History.

The name Tuscola was a Neologism created by Henry Schoolcraft and had a radix from an aboriginal name. That source name likely was the native Ojibwe name "desakamigaa" that means the flat level ground or simply the flat country. For an ending, Mr. Schoolcraft then used a form of the Latin word "colo" that means to cultivate, till, or farm or a land that is cultivated. For the suffix, the related Latin word "colonia" from which we get today the word colony means a farm estate. Tuscola then means the flat cultivated land. Henry Schoolcraft once wrote that Tuscola was derived from Native words and meant level lands. A similar word to desakamigaa is the Ojibwe word "desinaagan" that is translated as dinner plate. Shell in their language is "ess". The Ojibwe often used a shell or bark from a tree for a dish. The Ojibwe prefixes "desi-" and "tessa" are used to form their words for flat objects such as a shelf, platform, bench, or plate. The Thumb of Michigan, which also includes Huron and Salinac Counties, was originally called by Iroquois speaking people "Skenchioe" in the 17th century, which may be related to the Onondaga word "uschwuntschios" meaning a champaign or large extended plain. In the early 18th century, the French called the Thumb of Michigan "Le Pays Plat" that means The Flat Country. The French word "pays" means country while "plat" means flat. The English in the later 18th Century also called the land back from the shoreline around the Thumb of Michigan the Flat Country. The Thumb of Michigan forms a tableland with knolls or hillocks located in the central part of the Thumb along the Cass River. The county seat of Tuscola is Caro that is located north of the Cass River along one of these large knolls. The land around Caro particularly to the west, north, and northeast is widely farmed and cultivated. The township in which Caro lies is called Indianfields that once was the place of many early Native American gardens.  At the Treaty of Saginaw of 1819, the native leader who represented the Cass River and the Tuscola area was Chief Otusson. Otusson's Reservation was located where today lies Frankenmuth, MI. Otusson's Reservation along with a large amount of the surrounding land was sold by the Treaty of 1837.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (12%) is water.

Demographics.

The 2010 United States Census indicates Tuscola County had a 2010 population of 55,729. This is a decrease of -2,537 people from the 2000 United States Census. Overall, the county had a -4.4% growth rate during this ten-year period. In 2010 there were 21,590 households and 15,423 families in the county. The population density was 69.4 per square mile (26.8 square kilometers). There were 24,451 housing units at an average density of 30.4 per square mile (11.7 square kilometers). 96.1% of the population were White, 1.1% Black or African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.7% of some other race and 1.2% of two or more races. 2.8% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race). 32.3% were of German, 9.0% English, 8.4% Polish, 8.0% Irish, 7.8% American and 6.2% French, French Canadian or Cajun ancestry.  There were 21,590 households out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5% were husband and wife families, 9.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 28.6% were non-families, and 24.0% were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.97.  In the county, the population was spread out with 23.5% under age of 18, 7.9% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.6 males.  The 2010 American Community Survey 3-year estimate indicates the median income for a household in the county was $40,839 and the median income for a family was $49,274. Males had a median income of $28,288 versus $15,314 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,470. About 1.7% of families and 17.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.0% of those under the age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Religion.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Saginaw is the controlling regional body for the Catholic Church.

Government.

Tuscola County has been strongly Republican for most of its history, only failing to back a Republican candidate four times in presidential elections from 1884 to the present day.  The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads, operates the major local courts, keeps files of deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in the provision of welfare and other social services. The county board of commissioners controls the budget but has only limited authority to make laws or ordinances. In Michigan, most local government functions — police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc. — are the responsibility of individual cities and townships.

Tuscola County is a county in the Thumb region of the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the population was 55,729. The county seat is Caro. The county was created by Michigan Law on April 1, 1840, from land in Sanilac County and attached to Saginaw County for administrative purposes. The Michigan Legislature passed an act on March 2, 1850, that empowered the county residents to organize governmental functions.

Le comté de Tuscola ("Tuscola County" en anglais) est à l'est de la péninsule inférieure de l'État du Michigan, dans le "Thumb" (« Pouce »), sur la rive du lac Huron et la baie de Saginaw. Son siège est à Caro. Selon le recensement de 2000, sa population est de 58 266 habitants.


History.

Documented by Spanish colonists as part of the Rancho de las Pulgas (literally "Ranch of the Fleas") and the Rancho San Mateo, the earliest history is held in the archives of Mission Dolores. In 1789 the Spanish missionaries had named a Native American village along Laurel Creek as "Los Laureles" or the Laurels (Mission Dolores, 1789). At the time of Mexican Independence, there were 30 native Californians at San Mateo, most likely from the Ssalson tribelet.  Captain Fredrick W. Beechey in 1827 traveling with the hills on their right, known in that part as the Sierra del Sur, began to approach the road, which passing over a small eminence, opened out upon "a wide country of meadow land, with clusters of fine oak free from underwood... It strongly resembled a nobleman's park: herds of cattle and horses were grazing upon the rich pasture, and numerous fallow‐deer, startled at the approach of strangers, bounded off to seek protection among the hills... This spot is named San Matheo, and belongs to the mission of San Francisco." An 1835 sketch map of the Rancho refers to the creek as "Arroyo de Los Laureles." In the 21st century, most of the laurels are gone, having been removed for development.  In 1810 Coyote Point was an early recorded feature of San Mateo. Beginning in the 1850s, some wealthy San Franciscans began building summer or permanent homes in the milder mid-peninsula. While most of this early settlement occurred in adjacent Hillsborough and Burlingame, a number of historically important mansions and buildings were constructed in San Mateo.  A.P. Giannini, founder of the Bank of Italy (which later became the Bank of America), lived here most of his life. His mansion, Seven Oaks, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places (No.99001181). Located at 20 El Cerrito Avenue, it has been deteriorating as it has not been preserved or occupied for years.  In 1858 Sun Water Station, a stage station of the Butterfield Overland Mail route, was established in San Mateo. It was located 9 miles south of Clarks Station in what is now San Bruno and 9 miles north of the next station at Redwood City.  The Howard Estate was built in 1859 on the hill accessed by Crystal Springs Road. The Parrott Estate was erected in 1860 in the same area, giving rise to two conflicting names for the hill, Howard Hill and Parrot Hill. After use of the automobile changed traffic patterns, neither historic name was commonly applied to that hill (Brown, 1975). The Borel Estate was developed near Borel Creek in 1874. It has been redeveloped since the late 20th century for use as modern offices and shops. The property is managed and owned by Borel Place Associates and the Borel Estate Company.  Hayward Park, the 1880 American Queen Anne-style residence of Alvinza Hayward (often said to be "California's first millionaire" from his silver and banking fortunes), was built on an estate in San Mateo which included a deer park and racetrack, roughly bounded by present-day El Camino Real (on the west), 9th Avenue (on the north), B Street (on the east) and 16th Avenue (on the south). A smaller portion of the property and the mansion, was converted into The Peninsula Hotel in 1908, following Hayward's death in 1904. The Hotel burned down in a spectacular fire on 25 June 1920.  In the early 20th century, Japanese immigrants came to San Mateo to work in the salt ponds and flower industry. Although Japanese-Americans only account for 2.2% of the population today, they continue to be a major cultural influence and a draw for the rest of the region. The Eugene J. De Sabla Japanese Teahouse and Garden was established in 1894 at 70 De Sabla Road, designed by Makoto Hagiwara, designer of the Japanese garden in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco. He arranged for Japanese artisans to be brought to the United States primarily for its teahouse construction. The parcel was purchased in 1988 by San Francisco businessman Achille Paladini and wife Joan, who have restored it. The garden features hundreds of varieties of plants and several rare trees. A large koi pond surrounds an island. The property was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992.  In December 1967, Sgt. Joe Artavia, then serving in Vietnam with Alpha Company, 1st Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment of the 101st Airborne Division wrote to his sister, Linda Giese, who was a resident of San Carlos working in San Mateo, asking if San Mateo or San Francisco could adopt the Company, saying that it would bring "the morale of the guys up as high as the clouds". San Mateo passed a resolution on March 4, 1968, officially adopting Alpha Company and letters and gifts began arriving from the citizens of San Mateo. Joe would be killed in action on March 24, 1968, less than three weeks after the resolution. Linda would travel to Vietnam to meet with the men of Alpha Company for Christmas in 1968 and deliver personalized medallions from the City of San Mateo. In 1972, San Mateo requested and received permission to have Alpha Company visit the city when they left Vietnam, later holding a parade in January 1972, believed to be the only parade honoring the military during the Vietnam War. In 1988, Joseph Brazan wrote a screenplay entitled "A Dove Among Eagles" chronicling the adoption of Alpha Company by San Mateo and the real-life romance between Linda and Artavia's commander, Lt. Stephen Patterson. The city expanded its support to the entire 1st Battalion in 1991, when they were deployed to Kuwait under Operation Desert Storm.

Geography.

San Mateo is located at (37.554286, −122.313044). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, is land and (23.63%) is water.  The best-known natural area is Coyote Point Park, a rock outcropped peninsula that juts out into the San Francisco Bay. The early Spanish navigators named it "la punta de San Mateo." Crews of American cargo ships carrying grain in the bay renamed it "Big Coyote" (BLM, 1853). Sailors had a penchant for naming promontories at the edge of San Francisco Bay after the coyote; across the bay in Fremont are the Coyote Hills, part of Coyote Hills Regional Park. By the 1890s the shore area was developed as a popular beach called San Mateo Beach. In 1842 the Spanish had named it "playa de San Mateo". Today Coyote Point is home to CuriOdyssey, formerly known as the Coyote Point Museum, a major natural history museums and wildlife centers in the state. The Peninsula Humane Society is also situated at Coyote Point.  The variety of natural habitats includes mixed oak woodland, riparian zones, and bayland marshes. One endangered species, the California clapper rail, was sighted feeding on mudflats by the Third Avenue bridge in San Mateo. The marsh areas are also likely habitat for the endangered Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse, which inhabit the middle and high zones of salt and brackish marshes, as well as for the endangered marsh plant, Point Reyes bird's beak.  Sugarloaf Mountain, whose name has been documented in 1870, is a prominent landform between the forks of Laurel Creek (Brown, 1975). In the late 20th century, this mixed oak woodland and chaparral habitat was a site of controversy related to proposals to develop a portion of the mountain for residential use. It has been preserved for use as park and open space area, and is home to the endangered Mission Blue Butterfly.  Sawyer Camp Trail, located on the western edge of San Mateo along the Crystal Springs Reservoir is another popular destination for joggers, walkers and bikers. This roughly 6 mile trail begins in San Mateo and stretches north toward Hillsborough and San Bruno, parallel to the 280 freeway.

