Nature of music criticism.

The musicologist Winton Dean has suggested that "music is probably the most difficult of the arts to criticise." Unlike the plastic or literary arts, the 'language' of music does not specifically relate to human sensory experience – Dean's words, "the word 'love' is common coin in life and literature: the note C has nothing to do with breakfast or railway journeys or marital harmony." Like dramatic art, music is recreated at every performance, and criticism may, therefore, be directed both at the text (musical score) and the performance. More specifically, as music has a temporal dimension that requires repetition or development of its material "problems of balance, contrast, expectation and fulfilment... are more central to music than to other arts, supported as these are by verbal or representational content." The absence of a systematic or consensus-based musical aesthetics has also tended to make music criticism a highly subjective issue. "There is no counter-check outside the critic's own personality."

History.

To end of 18th century.

Critical references to music (often deprecating performers or styles) can be found in early literature, including, for example, in Plato's "Laws" and in the writings of medieval music theorists.  According to Richard Taruskin, the active concert life of late 18th-century London meant that "the role and the function of arts criticism as we know it today were the creations of the English public." However, the first magazines specifically devoted to music criticism seem to have developed in Germany, for example, Georg Philipp Telemann's "Der getreue Music-Meister" (1728), which included publications of new compositions, and "Der kritische Musikus" which appeared in Hamburg between 1737 and 1740. In France in the 1750s, the Querelle des Bouffons (the dispute between supporters of French and Italian opera styles as represented by Jean-Philippe Rameau and Jean-Baptiste Lully respectively) generated essays from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and others, including Denis Diderot's "Rameau's Nephew" (1761). The English composer Charles Avison (1709–1770) published the first work on musical criticism in the English language – an "Essay on Musical Expression" published in 1752. In it, Avison claims that since the time of Palestrina and Raphael, music had improved in status whilst pictorial art had declined. However, he believes that George Frideric Handel is too much concerned with naturalistic imitation than with expression, and criticises the habit, in Italian operas, of that egregious absurdity of repeating, and finishing many songs with the first part; when it often happens, after the passions of anger and revenge have been sufficiently expressed, that reconcilement and love are the subjects of the second, and, therefore, should conclude the performance. Typically, until the late eighteenth century, music criticism centred on vocal rather than instrumental music – "vocal music... was the apex of [the] aesthetic hierarchy. One knew what music was expressing."

Age of Romanticism.

The last years of the eighteenth century reflected both a change of patronage of music from the aristocracy to the rising middle-classes, and the rise of Romanticism in the arts. Both of these had consequences for the practice of music criticism; "the tone of the critic was lowered as his audience expanded: he began to approach the reader as a colleague rather than a pedagogue", and a new generation of critics began to widen their consideration to other aspects of music than its pure representative aspects, becoming increasingly interested in instrumental music. Prominent amongst these was E. T. A. Hoffmann, who wrote in 1809That instrumental music has now risen to a level of which one probably had no inkling not long ago and that the symphony, especially following...Haydn and Mozart, has become the ultimate form of instrumental music – the "opera" of instruments, as it were – all this is well-known to every music-lover.  A further impetus to the direction of music criticism was given by the changing nature of concert programming with the establishment of the European classical music canon; indeed it is at this period that the word 'classical' is first applied to a received musical tradition. At the same time, the proportion of new music to 'canonic' music in concert programming began to decline, meaning that living composers were increasingly in competition with their dead predecessors. This was particularly the case in respect of the rise of Beethoven's reputation in his last year and posthumously. This gave rise both to writings on the value of the 'canon' and also to writings by composers and their supporters defending newer music.  In 1798 the "Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung", edited by Friedrich Rochlitz (1769–1842), began publication in Leipzig, and this is often regarded as the precursor of a new genre of criticism aimed at a wider readership than qualified connoisseurs. In subsequent years several regular journals dedicated to music criticism and reviews began to appear in major European centres, including "The Harmonicon" (London 1823–33), "The Musical Times" (London, 1844-date), the "Revue et gazette musicale de Paris" (Paris 1827–1880, founded by François-Joseph Fétis), the "Berliner allgemeine musikalische Zeitung" founded in 1825 by A.M. Schlesinger and edited by A. B. Marx, and the "Neue Zeitschrift für Musik" founded in 1834 in Leipzig by Robert Schumann and Friedrich Wieck, and later edited by Franz Brendel. Other journals at this period also began to carry extensive writings on music: Hector Berlioz wrote for the Parisian "Journal des débats", Heinrich Heine reported on music and literature in Paris for the Stuttgart "Allgemeine Zeitung", the young Richard Wagner wrote articles for Heinrich Laube's magazine "Zeitung für die elegante Welt" and during his 1839–42 stay in Paris for Schlesinger's publishing house and German newspapers. In 1835 James William Davison (1813–85) began his lifelong career as a music critic, writing 40 years for "The Times."

"The Oxford Companion to Music" defines music criticism as "the intellectual activity of formulating judgments on the value and degree of excellence of individual works of music, or whole groups or genres". In this sense, it is a branch of musical aesthetics. With the concurrent expansion of interest in music and information media over the past century, the term has come to acquire the conventional meaning of journalistic reporting on musical performances.

La critique musicale est l'activité qui consiste à émettre et à diffuser largement un avis sur des œuvres musicales. La personne qui exerce la critique musicale est appelé critique musical. La critique peut s'exercer sur des partitions, mais elle se prononce surtout sur des interprétations en spectacle (opéra, ballet, concert) ou des enregistrements. La critique musicale se fait surtout dans la presse écrite mais aussi à la radio et à la télévision, et maintenant via internet.


Location.

Slovenia's location is where southeastern and Central Europe meet, where the Eastern Alps border the Adriatic Sea between Austria and Croatia. The 15th meridian east almost corresponds to the middle line of the country in the direction west–east.

Geographic coordinates.

Extreme geographical points of Slovenia:  The maximum north–south distance is 1°28' or.<br> The maximum east–west distance is 3°13' or.  The geometric centre of Slovenia (GEOSS) is located at.  Since 2016, the geodetic system of Slovenia with the elevation benchmark of 0 m has its origin at the Koper tide gauge station. Until then, it referred to the Sartorio mole in Trieste (see metres above the Adriatic).

Borders.

The entire Slovenian coastline is located on the Gulf of Trieste. Towns along the coastline include:

Regions.

Historical regions.

The traditional Slovenian regions, based on the former division of Slovenia into the four Habsburg crown lands of (Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and the Littoral) and their parts, are:  The last two are usually considered together as the Littoral Region ("Primorska"). White Carniola ("Bela krajina"), otherwise part of Lower Carniola, is usually considered a separate region, as is the Central Sava Valley ("Zasavje"), which is otherwise a part of Upper and Lower Carniola and Styria.  Slovenian Littoral has no natural island, but there is a plan on building an artificial one.

Climate.

Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) on the coast, oceanic climate (Cfb) in most of Slovenia, continental climate with mild to hot summers and cold winters (Dfb) in the plateaus and mountains on the north, subpolar (Dfc) and tundra (ET) climate above the treeline on the highest mountain peaks. Precipitation is high away from the coast, with the spring being particularly prone to rainfall. Slovenia's Alps have frequent snowfalls during the winter.

Terrain.

A short coastal strip on the Adriatic Sea, an alpine mountain region adjacent to Italy and Austria, mixed mountain and valleys with numerous rivers to the east.  There is only one natural island in Slovenia: Bled Island in Lake Bled in the country's northwest. Lake Bled and Bled Island are Slovenia's most popular tourist destination.

Natural resources.

Lignite coal, lead, zinc, building stone, hydropower, forests

Environment.

Current issues.

The Sava River polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near Koper from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting acid rain.

Slovenia is situated at the crossroads of central and southeast Europe, touching the Alps and bordering the Adriatic Sea. The Alps—including the Julian Alps, the Kamnik-Savinja Alps and the Karawank chain, as well as the Pohorje massif—dominate northern Slovenia along its long border to Austria. Slovenia's Adriatic coastline stretches approximately from Italy to Croatia. Its part south of Sava river belongs to Balkan peninsula – Balkans.

La Slovénie est située à la frontière entre l'Europe du sud, la mer Méditerranée et les Alpes. Les Alpes slovènes, décomposées en 3 zones (Alpes Juliennes, Alpes Carniques et Karawanken), dominent la Slovénie au nord-ouest et près de la frontière autrichienne. La portion slovène de la côte adriatique s'étend sur environ de l'Italie à la Croatie.


Territory.

The region of Brittany was created in 1941 on 80% of the territory of traditional Brittany. The remaining 20% is now called the department of Loire-Atlantique, which is included in the region of Pays de la Loire, whose capital, Nantes, was the historical capital of the Duchy of Brittany.  Part of the reason Brittany was split between two present-day regions was to avoid the rivalry between Rennes and Nantes. Although Nantes was the principal capital of the Duchy of Brittany until the sixteenth century, Rennes had been the seat of the Duchy's supreme court of justice between 1560 and 1789. Rennes had also been the administrative capital of the Intendant of Brittany between 1689 and 1789, and Intendances were the most important administrative units of the kingdom of France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As for the provincial States of Brittany, a legislative body which had originally met every two years in a different city of Brittany, that had met in Rennes only between 1728 and 1789, although not in the years 1730, 1758, and 1760. Despite that, the "Chambre des comptes" had remained in Nantes until 1789. However, from 1381 until the end of the fifteenth century Vannes ("Gwened" in Breton) had served as the administrative capital of the Duchy, remaining the seat of its "Chambre des comptes" until the 1490s, and also the seat of its "Parlement" until 1553 and then again between 1675 and 1689.  Although there were previous plans to create regions out of the departments, like the Clémentel plan (1919) or the Vichy regionalisation programme (1941), these plans had no effect or else were abolished in 1945. The current French regions date from 1956 and were created by gathering departments together. In Brittany, this led to the creation of the new region of Brittany, which included only four out of the five historical Breton departments. The term "région" was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation (2 March 1982), which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for regional representatives took place on 16 March 1986.  A majority of the population in administrative Brittany and in Nantes continue to protest against the division of the traditional territory of Brittany, hoping to see the department of Loire-Atlantique reunited with the administrative region of Brittany. However, such a reunification raises other questions: first, what to do with the remainder of the present region of Pays de la Loire, and second, which city should be chosen as the capital of such a reunified Brittany.  Brittany, lying in the west-northwest corner of France, is one of the great historic provinces of France. The most Atlantic of France's regions, Brittany is proud of its Celtic heritage, that sets it apart from the rest of France. It enjoys a mild climate somewhat warmer though not necessarily drier than the climate of the southwest of England.

History.

The name "Brittany" derives from the Britons who, back in the Dark Ages, came south across the English Channel to seek refuge from the Anglo Saxon invaders who were pushing them out of a large part of the island of Great Britain.  In this historic past, other Britons fled to the west and south west of their own island, to Wales and Cornwall; and so it is that today, Brittany shares a historic culture with the other Celtic regions of northwest Europe. Today, the French administrative region of Brittany covers four "departments", the Côtes d'Armor (22) in the north, Finistère (29) in the far west, Morbihan (56) in the south, and Ille et Vilaine (35) in the east, bordering on Normandy and the Loire valley area. Another department used to belong to the historic province of Brittany, and this was the Loire Atlantique (44), the area round the city of Nantes which used once to be the Breton capital, but is today no longer in the region. The capital city of the modern Brittany region is Rennes, located in the central eastern part of the region; most of the major lines of communication between Brittany and Paris pass through Rennes, which is a large industrial and university city. Other important cities in the region are Brest, one of the two most important French naval ports, Saint-Malo, an imposing walled city on the north coast, and Vannes, the capital of the Morbihan, with an attractive old town centre. Quimper, the capital of the Finistère, and Saint-Brieuc, the capital of the Côtes-d'Armor, are less important. Lorient, in the Morbihan, was once a major shipping port trading with – as its name suggests – the Orient; but its shipping and shipbuilding industries have largely declined, and like other ports on the south coast of Brittany, is better known today for its yachting and yacht-building industry. It is also the venue for Brittany's annual Interceltiques music and culture festival.  Despite its limited size, Brittany is quite a diverse region; the north and west coasts, open to the force of the North Atlantic, are rugged and rocky, with sandy coves and beaches. The south coast, facing onto the Bay of Biscay, is flatter, much milder, and has a number of large sandy beaches. There are also many inlets on the south coast, such as La Trinité sur Mer, which in the past have been ports and commercial harbours, but today are more popular with yachtsmen and a dwindling fishing industry. The sea here is warmer in summer. The backbone of Brittany is a granite ridge stretching from east to west, peaking in the Monts d'Arrée. But most of inland Brittany is farming country, a region known for its milk and butter and its early crops.  As a holiday region, it is Brittany's coasts that attract the greatest number of visitors; the inland regions have attracted many second-home owners from other parts of France, and from Britain. In cultural terms, Brittany has its own language and Celtic cultural tradition that set it apart from the rest of France. The Breton language, though not much used in everyday life, and not understood by most of the modern population, has made a comeback in recent years, and is taught in many schools. Celtic traditions are reflected in Breton folk music, its Celtic festivals, and its prehistoric monuments.

Language and culture.

The name of Brittany derives from settlers from Great Britain, who fled that island in the wake of the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England between the fifth and seventh centuries. Unlike the rest of France and Brittany, Lower Brittany (roughly, west of a boundary from Saint Brieuc to Vannes) has maintained a distinctly Celtic language, Breton, which is related to Cornish and Welsh. It was the dominant language in Lower, or western, Brittany until the mid-20th century. It has been granted regional language status and revival efforts are underway. In Upper, or eastern, Brittany, the traditional language is Gallo, an Oïl language, which has also received regional recognition and is in the process of being revived.  The French administration now allows for some Breton or Gallo to be used by the region and its communes, in road signs and names of towns and cities, alongside the official French version. The two regional languages are also taught in some schools, and many folklore associations and clubs are trying to revive them.  Brittany has historically been a stronghold of the Roman Catholic Church, and its rates of church attendance have tended to be considerably higher than the national average. However, in recent years the influence of the church has declined.

