Average and maximum lifespan.

During the process of aging, an organism accumulates damage to its macromolecules, cells, tissues, and organs. Specifically, aging is characterized as and thought to be caused by "genomic instability, telomere attrition, epigenetic alterations, loss of proteostasis, deregulated nutrient sensing, mitochondrial dysfunction, cellular senescence, stem cell exhaustion, and altered intercellular communication." Oxidation damage to cellular contents caused by free radicals is believed to contribute to aging as well.  The longest documented human lifespan is 122 years, the case of Jeanne Calment who according to records was born in 1875 and died in 1997, whereas the maximum lifespan of a wildtype mouse, commonly used as a model in research on aging, is about three years. Genetic differences between humans and mice that may account for these different aging rates include differences in efficiency of DNA repair, antioxidant defenses, energy metabolism, proteostasis maintenance, and recycling mechanisms such as autophagy.  The average lifespan in a population is lowered by infant and child mortality, which are frequently linked to infectious diseases or nutrition problems. Later in life, vulnerability to accidents and age-related chronic disease such as cancer or cardiovascular disease play an increasing role in mortality. Extension of expected lifespan can often be achieved by access to improved medical care, vaccinations, good diet, exercise and avoidance of hazards such as smoking.  Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes and by environmental factors. Widely recognized methods of extending maximum lifespan in model organisms such as nematodes, fruit flies, and mice include caloric restriction, gene manipulation, and administration of pharmaceuticals. Another technique uses evolutionary pressures such as breeding from only older members or altering levels of extrinsic mortality. Some animals such as hydra, planarian flatworms, and certain sponges, corals, and jellyfish do not die of old age and exhibit potential immortality.

Strategies.

Diets and supplements.

Much life extension research focuses on nutrition—diets or supplements— although there is little evidence that they have an effect. The many diets promoted by anti-aging advocates are often contradictory.  In some studies calorie restriction has been shown to extend the life of mice, yeast, and rhesus monkeys. However, a more recent study did not find calorie restriction to improve survival in rhesus monkeys. In humans the long-term health effects of moderate caloric restriction with sufficient nutrients are unknown.  The free-radical theory of aging suggests that antioxidant supplements might extend human life. Reviews, however, have found that vitamin A (as β-carotene) and vitamin E supplements may increase mortality. Other reviews have found no relationship between vitamin E and other vitamins with mortality.

Hormone treatment.

The anti-aging industry offers several hormone therapies. Some of these have been criticized for possible dangers and a lack of proven effect. For example, the American Medical Association has been critical of some anti-aging hormone therapies.  While growth hormone (GH) decreases with age, the evidence for use of growth hormone as an anti-aging therapy is mixed and based mostly on animal studies. There are mixed reports that GH or IGF-1 modulates the aging process in humans and about whether the direction of its effect is positive or negative.

History.

The extension of life has been a desire of humanity and a mainstay motif in the history of scientific pursuits and ideas throughout history, from the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh and the Egyptian Smith medical papyrus, all the way through the Taoists, Ayurveda practitioners, alchemists, hygienists such as Luigi Cornaro, Johann Cohausen and Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland, and philosophers such as Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Benjamin Franklin and Nicolas Condorcet. However, the beginning of the modern period in this endeavor can be traced to the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century, to the so-called "fin-de-siècle" (end of the century) period, denoted as an "end of an epoch" and characterized by the rise of scientific optimism and therapeutic activism, entailing the pursuit of life extension (or life-extensionism). Among the foremost researchers of life extension at this period were the Nobel Prize winning biologist Elie Metchnikoff (1845-1916) -- the author of the cell theory of immunity and vice director of Institut Pasteur in Paris, and Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard (1817-1894) -- the president of the French Biological Society and one of the founders of modern endocrinology.  Sociologist James Hughes claims that science has been tied to a cultural narrative of conquering death since the Age of Enlightenment. He cites Francis Bacon (1561–1626) as an advocate of using science and reason to extend human life, noting Bacon's novel "New Atlantis", wherein scientists worked toward delaying aging and prolonging life. Robert Boyle (1627–1691), founding member of the Royal Society, also hoped that science would make substantial progress with life extension, according to Hughes, and proposed such experiments as "to replace the blood of the old with the blood of the young". Biologist Alexis Carrel (1873–1944) was inspired by a belief in indefinite human lifespan that he developed after experimenting with cells, says Hughes.  Regulatory and legal struggles between the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Life Extension organization included seizure of merchandise and court action. In 1991, Saul Kent and Bill Faloon, the principals of the organization, were jailed for four hours and were released on $850,000 bond each. After 11 years of legal battles, Kent and Faloon convinced the US Attorney's Office to dismiss all criminal indictments brought against them by the FDA.  In 2003, Doubleday published "The Immortal Cell: One Scientist's Quest to Solve the Mystery of Human Aging," by Michael D. West. West emphasised the potential role of embryonic stem cells in life extension.  Other modern life extensionists include writer Gennady Stolyarov, who insists that death is "the enemy of us all, to be fought with medicine, science, and technology"; transhumanist philosopher Zoltan Istvan, who proposes that the "transhumanist must safeguard one's own existence above all else"; futurist George Dvorsky, who considers aging to be a problem that desperately needs to be solved; and recording artist Steve Aoki, who has been called "one of the most prolific campaigners for life extension".

Scientific research.

In 1991, the American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine (A4M) was formed. The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes neither anti-aging medicine nor the A4M's professional standing.  In 2003, Aubrey de Grey and David Gobel formed the Methuselah Foundation, which gives financial grants to anti-aging research projects. In 2009, de Grey and several others founded the SENS Research Foundation, a California-based scientific research organization which conducts research into aging and funds other anti-aging research projects at various universities. In 2013, Google announced Calico, a new company based in San Francisco that will harness new technologies to increase scientific understanding of the biology of aging. It is led by Arthur D. Levinson, and its research team includes scientists such as Hal V. Barron, David Botstein, and Cynthia Kenyon. In 2014, biologist Craig Venter founded Human Longevity Inc., a company dedicated to scientific research to end aging through genomics and cell therapy. They received funding with the goal of compiling a comprehensive human genotype, microbiome, and phenotype database.  Aside from private initiatives, aging research is being conducted in university laboratories, and includes universities such as Harvard and UCLA. University researchers have made a number of breakthroughs in extending the lives of mice and insects by reversing certain aspects of aging.

Ethics and politics.

Scientific controversy.

Some critics dispute the portrayal of aging as a disease. For example, Leonard Hayflick, who determined that fibroblasts are limited to around 50 cell divisions, reasons that aging is an unavoidable consequence of entropy. Hayflick and fellow biogerontologists Jay Olshansky and Bruce Carnes have strongly criticized the anti-aging industry in response to what they see as unscrupulous profiteering from the sale of unproven anti-aging supplements.

Consumer motivations.

Research by Sobh and Martin (2011) suggests that people buy anti-aging products to obtain a hoped-for self (e.g., keeping a youthful skin) or to avoid a feared-self (e.g., looking old). The research shows that when consumers pursue a hoped-for self, it is expectations of success that most strongly drive their motivation to use the product. The research also shows why doing badly when trying to avoid a feared self is more motivating than doing well. When product use is seen to fail it is more motivating than success when consumers seek to avoid a feared-self.

Political parties.

Though many scientists state that life extension and radical life extension are possible, there are still no international or national programs focused on radical life extension. There are political forces staying for and against life extension. By 2012, in Russia, the United States, Israel, and the Netherlands, the Longevity political parties started. They aimed to provide political support to radical life extension research and technologies, and ensure the fastest possible and at the same time soft transition of society to the next step – life without aging and with radical life extension, and to provide access to such technologies to most currently living people.

Silicon Valley.

Some tech innovators and Silicon Valley entrepreneurs have invested heavily into anti-aging research. This includes Larry Ellison (founder of Oracle), Peter Thiel (former PayPal CEO), Larry Page (co-founder of Google), and Peter Diamandis.

Commentators.

Leon Kass (chairman of the US President's Council on Bioethics from 2001 to 2005) has questioned whether potential exacerbation of overpopulation problems would make life extension unethical. He states his opposition to life extension with the words: John Harris, former editor-in-chief of the Journal of Medical Ethics, argues that as long as life is worth living, according to the person himself, we have a powerful moral imperative to save the life and thus to develop and offer life extension therapies to those who want them.  Transhumanist philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that any technological advances in life extension must be equitably distributed and not restricted to a privileged few. In an extended metaphor entitled "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant", Bostrom envisions death as a monstrous dragon who demands human sacrifices. In the fable, after a lengthy debate between those who believe the dragon is a fact of life and those who believe the dragon can and should be destroyed, the dragon is finally killed. Bostrom argues that political inaction allowed many preventable human deaths to occur.

Overpopulation concerns.

Controversy about life extension is due to fear of overpopulation and possible effects on society. Biogerontologist Aubrey De Grey counters the overpopulation critique by pointing out that the therapy could postpone or eliminate menopause, allowing women to space out their pregnancies over more years and thus "decreasing" the yearly population growth rate. Moreover, the philosopher and futurist Max More argues that, given the fact the worldwide population growth rate is slowing down and is projected to eventually stabilize and begin falling, superlongevity would be unlikely to contribute to overpopulation.

Opinion polls.

