History.

The street was designated by the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 that established the Manhattan street grid as one of 15 east–west streets that would be in width (while other streets were designated as in width).

Neighborhoods.

The western part of the street runs diagonally between the neighborhoods of Manhattanville and Morningside Heights from the northwest from an interchange with the Henry Hudson Parkway at 130th Street. East of Morningside Avenue it runs east–west through central Harlem to Second Avenue, where a ramp connects it to the Robert F. Kennedy (Triborough) Bridge. However, 125th Street continues to First Avenue, where it connects to the southbound FDR Drive and the Willis Avenue Bridge.  West of Convent Avenue, 125th Street was rerouted onto what was, prior to 1920, called Manhattan Street. What remains of the original alignment of 125th Street was renamed La Salle Street at that time. The remaining blocks run between Amsterdam Avenue and Claremont Avenue. "The New York Times" lamented the name changes, noting that the new names had "somewhat doubtful nomenclature", and that the City's "Aldermen like French names" but gave no rationale for the moves otherwise. A block of the original 125th Street in this area was de-mapped to make the super-blocks where the Grant Houses projects now exist.  A proposal to convert the street into a Trans-Harlem Expressway died when funds were diverted from the proposed 125th Street Hudson River bridge at the street's western end.  Beginning in the late 1990s, many sections of 125th Street have been gentrified and developed with such stores as MAC Cosmetics, Old Navy, H&M, CVS/pharmacy, and Magic Johnson Theaters. In collaboration with the community, the city has developed a plan for the 125th Street corridor focusing on reinforcing and building upon its strengths as an arts and cultural corridor.

Fault line.

A rift in the crust runs along underneath this street from the East River to New Jersey and is known as the 125th Street Fault or the Manhattanville Fault. It is suspected to have caused a magnitude-5.2 earthquake in 1737, two smaller ones in 1981, and a 2.4 magnitude quake in 2001. The fault line skims across the top of Central Park and runs to Roosevelt Island to the southeast. It creates a fault valley deep enough to require the IRT Broadway–Seventh Avenue Line () to use a trestle between 122nd and 135th Streets, even though the line goes underground at either end and remains at the same elevation above sea level throughout. Riverside Drive also crosses over the fault valley on a high viaduct.

Public transportation.

The following New York City Subway stations are located at 125th Street (west to east):  The following NYC Bus lines serve 125th Street:  Metro-North Railroad's Harlem–125th Street station is located at the street's intersection with Park Avenue.  The planned second phase of the Second Avenue Subway, continuing north from the 116th Street station, will turn westward onto 125th Street, terminating at a station at Lexington Avenue. The new station would connect to the Metro-North and preexisting Lexington Avenue subway stations there.

References.

Notes

125th Street, co-named Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard, is a two-way street that runs east–west in the New York City borough of Manhattan, from First Avenue on the east to Marginal Street, a service road for the Henry Hudson Parkway along the Hudson River in the west. It is often considered to be the "Main Street" of Harlem.

La (ou 125th Street) est l'une des principales voies de communication de Manhattan, à New York. Elle constitue la principale rue du quartier de Harlem au nord de l'île, et est ouverte à la circulation dans les deux sens ce qui n'est pas le cas de la majorité des rues de Manhattan. Elle est parfois aussi appelée Martin Luther King, Jr. Boulevard.


Name of the month.

The Romans thought that the name "Aprilis" derived from "aperio, aperire, apertus", a verb meaning "to open". The "Fasti Praenestini" offered the expanded explanation that "fruits and flowers and animals and seas and lands do open".  Some antiquarians, as well as Ovid in his poem on the Roman calendar, provide an alternate derivation from "Aphrodite", the Greek counterpart of Venus whose festival began the month. "Apru" might be derived from the conjectured Etruscan form of the name, which would be "Aprodita", but among the Etruscans, the month was called "Cabreas". Some modern linguists derive "Aprilis" from Etruscan "Ampile" or "Amphile", based on a medieval gloss, conjecturing an origin in the Thessalian month name "Aphrios". An Indo-European origin has also been proposed, related to Sanskrit "áparah" and Latin "alter", "the other of two", referring to its original position as the second month of the year. Varro and Cincius both reject the connection of the name to "Aphrodite", and the common Roman derivation from "aperio" may be the correct one.  In the latter years of Nero's reign, the Senate briefly renamed April "Neronius" in his honor.

In the agricultural year.

The farmers' almanacs "(menologia rustica)" concur that Venus—in Roman religion a goddess of gardens— was the tutelary deity of April, and that sheep were to be purified "(oves lustrantur)". In his agricultural treatise, Varro enumerates duties such as weeding crops, breaking ground, cutting willows, fencing meadows, and planting and pruning olives.  The second half of April brought a series of festivals pertaining to farm life:  Of these, the Fordicidia and Robigalia are likely to have been of greatest antiquity. William Warde Fowler, whose early 20th-century work on Roman festivals remains a standard reference, asserted that the Fordicidia was "beyond doubt one of the oldest sacrificial rites in Roman religion." The latter part of April was consumed by games "(ludi)" in honor of Ceres, the grain goddess thought to have power over growth and the life cycle. The end of the month brought the beginning of the games of Flora, goddess of blooming plants and listed by Varro as one of the twelve principal agricultural deities.

Dates.

The Romans did not number days of a month sequentially from the 1st through the last day. Instead, they counted back from the three fixed points of the month: the Nones (5th or 7th), the Ides (13th or 15th), and the Kalends (1st) of the following month. The Nones of April was the 5th, and the Ides the 13th. The last day of April was the "pridie Kalendas Maias," "day before the Kalends of May". Roman counting was inclusive; April 9 was "ante diem V Idūs Aprilis", "the 5th day before the Ides of April," usually abbreviated "a.d. V Id. Apr." (or with the "a.d." omitted altogether); April 23 was "IX Kal. Mai.", "the 9th day before the Kalends of May," on the Julian calendar "(VIII Kal. Mai." on the pre-Julian calendar).  On the calendar of the Roman Republic and early Principate, each day was marked with a letter to denote its religiously lawful status. In April, these were:  By the late 2nd century AD, extant calendars no longer show days marked with these letters, probably in part as a result of calendar reforms undertaken by Marcus Aurelius. Days were also marked with nundinal letters in cycles of "A B C D E F G H", to mark the "market week" (these are omitted in the table below).  A "dies natalis" was an anniversary such as a temple founding or rededication, sometimes thought of as the "birthday" of a deity. During the Imperial period, some of the traditional festivals localized at Rome became less important, and the birthdays and anniversaries of the emperor and his family gained prominence as Roman holidays. On the calendar of military religious observances known as the "Feriale Duranum", sacrifices pertaining to Imperial cult outnumber the older festivals. After the mid-1st century AD, a number of dates are added to calendars for spectacles and games "(ludi)" held in honor of various deities in the venue called a "circus" "(ludi circenses)". Festivals marked in large letters on extant "fasti", represented by festival names in all capital letters on the table, are thought to have been the most ancient holidays, becoming part of the calendar before 509 BC.  Unless otherwise noted, the dating and observances on the following table are from H.H. Scullard, "Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic" (Cornell University Press, 1981), pp. 96–115. After the Ides, dates for the Julian calendar are given; the pre-Julian date for festivals, when April had one less day, are noted parenthetically.

Aprilis or mensis Aprilis (April) was the fourth month of the ancient Roman calendar, following "Martius" (March) and preceding "Maius" (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, "Aprilis" was the second of ten months in the year. April had 30 days on calendars of the Roman Republic, with a day added to the month during the reform in the mid-40s BC that produced the Julian calendar.

Aprilis ou mensis Aprilis (avril) est le quatrième mois du calendrier romain, après "Martius" (mars) et avant "Maius" (mai). Dans l'ancien calendrier romain, qui commençait avec le mois de mars, "Aprilis" était le deuxième des dix mois dans l'année. "Aprilis" avait 30 jours dans le calendrier de la République romaine, avec un jour ajouté lors de la réforme produite par le calendrier julien, au milieu des années 40 avant J.-C.


Laboratory tests.

Shrinkage limit.

The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.

Plastic limit.

The Plastic Limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in ASTM Standard D 4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remolded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at larger diameters.  The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.

Liquid limit.

The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from the plastic state to the liquid state. However, the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents, and the shear strength of the soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures described below.

Casagrande's Method.

Atterberg's original liquid limit test involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10–12 cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand. Casagrande subsequently standardized the apparatus and the procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup (Casagrande cup) portion of the device and a groove is made down at its center with a standardized tool of width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of is defined as the liquid limit. The test is normally run at several moisture contents, and the moisture content which requires 25 blows to close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The liquid limit test is defined by ASTM standard test method D 4318. The test method also allows running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are required to close the groove; then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid limit from the moisture content.

Fall Cone Test.

Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the fall cone test, also called the cone penetrometer test. It is based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized stainless steel cone of specific apex angle, length and mass. Although the Casagrande test is widely used across North America, the fall cone test is much more prevalent in Europe and elsewhere due to being less dependent on the operator in determining the Liquid Limit.  Advantages over Casagrande Method

Derived limits.

The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as compressibility, permeability, and strength. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg limits are not only used to identify the soil's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering properties.

Plasticity index.

The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.  Soil descriptions based on PI:

Liquidity index.

The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and liquid limit: LI=(W-PL)/(LL-PL) where W is the natural water content.

Consistency index.

The consistency index (CI) indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. It is calculated as codice_1, where W is the existing water content. Soil at the liquid limit will have a consistency index of 0, while soil at the plastic limit will have a consistency index of 1.and if W>LL,CI is negative. That means soil is in liquid state.

Activity.