Climate.

San Mateo has a Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and mild, damp winters. The city is generally shielded from the Pacific Ocean by the Montara Mountain block of the Santa Cruz Mountains, but two gaps in the mountains (the San Bruno Gap, between Montara Mountain and San Bruno Mountain; and the Crystal Springs Gap, near where State Route 92 meets State Route 35, west of the College of San Mateo) can channel ocean weather, resulting in gusty afternoon winds that bring fog toward San Mateo in the late afternoon through early morning in the summer months.  The National Weather Service maintained a cooperative weather station in San Mateo until 1978; records for the period show that January, the coolest month, had an average maximum of and an average minimum of, and September, the warmest month, had an average maximum of and an average minimum of. The record maximum temperature was on June 14, 1961, and the record minimum temperature was on January 5, 1949, and December 9, 1972. Annual precipitation averaged of rainfall, falling on an average of 60 days each year. The wettest year was in 1973 and the driest year was of rainfall in 1953. The most precipitation in one month was of rainfall in December 1955 and the most precipitation in 24 hours was of rainfall on December 23, 1955. Based on comparison with the existing NWS office at San Francisco International Airport, San Mateo is generally a few degrees warmer in summer than the airport and a few degrees cooler in winter, while annual precipitation is almost the same at the airport and in San Mateo. In recent years, daily temperature reports for San Mateo from local weather observers have been published in the "San Mateo Times" and the "San Francisco Chronicle".

Demographics.

The 2010 United States Census reported that San Mateo had a population of 97,207. The population density was 8,013.8 people per square mile (3,094.2/km2). The racial makeup of San Mateo was 56,214 (46.8%) White, 2,296 (2.4%) African American, 505 (0.5%) Native American, 18,384 (18.9%) Asian (7.9% Chinese, 4.6% Filipino, 2.2% Japanese, 1.8% Indian, 0.8% Korean, 0.3% Vietnamese, 0.2% Thai), 1,998 (2.1%) Pacific Islander (1.2% Tongan, 0.3% Fijian, 0.2% Samoan, 0.1% Hawaiian,), 12,264 (12.6%) from other races, and 5,546 (5.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 25,815 persons (26.6%); 14.4% of San Mateo is Mexican, 2.8% Guatemalan, 2.6% Salvadoran, 1.2% Peruvian, 0.9% Nicaraguan, 0.5% Puerto Rican, 0.3% Colombian, 0.3% Chilean, 0.2% Honduran, and 0.2% Cuban.  The Census reported that 95,891 people (98.6% of the population) lived in households, 975 (1.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 341 (0.4%) were institutionalized.  There were 38,233 households, out of which 11,464 (30.0%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 17,964 (47.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,824 (10.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,656 (4.3%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 2,098 (5.5%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 343 (0.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 11,751 households (30.7%) were made up of individuals and 4,391 (11.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.51. There were 23,444 families (61.3% of all households); the average family size was 3.14.  The population was spread out with 20,254 people (20.8%) under the age of 18, 6,915 people (7.1%) aged 18 to 24, 30,772 people (31.7%) aged 25 to 44, 25,286 people (26.0%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,980 people (14.4%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.8 males.  There were 40,014 housing units at an average density of 3,298.8 per square mile (1,273.7/km2), of which 19,969 (52.2%) were owner-occupied, and 18,264 (47.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.5%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.7%. Of the population, 50,951 people (52.4%) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 44,940 people (46.2%) lived in rental housing units.  According to the 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $86,772, and the median income for a family was $107,023. Males had a median income of $65,541 versus $60,491 for females. The per capita income for the city was $25,248. About 3.6% of families and 5.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.1% of those under age 18 and 5.9% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

San Mateo is structured as a council-manager form of government. The City Council has five members elected every two years to staggered four-year terms.  In the California State Legislature, San Mateo is in, and in.  In the United States House of Representatives, San Mateo is in.  According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, San Mateo has 54,946 registered voters. Of those, 27,502 (50.1%) are registered Democrats, 8,504 (15.5%) are registered Republicans, and 16,772 (30.5%) have declined to state a political party.

Cityscape.

In general, San Mateo's downtown core and neighborhoods east of El Camino Real are more populous and have a greater density than the neighborhoods to the west of El Camino Real, where there is a lower population density.

Downtown.

San Mateo has one of the larger, well developed, more prominent suburban downtowns in the San Francisco Bay Area. It is located roughly between Tilton and 9th Avenues and Delaware Street and El Camino Real The downtown core contains over 800 shops and restaurants, many of them in historic buildings from the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The non-profit Downtown San Mateo Association (DSMA) works on behalf of downtown businesses to promote them and improve the downtown area. A historically influential area for the Japanese-American community, the downtown is home to many Japanese restaurants and shops. A large, modern 12-screen movie theatre complex gives the downtown a major entertainment option. Central Park is considered to be San Mateo's signature park with tennis courts, picnic areas, playground, a baseball field, a recreation center, a miniature train, and a Japanese Tea Garden. San Mateo Caltrain station is situated downtown. The downtown also contains many large and small multi-story office buildings, apartments, government buildings and Mills Medical Center, making the area a busy employment center day and night.

Hillsdale.

Hillsdale Shopping Center is a mall in San Mateo County, with over 100 stores in the mall itself, surrounded by many big box stores. The city of San Mateo has approved the construction of Cinépolis (luxury movie theater) and a Pinstripes bowling alley off El Camino Real. Sears is no longer in business and has been vacated for new businesses to occupy this space. Hillsdale Caltrain station is across El Camino Real.

Bay Meadows.

Bay Meadows Racetrack was a former horse racing track near Hillsdale Mall, which closed down in 2008. It is being redeveloped into a large mixed-use development which will include hundreds of new residential units, office space, retail space and acres of parks including a town square. It started construction in 2013 and was completed in 2017. It is a significant amount of new construction given the limited space available for development in the city and the peninsula.

Economy.

The economy of San Mateo would best be considered very diverse with jobs in the technology, health care, financial services, government, and retail trade fields being among the most numerous. Companies based in San Mateo include Franklin Templeton Investments, Roblox Corporation, Fisher Investments, SolarCity, Solstice, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Marketo, GoPro, and NetSuite.  According to the City's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:  Since 1990, San Mateo has had a voter-approved ordinance limiting the height of new development to 55 feet. The San Mateo housing market is one of the most expensive in the country. In February 2018, the median San Mateo home was valued at $1,463,900, and the median rent was ninth in the entire nation at $2,242 per month.

Education.

Residents are zoned for schools in the San Mateo Foster City School District and San Mateo Union High School District. Elementary schools comprise Preschool, K-5, Middle and Magnet schools. There is a private, PreK-8 school: Saint Matthew's Episcopal Day School There are three public high schools: San Mateo, Aragon, and Hillsdale. There are also three private high schools: one all-male Catholic high school, Junípero Serra, one all-female Catholic high school, Notre Dame, and the Nueva Upper School. There is the Carey School.  The city is home to the College of San Mateo, a community college. The campus of over 10,000 students is located on 153 acres in the western foothills of the city which offer a panoramic view of the San Francisco Bay. Other universities in the area include Notre Dame de Namur University, a private Catholic university of 2,000 students in neighboring Belmont and Stanford University located about 12 miles to the south.  The San Mateo Union High School District also hosts an adult school behind the campus of San Mateo High School.

Public libraries.

The City of San Mateo operates three libraries within the city. The Main Library, the Hillsdale Library, and the Marina Library are all part of the Peninsula Library System. The Main Library located near Central Park in downtown opened in 2006 after residents passed a $30 million bond measure. Upon opening, the three-story, 93,000-square-foot building earned numerous design awards and was LEED-certified NC Gold. Floor-to-ceiling windows provide abundant natural light. The technologically advanced building is modeled after a retail bookstore.

Parks and recreation.

San Mateo maintains more than 15 parks throughout the city.  Central Park is considered to be the main one and hosts many community park functions that serve downtown residents. It has a Japanese tea garden, a rose garden, and a mini train. Beresford Park is another large park that offers bocce ball and a skate plaza. Martin Luther King Jr Park () and Joinville Park () offer swimming pools while Ryder Park boasts a water play structure. Parkside Aquatic Park located on Seal Slough () has beach swimming and volleyball. Many of these parks have picnic areas with grills, children's play areas, basketball and tennis courts, and baseball diamonds.  Coyote Point Park is near the border with Burlingame and on the San Francisco Bay. It is a 670-acre regional county park known for its ideal location for windsurfing and sailing. It is also home to CuriOdyssey: a hands-on science museum and small native animal zoo.

Transportation.

Freeways.

San Mateo is considered to be near the center of the San Francisco Bay Area about halfway between San Francisco and San Jose, the region's two largest cities. It is served by three major freeways including U.S. Route 101, Interstate 280, and State Route 92. State Route 92 east of San Mateo traverses the San Francisco Bay as the San Mateo-Hayward Bridge to the city of Hayward on its eastern shore.