A Spring 2013 Pew Research poll in the United States found that 38% of Americans would want life extension treatments, and 56% would reject it. However, it also found that 68% believed most people would want it and that only 4% consider an "ideal lifespan" to be more than 120 years. The median "ideal lifespan" was 91 years of age and the majority of the public (63%) viewed medical advances aimed at prolonging life as generally good. 41% of Americans believed that radical life extension (RLE) would be good for society, while 51% said they believed it would be bad for society. One possibility for why 56% of Americans claim they would reject life extension treatments may be due to the cultural perception that living longer would result in a longer period of decrepitude, and that the elderly in our current society are unhealthy.  Religious people are no more likely to oppose life extension than the unaffiliated, though some variation exists between religious denominations.

Aging as a disease.

Mainstream medical organizations and practitioners do not consider aging to be a disease. David Sinclair says: "I don't see aging as a disease, but as a collection of quite predictable diseases caused by the deterioration of the body". The two main arguments used are that aging is both inevitable and universal while diseases are not. However, not everyone agrees. Harry R. Moody, director of academic affairs for AARP, notes that what is normal and what is disease strongly depend on a historical context. David Gems, assistant director of the Institute of Healthy Ageing, argues that aging should be viewed as a disease. In response to the universality of aging, David Gems notes that it is as misleading as arguing that Basenji are not dogs because they do not bark. Because of the universality of aging he calls it a "special sort of disease". Robert M. Perlman, coined the terms "aging syndrome" and "disease complex" in 1954 to describe aging.  The discussion whether aging should be viewed as a disease or not has important implications. One view is, this would stimulate pharmaceutical companies to develop life extension therapies and in the United States of America, it would also increase the regulation of the anti-aging market by the FDA. Anti-aging now falls under the regulations for cosmetic medicine which are less tight than those for drugs.

Research.

Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan in humans could be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues, reversal of harmful epigenetic changes, or the enhancement of enzyme telomerase activity.  Research geared towards life extension strategies in various organisms is currently under way at a number of academic and private institutions. Since 2009, investigators have found ways to increase the lifespan of nematode worms and yeast by 10-fold; the record in nematodes was achieved through genetic engineering and the extension in yeast by a combination of genetic engineering and caloric restriction. A 2009 review of longevity research noted: "Extrapolation from worms to mammals is risky at best, and it cannot be assumed that interventions will result in comparable life extension factors. Longevity gains from dietary restriction, or from mutations studied previously, yield smaller benefits to Drosophila than to nematodes, and smaller still to mammals. This is not unexpected, since mammals have evolved to live many times the worm's lifespan, and humans live nearly twice as long as the next longest-lived primate. From an evolutionary perspective, mammals and their ancestors have already undergone several hundred million years of natural selection favoring traits that could directly or indirectly favor increased longevity, and may thus have already settled on gene sequences that promote lifespan. Moreover, the very notion of a "life-extension factor" that could apply across taxa presumes a linear response rarely seen in biology."

Anti-aging drugs.

There are a number of chemicals intended to slow the aging process currently being studied in animal models. One type of research is related to the observed effects of a calorie restriction (CR) diet, which has been shown to extend lifespan in some animals. Based on that research, there have been attempts to develop drugs that will have the same effect on the aging process as a caloric restriction diet, which are known as Caloric restriction mimetic drugs. Some drugs that are already approved for other uses have been studied for possible longevity effects on laboratory animals because of a possible CR-mimic effect; they include rapamycin, metformin and other geroprotectors. Coenzyme Q, resveratrol and pterostilbene are dietary supplements that have also been studied in this context.  Other attempts to create anti-aging drugs have taken different research paths. One notable direction of research has been research into the possibility of using the enzyme telomerase in order to counter the process of telomere shortening. However, there are potential dangers in this, since some research has also linked telomerase to cancer and to tumor growth and formation.

Nanotechnology.

Future advances in nanomedicine could give rise to life extension through the repair of many processes thought to be responsible for aging. K. Eric Drexler, one of the founders of nanotechnology, postulated cell repair machines, including ones operating within cells and utilizing as yet hypothetical molecular computers, in his 1986 book Engines of Creation. Raymond Kurzweil, a futurist and transhumanist, stated in his book "The Singularity Is Near" that he believes that advanced medical nanorobotics could completely remedy the effects of aging by 2030. According to Richard Feynman, it was his former graduate student and collaborator Albert Hibbs who originally suggested to him (circa 1959) the idea of a "medical" use for Feynman's theoretical nanomachines (see biological machine). Hibbs suggested that certain repair machines might one day be reduced in size to the point that it would, in theory, be possible to (as Feynman put it) "swallow the doctor". The idea was incorporated into Feynman's 1959 essay "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom."

Cloning and body part replacement.

Some life extensionists suggest that therapeutic cloning and stem cell research could one day provide a way to generate cells, body parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice. Complex biological structures, such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been replicated. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed due to rejection and the inability to restore nerve connections. As of 2006, the implantation of bio-engineered bladders grown from patients' own cells has proven to be a viable treatment for bladder disease. Proponents of body part replacement and cloning contend that the required biotechnologies are likely to appear earlier than other life-extension technologies.  The use of human stem cells, particularly embryonic stem cells, is controversial. Opponents' objections generally are based on interpretations of religious teachings or ethical considerations. Proponents of stem cell research point out that cells are routinely formed and destroyed in a variety of contexts. Use of stem cells taken from the umbilical cord or parts of the adult body may not provoke controversy.  The controversies over cloning are similar, except general public opinion in most countries stands in opposition to reproductive cloning. Some proponents of therapeutic cloning predict the production of whole bodies, lacking consciousness, for eventual brain transplantation.

Cyborgs.

Replacement of biological (susceptible to diseases) organs with mechanical ones could extend life. This is the goal of the 2045 Initiative.

Cryonics.

Cryonics is the low-temperature freezing (usually at ) of a human corpse, with the hope that resuscitation may be possible in the future. It is regarded with skepticism within the mainstream scientific community and has been characterized as quackery.

Strategies for engineered negligible senescence.

Another proposed life extension technology would combine existing and predicted future biochemical and genetic techniques. SENS proposes that rejuvenation may be obtained by removing aging damage via the use of stem cells and tissue engineering, telomere-lengthening machinery, allotopic expression of mitochondrial proteins, targeted ablation of cells, immunotherapeutic clearance, and novel lysosomal hydrolases.  While many biogerontologists find these ideas "worthy of discussion" and SENS conferences feature important research in the field, some contend that the alleged benefits are too speculative given the current state of technology, referring to it as "fantasy rather than science".

Genetic editing.

Genome editing, in which nucleic acid polymers are delivered as a drug and are either expressed as proteins, interfere with the expression of proteins, or correct genetic mutations, has been proposed as a future strategy to prevent aging.  A large array of genetic modifications have been found to increase lifespan in model organisms such as yeast, nematode worms, fruit flies, and mice. As of 2013, the longest extension of life caused by a single gene manipulation was roughly 50% in mice and 10-fold in nematode worms.

Fooling genes.

In "The Selfish Gene", Richard Dawkins describes an approach to life-extension that involves "fooling genes" into thinking the body is young. Dawkins attributes inspiration for this idea to Peter Medawar. The basic idea is that our bodies are composed of genes that activate throughout our lifetimes, some when we are young and others when we are older. Presumably, these genes are activated by environmental factors, and the changes caused by these genes activating can be lethal. It is a statistical certainty that we possess more lethal genes that activate in later life than in early life. Therefore, to extend life, we should be able to prevent these genes from switching on, and we should be able to do so by "identifying changes in the internal chemical environment of a body that take place during aging... and by simulating the superficial chemical properties of a young body".

Mind uploading.

One hypothetical future strategy that, as some suggest, "eliminates" the complications related to a physical body, involves the copying or transferring (e.g. by progressively replacing neurons with transistors) of a conscious mind from a biological brain to a non-biological computer system or computational device. The basic idea is to scan the structure of a particular brain in detail, and then construct a software model of it that is so faithful to the original that, when run on appropriate hardware, it will behave in essentially the same way as the original brain. Whether or not an exact copy of one's mind constitutes actual life extension is matter of debate.  However, critics argue that the uploaded mind would simply be a clone and not a true continuation of a person's consciousness.  Some scientists believe that the dead may one day be "resurrected" through simulation technology.

Young blood injection.

Some clinics currently offer injection of blood products from young donors. The alleged benefits of the treatment, none of which have been demonstrated in a proper study, include a longer life, darker hair, better memory, better sleep, curing heart diseases, diabetes and Alzheimer. The approach is based on parabiosis studies such as Irina Conboy do on mice, but Conboy says young blood does not reverse aging (even in mice) and that those who offer those treatments have misunderstood her research. Neuroscientist Tony Wyss-Coray, who also studied blood exchanges on mice as recently as 2014, said people offering those treatments are "basically abusing people's trust" and that young blood treatments are "the scientific equivalent of fake news". The treatment appeared in HBO's Silicon Valley fiction series.  Two clinics in California, run by Jesse Karmazin and David C. Wright, offer $8,000 injections of plasma extracted from the blood of young people. Karmazin has not published in any peer-reviewed journal and his current study does not use a control group.

Life extension is the idea of extending the human lifespan, either modestly – through improvements in medicine – or dramatically by increasing the maximum lifespan beyond its generally settled limit of 125 years. The ability to achieve such dramatic changes, however, does not currently exist.

La science du prolongement de la durée de vie humaine, parfois aussi appelée médecine anti-âge est l'étude du ralentissement ou de l'inversion des processus de vieillissement pour prolonger la durée de vie maximale et moyenne chez l'homme. En 2018, un essai clinique a révélé que des médicaments anti-vieillissement expérimentaux peuvent protéger les personnes âgées contre des infections respiratoires potentiellement mortelles en rajeunissant leur système immunitaire. D'autres traitements sont au stade des tests cliniques chez l'homme.


