leto is "energy and grace behind the drums, stoking the fire that drives his band." He commented that the musician is both confident and aggressive on his kit, and felt that "his drive to push himself to the limit, to create and explore his own artistic capabilities is paramount." Ryan Jones, writing for Alternative Addiction, described Leto as one of rock's most dynamic drummers of present day. He received the Indie Drummer Award at the 2012 Drummies Awards. He was also nominated for Alternative Drummer in 2009 and 2011.

Other work.

In 1994, Leto found a minor role on the television series "My So-Called Life", in which his brother starred. He later appeared in the films "Prefontaine" (1997), "Sol Goode" (2001), and "Highway" (2002). Leto recorded the songs "Drop That Baby" and "Let's Go All the Way" with the short-lived supergroup The Wondergirls in 1999, which members included Scott Weiland, Mark McGrath, and Ian Astbury, among others. Since 2007, Leto has performed on occasional dates with American percussion band Street Drum Corps. In June 2008, he joined Habitat for Humanity to work with Thirty Seconds to Mars on a home being repaired and renovated through the Greater Los Angeles Area's "A Brush With Kindness" programme. Leto began producing American electronic band CB7 after meeting musician Antoine Becks in 2009. CB7 later supported Thirty Seconds to Mars on the North American leg of their Into the Wild Tour in 2011. The same year, Leto created a side project with Becks and toured worldwide with him until the summer of 2012, when the duo split. In 2014, Leto launched Black Fuel Trading Company, a lifestyle brand primarily focusing on responsibly sourced, direct-trade coffee.

Shannon Leto (; born March 9, 1970) is an American musician and songwriter best known as the drummer of rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars. He co-founded the group in 1998 in Los Angeles, California, with his younger brother Jared. Their debut album, "30 Seconds to Mars" (2002), was released to positive reviews but only to limited success. The band achieved worldwide fame with the release of their second album "A Beautiful Lie" (2005). Their following releases, "This Is War" (2009) and "Love, Lust, Faith and Dreams" (2013), received further critical and commercial success. As of September 2014, the band has sold over 15 million albums worldwide.

Shannon Carl Leto (né le à Bossier City, Louisiane) est le batteur du groupe de rock alternatif américain Thirty Seconds to Mars, mais également photographe, auteur-compositeur, chanteur et acteur.


General properties and reactivity.

According to tabulated linear free energy relationship constants (e.g. Hammett σ and σ), the diazonium group (N) is among the most strongly electron-withdrawing substituents. Thus, the α position of alkyldiazonium species and acidic protons on diazonio-substituted phenols and benzoic acids have greatly reduced p"K" values compared to their unsubstituted counterparts. For example, the aqueous p"K" of methyldiazonium is estimated to be <10, while that of the phenolic proton of 4-hydroxybenzenediazonium was measured to be 3.4.  In terms of reactivity, the chemistry of diazonium salts is dominated by their propensity to dediazotize via the thermodynamically (enthalpically and entropically) favorable expulsion of dinitrogen gas. The reaction (MeN→ Me + N) has an enthalpic change of 43 kcal/mol, while (EtN→ Et + N) has an enthalpic change of 11 kcal/mol. For secondary and tertiary alkyldiazonium species, the enthalpic change is calculated to be close to zero or negative, with minimal activation barrier to expulsion of nitrogen. Hence, secondary and (especially) tertiary alkyldiazonium species are either unbound, nonexistent species or, at best, extremely fleeting intermediates.  Methyldiazonium carboxylate is believed to be a fleeting intermediate in the methylation of carboxylic acids by diazomethane, and alkyldiazonium species generated via diazotization of amines have been studied in physical organic chemistry studies. However, alkyldiazonium salts are otherwise synthetically unimportant due to their extreme and uncontrolled S2/S1/E1 reactivity.  In contrast, aryldiazonium salts are more stable, though still dangerously explosive under certain conditions, because S2 is geometrically impossible and does not occur, while S1 occurs with much greater difficulty compared to alkyldiazonium species due to difficulty in forming the high energy aryl cation and stronger C(sp)–N bond compared to the C(sp)–N bond in alkyldiazonium compounds. Classically, the chloride salt is prepared at 5 °C from the aniline and NaNO/aq. HCl, and ArNCl salts tend to decompose (sometimes explosively) at higher temperatures. However, the use of redox inactive and voluminous HSO, BF, or TsO as counteranions has allowed aryldiazonium salts to be stored indefinitely at 0 °C and safely handled for short periods of time at temperatures up to 50 °C. Aryldiazonium salts due undergo S1(Ar) (dissociative unimolecular nucleophilic aromatic substitution) in a few cases, while the majority of their reactions take place by S1(Ar) (dissociative radical nucleophilic aromatic substitution) in which an initial electron transfer takes place, allowing for the formation of an aryl radical rather than cation.  Aryldiazonium salts are exceptionally versatile reagents for chemical synthesis. Because aryl radicals and cations are highly electrophilic and will react with virtually any nucleophile reagent, aryldiazonium salts form a "transit hub" for arene chemistry from which almost any other aromatic derivative can be prepared. Moreover, this utility is accentuated by their ready availability: aryldiazonium salts are easily accessible from diazotization of arylamines (anilines and heteroarylamines), which, in turn, are derived from the parent arene by electrophilic nitration followed by metal-mediated or -catalyzed reduction. After electrophilic aromatic substitution, diazonium chemistry is the most frequently applied strategy to prepare aromatic compounds.  Industrially, aryldiazonium salts are important intermediates in the organic synthesis of azo dyes.

Preparation.

The process of forming diazonium compounds is called "diazotation", "diazoniation", or "diazotization". The reaction was first reported by Peter Griess in 1858, who subsequently discovered several reactions of this new class of compounds. Most commonly, diazonium salts are prepared by treatment of aromatic amines with nitrous acid and additional acid. Usually the nitrous acid is generated "in situ" (in the same flask) from sodium nitrite and the excess mineral acid (usually aqueous HCl, HSO, "p"-HCCHSOH, or HBF): Aqueous solutions of diazonium chloride salts, traditionally prepared from the aniline, sodium nitrite, and hydrochloric acid, are unstable at room temperature and are classically prepared at 0 – 5 °C. However, one can isolate diazonium compounds as tetrafluoroborate or tosylate salts, which are stable solids at room temperature. It is often preferred that the diazonium salt remain in solution, but they do tend to supersaturate. Operators have been injured or even killed by an unexpected crystallization of the salt followed by its detonation.  Due to these hazards, diazonium compounds are usually not isolated. Instead they are used "in situ". This approach is illustrated in the preparation of an arylsulfonyl compound:

Diazo coupling reactions.

The most widely practiced reaction of diazonium salts is azo coupling. In this process, the diazonium compound is attacked by, i.e., coupled to, electron-rich substrates. When the coupling partners are arenes such as anilines and phenols, the process is an example of electrophilic aromatic substitution:  Another commercially important class of coupling partners are acetoacetic amides, as illustrated by the preparation of Pigment Yellow 12, a diarylide pigment.  The resulting azo compounds are often useful dyes and in fact are called azo dyes. The deep colors of the dyes reflects their extended conjugation. For example, the dye called aniline yellow is produced by mixing aniline and cold solution of diazonium salt and then shaking it vigorously. Aniline yellow is obtained as a yellow solid. Similarly, a cold basic solution of Naphthalen-2-ol (beta-naphthol) give the intensely orange-red precipitate. Methyl orange is an example of an azo dye that is used in the laboratory as a pH indicator.

Displacement of the N group.

Arenediazonium cations undergo several reactions in which the N group is replaced by another group or ion. Some of the major ones are the following.

Biaryl coupling.

A pair of diazonium cations can be coupled to give biaryls. This conversion is illustrated by the coupling of the diazonium salt derived from anthranilic acid to give diphenic acid ((CHCOH)). In a related reaction, the same diazonium salt undergoes loss of N and CO to give benzyne.

Replacement by Halides.

Sandmeyer reaction.

Benzenediazonium chloride heated with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide respectively dissolved in HCl or HBr yield chlorobenzene or bromobenzene, respectively.

Gatterman reaction.

In the Gatterman reaction, benzenediazonium chloride is warmed with copper powder and HCl or HBr to produce chlorobenzene and bromobenzene respectively. It is named after the German chemist Ludwig Gattermann.

Replacement by iodide.

Iodine is not easily introduced into the benzene ring directly. However it can be introduced by treating aryldiazonium cations with potassium iodide:

Replacement by fluoride.