The activity of a soil is the is the ratio of plasticity index to the clay size fraction. If activity is less than 0.75, the soil is inactive. If activity exceeds 1.25 then the soil is termed as active. If activity lies within the above values then the soil is moderately active.

The Atterberg limits are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-grained soil: its shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit.

En géotechnique, les limites d’Atterberg définissent à la fois un indicateur qualifiant la plasticité d’un sol, mais aussi l’essai qui permet de définir ces indicateurs. Cet essai a été établi par l’agronome suédois.


Life and career.

Khodasevich was born in Moscow into a family of Felitsian Khodasevich (Polish: "Felicjan Chodasiewicz"), a Polish nobleman, and Sofiia Iakovlevna (née Brafman), a woman of Jewish descent whose family had converted to Christianity. His grandfather Jacob Brafmann was famous as a Jewish convert to Russian Orthodoxy who authored "The Book of the Kahal" (1869), a polemical forerunner of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion". His cousin Nadia Khodasevich married Fernand Léger. He left the Moscow University after understanding that poetry was his true vocation. Khodasevich's first collections of poems, "Youth" (1907) and "A Happy Little House" (1914), were subsequently discarded by him as immature. In the year 1917, Khodasevich gained wider renown by writing a superb short piece "The Way of Corn", a reflection on the biblical image of wheat as a plant that cannot live if it does not first die. This poem is eponymous with Khodasevich's best known collection of verse, first published in 1920 and revised in 1922.  Patronized by Maxim Gorky, Khodasevich and his wife Nina Berberova (herself a distinguished littérateur, 1901–1993) left Russia for Gorky's villa in Sorrento, Italy. Later they moved to Berlin, where they took up with Andrei Bely. Khodasevich's complicated relationship with this maverick genius ended with a scandalous rupture, followed by the latter's return to Moscow. In his memoirs, Bely presented an unforgettable, expressionistic, and very partial portrayal of Khodasevich.  During his first years in Berlin, Khodasevich wrote his two last and most metaphysical collections of verse, "Heavy Lyre" (1923) and "European Night" (1927). The former contained the most important rendition of Orpheus theme in the Russian poetry, the esoteric "Ballad". Khodasevich didn't align himself with any of the aesthetic movements of the day, claiming Pushkin to be his only model. He even penned several scholarly articles exploring the master-stroke of the great Russian poet.  In the mid-1920s, Khodasevich switched his literary activities from poetry to criticism. He joined Mark Aldanov and Alexander Kerensky as the co-editor of the Berlin periodical "Days", in which he would publish his penetrating analyses of the contemporary Soviet literature. He also indulged in a prolonged controversy with the Parisian emigre pundits, such as Georgy Adamovich and Georgy Ivanov, on various issues of literary theory. As an influential critic, Khodasevich did his best to encourage the career of Vladimir Nabokov, who would always cherish his memory.  Despite a physical infirmity that gradually took hold of him, Khodasevich worked relentlessly during the last decade of his life. Most notably, he wrote an important biography of Gavrila Derzhavin (translated into English and published by University of Wisconsin Press in 2007) in 1931, which he attempted to style in the language of Pushkin's epoch. Several weeks before Khodasevich's death, his brilliant book of memoirs, "Necropolis", was published. Although severely partisan, the book is invaluable for its ingenious characterizations of Maxim Gorky, Andrei Bely, and Mikhail Gershenzon.

Vladislav Felitsianovich Khodasevich (; May 16, 1886 – June 14, 1939) was an influential Russian poet and literary critic who presided over the Berlin circle of Russian emigre litterateurs.

Vladislav Félitsianovitch Khodassevitch (en russe Владисла́в Фелициа́нович Ходасе́вич), né le à Moscou, mort le à Billancourt, est un poète russe de l'après-symbolisme.


Background.

Eustace the Monk once belonged to a monastic order, but he broke his vows and became a pirate along with his brothers and friends. His early successes at this endeavor attracted many lawless men and his pirates became a menace to shipping in the English Channel. The English opponents of Eustace credited the man with "diabolical ingenuity".  From 1205 to 1208, Eustace worked for King John I of England. With the English sovereign's blessing he seized the Channel Islands and was allowed to hold them for John, while using Winchelsea as his English base. In 1212, Eustace switched his allegiance to France and was chased out of England. The year 1215 saw his ships transporting war engines to the English barons who opposed John. When Prince Louis sailed for London, he traveled in Eustace's fleet. It was thanks to Eustace's help that Louis was able to quickly capture London and the Cinque Ports.  After his lieutenants were badly defeated at the Battle of Lincoln on 20 May 1217, Prince Louis raised his siege of Dover Castle and retired to London. Signalling his willingness to negotiate an end to the struggle, he agreed to meet at Brentford with adherents of the boy-king Henry III of England. The victor of Lincoln, William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke and Louis came close to an agreement. However, in order to pardon the bishops who had gone over to Louis' cause, Pope Honorius III's acquiescence was required. Since this was not possible without a long journey to Rome, the negotiations broke down. Louis received the news that reinforcements and supplies would soon arrive from France. Encouraged, he resolved to fight on.  Louis had been invited to land with troops in England by the English barons in revolt against the tyranny of King John and this was not a war of nations but of factions.

Battle.

On 24 August, in clear weather, the French fleet set out from Calais. Though the ships were equipped by Eustace the Monk, command of the knights and soldiers was held by Robert of Courtenay. The wife of Prince Louis, Blanche of Castile was also an important organizer of the relief effort. Opposing the French was Philip d'Aubigny, commander of the southeastern coast. The Earl of Pembroke had arrived at New Romney on 19 August and summoned the sailors of the Cinque Ports. The English mariners complained bitterly of bad treatment at the hands of King John, but Pembroke convinced them to fight with the promise of great spoils should they defeat the French.  Eustace's own vessel, the "Great Ship of Bayonne" led the French squadron. Robert de Courtenay held the top command while Eustace served as his deputy. Ralph de la Tourniele and William des Barres were third and fourth in command, respectively. All told, there were 36 knights on the flagship. The next three troopships were commanded by Mikius de Harnes, William V of Saint-Omer, and the Mayor of Boulogne. Altogether, the first four ships, including the flagship, contained between 100 and 125 knights. Men-at-arms manned the remaining six troopships. There were 70 smaller vessels which carried supplies. All eleven troopships were overloaded, particularly the flagship which carried a large trebuchet and horses destined for Prince Louis. The English ships were generally smaller than the French, except for a substantial cog provided by the Earl of Pembroke, who was persuaded to stay ashore. As justiciar, Hubert de Burgh claimed leadership of the fleet, which included between 16 and 18 large ships and 20 smaller vessels. All told, there were no more than 40 English ships. King John's illegitimate son, Richard FitzRoy commanded one ship.  The English, who had recovered Sandwich from Louis' forces, determined to let the French armada pass by before attacking. When the French sailed past Sandwich, de Burgh's fleet issued from the port. The French fleet, which sailed in close order toward the Thames estuary, held the windward position at first. De Burgh's ship, which was in the lead, lunged at the French in a feint attack, but veered away when threatened. Against the advice of his admiral Eustace, the overconfident Robert of Courtenay ordered the French to attack. As the French shortened sail, the English ships gained the windward position and attacked. Meanwhile, de Burgh's flagship sailed independently to attack the French from the rear, eventually capturing two French vessels. Aided by their upwind position, the English archers inflicted considerable damage on the enemy sailors and soldiers before the French bowmen were able to effectively reply. The English also opened pots of lime which blew in the faces of the French. Early in the battle, the French flagship engaged Richard FitzRoy's ship. As more English ships came up, they joined the fight against the flagship, while the other French ships maintained their tight formation, but failed to assist their flagship.  Pembroke's cog and FitzRoy's ship grappled Eustace's flagship, one on each side. After a one-sided melee, Robert of Courtenay and the French knights were captured for ransom, while the French sailors and common soldiers were massacred. Eustace, dragged from his hiding place in the bilge, offered to pay 10,000 marks as ransom. Though his very high price was tempting, FitzRoy and the other English leaders considered Eustace a turncoat because of the pirate's employment by King John. Marked for execution by the enraged English, Eustace was tied down and a man named Stephen Crabbe struck off his head with one blow.  With their flagship taken, the French fleet headed back to Calais. Encouraged, the English attacked, using ramming, grappling, and rigging-cutting to disable the enemy vessels. The nine surviving troopships got away, but most of the smaller vessels fell prey to the English mariners. As few as 15 ships escaped from the rampaging English. The French troopships owed their deliverance to their train of supply vessels because the English turned aside to plunder the smaller craft. The French sailors were slaughtered or thrown into the Channel, except for two or three men on each captured vessel who were spared.

Result.

A large part of the loot passed to the English sailors while some was used to set up the Hospital of Saint Bartholomew at Sandwich. Historian Thomas B. Costain calls the English victory decisive. Before the battle Prince Louis was short of supplies. With the English in control of the Channel, Louis was totally cut off from his French logistic base. His allies among the English barons wanted a settlement and amnesty for themselves.  Peace was signed on 12 September at Kingston upon Thames. Prince Louis formally renounced his claims to the English crown in return for being allowed an unmolested departure from England. A few of Henry's supporters held out for unconditional surrender, but the Earl of Pembroke successfully argued for the more moderate terms. In return for Henry III's pardon, the barons who had joined Louis were made to pay the French prince 10,000 marks to expedite his withdrawal. Prince Louis left Dover before the end of the month.

References.

The Battle of Sandwich, also called the Battle of Dover took place on 24 August 1217 as part of the First Barons' War. A Plantagenet English fleet commanded by Hubert de Burgh attacked a Capetian French armada led by Eustace the Monk and Robert of Courtenay off Sandwich, Kent. The English captured the French flagship and most of the supply vessels, forcing the rest of the French fleet to return to Calais.