Some features.

"Suanfa Tongzong" has some noteworthy features. As Jean-Claude Martzloff, a historian of Chinese mathematics has observed, it is an encyclopedic hotch-potch of ideas which contains everything from A to Z relating to the Chinese mystique of numbers. There are sections in the book which explains how computation should be taught and studied. The book is considered as an authoritative text on Chinese Zhusuan which is the knowledge and practices of arithmetic calculation through the abacus. There are descriptions of topics generally thought of as mathematical recreations and mathematical curiosities of different types. In particular, the book contains descriptions of several different types of magic circles. There is a collection of problems without solutions given as challenges to the readers. Also, some of the formulas and some of the problems are presented in verse for easy remembrance.  Magic circles and squares in "Suanfa Tongzong"

Some sample problems.

The following is a list of sample problems appearing in the book:

Popularity of the book.

After its first publication in 1592, it was republished several times later and it became widely popular. Practically everybody who is involved in mathematics had a copy of the book. It was popular even beyond the limited circle of people interested in mathematics. Even in the mid-20th century (1964), the well-known historians of Chinese mathematics Li Yan and Du Shiran remarked that: "Nowadays, various editions of the Suanfa Tongzong can still be found throughout China and some old people still recite the versified formulae and talk to each other about its difficult problems."

Suanfa tongzong (General Source of Computational Methods) is a mathematical text written by sixteenth century Chinese mathematician Cheng Dawei (1533–1606) and published in the year 1592. The book contains 595 problems divided into 17 chapters. The book is essentially general arithmetic for the abacus. The book was the main source available to scholars concerning mathematics as it developed in China's tradition. Six years after the publication of Suanfa Tongzong, Cheng Dawei published another book titled "Suanfa Zuanyao" ("A Compendium of calculating Methods"). About 90% of the content of the new book came from the contents of four chapters of the first book with some rearrangement. It is said that when Suanfa Tongzong was first published, it sold so many copies that the cost of paper went up and the lucrative sales resulted in unscrupulous people beginning to print pirated copies of the book with many errors. It was this that forced the author to print an abridged version.

Suanfa tongzong ("Source générale des méthodes de calcul") est un texte mathématique écrit par le mathématicien chinois du seizième siècle Cheng Dawei (1533-1606) et publié en l'an 1592. Le livre contient 595 problèmes divisés en 17 chapitres. Le livre traite essentiellement d'arithmétique générale pour le boulier. Le livre a été la principale source à la disposition des universitaires concernant les mathématiques, telles qu'elles se sont développées dans la tradition en Chine. Six ans après la publication de "Suanfa Tongzong", Cheng Dawei a publié un autre livre intitulé "Suanfa Zuanyao" ("Un Recueil de méthodes de calcul"). Environ 90 % du contenu du nouveau livre provenait du contenu des quatre chapitres du premier livre avec certains réarrangements. Il est dit que lorsque "Suanfa Tongzong" a été publié pour la première fois, il s'est vendu tellement d'exemplaires que le coût du papier s'est envolé et que les ventes lucratives ont abouti à ce que des personnes sans scrupules se mettent à imprimer des copies pirates de l'ouvrage avec de nombreuses erreurs. C'est ce qui a forcé l'auteur à publier une version abrégée


Start of the siege.

Gibraltar was ruled by the Kingdom of Castile between 1309 and 1333, after having been in Muslim hands for almost 600 years. The Marinid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Othman allied with his Granadan counterpart, Muhammed IV, to mount a siege of the fortified town between February–June 1333. The Castilian garrison held out for over four months but starvation forced it to capitulate only a few days before a relief force under the Castilian king, Alfonso XI, was due to arrive.  Alfonso already had a fleet in the Bay of Gibraltar under the command of Admiral Alfonso Jofre de Tenorio. His army's overland march from Jerez de la Frontera had been held up by squabbles with his nobles, whom he had to persuade to continue on after the news of Gibraltar's fall arrived on 20 June. He pointed out that the Moors would not yet have secured their position in the fortress; they would still be taking stock, repairing the damage that they had caused to the fortifications and reprovisioning the new garrison. There was no time to lose in pressing a counter-attack.  The Castilians left their encampment by the Guadalete river near Jerez and marched first to Alcalá de los Gazules, taking the direct but mountainous route to Gibraltar. On 26 June they reached Castellar de la Frontera on the upper reaches of the Guadarranque river and marched down the river's left bank towards the old Roman city of Carteia at the head of the Bay of Gibraltar. A 6,000-strong Moorish force from nearby Algeciras under Abd al-Malik followed them on lower ground near the coast. Alfonso stuck to the high ground of the Sierra Carbonera from which the Moors sought to lure him into an ambush as his army descended the slope towards Gibraltar. The Castilian king realised the Moors' intentions and set a trap for them in turn. He sent his rear guard directly down the slope while his cavalry, archers and lancers outflanked the Moors by working their way through the woods on the sides of the mountain. Alfonso anticipated that the Moors would seek to gain the crest, from where they would descend to attack the rear guard. His flankers would in turn occupy the newly vacated crest, sandwiching the Moors between two Castilian forces. The king's prediction of the Moors' strategy proved accurate and they were routed, losing 500 men.  Despite Alfonso's orders that his men were not to pursue the retreating Moors beyond the Guadarranque, a large contingent disobeyed and pressed on to the next river, the Palmones. The Castilians nearly ran into disaster when a fresh Moorish force emerged from Algeciras but were saved by Alfonso's naval force, which rowed up the Palmones to block the Moors. As night fell, the two sides disengaged with the Moors returning to Algeciras and the Castilians encamping on the east side of the Guadarranque.

Attempt to land on Gibraltar.

Indiscipline was also to doom Alfonso's first attempt to assault Gibraltar. His troops were transported by Admiral Jofre's galleys to the Red Sands on the poorly fortified southern side of Gibraltar. However, Alfonso's field commanders – Rui Lopez and Fernan Yañez de Meira – failed to control their troops or coordinate their landings. The first wave of Castilians were meant to cover the landing of the second wave, whereupon the entire force would take up siege positions on both sides of the town. Instead, the first wave ignored their orders and charged up the side of the Rock of Gibraltar in an attempt to reach the Moorish Castle. As the second wave was landing without cover, the Moorish garrison launched a sally and caught the Castilians landing on the beach. Many were killed there, forcing the remainder to retreat and cutting off around 1,500 men still on the upper slopes. The Moors positioned themselves to block any further landings, raining arrows on approaching boats and cavalry lined up to deal with any Castilians who made it ashore. Both Lopez and de Meira were killed.  Alfonso now faced a severe dilemma. A persistent Levanter wind had prevented his resupply ships from entering the bay and his army now had only a day's rations left. He reluctantly agreed to his nobles' insistence that they had to withdraw to Castilian territory, abandoning the men left on the Rock, who were to "take their stand on whatever God might wish to give them." However, the situation changed again only a few miles into the retreat from their base at Carteia. Accounts differ as to what happened; some say that Alfonso persuaded his nobles that it would be dishonorable to abandon the trapped men, while others say that the winds changed at the last minute and permitted the resupply vessels to enter the bay after all. Whichever happened, it is evident that the Castilians marched back to their original position to resume the assault on Gibraltar.  It was decided that the same plan of attack would be used again, but more competently executed this time. More experienced commanders – Don Jaime de Jerica and the brothers Laso and Sancho de Rojas – were put in charge of a fresh assault on the Red Sands. The Castilians sought to overwhelm the Moors by rushing them "en masse", using every small boat at their disposal to carry soldiers, crossbowmen and even cavalry with their horses. As the crossbowmen laid down covering fire, the knights saddled up and drove the Moorish forces on the beach back within the town walls. At the same time, Admiral Jofre sought to destroy the Moorish galleys anchored in Gibraltar's dockyard. His move failed, as the Moors had built a heavy roof over the dockyard to protect ships there from bombardment and had emplaced massive wooden booms across the entrance to prevent enemies from gaining access. The naval attack was beaten back with heavy loss of life, but Jofre did succeed in establishing an effective blockade of Gibraltar's sea routes.

Bombardment and stalemate.