Bicycling.

San Mateo has a network of bikeways connecting major destinations in the city. In 2011, the city approved a Bicycle Master Plan to establish bicycling goals, identify gaps in the existing bikeways system, and create a prioritized list of infrastructure improvement projects.

Public transportation.

SamTrans provides local bus service within the city of San Mateo as well as the entire county of San Mateo. AC Transit provides transbay bus service via the San Mateo Bridge to Alameda County. Caltrain provides commuter rail service on the San Francisco Peninsula between San Francisco and San Jose. Caltrain operates three stations within the city of San Mateo with stations at (serving the mall and surrounding area), (near Highway 92), and (in downtown San Mateo). There are 41 northbound and 41 southbound trains with a stop in the city each weekday and 18 trains in both directions on weekends. Extra southbound trains are run to accommodate passengers after San Francisco Giants games. See public transportation in San Mateo County for more details.

Airports.

San Mateo is located near three major airports including San Francisco International Airport seven miles to the north. Oakland International Airport and San Jose Mineta International Airport are also within a half an hour drive. San Carlos Airport is a general aviation airport located about six miles to the south.

Other services.

Hospitals in San Mateo include San Mateo Medical Center, an acute care facility operated by County of San Mateo. Cemeteries include Skylawn Memorial Park and St. John's Cemetery.

Prominent places.

The San Mateo Performing Arts Center, located on the campus of San Mateo High School, is one of the largest theatres on the peninsula outside of San Francisco. The College of San Mateo is also located in San Mateo and is home to radio station KCSM. The city is also home to the Bridgepointe and Hillsdale shopping centers. Bay Meadows horse-racing track was torn down in 2008.  The Japanese Tea Garden and San Mateo Arboretum in Central Park, San Mateo, CA. Central Park are of interest. U.S. Route 101, Interstate 280, and State Route 92 pass through San Mateo. One of its sister cities is Toyonaka, Japan, which the Japanese Tea Garden at Central Park was created to commemorate.  Public art is located all around the city. One of the more memorable works is the 1963, large, brightly colored mosaic mural designed by Louis Macouillard and constructed by Alfonso Pardiñas. The mural is located in front of a mid-century modern bank at 300 S. El Camino Real and tells the story of A. P. Giannini, the founder of Bank of Italy (United States).  The College of San Mateo hosts a year-round Saturday morning farmers' market for visitors and San Mateo residents alike, at 1700 W Hillsdale Blvd. The market is operated by the Pacific Coast Farmers' Market Association and has over 100 farmers, hot food vendors, and artisans from the San Francisco Bay Area.

Sister cities.

San Mateo has two sister cities, as designated by the Sister Cities International, Inc.:

San Mateo ( ; ) is a city in San Mateo County, California, approximately south of San Francisco, and northwest of San Jose. San Mateo had an estimated 2019 population of 104,430. It has a Mediterranean climate, and is known for its rich history. The biggest economic contributors to the city include the Medical Center, one of the local school districts, and Sony's Sony Interactive Entertainment division. Finally, being in the center of the San Francisco Bay Area, it has many ways to travel back and forth beween the major cities of that area.

San Mateo () est une municipalité américaine située en Californie dans le comté de San Mateo et dans la région de la baie de San Francisco. C'est l'une des banlieues les plus importantes de la péninsule de San Francisco. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Plot.

Lomax is a lemming knight, whose friends have been transformed into monsters by "Evil Ed". His quest is to rescue them and put a stop to Evil Ed using his magical helmet.

Gameplay.

This game inherits the gameplay and style which was seen in Erwin Kloibhofer and Henk Nieborg's previous title, "Flink". As Lomax, the player must navigate through four main worlds with three levels each, in a side-scrolling platform game. The enemies are brainwashed lemmings who have been turned into deadly monsters taking the form of zombies, cowboys, and aliens. The player's main attack spins Lomax around, and can be used to both avoid being killed by bumping into enemies, and defeat them. When defeated, enemies are turned back into ordinary lemmings, and true to type, they then jump off the nearest ledge. There are coins scattered throughout the levels that grant additional lives when enough are found. Magic helmets can also be found, which can be used as weapons and grant Lomax immunity from one attack, after which he loses the helmet.  In addition to the standard platforming, Lomax is also able to use several abilities featured in the original "Lemmings", such as building bridges and blowing up obstacles, as well as others not found in the original.

Reception.

A reviewer for "Next Generation" gave the game a generally negative review, remarking that while ""The Adventures of Lomax" isn't all bad for a side-scroller", the storyline was uninteresting and the 2D platform genre had been played out. Reviewers for "GameSpot" and "Electronic Gaming Monthly", however, felt that a new 2D platform jumper was a breath of fresh air since there had been no new entries in the genre for a while. They further remarked that the colorful graphics, smooth animation, and fun gameplay make it stand out even among other 2D platformers. "EGM"s Crispin Boyer said "it proves that PlayStation titles don't have to be 3-D to be good", and "GameSpot"s Hugh Sterbakov concluded that "though "The Adventures of Lomax" is not state-of-the-art, it is a genuinely fun ride."

The Adventures of Lomax (known in Europe as Lomax) is a spin-off video game of the "Lemmings" series. The player takes the role of Lomax, a lemming character that has to save his friends and animals from an evil doctor. The game was released for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows in 1996. Kath Soucie provides the voice of Lomax.

The Adventures of Lomax est un jeu vidéo de plates-formes développé et édité par Psygnosis en 1996 sur PlayStation et Windows. Le jeu est un spin-off tiré de la série Lemmings. Il met en scène Lomax, un lemming qui doit sauver ses congénères à travers de nombreux niveaux de plates-formes en scrolling horizontal.


Description.

A stale seed bed technique of weed control creating a seedbed some weeks before seed is due to be sown. The early seedbed is designed to germinate weed seeds that have been disturbed and brought to the soil surface during cultivation, so that the young weeds can then be eliminated before they can propagate.

Method.

The technique can be utilized in early spring, when the weather is still too cold for proper seed germination. Several passes are made with a power harrow, such as an R2 Rinaldi, rototiller or plow, then weed seeds are allowed to germinate as weather permits. By tilling, the farmer increases the chance of weed seed germination by the same method as one would for favorable vegetable/crops: the fine soil allows weed seed to grow rapidly by allowing the seed to open and the roots to spread easier than in compacted soil. Deep tilling will also bring dormant seed to the surface for germination; some species of plant are known for seeds that can lay deeply buried in the soil for years before favorable conditions allow germination.  After weeds have sprouted, they are hoed off or eliminated with the other means (e.g., use of a flame weeder) before sowing of the actual crop. Timing is important; weed seeds must be destroyed before they themselves can create new seeds. By destroying them early, the farmer eliminates most of that season's annual weeds. Turning the dead weeds back into the soil also increases soil nutrient content, although this difference is slight.  In many cases, several tillings are done, perhaps every two weeks beginning in very early spring. This allows more and more weed seeds to germinate only to be killed off later. This eliminates more weeds, but care must be used to not delay planting of a desirable crop later than the crop needs for a successful season's growth. After several years, most, if not all, weeds can be eliminated from the seed bank in the soil. In some cases the effect can be noticed in the same year the process is first carried out.  If the weed patch is vigorous enough, the farmer may mow the patch first before tilling. This allows for easier/quicker decomposition in the soil when the plants are turned under. Some farmers may apply a light and inexpensive fertilizer mix to the soil to hoping to cause even more weed seeds to germinate and eliminate seeds earlier that otherwise would have sprouted in later years.

A false or stale seed bed is a seedbed created some weeks before seed is due to be sown. The early seedbed is used a weed control technique. It is designed to germinate weed seeds that have been disturbed and brought to the soil surface during cultivation, so that the young weeds can then be eliminated. The tilled soil increases the chance of weed seed germination as the fine soil allows seed to grow rapidly than in compacted soil and dormant seeds are brought to the surface. The weeds must then be destroyed before they can create new seeds. By destroying them early, the farmer eliminates most of that season's annual weeds, and nominally increases soil nutrient content.

Le faux semis est une technique culturale qui se pratique avant le semis proprement dit et qui est destinée à réduire la pression des mauvaises herbes sur la culture à venir. Cette technique permet de réduire le stock de graines du sol.


History.

In the 1880s the artist Kate Greenaway illustrated popular books of English nursery rhymes showing children in smock dresses. These came to be a popular style of children's dress which were given the name 'Mother Hubbard' by fashion writers at the time after the nursery rhyme character in the books.  Around the same time a dress reform movement arose that sought to free western women from the tight and impracticable clothing of small waists and tight corsets that was dictated by fashion in well off society. The smock dress with full length arms proved very adaptable to both size and shape and migrated up the age groups until it became comfortable day wear for women of all ages and a wide spread of social class.  Contemporary with this in Victorian times missionary movements attempted to spread what they saw as the benefits of western religion and morals to native peoples under the rule of the imperial western countries. The Mother Hubbard garments were insisted upon by missionaries who were often horrified to find a flock of near naked people in their churches. They were distributed widely in Africa, South Asia, and the Pacific. They have influenced modern dress in all these areas but particularly in the Pacific islands where they persist today.

Pacific island dress.

Names and designs vary. In Hawaii, it is called "holokū". There, a derivative, the muumuu, is highly similar, but without the yoke and train, and therefore even easier to make. In Tahiti, the name was "ahu tua" (empire dress, in a sense of colonial empire); now, "ahu māmā rūau" (grandmother's dress) is used. In Samoa and Tonga, the design has taken on a two-piece form, with classic mother hubbard blouses (long, wide, loose-fitting with puffy sleeves) over ankle-length skirts, called "puletasi" and "puletaha," respectively. In Marshallese, the name is "" (), from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu. The missionaries who introduced it in the Marshall Islands came from Oahu. In New Caledonia, these dresses are referred to as "robes missions" (Mission Dresses). New Caledonian women wear these dresses when playing their distinctive style of cricket. In Papua New Guinea, the form of dress is known as "meri blaus", which in Tok Pisin means women's blouse. It is considered formal local attire. In the 1960s and 1970s many women in Tarawa, Kiribati and a few i-matang women wore a garment which was referred to as a Mother Hubbard. Whilst the lower half of the body was covered with a wrap-around (lavalava) or a skirt, the top half was worn a very loose low-necked blouse short enough to expose a band of flesh at the waist. The latter was usually worn without underclothes.