Fluorobenzene is produced by thermal decomposition of benzenediazonium fluoroborate. The conversion is called the Balz-Schiemann reaction.  The traditional Balz–Schiemann reaction has been the subject of many motivations, e.g. using hexafluorophosphates (PF) and hexafluoroantimonate (SbF) in place of tetrafluoroborates. The diazotization can be effected with nitrosonium salts such as [NO]SbF.

Miscellaneous Replacements.

Replacement by hydrogen.

Arenediazonium cations reduced by hypophosphorous acid, ethanol or sodium stannite gives benzene:

Replacement by a hydroxyl group.

Phenols are produced by heating aqueous solutions of aryldiazonium salts:  This reaction goes by the German name "Phenolverkochung" ("cooking down to yield phenols"). The phenol formed may react with the diazonium salt and hence the reaction is carried in the presence of an acid which suppresses this further reaction. A Sandmeyer-type hydroxylation is also possible using CuO and Cu in water.

Replacement by a nitro group.

Nitrobenzene can be obtained by treating benzenediazonium fluoroborate with sodium nitrite in presence of copper. Alternatively, the diazotisation of the aniline can be conducted in presence of cuprous oxide, which generates cuprous nitrite in situ:

Replacement by a cyano group.

The cyano group usually cannot be introduced by nucleophilic substitution of haloarenes, but such compounds can be easily prepared from diazonium salts. Illustrative is the preparation of benzonitrile using the reagent cuprous cyanide:  This reaction is a special type of Sandmeyer reaction.

Replacement by a trifluoromethyl group.

Two research groups reported trifluoromethylations of diazonium salts in 2013. Goossen reported the preparation of a CuCF complex from CuSCN, TMSCF, and CsCO. In contrast, Fu reported the trifluoromethylation using Umemoto's reagent ("S"-trifluoromethyldibenzothiophenium tetrafluoroborate) and Cu powder (Gattermann-type conditions). They can be described by the following equation:  The bracket indicates that other ligands on copper are likely present but are omitted.

Replacement by a thiol group.

Diazonium salts can be converted to thiols in a two-step procedure. Treatment of benzenediazonium chloride with potassium ethylxanthate followed by hydrolysis of the intermediate xanthate ester gives thiophenol:

Replacement by an aryl group.

The aryl group can be coupled to another using aryldiazonium salts. For example, treatment of benzenediazonium chloride with benzene (an aromatic compound) in the presence of sodium hydroxide gives diphenyl:  This reaction is known as the Gomberg–Bachmann reaction. A similar conversion is also achieved by treating benzenediazonium chloride with ethanol and copper powder.

Replacement by boronate ester group.

A Bpin (pinacolatoboron) group, of use in Suzuki-Miyaura cross coupling reactions, can be installed by reaction of a diazonium salt with bis(pinacolato)diboron in the presence of benzoyl peroxide (2 mol %) as an initiator:

Meerwein reaction.

Benzenediazonium chloride reacts with compounds containing activated double bonds to produce phenylated products. The reaction is called the Meerwein arylation:

Metal complexes.

In their reactions with metal complexes, diazonium cations behave similarly to NO. For example, low-valent metal complexes add with diazonium salts. Illustrative complexes are [Fe(CO)(PPh)(NPh)] and the chiral-at-metal complex Fe(CO)(NO)(PPh)(NPh).

Grafting reactions.

In a potential application in nanotechnology, the diazonium salts 4-chlorobenzenediazonium tetrafluoroborate very efficiently functionalizes single wall nanotubes. In order to exfoliate the nanotubes, they are mixed with an ionic liquid in a mortar and pestle. The diazonium salt is added together with potassium carbonate, and after grinding the mixture at room temperature the surface of the nanotubes are covered with chlorophenyl groups with an efficiency of 1 in 44 carbon atoms. These added subsituents prevent the tubes from forming intimate bundles due to large cohesive forces between them, which is a recurring problem in nanotube technology.  It is also possible to functionalize silicon wafers with diazonium salts forming an aryl monolayer. In one study, the silicon surface is washed with ammonium hydrogen fluoride leaving it covered with silicon–hydrogen bonds (hydride passivation). The reaction of the surface with a solution of diazonium salt in acetonitrile for 2 hours in the dark is a spontaneous process through a free radical mechanism:  So far grafting of diazonium salts on metals has been accomplished on iron, cobalt, nickel, platinum, palladium, zinc, copper and gold surfaces. Also grafting to diamond surfaces has been reported. One interesting question raised is the actual positioning on the aryl group on the surface. An in silico study demonstrates that in the period 4 elements from titanium to copper the binding energy decreases from left to right because the number of d-electrons increases. The metals to the left of iron are positioned tilted towards or flat on the surface favoring metal to carbon pi bond formation and those on the right of iron are positioned in an upright position, favoring metal to carbon sigma bond formation. This also explains why diazonium salt grafting thus far has been possible with those metals to right of iron in the periodic table.

Reduction to a hydrazine group.

Diazonium salts can be reduced with stannous chloride (SnCl) to the corresponding hydrazine derivatives. This reaction is particularly useful in the Fischer indole synthesis of triptan compounds and indometacin. The use of sodium dithionite is an improvement over stannous chloride since it is a cheaper reducing agent with fewer environmental problems.

Biochemistry.

Alkyldiazonium ions, otherwise rarely encountered in organic chemistry, are implicated as the causative agents in the carcinogens. Specifically, nitrosamines are thought to undergo metabolic activation to produce alkyldiazonium species.

Applications.

The first use of diazonium salts was to produce water-fast dyed fabrics by immersing the fabric in an aqueous solution of the diazonium compound, followed by immersion in a solution of the coupler (the electron-rich ring that undergoes electrophilic substitution). The major applications of diazonium compounds remains in the dye and pigment industry.

Other uses.

Diazonium compounds are standard reagents used in synthesis of organic compounds, especially aryl derivatives.  Diazonium salts are light sensitive and break down under near UV or violet light. This property has led to their use in document reproduction. In this process, paper or film is coated with a diazonium salt. After contact exposure under light, the residual diazo is converted to a stable azo dye with an aqueous solution of coupler. A more common process uses a paper coated with diazo, coupler and an acid to inhibit coupling; after exposure the image is developed by a vapor mixture of ammonia and water which forces coupling.

Safety.

Solid diazonium halides are often dangerously explosive, and fatalities and injuries have been reported.  The nature of the anions affects stability of the salt. Aryl diazonium perchlorates, such as nitrobenzenediazonium perchlorate, have been used to initiate explosives.

References.

diazo coupling reaction

Diazonium compounds or diazonium salts are a group of organic compounds sharing a common functional group where R can be any organic group, such as an alkyl or an aryl, and X is an inorganic or organic anion, such as a halogen.

Un diazonium est un cation formé d'un groupe de deux atomes d'azote en position terminale sur une molécule. La structure R-N≡N est également considérée comme un groupe fonctionnel


Geology.