The Castilians dug in around Gibraltar to lay siege from the south, from the high ground of the Upper Rock and from the isthmus to the north, where Alfonso remained with his main force. The Castilian king had hoped to retake the town in a quick counter-attack but now faced a lengthy siege. Consequently, he set about demolishing the town's fortifications with six catapults that he had brought from Seville, three of which were hoisted by ropes up from the isthmus to the Upper Rock where they could overlook the whole of the town. The Moorish Castle was heavily bombarded and seriously damaged, while Castilian Almogavars sought to undermine its structure from below. The defenders inflicted casualties by throwing stones over the parapets and burning pitch at the attackers, destroying some of the Castilian siege machines.  Both sides faced harsh conditions in the siege. The Moors were being progressively starved by the Castilians, but the Castilians also had supply problems. They were deep within enemy territory and relied entirely on resupply from the sea, which was dependent on the winds and tides being right. Food was in short supply for both sides. Some Castilians tried to defect to the Moorish side but were enslaved and sold on at Algeciras for a price equivalent to an eighth of the value of a cow. Matters worsened for the Castilians when the army of Muhammed IV marched towards Gibraltar with the apparent intention of relieving the besieged garrison. Alfonso pulled back his own army to the isthmus immediately north of Gibraltar and had a defensive ditch dug right across it. This successfully deterred Muhammed IV from attacking, but cut the Castilians off from their supply of firewood in the hills of the Sierra Carbonera; henceforth, they had to eat their food raw.  The siege now developed into a stalemate. The Moors were not strong enough to break out of Gibraltar, nor to assault the Castilians from the north across their ditch. They also did not have the naval power required to outflank the Castilians by sea or to break the naval blockade of Gibraltar, which was bringing the garrison close to starvation. The Castilians did not have the strength either to storm Gibraltar or to drive away Mohammad IV's troops on the Sierra Carbonera. Alfonso XI also received the news that three powerful nobles – Juan Núñez III de Lara, Juan Alfonso de Haro and Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena – had revolted against him and were ravaging the king's own lands. Both sides thus found that they had pressing reasons to reach a peace agreement.  The agreement which was eventually signed on 24 August 1333 was based on a Moorish proposal for a four-year truce and an annual tribute of 10,000 doubloons to be paid to Castile. In return, the Moors were to be allowed to purchase oil and cattle from Castilian territory, and Alfonso and his army would be given safe conduct through Moorish territory on their way home. The Castilian king accepted and sealed the agreement in person with Muhammed IV at a lavish dinner in which he exchanged gifts with his Moorish counterpart. Muhammed is said to have given Alfonso a sword with gold sheath studded with emeralds, rubies and sapphires and a helmet with two rubies "the size of chestnuts" while Alfonso gave Muhammed a type of doublet. As the Castilians prepared to withdraw, Abd al-Malik's forces returned to Algeciras and Muhammed IV made preparations to go back to Granada. On the night after the peace agreement was signed, Muhammed IV was murdered by two of his nobles who were angry that the sultan had eaten with a Christian and feared that he had converted to Christianity. The assassination did not prevent the Castilians from withdrawing safely but resulted in renewed hostilities for a while as the new Granadan king, Yusuf I, sought to establish his authority. The inconclusive outcome of the siege meant that the struggle for control of Gibraltar remained unresolved, and Alfonso was to make another attempt to recapture it in the Fifth Siege of Gibraltar in 1349.

The Fourth Siege of Gibraltar, fought from June until August 1333, pitted a Christian army under King Alfonso XI of Castile against a large Moorish army led by Muhammed IV of Granada and Abd al-Malik Abd al-Wahid of Fes. It followed on immediately from the Third Siege of Gibraltar, fought earlier in 1333. The siege began inauspiciously with a disastrous landing by Castilian forces on the west side of Gibraltar, before developing into a stalemate in which neither side had the strength to capture Gibraltar, nor to break out or lift the siege. Both sides faced acute shortages of food – the Gibraltar garrison was cut off from resupply, while the Castilians, deep within enemy territory, could only be resupplied via an unreliable sea route. After two months of inconclusive siege warfare, the Castilians and Moors reached a truce agreement that allowed both sides to make an honourable exit from the siege. Although the Moors managed to keep Gibraltar, the truce cost Muhammed IV his life when he was assassinated by disgruntled nobles the day after signing it.

Le quatrième siège de Gibraltar, qui se déroula de juin à, opposa une armée chrétienne dirigée par le roi Alphonse XI de Castille face à une grande armée de maures dirigée par Mohammed IV de Grenade et Abd al-Malik Abd al-Wahid de Fès. Le quatrième siège de Gibraltar a immédiatement suivi le troisième siège de Gibraltar, combattu plus tôt en 1333.


Biography.

Jin was born in Changsha, Hunan and attended Tsinghua University from 1911 until 1914. He obtained Ph.D. in Political Science from Columbia University in 1920. In 1926, Jin founded the Department of Philosophy at Tsinghua University. Jin was an active participant in the May 4th movement as a young, intellectual revolutionary. He helped to incorporate the scientific method into philosophy. Hao Wang was one of his students. He died in Beijing.

Philosophical context: Eastern vs. Western thought.

Among the first to introduce certain basics of modern logic into China, Jin also founded a new philosophical system combining elements from Western and Chinese philosophical traditions (especially the concept of Tao). Not much work on Jin's philosophy has been done in the West in English, although a decent amount has been done in Chinese. Jin does not advocate a traditional, historical approach to philosophy, but rather presents philosophy as a practicing approach to solving problems – philosophy as goal in and of itself. This is quite different from how Chinese philosophers at the time viewed the study of philosophy. At the risk of oversimplifying, Jin's approach can be viewed as a hybrid between Western and Eastern philosophical ideologies – influenced both by his Western education in logic and science, and by his Chinese roots. He was interested in Bertrand Russell’s work, and in particular with two main concepts: breaking down the complex into smaller parts, which was his understanding of Russell's logical atomism, and rebuilding through the logical method, which was Jin's reading of Russell's logicism. Both the logicism and the logical atomism affected Jin’s thinking and philosophy. However Jin can be considered a Chinese philosopher because he was most informed by Chinese philosophy, and concerned himself most with Chinese concepts, such as Tao. “However,” Zinda writes, “Jin used discursive structures borrowed from both Chinese and Western thought as modes of persuasion”.

Jin's views on Chinese philosophy.

Jin's writing is intertwined with his desire to navigate the space between Chinese and Western philosophy. In his essay “Chinese Philosophy”, Jin highlights the differences he sees between the two spheres regarding the study of philosophy. He sees the Western approach to philosophy as being more of a meticulous scientific and logical approach that he traces back to the Hellenistic thought in Ancient Greece. In contrast, he explains Chinese philosophy as having “underdevelopment of what might be called logico-epistemological consciousness”. He explains Chinese philosophy as being more poetic in that it has “bareness and disconnectedness”, where Western philosophy is more verbose. This lack of extended explanation in Chinese philosophy leads, Jin notes, to Chinese philosophy being more about interpreting old philosopher's work, rather than presenting new original ways of thinking. In contrast, Jin does not attribute ideas to past thinkers or quote past thinkers in his own philosophy. Additionally, he did not pursue the nationalistic aims of China in his philosophy, as many of his colleagues did. Jin notes that China has a long history of the study of philosophy and political science being intertwined; the philosophy of today is a more specialized and differentiated discipline. This detachment from the discipline, while it creates objective knowledge, distances the philosopher from the philosophy. Jin advocates for living philosophy, rather than just knowing it. Thus, he works to take advantage of the emotional attachment of Chinese words. For example, Jin chooses not to translate the word “Dao” to English, but keeps its Chinese origin.

Works.

Basic writings and concepts.

Jin's most accomplished philosophical writings are his three principal publications written in Chinese: Logic (1935), On Tao (1940), and A Theory of Knowledge (1983). His English publication, "Tao, Nature, and Man" draws heavily on thought from "On Dao", which he considers to be one of the most central parts of his philosophical work. Jin's metaphysics is focused mostly on Tao, which he argues is what life is made up of. It is composed of two main elements that Jin coins as Stuff and Form. In short, Stuff is the inexpressible matter that fills everything, while Form is all of reality that is being filled. Essentially, Tao is the result of when Form is filled with Stuff. Jin uses his definition of Tao to posit a universal sympathy: everything – including humans – is one and the same, and we should appreciate life as such.

Stuff.

Stuff is inexpressible. In fact, the word “Stuff” itself is simply a word Jin uses to approximate the definition because, he posits, no word or human will ever fully grasp the concept. Scholar Hu Jun writes, “What is required in order to grasp matter [Stuff] is a sort of intellectual projection, in which recognition of the limits of one’s intellect is accompanied by a leave out of the intellectual process...”. Stuff is the capacity of all things to change – pure activity and potentiality. It is composed of two categories – Universals and Possibilities.

Universals and possibilities.

Jin explains the notions of Universals and Possibilities as stemming from the ideal version of concepts, which in turn stems from abstracting the concrete. The Universal is a concept which a group of things have in common. Jin writes, “Each universal is an aspect shared by a class of objects, for example... horseness which is shared by a class of quadrupeds”. Universals are groupings that we are familiar with. A Possibility, therefore, is a concept that is not a Universal. It is that which has not been imagined yet, but could be imagined. Thus, Jin writes, “we are able to define an universal as a realized possibility... A universal is merely a Stuffed possibility”. Jin posits that the reality we feel with regard to events and objects is the realization of possibilities of those events and objects. Hu writes, “The realization of contingent possibilities gives us the richness, variety, and completeness of Tao, whereas the eternally unrealized possibilities supply us with the implements in the realm of thinking and thought”.

Form.

Form is what Stuff must remain inside of. Hu writes, “Whether or not matter [Stuff] enters into or withdraws from possibilities, it must stay within Form”. Everything is inside of Form. Jin explains that unlike Universals, it does not have “a boundary line dividing what belongs to it from what doesn’t”. Thus Form is formless – it incorporates everything and is nothing at the same time. It is what is left when there are no possibilities – there is nothing outside of Form. Form and Stuff are inescapably intertwined. Stuff fills Form, and Form contains Stuff. Jin writes, “Un-Stuffed Form or Un-formed Stuff is a contradiction”. Jin defines their relationship as, “Stuff as a sort of raw material and Form as a kind of mould”.

Tao.

Tao is Jin's most basic concept, but is also his highest ideal realm. Tao is the coming together of Stuff and Form to create the universe. If Tao were only Stuff then it would be fluid, and if it were only Form then it would be empty. Jin writes, “Tao is simply Stuffed Form or Formed Stuff. It is therefore neither pure Form nor pure Stuff”. Tao is all-pervasive and incorporates everything. Therefore, Jin posits that humans are part of Tao, and urges us to be “conscious of the fundamental oneness at which we are with the universe and everything there is in it”. He presents a universe where everything has the same status because everything is made up of the same fabric. Scholar Yvonne Schulz Zinda writes, “he established a kind of ontological certainty that integrates individuals the evolutionary process of dao, through which they are interrelated with each other”. While different things have different jobs – Jin gives the example of a mosquito's job being to bite a human, and a human's job to kill the mosquito – one thing not innately superior to the other.