Elsewhere.

In India and much of South Asia, these dresses are referred to as "Housecoats". Indian women wear these dresses as a convenient apparel at home, particularly around only the family members when they are not expecting company.

A Mother Hubbard dress is a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck. It is intended to cover as much skin as possible. It was devised in Victorian western societies to free women from the constriction of corsets that fashion imposed on better off women. It is mostly known today for its later introduction by Christian missionaries in Polynesia to "civilise" those whom they considered half-naked savages.

La robe mission, robe empire ou robe popinée (Nouvelle-Calédonie) est un vêtement féminin porté dans toute l'Océanie. Il s'agit d'une robe longue et ample sans décolleté mais aux couleurs généralement bariolées. Elle a été imposée par les missionnaires chrétiens, venus évangéliser cette partie du monde au, en remplacement des tenues traditionnelles impudiques à leurs yeux. Les Océaniennes se sont peu à peu approprié cette robe qui a pris des tons bariolés. Son port est désormais revendiqué et fait office de costume local. Ainsi, en Nouvelle-Calédonie, les équipes féminines de cricket s'affrontent en robe mission d'une couleur différente pour chaque équipe.


Education.

Bearden was born in Charlotte, North Carolina. Bearden's family moved with him to New York City when he was a toddler, as part of the Great Migration. He was educated in high school in Pittsburgh, and then returned to New York City. The Bearden household soon became a meeting place for major figures of the Harlem Renaissance. Romare's mother, Bessye Bearden, played an active role with the New York City Board of Education, and also served as founder and president of the Colored Women's Democratic League. She was also a New York correspondent for "The Chicago Defender", an African-American newspaper.  In 1929, he graduated from Peabody High School in Pittsburgh. He enrolled in Lincoln University, the nation's first historically black college, founded in 1854. He later transferred to Boston University where he served as art director for "Beanpot", Boston University's student humor magazine. Bearden continued his studies at New York University (NYU), where he started to focus more on his art and less on athletics, and became a lead cartoonist and art editor for "The Medley", the monthly journal of the secretive Eucleian Society at NYU. Bearden studied art, education, science, and mathematics, graduating with a degree in science and education in 1935.  He continued his artistic study under German artist George Grosz at the Art Students League in 1936 and 1937. During this period Bearden supported himself by working as a political cartoonist for African-American newspapers, including the "Baltimore Afro-American," where he published a weekly cartoon from 1935 until 1937.

Career as an artist.

Bearden grew as an artist by exploring his life experiences. His early paintings were often of scenes in the American South, and his style was strongly influenced by the Mexican muralists, especially Diego Rivera and José Clemente Orozco. In 1935, Bearden became a case worker for the Harlem office of the New York City Department of Social Services. Throughout his career as an artist, Bearden worked as a case worker off and on to supplement his income. During World War II, Bearden joined the United States Army, serving from 1942 until 1945, largely in Europe.  After serving in the army, Bearden joined the Samuel Kootz Gallery, a commercial gallery in New York that featured avant-garde art. He produced paintings at this time in "an expressionistic, linear, semi-abstract style." He returned to Europe in 1950 to study philosophy with Gaston Bachelard and art history at the Sorbonne, under the auspices of the G.I. Bill. Bearden traveled throughout Europe, visiting Picasso and other artists.  Making major changes in his art, he started producing abstract representations of what he deemed as human, specifically scenes from the Passion of Jesus. He had evolved from what Edward Alden Jewell, a reviewer for the "New York Times", called a "debilitating focus on Regionalist and ethnic concerns" to what became known as his stylistic approach, which participated in the post-war aims of avant-garde American art. His works were exhibited at the Samuel M. Kootz gallery until it was deemed not abstract enough.  During Bearden's success in the gallery, however, he produced "Golgotha," a painting from his series of the Passion of Jesus (see Figure 1). "Golgotha" is an abstract representation of the Crucifixion. The eye of the viewer is drawn to the middle of the image first, where Bearden has rendered Christ's body. The body parts are stylized into abstract geometric shapes, yet are still too realistic to be concretely abstract; this work has a feel of early Cubism. The body is in a central position and darkly contrasted with the highlighted crowds. The crowds of people are on the left and right, and are encapsulated within large spheres of bright colors of purple and indigo. The background of the painting is depicted in lighter jewel tones dissected with linear black ink. Bearden used these colors and contrasts because of the abstract influence of the time, but also for their meanings. Bearden wanted to explore the emotions and actions of the crowds gathered around the Crucifixion. He worked hard to "depict myths in an attempt to convey universal human values and reactions." According to Bearden, Christ's life, death, and resurrection are the greatest expressions of man's humanism, because of the idea of him that lived on through other men. It is why Bearden focuses on Christ's body first, to portray the idea of the myth, and then highlights the crowd, to show how the idea is passed on to men.  Bearden was focusing on the spiritual intent. He wanted to show ideas of humanism and thought that cannot be seen by the eye, but "must be digested by the mind". This is in accordance with his times, during which other noted artists created abstract representations of historically significant events, such as Robert Motherwell's commemoration of the Spanish Civil War, Jackson Pollock's investigation of Northwest Coast Indian art, Mark Rothko's and Barnett Newman's interpretations of Biblical stories, etc. Bearden depicted humanity through abstract expressionism after feeling he did not see it during the war. Bearden's work was less abstract than these other artists, and Sam Kootz's gallery ended its representation of him.  Bearden turned to music, co-writing the hit song "Sea Breeze", which was recorded by Billy Eckstine and Dizzy Gillespie. It is still considered a jazz classic. In 1954, at age 42, Bearden married Nanette Rohan, a 27-year-old dancer from Staten Island, New York. She later became an artist and critic. The couple eventually created the Bearden Foundation to assist young artists.  In the late 1950s, Bearden's work became more abstract. He used layers of oil paint to produce muted, hidden effects. In 1956, Bearden began studying with a Chinese calligrapher, whom he credits with introducing him to new ideas about space and composition which he used in painting. He also spent much time studying famous European paintings he admired, particularly the work of the Dutch artists Johannes Vermeer, Pieter de Hooch, and Rembrandt. He began exhibiting again in 1960. About this time he and his wife established a second home on the Caribbean island of St. Maarten. In 1961, Bearden joined the Cordier and Ekstrom Gallery in New York City, which would represent him for the rest of his career.  In the early 1960s in Harlem, Bearden was a founding member of the art group known as The Spiral, formed "for the purpose of discussing the commitment of the Negro artist in the present struggle for civil liberties, and as a discussion group to consider common aesthetic problems." The first meeting was held in Bearden's studio on July 5, 1963, and was attended by Bearden, Hale Woodruff, Charles Alston, Norman Lewis, James Yeargans, Felrath Hines, Richard Mayhew, and William Pritchard. Woodruff was responsible for naming the group The Spiral, suggesting the way in which the Archimedean spiral ascends upward as a symbol of progress. Over time the group expanded to include Merton Simpson, Emma Amos, Reginald Gammon, Alvin Hollingsworth, Calvin Douglas, Perry Ferguson, William Majors and Earle Miller. Stylistically the group ranged from Abstract Expressionists to social protest painters.  Bearden's collage work began in 1963 or 1964. He first combined images cut from magazines and colored paper, which he would often further alter with the use of sandpaper, bleach, graphite or paint. Bearden enlarged these collages through the photostat process. Building on the momentum from a successful exhibition of his photostat pieces at the Cordier and Ekstrom Gallery in 1964, Bearden was invited to do a solo exhibition at the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. This heightened his public profile. Bearden's collage techniques changed over the years, and in later pieces he would use blown-up photostat photographic images, silk-screens, colored paper, and billboard pieces to create large collages on canvas and fiberboard.  In 1971, the Museum of Modern Art held a retrospective exhibition of Bearden's work.

Early works.

His early works suggest the importance of African Americans' unity and cooperation. For instance, "The Visitation" implies the importance of collaboration of black communities by depicting intimacy between two black women who are holding hands. Bearden's vernacular realism represented in the work makes "The Visitation" noteworthy; he describes two figures in "The Visitation" somewhat realistically but does not fully follow pure realism, and distorts and exaggerates some parts of their bodies to "convey an experiential feeling or subjective disposition." Bearden said, "the Negro artists [...] must not be content with merely recording a scene as a machine. He must enter wholeheartedly into the situation he wishes to convey."  In 1942, Bearden produced "Factory Workers" (gouache on casein on brown kraft paper mounted on board), which was commissioned by "Forbes" magazine to accompany an article titled "The Negro's War". The article "examined the social and financial costs of racial discrimination during wartime and advocated for full integration of the American workplace." "Factory Workers" and its companion piece "Folk Musicians" serve as prime examples of the influence that Mexican muralists played in Bearden's early work.

Collage.

