Etymology.

The term is thought to have first been used by in his work, also called "The Book of the Icelanders", written well after the period in which Norse explorers made their first contacts with indigenous Americans. By the time these sources were recorded, was the common term Norse Greenlanders used for the Thule people, the ancestors to the modern Inuit. The Thule first arrived in Greenland from the North American mainland in the 13th century and were thereafter in contact with the Greenlanders. The "Greenlanders' Saga" and the "Saga of Erik the Red", which were written in the 13th century, use this same term for the people of the area known as Vinland whom the Norse met in the early 11th century. The word subsequently became well known, and has been used in the English language since the 18th century.  The word is from Greenlandic Norse, the Old Norse dialect spoken by the medieval Norse Greenlanders. In modern Icelandic, means "barbarian", whereas the Danish descendant,, means "weakling". The origin of the word is not certain. William Thalbitzer (1932: 14) speculates that might have been derived from the Old Norse verb, meaning "bawl, shout, or yell". An etymology by Michael Fortescue et al. (1994) proposes that the Icelandic word (savage) may be related to the word, meaning "dried skin", in reference to the animal pelts worn by the Inuit.

Norse exploration of the New World.

Norse exploration of the New World began with the initial sighting of North America by an Icelander named Bjarni Herjólfsson, who spotted land after drifting off course on a journey to Greenland in 985 or 986. His voyage piqued the interest of later explorers including Leif Eriksson, who would explore and name the areas of Helluland, Markland and Vinland.

First contact.

Eriksson laid the groundwork for later colonizing efforts in the generations to come by establishing a foothold on Vinland, when he constructed some "large houses." Upon his return to Greenland,  Thorvald has the first contact with the native population which would come to be known as the "skrælings". After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked at their beached ships, which they defended:

Thorfinn Karlsefni.

Thorfinn Karlsefni was the first Norse explorer to attempt to truly colonize the newly discovered land of Vinland on the same site as his predecessors Thorvald and Leif Eriksson. According to the Saga of Erik the Red, he set sail with three ships and 140 men.  Upon reaching Vinland, their intended destination, they found the now famous grapes and self-sown wheat the land was named for. They spent a very hard winter at this site, where they barely survived by fishing, hunting game inland, and gathering eggs on the island. The following summer they sailed to the island of Hop where they had the first peaceful interactions with the native people, whom they traded with. Karlsefni forbade his men to trade their swords and spears, so they mainly exchanged their red cloth for pelts. Afterwards they were able to describe the aboriginal inhabitants in detail, saying:  Shortly thereafter, the Norsemen were attacked by natives who had been frightened by a bull that broke loose from their encampment. They were forced to retreat to an easily defensible location and engage their attackers; at the end of the battle two of his men had been slain, while "many of the natives" were killed. As with anywhere in this foreign land, Karlsefni and his men realized that  After this adventure, they returned to Greenland. Their three-year excursion would be the longest-lasting known European colony in the New World until Columbus's voyages nearly 500 years later initiated full-scale colonization.

Inuit folktales of the Norse.

There are also accounts from the Inuit peoples which describe interactions with the Norse:  Kavdlunait (plural) was the Inuit word for foreigner or European, compare modern Greenlandic "qallunaaq" ("Dane"), formerly spelled "ĸavdlunâĸ".

Skræling (Old Norse and Icelandic: skrælingi, plural skrælingjar) is the name the Norse Greenlanders used for the peoples they encountered in North America and Greenland. In surviving sources, it is first applied to the Thule people, the proto-Inuit group with whom the Norse coexisted in Greenland after about the 13th century. In the sagas, it is also used for the peoples of the region known as Vinland whom the Norse encountered during their expeditions there in the early 11th century.

Skræling (pluriel skrælingar) est le nom que les sagas des Groenlandais et d'Erik le Rouge prêtent aux populations du Groenland et du Vinland. Il est possible que ce nom ait été appliqué à d'autres peuples d'Amérique du Nord rencontrés par les colons scandinaves, notamment les ancêtres des Béothuks.


Club career.

Manchester United.

Healy was born and raised in Killyleagh, Northern Ireland, and played for Crossgar, Lisburn Youth and Down Academy High School in Downpatrick. He signed for Manchester United in August 1999, just four days before his 20th birthday. He made his debut for United in a 3–0 defeat to Aston Villa in the League Cup at Villa Park on 13 October 1999. In February 2000 he was loaned to Port Vale, but could only manage three goals in sixteen games for Brian Horton's side who were relegated to Division Two. In the following season he made a second appearance in the League Cup (as a 90th-minute substitute for Luke Chadwick in a game that went into extra time, United eventually losing to Sunderland). On 23 December 2000, he made his Premier League debut in the 2–0 victory against Ipswich Town at Old Trafford; he came on as substitute in the 60th minute and with ten minutes remaining he hit the post denying him a goal. This was his final appearance for United as he signed for First Division club Preston North End six days later, initially on loan, but then a permanent deal was agreed for a £1.5 million fee.

Preston North End.

Healy made his debut for Preston against Sheffield United on 30 December 2000; he scored after just four minutes in the 3−2 loss at Bramall Lane. In the remainder of the 2000–01 season, Healy made 26 appearances for Preston and scored 10 goals. He was a virtual ever-present in the 2001–02 season, appearing in 44 league games and scoring 10 goals. In the 2002–03 season he was less successful after Craig Brown replaced the departed David Moyes. By the end of January 2003 he had made only 23 league appearances but scored five goals. Healy joined Nigel Worthington's Norwich City on a month's loan at the end of January. In the end he stayed for the remainder of the season, but in thirteen appearances for the "Canaries" he scored only scored past Sheffield Wednesday and Wimbledon. Having attempted to sign him from Man United two years previously, Norwich attempted to sign Healy permanently from Preston but were denied by Brown. He found his scoring form again in 2003–04, and netted 15 times in 42 matches for Preston. For this feat he was given the club's Player of the Year award.

Leeds United.

Aiming for a move away from Deepdale, Healy got his wish in October 2004, as he was signed by Leeds United for a £650,000 fee. In his first season at Leeds he was the club's joint top scorer alongside Brian Deane with seven goals, despite only joining Leeds halfway through the season. During his time at Elland Road he was linked with dozens of moves to other clubs, the most notable rumour reported in the press being a potential £3 million move to Manchester City. He again finished as joint top scorer in the 2005–06 season, both he and Rob Hulse on fourteen goals. Leeds reached the play-off finals this season but lost in the final 3–0 to Watford. During the management of Kevin Blackwell Healy found himself regularly being played out of position at Leeds, mainly as a right winger, with Leeds rotating Hulse, Cresswell and Blake up front. Healy then finished the following 2006–07 season as Leeds' top scorer with ten goals. With Leeds relegated into League One, he left the club at the end of the campaign.

Fulham.

Healy reunited with former Northern Ireland boss Lawrie Sanchez at Fulham in July 2007 for a reported fee of around £1.5 million. He scored his first goal for Fulham in a pre-season friendly against South China in the Asia Trophy, with a low diving header. He scored fifty seconds into his league debut for the club following a mistake from Arsenal keeper Jens Lehmann. He also found the net in his second game against Bolton Wanderers, in a 2–1 win at Craven Cottage. However, he only scored two further top-flight goals in the season (past Reading and Sunderland), as well as two cup goals past Bolton and Bristol Rovers. Following the sacking of Sanchez, new manager Roy Hodgson preferred a strike partnership of the American pairing of Brian McBride and Eddie Johnson, leaving Healy on the bench.  In July 2008, Healy caused controversy when he adopted the posture of a flute player, similar to a previous incident involving Paul Gascoigne), in response to a question posed by Celtic fans chanting "Where were you on the Twelfth?" during a pre-season friendly match against Celtic at Craven Cottage. Healy subsequently apologised profusely for any offence he may have caused and signed many autographs for Celtic fans after the game. He remained out of favour with Roy Hodgson, who regarded his signings Andy Johnson and Bobby Zamora ahead of Healy in the pecking order.

Sunderland.

In August 2008, Healy joined Sunderland on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee, believed to be worth £1.2 million. Despite this sum he would never start a league game for the "Black Cats". Healy made his debut for Sunderland four days later in the League Cup and marked by scoring the winning goal in extra time against Nottingham Forest. Healy also scored in the FA Cup against Blackburn Rovers. Healy scored his first Premier League goal for the club in a 2–0 home win against Stoke City on 7 February 2009. He managed to score in every competition that Sunderland were entered into in his first season with the club. He was sent out on loan to Ipswich Town during the winter 2010 transfer window along with teammate Daryl Murphy. He made his debut against Middlesbrough on 6 February 2010, helping Ipswich to earn a point by setting up Murphy to score with a cross. He scored his first goal for Ipswich on 24 February 2010, in a 1–1 draw with Scunthorpe United, salvaging a point and ending his goal drought by scoring for the first time in over a year. Healy joined Doncaster Rovers on loan in November 2010, to fill the void left by the injured Billy Sharp. He marked his Doncaster debut with a goal, finding the net in a 2–1 win over Millwall on 6 November. Doncaster extended Healy's loan spell into a second month.

Rangers.

In January 2011, Healy signed for Rangers on a six-month deal, with a view to signing a longer contract. Having scored in his Leeds, Fulham, Sunderland, Doncaster and Northern Ireland debuts, he also marked his first Rangers appearance with a goal, coming off the bench to add the final goal of a 6–0 win over Motherwell on 12 February. Upon the expiry of his contract he signed a new one-year deal with the club, tying him to the Ibrox club until the end of the 2011–12 season. On 2 January 2012, Healy scored his second goal for the club, again against Motherwell, with the opener of a 3–0 win. His third goal for the club came the following week, when he scored the first of a 4–0 victory over Arbroath in the Scottish Cup. He netted his third league goal of the season for the "Gers" in a 4–0 win over Hibernian on 28 January, and got his fourth goal in a 4–1 victory over Dunfermline Athletic on 11 February. He left Ibrox at the end of the 2011–12 season following the expiration of his contract.

Bury.