Jin Yuelin (; 14 July 1895 – 19 October 1984) was a Chinese philosopher best known for three works, one each on logic, metaphysics, and epistemology. He was also a commentator on Bertrand Russell.

Jin Yuelin ( ; 1895-1984) est un logicien et philosophe chinois, plus connu pour trois ouvrages, sur la logique, sur la métaphysique et sur l'épistémologie. Il a également été un commentateur de Bertrand Russell.


History.

The Township of Galloway was created by Royal Patent of King George III of Great Britain on April 4, 1774. At that time it was part of Gloucester County, and comprised what is now Hammonton, Mullica Township, Egg Harbor City, Port Republic, Brigantine, Atlantic City, and the northern portion of Absecon. Galloway Township was incorporated by the New Jersey Legislature on February 21, 1798, as one of the state's initial group of 104 townships under the Township Act of 1798.  For thousands of years, the area of Galloway Township was occupied by different cultures of indigenous peoples. The Lenape Native Americans were the historic tribe who occupied the area at the time of European encounter. They were one of the many Algonguian language peoples of the East Coast.  They were followed by European settlers, primarily English in the early years of colonial settlement. Historians are uncertain of the source of Galloway Township's name. One theory is that it was named after an area known as Galloway now part of the modern region of Dumfries and Galloway in southern Scotland. An alternative derivation is that the Township was named for Joseph Galloway, a Loyalist delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774, who was opposed to independence of the Thirteen colonies. During the American Revolutionary War, Galloway was the site of the Battle of Chestnut Neck, in what is now a part of Port Republic.  During the spring of 2007, a large swath of oak and other hardwood trees were defoliated by the Gypsy moth caterpillar. Due to budget constraints, the township did not apply for spraying through the State of New Jersey, and the gypsy moths flourished.  On the morning of August 28, 2011, Tropical Storm Irene made its second U.S. landfall in Brigantine, though initial reports placed it at the Little Egg Inlet on the border with Little Egg Harbor Township. At the time it was believed to be the first hurricane to make landfall in New Jersey since 1903, but later analysis by the National Hurricane Center determined that the storm had weakened to tropical storm status by the time it made its second landfall.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 115.213 square miles (298.402 km), including 89.074 square miles (230.701 km) of land and 26.139 square miles (67.701 km) of water (22.69%).  Pomona (2010 Census population of 7,124) and Smithville (2010 Census population of 7,242) are unincorporated communities and census-designated places (CDPs) located within Galloway Township.  Other unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Absecon, Absecon Highlands, Brigantine Junction, Cologne, Cologne Station, Conovertown, Doughtys, Germania, Hewittville, Higbeetown, Island Beach, Johnsontown, Leeds Point, Oceanville, Pinehurst, Pomerania, South Egg Harbor, Somersville and the "Township Center".  The township borders the municipalities of Absecon, Atlantic City, Brigantine, Egg Harbor City, Egg Harbor Township, Hamilton Township, Mullica Township, Port Republic in Atlantic County; Bass River Township and Washington Township in Burlington County; and Little Egg Harbor Township in Ocean County.  The township is one of 56 South Jersey municipalities that are included within the New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve, a protected natural area of unique ecology covering, that has been classified as a United States Biosphere Reserve and established by Congress in 1978 as the nation's first National Reserve. Parts of the township are included in the state-designated Pinelands Area, which includes portions of Atlantic County, along with areas in Burlington, Camden, Cape May, Cumberland, Gloucester and Ocean counties.

Demographics.

2010 Census.

The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $65,908 (with a margin of error of +/- $3,931) and the median family income was $76,106 (+/- $2,675). Males had a median income of $50,516 (+/- $3,544) versus $40,663 (+/- $2,096) for females. The per capita income for the township was $24,302 (+/- $2,134). About 5.0% of families and 6.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 4.5% of those age 65 or over.

2000 Census.

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 31,209 people, 10,772 households, and 7,680 families residing in the township. The population density was 344.9 people per square mile (133.2/km2). There were 11,406 housing units at an average density of 126.1 per square mile (48.7/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 77.16% White, 9.80% African American, 0.24% Native American, 8.00% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 2.59% from other races, and 2.16% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.16% of the population.  There were 10,772 households out of which 38.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.5% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.7% were non-families. 21.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.18.  In the township the population was spread out with 25.8% under the age of 18, 13.6% from 18 to 24, 30.9% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 9.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.  The median income for a household in the township was $51,595, and the median income for a family was $57,156. Males had a median income of $38,048 versus $31,167 for females. The per capita income for the township was $21,048. About 4.4% of families and 6.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 11.9% of those age 65 or over.

Government.

Local government.

Galloway Township operates under the Faulkner Act (formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law) within Plan E of the Council-Manager form of New Jersey municipal government, implemented based on the recommendations of a Charter Study Commission as of January 1, 1976. The township is one of 42 of 565 municipalities statewide that use this form of government. The governing body is the Township Council, which is comprised of seven members who are elected at-large in partisan elections to four-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with an election in odd-numbered years in which either three or four seats come up for vote on an alternating basis as part of the November general election. At an annual reorganization meeting after each election, members of Council select one of their members to take the office of Mayor and another to serve as Deputy Mayor, who serve two-year terms in that office. The Township Council is led by a Mayor whose role is to preside over meetings and sign certain documents on behalf of the township. The Council sets policy for the township as its governing body, with the day-to-day operation of the Township and its municipal services delegated to the Township Manager. , the members of Galloway Township Council are Mayor Jim Gorman (D, term as mayor and on council ends 2021), Deputy Mayor Mary Crawford (D, term as deputy mayor and on council ends 2021), Rich Clute (R, 2023), Anthony Coppola (R, 2023), Tony DiPietro (R, 2023), Robert Maldonado (R, 2021) and Frank Santo (D, 2021).  Despite winning all three seats in the November 2019 general election to gain a 4-3 Republican majority on the Township Council, Democratic Jim Gorman was elected as mayor after Republican Robert Maldonado voted together with the three Democrats on the council.

Federal, state and county representation.

Galloway Township is located in the 2nd Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 9th state legislative district. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, Galloway Township had been in the 2nd state legislative district.

Politics.

As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 22,037 registered voters in Galloway Township, of which 5,897 (26.8% vs. 30.5% countywide) were registered as Democrats, 5,214 (23.7% vs. 25.2%) were registered as Republicans and 10,913 (49.5% vs. 44.3%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 13 voters registered to other parties. Among the township's 2010 Census population, 59.0% (vs. 58.8% in Atlantic County) were registered to vote, including 75.0% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 76.6% countywide).  In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 8,707 votes here (54.7% vs. 57.9% countywide), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 6,935 votes (43.6% vs. 41.1%) and other candidates with 190 votes (1.2% vs. 0.9%), among the 15,918 ballots cast by the township's 23,413 registered voters, for a turnout of 68.0% (vs. 65.8% in Atlantic County). In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 8,823 votes here (53.4% vs. 56.5% countywide), ahead of Republican John McCain with 7,361 votes (44.6% vs. 41.6%) and other candidates with 177 votes (1.1% vs. 1.1%), among the 16,515 ballots cast by the township's 22,944 registered voters, for a turnout of 72.0% (vs. 68.1% in Atlantic County). In the 2004 presidential election, Republican George W. Bush received 7,040 votes here (49.4% vs. 46.2% countywide), ahead of Democrat John Kerry with 6,960 votes (48.8% vs. 52.0%) and other candidates with 112 votes (0.8% vs. 0.8%), among the 14,256 ballots cast by the township's 19,036 registered voters, for a turnout of 74.9% (vs. 69.8% in the whole county).  In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 6,337 votes here (64.6% vs. 60.0% countywide), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 3,171 votes (32.3% vs. 34.9%) and other candidates with 115 votes (1.2% vs. 1.3%), among the 9,815 ballots cast by the township's 24,012 registered voters, yielding a 40.9% turnout (vs. 41.5% in the county). In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 5,226 votes here (50.4% vs. 47.7% countywide), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 4,409 votes (42.5% vs. 44.5%), Independent Chris Daggett with 531 votes (5.1% vs. 4.8%) and other candidates with 105 votes (1.0% vs. 1.2%), among the 10,379 ballots cast by the township's 22,353 registered voters, yielding a 46.4% turnout (vs. 44.9% in the county).

Education.