Bearden had struggled with two artistic sides of himself: his background as "a student of literature and of artistic traditions, and being a black human being involves very real experiences, figurative and concrete," which was at combat with the mid-twentieth century "exploration of abstraction". His frustration with abstraction won over, as he himself described his paintings' focus as coming to a plateau. Bearden then turned to a completely different medium at a very important time for the country.  During the civil rights movement, Bearden started to experiment again, this time with forms of collage. After helping to found an artists group in support of civil rights, Bearden expressed representational and more overtly socially conscious aspects in his work. He used clippings from magazines, which in and of itself was a new medium, as glossy magazines were fairly new. He used these glossy scraps to incorporate modernity in his works, trying to show how African-American rights were moving forward, and so was his socially conscious art. In 1964, he held an exhibition he called "Projections", where he introduced his new collage style. These works were very well received and are generally considered to be his best work.  Bearden had numerous museum shows of his work since then, including a 1971 show at the Museum of Modern Art entitled "Prevalence of Ritual", an exhibition of his prints, entitled "A Graphic Odyssey" showing the work of the last fifteen years of his life; and the 2005 National Gallery of Art retrospective entitled "The Art of Romare Bearden". In 2011, Michael Rosenfeld Gallery exhibited its second show of the artist's work, "Romare Bearden (1911–1988): Collage, A Centennial Celebration", an intimate grouping of 21 collages produced between 1964 and 1983.  One of his most famous series, "Prevalence of Ritual", concentrates mostly on southern African-American life. He used these collages to show his rejection of the Harmon Foundation's (a New York City arts organization) emphasis on the idea that African Americans must reproduce their culture in their art. Bearden found this approach to be a burden on African artists, because he saw the idea as creating an emphasis on reproduction of something that already exists in the world. He used this new series to speak out against this limitation on Black artists, and to emphasize modern art.  In this series, one of the pieces is entitled "Baptism". Bearden was influenced by Francisco de Zurbarán, and based "Baptism" on Zurbarán's painting "The Virgin Protectress of the Carthusians". Bearden wanted to show how the water that is about to be poured on the subject being baptized is always moving, giving the whole collage a feel and sense of temporal flux. He wanted to express how African Americans' rights were always changing, and society itself was in a temporal flux at the time. Bearden wanted to show that nothing is fixed, and expressed this idea throughout the image: not only is the subject about to have water poured from the top, but the subject is also to be submerged in water. Every aspect of the collage is moving and will never be the same more than once, which was congruent with society at the time.  In "The Art of Romare Bearden", Ruth Fine describes his themes as "universal". "A well-read man whose friends were other artists, writers, poets and jazz musicians, Bearden mined their worlds as well as his own for topics to explore. He took his imagery from both the everyday rituals of African American rural life in the south and urban life in the north, melding those American experiences with his personal experiences and with the themes of classical literature, religion, myth, music and daily human ritual."  In 2008 a 1984 mural by Romare Bearden in the Gateway Center subway station in Pittsburgh was estimated as worth $15 million, more than the cash-strapped transit agency expected. It raised questions about how it should be cared for once it is removed before the station is demolished.  "We did not expect it to be that much," Port Authority of Allegheny County spokeswoman Judi McNeil said. "We don't have the wherewithal to be a caretaker of such a valuable piece." It would cost the agency more than $100,000 a year to insure the tile mural, McNeil said. Bearden was paid $90,000 for the project, titled "Pittsburgh Recollections." It was installed in 1984.  Before his death, Bearden claimed the collage fragments aided him to usher the past into the present: "When I conjure these memories, they are of the present to me, because after all, the artist is a kind of enchanter in time."  "The Return of Odysseus", one of his collage works held by the Art Institute of Chicago, exemplifies Bearden's effort to represent African-American rights in a form of collage. This collage describes one of the scenes in Homer's epic "Odyssey", in which the hero Odysseus is returning home from his long journey. The viewer's eye is first captured by the main figure, Odysseus, situated at the center of the work and reaching his hand to his wife. All the figures are black, enlarging the context of the Greek legend. This is one of the ways in which Bearden works to represent African-American rights; by replacing white characters with blacks, he attempts to defeat the rigidity of historical roles and stereotypes and open up the possibilities and potential of blacks. "Bearden may have seen Odysseus as a strong mental model for the African-American community, which had endured its own adversities and setbacks." By portraying Odysseus as black, Bearden maximizes the potential for empathy by black audiences.  Bearden said that he used collage because "he felt that art portraying the lives of African Americans did not give full value to the individual. [...] In doing so he was able to combine abstract art with real images so that people of different cultures could grasp the subject matter of the African American culture: The people. This is why his theme always exemplified people of color." In addition, he said that collage's technique of gathering several pieces together to create one assembled work "symbolizes the coming together of tradition and communities."

Legacy.

Romare Bearden died in New York City on March 12, 1988, due to complications from bone cancer. The "New York Times" described Bearden in its obituary as "one of America's pre-eminent artists" and "the nation's foremost collagist."  Two years after his death, the Romare Bearden Foundation was founded. This non-profit organization not only serves as Bearden's official estate, but also helps "to preserve and perpetuate the legacy of this preeminent American artist." Recently, it has begun developing grant-giving programs aimed at funding and supporting children, young (emerging) artists, and scholars.  In Charlotte, a street was named after Bearden, intersecting West Boulevard, on the west side of the city. Romare Bearden Drive is lined by the West Boulevard Public Library and rows of townhouses.  Inside the Charlotte-Mecklenburg Main Library (310 N. Tryon Street) is Bearden's mosaic, "Before Dawn". After Bearden's death, his widow selected a collage by him to be recreated in smalti (glass tiles) by Crovatto Mosaics in Spilimbergo, Italy, for the grand reopening gala (June 18, 1989) of the "new" library. She was publicly honored at the ceremony for her contribution. The reinterpreted work is tall and wide.  Ground breaking for Romare Bearden Park in Charlotte took place on September 2, 2011, and the completed park opened in late August 2013. It is situated on a parcel located in Third Ward between Church and Mint streets. The artist lived near the new park for a time as a child, at the corner of what is now MLK Boulevard and Graham Street. The park design is based on work of public artist Norie Sato. Her concepts were inspired by Bearden's multimedia collages.  DC Moore Gallery currently represents the estate of Romare Bearden. The first exhibition of his works at the gallery was in September 2008. In 2014-15, Columbia University hosted a major Smithsonian Institution travelling exhibition of Bearden's work and an accompanying series of lectures, readings, performances, and other events celebrating the artist. On display at the Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Gallery on Columbia's Morningside campus, and also at Columbia's Global Centers in Paris and Istanbul, "Romare Bearden: A Black Odyssey" focused on the cycle of collages and watercolors Bearden completed in 1977 based on Homer's epic poem, "The Odyssey".  In 2011, the U.S. Postal Service released a set of Forever stamps featuring four of Bearden's paintings during a first-day-of-issuance ceremony at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture.  In 2017, the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts in Richmond announced acquisition of Romare Bearden's collage, "Three Folk Musicians", as part of the museum's permanent collection. The collage, which shows two guitar players and a banjo player, is often cited in art history books. It was shown at the VMFA for the first time in February 2017 in the museum's mid- to late 20th-century galleries.

Published works.

Romare Bearden is the author of:  Romare Bearden is the coauthor of:

Romare Bearden (September 2, 1911 – March 12, 1988) was an American artist, author, and songwriter. He worked with many types of media including cartoons, oils, and collages. Born in Charlotte, North Carolina, Bearden grew up in New York City and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and graduated from New York University in 1935.

Romare Bearden, (Charlotte (Caroline du Nord), - New York, ) est un artiste peintre et écrivain afro-américain. Il travailla sur divers supports. Il étudia sous la direction de George Grosz à l"'Art Students' Ligue" en 1936-1947. Il servit dans l'armée américaine pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.


Early life.

James Richmond Barthé was born in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. His father's name is Richmond Barthé and mother's name is Marie Clementine Robateau. Barthé's father died at age 22, when he was only a few months old, leaving his mother to raise him alone. She worked as a dressmaker and before Barthé began elementary school she remarried to William Franklin, with whom she eventually had five additional children.  Barthé showed a passion and skill for drawing from an early age. His mother was, in many ways, instrumental in his decision to pursue art as a vocation. Barthé once said: "When I was crawling on the floor, my mother gave me paper and pencil to play with. It kept me quiet while she did her errands. At six years old I started painting. A lady my mother sewed for gave me a set of watercolors. By that time, I could draw very well."  Barthé continued making drawings throughout his childhood and adolescence, under the encouragement of his teachers. His fourth grade teacher, Inez Labat, from the Bay St. Louis Public School, influenced his aesthetic development by encouraging his artistic growth. When he was only twelve years old, Barthé exhibited his work at the Bay St. Louis Country Fair.  However, young Barthé was beset with health problems, and after an attack of typhoid fever at age fourteen, he withdrew from school. Following this, he worked as a houseboy and handyman, but still spent his free time drawing. A wealthy family, the Ponds, who spent summers at Bay St. Louis, invited Barthé to work for them as a houseboy in New Orleans, Louisiana. Through his employment with the Ponds, Barthé broadened his cultural horizons and knowledge of art, and was introduced to Lyle Saxon, a local writer for the "Times Picayune". Saxon was fighting against the racist system of school segregation, and tried unsuccessfully to get Barthé registered in an art school in New Orleans.  In 1924 Barthé donated his first oil painting to a local Catholic church to be auctioned at a fundraiser. Impressed by his talent, Reverend Harry F. Kane encouraged Barthé to pursue his artistic career and raised money for him to undertake studies in fine art. At age twenty-three, with less than a high school education and no formal training in art, Barthé applied to the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Art Institute of Chicago, and was accepted by the latter.

Chicago.