He signed a one-year deal with League One side Bury in August 2012. He had previously been linked with a return to Preston North End, but manager Graham Westley rejected the chance to re-sign the striker after finding that Preston fans still resented Healy for the manner of his departure eight years ago. He made a scoring debut for the "Shakers" on 25 August, converting a penalty in a 2–2 draw with Coventry City at the Ricoh Arena. He was limited to one goal in his 19 games in the 2012–13 campaign as Bury were relegated into League Two. He was one of 16 players released at the end of the season. Unable to find a club after his release and struggling with persistent ankle injuries, Healy announced his retirement from football on 3 December 2013.  On 31 July 2014, Healy played for Glenavon in a 5–0 loss in a pre-season friendly against his former club Leeds United. The match was part of Glenavon's 125th anniversary celebrations.

International career.

He made his début for Northern Ireland on 23 February 2000, putting a brace past Luxembourg. He was still only 20 years old; having made his début for Manchester United the previous October, he had just joined Port Vale on loan. His competitive international début came in September 2000, in a World Cup qualifying game against Malta, and he scored his first competitive goal for his country a month later against Denmark.  On 6 June 2004, in a friendly game away to Trinidad and Tobago (his 35th international), he scored his 13th and 14th goals for Northern Ireland, thus equalling and overtaking Colin Clarke's record for the country. In September that year, Healy was controversially sent off in Northern Ireland's 2–2 draw with Wales. After celebrating the goal he scored to put Northern Ireland 2–0 up, he made a hand gesture towards the fans. The referee sent him off but Healy later explained that he was celebrating towards his family and that was how he always celebrated when scoring for his then-club, Preston North End. On 7 September 2005, at Windsor Park, Healy secured a famous victory for his country against England in a World Cup qualifier when he scored the only goal of the game. This was his nation's first win over the English since 1972.  He achieved his 50th cap and 20th international goal against Finland in August 2006, also playing as captain. A month later, on 6 September 2006, Healy became the first man since Colin Clarke to score a hat-trick for Northern Ireland and the first since George Best to do so in Belfast. His three goals gave Northern Ireland a historic 3–2 victory over Spain. Healy followed this feat with the winner against Latvia on 11 October 2006. In the following international game, against Liechtenstein, he scored a second hat-trick, thus becoming the first player ever to score two hat-tricks for Northern Ireland.  He scored both of Northern Ireland's goals in a 2–1 win against Sweden on 28 March 2007, and two more against Liechtenstein on 22 August, followed by a penalty away to Iceland on 12 September. On 17 November 2007, when he scored against Denmark, it was his 13th goal in the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying Group F tournament (in eleven games). This made him the highest-ever goalscorer in a UEFA European Championship qualifying campaign. The previous record, of twelve goals in ten games, had been set by Davor Šuker of Croatia in 1996. As a result, Healy was presented with the award by Michel Platini, who quoted: ""David Healy's record goes down in history and he beat a world-class striker in Davor Suker to do so. The outstanding performance of David in the qualifying competition of the European Championship and his goal tally of 13 goals is a new record and deserves to be recognised. I am sure that this record will last for some time to come and will be hard to beat. This is why I will be presenting him with a special award to celebrate his fantastic achievement.""  In October 2008, Healy received several death threats after he welcomed an international goal he had scored by saying 'the famine is over'. The goal had come after an uncharacteristic drought at the time. Healy's comments were interpreted as a reference to Rangers fans' chant – "'the famine is over, why don't you go home?" Healy claimed to be oblivious to the fact that he had offended anyone saying, "I'm so disappointed and upset that anyone could even try and make this link. And when told about this I was totally bemused." Despite finding a new club, Healy was left out of the Northern Ireland squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in 2012 by new manager Michael O'Neill. On 14 November 2012, he marked his return to international duty with an equalising goal from the bench against Azerbaijan – it was his first international goal in four years.  He won a total of 95 senior caps, making him Northern Ireland's third most capped outfield player and fourth overall in the nation's all-time appearances chart behind goalkeeper Pat Jennings (119), Aaron Hughes (112) and Steve Davis (108). His 36 international goals make him the nation's all-time leading goalscorer by a considerable distance.

Management career.

Linfield.

Healy was appointed manager of NIFL Premiership side Linfield in October 2015, the club he had supported all his life. He steered the "Blues" to a second-place finish in 2015–16, eight points behind Crusaders. On 7 February 2017, he won his first managerial honour as Linfield beat Crusaders 3–1 in the County Antrim Shield. On 25 February, he was given a six-game general ban after being dismissed from the touchline for the third time of the season. Despite this setback, the "Blues" went on to win the league title in 2016–17, and ended the campaign with a treble after beating Coleraine 3–0 in the final of the Irish Cup. He went on to add the Charity Shield to Linfield's honours with a 3–1 victory over Coleraine at The Oval. They went on to lose to Celtic in the second round of qualification for the UEFA Champions League in the 2017–18 season, and had a disappointing campaign domestically as they finished fourth in the league and exited both cup competitions at the quarter-finals. On 16 February 2018, Healy won his fifth domestic honour with Linfield as they won the Northern Irish League Cup final with a 1–0 over Ballymena United.  Healy won his second league title as a manager during the 2018–19 campaign, with Linfield finishing seven points ahead of second-placed Ballymena United and Healy also being named as Manager of the Year. He also added the League Cup to his collection, as Linfield defeated Ballymena United 1–0 in the final. Linfield also reached the 2019 County Antrim Shield final, losing out 4–3 to Crusaders. He stated that he was looking t strengthen the first-team in the summer, saying that "we're not just going to be bringing in players for the sake of making up the numbers, we're going to be bringing in players who will be challenging for a starting berth".

Personal life.

Healy is married to Emma and they have three children: daughters Taylor and Taluulah, and son Jude. He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2008 Birthday Honours for services to football.

David Jonathan Healy, MBE (born 5 August 1979) is a Northern Irish former footballer and now football manager who is in charge at NIFL Premiership club Linfield.

David Healy, né le à Killyleagh en Irlande du Nord, est un footballeur international nord-irlandais, devenu entraîneur à l'issue de sa carrière, qui évoluait au poste d'attaquant.


Plot.

Penniless and straight out of the University of Iowa, Joe Grotowski (Jerry O'Connell) moves to New York needing an apartment and a job. With the fortuitous death of his mother, an artist named Walter Shit (Jim Turner) helps Joe to take over the last rent controlled apartment in a building slated for demolition. If Senator Dougherty (Robert Vaughn) can empty the building, he can make way for the prison he intends to build there, and uses thug Alberto Bianco (Don Ho) and his nephews, Vlad (Shiek Mahmud-Bey) and Jesus (Jim Sterling), to intimidate tenants.  Joe discovers he has twenty to thirty thousand roommates, all of them talking, singing cockroaches grateful that a slob has moved in. Led by Ralph (Billy West), the sentient, tune-savvy insects scare away the thugs in an act of enlightened self-interest that endears them to their human meal ticket. Tired of living on handouts from mom back in Iowa and after a series of dead-end jobs ruined by his well-intentioned six-legged roomies, Joe finds himself the unskilled drummer in Walter Shit's band. Hanging posters for SHIT, he encounters Senator Dougherty's daughter Lily (Megan Ward) promoting her own project, a community garden to occupy the vacant site surrounding Joe's building.  A gift to Lily while working on her garden is enough to woo her back to Joe's apartment, where the cockroaches break a promise to keep out of his business and a panicked Lily flees, only to discover the garden she'd worked on has been burned to the ground. During a fight with his roommates over his spoiled romantic evening, the building suffers the same fate as the garden. A mutual truce between our hapless and now homeless roommates leads the cockroaches to "call in favors from every roach, rat and pigeon in New York City" to try to make amends to Joe. Overnight, the roaches scour New York to gather materials to convert the entire area into a garden and take care of all the necessary paperwork to ensure harmony reigns over all.

Production.

John Payson originally created the short film "Joe's Apt." in 1992, which aired on MTV as filler in-between commercial breaks. Payson said he was inspired by a 1987 short film called "Those Damn Roaches" and the 1987 Japanese film "Twilight of the Cockroaches", the latter crossing hand-drawn animation and live action. After the short received a CableACE Award, MTV executives were impressed enough to discuss producing a feature adaptation with Payson. In 1993, MTV made a deal with Geffen Pictures during development to produce films based on the network's properties and release them through Warner Bros.. While "Joe's Apartment" was put into production with a $13 million budget, a feature film adaptation of "Beavis and Butt-Head" was also put into development.  "Joe's Apartment" was the first feature film Blue Sky Studios was involved in, having produced company logos and animated commercials before. Under Chris Wedge's supervision, Blue Sky produced computer-animated sequences of the cockroaches. However, the film also blended them with scenes of puppetry, real cockroaches, and stop-motion animation (including the TV roach porn). Executives at 20th Century Fox were impressed enough with "Joe's Apartment" to acquire Blue Sky, and eventually the studio became a feature-animation company.

Reception.

Even with the enthusiastic billing as "MTV's first feature movie" and the support of the company, "Joe's Apartment" bombed when it opened on July 26, 1996. Opening to 1,512 theaters but earning a dismal $1.8 million, the film closed all screenings in the middle of August and finished with only $4.6 million. Warner sold distribution rights for later MTV Film productions back to MTV's parent company, Viacom, not long after.  Reviews were almost universally negative, mostly distaste at the blending of grimy gross-out gags and up-beat musical humor. Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four, stating ""Joe's Apartment" would be a very bad comedy even without the roaches, but it would not be a disgusting one. No, wait: I take that back. Even without the roaches, we would still have the subplot involving the pink disinfectant urinal cakes."

Joe's Apartment is a 1996 American musical-comedy film starring Jerry O'Connell and Megan Ward and the first film produced by MTV Films (then known as MTV Productions). The film was written and directed by John Payson, with computer-animated sequences supervised by Chris Wedge through Blue Sky Studios. It was the only MTV Films production not to be distributed by Paramount Pictures until the release of "Eli", which was distributed by Netflix, but still had the involvement of Paramount.

Bienvenue chez Joe, également connue sous les titres ou L'Appartement de Joe, est une comédie américaine réalisée par John Payson et sortie en 1996.


Floors.

Third Floor: Minskoff Theatre.

The Minskoff is a Broadway theatre named after its developers, a prominent local real estate family. Accessible from the middle arcade in the center of the building, it opened in 1973 with 1,621 seats.

Second Floor: MTV Studios, Revlon and Fashion One.