La bataille navale de Sandwich ou bataille des Cinq-Ports ou des Cinq-Îles ou de South Foreland est livrée le pendant la Première Guerre des barons, (1215-1217) au large de la ville de Sandwich, dans le Kent, Royaume-Uni.


Background.

On December 5, 1917, the Armistice of Erzincan was signed by Russians and Ottomans, ending the armed conflicts between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the Caucasus Campaign of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The Committee of Union and Progress moved to win the friendship of the Bolsheviks with the signing of the Ottoman-Russian friendship treaty (January 1, 1918). On January 11, 1918, the special decree "On Armenia" was signed by Lenin and Stalin which armed and repatriated over 100,000 Armenians from the former Tsar's Army to be sent to the Caucasus for operations against Ottoman interests. On January 20, 1918, Talaat Pasha entered an official protest against the Bolsheviks arming Armenian army legions and replied, ""the Russian leopard had not changed its spots"." Bolsheviks and Armenians would take the place of Nikolai Nikolayevich Yudenich's Russian Caucasus Army.  On March 3, 1918, the Armistice of Erzincan was followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk marking Russia's exit from World War I. Between March 14 - April 1918 the Trabzon peace conference was held between the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet (Transcaucasian Sejm). Enver Pasha offered to surrender all Turkish ambitions in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman reacquisition of the east Anatolian provinces at Brest-Litovsk at the end of the negotiations. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk provided some relief to Bolsheviks who were tied up in fighting the civil war. However, the oil fields of Baku were not under control of the Russians and Germany had a high demand for oil. During March 30 to April 2 in 1918, thousands of Azeris and other Muslims in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic were massacred by Dashnaks with strong support from Bolshevik Soviets. The Azeris refer to this as a genocide (). This event is known as the March Days or March Events.  On April 5, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation Akaki Chkhenkeli accepted the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk as a basis for further negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position. The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. The Armenians pressured the Republic to refuse. They acknowledged the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire. Hostilities resumed and Ottoman troops under Vehip Pasha overran new lands to the east, reaching pre-war the frontiers.  On May 11, a new peace conference opened at Batum. At this conference the Ottomans extended their demands to include Tiflis as well as Alexandropol and Echmiadzin; they also wanted a railroad to be built to connect Kars and Julfa with Baku. The Armenian and Georgian members of the Republic’s delegation began to stall. Beginning on May 21, the Ottoman army moved ahead once again. The ensuing conflict led to the Battle of Sardarapat (May 21–29), the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918) (May 24–28), and the Battle of Bash Abaran (May 21–24). On May 28, 1918, Georgia, signed the Treaty of Poti with Germany, and welcomed the prospect of a German expedition, seeing the Germans as protectors against the post-Russian Revolution havoc and the Ottoman military advances.

Forces.

The expedition was composed almost exclusively of Bavarian troops and included the 7th Bavarian Cavalry Brigade, reinforced by the 29th Bavarian Infantry Regiment (7th and 9th Jäger Battalions), the 10th Sturm Battalion, 1 machine-gun detachment, and the 176th Mortar Company. It was 3,000 strong and commanded by Major General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein. General Erich Ludendorff was also involved in supervision and organizing the expedition; he met Georgian representatives in Berlin, accompanying them to see Kaiser Wilhelm II. Besides the Georgians of the Caucasus, there were Georgians who served in the Georgian Legion of the Imperial German Army. Many of these officers and soldiers were awarded by the Georgian Order of Queen Tamar, issued specifically for the German military personnel. This force was transported by sea from the Crimea to the Georgian Black Sea port of Poti where it landed on June 8, 1918, and was later reinforced by the German troops recalled from Syria and Ukraine for service in Georgia.  The Ottoman Empire had the Third Army in the region.

Expedition.

Prelude.

On June 4, under direct threat of the Ottoman 3rd Army, which had advanced to within 7 km of Yerevan and 10 km of Echmiadzin, the First Republic of Armenia signed the Treaty of Batum.  On June 10, the German force arrived at Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, and held a joint German-Georgian military parade in the city’s main thoroughfare. The German expedition was soon joined by the former German prisoners of war in Russia and the mobilized Württemberg colonists who had settled in Georgia in the mid-19th century. Combined German-Georgian garrisons were stationed in various regions of Georgia, including Poti, Ochamchire, Kutaisi, and Borchalo.

Vorontsovka skirmish.

The arrival of the German troops in Georgia coincided with the growing German-Turkish rivalry for Caucasian influence and resources, notably the oilfields near Baku, Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan, on the Caspian and the associated rail and pipeline connection to Batumi on the Black Sea (Baku-Batumi pipeline). Early in June 1918, the Ottoman 3rd Army under Vehip Pasha renewed its offensive on the main road to Tiflis, and confronted a joint German-Georgian force.  On June 10, the Turks attacked at Vorontsovka and took many prisoners, leading to an official threat from Berlin to withdraw its support and troops from the Ottoman Empire. Hans von Seeckt was dispatched to Georgia and met with Enver Pasha at Batumi. The Ottoman government had to concede to German pressure by sacking Vehip Pasha and halting its drive, for the moment, and further advance into Georgia for the Batumi-Tiflis-Baku railway and associated pipeline. The Ottomans reoriented their strategic direction towards Azerbaijan with a blocking action against British forces in northwestern Persia. Nuri Pasha led the drive under the Islamic Army of the Caucasus also known as the Ottoman Army of Islam.

On the way to Baku.

Simultaneously, two additional German divisions were moved from the Balkans and Ukraine to advance on Baku. At the same time, Germany provided financial assistance to the Bolshevik government in Moscow and offered to stop the Ottoman Army of Islam in return for guaranteed access to Baku's oil. According to the August 27 agreement between the Bolshevik government in Moscow and Germany, the latter was to receive a quarter of Baku’s oil production which was sent through the Caspian Sea and up the lower Volga to German supported forces in Ukraine.  The German government requested from Ottoman Empire to stall an offensive into Azerbaijan. Enver Pasha ignored this request. After the Battle of Baku, the Ottoman Army of Islam under Nuri Pasha, on the heels of the evacuating Soviet forces, captured the city on September 15, 1918.  The Soviet Bicherakhov detachment and the German Caucasus Expedition led by Colonel Friedrich von der Holtz met on 17 September, along with the forces of the Baku Commune who were leaving the city. Grigory Korganov was a Georgian Communist activist participating in the Battle of Baku, one of the 26 Baku Commissars and Bolshevik Party leaders in Azerbaijan during the Russian Revolution. However, a severe political crisis in Germany, which started later that month, rendered the Caucasus expedition abortive.

Aftermath.

On October 21, the German government ordered the withdrawal of all troops from the region. The last ship with German soldiers aboard departed from Poti, Georgia, in December 1918. Thus, it was the last German military formation to return home, in April 1919, from active service in World War I.

Memoirs.

The memoirs of General of Artillery Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein were published in 2001 in the German language in Tbilisi, Georgia - Editor Dr. David Paitschadse, publishing house Samschoblo,, online version can be found here

The German Caucasus expedition was a military expedition sent in late May 1918, by the German Empire to the formerly Russian Transcaucasia during the Caucasus Campaign of World War I. Its prime aim was to stabilize the pro-German Democratic Republic of Georgia and to secure oil supplies for Germany by preventing the Ottoman Empire from gaining access to the oil reserves near Baku on the Abşeron peninsula.

L'expédition allemande dans le Caucase était une expédition militaire envoyée dans la région de l'ancienne Transcaucasie russe pendant la Première Guerre mondiale et dont le but principal était de sécuriser l'approvisionnement en pétrole de l'Empire allemand et de soutenir la Géorgie nouvellement indépendante.


Early campaigns.

Kulnev's father was a Russian Cavalry officer of lesser noble background who served in the Kargopol Regiment of Dragoons. The future general was born in Ludza (present-day Latvia), of which his father was afterwards a Mayor, and matriculated at the Infantry School for Nobility in 1785.  He joined a hussar regiment and, under Suvorov's command, took part in the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 and the Polish Campaign of 1794-1795. The following decade of his life is obscure.  In 1807 Kulnev was put in charge of the regiment of Hrodna hussars fighting against Napoleon. He made a name for himself at Heilsberg and Friedland, in which he famously fought his way out of an encirclement.

Finnish campaign.

In the Finnish War against Sweden, Kulnev led Buxhoevden's vanguard. For his part in the storm of Jakobstad he was awarded a golden sabre. He encouraged guerrilla fighting and fought with distinction at Lapua, Kuortane, Oravais — three engagements which earned him Order of Saint George and the rank of Major General. Denis Davydov, who fought under his command in Finland, described Kulnev's exploits in his memoirs.  Kulnev crowned the campaign by leading Bagration's vanguard across the frozen Baltic Sea towards the Åland Islands and thence to Grisslehamn, within 70 km from the Swedish capital, Stockholm. This daring manoeuvre forced the Swedes to seek peace at any cost.

Turkish campaign.

Awarded for his courage with Order of Saint Anna of the 1st Degree, Kulnev was invited to take charge of the vanguard of the Danube Army which fought against the Turks in Bulgaria.  During the Turkish Campaign of 1810, Kulnev was one of Russia's ablest generals. His bold leadership made itself felt at Shumla, Nikopol, Rousse, and Batin, giving the campaign a character of decision it had been lacking heretofore.  A conflict with the commander-in-chief, Nikolay Kamensky, forced him to leave the army, however.

War of 1812.

After Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812, Kulnev was entrusted with defending the roads leading to the capital, Saint Petersburg. On July 3, his detachment took prisoner a French general and 200 cavalrymen.  On 18 July, he led 5,000 cavalrymen — who formed a vanguard of Wittgenstein's corps — against Marshal Oudinot in the Battle of Klyastitsy. Taking prisoner 900 enemy soldiers, Kulnev crossed the Drissa River and clashed with a major French contingent. As the Russians came under heavy artillery fire, Kulnev was struck in the legs by a cannonball and lost both limbs. He died from the effects of wounds received at this engagement.

Assessment.

Although he did not live to take part in the Battle of Borodino and other famous battles of the Patriotic War, Kulnev was long remembered as a tough, impetuous, hot-tempered fighter. In 1830, the spot of his death was marked by a monument, with Zhukovsky's epitaph inscribed on it. In 1909, a hussar regiment was given his name. He died five days before his 49th birthday.  A typical Romantic hero of the Napoleonic Wars, he emancipated his serfs and was reputed to live in poverty, in order to emulate the soldiers of Roman antiquity that were his ideal. It has been suggested that Dubrovsky, a protagonist of Pushkin's eponymous novel, was modeled on Kulnev: Dubrovsky is described in the text as "a dark, swarthy 35-year-old, with a moustache and a beard, a genuine portrait of Kulnev". The Russian general is also the subject of Runeberg's poem "Kulneff" (1848), which is part of "The Tales of Ensign Stål": The Russian host could vaunt the name Of many a seasoned veteran Recorded on the scroll of fame Before our war began. Barclay, Kamensky, Bagration, Were household names to every son of Finland. When they hove in sight, We could expect a fight.  But Kulnev's name was new to all Before the flame of war was blown And he came rushing like a squall, Scarce dreamed of before known. He struck like lightning from the blue So terrible and yet so new, But ne'er to be forgot, we felt, From the first blow he dealt.  English translation by Charles Wharton Stork

Yakov Petrovich Kulnev (Russian: Яков Петрович Кульнев) (6 August 1763 – 1 August 1812) was, along with Pyotr Bagration and Aleksey Yermolov, one of the most popular Russian military leaders at the time of the Napoleonic Wars. Suvorov's admirer and participant of 55 battles, he lost his life during Napoleon's invasion of Russia.

Jacob (Iakob) Petrovitch Koulnev (en ), né le à Lucyn (dans la voïvodie polono-lituanienne de Livonie, aujourd'hui en Lettonie) et mort le à Klyastitsy (Biélorussie), fut, avec Pierre de Bagration et Alexis Iermolov, un des chefs militaires russes les plus populaires à l'époque des guerres napoléoniennes. Fervent admirateur de Souvorov, il participa à 55 batailles. Il perdit la vie à la bataille de Klyastitsy pendant la campagne de Russie de Napoléon.


Early life.

Vinayakram was born to Kalaimaamani T. R. Harihara Sharma, a musician and teacher. He took up playing at a very young age.

Career.

Vinayakram's concert career began at the age of 13. His first performance occurred on 5 March 1957 at the Rama Navami festival in Thoothukudi. While proceeding for the arangetram the tuned ghatam instrument was broken by a child named Ganesh, which by itself had been a good omen for his bright career. where he accompanied V.V.Sadagopan. He was soon accompanying many famous vocalists in Carnatic music at the time, including Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavatar, M K Thiagaraja Bagavathar, Dr Sirkazhi S.Govindarajan, Mangalampalli Balamuralikrishna, G. N. Balasubramaniam, Madurai Mani Iyer, Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer, M. S. Subbulakshmi and Maharajapuram Santhanam, among others. His brother, T. H. Subhash Chandran, also excelled in the field. The Ghatam followed the master by rising to fame as a percussion instrument that required nimble fingers and strong stomach muscles to control the mouth of the pot.  Vinayakram's tryst with the international music platform came in the early 1970s when he joined Shakti to play along with John McLaughlin and Zakir Hussain.  He has also performed at Basant Utsav, the annual fund raiser for the Banyan.  Vinayakram is Principal of Sri Jaya Ganesh Tala Vadya Vidyalaya in Chennai, India – the academy established by his late father and teacher in 1958. It continues to produce new stars of Carnatic percussion. Vinayakram's son V. Selvaganesh is a successful percussionist, especially after tours with John McLaughlin's group, "Remember Shakti".

Awards.

Vinayakram was conferred the Hafiz Ali Khan Award for "unmatched contribution in the field of music" in 2000. He is also the first South Indian musician to win a Grammy for Best World Music Album for his participation in Mickey Hart's "Planet Drum", in which he played ghatam and morsing. He donated all the proceeds from the award to a charity organisation in south India. He was also nominated for the 1996 Grammy Awards for Best World Music Album for his participation in 'Raga Aberi' along with L. Shankar on the ten string double violin and Zakir Hussain on the tabla (the piece is set in the tala cycle of 43⁄4 beats). The Indian Government decorated him with the Padma Shri Award in 2002.  Finally, he was awarded the 2012 Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship (Akademi Ratna), the highest award in performing arts in India, given by Sangeet Natak Akademi, India's National Academy for Music, Dance and Drama. In 2014 he was awarded the Padma Bhushan by Government of India Vinayakram, was awarded Bharatharatna, Dr.M.S.Subbulakshmi Centenary award,on 16th,Sept,2016.

Thetakudi Harihara Vinayakram (born 11 August 1942), also known as Vikku Vinayakram, is the legendary Grammy Award–winning (Planet Drum) Indian percussionist. He plays Carnatic music with the "ghatam", an earthen pot, and is credited with popularising the ghatam. He is also known as the God of "ghatam".

Thetakudi Harihara Vinayakram, dit Vikku Vinayakram (né en 1944) est un joueur de ghatam, membre fondateur de Shakti avec John McLaughlin, Zakir Hussain, et L. Shankar, en 1974.


History.

Harry Govier Seeley named this genus in 1879 for a disarticulated partial postcranial skeleton that had been uncovered at Reach, Cambridgeshire, composed of a left dentary fragment, numerous vertebrae from the neck, back, and sacrum, parts of the pectoral girdle, humerus fragments, part of the left femur, left tibia, foot bones, ribs, and other fragments. He regarded it as possibly juvenile, due to its small size, with a length of about five feet. The type species is "Anoplosaurus curtonotus". The generic name, derived from the Greek "hoplo"~, a word element used in combinations, with the meaning of "armed", refers to the fact no armour plates had been discovered. The specific name is derived from Latin "curtus", "short", and Greek νῶτον, "noton", "back".  A second species, "Anoplosaurus major", "the larger one", was named by Seeley in 1879 for a neck vertebra and three partial caudal vertebrae he removed from the material previously referred to "Acanthopholis stereocercus", from the same formation as the type species. This species now appears to be chimeric, the neck vertebra coming from an ankylosaur, the caudals from an indeterminate iguanodont.  Although Seeley assigned "Anoplosaurus" to a general Dinosauria, he understood its possible affinities with "Scelidosaurus" or "Polacanthus", as shown by the genus name, and other workers began to see it as an armored dinosaur. In 1902, Baron Franz Nopcsa referred both species to "Acanthopholis", creating a "Acanthopholis curtonotus" and a "Acanthopholis major". In 1923 Nopcsa suggested that, while some of the remains belonged to "Acanthopholis", other remains, which he removed from that genus, belonged to a camptosaurid. This suggestion led to considerable confusion, with some authors beginning to classify "Anoplosaurus" under the Camptosauridae, a practice that was continued over several decades (with modifications as iguanodontian taxonomy changed over the years).  In 1964, Oskar Kuhn renamed "Syngonosaurus macrocercus" Seeley 1879 into "Anoplosaurus macrocercus". In 1969, Rodney Steel renamed "Eucercosaurus tanyspondylus" Seeley 1879 into "Anoplosaurus tanyspondylus". Both "Syngonosaurus" and "Eucercosaurus" are today seen as "nomina dubia" and these last two "Anoplosaurus" species are hereby equally invalid.  In 1998, Xabier Pereda-Suberbiola and Paul Barrett reexamined the material of "Anoplosaurus curtonotus". They wrote that it all belonged to a "primitive" or basal member of the Nodosauridae, the lack of armor possibly due to the young age of the animal at death. The basal position would be indicated by the long tooth row and the low sacral vertebrae count. Seeley had never indicated a holotype among the syntype series. Pereda-Superbiola & Barrett therefore selected specimen SMC B55731, a right scapula piece, as the lectotype. Its ankylosaurian affinities would be proven by a high acromion process. The other nodosaurid fossils found at Reach, specimens SMC B55670 - 55742, were assigned as paralectotypes. Pereda-Superbiola & Barrett considered it possible that the discovery had in fact not been made in the Cambridge Green Sand but in the, also Albian, Upper Gault Clay, because the skeletal elements seemed to have belonged to a single individual which might preclude a provenance from the very reworked marine Green Sand deposits. "Anoplosaurus curtonotus" was by them considered a possibly valid taxon. Reviews since then have followed this interpretation of the genus as an armored dinosaur belonging to the Ankylosauria.

Palaeobiology.

As a possible nodosaurid, "Anoplosaurus" would have been a quadrupedal, low-slung herbivore, with armour on its body for protection.

Anoplosaurus (meaning "unarmored or unarmed lizard") is an extinct genus of herbivorous nodosaurid dinosaur, from the late Albian-age Lower Cretaceous Cambridge Greensand of Cambridgeshire, England. It has in the past been classified with either the armored dinosaurs or the ornithopods, but current thought has been in agreement with the "armored dinosaur" interpretation, placing it in the Ankylosauria.