Politics.

The Region of Brittany is administered by the Regional Council of Brittany.  The region was a traditionally conservative and Christian democratic region, with the notable exception of the department of Côtes-d'Armor, a longtime stronghold of the political left. However, the whole of Brittany has recently been moving towards the left, in 2004 electing Jean-Yves Le Drian as its first Socialist regional president, and in the 2007 presidential election voting for Socialist Ségolène Royal. The centrist candidate François Bayrou also polled relatively highly in the region and Fougères elected a MoDem deputy to the National Assembly (he has since joined the pro-UMP New Centre). The French Communist Party's support is largely concentrated in the south-west of the Côtes-d'Armor and north-west of Morbihan. The Greens and other environmentalist parties have traditionally been strong in the region, especially in urban areas such as Rennes or Quimper. The region was one of the few which voted "Yes" to the European constitution in the 2005 referendum, and Brittany continues, along with Alsace, to be a strongly pro-European region.  The Socialist Party controls three general councils (Ille-et-Vilaine, Côtes-d'Armor, and Finistère), while the centrist MoDem controls that of Morbihan, in a coalition with the right.

Economy.

The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 99.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 4.2% of French economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 26,700 euros or 89% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 100% of the EU average.

Transportation.

There are several (Rennes, Brest, Lorient...) serving destinations in Europe. TGV train services link the region with cities such as Paris in 1h27 thanks the LGV Bretagne-Pays de la Loire, Lyon, Lille and the largest French cities. TER Bretagne is the regional rail network serving Brittany in order to link the cities of Brittany to each other. OUIBUS coach services link the region with the largest cities in France at low cost. In addition there is Brittany Ferries that take passengers, vehicles and freight to the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the Spain and Condor Ferries to the Channel Islands.

Geography.

Departments.

Brittany comprises four departments : Morbihan, Finistère, Côtes-d'Armor, Ille-et-Vilaine

Major communities.

The following table is the list of towns in Brittany with a population over 15,000 inhabitants. Rennes is situated in the east of Brittany, being the capital of the region, the capital of the Ille-et-Vilaine department, as well as the most populous metropolitan area in Brittany with 700,000 inhabitants (2013).

Climate.

The Atlantic Ocean and the English Channel provide Brittany with an oceanic climate. Prevailing northwest winds reduce variations of temperature in the region. The climate is drier in southern sections. The extreme northwest has up to 10 days with temperatures above 25 °C, while southeastern Brittany can have up to 50.

Sport.

Two Breton clubs play in Ligue 1, the top flight of French football: Stade Rennais and Stade Brestois. Two other historical clubs, En Avant Guingamp and FC Lorient, play in Ligue 2, and Vannes OC plays in the third tier Championnat National. In rugby union, RC Vannes currently plays in the second level, Pro D2.  The Brest Albatros Hockey is a Brest ice hockey club that play in FFHG Division 1. The plays in LNH Division 1. The Brest Bretagne Handball plays in French Women's Handball Championship. The plays in. The Fortuneo–Vital Concept cycling pro team participate every year at the Tour de France, the Bretagne Classic, and the Route Adélie de Vitré.

Brittany (, ;, ) is the farthest west of the 13 regions of Metropolitan France. It is named after the historic and geographic region of Brittany, of which it constitutes 80%. The capital is Rennes. It is a peninsular region bordered by the English Channel to the north and the Bay of Biscay to the south, and its neighboring regions are Normandy to the northeast and Pays de la Loire to the southeast. Bro Gozh ma Zadoù is the anthem of Brittany. It is sung to the same tune as that of the national anthem of Wales, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, and has similar words. As a region of France, Brittany has a Regional Council, which was most recently elected in 2015.

La région Bretagne est une région administrative française composée des départements des Côtes-d'Armor, du Finistère, d'Ille-et-Vilaine et du Morbihan. Sa préfecture et sa plus grande ville est Rennes.


Biography.

Writing career.

Collins has written novels, screenplays, comic books, comic strips, trading cards, short stories, movie novelizations and historical fiction. He wrote the graphic novel "Road to Perdition" (which was developed into a film in 2002), created the comic book private eye "Ms. Tree", and took over writing the "Dick Tracy" comic strip from creator Chester Gould. Collins briefly wrote the "Batman" comic book in 1987 and crafted a new origin for the Jason Todd character. Collins and artist Terry Beatty created Wild Dog at DC that same year in a self-titled limited series. The character would later appear as a feature in the "Action Comics Weekly" anthology. As of 2016, Wild Dog became a recurring character in the "Arrow" television series and is portrayed by actor Rick Gonzalez.  Another Collins contribution to the Batman franchise was scripting the English-language translation of "" in 2003. He wrote books to expand on the "Dark Angel" TV series. He has written books and comics based on the TV series franchise "CSI". In 2006 he wrote "Buried Deep" (also released as "Bones Buried Deep"), based on the TV series "Bones".  He has written two sequel novels to "Road to Perdition": "Road to Purgatory" and "Road to Paradise". He wrote three more graphic novels starring the characters from "Road to Perdition". These graphic novels, called collectively "On the Road to Perdition", form the basis of the film.  He co-founded the International Association of Media Tie-in Writers with Lee Goldberg. The IAMTW is an organization for writers of tie-ins and novelizations.  Collins studied in the Iowa Writers' Workshop at the University of Iowa.  Collins is a fan of the mystery writer Mickey Spillane from childhood and later became friends with him. The two collaborated on a comic book series in the 1990s called "Mike Danger". Upon Spillane's death in 2006, Collins was entrusted to finish several uncompleted works by Spillane including "Dead Street", "The Goliath Bone", and "The Big Bang".

Movies and music.

In addition to his work as a writer, Collins has written and directed four movies: "Mommy", "Mommy 2: Mommy's Day", "Real Time: Siege at Lucas Street Market", and "Eliot Ness: An Untouchable Life" (based on his Edgar Award–nominated play). All four were produced independently on location in Collins' hometown of Muscatine, Iowa. The first three are available on DVD — separately or in the "Black Box" set — from Troma Team Video, and the Ness film is distributed by VCI Entertainment. The DVD release of 'Real Time: Siege at Lucas Street Market' being notable for being one of the first films to take advantage of the multi-angle feature on DVD players, thus giving viewers the opportunity to watch the story unfold from different viewpoints.  Collins has written and performed music with his rock band, Crusin'.

Political views.

Collins is a Democrat, describing his political views thus: "I think of myself as slightly left of center, but my father thought of himself as slightly right of center, when he was slightly right of Genghis Khan. So who knows? I do know that I veer left when the right is getting out of hand, which they frequently do."

Personal life.