Astor Plaza houses the MTV Studios, owned by ViacomCBS, the building's primary tenant, along with Revlon and Fashion One. The studios are located on the mezzanine second story of the building. MTV acquired it in 1997. It was initially split into three major studios all located by the floor-to-ceiling windows and window shades. The three studios were named after the three sections of Manhattan: the Uptown Studio, the Midtown Studio, and the Downtown Studio. They are named so because they are proportional to the real sections of Manhattan. The Uptown Studio was home to MTV's former flagship program, "Total Request Live", during the show's run from 1998 to 2008 along with MTV and VH1 and was later an Aéropostale store. The Midtown Studio is used by various MTV programming, MTV News, and was used by VH1's "Big Morning Buzz Live", and on rare occasion Nickelodeon and Comedy Central. The smallest studio, the Downtown Studio, is occasionally used for other countdown shows, and productions from some of the smaller Viacom networks. It is occasionally used as a temporary green room if the actual green room is occupied. The MTV Studios also include dressing rooms, control rooms, a cafeteria, and some offices.  MTV also uses the seventh floor roof and many upstairs floors in the building. The second floor includes New York City-based cosmetics, skin care, fragrance, and personal care based in New York City including Revlon which 24-hour New York City-based fashion television network showcases fashion, lifestyle, and entertainment programme based in New York City including Fashion One.

Street-level retail.

The first floor includes various retailers, and has included Oakley, Billabong, Element Skateboards, Aéropostale store, and a Junior's restaurant.

Lower Level: PlayStation Theater.

The Loews Astor Plaza movie theater originally occupied the building's public space below street level, accessible from West 44th St. It opened on June 26, 1974, and was New York's largest capacity cinema at 1,440 seats. The theater's single screen often drew large crowds on opening nights. It closed in 2004, making Clearview's Ziegfeld Theatre New York's largest cinema.  After a nine-month, $21 million renovation, the space reopened as a music venue under the ownership of Anschutz Entertainment Group, currently known as PlayStation Theater (formerly Nokia Theatre Times Square and Best Buy Theater).

2010 car bombing attempt.

On the evening of May 1, 2010, a failed car bomb was defused by the New York City Police Department on West 45th Street and Broadway near the northeastern corner of the building. The authorities briefly investigated a possible connection between the bomb and the 200th episode of Comedy Central's "South Park", which had included depictions of a man in a bear suit (labeled 'Bears') that the South Park kids pointed at, calling him Muhammad. The attempt was traced to Faisal Shahzad, a 30-year-old Pakistan-born resident of Bridgeport, Connecticut, who had become a U.S. citizen in April 2009.

References.

Notes

One Astor Plaza is a skyscraper located in the Times Square area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. The building is 54 stories tall and stands at a height of. It was designed by Der Scutt of Ely J. Kahn & Jacobs. It is located at 1515 Broadway between West 44th and 45th Streets and is currently the headquarters for ViacomCBS and houses the MTV Studios, Revlon, Fashion One, Minskoff Theatre, PlayStation Theater, and some retail outlets. The Hotel Astor had occupied the site from 1904 to 1967. Construction of the building began in 1968 and was completed in 1972. The building was the headquarters of the W. T. Grant retail chain, which leased almost of space on the building's top 14 floors, but only occupied it for four years until their 1976 liquidation.

Le One Astor Plaza est un gratte-ciel de New York, situé à Manhattan sur Times Square, au 1515 Broadway, à hauteur de la Rue. Haut de 227 mètres, comptant 54 étages, ce building achevé en 1972 a été conçu par Der Scutt du cabinet Ely J. Kahn & Jacobs.


Professional career.

Portal was born on 23 April 1979 in Auch, France. His father was a quarry manager and his mother worked as a medical secretary. He started cycling as a mountain biker and was successful at youth and under-23 levels in the late 1990s, before switching to road cycling. He rode as a "stagiaire" with at the end of 2001, having been recommended to team manager Vincent Lavenu by a mutual friend. Portal then turned professional with the team for 2002. He rode his first Grand Tour the same year at the Vuelta a España and then competed in the Tour de France for the first time in 2003. He would ride the Tour a further five times, always reaching the finish in Paris. His only professional victory came at the 2004 Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré, where he won stage 3 with a late attack on the final climb. While individual success was scarce, he established himself as one of the most reliable "domestiques" in the field. In 2006, he moved to. Portal was part of the team that saw Oscar Pereiro win the 2006 Tour de France, a race he finished even though he suffered a serious crash on stage 15. He missed the entire 2009 season with cardiac arrhythmia, but rode a full final season with in 2010.

Career as sports director.

Although he could not speak English, Portal was hired by Dave Brailsford as "directeur sportif" for Team Sky following his retirement as a cyclist, with Brailsford attributing his decision due to Portal's "human qualities". For 2013, following the departure of some of Team Sky's leading staff, Portal was promoted to lead sporting director. Under his guidance, Sky riders won six of the next seven editions of the Tour de France, as well as one Vuelta a España and a Giro d'Italia. These victories made Portal one of the most successful sporting directors in the history of cycling.

Death.

Portal died suddenly from a heart attack, aged 40, at his home in Andorra on 3 March 2020. Following his death, his employer withdrew from all further races until 28 March, citing the "unique set of circumstances" of Portal's death and the coronavirus pandemic as reasons for the decision.

Nicolas Portal (23 April 1979 – 3 March 2020) was a French directeur sportif and professional road bicycle racer. He was born in Auch, France.

Nicolas Portal, né le à Auch (Gers) et mort le à Andorre-la-Vieille (Andorre), est un coureur cycliste français des années 2000, reconverti directeur sportif.


Industries where used.

Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the numerous benefits they provide.  Conveyor systems are commonly used in many industries, including the Mining, automotive, agricultural, computer, electronic, food processing, aerospace, pharmaceutical, chemical, bottling and canning, print finishing and packaging. Although a wide variety of materials can be conveyed, some of the most common include food items such as beans and nuts, bottles and cans, automotive components, scrap metal, pills and powders, wood and furniture and grain and animal feed. Many factors are important in the accurate selection of a conveyor system. It is important to know how the conveyor system will be used beforehand. Some individual areas that are helpful to consider are the required conveyor operations, such as transport, accumulation and sorting, the material sizes, weights and shapes and where the loading and pickup points need to be.

Care and maintenance.

A conveyor system is often the lifeline to a company's ability to effectively move its product in a timely fashion. The steps that a company can take to ensure that it performs at peak capacity, include regular inspections and system audits, close monitoring of motors and reducers, keeping key parts in stock, and proper training of personnel.  Increasing the service life of a conveyor system involves: choosing the right conveyor type, the right system design and paying attention to regular maintenance practices.  A conveyor system that is designed properly will last a long time with proper maintenance. Here are six of the biggest problems to watch for in overhead type conveyor systems including I-beam monorails, enclosed track conveyors and power and free conveyors. Overhead conveyor systems have been used in numerous applications from shop displays, assembly lines to paint finishing plants and more.

Impact and wear-resistant materials used in manufacturing.

Conveyor systems require materials suited to the displacement of heavy loads and the wear-resistance to hold-up over time without seizing due to deformation. Where static control is a factor, special materials designed to either dissipate or conduct electrical charges are used. Examples of conveyor handling materials include UHMW, nylon, Nylatron NSM, HDPE, Tivar, Tivar ESd, and polyurethane.

Growth in various industries.

As far as growth is concerned the material handling and conveyor system makers are getting utmost exposure in the industries like automotive, pharmaceutical, packaging and different production plants. The portable conveyors are likewise growing fast in the construction sector and by the year 2014 the purchase rate for conveyor systems in North America, Europe and Asia is likely to grow even further. The most commonly purchased types of conveyors are line-shaft roller conveyors, chain conveyors and conveyor belts at packaging factories and industrial plants where usually product finishing and monitoring are carried. Commercial and civil sectors are increasingly implementing conveyors at airports, shopping malls, etc.

Types.

Pneumatic.

Every pneumatic system uses pipes or ducts called transport lines that carry a mixture of materials and a stream of air. These materials are free flowing powdery materials like cement and fly ash. Products are moved through tubes by air pressure. Pneumatic conveyors are either carrier systems or dilute-phase systems; carrier systems simply push items from one entry point to one exit point, such as the money-exchanging pneumatic tubes used at a bank drive-through window. Dilute-phase systems use push-pull pressure to guide materials through various entry and exit points. Air compressors or blowers can be used to generate the air flow. Three systems used to generate high-velocity air stream:

Vibrating.

A vibrating conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is turned up on the side to form a trough. They are used extensively in food-grade applications to convey dry bulk solids where sanitation, washdown, and low maintenance are essential. Vibrating conveyors are also suitable for harsh, very hot, dirty, or corrosive environments. They can be used to convey newly-cast metal parts which may reach upwards of. Due to the fixed nature of the conveying pans vibrating conveyors can also perform tasks such as sorting, screening, classifying and orienting parts. Vibrating conveyors have been built to convey material at angles exceeding 45° from horizontal using special pan shapes. Flat pans will convey most materials at a 5° incline from horizontal line.

Flexible.

The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminum or stainless steel, with low-friction slide rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing chain. Products to be conveyed travel directly on the conveyor, or on pallets/carriers. These conveyors can be worked around obstacles and keep production lines flowing. They are made at varying levels and can work in multiple environments. They are used in food packaging, case packing, and pharmaceutical industries and also in large retail stores such as Wal-Mart and Kmart.

Spiral.

Like vertical conveyors, spiral conveyors raise and lower materials to different levels of a facility. In contrast, spiral conveyors are able to transport material loads in a continuous flow. A helical spiral or screw rotates within a sealed tube and the speed makes the product in the conveyor rotate with the screw. The tumbling effect provides a homogeneous mix of particles in the conveyor, which is essential when feeding pre-mixed ingredients and maintaining mixing integrity. Industries that require a higher output of materials - food and beverage, retail case packaging, pharmaceuticals - typically incorporate these conveyors into their systems over standard vertical conveyors due to their ability to facilitate high throughput. Most spiral conveyors also have a lower angle of incline or decline (11 degrees or less) to prevent sliding and tumbling during operation.

Vertical.