Anoplosaurus (« reptile sans arme ») est un genre éteint de dinosaures ornithischiens herbivores de l'infra-ordre des ankylosauriens et de la famille des nodosauridés. Il est rattaché à la sous-famille des struthiosaurinés par J. I. Kirkland et ses collègues en 2103. Il a vécu en Angleterre où ses restes fossiles ont été découverts en 1872 dans les sables verts de Cambridge datés du Crétacé supérieur (Cénomanien), soit il y a environ entre et millions d'années.


History.

Origins.

In the Middle Ages mixed varieties of Portuguese and Leonese could be found along the border between Leon and Portugal, represented in texts as in the "Foro de Castelo Rodrigo" (13th century); and although there is no documentation about the colonization and repopulation in this place in the 13th century, there are several hypothesis of Galician citizens moved to protect the frontiers against Muslims as a punishment imposed by the Leonese king, or the delivery of the territories to various military orders by Alfonso IX and Fernando II.  Generally speaking, philologists in favor of the Galician theory are based in the hypothesis that the valley is an isolated region and, therefore, the Galician colonists maintain their way of speaking in a "pure" form because of the lack of external influences. This thesis is refuted if we contrast it with other historic data:

Recent.

On August 3, 1992, the association "Fala i Cultura" was founded, among its goals being the compilation of a common grammar (based on the Galician one) and the commemoration of "u día da nosa fala" (the day of our language) celebrated once a year from 1992 in Eljas, 1993 in Valverde and 1994 in San Martín.  It was not until 1998 that the first literary work in Fala was published: "Seis sainetes valverdeiros", written by Isabel López Lajas and published in 1998 by Edicións Positivas (Santiago de Compostela). It was on this date that the Gabinete de Iniciativas Transfronterizas (Office of Cross-Border Initiatives) started to take interest in Fala and to promote its study, publishing in 1999 scientific works and celebrating in May a "Congress on "A Fala"".  On June 14, 2000, Fala was recognized by the Ministry of Culture of the Junta de Extremadura as Bien de Interés Cultural. Nowadays, although the inhabitants of Jalama Valley can speak Spanish, most of them are bilingual because at home and in other activities outside school, they continue using the local language.

Sociolinguistic surveys.

In 1992, a survey conducted by José Enrique Gargallo Gil (a professor at the University of Barcelona) collected the following data regarding the use of Spanish in family conversation:  In September/December 1993 a survey was published in issue No. 30 of "Alcántara" Magazine by José Luis Martín Galindo, which showed the opinion of the people in San Martín de Trevejo as to the nature of Fala in the following percentages:  The survey involved only twenty people (over 960 neighbours) and there was no alternative answer for those respondents who believed that Fala is a dialect of Galician. It is argued that the absence of this option was logical since theories about the possible relation of Fala with Galician were hardly known.  In 1994, a new study showed that 80% of respondents learned to speak Spanish in school. The percentage of parents who claim to use Fala when speaking with their children was as follows:

Alphabet.

The alphabet has 23 letters:

Fala ("Speech", also called "Xalimego") is a Western Romance language commonly classified in the Galician-Portuguese subgroup, with some traits from Leonese, spoken in Spain by about 10,500 people, of whom 5,500 live in a valley of the northwestern part of Extremadura near the border with Portugal. The speakers of Fala live in the towns of Valverde del Fresno (Valverdi du Fresnu), Eljas (As Ellas) and San Martín de Trevejo (Sa Martín de Trebellu).

Le fala (le « parler ») est une langue ibéro-romane du sous-groupe galaïco-portugais. Elle est parlée par quelque personnes, dans trois municipalités du, au nord-ouest de la province de Cáceres (près de la frontière portugaise).


History of the euphemism.

For many decades before "pink elephant" became the standard drunken hallucination, people were known to "see snakes" or "see snakes in their boots." Beginning in about 1889, and throughout the 1890s, writers made increasingly elaborate modifications to the standard "snakes" idiom. They changed the animal to rats, monkeys, giraffes, hippopotamuses or elephants – or combinations thereof; and added color – blue, red, green, pink – and many combinations thereof.  In 1896, for example, in what may be the earliest recorded example of a (partially) pink elephant, one of Henry Wallace Phillips' "Fables of our Times" referred to a drunken man seeing a "pink and green elephant and the feathered hippopotamus." In 1897, a humorous notice about a play entitled "The Blue Monkey," noted that, "We have seen it. Also the pink elephant with the orange trunk and the yellow giraffe with green trimmings. Also other things."  An early literary use of the term is by Jack London in 1913, who describes one kind of alcoholic, in the autobiographical "John Barleycorn": There are, broadly speaking, two types of drinkers. There is the man whom we all know, stupid, unimaginative, whose brain is bitten numbly by numb maggots; who walks generously with wide-spread, tentative legs, falls frequently in the gutter, and who sees, in the extremity of his ecstasy, blue mice and pink elephants. He is the type that gives rise to the jokes in the funny papers.  "Pink elephants" became the dominant animal of drunken-hallucination choice by about 1905, although other animals and other colors were still regularly invoked. "Seeing snakes" or "seeing snakes in one's boots" was in regular use into the 1920s.  A well-known reference to pink elephants occurs in the 1941 Disney animated film "Dumbo". After taking a drink of water from a bucket spiked with champagne, Dumbo and Timothy begin to hallucinate singing and dancing elephants in a segment known as "Pink Elephants on Parade".  Pink elephants actually do exist in nature. Although they are extremely rare, albino elephants can appear to be pink as well as white.

Product references.

The association between pink elephants and alcohol is reflected in the name of various alcoholic drinks. There are various cocktails called "Pink Elephant", and The Huyghe Brewery put a pink elephant on the label of its Delirium Tremens beer.

Other meanings.

In 2008, Republican vice-presidential candidate Sarah Palin used the phrase "pink elephants" to refer to conservative women such as herself, Carly Fiorina, Sue Lowden and Jane Norton (referencing the elephant being the symbol of the Republican Party and pink being a stereotypical feminine color).

"Seeing pink elephants" is a euphemism for drunken hallucination caused by alcoholic hallucinosis or delirium tremens. The term dates back to at least the early 20th century, emerging from earlier idioms about snakes and other creatures. An alcoholic character in Jack London's 1913 novel "John Barleycorn" is said to hallucinate "blue mice and pink elephants".

Un éléphant rose est une métaphore relative aux hallucinations causées par l'abus d'alcool (on parle de delirium tremens) ou tout autre produit stupéfiant. L'expression a été utilisée pour la première fois par l'écrivain américain Jack London en 1913 dans "Le Cabaret de la dernière chance".


Rural poverty in India.

According to a recent World Bank report poverty remains a significant problem in India, with India’s progress in reducing poverty compared with some of its Asian neighbors described as ‘modest’. According to the same report, poverty in India is most widespread in rural areas (where almost three out of four Indians live), and the highest incidence of poverty of all is found among the rural landless, 68% of whom are classed as living below the poverty line. These findings are echoed in other reports on the subject. For example, Sundaram and Tendulkar found in a 2003 study of poverty in India that the highest levels of poverty were found among assetless (i.e. landless) rural households dependent on agricultural wage labor. Levels of poverty were found to be even higher among members of this group if they also belonged to either a Scheduled Tribe or Scheduled Caste. Furthermore, although at an overall percentage level rural poverty is decreasing in India, due to population growth the absolute number of people in rural areas below the poverty line is not decreasing.  Obviously there are differing viewpoints on what measures would be most effective to alleviate poverty among these groups. According to Ekta Parishad, the single most important measure that could be taken to reduce these levels of poverty would be to grant secure land rights to small pieces of land to landless peasants, reducing their dependence on casual wage labor and providing a measure of food security.  These views are supported by research in the area. For example, Hanstad, Brown, and Prosterman suggest based on research in Karnataka and West Bengal that providing amply-sized plots of land (these can be as small as 0.05-0.15 acres in size) gives substantial benefits to landless families at relatively low costs. These benefits include increased income, increased access to credit, and increased social status. They also note that based on the land costs in their Karnataka study, the cost of a program to distribute packages of land like this to the ten million poorest families in India would be approximately 3,330 million rupees spread over ten years. By contrast, the central government’s rural housing scheme has cost 15,360 million rupees per year over the past five years, whilst producing housing viewed as being of very low quality by the participants in this study. Hanstad, Brown and Prosterman also cite numerous other studies from around the world which have shown results similar to their own.

Current state of land reform in India.

In Ekta Parishad's experience of campaigning across eight states in India they found that even having a land entitlement did not necessarily equate to possessing land. In fact they found that in around 50% of cases having a land entitlement had not led to possession of the land itself.  There are a number factors involved in creating this situation.  Firstly, land records, which provide the basis for land ownership, are out of date in India. The Indian government is currently working to computerize land records to improve efficiency. However, a recent report by the Asian Development Bank pointed out that, more than computerizing records, correcting them should be the priority. They note that: "It is a common observation in villages that the person in whose name land is recorded is either deceased or does not possess the land".  Secondly, according to a recent discussion paper produced by PACS, even if land records are up to date, they do not ensure security of possession. If the poor are dispossessed of their land the record of their possession itself is of little use – instead they have to go to court to establish their title. The process for establishing title is such that a wealthy opponent is able to prolong the process for years through higher courts of appeal, which the poor can ill afford. Thus the land record system is fundamentally anti-poor, and provides little protection against land grabs by wealthier land-owners. These land grabs take a variety of forms, from simple violent expulsion through to bribery of government or bank officials. It is often more than a simple question of the economic value of the land. R Srivastava argues that the landed are often not in favor of giving land to the landless since it increases their autonomy and ability to demand better wages. He also notes the wealthy landed often have substantial influence over politician and administrators at the state level.  Finally, the national government has reserved for itself substantial powers of land acquisition through the ‘Land Acquisition Act’ of 1984. This permits the central government to acquire any area of land that it chooses if it is in the ‘public interest’ to do so. However, the term ‘public interest’ is left undefined in this legislation, giving the government exceptionally broad powers to acquire land as and when it chooses.  Taken all together, these factors combine to create a system of land ownership which provides little security for the rural poor.