Collins and his wife, Barbara, have a son, Nathan.

Awards.

Collins received an Inkpot Award in 1982. He won the Shamus Award in 1984 and 1992.

Selected bibliography.

"Quarry" series.

This series features a former U.S. Marine sniper turned professional assassin after returning from the Vietnam War in 1973.  Cinemax has created a TV adaptation of "Quarry". Written by Michael D. Fuller and Graham Gordy based loosely on the book series, the project centers on a Marine marksman who, upon returning home from Vietnam in 1972, finds himself shunned by those he loves and demonized by the public. The disillusioned vet is quickly recruited into a network of contract killers and corruption spanning the Mississippi River. The show was cancelled in May 2017.

"Nolan" series.

This series features a professional thief, similar to and apparently inspired by Richard Stark's "Parker" character, who operates in the Midwest.

Mallory series.

The Mallory series is about a mystery writer in Iowa who solves crimes.

Nathan Heller series.

Collins's longest running series and arguably his best known work is his Nathan Heller series. Heller is a Chicago private investigator who gets involved in famous crimes and meets famous people of the 1930s and 1940s, including Orson Welles, Frank Nitti, and Sally Rand. The first novel in this historical fiction series, "True Detective", won the 1984 Shamus Award for Best P.I. Hardcover from the Private Eye Writers of America. Collins won his second Shamus in 1992 for the Heller novel "Stolen Away", an account of the Lindbergh kidnapping. His 1999 novel "Flying Blind" sees Heller investigate the disappearance of Amelia Earhart, along the way becoming romantically involved with her. With the release of "Chicago Confidential", Collins moved the action into the 1950s. "Target Lancer", about an alleged attempt to assassinate John F. Kennedy in Chicago just weeks before the actual assassination in Dallas, was published in November 2012.

Eliot Ness series.

This series of novels is about real life Untouchable Eliot Ness's career as Director of Public Safety in Cleveland.

Road to Perdition series.

(*) Note: "Road to Perdition: On the Road", is a single-volume collection of "On the Road to Perdition" Books 1–3.

Jack & Maggie Starr series.

A mystery series set in and around the American comic book industry during the tail end of the Golden Age of Comic Books

Max Allan Collins (born March 3, 1948) is an American mystery writer, noted for his graphic novels. His work has been published in several formats and his "Road to Perdition" series was the basis for a film of the same name. He wrote the "Dick Tracy" newspaper strip for many years and has produced numerous novels featuring the character as well.

Max Allan Collins est un écrivain américain né le à Muscatine, (Iowa). C'est un auteur très prolifique : il a écrit des romans, des nouvelles, des bandes dessinées, des novélisations, des scénarios de films et des documentaires. Il est aussi le metteur en scène de plusieurs films.


Production.

Dave Grohl began working on new material for the band's next album as early as 2000 during the band's tour promoting "There Is Nothing Left to Lose". Following the tour, the band started to compose songs for their next album in early 2001. After demo work in drummer Taylor Hawkins' home studio in Topanga, the band used the second quarter of 2001 to perform in European festivals. In August, after performing in Chelmsford's V Festival, Hawkins suffered a heroin overdose that left him in a coma for two weeks. After taking time off to recover, during which frontman Dave Grohl accepted an offer to play drums for the Queens of the Stone Age on their album "Songs for the Deaf", the band got together in October 2001 to continue composition. During November and December, they had been recording at Grohl's Studio 606 in Alexandria, Virginia, working with both the producer for their previous album, Adam Kasper, and recording engineer Nick Raskulinecz, whom they met after he had engineered "A320" for "". Raskulinecz had just left his job at Sound City Studios, and speculated that Grohl, having found difficulty in 'finding a guy who would commit to sitting in his basement for four months', picked him for his energetic and enthusiastic nature.  The progress of the Virginia sessions started to become stale, so with six tracks finished, in January 2002 the band moved to Los Angeles' Conway Studios for a "change of scenery". 29 songs were recorded, including "The One"—featured in the film "Orange County" and released as a standalone single— and ten finished tracks that were considered for the upcoming album. The sessions took four months and were at the cost of over US$1,000,000. It was the first Foo Fighters album produced with Pro Tools and on which the band members have recorded separately.  The recording sessions were considered unsatisfying; Hawkins said that "nobody had their studio chops together", and Grohl considered that the band was lacking enthusiasm and were too focused on production, adding that he felt the rough mixes "sucked a lot of the life out of the songs" and "sound[e]d like another band playing our songs. Tensions were escalating, as arguments broke out at the studio, and Hawkins said he "didn't feel we were much of a band" as there was much animosity among the bandmembers. Bassist Nate Mendel said that he was in a bad attitude during the sessions due to disagreements with Grohl, and guitarist Chris Shiflett added that he felt he would at times spend whole days in the studio without playing anything.  The band also showed disappointment with the ten songs that emerged from the sessions, as Hawkins described the finished tracks as "million-dollar demos", and Grohl considered the recordings "far too clean, too tame and boring". The band only liked five of the ten songs, and thought that listeners would enjoy the other five anyway. Grohl was afraid to promote the album because of his lack of confidence in it. After manager John Silva listened to the recordings, he agreed that it was not a work that represented the band well, and that "we can release it now, but I don't know if anyone would want to buy it".  In April 2002, the band discarded the recordings and took a break. The members then each started individual projects: Grohl became the full-time Queens of the Stone Age drummer for a tour, Shiflett started the Viva Death and Jackson projects with his brother Scott and rejoined his former band Me First and the Gimme Gimmes, Hawkins played with Jane's Addiction bassist Eric Avery, and Mendel both played with Juno and reunited with his former bandmate William Goldsmith in The Fire Theft. Later on April, they reunited for the Foo Fighters' scheduled concert at the 2002 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, which Grohl felt could be the last the band would perform. During the rehearsals, the tensions broke out in huge fights, especially between Grohl and Hawkins. The musicians decided to at least perform in Coachella before deciding whether to continue playing together or end the band. After enjoying their performance, the bandmembers decided to remain united and returned to re-recording the album. Grohl decided to take a two-week period before the QOTSA went on tour to work on the Foo Fighters record, and after consulting Raskulinecz decided to promote him to producer. First, Grohl visited Hawkins in Topanga to rework the songs that had already been done and show new compositions, such as "Times Like These", "Low", and "Disenchanted Lullaby". Then Grohl and Hawkins went to Virginia to redo the drum, vocal and guitar tracks across a twelve-day period, and Mendel and Shiflett were later called to record their parts in Los Angeles' The Hook Studios, which were mostly done with the supervision of Raskulinecz, as Grohl had to go back to QOTSA. The only remaining track from the original sessions was "Tired of You", which features a guest appearance by Queen guitarist Brian May. Two of the demos would leak online in 2012, with the other five unreleased demos being leaked on Reddit in 2015.  The title "One by One"—taken from a lyric on "All My Life", and for which the spelling "1 X 1" was also considered—was chosen according to Grohl because "it somehow made sense", and even worked as a reference to relationships—"one person by another person, or one after another". The singer added that the word "one" is frequently used in the album's lyrics, meaning either loneliness or continuation.