Vertical conveyors, also commonly referred to as freight lifts and material lifts, are conveyor systems used to raise or lower materials to different levels of a facility during the handling process. Examples of these conveyors applied in the industrial assembly process include transporting materials to different floors. While similar in look to freight elevators, vertical conveyors are not equipped to transport people, only materials.  Vertical lift conveyors contain two adjacent, parallel conveyors for simultaneous upward movement of adjacent surfaces of the parallel conveyors. One of the conveyors normally has spaced apart flights (pans) for transporting bulk food items. The dual conveyors rotate in opposite directions, but are operated from one gear box to ensure equal belt speed. One of the conveyors is pivotally hinged to the other conveyor for swinging the attached conveyor away from the remaining conveyor for access to the facing surfaces of the parallel conveyors. Vertical lift conveyors can be manually or automatically loaded and controlled. Almost all vertical conveyors can be systematically integrated with horizontal conveyors, since both of these conveyor systems work in tandem to create a cohesive material handling assembly line.  Like spiral conveyors, vertical conveyors that use forks can transport material loads in a continuous flow. With these forks the load can be taken from one horizontal conveyor and put down on another horizontal conveyor on a different level. By adding more forks, more products can be lifted at the same time. Conventional vertical conveyors must have input and output of material loads moving in the same direction. By using forks many combinations of different input- and output- levels in different directions are possible. A vertical conveyor with forks can even be used as a vertical sorter. Compared to a spiral conveyor a vertical conveyor - with or without forks - takes up less space.  Vertical reciprocating conveyors (or VRC) are another type of unit handling system. Typical applications include moving unit loads between floor levels, working with multiple accumulation conveyors, and interfacing overhead conveyors line. Common material to be conveyed includes pallets, sacks, custom fixtures or product racks and more.

Heavy-duty roller.

Heavy-duty roller conveyors are used for moving items that weigh at least. This type of conveyor makes the handling of such heavy equipment/products easier and more time effective. Many of the heavy duty roller conveyors can move as fast as.  Other types of heavy-duty roller conveyors are gravity roller conveyors, chain-driven live roller conveyors, pallet accumulation conveyors, multi-strand chain conveyors, and chain and roller transfers.  Gravity roller conveyors are easy to use and are used in many different types of industries such as automotive and retail.  Chain-driven live roller conveyors are used for single or bi-directional material handling. Large, heavy loads are moved by chain driven live roller conveyors.  Pallet accumulation conveyors are powered through a mechanical clutch. This is used instead of individually powered and controlled sections of conveyors.  Multi-strand chain conveyors are used for double-pitch roller chains. Products that cannot be moved on traditional roller conveyors can be moved by a multi-strand chain conveyor.  Chain and roller conveyors are short runs of two or more strands of double-pitch chain conveyors built into a chain-driven line roller conveyor. These pop up under the load and move the load off of the conveyor.

References.

M.Marcu-Pipeline Conveyors (theory,photos,state of the art 1990-Pneumatic Pipeline conveyors with wheeled containers) at page 45 in: "Material handling in pyrometallurgy: proceedings of the International Symposium on Materials Handling in Pyrometallurgy, Hamilton, Ontario, August 26–30, 1990-Pergamon press"

A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transport of heavy or bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transport for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries. They also have popular consumer applications, as they are often found in supermarkets and airports, constituting the final leg of item/ bag delivery to customers. Many kinds of conveying systems are available and are used according to the various needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors (floor and overhead) as well. Chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys.

Un convoyeur est un mécanisme ou une machine qui permet le transport d'une charge isolée (cartons, bacs, sacs) ou de produits en vrac (terre, poudre, aliments) de façon continue sur un trajet prédéterminé.


History of the movement.

In 1915, Mirza Kuchik Khan, an experienced activist in the Constitutional Revolution, launched the Jangal movement, which was religiously Islamic, in the forests of Gilan, demanding autonomous status for the province, an end to central government corruption, an end to foreign interference in affairs of local peoples, and land reform. Basically, even though the movement was not "separatist", "bourgeois nationalist", or communist, its main ideas were rooted in ridding the country of government corruption, "foreign imperial domination," and opposition to the country's existing monarchy. With such goals, it is no surprise that the movement enjoyed strong support of the peasantry, working class, and poor population within Iran. Even so, Hooshang Amirahmadi describes the movement's leaders as "merchants and landlords" and Mirza as part of the "democratic wing" of the Iranian bourgeoisie.  In years that followed, the movement's guerrillas, Jangalis, fought against foreign invaders. While they were described as "small landowners in Gilan" that advocated armed insurgency, they were strong enough to resist the advances of the Russian Empire, leading the British to become the major military presence in the region instead. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, Marxists within Iran became more organized and began collaborating with the Jangal movement, with many of these new revolutionaries directly influenced by the Bolsheviks. Later, these Marxists would end up forming the communist Tudeh Party. Even so, there were undoubtedly differences since Mirza supported land reforms but not land redistribution.  Near the end of 1917, the Jangalis, organized a "Unity of Islam" committee, since they were affiliated with the Union of Islam movement, which was "bourgeois-nationalist" with democratic elements, with members on the committee mainly comprising landlords and merchants. Still, they drew up a proposed constitution which accepted "private property in land" with certain limitations but also called for equality, majority rule, and freedom. Even with this, the Jangalis failed to change relations between landlords and peasants, but they did continue to hold an anti-absolutist, anti-imperialist, and nationalist position displayed in their newspaper, "Jangal", launched in 1917. In years that followed, it was clear that the movement was gaining strength as disorder and insecurity swept the country.  By 1920, the Jangalis, who were broadly Shia Muslims, engaged in an uprising in which they demanded regional autonomy and national reforms. There was a turning point in the movement after the Red Army came into the Iranian port of Enzali. As a result, the Red Army and Jangalis agreed on the establishment of the bourgeois democratic and anti-British/anti-imperialist government in Gilan, while Mirza began secret negotiations with the central government to eliminate communists, leading to a coup in the Gilan government and later peace between the two forces.  After this, the Jangalis were a key part of maintaining Soviet Republic of Gilan, showing that Marxists and Muslims could work together in a common cause. John Foran describes this collaboration:  The Communist Party of Iran, led by Haydar Khan Amoughlu, and the Jungle Movement, led by Mirza Kuchak Khan, had formed an alliance to build a soviet socialist republic. In addition, they sent a letter to Lenin asking for assistance in 'freeing us and all of the oppressed from the chain of Iranian and British oppressors.' They also sent a letter to Tehran proclaiming the monarch government illegitimate.  This Soviet republic would last close to two years before its leaders were killed and imprisoned. While the Soviet role in Iran was not clear, with questions on whether they were helping Iranians or helping establish a Soviet Republic in the country, there is no doubt that "Marxist-Muslim cooperation" as part of the Soviet Republic had a long-standing legacy on political and socialist organizing in the country, with one group of students organizing against the Shah in the 1960s called the "Jangal Group."

Further analysis.

Initially, when commencing the movement, Mirza and his allies formed a union called "Ettehad-e-Islam" (The Islamic Union). Although in the beginning, they were in conformity over the aims of the movement, eventually the movement began witnessing considerable friction as some members had diverging tendencies toward Ahmad Shah Qajar while others such as Mirza specifically called for an Iranian "Republic."  Not only did Mirza specifically use the term "Republic of Iran," as can be seen in his letters, but he had also declared his interest in a "Republic" before the advent of the Communist Party of Iran. In fact Mirza was removed from his posts in the Persian Socialist Soviet Republic only 17 days after the party's formation. Mirza did not seem to agree with Marxist ideology, being a devout man of faith, even though many of his allies until the end were members of the Communist Party.  The British did not take Mirza's successes lightly, and sent Captain Edward Noel to assassinate Mirza. The British captain was arrested before he could take any such action. Colonel Stokes and General Lionel Dunsterville (whose troops were lightly referred to as Dunsterforce) were further agitated by Mirza's refusal to let British troops pass through Gilan on their way up north, while Mirza had approved and guaranteed Russian troops returning north safe passage. British forces attacked Rasht as a result, and even bombed Mirza's residence using airplanes. An ultimatum was issued to Mirza by the British to surrender.  The Russians joined the British and sent in 20,000 troops to capture Mirza. Many prominent members of the movement such as "Haj Ahmad Kasmai", and Dr Talequani Heshmat surrendered, with 270 troops, and the latter was executed despite the immunity that he was granted.  In 1922, the Soviets came to an agreement with the Iranian government to withdraw their troops, especially those assisting the Gilan Republic, and soon after the English declared they would be withdrawing their troops. Ultimately, the Soviets told Mirza that the Soviet Republic, due to changed circumstances, was compromised. As a result, there was an internal conflict in which the leader of the communists, Heidar Amou Oqli, was killed, the "Revolutionary Committee" of the Soviet Republic falling apart, the Jangalis defeated by Reza Khan and Mirza, along with his German companion, freezing to death as they tried to escape Khan's men.

The Jangal (Jungle) Movement, in Gilan, was a rebellion against the monarchist rule of the Qajar central government of Iran. It lasted from 1915 to 1921.

Le Mouvement constitutionnaliste du Gilân ou Guilan (aussi appelé "mouvement Jangal" : « mouvement de la forêt ») était une rébellion contre la monarchie des Qadjars en Iran qui a eu lieu entre 1914 et 1921. On considère ce mouvement comme une extension de la révolution constitutionnelle persane.


History.

East Greenwich, the 8th oldest town in Rhode Island, was founded in 1677 by the General Assembly in an attempt to solidify land claims against those of Connecticut and the Narragansett Proprietors. The Assembly designated 5000 acres to the new town and provided lots to settlers who would agree to live there. Locals quickly took the assembly up on this offer, and the quick establishment of the town helped hold back plans of Connecticut in pushing their border eastward. East Greenwich was therefore the only Rhode Island town established by an act of government, not commercial interests. In 1687, the Narragansett Proprietors attempted to settle land north of Wickford which overlapped with the land of East Greenwich; however, the Massachusetts governor Sir Edmund Andros, who had authority to settle the dispute, ruled in favor of the existing East Greenwich settlement.  In the 18th century, the government released previously reserved waterfront property in small lots. Beginning in 1711, the local government granted these lots to any person who would pay one shilling and promise to build a commercial building of a minimum size. By 1725, a community had developed, complete with a schoolhouse and a graveyard. However, citizens of the town complained that attending town meetings was too difficult due to the size of the town, which prompted the splitting of West Greenwich into its own town in 1741. The town erected a courthouse when East Greenwich was designated the shire town of the newly formed Kent County, which had been separated from Providence County in 1750. On June 12, 1772, a resolution was passed by the Rhode Island State Assembly to form the United States' first Navy in East Greenwich, which included two ships, the Katy and the Washington. The Assembly put Captain Abraham Whipple in charge of this new military branch and these ships, with the formal title commodore.  In its colonial days, the town was also home to followers of a former Quaker who, after a severe illness, claimed to have died and been resurrected as the "Public Universal Friend"; these followers financed a meeting-house within the town.