The Igwisi hills are formed by three tuff cones formed in the middle of the Tanzania craton. They are above the landscape with a karst morphology and craters covered with grass, on a low ridge that may be the product of early eruptive stages. The northeastern hill has two craters, one with a breach from which a long lava flow originates, probably formed when a lava lake in the crater escaped through a breach. The central volcano has a lava coulee and a tephra cone in its crater. Craters have diameters of. The total volume of these cones is less than. Weak pyroclastic activity probably accompanied the eruptive activity. Presumably, low intensity explosive activity built the cones, starting from the northeast cone and ending with the southwest cone. Afterwards, lava flows were generated.  The Igwisi Hills are the only places in the world where possible kimberlite lava flows have been found, in form of calcite-olivine lavas. Kimberlite tuffs are also found, a rare species which is very susceptible to erosion. True kimberlites are usually very old eruptive rocks, consequently any subsurface volcanic structure has long since been eroded away. These kimberlites were erupted in a fairly nonexplosive fashion. Not all researchers agree that these lavas are kimberlites, however, with the low alkali content being cited as a difference although the Benfontein "kimberlites" share this property with the Igwisi hills ones. If the Igwisi Hills aren't true kimberlites, the next youngest would be the 32.3 ± 2.2 Ma Kundelungu plateau pipes in the Democratic Republic of Congo.  These kimberlites are also the youngest kimberlites in the world by over thirty million years, cosmogenic helium-3 dates of olivine indicates they were erupted in the late Pleistocene-Holocene, some indicated ages being 11,200 ± 7,800 ± and 12,400 ± 4,800. A poorly constrained U-Pb date is 0 ± 29 million years. The cones display a young morphology. The basement terrain belongs to the 2,500 ± 100 million year old Dodoman sequence. The hills are remote from all other Tanzania volcanoes. Prior kimberlite activity in the Tanzania craton is recorded 1,150, 189 and 53 million years ago.  The tuffs are highly calcitic, vesicular and contain numerous microxenoliths. The petrologically similar lavas show evidence of a differentiation by flow and gravity and have trachytic textures. Lavas have a carbonatitic composition. Olivines with diopside cores are found at the Igwisi Hills. Garnet and orthopyroxene is associated with the diopside. Olivines are surrounded by chromite. Olivines characterize the texture of the Igwisi rocks, where they form spherical inclusions. The olivines are primarily forsteritic in composition. Inclusions in the kimberlite include skeletal apatite, stellate aragonite and calcite. High concentrations of are found in the rock, which may have resulted in the depolymerization of the melt, increasing its fluidity and resulting in effusive activity. Peridotite xenoliths originate from of depth. Spinels in the groundmass suggest that crustal contamination was extensive. The geochemistry suggests an origin at high pressures (depths of ) and equilibrium temperatures of. Rainfall has subsequently modified the pyroclastics and formed secondary calcite, while the less permeable lava flows were less modified.  The hills have a unique vegetation, with aquatic plants found in the middle of the craters and distinct vegetation on inner crater slopes from the extra-crateric territory. The hills have a rare occurrence of "Asclepias pseudoamabilis".

The Igwisi Hills are a volcanic field in Tanzania. Three tuff cones are found there, one of which is associated with a lava flow. They are one of the few locations of possibly kimberlitic lava flows on Earth.

Les collines d'Igwizi sont un ensemble de trois volcans kimberlitiques situés dans l'Ouest de la Tanzanie, à l'ouest-nord-ouest de la ville de Tabora.


Élection présidentielle américaine de 1900

Nominations.

Republican Party nomination.

The 926 delegates to the Republican convention, which met in Philadelphia on June 19–21, re-nominated William McKinley by acclamation. Thomas C. Platt, the "boss" of the New York State Republican Party, did not like Theodore Roosevelt, New York's popular governor, even though he was a fellow Republican. Roosevelt's efforts to reform New York politics – including Republican politics – led Platt and other state Republican leaders to pressure President McKinley to accept Roosevelt as his new vice- presidential candidate, thus filling the spot left open when Vice President Garret Hobart died in 1899. By electing Roosevelt vice president, Platt would remove Roosevelt from New York state politics. Although Roosevelt was reluctant to accept the nomination for vice president, which he regarded as a relatively trivial and powerless office, his great popularity among most Republican delegates led McKinley to pick him as his new running mate. Quite unexpectedly, Roosevelt would be elevated to the presidency in September 1901, when McKinley was assassinated in Buffalo, New York.

Democratic Party nomination.

Other candidates.

After Admiral George Dewey's return from the Spanish–American War, many suggested that he run for president on the Democratic ticket. Dewey, however, had already angered some Protestants by marrying the Catholic Mildred McLean Hazen (the widow of General William Babcock Hazen and daughter of Washington McLean, owner of "The Washington Post") in November 1899 and giving her the house that the nation had given him following the war. His candidacy was also almost immediately plagued by a number of public relations gaffes. Newspapers started attacking him as naïve after he was quoted as saying the job of president would be easy, since the chief executive was merely following orders in executing the laws enacted by Congress, and that he would "execute the laws of Congress as faithfully as I have always executed the orders of my superiors." Shortly thereafter, he admitted never having voted in a presidential election before, mentioning that the only man he ever would have voted for, had he voted, would have been Grover Cleveland. He drew even more criticism when he offhandedly (and prophetically) told a newspaper reporter that, "Our next war will be with Germany."  Dewey's campaign was met with a level of pessimism by Gold Democrats on whose support his campaign depended. Some even threw their support to Bryan, since they believed him to be the stronger candidate. As early as three days into his candidacy, his campaign having been damaged by the aforementioned missteps, rumors abounded regarding Dewey's impending withdrawal which proved false. Further injuries, however, were made when it became clear that the Democratic Party leaders of Vermont were hostile to Dewey and wholly committed to Bryan. Ohio similarly went for Bryan, though with the caveat there that some leaders suggested that all mention to silver in the party platform be dropped. By May 5, John Roll McLean, the brother-in-law of and effective campaign manager for Dewey, defected from the campaign and was widely considered to now be silently supporting Bryan. By May 17, Dewey recognized that there was very little chance for him to gather enough delegates among the Western and Southern states to possibly keep Bryan from attaining two-thirds of the delegates at the convention, publicly commenting that he no longer even knew why he had decided to run for president at all; He effectively withdrew around this time. After this there was a major boom for his nomination as vice president on the ticket alongside Bryan; however Dewey resolutely refused to be considered.  William Jennings Bryan was faced with little real opposition after Dewey withdrew from the race. Bryan won at the 1900 Democratic National Convention held at Kansas City, Missouri, on July 4–6, garnering 936 delegate votes for the nomination. Source: US President – D Convention. "Our Campaigns". (March 10, 2011).  Official or speculated candidates for the vice-presidential nomination:

Populist Party nomination.

As the nation's third largest party, the Populists had made an organizational decision in 1896 to "fuse" with the Democratic Party on the national level - their identity kept separate by the nomination of two different candidates for vice-president. At the state level, local Populist parties were left at liberty to proceed as they saw fit. In the Plains states, the Populists fused with the Democrats, and in some states replaced them entirely. In the South, the Populists fused with the Republican Party. The end result, though Bryan was defeated, was that the Populists greatly enlarged their representation in Congress, from 10 to 26. In several southern states, however, the legislatures were still controlled by the Democrats, and they began passing a series of laws to eliminate the franchise for black voters, with the intention of undermining a significant bloc of the Populist vote. The move had its intended consequences, as in the mid-term election of 1898, Populist representation in the House of Representatives fell to 9, its lowest since the party's founding.  The treatment of Populists by the Democratic Party led to a division in the party. On May 17, 1899, Populist Party leaders met in St. Louis and issued an address calling for a "Middle of the Road" policy, in which the party would decline future fusion efforts. The statement was primarily aimed at the party's national chairman, U.S. Senator Marion Butler of North Carolina, who had been elected to the Senate through fusion with North Carolina Republicans, and was already working for the re-nomination of William J. Bryan by the Populists in 1900. The pro-fusion leaders of the Populists fought back in early 1900. The first state party known to have split was the Nebraska party, which divided during its state convention on March 19. Both factions appointed delegates to the national convention, scheduled for Cincinnati. Ultimately, the Fusion Populists decided to hold a separate national convention when it became apparent that the Ohio Populists did not favor fusion, and were working to organize a convention which would not nominate Bryan, but an independent ticket.

"Fusion" Populist nomination.

The "Fusion" Populist National Convention assembled in a large tent just west of Sioux Falls, South Dakota, on May 9, and unanimously nominated Bryan for the presidency. Charles Towne, the leader of the Silver Republican Party, was near unanimously nominated as his running mate, facing only weak opposition from Representative John Lentz from Ohio. When Adlai Stevenson won the Democratic vice-presidential nomination over Towne, Towne withdrew from the race, with the Fusion Populists endorsing Stevenson.

"Middle of the Road" Populist nomination.

Meeting in Cincinnati, Ohio, the "Middle of the Road" faction adopted a platform that called for the creation of fiat money, government ownership of key industries, and the opening of conservation lands for economic development. Businessman Wharton Barker was nominated for the presidency, while Representative Ignatius Donnelly was chosen as his running mate.

Minor party nominations.

Social Democratic Party nomination.

Social Democratic candidates:

Candidates gallery.

The election of 1900 was the first United States election to feature a socialist candidate. The Socialist Labor Party of America found itself divided over the trade union policy as adopted at the 1896 National Convention, and by the brutal manner in which the party regulars maintained their influence. Many would leave and join with the fast-growing Social Democratic Party of America. At their party convention in Indianapolis, Indiana, Eugene V. Debs was nominated unanimously as the Social Democratic candidate for the Presidency, the first of his five runs, with California lawyer Job Harriman nominated as his running mate.

Prohibition Party nomination.

Prohibition candidates:

Candidates gallery.