For pre-kindergarten through eighth grade, students attend the Galloway Township Public Schools. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 3,370 students and 300.5 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.2:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Pomona Preschool with 116 students in grades PreK, Arthur Rann Elementary School with 671 students in grades K-6, Reeds Road Elementary School with 560 students in grades K-6, Roland Rogers Elementary School with 563 students in grades K-6, Smithville Elementary School with 634 students in grades K-6 and Galloway Township Middle School with 758 students in grades 7–8.  Public school students in ninth through twelfth grades attend Absegami High School, located in the township. As of the 2017–18 school year, the high school had an enrollment of 1,230 students and 102.8 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.0:1. Students in the western portion of the township have the option of attending Cedar Creek High School in neighboring Egg Harbor City under the school of choice program. Both high schools are part of the Greater Egg Harbor Regional High School District, a regional public high school district serving students from the constituent districts of Egg Harbor City, Galloway Township, Hamilton Township and Mullica Township. The district also serves students from the districts of the City of Port Republic and Washington Township (in Burlington County) as part of sending/receiving relationships. Seats on the nine-member board are allocated based on the population of the constituent municipalities, with four seats assigned to Galloway Township.  Township public school students are also eligible to attend the Atlantic County Institute of Technology in the Mays Landing section of Hamilton Township or the Charter-Tech High School for the Performing Arts, located in Somers Point.  The Galloway Community Charter School was a public school that served students in kindergarten through eighth grade. The school, which drew students from across Atlantic County, operated independently of the Galloway Township Public Schools under a charter issued by the New Jersey Department of Education. There was no tuition charged; costs were paid on a per-student basis by each of the sending districts, with additional funding provided by the State of New Jersey. Opened in 1997 among the state's first group of charter schools, the school's charter was revoked due to low scores on standardized tests and the school closed at the end of the 2014-15 school year.  Assumption Regional Catholic School is a Catholic elementary school for pre-kindergarten through eighth grades with a specially designed Middle School system, operated under the jurisdiction of the Diocese of Camden and serving students from the sending parishes of Our Lady of Perpetual Help Parish (Galloway Township), St. Thomas the Apostle Church (Brigantine) and St. Elizabeth Ann Seton Parish (Absecon).  Stockton University is a liberal arts university located in the Pomona section of Galloway Township.

Transportation.

Roads and highways.

, the township had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Atlantic County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.  The Garden State Parkway passes through the township, extending from Egg Harbor Township in the south to Port Republic in the north. Included in the township are Interchange 40 for U.S. Route 30 White Horse Pike East, Interchange 41 for Route 561 Jimmie Leeds Road, and Interchange 44 for Route 575 Pomona. It was on this stretch of the Parkway that Governor of New Jersey Jon Corzine was involved in a serious accident on April 12, 2007.  Also passing through the township are Route 50 and U.S. Route 30, along with CR 561, CR 561 Alternate, CR 563 and CR 575.

Public transportation.

NJ Transit provides bus service to Atlantic City on routes 508 (from the Hamilton Mall), 554 (from Lindenwold station) and 559 (from Lakewood Township).

Notable people.

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Galloway Township include:

Galloway Township is a township in Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States. At of total area, Galloway Township is the largest municipality in the State of New Jersey. As of the 2010 United States Census, the township's population was 37,349, reflecting an increase of 6,140 (+19.7%) from the 31,209 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 7,879 (+33.8%) from the 23,330 counted in the 1990 Census; The increase of more than 14,000 in population since the 1990 Census was the 11th-highest in the state.

Galloway Township est une municipalité américaine située dans le comté d'Atlantic au New Jersey. Lors du recensement de 2010, sa population est de. La municipalité s'étend sur une superficie de, dont d'étendues d'eau.


Railway network.

The gauge network consists of two main lines and several branch lines. Terengganu and Putrajaya are the only states in Peninsular Malaysia not served by the KTM railway network.

West Coast Line.

The West Coast Line runs from the Malaysia-Thailand Border, where it connects with the State Railway of Thailand, to Woodlands Train Checkpoint in Singapore, serving the West Coast states of Peninsular Malaysia. The line runs through most of the major stations in Peninsular Malaysia, such as KL Sentral in Kuala Lumpur and Butterworth railway station in Butterworth, Penang.

East Coast Line.

The East Coast Line branches off from the West Coast line at Gemas, running to Tumpat in Kelantan, serving two of Peninsular Malaysia's East Coast states, namely Pahang and Kelantan. Despite its name, it does not run along the coast at all and only meets the South China Sea when it terminates at Tumpat railway station. It runs through the interior, often through deep jungle, thus earning the nickname Jungle Railway.

Branch lines in operation.

There are several branch lines running from the two main lines.

Infrastructure.

The total network spans 1677 km. The total length of the network was 1,699 km, however due to the closure and subsequent removal of the section of tracks between Tanjong Pagar railway station and Woodlands Train Checkpoint, the network is now shorter.  The West Coast line is double tracked and electrified between Padang Besar and Gemas, along with all branch lines used for passenger service along this stretch. As part of the upgrades, all level crossings have been removed and modern signaling installed. The remainder of the West Coast main line from Gemas railway station to JB Sentral in Johor Bahru is still being in the process of being double tracked and electrified. The stations along these line are a combination of heritage stations from the colonial era, such as Ipoh railway station and Kuala Lumpur railway station, and modern stations that were built when the line was double tracked, such as the new Taiping railway station and Butterworth railway station.  The East Coast line is single tracked. Having not seen much upgrades over the years, the line is considerably less modern than the upgraded sections of the West Coast line. Level crossings are still prevalent and the traditional token signaling system is still used. The stations along this line are older than smaller. Although the line will remain single tracked, rehabilitation works are underway to replace the worn track and many stations are also being upgraded.  Most of the lines use concrete sleepers, which had replaced wooden sleepers from 1982 for the Kerdau-Jerantut and Sungai Yu-Tumpat lines and became more widespread after upgrading works in recent years. When the East Coast Line rehabilitation work and West Coast line double tracking is complete, the network will exclusively use concrete sleepers.

Rolling stock.

Following the consolidation of all state railway entities in Malaya, Malayan Railway inherited a fleet of mostly British-made steam locomotives, a variation of locomotives introduced to Malaya since its first railway line went into operation.  Dieselisation in Malaya began immediately after MR's formation with the launch of its first diesel engine, a Class 15 shunter, in 1948. The first mainline diesel went into service in 1957. Since then, a large scale effort to fully convert to diesel power between the 1950s and 1970s effectively drove steam locomotives out of service by 1974. KTM drew its diesel rolling stock from a multitude of locomotive companies from England, Japan, Canada, and more recently, India, Germany and China. The company ordered railcars and railbuses for short distance journeys in the 1950s and 1980s respectively, but such services didn’t last. DMUs are being ordered for unelectrified sections of the network, and would end locomotive hauled passenger service in Malaysia.  Electric trains were introduced in 1995 with the launch of KTM Komuter services. Consisting of 3-car EMUs, they were for a long time the only electric trains in Malaysia. In 2010, the introduction of ETS services from Kuala Lumpur to Ipoh brought electric traction to long distance travel. As of present, most of the West Coast Main Line are run by ETS and on some sections, Komuter services except for the Gemas to Johor Bahru section, where double tracking works are still in progress. The company put two electric locomotives on trial in 2016. These trials were to assess the viability of using such locomotives for freight on electrified lines. However, the locomotives have appeared to be sent back to the manufacturer, CRRC, with none being ordered.

Unit / Subsidiaries.

KTM Intercity & ETS.

KTM Intercity (Malay: KTM Antarabandar) is an intercity passenger railway service operated by Keretapi Tanah Melayu within the regions of Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. It operates local mail trains, shuttle trains as well as express trains in unelectrified sections of the network, hence it uses diesel traction.  The trains once dominated the network but have been replaced by ETS services where electrification has taken place. It still plays a central role in the east coast, where there are no plans to electrify the line.  KTM ETS, which stands for Electric Train Service, operates as an inter-city rail service between the cities of Gemas and Padang Besar on the Malaysia-Thai border along the West Coast Line, where the line has been electrified. It has cut journey times compared to its diesel powered predecessor, owing to its higher operational speed of 140 km/h. This also makes it the fastest metre-gauge service worldwide.  The service started in 2010, and continues to expand as electrification of the west coast line continues. The fleet consists of 5 Class 91 and 19 Class 93 EMUs.

KTM Komuter.

KTM Komuter is a commuter rail service serving the Klang Valley and Northern part of Malaysia.  The central sector consists of the Seremban Line and Port Klang Line. In addition to the main lines, there are shuttle services from Sentul to Batu Caves and Rawang to Tanjong Malim. Since 2018, KTM Komuter also operates an airport train service - the linking KL Sentral to the Subang Airport. The fleet presently consists of Class 81, Class 83 and Class 92 EMUs.  The Northern Sector consists of two routes, namely the Bukit Mertajam-Padang Rengas route as well as the Butterworth-Padang Besar route.  KTM Komuter is a heavily utilised mode of transportation by commuters working in Kuala Lumpur as the service is an alternative for road travel, which is occasionally hampered by congestion. Virtually all KTM Komuter stops offer "Park & Ride" parking lots for those who drive to and from the station or halt. KTM Komuter ridership is estimated to be about 50 million passengers in 2010.  KTM Komuter is currently the most profitable passenger service offered by KTMB, contributing MYR 100 million to group revenue in 2010, higher than KTM Intercity's profit of MYR 70.94 million in the same year.

KTM Kargo.

KTMB runs 37 freight train services daily of which about 80% were concentrated in the northern sector. In line with the strategy to focus more on containerised and long-haul cargoes, KTMB now carries maritime containers, cement and food as main commodities. In 2006, the freight revenue increased 5.2% to RM113.0 million.

KTM Distribution (KTMD).

Its core business is in the provision of express parcel distribution services to the commercial, industrial and administrative sectors and it operates within Malaysia and Singapore. Parcel distribution is carried out through its door-to-door service or from point to point through its station-to-station service. The company is also licensed by the Malaysian Communications & Multimedia Commission as a courier service provider, which enables it to carry letters and documents up to 2 kg. This service has so far been monopoly of the Postal Department. The company owns an. freehold property in Sri Damansara, from which it earns warehouse rental income.

Non-rail Subsidiaries.