Geography.

East Greenwich is a coastal town, located on the western side of Narragansett Bay. Of its total area of 16.71 square miles, 16.58 square miles is land and 0.14 square miles is water. 20 percent of the land in East Greenwich consists of undeveloped woods and farmland, although development continues to bring this proportion down.  Various roads form approximate borders with some of its neighboring towns. Division Street sits between East Greenwich and Warwick, to the north and west until Route 2. South and east is North Kingstown which is roughly separated from East Greenwich by Frenchtown Road.

Schools.

East Greenwich is home to six public schools in its school district. The district contains two zoning districts for its elementary schools. Students in one district, which primarily consists of households east of South County Trail, attend Meadowbrook Farms Elementary from kindergarten to second grade, then proceed to George R. Hanaford School for third grade to fifth grade. Most students who live west of South County Trail will attend Frenchtown Elementary for kindergarten to second grade before attending James H. Eldredge School for third grade to fifth grade. All students in the public school district then attend Archie R. Cole Middle School for sixth grade to eighth grade. The district's single high school is East Greenwich High School.  In 2015, Newsweek magazine ranked East Greenwich High School first in Rhode Island and 186th in the US.  The town also contains the Our Lady Of Mercy Regional School, a private Catholic school serving students from pre-kindergarten to eighth grade. East Greenwich was also home to the East Greenwich Academy, an eminent preparatory school; however, the school closed in 1943.  East Greenwich is also home to the main campus of the New England Institute of Technology, known informally as New England Tech. The site was purchased by the school in 2007, and opened to students in summer 2011. A major expansion begun in 2014 added dormitories and new instructional space. The campus includes a 265,000 square foot facility dedicated to classrooms, technical labs, medical suites for training simulations, and administrative services.

Library.

The current East Greenwich Free Library, at 82 Pierce Street, was endowed by Daniel Albert Peirce in 1913. Pierce was a local resident and co-founder of the Narragansett Electric Company. The library building is built of granite from Coventry, Rhode Island, and was dedicated on June 29, 1915. The library includes special collections on Rhode Island history and genealogy.

Waterfront.

Many restaurants, bars, and clubs sit on the waterfront. East Greenwich Cove also has ample boat parking. There is also a public dock good for fishing and eating, and a dock with a small beach. Across from the coast is Goddard Memorial State Park, which has many beaches including Sandy Point and has easy access from East Greenwich Cove.  Scalloptown Park has been completed at the southern end of Greenwich Cove, built atop the old town landfill. However, it is not part of historical Scalloptown, which was another name for the waterfront in earlier times. Home to a poor community of squatters in the late nineteenth century to the earliest twentieth century, Scalloptown became a community untethered from the rest of East Greenwich. In contrast to the other villages in East Greenwich, Scalloptown consisted primarily of poor whites and African Americans. The true Scalloptown goes from the town dock down past the clubs to Fin's Marina.

Demographics.

As of the United States Census of 2000, there were 12,948 people, 4,960 households, and 3,541 families residing in the town. The population density was 781.0 people per square mile (301.5/km2). There were 5,226 housing units at an average density of 315.2 per square mile (121.7/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 96.64% White, 0.69% African American, 0.06% Native American, 2.50% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.29% from other races, and 0.82% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.90% of the population.  There were 4,960 households out of which 36.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.5% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.6% were non-families. 24.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the average family size was 3.12.  In the town, the population was spread out with 27.5% under the age of 18, 4.6% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $98,063, and the median income for a family was $130,221. Males had a median income of $101,578 versus $90,934 for females. The per capita income for the town was $58,593. About 2.5% of families and 4.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 7.0% of those age 66 or over.  In 2012–2016, according to the Rhode Island Department of Labor, the median family income was $142,648, the highest in Rhode Island.  East Greenwich and the adjacent Warwick neighborhoods of Cowesett and Potowomut are served by several media outlets: "East Greenwich News" (daily) "East Greenwich Patch" (daily), "The East Greenwich Pendulum" (weekly), "The North East Independent" (weekly) and "East Greenwich magazine" (monthly).

Government.

In the Rhode Island Senate, East Greenwich is split in terms of representation. Most of the town is in the 35th District, currently represented by Democrat Bridget Valverde, while a tiny sliver of the northwestern quadrant of the town is in the 33rd District, which is currently represented by Democrat Leonidas P. Raptakis. In the Rhode Island House of Representatives, East Greenwich is in the 30th district represented by Democrat Justine Caldwell. At the federal level, all of East Greenwich is included in Rhode Island's 2nd congressional district and is represented by Democrat James R. Langevin.  In presidential elections, East Greenwich is one of the very few towns in deep blue Rhode Island that has a tendency to lean Republican. Barack Obama managed to carry the town by just over 4.5 points in the Democratic wave year of 2008 and in 2016, Hillary Rodham Clinton won East Greenwich by just under 12 points, marking the best performance for a Democratic presidential nominee in the town for three decades.

East Greenwich is a town and the county seat of Kent County, Rhode Island, United States. The population was 13,146 at the 2010 census. East Greenwich is the wealthiest municipality within the state of Rhode Island. It is part of the Providence metropolitan statistical area and the Greater Boston combined statistical area.

East Greenwich est une ville américaine ("") située dans le comté de Kent, dans l'État de Rhode Island. La municipalité s'étend sur, dont de terres. D'après le recensement de 2010, elle compte.


Definition.

Let be the basis for the (real) quaternions, and let be complex numbers, then  is a "biquaternion". To distinguish square roots of minus one in the biquaternions, Hamilton and Arthur W. Conway used the convention of representing the square root of minus one in the scalar field C by "h" to avoid confusion with the in the quaternion group. Commutativity of the scalar field with the quaternion group is assumed:  Hamilton introduced the terms bivector, "biconjugate, bitensor", and "biversor" to extend notions used with real quaternions.  Hamilton's primary exposition on biquaternions came in 1853 in his "Lectures on Quaternions". The editions of "Elements of Quaternions", in 1866 by William Edwin Hamilton (son of Rowan), and in 1899, 1901 by Charles Jasper Joly, reduced the biquaternion coverage in favor of the real quaternions.  Considered with the operations of component-wise addition, and multiplication according to the quaternion group, this collection forms a 4-dimensional algebra over the complex numbers C. The algebra of biquaternions is associative, but not commutative. A biquaternion is either a unit or a zero divisor. The algebra of biquaternions forms a composition algebra and can be constructed from bicomplex numbers. See "" below.

Place in ring theory.

Linear representation.

Note the matrix product  Because "h" is the imaginary unit, each of these three arrays has a square equal to the negative of the identity matrix. When this matrix product is interpreted as i j = k, then one obtains a subgroup of matrices that is isomorphic to the quaternion group. Consequently,  represents biquaternion "q" = "u" 1 + "v" i + "w" j + "x" k. Given any 2 × 2 complex matrix, there are complex values "u", "v", "w", and "x" to put it in this form so that the matrix ring M(2,C) is isomorphic to the biquaternion ring.

Subalgebras.

Considering the biquaternion algebra over the scalar field of real numbers, the set  forms a basis so the algebra has eight real dimensions. The squares of the elements, and are all positive one, for example,.  The subalgebra given by  is ring isomorphic to the plane of split-complex numbers, which has an algebraic structure built upon the unit hyperbola. The elements and also determine such subalgebras.  Furthermore,  is a subalgebra isomorphic to the tessarines.  A third subalgebra called coquaternions is generated by and. It is seen that, and that the square of this element is. These elements generate the dihedral group of the square. The linear subspace with basis thus is closed under multiplication, and forms the coquaternion algebra.  In the context of quantum mechanics and spinor algebra, the biquaternions, and (or their negatives), viewed in the representation, are called Pauli matrices.

Algebraic properties.

The biquaternions have two "conjugations": where formula_10 when formula_11  Note that formula_12  Clearly, if formula_13 then is a zero divisor. Otherwise formula_14 is defined over the complex numbers. Further, formula_15 is easily verified. This allows an inverse to be defined by

Relation to Lorentz transformations.

Consider now the linear subspace  Proposition: If is in, then formula_20  Proof: From the definitions,  Definition: Let biquaternion satisfy formula_22 Then the Lorentz transformation associated with is given by  Proposition: If is in, then is also in.  Proof: formula_24  Proposition: formula_25  Proof: Note first that means that the sum of the squares of its four complex components is one. Then the sum of the squares of the "complex conjugates" of these components is also one. Therefore, formula_26 Now

Associated terminology.