During the next four years Barthé followed a curriculum structured for majors in painting. During this time he boarded with his aunt Rose and made a living working different jobs. His work caught the attention of Dr. Charles Maceo Thompson, a patron of the arts and supporter of many talented young black artists. Barthé was a flattering portrait painter, and Dr. Thompson helped him to secure many lucrative commissions from the city's affluent black citizens.  At the Art Institute of Chicago, Barthé's formal artistic instruction in sculpture took place in anatomy class with professor of anatomy and German artist Charles Schroeder. Students practiced modeling in clay to gain a better understanding of the three-dimensional form. This experience proved to be, according to Barthé, a turning point in his career, shifting his attention away from painting and towards sculpture.  Barthé had his debut as a professional sculptor at "The Negro in Art Week" exhibition in 1927, while still a student of painting at the Art Institute of Chicago. He also exhibited in the April 1928 annual exhibition of the Chicago Art League. The critical acclaim allowed Barthé to enjoy numerous important commissions such as the Bust of Henry O. Tanner (1928) and Toussaint L’Ouverture (1928). Though he was still in his late twenties, within a short time he won recognition, primarily through his sculptures, for making significant contributions to modern African American art. By 1929, the essentials of his artistic education complete, Barthé decided to leave Chicago and head for New York City.

New York.

While many young artists found it very difficult to earn a living from their art during the Great Depression, the 1930s were Richmond Barthé's most prolific years. The shift from the Art Institute of Chicago to New York City, where he moved following graduation, exposed Barthé to new experiences as he arrived in the city during the peak of the Harlem Renaissance. He established his studio in Harlem in 1930 after winning the Julius Rosenwald Fund fellowship at his first solo exhibition at the Women's City Club in Chicago. However, in 1931, he moved his studio in Harlem to Greenwich Village. Barthé once said: "I live downtown because it is much more convenient for my contacts from whom it is possible for me to make a living." He understood the importance of public relations and keeping abreast of collectors' interests.  Barthé mingled with the bohemian circles of downtown Manhattan. Initially unable to afford live models, he sought and found inspiration from on-stage performers. Living downtown provided him the opportunity to socialize not only among collectors but also among artists, dance performers, and actors. His remarkable visual memory permitted him to work without models, producing numerous representations of the human body in movement. During this time, he completed works such as Black Narcissus (1929), The Blackberry Woman (1930), Drum Major (1928), The Breakaway (1929), busts of Alain Locke (1928), bust of A’leila Walker (1928), The Deviled Crab-Man (1929), Rose McClendon (1932), Féral Benga (1935), and Sir John Gielgud as Hamlet (1935).  In October 1933, a major body of Barthé's work inaugurated the Caz Delbo Galleries at the Rockefeller Center in New York. That same year his works were also exhibited at the Chicago World's Fair in 1933. In the summer of 1934, Barthé went on a tour to Paris with Reverend Edward F. Murphy, a friend of Reverend Kane from New Orleans, who exchanged his first class ticket for two third class tickets to share with Barthé. This trip exposed Barthé to classical art, but also to performers such as Féral Benga and African American entertainer Josephine Baker, of whom he made portraits in 1935 and 1951, respectively. During the next two decades, he built his reputation as a sculptor. He was awarded several awards and has experienced success after success and was considered by writers and critics as one of the leading "moderns" of his time. Among his African-American friends were Wallace Thurman, Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Jimmie Daniels, Countee Cullen, and Harold Jackman. Ralph Ellison was his first student. His white supporters included Carl Van Vechten, Noel Sullivan, Charles Cullen, Lincoln Kirstein, Paul Cadmus, Edgar Kaufmann Jr., and Jared French.  In 1945 Barthé became a member of the National Sculpture Society.

Later life.

Eventually, the tense environment and violence of the city began to take its toll, and he decided to abandon his life of fame and move to Jamaica in the West Indies in 1947. His career flourished in Jamaica and he remained there until the mid-1960s when ever-growing violence forced him to yet again move. For the next five years he lived in Switzerland, Spain, and Italy before eventually settling in Pasadena, California in a rental apartment. In that apartment, Barthé worked on his memoirs and most importantly, editioned many of his works with the financial assistance of the actor James Garner until his death in 1989. Garner copyrighted Barthé's artwork, hired a biographer to organize and document his work, and established the Richmond Barthe Trust.

Public works.

Barthé's first public commission came from the New York City's Federal Art Project and for the 80-foot bas-relief in cast stone, (1939), for the embellishment of the Harlem River Houses complex, but upon completion, his work was installed at the Kingsborough Houses in Brooklyn. His other most notable public works include a monumental bronze of Toussaint L’Ouverture, (1950), in front of the National Palace in Port-au-Prince, Haiti; 40-foot bronze equestrian statue Jean Jacques Dessalines, (1952), at Champs-du-Mars, Port-au-Prince, Haiti; a cast stone relief of American Eagle, (1940), on the façade of Social Security Board Building in Washington, DC; a marble Arthur Brisbane Memorial in New York City, (1939), a later enlarged version of a sculpture of Rose McClendon (1932), for Frank Lloyd Wright's Fallingwater, (c.1935); and the design of several Haitian coins, still in use today.

Haitian works.

Barthe's Haitian works came in a time after his 1950 move to Ocho Rios, Jamaica, and were among his largest and most famous works. The huge 40-foot equestrian bronze of Jean Jacques Dessalines, (1952), was one of four heroic sculptures commissioned in 1948 by Haitian political leaders to mark independence celebrations. The Dessalines monument was part of a larger 1954 restoration of the "Champs-du-Mars" park in Port-au-Prince, Barthe's 40-foot-high Toussaint L’Ouverture statue (1950), and stone monument was positioned nearer the National Palace, and was unveiled in 1950 with two other commissioned heroic sculptures (in the capital and in the north of the county) by Cuban sculptor Blanco Ramos. At the time, one African-American newspaper called the collection "the Greatest Negro Monuments on earth." L'Overture was in fact a subject Barthe returned to several times, having created a bust (1926) and painted portrait (1929) of the figure early in his career.

Exhibitions.

Barthé's first debut as a professional sculptor was at "The Negro in Art Week" exhibition in Chicago in 1927. His first solo exhibition was held at the Women's City Club in Chicago in 1930, exhibiting a selection of thirty-eight works of sculpture, painting, and works on paper. In 1932, the Whitney Museum of American Art decided to purchase a bronze copy of the Blackberry Woman (1930) after exhibiting it at the opening exhibition of "Contemporary American Artists" in 1932. Barthé's work was paired with drawings by Delacroix, Matisse, Laurencin, Daumier, and Forain at the Caz-Delbo Gallery in 1933 in New York City. In 1942, he had an exhibition of 20 works of art at the South Side Community Art Center in Chicago. The retrospective which included works from private collections shown for the first time, Richmond Barthé: The Seeker was the inaugural exhibition of the African American Galleries at the Ohr-O'Keefe Museum of Art in Biloxi, Mississippi which was curated by Margaret Rose Vendryes, PhD. Barthé's most recent retrospective, "Richmond Barthé: His Life in Art", consisted of over 30 sculptures and photographs. The exhibition was organized by Landau Traveling Exhibitions of Los Angeles, CA, in 2009. The exhibition venues included the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, the California African American Museum, the Dixon Gallery and Gardens, and the NCCU Art Museum.

Collections.

The Whitney Museum of American Art purchased Barthé's bronze copy of the Blackberry Woman (1930) in 1932, after the inaugural exhibition "Whitney Annual" in 1932. The African Dancer (1933) was also purchased after being displayed in "Whitney Annual" in 1933, as well as the Comedian in 1935. The Metropolitan Museum of Art purchased The Boxer (1942) after "Artists For Victory" exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1942. Barthé's other pieces are in the collections of the Smithsonian American Art Museum; the Art Institute of Chicago, Fallingwater, and others.

Recognition.

Richmond Barthé received many honors during his career, including the Rosenwald Fellowship in 1930 and the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1940. Barthé was also the first African American artist to be represented, together with the painter Jacob Lawrence, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art's permanent collection. In 1945, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He also received awards for interracial justice and honorary degrees from Xavier and St. Francis Universities. He was the recipient of the Audubon Artists Gold Medal in 1950. A few years after his arrival in Pasadena, California, the city renamed the street where Barthé lived in "Barthé Drive". He also was honored and received an award from President Carter in 1980.

Personal life.

Sexuality.

Once, when interviewed, Barthé indicated that he was homosexual. Throughout his life, he had occasional romantic relationships that were short lived. In an undated letter to Alain Locke he indicated that he desired a long-term relationship with a "Negro friend and a lover". The book Barthé: A Life in Sculpture, by Margaret Rose Vandryes, links Barthé to writer Lyle Saxon, to African American art critic Alain Locke, young sculptor John Rhoden, and the photographer Carl Van Vechten. According to a letter from Alain Locke to Richard Bruce Nugent, Barthé had a romantic relationship with Nugent, a cast member from the production of Porgy & Bess.

Religious beliefs.

Barthé was a devoted Roman Catholic. Many of Barthé's later work depicted religious subjects, including "John the Baptist" (1942), "Come Unto Me" (1945), "Head of Jesus" (1949), "Angry Christ" (1946), and "Resurrection" (1969). Works like "The Mother" (1935), "Mary" (1945), or his unfinished "Crucifixion" (ca. 1944) are noticeably influenced by the interracial justice for what he was awarded the James J. Hoey Award by the Catholic Interracial Council in 1945.

James Richmond Barthé, also known as Richmond Barthé (January 28, 1901 – March 5, 1989) was an African-American sculptor associated with the Harlem Renaissance. Barthé is best known for his portrayal of black subjects. The focus of his artistic work was portraying the diversity and spirituality of man. Barthé once said: "All my life I have been interested in trying to capture the spiritual quality I see and feel in people, and I feel that the human figure as God made it, is the best means of expressing this spirit in man."

James Richmond Barthé, né à Bay St. Louis (Mississippi) le et mort le à Pasadena en Californie est un sculpteur américain et une figure majeure du mouvement culturel afro-américain dit "Renaissance de Harlem".


Local government.

For the purposes of local government, the whole of the historic parish forms a single parish district with commissioners.  The Captain of the Parish (since 2003) is Donald James Gelling, CBE.

Politics.