KTM operates several non-rail subsidiaries. Though considered as non-core businesses, KTM has benefited from these operations, especially from Property and Advertising segments. In 2006, KTMB generated RM22.4 million from property rental and advertising activities.  The property joint ventures were progressing comparatively well under the prevailing economic climate. As part of the Sentul Raya Development, the Maple Condominium was handed over to purchasers in August 2006 while the Saffron Condominium is under construction and expected to be completed in 2007. Meanwhile, KL Sentral Development has embarked on construction of luxury condominiums, new office towers and life-style centre whilst the construction of the Marine View Hotel in Port Dickson is expected to be completed in 2007. To cater for demand from surrounding residential areas, KTMB's partner for the Prai Perdana Development is in the process of constructing a new retail complex and the project is expected to be completed in 2007.  Through KTMB's collaboration with Ganad Media Sdn. Bhd. the advertising revenue had increased by 9.7% to RM1.47 million compared to the previous year. Several new advertising structures have been built in Klang Valley while more on-train advertising media like panels and hand-grips were made available on top of the increased demand for 'wrap-around' advertising on the commuter trains.  Multimodal Freight Sdn. Bhd., incorporated in 1988, was licensed as a Government approved Container Haulier in 1991, and went on to obtain the Government approved Multimodal Transport Operator (MTO) status in 1999. The company operates a fleet of 225 Prime Movers and 1,300 trailer of both 20-feet and 40-feet configurations. The fleet is deployed at all major seaports and the inland ports of Ipoh and Nilai.  Formerly known as KTMB (Brickfields Yard) Sdn. Bhd. the company was incorporated in 1994 and was renamed KTMB (Car Park) Sdn. Bhd. in 1995. With over 70 employees, the company operates 16 car parks at selected train stations in Malaysia through its subsidiary KTMB Car Park Sdn Bhd. The subsidiary is looking to expand parking space in Seremban and Sungai Buloh stations.

Modernisation.

Since the corporatisation of KTMB, a programme of modernisation has been underway. In 1989, it embarked on the double-tracking and electrification of the trunk line between Rawang and Seremban, the branch lines between Batu Junction and Sentul and between Kuala Lumpur and Port Klang, allowing KTM Komuter services to start running in 1995. The next major project was the Rawang-Ipoh double tracking and electrification project, which started in 2000, but delays held back its completion to 2008. This enabled ETS services to start in 2010, bringing electric traction to intercity travel in Malaysia for the first time. In 2002, the Malaysian government proposed the ambitious project of electrifying and double-tracking the entire western line and awarded contracts in 2003. The project was however put on hold by Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi until March 2007 when Deputy Prime Minister Najib Razak announced the project's revival. In April 2007, the government announced that contracts for certain portions of the project had been awarded. Since then, work has progressed rapidly, and presently the West Coast Line is electrified from Padang Besar to Gemas, with the remaining section to Johor Bahru set to be electrified in 2022.

Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTM) (Jawi: كريتاڤي تانه ملايو برحد) or Malayan Railways Limited is the main rail operator in Peninsular Malaysia. The railway system dates back to the British colonial era, when it was first built to transport tin. Previously known as the Federated Malay States Railways (FMSR) and the Malayan Railway Administration (MRA), Keretapi Tanah Melayu acquired its current name in 1962. The organisation was corporatised in 1992, but remains wholly owned by the Malaysian government.

Keretapi Tanah Melayu, généralement désignée par son acronyme KTM, (Jawi: "كريتاڤي تانه ملايو رحد") est la compagnie nationale des chemins de fer de la Malaisie. Son réseau long de km est à voie métrique. Il est constitué principalement par deux lignes qui traversent la Malaisie péninsulaire de bout en bout et relient le pays d'une part à Singapour au sud d'autre part à la Thaïlande. Le réseau est en partie électrifié en. Il assure à la fois un trafic voyageurs intercités et dessert la banlieue de la capitale Kuala Lumpur. Il transporte également du fret. Sa part modale modeste devrait s'accroitre dans les années 2020 grâce à la construction de deux nouvelles lignes lancées en 2017 : d'une part une ligne à grande vitesse de entre la capitale Kuala Lumpur et Singapour et d'autre part une ligne longue de plus de destinée à désenclaver la côte est.


Background.

During 1941, as the Allies perceived the possibility of war with Japan, the island of Ambon was seen to be a strategic location, because of its potential as a major air base. The Australian government and military commanders saw that it could be used in raids on northern Australia and decided to reinforce the Dutch forces on the island. On 14 December 1941, a convoy composed of escorts and with the Dutch ships "Both", "Valentijn", and "Patras" carrying 1,090 troops of "Gull Force" departed Darwin and arrived at Ambon on 17 December. escorting "Bantam" arrived with reinforcements on 12 January 1942, remaining through raids on 15–16 December until 18 December.

Geography.

Ambon is located in the Maluku (Moluccas) islands, just south of the much larger island of Seram (Ceram). Ambon has what might be described as a "figure eight" or "hourglass" shape, and consists of two peninsulas separated by a narrow isthmus, with long narrow bays on either side of the isthmus. The key airport at Laha is in the west of the Hitu Peninsula – northern part of the island – facing Ambon Bay. The town of Ambon is at the opposite side of the bay, on the southern part of the island, Laitimor Peninsula.

Opposing Forces.

Allies.

Infantry.

At the outbreak of war on 8 December, Ambon was garrisoned by the 2,800-strong "Molukken Brigade" of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) garrison, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kapitz and consisting of Indonesian colonial troops, under European officers. The garrison was poorly equipped and trained, partly as a result of the Netherlands having been defeated and occupied by Nazi Germany. The KNIL units were not equipped with radios and relied on landlines and written communications. They included 300 partly trained reservists.  The Australian Army's 1,100-strong Gull Force, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Leonard Roach, arrived on 17 December. The force consisted of the 2/21st Battalion from the Australian 8th Division, as well as some divisional artillery and support units. Kapitz was appointed Allied commander on Ambon. Roach had visited the island before Gull Force's deployment and requested that more artillery and machine gun units be sent from Australia.  On 6 January, after Dutch and British territories to the north fell to Japan, Ambon came under attack from Japanese aircraft. Roach complained about the lack of response to his suggestions, and as a result he was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel John Scott on 14 January.  Kapitz's headquarters was at Halong, between Paso and the town of Ambon. It included four armoured cars, an anti-aircraft machine gun detachment and four 40 mm AA guns. In the belief that the terrain on the south coast of Laitimor was too inhospitable for landings and that any attack was likely to be in the east, around the Bay of Baguala, the KNIL forces were concentrated at Paso, near the isthmus, under Major H. H. L. Tieland. There were small KNIL detachments at likely landing places in the north of Hitu.  Two companies of the 2/21st Battalion and 300 Dutch troops were at Laha Airfield, under the command of Major Mark Newbury. They were accompanied by Dutch artillery: four 75 mm field artillery pieces, four 37 mm anti-tank guns, four 75 mm anti-aircraft (AA) guns, four 40 mm AA guns, an AA machine gun platoon and an AA machine gun battery.  However, Lieutenant Colonel Scott, Gull Force HQ and the remainder of the Australian troops were concentrated in the western part of Laitimor Peninsula, in case of an attack from the Bay of Ambon. "A" Company of the 2/21st and one KNIL company were stationed at Eri, on the south west side of the bay. The 2/21st Battalion's pioneer platoon was on the plateau around Mt Nona (the highest point on Laitimor), with a Dutch anti-aircraft machine gun detachment. Smaller Australian detachments were at: Latuhalat, near the south western tip of Laitimor and at Cape Batuanjut, just north of Eri. Gull Force HQ and a strategic reserve, "D" Company, were located on a line from the Nona plateau to Amahusu beach, between Eri and the town of Ambon.

Air Forces.

The Allies had few aircraft to spare. The KNIL Air Service sent No. 2 Flight, Group IV ("2-Vl. G.IV") from Java to Laha. Of an original four Brewster Buffalos, two crashed en route to Ambon. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) sent two flights, comprising 12 Lockheed Hudson Mk 2 light bombers, from No. 13 and No. 2 Squadrons, to the area, under Wing Commander Ernest Scott (who was not related to Lieutenant Colonel John Scott). One flight was based at Laha, and another was sent to Namlea on the neighbouring island of Buru.  The U.S. Navy's Patrol Wing 10, with Consolidated PBY Catalinas, was based at the Halong seaplane station from 23 December. Wing Headquarters moved to Java on 9 January, but American Catalinas mounted patrols from Halong until 15 January when an air raid destroyed three patrol aircraft and damaged several others. The Allies then abandoned the base as it was too exposed. The Wing’s seaplane tenders supported patrols, but left after 8 January. Tender-based patrols from and at anchorages further south continued until 5 February.  The Royal Netherlands Naval Air Service ("Marineluchtvaartdienst") flew patrols from Ambon/Halong; GVT 17 with Catalina flying boats continued from the start of war through 14 January, when it was ordered to Java.  U.S. Navy and RAAF aircraft made several very dangerous evacuation flights into Ambon/Laha in the last days of January.

Naval forces.

, a Royal Netherlands Navy minelayer, left Ambon in early January, after mining approaches to the island. By mid-January, the minesweeper USS "Heron" was the only Allied combat ship at Ambon.

Japan.

Naval forces.

The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) task force for the invasion of Ambon, commanded by Rear Admiral Ibō Takahashi consisted of:  The 2nd Carrier Division was assigned to support the operation:

Infantry.

The Japanese ground forces were made up of about 5,300 personnel: the Itō Detachment of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA), under Major General Takeo Itō, comprising the 38th Division HQ and the 228th Infantry Regiment, along with marines from the 1st Kure Special Naval Landing Force (part of the China Area Fleet), and two platoons of the Sasebo SNLF under Rear Admiral Koichiro Hatakeyama.