As the biquaternions have been a fixture of linear algebra since the beginnings of mathematical physics, there is an array of concepts that are illustrated or represented by biquaternion algebra. The transformation group formula_28 has two parts, formula_29 and formula_30 The first part is characterized by formula_31 ; then the Lorentz transformation corresponding to is given by formula_32 since formula_33 Such a transformation is a rotation by quaternion multiplication, and the collection of them is O(3) formula_34 But this subgroup of is not a normal subgroup, so no quotient group can be formed.  To view formula_35 it is necessary to show some subalgebra structure in the biquaternions. Let represent an element of the sphere of square roots of minus one in the real quaternion subalgebra. Then and the plane of biquaternions given by formula_36 is a commutative subalgebra isomorphic to the plane of split-complex numbers. Just as the ordinary complex plane has a unit circle, formula_37 has a unit hyperbola given by  Just as the unit circle turns by multiplication through one of its elements, so the hyperbola turns because formula_39 Hence these algebraic operators on the hyperbola are called hyperbolic versors. The unit circle in and unit hyperbola in are examples of one-parameter groups. For every square root of minus one in, there is a one-parameter group in the biquaternions given by formula_40  The space of biquaternions has a natural topology through the Euclidean metric on -space. With respect to this topology, is a topological group. Moreover, it has analytic structure making it a six-parameter Lie group. Consider the subspace of bivectors formula_41. Then the exponential map formula_42 takes the real vectors to formula_29 and the -vectors to formula_30 When equipped with the commutator, forms the Lie algebra of. Thus this study of a six-dimensional space serves to introduce the general concepts of Lie theory. When viewed in the matrix representation, is called the special linear group SL(2,C) in.  Many of the concepts of special relativity are illustrated through the biquaternion structures laid out. The subspace corresponds to Minkowski space, with the four coordinates giving the time and space locations of events in a resting frame of reference. Any hyperbolic versor corresponds to a velocity in direction of speed where is the velocity of light. The inertial frame of reference of this velocity can be made the resting frame by applying the Lorentz boost given by since then formula_45 so that formula_46 Naturally the hyperboloid formula_47 which represents the range of velocities for sub-luminal motion, is of physical interest. There has been considerable work associating this "velocity space" with the hyperboloid model of hyperbolic geometry. In special relativity, the hyperbolic angle parameter of a hyperbolic versor is called rapidity. Thus we see the biquaternion group provides a group representation for the Lorentz group.  After the introduction of spinor theory, particularly in the hands of Wolfgang Pauli and Élie Cartan, the biquaternion representation of the Lorentz group was superseded. The new methods were founded on basis vectors in the set  which is called the "complex light cone". The above representation of the Lorentz group coincides with what physicists refer to as four-vectors. Beyond four-vectors, the standard model of particle physics also includes other Lorentz representations, known as scalars, and the -representation associated with e.g. the electromagnetic field tensor. Furthermore, particle physics makes use of the representations (or projective representations of the Lorentz group) known as left- and right-handed Weyl spinors, Majorana spinors, and Dirac spinors. It is known that each of these seven representations can be constructed as invariant subspaces within the biquaternions.

As a composition algebra.

Although W.R. Hamilton introduced biquaternions in the 19th century, its delineation of its mathematical structure as a special type of algebra over a field was accomplished in the 20th century: the biquaternions may be generated out of the bicomplex numbers in the same way that Adrian Albert generated the real quaternions out of complex numbers in the so-called Cayley–Dickson construction. In this construction, a bicomplex number ("w,z") has conjugate ("w,z")* = ("w", – "z").  The biquaternion is then a pair of bicomplex numbers ("a,b"), where the product with a second biquaternion ("c, d") is  If formula_50 then the "biconjugate" formula_51  When ("a,b")* is written as a 4-vector of ordinary complex numbers, The biquaternions form an example of a quaternion algebra, and it has norm Two biquaternions "p" and "q" satisfy formula_54 indicating that "N" is a quadratic form admitting composition, so that the biquaternions form a composition algebra.

In abstract algebra, the biquaternions are the numbers, where, and are complex numbers, or variants thereof, and the elements of multiply as in the quaternion group and commute with their coefficients. There are three types of biquaternions corresponding to complex numbers and the variations thereof:

En mathématiques, un biquaternion (ou quaternion complexe) est un élément de l'algèbre des quaternions sur les nombres complexes. Le concept d'un biquaternion fut mentionné la première fois par William Rowan Hamilton au. William Kingdon Clifford utilisa le même nom à propos d'une algèbre différente. Il y a aussi une autre notion de biquaternions, distincte : une algèbre de biquaternions sur un corps commutatif "K" est une algèbre qui est isomorphe au produit tensoriel de deux algèbres de quaternions sur "K" (sa dimension est 16 sur "K", et non pas 8 sur R).


History.

Founded by Michel Leclercq in 1976, Decathlon started with a store in Lille, France. It started to expand abroad a decade later, to Germany in 1986, Spain in 1992, Italy in 1998, Portugal, the United Kingdom in 1999, Brazil in 2001, China in 2003, India in 2009,Taiwan in 2012, Hong Kong in 2013, Malaysia in 2016 and Southeast Asia in 2012 and South Africa, Philippines in 2017 and Australia in 2018. The company employs more than 87,000 staff from 80 different nationalities.  The retailer stocks a wide range of sporting goods, from tennis rackets to advanced scuba diving equipment, usually in large superstores which are sized at an average of 4,000m. Decathlon Group also owns over 20 brands, with research and development facilities all over France to develop the latest innovative designs, registering up to 40 patents per year.

Locations.

As of January 2020, there are 1,647 Decathlon stores worldwide in nearly 1,000 cities of 57 countries.  Online delivery has been introduced in Taiwan, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Netherlands, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, United Kingdom, Germany, Turkey, Hong Kong, India, Japan, Italy, Singapore, Spain, Brazil, Portugal, Romania, Ireland, Mexico, Australia, and recently, Malaysia, Egypt, Vietnam, Thailand, and parts of Canada (Ontario & Quebec).  In India, Decathlon products can be bought directly through their stores subsequent to change in India's FDI policy and approval for Decathlon in February 2013. In addition to this, Decathlon products are also available online through their online resellers.  In late 2016, an online only delivery service was introduced in Tunisia in preparation of the opening in Tunis of its first store. The first store opened in November 2017 in Tunis City commercial center in Tunis. A second location opened in April 2018 in the country situated in La Marsa.  In February 2017, they opened the first store in Bogota, Colombia in the mall Parque La Colina. In July 2017, Decathlon had opened its doors to the Filipino people located at Festival Mall in Filinvest Corporate City, Alabang, Muntinlupa, and in Tiendesitas, Pasig City, Philippines. Their first Australian store opened in Tempe, Sydney, NSW, in December 2017. After two years in the Australian market, the viability of the Australian business is under question after posting a trading loss of $19,563,819 aud in just 2 years of trading  In August 2017, the company announced it would open its first Canadian store in Brossard, Quebec during the spring of 2018.  In April 2018, the company announced it would open its first store in Kiev, Ukraine in the first months of 2019.  In January 2019, the company announced it would open 9 stores in Ireland, starting in Ballymun, north Dublin with features will include a rollerblading track, bike circuit and astroturf pitch.  In April 2019, the company opened its first store in Hanoi, Vietnam. Another store was opened in Ho Chi Minh city in May 2019.  In October 2019, the retail giant opened its first store in Qormi, Malta.  In December 2019, "Decathlon" arrived in Serbia opening its first store in Belgrade.

Product ranges.

The retailer develops and sells its own brands, which the company characterizes as "passion brands". Each sport or group of sports has a separate brand name:  Brands providing technical support for the products for the company's passion brands:

Economic review.

Its success has greatly contributed to the decline of independent retailers in France, while the spread of its own brands has caused great difficulties for traditional manufacturers. 2008 was a record year for the company as the brand Decathlon had beaten all its competitors on three key points: margin, market share, and highest turnover per square meter of retail space. It is arguably the third at a global level. A 2008 survey of 774 catchment areas at the request of the Ministry of Economy and Finance shows that "for sporting goods, Decathlon is dominant in 92.8% of zones". This dominant position has the effect of marginalizing its commercial competitors, including independent retailers.

Competition.

In 2009, Decathlon's sector rivals, and, joined forces to set up a common purchasing centre in Switzerland, intended to "pressurize most of the major international suppliers", according to François Neukirsh, Managing Director of Go Sport, in the newspaper "Les Échos". Otherwise, the company does not have significant competition due to their specific target audience in mass-market retail. Intersport is also a major competitor mainly in European market.

Social standards.

Decathlon claims to follow a strict policy when it comes to employee welfare and that all contractors working with Decathlon follow the Human Responsibility in Production (HRP) process in all activities. The HRP designates the management system and resources implemented by Decathlon relative to workplace conditions at production sites and with suppliers.  Since 2003, Decathlon has adopted a social charter of the Social and Environmental Responsibility World Forum regarding human rights, health and safety, respect for the environment, corruption and management and communication.  Decathlon has however declined to disclose the names of their suppliers, and has been under scrutiny after reports indicate that the company's suppliers in Sri Lanka's free trade zones violate the country's labor laws.

External links.

Decathlon S.A. () is a French sporting goods retailer. With over 1,500 stores in 49 countries, it is the largest sporting goods retailer in the world. Its holding company was formerly known as Oxylane.

Decathlon (ou Oxylane de 2008 à 2014) est une entreprise française de grande distribution de sport et de loisirs, créée en 1976 par Michel Leclercq.


Early exploration and the Viceroyalty.

Spanish exploration of the area began in 1531 with Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán's expedition. He named the main city he founded Villa de Guadalajara after his birthplace and the area he conquered "Conquista del Espíritu Santo de la Mayor España" ("Conquest of the Holy Spirit of Greater Spain"). The Spanish regent Queen Joanna replaced this with "Nuevo Reino de Galicia" ("New Kingdom of Galicia").  Especially under the leadership of Francisco de Ibarra, settlements moved north into the interior of the continent after silver was discovered around Zacatecas. Ibarra named the new area Nueva Vizcaya after his homeland in Spain, Biscay. Nueva Vizcaya included the modern Mexican states of Chihuahua and Durango, the eastern parts of Sonora y Sinaloa and the southwest part of Coahuila. The region was under the jurisdiction of the Royal Audience of Guadalajara and the administration of its president.  As part of the Bourbon Reforms, the northern provinces of the Viceroyalty were organized into the Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North in 1777. The Internal Provinces were originally designed to function independently from the New Spanish Viceroy, but being financially supported by him, they soon lost their autonomy. In 1787, an intendancy was established in Durango to promote economic and population growth. Another intendancy was also set up at Arizpe, Sonora. In 1788, the Internal Provinces were divided into two Commandancies, east and west. From 1788 to 1793, Nueva Vizcaya became part of the Western Internal Provinces, until the two Commandancies were reunited. The Crown restored the dual Commandancies again in 1813, and this division remained until independence in 1821.

War of independence.