Composition.

Upon its release, "One by One" was considered the band's heaviest album, as Grohl described the sound as a darker and more aggressive approach as opposed to the band's usual work. Grohl said that the album mainly focused on the energy of live performances, which he attributed to both the extensive touring preceding the compositions, and the short period during which the re-recordings were done. The frontman added that although the previous albums had songs which were never played live, the track listing on "One by One" was compared to a set list where he would play all songs every night. The early recording sessions had manager John Silva complimenting the songs that did not sound like the band's previous work, and suggesting Grohl to "stop trying to write hit singles and go back to being weird", the band decided to be more experimental in addition to writing music meant to be played in full arenas. The variety included moody songs such as "Have It All" and "Tired of You", the seven-minute "epic opus" album closer "Come Back", and the alternating dynamics of "Halo", which drew inspiration from Tom Petty, Cheap Trick and Guided by Voices. Grohl added that the sonority tried to blend dissonance and melody: "We figured we're gonna get mean, we're gonna get ugly. And then I end up putting this four-part harmony on it, and all of sudden it's beautiful. Like 'wait a second, it was supposed to be gross, and now it's gorgeous'."  While in previous records Grohl tried to not get introspective in his lyrics, for "One by One" he found himself writing lyrics that matched the "emotional level we were hinting with the music", such as "Come Back", with words "revealing all these dark, shitty sides of myself". The lyrics to a song were usually done after finishing the vocal track for another. Grohl described the track listing as "11 tortured love songs", with a major theme of "surrendering to yourself", and a sequencing that described the difficult beginnings of falling in love, and then the relief of feeling comfortable in love. A major inspiration was Grohl's new girlfriend Jordyn Blum, as well as the troubled times with the band, demonstrated in "Times Like These", which laments the absence of the Foo Fighters and ponders about their future.

Packaging and formats.

The album artwork was done by Raymond Pettibon, who has worked with punk bands such as Black Flag and Minutemen. Grohl was introduced to Pettibon by ex-Minutemen bassist Mike Watt and, after visiting his house, decided to hire him for the artwork because "we had to somehow pay tribute to Pettibon as a hero, because his stuff, those images just stuck with me my whole life." Grohl came up with the heart theme used in the booklet and related singles. The album was issued with two different covers, black and white. The first 575,000 units comprised a limited edition with a bonus DVD.  A limited international edition features seven bonus tracks: the outtake "Walking a Line", three live songs, and three covers, The Psychedelic Furs' "Sister Europe", the Ramones' "Danny Says"—with Shiflett on the vocals—and Joe Walsh's "Life of Illusion"—sung by Hawkins. A Norwegian version had an extra album with tracks recorded at the Oslo Spektrum on December 4, 2002. "One by One" was also issued as a double vinyl LP record, and a DVD-Audio with 5.1 surround sound mixes.  An Enhanced CD edition was released with weblinks to their official website and where to download free music.

Critical reception.

"One by One" received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, a website that assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 75, based on 19 reviews. Reviewer Jon Pareles of "Rolling Stone" praised the "potent guitar riffs" and the introspective themes, which he called "stronger and broader than autobiography". "NME"s April Long felt that "even the quieter moments bristle" and considered the album an affirmation of the band's quality. Michael Paoletta of "Billboard" considered the album "among the band's best work" and that the themes gave the record "an emotional intimacy that makes it all more satisfying". "Entertainment Weekly"s Ken Tucker rated the album A-, calling it full of "unexpected exhilaration" and liking the "exploration of various relationships" on the lyrics. "The Austin Chronicle" reviewer praised the heavy sound of the album, saying it drifted from the light-hearted tone of songs such as "Big Me" while "retaining their melodic instincts".  However, many reviewers felt that the album was not up to the standards of the Foo Fighters' previous work. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that although "One by One" was well-produced and played, it was too polished to "hit at a gut-level" and that the songs were "not as immediate or memorable" as the band's earlier compositions. Writing for PopMatters, Margaret Schwartz considered the album "ultimately unsatisfying" despite its quality writing and production, particularly for not drifting much from the band's typical style. Stephen Thompson of "The A.V. Club" described "One by One" as "mostly middling, sticking to slick, pounding, functional rock that doesn't dig much deeper than the usual spleen-venting and loud-quiet brooding-to-bluster formula". BBC's Nick Reynolds found the record inconsistent, praising the first four tracks but saying the following songs did not maintain the same quality, and concluding that although "One By One" is a good record, it may frustrate a listener. Eric Carr of "Pitchfork" was very critical of the album, saying it was overproduced and the songs are "weightless, antiseptic cuts" with "skillful composition" but "lacking strength and character".  In 2004, "One by One" won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Album, while one year earlier at the 45th Grammy Awards "All My Life" was chosen as Best Hard Rock Performance. While the band had a positive opinion about the record following release, as Grohl said the songs were "the best we've ever written", he and the rest of the Foo Fighters eventually grew distasteful about the results. Grohl stated that he was frustrated at himself for rushing on the album: "four of the songs were good, and the other seven I've never played again in my life." Hawkins said that "if you think about things too much, they kinda get sterile, as we found out there", and Shiflett declared that "there are great songs [in "One by One"], and then there are... "parts" of great songs".

Awards.

Grammy Awards

Commercial performance.

"One by One" was released on October 22, 2002. That same day, the band began the One by One Tour with a concert at the Los Angeles Wiltern Theatre. The lead single "All My Life" had been released on September 7, and the band issued three more songs as singles in 2003: "Times Like These", "Low", and "Have It All". BMG became partners with telecom firm O2 and music provider Musiwave to promote the album in Europe with a special campaign focused on cellphones.  The album debuted at third place on the "Billboard" 200, with 122,000 copies sold in its first week, and spent 50 overall weeks on the chart. By 2011, "One by One" had sold 1.333 million units in North America, being certified Platinum by the RIAA. The international release was also successful, with RCA announcing "One by One" had surpassed 2 million copies worldwide in January 2003. The album debuted at number one in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia, and outsold predecessor "There Is Nothing Left to Lose" in Australia, Japan and various Asian markets.

Track listing.

Special edition DVD.

The album was also originally released with a limited edition bonus DVD which contains:

Personnel.

Adapted from the liner notes.

One by One is the fourth studio album by American rock band Foo Fighters, released on October 22, 2002 by Roswell and RCA Records. Production on the album was troubled, with initial recording sessions considered unsatisfying and raising tensions between the band members. They eventually decided to redo the album from scratch during a two-week period at frontman Dave Grohl's home studio in Alexandria, Virginia. The album, which includes the successful singles "All My Life" and "Times Like These", has been noted for its introspective lyrics and a heavier, more aggressive sound compared to the band's earlier work, which Grohl said was intended to translate the energy of the Foo Fighters' live performances into a recording. This was the first album recorded with Chris Shiflett as part of the band.