Santon parish is part of the Middle constituency, which elects two members to the House of Keys. From 1986 until 2016 it was in the Malew and Santon constituency.

Geography.

It has an area of approximately and is the island's smallest parish. The parish is now popularly known as Santon instead of the older Santan. Currently the Captain of the Parish is Mr Donald Gelling.  To the north of the parish is Newtown and the recently built estate of Mount Murray where the northern border along the Crogga River Glen is to be found. The western boundary is slightly east of Ballalonna Glen and the modern Fairy Bridge. The coastal extremities stretch from the mouth of the Crogga River at Port Soderick over Santon Head, Port Grenaugh and Port Soldrick to the mouth of the Santon Burn which rarely encroaches on Santon territory but forms the northwestern (inland) boundary for much of its course.  While the parish lacks size and good soil, it does have some high cliffs, ancient monuments, ruins, and various other scenery.  All along the Manx coastline, and particularly on the rocky slate headlands of the south, are the remains of promontory forts which date back almost 2,000 years. Four out of more than twenty have been excavated and several, especially in Santon, can be visited using the coastal footpath. All have a rampart on their vulnerable landward side, and excavations at have shown that access to the fort was by a strongly built gate.  The Scandinavians who arrived in Mann in the 8th and 9th centuries sometimes re-used these Iron Age promontory forts, often obliterating the old domestic quarters with their characteristic rectangular houses; the fine example at has been used as the basis of the reconstruction in the House of Manannan.

Demographics.

The Isle of Man census of 2016 returned a parish population of 700, an increase of 1.3% from the figure of 691 in 2011.

Ecclesiastical parish.

The ecclesiastical parish of Santon no longer exists as a separate area. Until 1 November 2012 it was coterminous with the civil parish (see below), but on that date part of the ecclesiastical parish of Braddan between Mount Murray and Port Walberry, including part of the Mount Murray estate, Port Soderick and Quine's Hill, was transferred to the parish of Santon. On 1 February 2013 the parish of Santon and the parish of Malew (except a detached part of the latter to the west of Castletown) were united to form a new ecclesiastical parish of Malew and Santon. The parish church of the former parish of Santon, which is now one of the four parish churches of the united parish, is St Sanctain. St Sanctain's stands on the site of an ancient 1500-year-old chapel - well before St. Augustine came from Rome to Canterbury. The name St Sanctain is of Irish origin and according to legend, the saint was a disciple of St Patrick and Bishop of Cell da Les (Church of Two Forts). Occasioned by an error, the church was referred to as St Ann (or Anne) during the 17th century and this lasted until it was officially corrected in 1891.  The living of Santon was in the patronage of the Crown, in the person of Her Majesty the Queen, the Lord of Mann. Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries, it was in the hands of the Abbot of Rushen Abbey. The united benefice of Malew and Santon is also in the patronage of the Crown. When the Queen appoints a new vicar, the Lieutenant Governor receives presentment documents signed by the Queen. At the Service of Institution and induction of a new vicar, these documents, together with the new vicar, are presented by the Lieutenant Governor to the Bishop of Sodor and Man with the request that the Bishop institute the nominee of the Crown. This duty is always carried out by the Governor in person.

Santon (), historically Santan, is one of the seventeen historic parishes of the Isle of Man. It is located in the south-east of the island (part of the traditional "South Side" division) in the sheading of Middle.

Santon est une paroisse administrative et insulaire de l’île de Man. Elle s'étend sur environ 21 kilomètres carrés et c'est la plus petite des trois divisions administratives du sheading de Middle après Braddan et Marown. Actuellement le chef ou « capitaine » de la paroisse est Donald James Gelling, ministre principal de l'île de Man.


Origins.

During the early 20th century, many Mexicans immigrated for work to such areas as Texas, Arizona, and California. They were recruited by farmers for work on the large farms and also worked throughout those states in non-agricultural jobs.  During the Great Depression, in the early 1930s, the United States deported between 500,000 and 2 million people of Mexican descent (including the illegal expulsion of up to 1.2 million U.S. citizens) to Mexico (see Mexican Repatriation), in order to reduce demands on limited American economic resources. By the late 1930s, about three million Mexican Americans resided in the United States. Los Angeles had the highest concentration of ethnic Mexicans outside Mexico.  Job discrimination in Los Angeles forced minorities to work for below-poverty level wages. The Los Angeles newspapers described Mexicans with racially inflammatory propaganda, suggesting a problem with juvenile delinquency. These factors caused much racial tension between Mexican immigrants, those of Mexican descent, and European Americans.  During this time Los Angeles was going through an expansion. The city planners did not plan the expansion well, as it caused disruptions in communal sites, family sites, and family patterns of social interactions. One major decision that was made was to put a Naval school for the Naval Reserve Armory in the Chavez Ravine which was primarily a Hispanic area. This would later be a hot spot for encounters between the zoot suiters and sailors.  Lalo Guerrero became known as the father of Chicano music, as the young people adopted a music, language, and dress of their own. Young men wore zoot suits—a flamboyant long jacket with baggy pegged pants, sometimes accessorized with a pork pie hat, a long watch chain, and shoes with thick soles. They called themselves ""pachucos."" In the early 1940s, arrests of Mexican-American youths and negative stories in the "Los Angeles Times" fueled a perception that these pachuco gangs were delinquents who were a threat to the broader community.  In the summer of 1942, the Sleepy Lagoon murder case made national news. Nine teenage members of the 38th Street Gang were accused of murdering a civilian man named José Díaz in an abandoned quarry pit. The nine defendants were convicted at trial and sentenced to long prison terms. Eduardo Obregón Pagán wrote,  Many Angelenos saw the death of José Díaz as a tragedy that resulted from a larger pattern of lawlessness and rebellion among Mexican American youths, discerned through their self-conscious fashioning of difference, and increasingly called for stronger measures to crack down on juvenile delinquency.  The convictions of the nine young men were ultimately overturned, but the case generated much animosity within the United States toward Mexican Americans. The police and press characterized all Mexican youths as "pachuco hoodlums and baby gangsters."  With the entry of the United States into World War II in December 1941 following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the nation had to deal with the restrictions of rationing and the prospects of conscription. In March 1942, the War Production Board (WPB) regulated the manufacture of men's suits and all clothing that contained wool. To achieve a 26% cut-back in the use of fabrics, the WPB issued regulations for the manufacture of what "Esquire" magazine called, "streamlined suits by Uncle Sam." The regulations effectively forbade the manufacture of the wide-cut zoot suits and full women's skirts or dresses. Most legitimate tailoring companies ceased to manufacture or advertise any suits that fell outside the War Production Board's guidelines. But the demand for zoot suits did not decline; a network of bootleg tailors based in Los Angeles and New York City continued to produce the garments. Youths also continued to wear clothes which they already owned.  Meanwhile, American soldiers, sailors, and Marines from across the country went to Los Angeles in large numbers as part of the war effort; they were given leave while awaiting to be shipped out to the Pacific theater. Servicemen and zoot suiters in Los Angeles were both immediately identifiable by their dress. Some servicemen and others in the community felt that the continued wearing of zoot suits represented the youths' public flouting of rationing regulations. Officials began to cast wearing of zoot suits in moral terms and associated it with the commission of petty crime, violence and the snubbing of national wartime rules. In 1943, many servicemen resented the sight of young Latinos wearing zoot suits after clothing restrictions had been published, especially as most came from areas of the country with little experience or knowledge of Mexican-American culture. While Mexican-Americans were over-represented in the armed forces, they were not common or respected enough to defuse these tensions.  One of the first conflicts between the sailors and the zoot suiters was in August 1942, near Chinatown. The sailors who trained in the Chavez Ravine saw the area as public, but the local youth saw it much differently, in part due to the history of the area and poor planning of the LA expansion. A sailor and his girlfriend were walking when four zoot suiters blocked the sidewalk in front of them. The zoot suiters refused to let them pass and pushed the sailor into the street. The young zoot-suiter and the sailor stood their ground in silence until finally, the sailor backed away.

Identity and cultural significance of the zoot suit.

Zoot suit fashion found its origins in the urban black scene during the 1940s. This style of clothing cultivated a sense of racial pride and significance; however, the fashion statement soon made its way into the wardrobes of young Southern Californian Mexicans and Filipinos, who became the quintessential wearers of the zoot suit. The transfer and sharing of the zoot suit fashion indicated a growing influence of black and white popular culture on young Mexican and Filipino Americans. Additionally, “analysis of the Los Angeles zoot-suit riot and journalists' and politicians' in and the outfit's connections with race relations, slang, jazz music and dance permit an understanding of the politics and social significance of what is trivial in itself -- popular culture and its attendant styles.”  The zoot suit was originally a statement about creating a new wave of music and dress, but it also held significant political meaning. The flamboyant and colorful material indicated a desire to express oneself against the boring and somber slum lifestyle. The zoot suit provided young African American and Mexican youth a sense of individualistic identity within their cultures and society as they discovered “highly charged emotional and symbolic meaning” through the movement, music, and dress.  The zoot suit typically included bright colored fabric, long coats that often reached the knees, wide flamboyant shoulders, and ruffled slacks. The arm and ankle areas were often much tighter than the rest of the fabric, giving the whole look a triangular shape.  Often the suit was paired with accessories such as chains and leather soled-shoes, which were typically worn to exaggerate and prove a point of rebellion against the wealth and status that many of these youth were unable to access due to their economic and racial identities.

Importance of women: Pachucas and Chicanas.