The Prohibition Party met in Chicago, Illinois on June 28 to nominate their presidential ticket. Hale Johnson, who had been their vice-presidential nominee in 1896, withdrew his name immediately before the balloting was to begin. John G. Woolley was nominated on the first ballot, with Henry B. Metcalf of Rhode Island nominated to be his running mate in short order.

Anti-Imperialist League nomination.

League candidates:

Candidates gallery.

The American Anti-Imperialist League opposed the annexation of the Philippines. It hoped to nominate a candidate who would run solely on the issue of anti-imperialism. However, the one candidate who had shown any promise, the elderly former Senator John Henderson of Missouri, refused. The Anti-Imperialist Party National Convention on August 15 divided over whether to nominate Bryan or introduce a third ticket. After a motion to nominate an independent ticket failed, Bryan and Stevenson were declared the nominees.

National Party nomination.

National Party candidates:

Candidates gallery.

The National Party held its second (and last) national convention in the Carnegie Lyceum in New York City, with around 100 delegates present. The convention nominated Senator Donelson Caffery of Louisiana for president and Archibald M. Howe, an attorney from Boston, Massachusetts, for vice president. However Caffery, being a staunch Democrat, refused the nomination, and Howe removed himself soon after. Edward Waldo Emerson was hurriedly nominated in Donelson's place, but would only appear on the ballot in his native Massachusetts.

Other nominations.

The Union Reform Party nominated Seth H. Ellis of Ohio for president and Samuel T. Nicholson for vice president.  The United Christian Party nominated Jonah F. R. Leonard for president, and David H. Martin for vice president. Initially, the party had nominated Silas C. Swallow for president and John G. Woolley for vice president, but both men refused, choosing instead to contest the Prohibition Party nomination "(of which Woolley would emerge the victor)".

General election.

Campaign.

The economy was booming in 1900, so the Republican slogan of "Four More Years of the Full Dinner Pail," combined with victory in the brief Spanish–American War in 1898, had a powerful electoral appeal. Teddy Roosevelt had become a national hero fighting in Cuba during the war, and as such he was a popular spokesman for the Republican ticket. Roosevelt proved highly energetic, and an equal match for William Jennings Bryan's famous barnstorming style of campaigning. Roosevelt's theme was that McKinley had brought America peace and prosperity and deserved re-election. In a whirlwind campaign, Roosevelt made 480 stops in 23 states. In his speeches, he repeatedly argued that the war had been just and had liberated the Cubans and Filipinos from Spanish tyranny:  Bryan's campaign was built around a reprise of his major issue from the 1896 campaign: Free Silver. It was not as successful in 1900, because prosperity had replaced severe depression and McKinley claimed credit. Advocates of enlarging the money supply to raise prices had to admit that a great deal of new gold was flowing into the world economy, and deflation (i.e. falling prices) was no longer a threat. Bryan's second major campaign theme attacked McKinley's imperialism; Bryan had supported the war, but opposed the annexation of the Philippines. He said McKinley had simply replaced a cruel Spanish tyranny with a cruel American one. Bryan was especially harsh in his criticisms of the American military effort to suppress a bloody rebellion by Filipino guerillas. This theme won over some previous opponents, especially "hard money" Germans, former Gold Democrats, and anti-imperialists such as Andrew Carnegie.  Both candidates repeated their 1896 campaign techniques, with McKinley campaigning again from the front porch of his home in Canton, Ohio. At the peak of the campaign, he greeted sixteen delegations and 30,000 cheering supporters in one day. Meanwhile, Bryan took to the rails again, traveling 18,000 miles to hundreds of rallies across the Midwest and East. This time, he was matched by Theodore Roosevelt, who campaigned just as energetically in 24 states, covering 21,000 miles by train. The triumph of the American army and navy in the war against Spain was a decisive factor in building Republican support. Democrats tried to argue that the war was not over because of the insurgency in the Philippines; this became their major issue. A perception that the Philippine–American War was coming to an end would be an electoral asset for the Republicans, and the McKinley administration stated that there were reductions of troops there. Republicans pledged that the fighting in the Philippines would die down of its own accord within sixty days of McKinley's re-election. However, as one lieutenant explained in a letter to his wife, "It looks good on paper, but there really has been no reduction of the force here. These battalions [being sent home] are made up on men...about to be discharged."  In addition, Secretary of War Elihu Root had a report from MacArthur of September 1900 that he did not release until after the election. General Arthur MacArthur, Jr., had been in command of the Philippines for four months, warning Washington that the war was not lessening and that the end was not even in sight. MacArthur believed that the guerrilla stage of the war was just beginning and that Filipinos were refining their techniques through experience. Furthermore, Philippine leader Emilio Aguinaldo's strategy had popular support. MacArthur wrote:  Nonetheless, the majority of soldiers in the Philippines did not support Bryan. Any mention of the election of 1900 in the soldiers' letters and diaries indicated overwhelming support for the Republican ticket of McKinley and Roosevelt. According to Sergeant Beverly Daley, even the "howling Democrats" favored McKinley. Private Hambleton wrote, "Of course, there are some boys who think Bryan is the whole cheese, but they don't say too much."  Despite Bryan's energetic efforts, the renewed prosperity under McKinley, combined with the public's approval of the Spanish–American War, allowed McKinley to gain a comfortable victory.

Results.

Theodore Roosevelt, the vice-presidential candidate on the Republican ticket, attracted unusual attention in the campaign, and it has been commonly asserted that he brought a considerable number of votes to the Republican ticket.  McKinley polled roughly 7,200,000 votes. He carried 28 states with a combined 292 electoral votes (65.32%). He slightly increased his national percentage (51.60%) with 120,000 more votes than in 1896. This change is reflected in the gains made in number of counties carried; McKinley had 222 more counties than he had carried in 1896, thus gaining a slight majority of the total number of counties making returns in 1900.  Of the 2,729 counties making returns, McKinley won in 1,385 (50.75%) while Bryan carried 1,340 (49.10%). Two counties (0.07%) were split evenly between McKinley and Bryan, while two counties (0.07%) in Texas recorded more votes cast for "Other(s)" than either of the two-party candidates. McKinley had a majority in 1,288 counties while Bryan had a majority in 1,253 counties.  Further examination reveals that changes in counties were even more impressive. Of the 2,729 counties making returns, 2,286 were identical in these two elections; 113 changed from Republican to Democratic; and 328 changed from Democratic to Republican.  A notable feature was the Bryan gains made in the New England and (Northeastern) Mid-Atlantic sections, with also a slight gain in the East North Central section. Bryan even managed to win New York City by almost 30,000 votes when he had lost it by more than 60,000 votes just 4 years earlier. In all other sections, Bryan's vote was less than in 1896, and in the nation his total vote was 23,000 less than in 1896. The percentage of total was 45.52, a slight loss. Kentucky, which he carried this time, showed an increase of 17,005. In 16 states, the Democratic vote increased, but in 29 states it was less than in 1896. Bryan carried only 17 states.  This was the last election in which the Republicans won the majority of electoral votes in Maryland until 1920 and the last in which the Democrats won Idaho, Missouri, and Montana until 1912. It is also the last election in which a Republican won the presidency without winning Idaho and Montana.  Source (popular vote):  Source (electoral vote):

Close states.

Margin of victory less than 5% (42 electoral votes):  Margin of victory between 5% and 10% (150 electoral votes):

Statistics.

Counties with highest percent of vote (Republican)  Counties with highest percent of vote (Democratic)  Counties with highest percent of vote (Other)  Counties with lowest percent of vote (Republican)  Counties with lowest percent of vote (Democratic)  Counties with most votes (Republican)  Counties with most votes (Democratic)  Counties with most votes (Other)  Counties with lowest percent of vote and win (Republican)  Counties with lowest percent of vote and win (Democratic)

The 1900 United States presidential election was the 29th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6, 1900. In a re-match of the 1896 race, Republican President William McKinley defeated his Democratic challenger, William Jennings Bryan. McKinley's victory made him the first president to win consecutive re-election since Ulysses S. Grant had accomplished the same feat in 1872.

L'élection présidentielle américaine de 1900, se tenant le, est la vingt-neuvième de l'histoire des États-Unis. Le président républicain William McKinley l'emporte une seconde fois face au démocrate William Jennings Bryan, comme lors de l'élection de 1896. Le retour de la prospérité économique et la victoire récente dans la guerre contre l'Espagne ont permis à McKinley de remporter une victoire très nette. William McKinley meurt toutefois assassiné un an après l'élection, en septembre 1901.