The Mexican War of Independence started in 1810. Nueva Vizcaya was not spared. A month before Miguel Hidalgo’s capture, a number of insurgents were detained, and a conflict at San Francisco between several hundred men occurred early in 1812.  After the call of the Junta to reconvene the Spanish Cortes, Nueva Vizcaya elected Juan José Guereña as their representative. Guereña served from April 4, 1811, until his death on September 10, 1813, and was a signatory of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Constitution was well received in the provinces, but was suspended by the viceroy in 1813. Colonial liberals who supported the Constitution continued both legal and extra-legal efforts to reinstate it. Towards the end of 1814, José Félix Trespalacios and Juan Pablo Caballero planned an outbreak at Chihuahua but the plot was revealed to Commandant General García Conde, who now controlled the western section from that city. He promptly arrested the principal plotters, but the men were pardoned through the efforts of authorities and clergy. A brief rebellion by the Opatas of Durango in 1820 was quelled without any serious bloodshed.  The war also imperiled the northern frontier. The trade and tribute system, which the Viceroyalty had established at the end of the 18th century to pacify the nomadic tribes, had broken down due to the war. During this period Chihuahua began to suffer from renewed Apache raids. At the same time the Jesuits, who had been suppressed decades earlier, were permitted to reëstablish their missions. Tensions grew with the young United States, which followed the French boundaries of the recently purchased Louisiana Territory, including several areas which Spain considered its own. In 1819, explorer Zebulon Pike was sent to explore the disputed territory and was arrested by the authorities.

Independent Mexico.

When the Spanish Constitution was restored in 1821, Mariano de Urrea was installed as "Jefe Político" (governor) of Nueva Vizcaya, while Antonio Cordero y Bustamante, who had governed effectively in Durango as civil and military governor during the past three years, was rewarded with the post of Commandant General of the West, replacing Diego García Conde.  A turning point came later that year, when General Agustín de Iturbide rose against the viceregal authorities. The Governor and Intendant of Nueva Galicia, General José de la Cruz, retreated to Durango to make a final effort in behalf of the royalist cause. He entered that city on July 4, 1821, with a force of several hundred soldiers accompanied by fleeing officials from Zacatecas and nearby localities. Iturbide's lieutenant, Pedro Celestino Negrete, followed in pursuit and laid siege to the city early in August with about 3,000 men. De la Cruz held out for over three weeks. His forces suffered severe losses during the fighting which involved heavy shelling and occasional sorties. On August 30, Negrete finally found a vulnerable point in de la Cruz's defenses and placed an artillery battery against it, gaining a decisive advantage. His forces diminished by many defections, de la Cruz accepted a truce on September 3 and the garrison surrendered. They were treated with full honors and permission to leave the country for Spain.  In less than a year, the First Mexican Empire collapsed. Troops rose against the now-Emperor Iturbide. Chihuahua joined the rebellion. Durango was initially against the movement, but on March 5, 1823, the troops and the general population in the region declared themselves in favor. Commandant General Cordero y Bustamante resigned, as did the civil and military Governor of Durango, Brigadier I. del Corral. Gaspar de Ochoa became the new Commandant General and Juan Navarro became Governor of Durango.

Creation of the Federal States of Chihuahua and Durango.

On July 19, 1823, the Supreme Congress decreed the division of Nueva Vizcaya into two provinces, Chihuahua and Durango. The capital of Chihuahua received the title of city and became the seat of a provincial council ("diputación provincial"). Chihuahua, with a population of over 100,000, benefited from a separate administration. It had often found Durango distant and sometimes uncooperative. In the meantime, as a new constitution was being written for the nation, the Mexican provinces transformed themselves into states. A party from Chihuahua and Durango temporarily persuaded the Congress to create a new state — Estado Interno del Norte — by reuniting the two former provinces and including New Mexico. Its capital was at Chihuahua. Durango, however, raised objections, demanding retention of the capital or separation from the new state, because of its large population and superior resources. On May 22 and July 6, 1824, the separation was affirmed. New Mexico was transformed into a separate territory directly administered by the federal government. In the following year the two states issued their constitutions. Chihuahua established a legislative council of not less than eleven deputies, while Durango created bicameral state legislature, with a senate of seven members and a lower house.

Nueva Vizcaya ("New Biscay", ) was the first province in the north of New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango in Mexico.

La Nouvelle-Biscaye ("Nueva Vizcaya" en espagnol), fut la première province du nord du Mexique, à l'époque Nouvelle-Espagne, à avoir été explorée et habitée par les Espagnols. Une province des Philippines porte également ce nom.


History.

Background and motivation.

In PCI, a transaction that cannot be completed immediately is postponed by either the target or the initiator issuing retry-cycles, during which no other agents can use the PCI bus. Since PCI lacks a split-response mechanism to permit the target to return data at a later time, the bus remains occupied by the target issuing retry-cycles until the read data is ready. In PCI-X, after the master issues the request, it disconnects from the PCI bus, allowing other agents to use the bus. The split-response containing the requested data is generated only when the target is ready to return all of the requested data. Split-responses increase bus efficiency by eliminating retry-cycles, during which no data can be transferred across the bus.  PCI also suffered from the relative scarcity of unique interrupt lines. With only 4 interrupt lines (INTA/B/C/D), systems with many PCI devices require multiple functions to share an interrupt line, complicating host-side interrupt-handling. PCI-X added Message Signaled Interrupts, an interrupt system using writes to host-memory. In MSI-mode, the function's interrupt is not signaled by asserting an INTx line. Instead, the function performs a memory-write to a system-configured region in host-memory. Since the content and address are configured on a per-function basis, MSI-mode interrupts are dedicated instead of shared. A PCI-X system allows both MSI-mode interrupts and legacy INTx interrupts to be used simultaneously (though not by the same function.)  The lack of registered I/Os limited PCI to a maximum frequency of 66 MHz. PCI-X I/Os are registered to the PCI clock, usually through means of a PLL to actively control I/O delay the bus pins. The improvement in setup time allows an increase in frequency to 133 MHz.  Some devices, most notably Gigabit Ethernet cards, SCSI controllers (Fibre Channel and Ultra320), and cluster interconnects could by themselves saturate the PCI bus's 133 MB/s bandwidth. Ports using a bus speed doubled to 66 MHz and a bus width doubled to 64 bits (with the pin count increased to 184 from 124), in combination or not, have been implemented. These extensions were loosely supported as optional parts of the PCI 2.x standards, but device compatibility beyond the basic 133 MB/s continued to be difficult.  Developers eventually used the combined 64-bit and 66-MHz extension as a foundation, and, anticipating future needs, established 66-MHz and 133-MHz variants with a maximum bandwidth of 532 MB/s and 1064 MB/s respectively. The joint result was submitted as PCI-X to the PCI Special Interest Group (Special Interest Group of the Association for Computing Machinery). Subsequent approval made it an open standard adoptable by all computer developers. The PCI SIG controls technical support, training, and compliance testing for PCI-X. IBM, Intel, Microelectronics, and Mylex were to develop supporting chipsets. 3Com and Adaptec were to develop compatible peripherals. To accelerate PCI-X adoption by the industry, Compaq offered PCI-X development tools at their Web site.

PCI-X 1.0.

The PCI-X standard was developed jointly by IBM, HP, and Compaq and submitted for approval in 1998. It was an effort to codify proprietary server extensions to the PCI local bus to address several shortcomings in PCI, and increase performance of high bandwidth devices, such as Gigabit Ethernet, Fibre Channel, and Ultra3 SCSI cards, and allow processors to be interconnected in clusters.  Intel gave only a qualified welcome to PCI-X, stressing that the next generation bus would have to be a "fundamentally new architecture". Without Intel's support, PCI-X failed to be adopted in PCs. According to Rick Merritt of the EE Times, "A falling-out between the PCI SIG and a key Intel interconnect designer who spearheaded development on the Accelerated Graphics Port caused Intel to pull out of the initial PCI-X effort".  The first PCI-X products were manufactured in 1998, such as the Adaptec AHA-3950U2B dual Ultra2 Wide SCSI controller, however at that point the PCI-X connector was merely referred to as "64-bit ready PCI" on packaging, hinting at future forward compatibility. Actual PCI-X branding only became standard later, likely coinciding with widespread availability of PCI-X equipped motherboards. When more details of PCI Express were released in August 2001, PCI SIG chairman Roger Tipley expressed his belief that "PCI-X is going to be in servers forever because it serves a certain level of functionality, and it may not be compelling to switch to 3GIO [PCI Express] for that functionality. We learned that from not being able to get rid of ISA. ISA hung around because of all of these systems that weren't high-volume parts." Tipley also announced that (at the time) the PCI SIG was planning to fold PCI Express and PCI-X 2.0 into a single work tentatively called PCI 3.0, but that name was eventually used for a relatively minor revision of conventional PCI.

PCI-X 2.0.

In 2003, the PCI SIG ratified PCI-X 2.0. It adds 266-MHz and 533-MHz variants, yielding roughly 2,132 MB/s and 4,266 MB/s throughput, respectively. PCI-X 2.0 makes additional protocol revisions that are designed to help system reliability and add Error-correcting codes to the bus to avoid re-sends. To deal with one of the most common complaints of the PCI-X form factor, the 184-pin connector, 16-bit ports were developed to allow PCI-X to be used in devices with tight space constraints. Similar to PCI-Express, PtP functions were added to allow for devices on the bus to talk to each other without burdening the CPU or bus controller.  Despite the various theoretical advantages of PCI-X 2.0 and its backward compatibility with PCI-X and PCI devices, it has not been implemented on a large scale (). This lack of implementation primarily is because hardware vendors have chosen to integrate PCI Express instead.  IBM was one of the (few) vendors which provided PCI-X 2.0 (266 MHz) support in their System i5 Model 515, 520 and 525; IBM advertised these slots as suitable for 10 Gigabit Ethernet adapters, which they also provided. HP offered PCI-X 2.0 in some ProLiant servers and offered dual-port 4Gbit/s Fibre Channel adapters, also operating at 266 MHz. AMD supported PCI-X 2.0 (266 MHz) via its 8132 Hypertransport to PCI-X 2.0 tunnel chip. ServerWorks was a vocal supporter of PCI-X 2.0 (to the detriment of the first generation PCI Express) particularly through its chief Raju Vegesna, who was however fired soon thereafter for roadmap disagreements with the Broadcom leadership.  In 2003, Dell announced it would skip PCI-X 2.0 in favor of more rapid adoption of PCI Express solutions. As reported by PC Magazine, Intel began to sideline PCI-X in their 2004 roadmap, in favor of PCI Express, arguing that the latter had substantial advantages in terms of system latency and power consumption, more dramatically stated as avoiding "the 1,000-pin apocalypse" for their Tumwater chipset.

Technical description.