One by One est le quatrième album studio du groupe américain de rock alternatif Foo Fighters publié le par RCA Records. Sorti en deux éditions, l'une avec une pochette noire, l'autre avec une pochette blanche, cet album voit l'arrivée du guitariste Chris Shiflett au sein du groupe.


Early life.

Born in 1947 in Thái Bình a province in northern Vietnam, Dương came of age just as the Vietnam War was turning violent. At the age of twenty, when she was a student at Vietnamese Ministry of Culture’s Arts College, Dương Thu Hương volunteered to serve in a women’s youth brigade on the front lines of "The War Against the Americans". Dương spent the next seven years of the war in the jungles and tunnels of "Bình Trị Thiên", the most heavily bombarded region of the war. Her mission was to "sing louder than the bombs" and to give theatrical performances for the North Vietnamese troops, but also to tend to the wounded, bury the dead, and accompany the soldiers along. She was one of three survivors out of the forty volunteers in that group. She was also at the front during China’s attacks on Vietnam in 1979 during the short-lived Sino-Vietnamese War. However, in the period after Vietnam’s reunification in 1975, Dương became increasingly outspoken and critical about the repressive atmosphere created by the Communist government. Upon seeing the conditions in the South – compared with the North – she began speaking out against the communist government.

Writings.

Her first novels, "Journey in Childhood" ("Hành trình ngày thơ ấu", 1985), "Beyond Illusions" ("Bên kia bờ ảo vọng", 1987), "Paradise of the Blind" ("Những thiên đường mù", 1988) and "The Lost Life" ("Quãng đời đánh mất", 1989) were published in her native Vietnam and soon became bestsellers in Vietnam before they were banned. The third one was also the first Vietnamese novel ever published in the United States in English. Her next three books — "Novel Without a Name" ("Tiểu thuyết vô đề", 1991), "Memories of a Pure Spring" (2000), and "No Man's Land" ("Chốn vắng", 2002) — have not been published in the United States. She was made a Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government (1994). She earlier wrote a number of short stories and screenplays. One story, "Reflections of Spring," was translated by Linh Dinh and included in the anthology, "Night, Again: Contemporary Fiction from Vietnam" (Seven Stories Press 2006). The latest novel "No Man's Land" ("Terre des oublis" in French, which won the Grand prix des lectrices de Elle (2007)), perhaps her most successful, was in the final list of the prize Femina 2006 and received the Grand prix des lectrices de "Elle" in 2007.

Political fallout.

Dương has been labeled as a "dissident writer" and been expelled by Vietnam’s Communist party and was imprisoned for a short time in 1991 for remarks criticizing the goals and interests of the party and its members. This is not unusual in contemporary Vietnam; Linh Dinh, in his introduction to the collection "Night, Again", details the government’s extreme response to certain subjects in writing – for example, in 1956, the poet Tran Dan was arrested for capitalizing "He" in a brief passage of a poem cataloging social despair, since such a designation was reserved for Ho Chi Minh. In 1991, Le Minh Khue was still criticized for having a North Vietnamese female soldier daydream about the smile of a handsome South Vietnamese prisoner of war.  Though she was one of Vietnam’s most popular writers, most of her fiction is published outside of Vietnam due to both the censorship and the government’s monopoly of the publishing industry.  Recently, she has retired and earns a pension of approximately twenty U.S. dollars per month and must earn her living working as a translator and trying to publish her novels and short stories abroad. She believes in struggling to gain democracy; while unable to run for political office or organize a competing party, she now uses writing in order to articulate that message.  In her story "The Story of an Actress," Dương combines her passionate beliefs about human freedom with her existentialist literary sensibilities. Bê and Thom live next door to one another and become best friends; while Bê is intelligent and fun-loving, Thom develops into the town beauty. Thom ends up marrying the most famous theater director in Vietnam, a man 40 years her senior, in an attempt to become an actress; Bê visits her and watches her life disintegrate as she works toward her degree and her own life dream.  On the surface, it seems to be a relatively simple story about two girls growing up and choosing different paths in life. But her language and details betray, as with Ho Xuan Huong, a deeper level to a simple story. She is critiquing a contemporary society where beauty is prized over intellect and money over kindness, and calling attention to how the optimism of youth, when it fades, can be so devastating that it drives people to despair.  According to Dương, most writers must learn how to voice their individual concerns within a group mentality. In other words, their writing must reflect the individual and the masses at large in a way that's approved by the party; Dương finds that most writers in contemporary Vietnam get caught up in the group thinking mentality.  Dương has felt the effects of censorship perhaps more cruelly than many of her fellow writers. Her work is not contained in any Vietnamese anthologies or collections. Though she has achieved success and renown abroad for her novels through translation, the audience she is writing for in Vietnam, that would most understand the minutiae of her stories, does not often have the opportunity to read her work, except when it is smuggled into Vietnam.  Nevertheless, Dương is hopeful for the future of writing in her country. She is counting on the fact that at some point, the people will open their eyes to see what's going on in her homeland.  Dương moved to Paris in 2006. In January 2009, her latest novel, "Đỉnh Cao Chói Lọi", was published; it was also translated into French as "Au zénith".

Dương Thu Hương (born 1947) is a Vietnamese author and political dissident. Formerly a member of Vietnam's Communist party, she was expelled from the party in 1989, and has been denied the right to travel abroad, and was temporarily imprisoned for her writings and outspoken criticism of corruption in the Vietnamese government.

Dương Thu Hương est une romancière et dissidente politique vietnamienne qui participe à la renaissance littéraire du Viêt Nam dans les années 1980, tout comme Nguyễn Huy Thiệp, Phạm Thị Hoài, Bảo Ninh et bien d'autres encore. En plus d'être connue pour ses œuvres littéraires, elle est aussi connue sur le plan international pour sa lutte en faveur de la démocratie et de la liberté, ce qui lui vaut d'être surveillée par les autorités vietnamiennes.


Background.

The Spanish–American War began on April 25, 1898, due to a series of escalating disputes between the two nations, and ended on December 10, 1898, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. It resulted in Spain's loss of its control over the remains of its overseas empire. After much of mainland Latin America had achieved independence, Cuba tried its hand at revolution in 1868–1878, and again in the 1890s, led by José Martí, or "El Apóstol." Martí returned to Cuba and participated at first in the struggles against the Spanish government, but was killed on May 19, 1895. The Philippines at this time also became resistant to Spanish colonial rule. August 26, 1896 presented the first call to revolt, led by Andrés Bonifacio, succeeded by Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy, who had his predecessor arrested. Bonifacio was executed on May 10, 1897. Aguinaldo then negotiated the Pact of Biak-na-Bato with the Spaniards and was exiled to Hong Kong along with the other revolutionary leaders.  The Spanish–American War that followed had overwhelming U.S. public support due to the popular fervor towards supporting Cuban freedom as well as furthering U.S. economic interests overseas. The U.S. was particularly attracted to the developing sugar industry in Cuba. The U.S. military even resorted to falsifying reports in the Philippines in order to maintain public support for U.S. involvement abroad. The U.S. appealed to the principles of Manifest Destiny and expansionism to justify its participation in the war, proclaiming that it was America's fate and its duty to take charge in these overseas nations.  On September 16, U.S. President William McKinley issued secret written instructions to his emissaries as the Spanish–American War drew to a close:

Negotiations.