Objectives of Janadesh 2007.

Based on this view of current land legislation Ekta Parishad argue that it is only through legislative action at a national level that lasting change can be achieved. Although campaigns at state level have resulted in a number of successes in terms of distributing land to the landless, there need to be major changes at the national level to create a system of land rights that protects the rights of the poor and ensures that they can actually benefit from their land.  The Janadesh campaign is seen as a means of connecting the numerous local campaigns which they are involved in into a single national campaign large enough to pressure the government into taking action.  The Janadesh 2007 campaign will culminate with a foot march by 25,000 people, mainly landless Adivasis and Dalits. The route of the march will be from Gwalior to Delhi in northern India, following the main highway (a distance of approximately 350 km). The march will set out from Gwalior on 2 October 2007 and will arrive in Delhi on 28 October 2007. This will be an act of mass non-violent civil disobedience in the tradition of Gandhi. According to Ekta Parishad, it will be the largest such action since the struggle for Indian independence.  The campaign has three specific demands around land reform. These are:

Ekta Parishad.

The Janadesh 2007 campaign is being organized by Ekta Parishad, an organization that was formally established in 1990. According to its founder, Puthan Veetil Rajagopal, Ekta Parishad is not an NGO or a political party. It is instead a people’s movement, which works at the grass-roots level to mobilize people to challenge corruption and exploitation. Quoted in the book "Truth Force" Rajagopal states this aim: "What I am trying to do, through Ekta Parishad, is to help people to understand that they can be leaders of the country". Ekta Parishad are particularly focused on land and livelihood issues amongst marginalized communities (such as Dalits and Adivasis) in rural India and are active in eight Indian states (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and in direct contact with around 4000 villages.  There are two main components to Ekta Parishad’s work – the struggle component and constructive work.  The struggle component involves mobilizing people to take part in various forms of non-violent resistance such as Padyatras (foot marches), Dharnas (sit-ins), Gheraos (preventing unjust incidents from taking place by encircling people who wield power), and Chakka jam (road blockades) to press for their land rights. This is based on the Gandhian tradition of non-violent resistance.  The constructive work focuses on running economic and development activities alongside the land rights struggle, with the intention of allowing villages that have gained land to become economically self-sufficient. These activities include:

Janadesh is the name of a national campaign on land rights in India launched by the movement Ekta Parishad. The word "Janadesh" means "The Verdict of the People" in Hindi. The campaign was launched in 2005 and culminated in 2007, in the form of a 350 km foot march involving 25,000 people. According to the organizers, the majority of the marchers were landless Adivasi and Dalit.

Janadesh est un mot hindi qui signifie « le verdict du peuple ». Il s’agit d’une campagne nationale non-violente lancée par le mouvement Ekta Parishad afin de revendiquer le droit à la terre pour tous, en Inde. Cette campagne commence en 2005 et culmine sous la forme d’une marche de 350 km en, qui réunit marcheurs.


Industrial spur.

An industrial spur is a type of secondary track used by railroads to allow customers at a location to load and unload railcars without interfering with other railroad operations.  Industrial spurs can vary greatly in length and railcar capacity depending on the requirements of the customer the spur is serving. In heavily industrialized areas, it is not uncommon for one industrial spur to have multiple sidings to several different customers. Typically, spurs are serviced by local trains responsible for collecting small numbers of railcars and delivering them to a larger yard, where these railcars are sorted and dispatched in larger trains with other cars destined to similar locations. Because industrial spurs generally have less capacity and traffic than a mainline, they tend to have lower maintenance and signaling (train control) standards.  Before the rise of the long-distance trucking in the early 1930s, railroads were the primary means of transportation around the world. Industries of the era were commonly built along railroad lines specifically to allow for easy access to shipping. Short (under a mile, oftentimes only several hundred yards) industrial spurs with very small (under ten car) capacities were a common sight along railroads in industrial and rural cities alike. As automobile and roadway technology improved throughout the early and mid 20th century, most low volume industry spurs were abandoned in favor of the greater flexibility and economic savings of trucking. Today, railroads remain the most economical way to ship large quantities of material, a fact that is reflected in industrial spurs. Most modern day spurs serve very large industries that require hundreds, if not thousands, of carloads a year.

United Kingdom.

Many British branch lines were closed as a result of the "Beeching Axe" in the 1960s, although some have been re-opened as heritage railways.  The smallest branch line that is still in operation in the UK is the Stourbridge Town Branch Line from Stourbridge Junction going to Stourbridge Town. Operating on a single track, the journey is 0.8 miles (1.3 kilometres) long and the train takes around two and a half minutes to complete its journey.

North America.

In North America, little-used branch lines are often sold by large railroads to become new common carrier short-line railroads of their own. Throughout the United States and Canada, branch lines link smaller towns too distant from the main line to be served efficiently, or to serve a certain industrial site such as a power station either because of a location away from the main line or to reduce congestion. They were typically built to lower standards, utilizing lighter rail and shallow roadbeds when compared to main lines. In the United States, abandonment of unproductive branch lines was a byproduct of deregulation of the rail industry through the Staggers Act.  The Princeton Branch is a commuter rail line and service owned and operated by New Jersey Transit (NJT) in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The line is a short branch of the Northeast Corridor Line, running from Princeton Junction northwest to Princeton with no intermediate stops. Also known as the "Dinky Line", at it is the shortest scheduled commuter rail line in the United States. The run takes 4 minutes, 47 seconds.

Singapore.

The East West Line of the MRT system in Singapore has a two-station branch to Changi Airport. The first station, Expo, opened in 2001. It was extended to Changi Airport station the next year.  From 1990 to 1996, the section of the North South Line between Jurong East and Choa Chu Kang stations was operated as a separate line, known as the Branch Line. It was merged into the North South Line with the opening of the Woodlands Extension in 1996.

Hong Kong.

Two extensions to the MTR rapid transit network were built as branches of existing lines: the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line to Lok Ma Chau Station, which opened in 2007; and the South Tseung Kwan O Spur Line to LOHAS Park Station, opened in 2009.  Earlier, a spur line was built in 1985 on the East Rail Line to serve Racecourse Station, bypassing Fo Tan Station.

New Zealand.

New Zealand once had a very extensive network of branch lines, especially in the South Island regions of Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. Many were built in the late 19th century to open up inland regions for farming and other economic activities. The branches in the South Island regions were often general-purpose lines that carried predominantly agricultural traffic, but lines elsewhere were often built to serve a specific resource: on the West Coast, an extensive network of branch lines was built in rugged terrain to serve coal mines, while in the central North Island and the Bay of Plenty, lines were built inland to provide rail access to large logging operations.  Today, many of the branch lines have been closed, including almost all of the general-purpose country lines. Those that remain serve ports or industries far from main lines such as coal mines, logging operations, large dairying factories, and steelworks. In Auckland and Wellington, two branch lines in each city exist solely for commuter passenger trains. For more, see the list of New Zealand railway lines.

A branch line is a secondary railway line which branches off a more important through route, usually a main line. A very short branch line may be called a spur line. David Blyth Hanna, the first president of the Canadian National Railway, said that although most branch lines cannot pay for themselves, they are essential to make main lines pay.

Dans le transport ferroviaire, un embranchement ferroviaire est une ligne de chemin de fer (ou voie) se détachant d'une autre.


Délit de conduite sous l'empire d'un état alcoolique

Terminology.

Also called driving while impaired/driving while intoxicated (DWI), drunk driving, operating while intoxicated (OWI), operating [a] vehicle under the influence of alcohol or drugs (OVI) in Ohio, drink-driving (UK/Ireland), or impaired driving (Canada).  The name of the offense varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and from legal to colloquial terminology. In the United States, the specific criminal offense is usually called driving under the influence, but in some states "driving while intoxicated" (DWI), "operating while impaired" (OWI) or "operating while ability impaired", "operating a vehicle under the influence" (OVI), etc. Such laws may also apply to boating or piloting aircraft. Vehicles can include farm machinery and horse-drawn carriages. Other commonly used terms to describe these offenses include drinking and driving, drunk driving, drunken

Definition.

The criminal offense may not involve actual driving of the vehicle but rather may broadly include being physically in control of a car while intoxicated even if the person charged is not driving. For example, a person found in the driver's seat of a car while intoxicated and holding the keys, even while parked, may be charged with DUI, because he or she is in control of the vehicle. In construing the terms DUI, DWI, OWI, and OVI, some states therefore make it illegal to "drive a motor vehicle" while under the influence or driving while intoxicated while others indicate that it is illegal to "operate a motor vehicle". There is a split of authority across the country regarding this issue. Some states permit enforcement of DUI/DWI and OWI/OVI statutes based on "operation and

Alcohol.

With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08%, defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment. In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication. The US state of Colorado has a maximum blood content of THC for drivers who have consumed cannabis, but it has been difficult to enforce.  In some countries, it is measured and known in gram per blood liter, with 0.5 g/L similar to a 0.05% rate, other use per mille (per thousand sign) with 0.5‰ = 0.05%.

Blood alcohol content.

Drinking enough alcohol to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. There are a number of factors that affect when your BAC will reach or exceed 0.08, including

Risks.

Driving under the influence is one of the largest risk factors that contribute to traffic collisions. For people in Europe between the age of 15 and 29, driving under the influence is one of the main causes of mortality. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration alcohol-related crashes cause approximately $37 billion in damages annually. DUI and alcohol-related crashes produce an estimated $45 billion in damages every year. Between attorney fees, fines, court fees, ignition interlock devices, and DMV fees a DUI charge could cost thousands to tens of thousands of dollars.  Studies show that a high BAC increases the risk of collisions whereas it is not clear if a BAC of 0.01–0.05% slightly increases or decreases the risk.  Traffic collisions are predominantly caused by driving under the

Grand Rapids Dip.