Élection présidentielle américaine de 1960

Nominations.

Democratic Party.

Democratic candidates.

The major candidates for the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination were United States Senator John F. Kennedy from Massachusetts, Governor Pat Brown of California, United States Senator Stuart Symington from Missouri, United States Senator Lyndon B. Johnson from Texas, former Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson, United States Senator Wayne Morse from Oregon, and United States Senator Hubert Humphrey from Minnesota. Several other candidates sought support in their home state or region as "favorite son" candidates without any realistic chance of winning the nomination. Symington, Stevenson, and Johnson all declined to campaign in the presidential primaries. While this reduced their potential delegate count going into the Democratic National Convention, each of these three candidates hoped that the other leading contenders would stumble in the primaries, thus causing the convention's delegates to choose him as a "compromise" candidate acceptable to all factions of the party.  Kennedy was initially dogged by suggestions from some Democratic Party elders (such as former United States President Harry S. Truman, who was supporting Symington) that he was too youthful and inexperienced to be president; these critics suggested that he should agree to be the running mate for another Democrat. Realizing that this was a

Democratic convention.

The 1960 Democratic National Convention was held in Los Angeles, California. In the week before the convention opened, Kennedy received two new challengers when Lyndon B. Johnson, the powerful Senate Majority Leader from Texas, and Adlai Stevenson, the party's nominee in 1952 and 1956, officially announced their candidacies (they had both privately been working for the nomination for some time). However, neither Johnson nor Stevenson was a match for the talented and highly efficient Kennedy campaign team led by Robert F. Kennedy. Johnson challenged Kennedy to a televised debate before a joint meeting of the Texas and Massachusetts delegations, to which Kennedy accepted. Most observers believed that Kennedy won the debate, and Johnson was unable to expand his delegate support beyond the South. Stevenson's failure to launch his candidacy publicly until the week of the convention meant that many liberal delegates who might have supported him were already pledged to Kennedy, and Stevenson—despite the energetic support of former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt—could not break their allegiance. Kennedy won the nomination on the first ballot.  Then, in a move that surprised many, Kennedy asked Johnson to be his running mate. He realized that he could not be elected without the support of traditional Southern Democrats, most of whom had backed Johnson. He offered Johnson the vice presidential nomination at the Los Angeles Biltmore Hotel at 10:15 a.m. on July 14, 1960, the morning after being nominated for president. Robert F. Kennedy, who hated Johnson for his attacks on the Kennedy family, and who favored labor leader Walter Reuther, later said that his brother offered the position to Johnson as a courtesy and did not predict him to accept it. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., and Seymour Hersh quoted Robert Kennedy's version of events, writing that John Kennedy "would have preferred Stuart Symington as his running-mate" and that Johnson teamed with House Speaker Sam Rayburn to "pressure Kennedy to offer the nomination". Hersh goes on to present an alternative version of events; he writes that Kennedy was essentially blackmailed into offering the vice presidency to Johnson. The same story was originally presented by Anthony Summers in his biography of FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover. Evelyn Lincoln, Kennedy's personal secretary, told Summers in an interview that she was convinced in mid-1960 that J. Edgar Hoover and Johnson had conspired. Hoover was known to keep detailed files on the personal lives of many political figures and Kennedy was no exception. Hoover obtained information about Jack's womanizing prior to the election from at least two different sources. In January 1942, while Jack was serving in the United States Navy, FBI surveillance

Republican Party.

Republican candidates.

With the ratification of the 22nd Amendment in 1951, President Dwight D. Eisenhower could not run for the office of president again; he had been elected in 1952 and 1956.  In 1959, it looked as if Vice President Richard Nixon might face a serious challenge for the Republican nomination from New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller, the leader of the Republican moderate-liberal wing. However, Rockefeller announced that he would not be a candidate for president after a national tour revealed that the great majority of Republicans favored Nixon.  After Rockefeller's withdrawal, Nixon

General election.

Campaign promises.

During the campaign, Kennedy charged that under Eisenhower and the Republicans the nation had fallen behind the Soviet Union in the Cold War, both militarily and economically, and that as president he would "get America moving again." The Eisenhower administration had established NASA in 1958, but Kennedy believed that the Republican Party had ignored the need to catch up to the Soviet Union in the Space Race. He promised that the new Democratic administration would fully appreciate the importance of space accomplishments for the national security and international prestige of the United States. Nixon responded that, if elected, he would continue the "peace and prosperity" that Eisenhower had brought the nation in the 1950s. Nixon also argued that with

Campaign events.

Kennedy and Nixon both drew large and enthusiastic crowds throughout the campaign. In August 1960, most polls gave Nixon a slim lead over Kennedy, and many political pundits regarded him as the favorite to win. However, Nixon was plagued by bad luck throughout the fall campaign. In August, President Eisenhower, who had long been ambivalent about Nixon, held a televised press conference in which a reporter, Charles Mohr of "Time", mentioned Nixon's claims that he had been a valuable administration insider and adviser. Mohr asked Eisenhower if he could give an example of a major idea of Nixon's that he had heeded. Eisenhower responded with the flip comment, "If you give me a week, I might think of one." Although both Eisenhower and Nixon later claimed that he was merely joking with the reporter, the remark hurt Nixon, as it undercut his claims of having greater decision-making experience than Kennedy. The remark proved so damaging to Nixon that the Democrats turned Eisenhower's statement into a television commercial.  At the Republican National Convention, Nixon had pledged to campaign in all fifty states. This pledge backfired when, in August, Nixon injured his knee on a car door while campaigning in North Carolina. The knee became infected and Nixon had to cease campaigning for two weeks while the infection was treated with antibiotics. When he left Walter Reed Hospital, Nixon refused to abandon his pledge to visit every state; he thus wound up wasting valuable time visiting states that he had no chance of winning, or that had few electoral votes and would be of little help at the election, or states that he would almost certainly win regardless. For example, in his effort to visit all 50 states, Nixon spent the vital weekend before the election campaigning in Alaska, which had only three electoral votes, while Kennedy campaigned in more populous states, such as New Jersey, Ohio, Michigan, and Pennsylvania.  Nixon visited Atlanta, Georgia on August 26 and acquired a very large turnout to his event. Nixon rode through a parade in Atlanta

Debates.

There were four presidential debates and no vice presidential debates during the 1960 general election.  The key turning point of the campaign came with the four Kennedy-Nixon debates; they were the first presidential debates ever (The Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858 had been the first for senators from Illinois), also the first held on television, and thus attracted enormous publicity. Nixon insisted on campaigning until just a few hours before the first debate started. He had not completely recovered from his stay in hospital and thus looked pale, sickly, underweight, and tired. His eyes moved across the room during the debate, and at various moments sweat was visible on his face. He also refused make-up for the first debate, and as a result his facial stubble showed prominently on the black-and-white TV screens at the time. Furthermore, the debate set appeared darker once the paint dried up, causing Nixon's suit color to blend in with the background which reduced his stature. Nixon's poor appearance on television in the first debate is reflected by the fact that his mother called him immediately following the debate to ask if he was sick. Kennedy, by contrast, rested and prepared extensively beforehand, appearing tanned, confident, and relaxed during the

Campaign issues.

A key concern in Kennedy's campaign was the widespread skepticism among Protestants about his Roman Catholic religion. Some Protestants, especially Southern Baptists and Lutherans, feared that having a Catholic in the White House would give undue influence to the Pope in the nation's affairs. Radio evangelists such as G. E. Lowman wrote that, "Each person has the right to their own religious belief... [but]... the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical system demands the first allegiance of every true member and says in a conflict between church and state, the "church" must prevail". The religious issue was so significant that Kennedy made a speech before the nation's newspaper editors in which he criticized the prominence they gave to the religious issue over other topics – especially in foreign policy – that he felt were of greater importance.  To address fears among Protestants that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision-making, Kennedy told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for president. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for president who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters – and the Church does not speak for me." He promised to respect the separation of church and state and not to allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy to him. Kennedy also raised the question of whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Roman Catholic. Kennedy would become the first, and,, only Roman Catholic to be elected president.  Kennedy's campaign took advantage of an opening when Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., the civil-rights leader, was arrested in Georgia while taking part in a sit-in. Nixon asked President Dwight D. Eisenhower to pardon King, but the President declined to do so. Nixon refused to take further action, but Kennedy placed calls to local political authorities to get King released from jail, and he also called King's father and wife. As a result, King's father endorsed Kennedy, and he received much favorable publicity in the black community. A letter to the Governor of Georgia regarding Martin Luther King Jr.'s arrest also helped Kennedy garner many African American votes. John F. Kennedy asked Governor Ernest Vandiver

Results.