Article V of the peace protocol between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898 read as follows:  The composition of the American commission was somewhat unusual in that three of its members were senators, which meant, as many newspapers pointed out, that they would later vote on the ratification of their own negotiations. These were American delegation's members:  The Spanish commission included the Spanish diplomats Eugenio Montero Ríos, Buenaventura de Abarzuza, José de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, Rafael Cerero, and the French diplomat Jules Cambon.  The American delegation, headed by former Secretary of State William R. Day, who had vacated his position as US Secretary of State to head the commission, arrived in Paris on September 26, 1898. The negotiations were conducted in a suite of rooms at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the first session, on October 1, the Spanish demanded that before the talks got underway, the return of the city of Manila, which had been captured by the Americans a few hours after the signing of the peace protocol in Washington, to Spanish authority. The Americans refused to consider the idea and, for the moment, it was pursued no further.  Felipe Agoncillo, a Filipino lawyer who represented the First Philippine Republic, was denied participation in the negotiation.  For almost a month, negotiations revolved around Cuba. The Teller Amendment to the US declaration of war made it impractical for the US to annex the island, unlike Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. At first, Spain refused to accept the Cuban national debt of four hundred million dollars, but ultimately, it had no choice. Eventually, it was agreed that Cuba was to be granted independence and for the Cuban debt to be assumed by Spain. It was also agreed that Spain would cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States.  The negotiators then turned to the question of the Philippines. Spanish negotiators were determined to hang onto all they could and hoped to cede only Mindanao and perhaps the Sulu Islands. On the American side, Chairman Day had once recommended the acquisition of only the naval base in Manila, as a "hitching post." Others had recommended retaining only the island of Luzon. However, in discussions with its advisers, the commission concluded that Spain, if it retained part of the Philippines, would be likely to sell it to another European power, which would likely be troublesome for America. On November 25, the American Commission cabled McKinley for explicit instructions. Their cable crossed one from McKinley saying that duty left him no choice but to demand the entire archipelago. The next morning, another cable from McKinley arrived:  On November 4, the Spanish delegation formally accepted the American demand, and Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta backed the commission. With the growing risk of the negotiations collapsing, there were mutters about resuming the war. The US elections on November 8, however, cut McKinley's Republican majority in the US Congress less than had been anticipated. The American delegation, therefore, took heart, and Frye unveiled a plan of offering Spain ten or twenty million dollars for the islands.  After some discussion, the American delegation offered twenty million dollars on November 21, one tenth of a valuation that had been estimated in internal discussions in October, and requested an answer within two days. Montero Ríos said angrily that he could reply at once, but the American delegation had already departed from the conference table. When the two sides met again, Queen-Regent Maria Christina had cabled her acceptance. Montero Ríos then recited his formal reply:  Work on the final draft of the treaty began on November 30. It was signed on December 10, 1898. The next step was ratification. In Madrid, the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislature, rejected it, but Maria Christina signed it as she was empowered to do by a clause in the Spanish constitution.

US ratification.

In the US Senate, there were four main schools of thought on US imperialism that influenced the debate on the treaty's ratification. Republicans generally supported the treaty, but those opposed either aimed to defeat the treaty or exclude the provision that stipulated the acquisition of the Philippines. Most Democrats favored expansion as well, particularly in the South. A minority of Democrats also favored the treaty on the basis of ending the war and granting independence to Cuba and the Philippines. During the Senate debate on ratification, Senators George Frisbie Hoar and George Graham Vest were outspoken opponents. Hoar stated:  Some anti-expansionists stated that the treaty committed the US to a course of empire and violated the most basic tenets of the US Constitution. They argued that neither the Congress nor the President had the right to pass laws that governed colonial peoples who were not represented by lawmakers.  Some Senate expansionists supported the treaty and reinforced such views by arguing:  Expansionists said that the Constitution applied only to US citizens, an idea that was later supported by the US Supreme Court in the Insular Cases.  As the Senate debate continued, Andrew Carnegie and former President Grover Cleveland petitioned the Senate to reject the treaty. Both men adamantly opposed such imperialist policies and participated in the American Anti-Imperialist League, along with other such prominent members as Mark Twain and Samuel Gompers.  The treaty was eventually approved on February 6, 1899, by a vote of 57 to 27, just over the two-thirds majority required. Only two Republicans voted against ratification: George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts and Eugene Pryor Hale of Maine. Senator Nelson W. Aldrich had opposed entry into the Spanish–American War but supported McKinley after it began. He played a central role in winning the treaty's two-thirds majority ratification.

Provisions.

The Treaty of Paris provided for the independence of Cuba from Spain, but the US Congress ensured indirect US control by the Platt Amendment and the Teller Amendment. Spain relinquished all claims of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. Upon Spain's departure, Cuba was to be occupied by the US, which would assume and discharge any obligations of international law by its occupation.  The treaty also specified that Spain would cede Puerto Rico and the other islands under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies as well as the island of Guam in the Mariana Islands to the US.  The treaty also specified that Spain would cede the Philippine Islands, including the islands within a specified line, to the US, and that the United States would pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars.  Specifics of the cession of the Philippines were later clarified by the 1900 Treaty of Washington. The boundary between the Philippines and North Borneo was further clarified by the Convention Between the United States and Great Britain (1930).

Aftermath.

Victory in the Spanish–American War turned the US into a world power because the attainment of the territories of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines expanded its economic dominance in the Pacific. Its growth continued to have effects on US foreign and economic policy well into the next century. Furthermore, McKinley's significant role in advancing the ratification of the treaty transformed the presidential office from a weaker position to a prototype of the stronger presidency that is more seen today.  The US military occupation also continued to have further impacts abroad. In the Philippines, revolts against US involvement, initiated on February 4, 1899, quickly surpassing the fighting that had just ended against the Spanish. As one Filipino writer noted in 1899:  Now here is a unique spectacle – the Filipinos fighting for liberty, the American people fighting to give them liberty.  According to the US National Park Service, "The Spanish–American War and its aftermath delayed Philippine independence until after World War II, but established a relationship that fostered a substantial Filipino population within U.S. borders."  Furthermore, the Platt Amendment allowed the US to continue its occupation of Cuba without annexing it despite promises that had been made during the war and negotiations over Cuban freedom. To maintain control in Cuba, the US government espoused the idea that the Cuban people were unprepared for self-governance. As US Senator Stephen Elkins noted:  When Cuba shall become a part of the American Union and the isthmian canal shall be completed, which is now assured, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii and the Philippines will be outposts of the great Republic, standing guard over American interests in the track of the world's commerce in its triumphant march around the globe. Our people will soon see and feel that these island possessions belonging to the United States are natural and logical, and in the great part we are to play in the affairs of the world we would not only give them up but wonder how the working of our natural destiny we could get on without them. The splendid chain of island possessions, reaching half-way around the world, would not be complete without Cuba, the gem of the Antilles.  Overall, those occupations greatly contributed to the era's growing economic role of the US.