Some studies suggest that a BAC of 0.01–0.04% would have a lower risk of collisions compared to a BAC of 0%, referred to as the "Grand Rapids Effect" or "Grand Rapids Dip", based on a seminal research study by Borkenstein, et al. (Robert Frank Borkenstein is well known for inventing the Drunkometer in 1938, and the Breathalyzer in 1954.) One study suggests that a BAC of 0.04–0.05% would slightly increase the risk.  Some literature has attributed the "Grand Rapids Effect" to erroneous data or asserted (without support) that it was possibly due to drivers exerting extra caution at low BAC levels or to "experience" in drinking. Other explanations are that this

Other drugs.

For drivers suspected of drug-impaired driving, drug testing screens are typically performed in scientific laboratories so that the results will be admissible in evidence at trial. Due to the overwhelming number of impairing substances that are not alcohol, drugs are classified into different categories for detection purposes. Drug impaired drivers still show impairment during the battery of standardized field sobriety tests, but there are additional tests to help detect drug impaired driving.  The Drug Evaluation and Classification program is designed to detect a drug impaired driver and classify the categories of drugs present in his or her system. The DEC program breaks down detection into a twelve-step process that a government-certified Drug Recognition Expert (DRE) can use to determine the category or categories of drugs that a suspect is impaired by. The twelve steps are:  DREs are qualified to offer expert testimony in court that pertains to impaired driving on drugs. The use of the twelve step process is scientifically validated by numerous field studies.

Recreational drugs.

Drivers who have smoked or otherwise consumed cannabis products such as marijuana or hashish can be charged and convicted of impaired driving in some jurisdictions. A 2011 study in the "B.C. Medical Journal" stated that there "...is clear evidence that cannabis, like alcohol, impairs the psychomotor skills required for safe driving." The study stated that while "[c]annabis-impaired drivers tend to drive more slowly and cautiously than drunk drivers... evidence shows they are also more likely to cause accidents than drug and alcohol-free drivers". In Canada, police forces such as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police have "...specially trained drug recognition and evaluation [DRE] officers... [who] can detect whether or not a driver is drug impaired, by putting suspects through physical examinations and co-ordination tests. In 2014, in the Canadian province of Ontario, Bill

Prescription medications.

Prescription medications such as opioids and benzodiazepines often cause side effects such as excessive drowsiness, and, in the case of opioids, nausea. Other prescription drugs including antiepileptics and antidepressants are now also believed to have the same effect. In the last ten years, there has been an increase in motor vehicle accidents, and it is believed that the use of impairing prescription drugs has been a major factor. Workers are expected to notify their employer when prescribed such drugs

Field sobriety testing.

To attempt to determine whether a suspect is impaired, police officers usually will administer field sobriety tests to determine whether the officer has probable cause to arrest an individual for suspicion of driving under the influence (DUI).  A police officer in the United States must have Probable Cause to make an arrest for driving under the influence. In establishing probable cause for a DUI arrest officers frequently consider the suspect's performance of Standardized Field Sobriety Tests. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) developed a system for validating field sobriety tests that led to the creation of the Standardized Field Sobriety Test (SFST) battery of tests. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) established a standard battery of three roadside tests that are recommended to be administered in a standardized manner in making this arrest decision. There are Non-Standardized Field Sobriety Tests as well; however the Non-Standardized Field Sobriety Tests have not received NHTSA Validation. This is the difference between the "Standardized" and the "Non-Standardized" Field Sobriety Tests. The NHTSA has published numerous training manuals associated with SFSTs. As a result of the NHTSA studies, the Walk-and-Turn test was determined to be 68% accurate in predicting whether a test subject is at or above 0.08%, and the One-Leg Stand Test was determined to be 65% accurate in predicting whether a test subject is at or above 0.08% when the tests are properly administered to people within the study parameters.  The three validated tests by NHTSA are:  Alternative tests, which have not been validated by the NHTSA, include the following:  In the US, field sobriety tests are voluntary; however, some states mandate commercial drivers accept preliminary breath tests (PBT).

Preliminary Breath Test (PBT) or Preliminary Alcohol Screening test (PAS).

The Preliminary Breath Test (PBT) or Preliminary Alcohol Screening test (PAS) is sometimes categorised as part of "field sobriety testing", although it is not part of the series of performance tests. The PBT (or PAS) uses a portable breath tester. While the tester provides numerical blood alcohol content (BAC) readings, its primary use is for screening and establishing probable cause for arrest, to invoke the implied consent requirements. In US law, this is necessary to sustain a conviction based on evidential testing (or implied consent refusal). Regardless of the terminology, in order to sustain a conviction based on evidential tests, "probable cause" must be shown (or the suspect must volunteer to take

Testing for cannabis.

In the recent wake of legalized marijuana, law enforcement has sought a method of breath testing to determine the content of THC present in an individual. Law enforcement efficiently combats driving under the influence with tools like breathalyzers

Other charges.

In the US state of Colorado, impaired drivers may potentially be

Laws by country.

The laws relating to drunk driving vary between countries or subnational regions (e.g., states or provinces) and varying blood alcohol content is required before a charge or conviction can be made.  The specific criminal offense may be called, depending on the jurisdiction, "driving under the influence" [of alcohol or other drugs] (DUI), "driving under the influence of intoxicants" (DUII), "driving while impaired" (DWI), "operating vehicle under the influence of alcohol or other drugs" (OVI), "operating under the influence" (OUI), "operating while intoxicated" (OWI), "operating a motor vehicle while intoxicated" (OMVI), "driving under the combined influence of alcohol or other drugs", "driving under the influence per se" or "drunk in charge" [of a vehicle]. Many such laws apply also to motorcycling, boating, piloting aircraft, use of mobile farm equipment such as tractors and combines, riding horses or driving a horse-drawn vehicle, or bicycling, possibly with different BAC level than driving. In some jurisdictions there are separate charges depending on the vehicle used, such as BWI (bicycling while intoxicated), which may carry a lighter sentence.  Some jurisdictions have multiple levels of BAC for different categories of drivers; for example, the state of California has a general 0.08% BAC limit, a lower limit of 0.04% for commercial operators, and a limit of 0.01% for drivers who are under 21 or on probation for previous DUI offenses. In some jurisdictions, impaired drivers who injure or kill another person while driving may face heavier penalties.  Some jurisdictions have judicial guidelines requiring a mandatory minimum sentence.  DUI convictions may result in multi-year jail terms and other penalties ranging from fines and other financial penalties to forfeiture of one's license plates and vehicle. In many jurisdictions a judge may also order the installation of an ignition interlock device. Some jurisdictions require that drivers convicted of DUI offenses use special license plates that are easily distinguishable from regular plates. These plates are known in popular parlance as "party plates" or "whiskey plates".  In many countries, sobriety checkpoints (roadblocks of police cars where drivers are checked), driver's licence suspensions, fines and prison sentences for DUI offenders are used as part of an effort to deter impaired driving. In addition, many countries have prevention campaigns that use advertising to make people aware of the danger of driving while impaired and the potential fines and criminal charges, discourage impaired driving, and encourage drivers to take taxis or public transport home after using alcohol or other drugs. In some jurisdictions, a bar or restaurant that serves an impaired driver may face civil liability for injuries caused by that driver. In some countries, non-profit advocacy organizations, a well-known example being Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) run their own publicity campaigns against drunk driving.

Employment policies.

Many employers or occupations have their own rules and BAC limits; for example, the United States Federal Railroad Administration and Federal Aviation Administration have a 0.04% limit for train crew and aircrew, respectively. Certain large corporations have their own rules; for example, Union Pacific Railroad has their own BAC limit of 0.02%. that, if violated during a random test or a for-cause test—for example, after an on-duty traffic accident—can result in termination of employment with no chance of future rehire.

Driving under the influence (DUI) is the crime or offense of driving, operating, or being in control of a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs (including recreational drugs and those prescribed by physicians), to a level that renders the driver incapable of operating a motor vehicle safely.

Le délit de conduite sous l'empire d'un état alcoolique, caractérisé par une certaine concentration d'alcool dans le sang ou l'air expiré, est en droit français un délit puni d'une peine maximale de deux ans d'emprisonnement et de d'amende, selon l'article du Code de la route. Il donne lieu de plein droit au retrait de 6 points du permis de conduire du conducteur fautif. L'infraction est également applicable aux accompagnateurs (dans le cadre de la conduite accompagnée ou supervisée) ainsi qu'aux formateurs d'auto-école.


History.

Noflen is first mentioned in 1250 as "Novelon".  Very little is known about the early history of the village. By the 13th and 14th centuries a number of monasteries and patrician families owned rights or land in Noflen. The monasteries probably expanded their power in the village over the following centuries. However, in 1528 Bern adopted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation and forcibly secularized monastery lands. Most likely this is when Noflen was acquired by Bern. The village has always been part of the parish of Kirchdorf. Today the residents of the village mostly raise dairy cattle and farm.

Geography.

Noflen has an area of. As of 2012, a total of or 81.3% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 13.6% is forested. The rest of the municipality is or 5.9% is settled (buildings or roads).  During the same year, housing and buildings made up 3.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.2%. All of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 47.8% is used for growing crops and 26.8% is pasturage, while 6.6% is used for orchards or vine crops.  The municipality is a scattered settlement with an upper and lower village on the Terrasse above the Gürbetal (Gürbe valley), while part of the municipality is on the valley floor. Since 1948 the hamlet of Stoffelsrüti (in 1941 it had a population of 41) stopped being an exclave of Jaberg and joined Noflen.  The municipalities of Gelterfingen, Gerzensee, Kirchdorf, Mühledorf and Noflen are considering a merger on 1 January 2017 into the new municipality with an,, undetermined name.  On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Seftigen, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Argent a Rose Gules barbed and seeded proper between two Oxen orns of the second and a Mount Vert issuant from the base."