Battle.

30 January.

From 6 January onward, Ambon was attacked by Japanese aircraft. Allied aircraft made some sorties against the approaching Japanese fleet, with little success. On 13 January, the two Brewster Buffalo fighters, piloted by Lt Broers and Sgt Blans, attacked a flight of 10 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. Broers' aircraft was hit and caught fire, but he continued to attack until it became uncontrollable, at which point he abandoned the Buffalo, using his parachute and landed in the sea. Blans was also shot down but also managed to use his parachute, landing in trees on Ambon. Both men were rescued. Broers suffered severe burns and Blans had 17 different wounds.  The naval aviation base at Halong was soon rendered unusable by Japanese air raids, and was abandoned by the Dutch and U.S. navies in mid-January.  On 30 January, about 1,000 Japanese marines and IJA personnel landed at Hitu-lama on the north coast. Other elements of the 228th Regiment landed on the southern coast of the Laitimor Peninsula. Although the Japanese ground forces were numerically not much bigger than the Allies, the Japanese had overwhelming superiority in air support, naval and field artillery, and tanks. The remaining Allied aircraft were withdrawn that day, although RAAF ground staff remained. Within a day of the Japanese landings, the Dutch detachments in their vicinity were overrun and/or had withdrawn towards Paso. The destruction of bridges on Hitu was not carried out as ordered, hastening the Japanese advance.  There was a second wave of landings, at Hutumori in south-eastern Laitimor, and at Batugong, near Paso. An Australian infantry platoon was detached to reinforce the pioneers on Nona plateau. The defences at Paso had been designed to repel attacks from the north and west, and now faced assault from the south. A KNIL platoon was detached from Paso to resist the attack on Batugong, causing a gap in the Dutch lines. The Japanese took advantage of this, and were assisted by the failure of a KNIL telephone line.

31 January.

Batugong fell in the early hours of 31 January, enabling the Japanese to encircle the eastern flank of the Passo positions. Meanwhile, Kapitz ordered the Ambonese KNIL company at Eri to take up a position at Kudamati, which appeared prone to attack.  At noon on 31 January, Kapitz moved his headquarters from Halong to, closer to. Telephone communications between Kapitz and his subordinates, including Lieutenant Colonel Scott, ceased when the Japanese cut the lines. The Japanese force which had landed at Hitu-Lama then attacked the Passo defences from the north-east. Then, in the words of the Australian official historian:  It is not clear who authorised the surrender. There was no immediate response from the Japanese, and – in a meeting with company commanders – Kapitz and Tieland ordered the Dutch troops to recommence fighting. However, when Tieland and the company commanders returned to their positions, they found that their troops had been taken prisoner, and they were forced to surrender.  The first land attack on Laha occurred on the afternoon of 31 January. An Australian platoon north-east of the airfield was attacked by a stronger Japanese force, which it repelled.  Japanese forces were also approaching the town of Ambon from the south west. At about 04:00pm on 31 January, the Japanese captured the town, including an Australian casualty clearing unit.

1 February.

Several Japanese attacks were launched simultaneously on 1 February: The Australian positions were also receiving large numbers of Dutch personnel fleeing from Paso. At 22:30, Scott ordered a withdrawal of the Allied forces at Amahusu and the south-west, to Eri. The position at Kudamati was effectively encircled.

2–3 February.

On 2 February (some sources say 1 February), the Japanese W-7-class minesweeper "W-9" struck a mine laid by the Dutch minelayer HNLMS Gouden Leeuw in the Ambon Bay and sank. Two other Japanese minesweepers were also damaged by mines.  After dawn on 2 February, the main Australian force on Nona plateau, commanded by Lieutenant Bill Jinkins, was in danger of encirclement. Jinkins ordered a withdrawal to Amahusu, where he became aware that the Dutch had surrendered. Unable to ascertain the disposition of Lieutenant Colonel Scott's force, Jinkins decided to meet senior Japanese officers under truce at the town of Ambon. They allowed him to speak to Kapitz, who wrote another note advising the Australian commander to surrender. Jinkins set off to find Lieutenant Colonel Scott.  Meanwhile, the Japanese forces attacking Laha were reinforced and a concentrated assault on the Allies began, including naval artillery, dive bombers, fighter planes and probing attacks by infantry. A Japanese night attack in high grass near the beach, between two Allied positions, was beaten back by an Australian platoon. However, a massive Japanese offensive commenced at dawn on 2 February. By 10:00am, only about 150 Australians and several KNIL personnel were still able to fight at Laha, and Newbury ordered them to surrender.  By the morning of 3 February, the Australians around Eri were struggling to cope with increasing air and naval attacks, wounded Australians, the influx of Dutch personnel, diminishing supplies and widespread fatigue. A Japanese flag had been seen flying on the other side of the bay, at Laha. By the time Jinkins reached Lieutenant Colonel Scott, the latter had himself met the Japanese and decided to surrender. The Allied position at Kudamati was surrendered separately at midday.

Aftermath.

Laha massacre.

Allied casualties in the battle were relatively light. However, at intervals for a fortnight after the surrender, IJN personnel chose more than 300 Australian and Dutch prisoners of war at random and summarily executed them, at or near Laha airfield. In part, this was revenge for the sinking of the Japanese minesweeper, as some surviving crew of the minesweeper took part. Those killed included Wing Commander Scott and Major Newbury. According to an Australian War Memorial principal historian, Dr Peter Stanley, over the following three and a half years, the surviving POWs:  In 1946, incidents which followed the fall of Ambon became the subject of one of the largest ever war crimes trials: 93 Japanese personnel were tried by an Australian military tribunal at Ambon. Rear Admiral Hatakeyama was found to have ordered the Laha massacres, however he had died before he could be tried. Commander Kunito Hatakeyama, who was in direct command of the massacres, was sentenced to execution by hanging. Lieutenant Kenichi Nakagawa was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. Three other Japanese officers were executed for mistreatment of POWs and/or civilians on other occasions, during 1942–45. (The trials were the basis for the feature film "Blood Oath", released in 1990.)  General Itō was sentenced to death that same year for war crimes committed in other parts of the Pacific.

Other subsequent events.

Approximately 30 Australian soldiers, including Jinkins, escaped from Ambon, in the space of several weeks after the surrender, often by rowing prahus (canoes) to Seram.  Another result of the capture of Ambon was the realisation of Australian fears of air attacks, when Japanese planes based at Ambon took part in major air raids on Darwin, Australia on 19 February.

References.

Footnotes Citations

The Battle of Ambon (30 January – 3 February 1942) occurred on the island of Ambon in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), during World War II. Japan invaded and conquered the island in a few days, facing Dutch, American and Australian forces. The chaotic and sometimes bloody fighting was followed by a series of major Japanese war crimes.

La bataille d'Ambon est une bataille de la campagne du Pacifique pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Elle s'est déroulée du 30 janvier au sur l'île d'Ambon dans les Indes néerlandaises (Indonésie), lors de la campagne des Indes orientales néerlandaises. Le Japon a envahi et conquis l'île en quelques jours face aux forces hollandaises, américaines et australiennes. Les combats chaotiques et parfois sanglants ont été suivis par une série de crimes de guerre japonais.


Geology.

The geology of Gatineau Park, which encompasses these foothills, is related to the Eardley Escarpment, which is a fault line that lies along the southern edge of the hills. This escarpment makes the park an attractive location for rock climbers and hikers, offering a beautiful view of the relatively flat fields below, which extend to the Ottawa River. The Eardley Escarpment is part of the northern side of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben, which is an ancient rift valley.

History.

The Algonquin people settled in the Ottawa valley more than 4000 years ago. French explorers arrived in the early seventeenth century. The Gatineau Hills' pine forests were logged extensively in the early 1800s, with many roads built for mining and farming. The deforestation raised increasing concern from the public. Historical records show interest for the creation of a wilderness park in the Gatineau Hills in 1903; many reports, plans and actions were made over the years to protect the area until it became as it looks today.

Tourism.

The Gatineau Hills are also significant as a skiing destination, serving the neighbouring communities of Ottawa, Ontario and Gatineau, Quebec. Gatineau Park contains over 190 km of cross-country trails, and plays host to the annual "Gatineau Loppet" competition. Downhill skiing is available at locations including Camp Fortune, Mont Cascades, Mont Ste. Marie, Edelweiss, and Vorlage. The hills are small compared to the ski areas in the northeast, such as Mont Tremblant and Mont-Sainte-Anne, or in Vermont, New Hampshire and New York.  The location of the hills are also useful for communications, and Ryan Tower, a prominent communications tower at Camp Fortune, provides a large portion of the area's broadcast television and radio signals.  The area is a prime tourist attraction, particularly during the October weeks when the foliage is turning colour. Photographs and paintings of the area are a popular tourist item.  The Gatineau Hills are located in the city of Gatineau, and in Les Collines-de-l'Outaouais Regional County Municipality, Quebec.

The Gatineau Hills () are a geological formation in Canada that makes up part of the southern tip of the Canadian Shield, and acts as the northern shoulder of the Ottawa Valley. They are also the foothills of the Laurentian Mountains which stretch east through Quebec, beginning north of Montreal and joining up with others into Vermont and New Hampshire.

Les collines de la Gatineau sont une chaîne de montagnes dans l'Ouest du Québec qui s'étend au nord de la rivière des Outaouais et qui marque la limite méridional du bouclier canadien. Les collines furent durant longtemps un territoire non organisé dans la région de l’Outaouais, à au nord-ouest de Montréal.