PCI-X revised the conventional PCI standard by doubling the maximum clock speed (from 66 MHz to 133 MHz) and hence the amount of data exchanged between the computer processor and peripherals. Conventional PCI supports up to 64 bits at 66 MHz (though anything above 32 bits at 33 MHz is seen only in high-end systems). The theoretical maximum amount of data exchanged between the processor and peripherals with PCI-X is 1.06 GB/s, compared to 133 MB/s with standard PCI. PCI-X also improves the fault tolerance of PCI, allowing, for example, faulty cards to be reinitialized or taken offline.  PCI-X is backward compatible to PCI in the sense that the entire bus falls back to PCI if any card on the bus does not support PCI-X.  The two most fundamental changes are:

Versions.

Essentially all PCI-X cards or slots have a 64-bit implementation and vary as follows:

Mixing of 32-bit and 64-bit PCI cards in different width slots.

Most 32-bit PCI cards will function properly in 64-bit PCI-X slots, but the bus speed will be limited to the clock frequency of the slowest card, an inherent limitation of PCI's shared bus topology. For example, when a PCI 2.3 66-MHz card is installed into a PCI-X bus capable of 133 MHz, the entire bus backplane will be limited to 66 MHz. To get around this limitation, many motherboards have multiple PCI/PCI-X buses, with one bus intended for use with high-speed PCI-X peripherals, and the other bus intended for general-purpose peripherals.  Many 64-bit PCI-X cards are designed to work in 32-bit mode if inserted in shorter 32-bit connectors, with some loss of speed. An example of this is the Adaptec 29160 64-bit SCSI interface card. However some 64-bit PCI-X cards do not work in standard 32-bit PCI slots. Even if it would work, installing a 64-bit PCI-X card in a 32-bit slot will leave the 64-bit portion of the card edge connector not connected and overhanging, which requires that there be no motherboard components positioned so as to mechanically obstruct the overhanging portion of the card edge connector.

Comparison with PCI-Express.

PCI-X is often confused by name with similar-sounding PCI Express, commonly abbreviated as PCI-E or PCIe, although the cards themselves are totally incompatible and look different. While they are both high-speed computer buses for internal peripherals, they differ in many ways. The first is that PCI-X is a 64-bit parallel interface that is backward compatible with 32-bit PCI devices. PCIe is a serial point-to-point connection with a different physical interface that was designed to supersede both PCI and PCI-X.  PCI-X and standard PCI buses may run on a PCIe bridge, similar to the way ISA buses ran on standard PCI buses in some computers. PCIe also matches PCI-X and even PCI-X 2.0 in maximum bandwidth. PCIe 1.0 x1 offers 250 MB/s in each direction (lane), and up to 16 lanes (x16) are currently supported each direction, in full-duplex, giving a maximum of 4 GB/s bandwidth in each direction. PCI-X 2.0 offers (at its maximum 64-bit 533-MHz variant) a maximum bandwidth of 4,266 MB/s (~4.3 GB/s), although only in half-duplex.  PCI-X has technological and economical disadvantages compared to PCI Express. The 64-bit parallel interface requires difficult trace routing, because, as with all parallel interfaces, the signals from the bus must arrive simultaneously or within a very short window, and noise from adjacent slots may cause interference. The serial interface of PCIe suffers fewer such problems and therefore does not require such complex and expensive designs. PCI-X buses, like standard PCI, are half-duplex bidirectional, whereas PCIe buses are full-duplex bidirectional. PCI-X buses run only as fast as the slowest device, whereas PCIe devices are able to independently negotiate the bus speed. Also, PCI-X slots are longer than PCIe 1x through PCIe 16x, which makes it impossible to make short cards for PCI-X. PCI-X slots take quite a bit of space on motherboards, which can be a problem for ATX and smaller form factors.

PCI-X, short for Peripheral Component Interconnect eXtended, is a computer bus and expansion card standard that enhances the 32-bit PCI local bus for higher bandwidth demanded mostly by servers and workstations. It uses a modified protocol to support higher clock speeds (up to 133 MHz), but is otherwise similar in electrical implementation. PCI-X 2.0 added speeds up to 533 MHz, with a reduction in electrical signal levels.

Développé conjointement par IBM, Compaq, HP et Intel, le bus PCI-X est une évolution du bus PCI standard, destiné en général aux serveurs et stations de travail. Ce type de port est utilisée pour les cartes d'extensions réseau Gigabit Ethernet (débit maximum de soit ), ainsi que les cartes de connexion SCSI Ultra 160 et Ultra 320 (débit maximum de et respectivement). Cette architecture de bus a surtout été employée dans des applications professionnelles, avant d'être remplacée par le bus PCI Express. Ce dernier, étroit et rapide, a une approche différente du bus PCI-X, qui est un bus beaucoup plus large et plus lent.


Early years.

Rabbani, son of Muhammed Yousuf, was born in the northern province of Badakhshan. He was a Persian-speaking ethnic Tajik. After finishing school in his native province, he went to Darul-uloom-e-Sharia (Abu-Hanifa), a religious school in Kabul. When he graduated from Abu-Hanifa, he attended Kabul University to study Islamic Law and Theology, graduating in 1963.  Soon after his graduation in 1963, he was hired as a professor at Kabul University. In order to enhance himself, Rabbani went to Egypt in 1966, and he entered the Al-Azhar University in Cairo where he developed close ties to the Muslim Brotherhood leadership. In two years, he received his masters degree in Islamic Philosophy. Rabbani was one of the first Afghans to translate the works of Sayyid Qutb into Persian. Later he returned to Egypt to complete his PhD in Islamic philosophy and his thesis was titled "The Philosophy and Teachings of Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Jami." In 2004 he received Afghanistan's highest academic and scientific title "Academician" from the Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan.

Political career.

Rabbani returned to Afghanistan in 1968, where the High Council of Jamiat-e Islami gave him the duty of organizing the University students. Due to his knowledge, reputation, and active support for the cause of Islam, in 1972, a 15-member council selected him as head of Jamiat-e Islami of Afghanistan; the founder of Jamiat-e Islami of Afghanistan, Ghulam M. Niyazi was also present. Jamiat-e Islami was primarily composed of Tajiks.  In the spring of 1974, the police came to Kabul University to arrest Rabbani for his pro-Islamic stance, but with the help of his students the police were unable to capture him, and he managed to escape to the countryside. In Pakistan, Rabbani gathered important people and established the party. Sayed Noorullah Emad, who was then a young Muslim in the University of Kabul, became the General Secretary of the party and, later, its deputy chief.  When the Soviets intervened in 1979, Rabbani helped lead Jamiat-e Islami in resistance to the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan regime. Rabbani's forces were the first Mujahideen elements to enter Kabul in 1992 when the PDPA government fell from power. He took over as President from 1992 in accordance to the Peshawar Accords. Rabbani was the third ethnic Tajik leader of modern Afghanistan after Habibullah Kalakani in 1929 and Abdul Qadir in 1978 (and possibly including Babrak Karmal, whose ethnicity was disputed). His rule was limited since the country was fractured by civil war between different sides. Rabbani was forced to flee following the Taliban's conquest of Kabul in 1996. Rabbani operated his government in exile, following the establishment of the Taliban rule of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. In this period between 1996 and 2001, the Rabbani government of the Islamic State of Afghanistan remained the internationally recognized government, despite only controlling about 10% of Afghan territory. For the next five years, he and the Northern Alliance were busy fighting the Taliban until the 2001 US-led Operation Enduring Freedom in which the Taliban government was toppled. Rabbani was head of Afghanistan's High Peace Council, which had been formed in 2010 to initiate peace talks with the Taliban and other groups in the insurgency, until his death.

Assassination.

Rabbani was killed in a suicide bombing at his home in Kabul on 20 September 2011, his 71st birthday. Two men posing as Taliban representatives approached him to offer a hug and detonated their explosives. At least one of them had hidden the explosives in his turban. The suicide bomber claimed to be a Taliban commander, said he bore "very important and positive message" from Taliban leaders in Pakistan, and said he wanted to "discuss peace" with Rabbani. Four other members of Afghanistan's High Peace Council were also killed in the blast.  Afghan officials blamed the Quetta Shura, which is the leadership of the Afghan Taliban hiding in the affluent Satellite Town of Quetta in Pakistan. The Pakistani government confirmed that Rabbani's assassination was linked to Afghan refugees in Pakistan. A senior Pakistani official stated that over 90% of terrorist attacks in Pakistan are traced back to Afghan elements and that their presence in the country was "an important issue for Pakistan" and "a problem for Afghanistan". Pakistani foreign minister Hina Rabbani Khar said that "We are not responsible if Afghan refugees crossed the border and entered Kabul, stayed in a guest house and attacked Professor Rabbani".  In 2011, just days before he died, Rabbani was trying to persuade Islamic scholars to issue a religious edict banning suicide bombings. The former president's 29-year-old daughter said in an interview that her father died shortly after he spoke at a conference on "Islamic Awakening" in Tehran. "Right before he was assassinated, he talked about the suicide bombing issue," Fatima Rabbani told Reuters. "He called on all Islamic scholars in the conference to release a fatwa" against the tactic.  Government minister Nematullah Shahrani said Rabbani is irreplaceable because "he had relations with all these tribes."  United States President Barack Obama and several NATO military leaders condemned the assassination. Japan also offered its condolences at the Sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly. Afghan President Hamid Karzai cut short his trip for the General debate of the sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly following his assassination. Rabbani's son Salahuddin then took over chairmanship of the High Peace Council from his father.

Burhānuddīn Rabbānī (Persian: ; 20 September 1940 – 20 September 2011) was an Afghan politician who served as President of the Islamic State of Afghanistan from 1992 to 1996 ("de jure" until 2001). After the Taliban government was toppled during Operation Enduring Freedom, Rabbani returned to Kabul and served as President from November to 20 December 2001, when Hamid Karzai was chosen at the Bonn International Conference on Afghanistan.

Burhanuddin Rabbani (dari : برهان الدين رباني), né le dans la province de Badakhchan et mort assassiné le dans un attentat suicide à Kaboul, est un homme d'État, le fondateur et le chef du parti politique afghan Jamiat-e Islami, l'un des partis de la résistance afghane contre les Soviétiques, d'inspiration islamiste et rassemblant surtout (mais pas exclusivement) des Tadjiks du Nord. Le commandant Ahmed Chah Massoud était, lui, responsable de la branche militaire de ce parti. Il a été président de l'État islamique d'Afghanistan (1992-2001).