Demographics.

Noflen has a population () of., 7.0% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 2 years (2010-2012) the population has changed at a rate of 11.7%. Migration accounted for 7.8%, while births and deaths accounted for 4.3%.  Most of the population () speaks German (246 or 99.2%) as their first language with the rest speaking Albanian. , the population was 51.2% male and 48.8% female. The population was made up of 124 Swiss men (48.4% of the population) and 7 (2.7%) non-Swiss men. There were 116 Swiss women (45.3%) and 9 (3.5%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 109 or about 44.0% were born in Noflen and lived there in 2000. There were 95 or 38.3% who were born in the same canton, while 32 or 12.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 5 or 2.0% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0-19 years old) make up 25.2% of the population, while adults (20-64 years old) make up 60.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 14.3%. , there were 124 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 107 married individuals, 13 widows or widowers and 4 individuals who are divorced. , there were 22 households that consist of only one person and 10 households with five or more people., a total of 89 apartments (89.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 6 apartments (6.1%) were seasonally occupied and 4 apartments (4.0%) were empty., the construction rate of new housing units was 35.0 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 2.4%. In 2011, single family homes made up 23.5% of the total housing in the municipality.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Economy.

, Noflen had an unemployment rate of 0.77%., there were a total of 124 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 88 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 24 businesses involved in this sector. 6 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 3 businesses in this sector. 30 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 10 businesses in this sector. There were 139 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.7% of the workforce. , there were 9 workers who commuted into the municipality and 84 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 9.3 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. A total of 55 workers (85.9% of the 64 total workers in the municipality) both lived and worked in Noflen. Of the working population, 7.9% used public transportation to get to work, and 49.6% used a private car.  In 2011 the average local and cantonal tax rate on a married resident, with two children, of Noflen making 150,000 CHF was 12.4%, while an unmarried resident's rate was 18.2%. For comparison, the average rate for the entire canton in the same year, was 14.2% and 22.0%, while the nationwide average was 12.3% and 21.1% respectively.  In 2009 there were a total of 104 tax payers in the municipality. Of that total, 27 made over 75,000 CHF per year. There was one person who made between 15,000 and 20,000 per year. The average income of the over 75,000 CHF group in Noflen was 97,026 CHF, while the average across all of Switzerland was 130,478 CHF.  In 2011 a total of 2.0% of the population received direct financial assistance from the government.

Religion.

From the, 219 or 88.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 5 or 2.0% were Roman Catholic. Of the rest of the population, there were 5 individuals (or about 2.02% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 5 (or about 2.02% of the population) who were Muslim. 6 (or about 2.42% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 8 individuals (or about 3.23% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Noflen about 57.7% of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 19.2% have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 26 who had completed some form of tertiary schooling listed in the census, 73.1% were Swiss men, 26.9% were Swiss women.  The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.  During the 2011-12 school year, there were a total of 20 students attending 2 kindergarten classes in Noflen. , there were a total of 26 students attending any school in the municipality. Of those, 26 both lived and attended school in the municipality, while 8 students from Noflen attended schools outside the municipality. During the same year, 8 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Noflen is a former municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. On 1 January 2018 the former municipalities of Gelterfingen, Mühledorf and Noflen merged into the municipality of Kirchdorf.

Noflen est une localité et une ancienne commune suisse du canton de Berne, située dans l'arrondissement administratif de Berne-Mittelland. Le, Kirchdorf absorbe les communes voisines de Gelterfingen, Mühledorf et Noflen.


Personal life.

Mihaylov's father is former goalkeeper Borislav Mihaylov, the player with the second most international appearances for Bulgaria (after Stilyan Petrov) and former head of the Bulgarian Football Union, and his grandfather was Biser Mihaylov, who also played in goal for Levski in the 1960s. Maria Petrova, a prominent world champion in rhythmic gymnastics, has been his stepmother since 1998.

Club career.

Levski Sofia.

Talented Mihaylov started as a youngster with home country top team Levski Sofia, making his full 90 minutes debut at the age of just 17 in the UEFA cup match against Auxerre. He nevertheless was not popular with their fans. Mikhaylov's poor performances in some matches, particularly his blunder in the Champions League game against Werder Bremen on 31 October 2006, provoked a negative campaign among Levski supporters who associated his career with protection from his influential father.

Liverpool.

In June 2007, he almost joined ACF Fiorentina, but instead transferred to Liverpool on a three-year contract, with an option for a further two years.  Mihaylov was acquired by Liverpool as a talent, whom might become their first team keeper in the future. As at that time Liverpool's first choice keeper was Pepe Reina with Charles Itandje as back up. And by 14 July it became clear that the transfer had hit a problem; Mihaylov would not qualify for a British work permit. As a consequence the Bulgarian U-21 International joined FC Twente on a one-year loan. At FC Twente 19-year-old Mihaylov was to compete with Sander Boschker and Cees Paauwe for first team action. Although not playing any matches for the first team, Twente did recognize his talent and in 2008 they extended his loan with a year to August 2009.

Twente.

On 27 August 2008, Mihaylov made his debut for FC Twente in their 4–0 defeat to Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium in the second leg of the third qualifying round for the UEFA Champions League and went on to make his Eredivisie debut in a 1–1 draw at Roda on 30 August 2008. On 14 March 2009, Mihaylov made his second appearance for Twente in the Dutch league against Willem II, playing the full 90 minutes and earning himself a booking, managing to keep a clean sheet in Twente's 2–0 away win. On 29 July 2009, Mihaylov came on as a substitute for midfielder Kenneth Perez, following the dismissal of starting keeper Sander Boschker in the 27th minute of Twente's away game against Sporting CP in the first leg of the UEFA Champions League third qualifying round. He stopped the penalty taken by João Moutinho and made a number of key saves to keep the scores level at 0–0. Mihaylov played the full 90 minutes in the return leg and was not at fault for the Portuguese side's last-minute equalizing goal, which allowed Sporting CP to advance on the away goals rule. FC Twente had become impressed with Mihaylov, not only his talent, but also his progress convinced them. And after several years of being loaned out to Twente, on 5 February 2010 he officially was transferred for a fee of €1.8 million from Liverpool to Twente. He signed a contract for three years with the Dutch club.  In the 2010–11 season, he established himself as the starting goalkeeper for Twente. Having played in the Champions League, Mihaylov impressed with great appearances in the competition that season, among others by stopping a penalty-shot. In the Champions League FC Twente drew to play against his "nightmare" club Werder Bremen, as it were mentioned by the Bulgarian media. He only conceded one goal in the two matches played against Werder. With further appearances against Tottenham Hotspur and the previous year's Champions League winner Inter Milan in the group, Twente managed on their debut in the Champions League nevertheless to end at third place, allowing continuation in the UEFA Europa League. Twente was defeated in the quarterfinals by Villarreal, after having defeated Rubin Kazan and Zenit Saint Petersburg.  Mihaylov was quoted saying that Liverpool now had retained an option to buy him back from Twente, as he had played enough games for his native country's national team to qualify for a work permit.  On 23 December 2011, Mihaylov attended a ceremony in Sofia, where he was honoured with the Bulgarian Footballer of the Year award (Stiliyan Petrov and Dimitar Berbatov came second and third respectively). The last Bulgarian goalkeeper to have received this distinction is his father Borislav Mihailov.

Mersin.

Mihaylov signed for Turkish club Mersin İdmanyurdu on 1 September 2014 on a two-year contract as a free agent. He made his debut in a 3–0 home win over Kemer Tekirovaspor in the Turkish Cup on 29 September. His Süper Lig debut came on 22 November, in a 2–2 away draw against Akhisar Belediyespor. On 27 December, Mihaylov played his second league game in a 1–0 loss against Fenerbahçe at Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium, in which he saved a penalty from Diego.

Omonia.

In December 2017, Mihaylov signed a contract with Cypriot club Omonia until the end of the season.

Levski Sofia.

On 26 November 2018, Mihaylov returned to Levski Sofia, signing a contract till the end of the season with an option to be extended for two more years. He quickly became the first choice goalkeeper, but lost his status shortly after the arrival of Milan Mijatović.

International career.

Mihaylov made his senior international debut in the 5–1 defeat by Scotland in the Kirin Cup in Japan in May 2006. On 12 August 2009, he earned his second cap, playing the full 90 minutes in a friendly match against Latvia, which Bulgaria won 1–0. Mihaylov did well to parry a dangerous Vitālijs Astafjevs shot in the second half, but was hardly tested during the game. He earned his third cap on 10 October 2009, after replacing injured Dimitar Ivankov in the 1–4 away loss to Cyprus in a World Cup qualifier. Mihaylov was the starting goalkeeper for Bulgaria during the country's first two reasonably unsuccessful Euro 2012 qualifiers. He played as the main custodian for Bulgaria during the 2014 World Cup qualifiers, while Vladislav Stoyanov was selected for the last two matches - against Armenia and the Czech Republic.

Honours.

Club.

Levski Sofia  Twente

Nikolay Mihaylov (; born 28 June 1988) is a Bulgarian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Levski Sofia and the Bulgarian national team.

Nikolay Mihaylov (en bulgare, Николай Михайлов) est un joueur de football né le à Sofia, Bulgarie. Il joue pour l'Équipe de Bulgarie de football et l'Omonia Nicosie.