The election was held on November 8, 1960. Nixon watched the election returns from his suite at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, while Kennedy watched them at the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. As the early returns poured in from large Northeastern and Midwestern cities, such as Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago, Kennedy opened a large lead in the popular and electoral votes, and appeared headed for victory. However, as later returns came in from rural and suburban areas in the Midwest, the Rocky Mountain states and the Pacific Coast states, Nixon began to steadily close the gap on Kennedy.  Before midnight, "The New York Times" had gone to press with the headline "Kennedy Elected President". As the election again became too close to call, "Times" managing editor Turner Catledge hoped that, as he recalled in his memoirs, "a certain Midwestern mayor would steal enough votes to pull Kennedy through", thus allowing the "Times" to avoid the embarrassment of announcing the wrong winner, as the "Chicago Tribune" had memorably done twelve years earlier in announcing that Thomas E. Dewey had defeated President Truman.  Nixon made a speech at about 3 a.m., and hinted that Kennedy might have won the election. News reporters were puzzled, as it was not a formal concession speech. It was not until the afternoon of the next day that Nixon finally conceded the election, and Kennedy claimed his victory.  Of the 3,129 counties and independent cities making returns, Nixon won in 1,857 (59.35%) while Kennedy carried 1,200 (38.35%). "Unpledged" electors came first in 71 counties (2.27%) throughout Louisiana and Mississippi, and one county (0.03%) in Alaska split evenly between Kennedy and Nixon.  A sample of how close the election was can be seen in California, Nixon's home state. Kennedy seemed to have carried the state by 37,000 votes when all of the voting precincts reported, but when the absentee ballots were counted a week later, Nixon came from behind to win the state by 36,000 votes. Similarly, in Hawaii, it appeared as though Nixon had won there (it was actually called for him early Wednesday morning), but in a recount, Kennedy was able to come from behind and win the state by an extremely narrow margin of 115 votes.  In the national popular vote, Kennedy beat Nixon by less than two tenths of one percentage point (0.17%), the closest popular-vote margin of the 20th century. So close was the popular vote that a shift of 18,858 votes in Illinois and Missouri, both won by Kennedy by less than 1%, would have left both Kennedy and Nixon short of the 269 electoral votes required to win, thus forcing a contingent election in the House of Representatives.  In the Electoral College, Kennedy's victory was larger, as he took 303 electoral votes to Nixon's 219. A total of 15 electors, eight from Mississippi, six from Alabama, and one from Oklahoma all refused to vote for either Kennedy or Nixon, and instead cast their votes for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, a conservative Democrat, even though he had not been a candidate for president. Kennedy carried 12 states by three percentage points or less, while Nixon won six by similarly narrow margins. Kennedy carried all but three states in the populous Northeast, and he also carried the large states of Michigan, Illinois, and Missouri in the Midwest. With Lyndon Johnson's help, he also carried most of the South, including the large states of North Carolina, Georgia, and Texas. Nixon carried all but three of the Western states (including California), and he ran strong in the farm belt states, where his biggest victory was in Ohio.  "The New York Times", summarizing the discussion in late November, spoke of a "narrow consensus" among the experts that Kennedy had won more than he lost "as a result of his Catholicism", as Northern Catholics flocked to Kennedy because of attacks on his religion. Interviewing people who voted in both 1956 and 1960, a University of Michigan team analyzing the election returns discovered that people who voted Democratic in 1956 split 33–6 for Kennedy, while the Republican voters of 1956 split 44–17 for Nixon. That is, Nixon lost 28% () of the Eisenhower voters, while Kennedy lost only 15% of the Stevenson voters. The Democrats, in other words, did a better job of holding their 1956 supporters.  Kennedy said that he saw the challenges ahead and needed the country's support to get through them. In his victory speech, he declared, "To all Americans, I say that the next four years are going to be difficult and challenging years for us all; that a supreme national effort will be needed to move this country safely through the 1960s. I ask your help and I can assure you that every degree of my spirit that I possess will be devoted to the long-range interest of the United States and to the cause of freedom around the world."

Close states.

Margin of victory less than 1% (95 electoral votes):  Margin of

The 1960 United States presidential election was the 44th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 8, 1960. In a closely contested election, Democrat United States Senator John F. Kennedy defeated incumbent Vice President Richard Nixon, the Republican Party nominee. This was the first election in which fifty states participated and the last in which the District of Columbia did not. It was also the first election in which an incumbent president was ineligible to run for a third term because of the term limits established by the 22nd Amendment. It is also the last election where the losing candidate won Ohio.

L’élection présidentielle américaine de 1960 a eu lieu aux États-Unis le. C'est la élection présidentielle du pays et elle a opposé le sénateur du Massachusetts démocrate John Fitzgerald Kennedy, qui faisait campagne sur le thème d'une « Nouvelle frontière » ("New Frontier") au républicain Richard Nixon, vice-président en fin de mandat. Deux nouveaux États admis en 1959, l'Alaska et Hawaï ont participé à leur première élection présidentielle.


Playing career.

Boudrias was signed by his hometown Montreal Canadiens at an early age and starred for the Montreal Junior Canadiens between 1961 and 1964. He would twice lead the Jr. Canadiens in scoring, including the 1963–64 team which featured future Hall of Famers Yvan Cournoyer, Jacques Lemaire and Serge Savard. He had an explosive start to his NHL career in a four-game callup during the 1963–64 season, notching 4 assists and 5 points.  When he turned pro in 1964, Boudrias was projected to have a great future for the Canadiens, but his career would stall while former teammates like Cournoyer became stars. He would see just three games of NHL action over the next three seasons, recording a single assist, while buried in the Canadiens' deep farm system.  However, the NHL's expansion in 1967 would prove to be a great opportunity for players like Boudrias, and he was dealt to the Minnesota North Stars on the day of the 1967 Expansion Draft. He would go on to a terrific rookie NHL season in 1967–68, leading the North Stars in assists with 35 and finishing 2nd in points with 53 in their inaugural season. However, he would struggle the following season, posting just 13 points in 53 games. He, along with Mike McMahon was sent to the Chicago Black Hawks for Tom Reid and Bill Orban on February 14, 1969. He would have a strong finish to the season in Chicago, but was lost to the St. Louis Blues in the intra-league draft that summer. Boudrias would endure another disappointing season in St. Louis, as he recorded just 3 goals in 50 games, and was demoted to the minors for 19 games. However, he would notch 6 points in 14 games in helping the Blues to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they would lose on Bobby Orr's famous goal.  Boudrias' career would finally take off when he was dealt to the expansion Vancouver Canucks for the 1970–71 season. He would quickly become the team's top offensive player, leading the team with a career-high 66 points. He would ultimately lead the team in scoring in 4 of their first 5 seasons, and only trailed Bobby Schmautz by a point the other year.  In Vancouver, Boudrias would earn the nickname 'Superpest' for his tremendous skating and forechecking abilities. Despite being a top-notch offensive centre, he was also a tremendous defensive player who could give opposing players fits with his buzzing presence all over the ice pressuring the puck. He would become one of the young franchise's most popular and identifiable players, and would be the team's first real offensive star.  Boudrias would set franchise records for assists and points in 1973–74, and break both his own records in 1974–75. His 62 assists that year remained the franchise record for more than three decades until it was broken by Henrik Sedin in 2006–07. He helped Vancouver to their first-ever playoff appearance in 1975, the only player from the inaugural squad in 1970 to do so.  For the 1975–76 season, Boudrias was named the team's captain, but slumped to his lowest totals as a Canuck, finishing with just 7 goals and 38 points as he began to be used in a more exclusively defensive role.  Now in his mid-30s and with his NHL career on the decline, Boudrias left the Canucks following the 1975–76 season to return closer to home, signing with the Quebec Nordiques of the WHA. He would spend two more successful seasons in Quebec, helping the Nordiques to the WHA Championship with a strong playoff performance in 1977, before retiring in 1978.  Boudrias finished his NHL career with 151 goals and 340 assists for 491 points in 662 games, along with just 216 penalty minutes. He also notched 22 goals and 48 assists for 70 points in 140 WHA games.

Later life.