The urban, Mexican-American youth often called themselves “pachucos.” The female parallels were called “pachucas” and wore tight sweaters and relatively short, flared skirts, often paired with high hair-dos, large earrings, and heavy makeup. Many young Mexican-American women who were not pachucas avoided these clothing styles and hairstyles in order to avoid being seen as troublemakers by European Americans. Some women even reported that they had heard of pachucas hiding knives in their hair.  Pachucas formed their own gangs, joined the male pachuco gangs, and carried weapons. This behavior was often said to have been a divergence from the expected feminine beauty and manners of the middle-class. Often, for parents of Mexican-American females, the pachucas “embodied not only a dissident femininity but a threatening, distinctly American identity as well.” For some young women, the characteristics of the style promoted a sense of social mobility and “cultural hybridity” that was expressed through “increased interracial/ethnic relations, bilingualism, and pachuco slang.”  Pachucas and Chicanas were less referred to in the media, partly because they threatened the gender and sexuality norms that existed at the time. When acknowledged, they were regarded mainly as secondary members to the male gang members. Many scholars exclude the pachuca narrative in major events in the Chicano movement. Events like the Sleepy Lagoon Incident of 1942 and Zoot Suit Riots of 1943 have been described as “a boyish fight over a pretty girl” and a brawl involving “homeboys”. However, records show that many women also participated in these events and had important roles in shaping their outcomes. Both men and women were attacked by the so-called “Downey Boys,” and both pachucos and pachucas came back to the 38th Street neighborhood where they had been beaten and moved onward to Williams Ranch when they found an empty 38th Street. Claims have asserted that there were women screaming and yelling as the fighting ensued.  Continuing into the end of World War II, Mexican-American women were at the center of much conflict between Anglo-American servicemen and Mexican American youths. In the weeks before the riots, servicemen had reported that pachucos has been harassing, molesting, raping, and insulting their wives, girlfriends, and relatives. One local Los Angeles newspaper included a story of two young women who had allegedly been abducted in downtown and raped in a “zoot suit orgy”. Many of these reports began building up and was one of the major instigators of the coming riots, as servicemen had declared that they will take matters into their own hands since the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) had supposedly done nothing to stop the attacks from pachucos on their women. On the contrary, Horace R. Cayton, a writer for the "Pittsburgh Courier, "“attributed the riots to non-Mexican servicemen, who he claimed envied Mexican American male zooters and desired the ‘pretty brown creatures’ with whom they consorted”. Yet, the press was dominated by the stories which often claimed that “loose... girls of the Los Angeles Mexican quarter” were responsible for taking advantage of unaware sailors who had money.

Immediate lead-up to the riots.

Following the Sleepy Lagoon case, U.S. service personnel got into violent altercations with young Mexican Americans in zoot suits in San Jose, Oakland, San Diego, Delano, Los Angeles, and smaller cities and towns in California. During this period, the immense war buildup attracted tens of thousands of new workers to factories and shipyards in the West Coast, including African Americans from the South in the second wave of the Great Migration.  The most serious ethnic conflicts erupted in Los Angeles. Two altercations between military personnel and zoot suiters catalyzed the larger riots. The first occurred on May 30, 1943, at around 8:00 P.M, four days before the start of the riots. A dozen sailors, including Seaman Second Class Joe Dacy Coleman, were walking down Main Street in Los Angeles when they spotted a group of Latina women on the opposite side. The group, except for Coleman, crossed the street to speak to the women. Coleman continued, walking past two zoot suiters; one of them raised his arm, and the sailor turned and grabbed it. A fight broke out during which the sailor was struck in the back of the head, falling unconscious to the ground, breaking his jaw in two places. On the opposite side of the street, five young men attacked the group of servicemen for trying to talk to the Latina women. The other servicemen fought their way back to Coleman and dragged him to safety.

The riots.

Rioting begins.

On the night of June 3, 1943, about eleven sailors got off a bus and started walking along Main Street in Downtown Los Angeles. Encountering a group of young Mexicans in zoot suits, they got into an argument. The sailors later told the LAPD that they were jumped and beaten by this gang. The LAPD responded to the incident, including many off-duty officers who identified as the Vengeance Squad. The officers went to the scene "seeking to clean up Main Street from what they viewed as the loathsome influence of pachuco gangs."  The next day, 200 sailors got a convoy of about 20 taxicabs and headed for East Los Angeles, the center of Mexican-American settlement. The sailors spotted a group of young zoot suiters and assaulted them with clubs. They stripped the boys of the zoot suits and burned the tattered clothes in a pile. They attacked and stripped everyone they came across who were wearing zoot suits. Media coverage of the incidents then started to spread, inducing more people to join in the mayhem.

Rioting spreads.

During the next few days, thousands of servicemen and residents joined the attacks, marching abreast down streets, entering bars and movie houses, and assaulting any young Mexican American males they encountered. In one incident, sailors dragged two zoot suiters on-stage as a film was being screened, stripped them in front of the audience, and then urinated on their suits. Although police accompanied the rioters, they had orders not to arrest any, and some of them joined in the rioting. After several days, more than 150 people had been injured, and the police had arrested more than 500 Latino civilians on charges ranging from "rioting" to "vagrancy".  A witness to the attacks, journalist Carey McWilliams wrote,  Marching through the streets of downtown Los Angeles, a mob of several thousand soldiers, sailors, and civilians, proceeded to beat up every zoot suiter they could find. Pushing its way into the important motion picture theaters, the mob ordered the management to turn on the house lights and then ran up and down the aisles dragging Mexicans out of their seats. Streetcars were halted while Mexicans, and some Filipinos and Negroes, were jerked from their seats, pushed into the streets and beaten with a sadistic frenzy.  The local press lauded the attacks, describing them as having a "cleansing effect" to rid Los Angeles of "miscreants" and "hoodlums". As the riots progressed, the media reported the arrest of Amelia Venegas, a female zoot suiter charged with carrying a brass knuckleduster. While the revelation of female pachucos' (pachucas) involvement in the riots led to frequent coverage of the activities of female pachuca gangs, the media suppressed any mention of the white mobs that were also involved.  The Los Angeles City Council approved a resolution criminalizing the wearing of "zoot suits with reat pleats within the city limits of LA" with the expectation that Mayor Fletcher Bowron would sign it into law. Councilman Norris Nelson had stated, "The zoot suit has become a badge of hoodlumism." No ordinance was approved by the City Council or signed into law by the Mayor, but the council encouraged the WPB to take steps "to curb illegal production of men's clothing in violation of WPB limitation orders." While the mobs had first targeted only pachucos, they also attacked African Americans in zoot suits who lived in the Central Avenue corridor area. The Navy and Marine Corps command staffs intervened on June 8 to reduce the attacks, confining sailors and Marines to barracks and ordering that Los Angeles be declared off-limits to all military personnel; this was enforced by Navy Shore Patrol personnel. Their official position was that their men were acting in self-defense.

Reactions.

As the riots subsided, the most urgent concern of officials was relations with Mexico, as the economy of Southern California relied on the importation of cheap Mexican labor to assist in the harvesting of California crops. After the Mexican Embassy lodged a formal protest with the State Department, Governor Earl Warren of California ordered the creation of the McGucken Committee (headed by Los Angeles bishop Joseph McGucken) to investigate and determine the cause of the riots. In 1943, the committee issued its report; it determined racism to be a central cause of the riots, further stating that it was "an aggravating practice (of the media) to link the phrase "zoot suit" with the report of a crime." The governor appointed the Peace Officers Committee on Civil Disturbances, chaired by Robert W. Kenny, president of the National Lawyers Guild to make recommendations to the police. Human relations committees were appointed, and police departments were required to train their officers to treat all citizens equally.  At the same time, Mayor Bowron came to his own conclusion. The riots, he said, were caused by Mexican juvenile delinquents and by white Southerners. The latter came from a region in which both overt legal and socially sanctioned racial discrimination held sway. Racial prejudice in Los Angeles, according to Bowron, was not a factor.  On June 16, 1943, a week after the riots, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt commented on the riots in her newspaper column. "The question goes deeper than just suits. It is a racial protest. I have been worried for a long time about the Mexican racial situation. It is a problem with roots going a long way back, and we do not always face these problems as we should." The "Los Angeles Times" published an editorial the next day expressing outrage: it accused Mrs. Roosevelt of having communist leanings and stirring "race discord".  On June 21, 1943, the State Un-American Activities Committee, under state senator Jack Tenney, arrived in Los Angeles with orders to "determine whether the present Zoot Suit Riots were sponsored by Nazi agencies attempting to spread disunity between the United States and Latin-American countries." Although Tenney claimed he had evidence the riots were "[A]xis-sponsored", no evidence was ever presented to support this claim. Japanese propaganda broadcasts accused the U.S. government of ignoring the brutality of U.S. Marines toward Mexicans. In late 1944, ignoring the findings of the McGucken committee and the unanimous reversal of the convictions by the appeals court in the Sleepy Lagoon case on October 4, the Tenney Committee announced that the National Lawyers Guild was an "effective communist front."  Many post-war civil rights activists and authors, such as Luis Valdez, Ralph Ellison, and Richard Wright, have said they were inspired by the Zoot Suit Riots. Cesar Chavez and Malcolm X were both zoot suiters as young men and later became political activists.

The Zoot Suit Riots were a series of conflicts on June 3–8, 1943 in Los Angeles, California, United States, which pitted American servicemen stationed in Southern California against Mexican-American youths who were residents of the city. It was one of the dozen wartime industrial cities that suffered race-related riots in the summer of 1943, along with Mobile, Alabama; Beaumont, Texas; Detroit, Michigan; and New York City.

Les Zoot Suit Riots sont une série d'émeutes raciales ayant eu lieu à Los Angeles en juin 1943, généralement traduites en français en émeutes zazous. « Zoot suit » fait référence aux vêtements portés par une partie de la jeunesse mexicano-américaine et comparables à ceux des zazous à la même époque en France. Il y avait une volonté à travers ces costumes de clamer le mépris pour les rationnements sur les textiles et un attachement à la vie nocturne et à la culture jazz qui favorisait l'amusement au détriment du devoir patriotique.