Following his career, Boudrias would go on to become one of the game's most respected scouts with Montreal Canadiens and New Jersey. In 1986, 1993 won the Stanley Cup with Montreal Canadiens as assistant general manager/director of scouting. He then joined New Jersey in summer of 1994. A long-time employee of the New Jersey Devils, Boudrias later served as one of the team's pro scouts and helped build the team which won Stanley Cups in 1995, 2000 and 2003.  Boudrias died on February 5, 2019 at the age of 75.

André Gerard Boudrias (September 19, 1943 – February 5, 2019) was a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who spent 12 seasons in the National Hockey League as well as two more years in the World Hockey Association between 1963 and 1978. He is best remembered for his time with the Vancouver Canucks, where he was the first offensive star in the team's history. He was most recently a scout for the New Jersey Devils.

André Gaston Boudrias (né le à Montréal dans la province de Québec au Canada et mort le à Whistler dans la province de la Colombie-Britannique au Canada) est un joueur canadien de hockey sur glace professionnel.


History.

Tautira is where Catholic missionaries first landed which eventually led to the takeover of Tahiti by the French people, and which also ended Protestants hold on Tahiti: In 1773 the Spaniards established a catholic mission, of two friars, in the bay of Tautira, which was abandoned at eleven months. Earlier, in 1772, Domingo de Bonechea, the Basque captain landed at Aguilla near the Aiurua River, about from Tautira. He had left two missionaries to try convert the indigenous people to Christianity, in 1772. However, when he returned from Peru in 1775 he found that the two missionaries he had left behind on Tahiti failed to convert the natives, and eventually they preferred to return to Peru. However, de Bonechea died on Tahiti during this campaign and he is buried in the Catholic Church in Tautira, which is now named after him. James Cook had landed at Tautira Bay (or "Cooks Anchorage") during his voyage. The chiefs of Tautira were reportedly once replaced by the chiefs of Teahupo'o after conflict.  In 1886, Robert Louis Stevenson, the author of "The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" and children's books, stayed here for two months to recuperate from his illness. Stevenson had moved to the village from Papeete and lived in a hut called the "bird-cage house" where the beautiful Princess Moe, an old lady of royalty, tended him back to good health, bringing him dishes of raw fish in coconut milk, lime juice, sea water and chilli. The local chief, "Ori O Ori", befriended him and kept him in his house, and they had even exchanged names as “Rui” and “Terii-Tera”. It was during his stay here that Stevenson wrote to his friends calling Tautira as “The Garden of the World”. In 1915, Tautira was described as being "the second town of the island".

Geography.

It is located at a distance of from Papeete, the capital city of Tahiti. The coastal stretch of the mountainous road extends from Taravoa to Tautira via Pueu. This stretch of the coast also receives the highest rainfall. An stretch of highway links Tautira with Taravao. The Tautira River runs nearby, and there is a beach at the mouth of the Vaitepiha River nearby as well.  Tautira is the largest valley of the Taiarapu Peninsula, resembling Papenoo in that its innermost areas consist of the principal crater-basin. The valley runs outward in a direction a little to the west of north, and is traversed by a large river. The boundaries of the Tautira Valley are high and well marked. Aionifaa Valley lies between Tautira and Aiurua.  Tautira Point is a tongue of low wooded land about 600 yards wide, extending northward from the general line of the coast and from the foot of the mountains. It is formed by the deposits from the Vaitepiha River, one of the largest streams in Tahiti. The barrier reef fronts the coast from Aiurua Pass to Tautira Point at and less from the shore. It encloses channels and basins of deep water. From Vaionifa Pass, barrier reef trends northwestward in a straight line, rounding Tautira Point at only and breaking off abruptly just westward of the point, where there is a gap with very deep water wide before the reef begins again. Between Vaionifa and Tautira, there is a smaller gap about wide in which there is only of water. Between this pass and Tautira, there is a channel from wide and long which ends in a cul-de-sac at the northern end, with the exception of a small boat passage to the village. From 19 to 37 fathoms there is mud almost everywhere. At the northern end the soundings decrease gradually to 16 and 8 fathoms. From Tautira Point, the coast trends westward to a short distance beyond Pueu village. The general direction is straight, but two low and wooded points, Pihaa and Faraari, project about 500 yards to seaward; the first at from Tautira, the second about farther on. The mountains behind, from which numerous cascades descend, are steep and cliff-like.  When Stevenson had visited Tautira in 1888 cruising through the South Seas, he had described the setting of the village as "...in a cloudy moonlight, on the forest lawn which is the street of Tautira. The Pacific roared outside upon the reef. Here and there one of the scattered palm-built lodges shone out under the shadow of the wood, the lamplight bursting through the crannies of the wall.” The present scene, however, in Tautira is one of “neat bungalows of wood or cinder block with metal roofs" in the backdrop of the hills of the Vaitepiha River Valley. About one km of trekking along hilly terrain leads to the Vaitepiha River where three maraes (communal or sacred place which serves religious and social purposes in Polynesian societies) were restored in 1960s. However, they are again seen in ruins.

Climate.

According to the data recorded at the NOAA Station Id: FP91000987470110, the climatic conditions at Tautira are reported as: Annual average monthly precipitation is with a maximum of in December and a minimum of in August, with average annual incidence of rainfall being. The average high temperature over the year is and minimum over the year is. The effect of global warming due to climate change has been predicted an increase of and.

Flora and fauna.

The Fe'i, similar to a red banana, is found here and has to be cooked, as the red skin cover in its raw state an inedible pulp.  Coconut palm with ironwood, milo, mango tree and ulu trees fringe the coastline. Mango tree, ferns and groves of hala trees are seen in the interior valley.  "Partula otaheitana rubescens", an IUCN Red List endangered animalia species, is located in Tautira.

Demographics.

The demographic evolution of Tautira :  Demographic evolution

Culture.

In the 19th century, Tautira boasted a Chinese store and a church. The Catholic Church, Protestants, and Mormon missions were in juxtaposition in the village. When Pōmare II returned to kingship in Tahiti, he became a Christian, and destroyed the temple and idol of 'Oro, the national god of Tahiti, at Tautira.

Transportation.

Air.

The Faaa International Airport close to Papeete is the main use of transportation in Tautira. Air Tahiti serves inter-island flights to other islands within French Polynesia. Air France takes passengers to Los Angeles, California. Other destinations are Honolulu, Hawaii; Tokyo, Japan; and Paris, France. The residents of Tautira would drive to Teahupoo and drive northbound toward Faaa. One helipad is nearby and some helicopters drop off passengers.

Road.

Only a few streets of Tautira are paved while the rest are dirt.

Sea.

The Papeete Wharf in Papeete has 3 main ships. They are the Aremiti 5, the Aremiti 7, and the Moorea ferry. The Aremiti 5 is the largest of the ships. It has red stripes with a red background. The Aremiti 7 has the same color but is smaller and faster than the Aremiti 5. The Moorea Ferry is white on the top and blue at the bottom. It is the slowest of the 3 ships. Tautira has a smaller port with a few private docks.

Tautira is a Polynesian beach village, valley, and point on the south-east coast of the island of Tahiti in the Pacific. It is part of the commune Taiarapu-Est. With a population of 2338 (in 2007), it is located 49 kilometres southeast of the Tahitian capital of Papeete on the coast of Tautira Bay, at the end of what is the largest valley of the Taiarapu Peninsula. Domingo de Bonechea visited the area in 1772 and attempted to spread Christianity here; James Cook landed at Tautira Bay during his voyage. Robert Louis Stevenson referred to the village as “The Garden of the World”, staying here to recover from illness in 1886. The village contains a Catholic church.

Tautira est une commune placée à la presqu'île sur la plus petite partie de l'île de Tahiti, en Polynésie française. Elle est une commune associée faisant partie de la Commune de Taiarapu-Est, regroupant Faaone, Afaahiti-Taravao (Chef-lieu) et Pueu. Pour commune associée Tautira comprend aussi l'île inhabitée Mehetia plus à l'est.


Plot.

The first of the two characters to be introduced is "You". He is described as a local tourist – "not "that" sort of tourist" but a backpacking one "wearing strong sensible sports shoes and a backpack with shoulder straps". He seeks out the elusive Lingshan, a sacred mountain.  "You" has long lived in the city, but yearns for a rural existence from the past He shuns the idea of settling for "a peaceful and stable existence" where one wants to "find a not-too-demanding sort of a job, stay in a mediocre position, become a husband and a father, set up a comfortable home, put money in the bank and add to it every month so there'll be something for old age and a little left over for the next generation".  "You" meets up with another wanderer, a troubled and emotional "She". And so "You"'s journey also becomes a journey into an erotic relationship. "You" also travels inwards as he explores his powers as a storyteller. Later in "You"'s story, "She" departs "as if in a story, as if in a dream".  Meanwhile, "I" is a writer and academic who travels to Sichuan after having been misdiagnosed of a terminal lung cancer. He wants to take a break and start looking for an "authentic life"—meaning the opposite of that of the state's concept of real life.  The characters' sense of humanity is revealed during their quest. "I" realizes that he still craves the warmth of human society, despite its anxieties.

Structure.

"Soul Mountain" is essentially a two-part novel featuring two main characters—known only as "You" and "I". The "You" character occupies the odd-numbered chapters 1–31 and the even-numbered chapters from 32–80, while the "I" character's includes even-numbered chapters 2–30 and odd-numbered chapters 33–81.

Writing process.

Autobiographical influences.

In the early 1980s, Gao Xingjian faced a great deal of criticism in the wake of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. It was during this time, in 1983, that the author was diagnosed with lung cancer during a regular health screening. With the memory of his father's death by the same cause just two years earlier still fresh in his memory, Xingjian resigned himself to death, which brought about a "transcendent tranquillity". However, soon after this diagnosis, an x-ray revealed that his lung cancer was non-existent. At this time Xingjian heard rumors of plans to have him sent to the hellish prison farms of Qinghai province, and thus quickly made the decision to flee Beijing. This decision led him to begin the journey that forms much of the autobiographical portion of the novel. The journey commences in the forests of Sichuan province and continues along the Yangtze River to the coast. The protagonist ostensively searches for Lingshan (Soul Mountain), but in fact the novel describes "one man's quest for inner peace and freedom" The journey, both in the author's life and in the narrative, include visits to the districts of Qiang, Miao and Yi, located on the fringes of Han Chinese civilization; excursions into several nature reserves; and stops at Buddhist and Daoist institutions.

Political and cultural influences.

An important and critical aspect of, and influence on the novel was the political and cultural environment in which it was written. The novel was begun in 1982, shortly after the ending of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. Additionally, traditional Chinese culture promotes the Confucian ideology of dissolution of the self and promotion of subservience and conformity. The combination of traditional conformity and the "self-sacrificing" ideology of the Chinese Communist Revolution effectively silenced artists and writers who depended on their creativity of self-expression. Thus, under these circumstances, Gao Xingjian left his native country to finish "Soul Mountain" in 1989 in Paris, and Mabel Lee describes the novel as "a literary response to the devastation of the self".

Publication.

"Soul Mountain" was first published by the Taipei-based press agency Lianjing Chubanshe (聯經出版社, Linking Publishing Company) in 1990. It was then published first in Swedish 1992 by Göran Malmqvist, member of the Swedish Academy and close friend of the author; in 1995 it was translated and published into French by Liliane and Noël Dutrait by the title of "". In 2000, it was published with an English translation by Mabel Lee, by Flamingo/HarperCollins in Australia.

Reception.

In a review published in 2000, after Gao's Nobel win, "The New York Times" said "His 81 chapters are an often bewildering and considerably uneven congeries of forms: vignettes, travel writing, ethnographic jottings, daydreams, nightmares, recollections, conversations, lists of dynasties and archeological artifacts, erotic encounters, legends, current history, folklore, political, social and ecological commentary, philosophical epigrams, vivid poetical evocation and much else."  "The Times" continues: "A novel in theory, 'Soul Mountain' is more nearly a collection of the musings, memories and poetic, sometimes mystical fantasies of a gifted, angry writer."  "Publisher's Weekly" called it Gao's "largest and perhaps most personal work".  The "Yale Review of Books" wrote: "Blazing a new trail for the Chinese novel, Gao Xinjian's "Soul Mountain" combines autobiography, the supernatural, and social commentary".  The entry on the novel in Enotes notes: "While many critics have found Gao's inventive storytelling techniques to be the novel's most remarkable feature, others have found the novel to be overly self-indulgent and alienating to the reader".

Soul Mountain is a novel by Gao Xingjian. The novel is loosely based on the author's own journey into rural China, which was inspired by a false diagnosis of lung cancer. The novel is a part autobiographical, part fictional account of a man's journey to find the fabled mountain Lingshan. It is a combination of story fragments, travel accounts, unnamed characters (referred to by the pronouns "I", "you", "she", etc.), and folk poetry/legends. An English version translated by Mabel Lee was published in the United States on December 5, 2000.

La Montagne de l'âme () est un roman de Gao Xingjian paru en 1990. Le roman est traduit en français en 1995 par Noël et Liliane Dutrait aux Éditions de l'Aube. L'auteur reçoit le prix Nobel de littérature en 2000 pour l'ensemble de son œuvre.( Le roman est aussi traduit en breton par Yann varc’h Thorel et a obtenu le prix de l’avenir de la langue bretonne en 2011. « Menez an ene » Editions Apogée )


Background.

With the well known RENFE Class 333 locomotives having served for over 30 years the Spanish rail operator faced decisions as to their future. Different options for action were available - rebuild/repair/upgrade the locomotives or replace them with new models; at the time the company was undergoing a major modernisation project - with about 6 billion Euros being invested in rolling stock as part of a 120 billion Euro transport plan.  In the event, acting pragmatically, RENFE chose to do both. The 333 series were extensively rebuilt forming the 333.3 and 333.4 subclasses, and 28 new locomotives were ordered - these were the new build Class 334. A few components were used from old Class 333s, so technically the Class could be considered a rebuild, but the amount of material reused was small so a new class was created.

Technical details and manufacture.

RENFE worked with Alstom, who then owned the locomotive manufacturing plant in Valencia, to come up with a design for the new locomotives; Alstom Valencia already had produced diesel powered passenger locomotives for the UK and Israel as well as modernising the RENFE class 333.  The design was similar to the modernised 333s but with a General Motors EMD 710 engine instead of the EMD 645 used in the Class 333.4. Additionally 2-axle trucks were used instead of the 3-axle type that were re-used from the original 333 class in the rebuilt 333.4 and 333.3 models.  Curiously the twenty eight Class 334 locomotives inherit the main generator, alternator and heating equipment from RENFE Class 319.3 locomotives - which in turn have inherited the generators and alternators from scrapped Class 333 locomotives. In summary, the engine, electronics and power transmission system are from General Motors, the other components are typical of an Alstom locomotive.  Despite a change of ownership in 2004, with the factory being bought by Vossloh, the production was not affected.

Operation.

The Class 334 locomotives were originally intended for operations between Madrid, Murcia and Cartagena.  Six units are used to provide an Altaria service between Madrid and Murcia, the regional capital of the region of Murcia. They are also used on the daily Talgo service from Lorca (Murcia) to Montpellier (France) as far as Barcelona.  Four further units provide a Talgo service between Madrid and Almería. Their use also means that it is not necessary to change engines at the Linares-Baeza station at Baeza.  Additionally since 5 units of the RENFE Class 354 are out of action (two destroyed in a head end collision in Linarejos, three others had accidents in Hellín, Tobarra and Chinchilla and another caught fire) the Class 334 have been used to replace them (being the 354 and the 334 the only diesel locomotives capable of 200 km/h in Spain). However the lower power-to-weight ratio compared to the Class 354 units leads to the typical conclusion of lower technical performance for locomotive hauled trains.  Three locomotives are used to replace the Class 354s destroyed at Linarejos (one used as a reserve) and will operate between A Coruña and Madrid. The replacement service began in March 2007 and ends when the construction of a true high speed line is completed.

Servicing.

In 2006 a joint venture between RENFE and Vossloh, "Erion", was created, dedicated to servicing and manufacture of rail equipment. RENFE owns 51%, Vossoh 49%. The primary business of the company will be to service the Class 334 locomotives as well as the RENFE Class 333s and Class 335 (Euro 4000). This action has met with criticism from unions as it is part of the process of privatising the Spanish Railways.

The RENFE 334 is a high speed, 4 axle diesel-electric locomotive built to haul passenger trains on RENFE's Talgo service on non electrified lines.

Si la nouvelle série 334 de la Renfe provient théoriquement de la reconstruction d'anciennes machines 333.0, les éléments provenant de celles-ci sont en si petit nombre qu'on peut considérer qu'il s'agit de constructions neuves. Elles doivent remplacer les 354, qui ont subi de nombreuses réformes, en tête des Talgo entre Madrid et Murcie.