The Treaty of Paris of 1898 (Filipino: "Kasunduan sa Paris ng 1898;" Spanish: "Tratado de París de 1898") was a treaty signed by Spain and the United States on December 10, 1898, that ended the Spanish–American War. Under it, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba and also ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The cession of the Philippines involved a compensation of $20 million from the United States to Spain.

Le traité de Paris de 1898 signé entre l'Espagne et les États-Unis le met fin officiellement à la guerre hispano-américaine. Il est ratifié par le Sénat américain le.


History.

Initial Development.

The section of trackbed between Dún Laoghaire and Dublin City was originally laid out as part of the Dublin and Kingstown Railway, Ireland's first railway. This line was later connected with the Belfast mainline to the north and Wexford mainline to the south and joined the Harcourt Street line at Shanganagh Junction. The scenic views from the railway over Dublin Bay at this point have been favourably compared to those on the Gulf of Naples and have resulted in trips to Killiney Hill and Greystones along the line becoming popular tourist attractions.  Prior to electrification in 1984, the line was operated using 1950s era CIÉ 2600 Class rail cars which had been converted in the early 1970s to push-pull operation. These diesel-powered trains were powered by a CIE 201 Class locomotive with a driving trailer carriage on the other. This service was notoriously uncomfortable, unreliable and overcrowded. By the late 1970s, the need for an urgent upgrade to the system had become apparent as the 2600 Class railcars were in poor condition. Replacement parts had become increasingly difficult to obtain due to the age of the rolling stock and its conversion to push-pull operation, which had been intended as a temporary measure until a more permanent solution could be established, had come to the end of its serviceable life.  In advance of electrification, three new stations at Sandymount, Booterstown and Salthill and Monkstown were added to the network in 1984. Sandymount and Booterstown were each built at the sites of a previous station while Salthill and Monkstown was built near the site of the original Kingstown railway terminus, between Seapoint and Dún Laoghaire. As electrification work was undertaken from 1981–1982, a spur which had served the ferry port at Dún Laoghaire was disconnected from the main line as the installation of overhead power lines to service the harbour would have necessitated the lowering of the track which travelled through a portal south of Dún Laoghaire station.  Early DART services ran from the north-eastern suburb of Howth, through Connolly, Tara Street, and Pearse stations in the city centre and on to Bray which lies on the border between Dublin and Wicklow. This route remained unchanged for almost sixteen years at which point the line between Bray and Greystones was electrified. Further electrification of the line took place between Howth Junction & Donaghmede and Malahide, the northernmost DART station, on the Belfast main line.

Operation.

The DART service is operated by a mixed fleet of electric multiple unit trains. As of 2019, the trains run every ten minutes on weekdays with a reduced service on weekends. Trains north of Howth Junction are split between Howth and Malahide while the Malahide service is supplemented by Northern Commuter trains.  Trains are typically run as four-car, six-car or eight-car sets during the 07.00–09.30 and 17.00–19.00 weekday peak periods. Capacity is reduced during off-peak periods and at weekends, with up to four eight-car sets running. Four-car sets typically consist of a single 8500 Class unit while six-car sets are made up of three 8100 Class units. Eight-car sets can be made up of either two 8500 Class or four 8100 Class units. Both classes had worked in tandem prior to the refurbishment of the ageing 8100 Class in 2007, after which both have been run separately.  Forty two-car 8100 Class units were purchased to run the initial network. Two of these were damaged beyond repair in a depot fire in 2001. Expanding passenger numbers and the need to refurbish the ageing 8100 Class units saw the purchase of four 8500 Class train sets in 2000. These were complemented with three 8510 Class sets in 2001 and ten 8520 Class sets in 2003 and 2004. The now withdrawn 8200 Class sets which were first run in 2000 operated until 2008 at which point they were retired from revenue service and decommissioned due to longstanding technical issues. A redevelopment of the network's stations was undertaken between 2003 and 2005 to lengthen platforms to accommodate eight car sets, upgrade the power grid, and improve accessibility for disabled passengers.

Service.

All trains in the Dublin suburban area, including DART services, are monitored and regulated by a Central Traffic Control (CTC) facility located in Connolly Station, known as Suburban CTC. This facility has been extensively automated and requires a staff of five; two signallers, one with responsibility for level crossings, an electrical control officer, who supervises the electrical power supply equipment and an overall supervisor. The main CTC is staffed at all times however, there are also backup local control rooms which allow services to continue in the event of serious technical problems.  A single driver is responsible for the management of each train from the cab in the leading carriage. Automatic doors are controlled by the driver and are armed upon arrival at stations. Real time passenger information displays on station platforms offer passengers updates on next train arrival times, service updates and outages. Automatic PA announcements are made in case of service disruptions and are tailored to each station.  The majority of stations on the network have been renovated to include automatic barriers which require passengers to submit their ticket for verification before they can set foot on the platform. A ticket is required in advance of boarding DART services and can be purchased at stations from manned kiosks and automated machines. Passengers can also avail of the option of using a Leap Card, Dublin's integrated ticketing scheme. Leap cards are offered as contactless cards onto which passengers can load set ticket options or a cash balance. Leap fares are typically cheaper than paying in cash for a journey. On the DART network, users tag on at their point of entry and tag off at their exit point. Irish Rail, along with Dublin's other public transport operators operated its own smart card system which was phased out to coincide with the Leap Card's introduction. Revenue protection officers check passengers tickets to ensure validity both on board trains and on station platforms at random intervals.

DART stations.

South of Howth Junction South of the River Liffey South of Dún Laoghaire

Future.

DART Expansion Project.

In February 2018, the Irish government and National Transport Authority announced a 10 year plan to electrify the lines to Drogheda, Maynooth, Hazelhatch, M3 Parkway and Docklands. Part of this plan also includes ordering 300 further EMU DART coaches and building new stations. Irish Rail are also planning on ordering 300 bi-mode units to allow longer-distance services to run electrified when under wires.  The initial phase of this is to provide 40 km of electrification to Maynooth, M3 Parkway and Docklands; with a new EMU maintenance depot at Maynooth and additional works in relation to signalling and level crossing closures. This has progressed to the design stage as of April 2019.  A tender for up to 600 hybrid battery/electric units was issued in May 2019, to replace the entire existing fleet and provide capacity for expansion  A tender for initial design work for electrification to Hazelhatch and of the Phoenix Park Tunnel as well as quad-tracking the remaining section of the line between Heuston and Cherry Orchard; and an additional station at the Kylemore Road was issued in June 2019.  A new Dart station is proposed to be built between Shankill and Bray on the southern section of the dart line with an application to be submitted by the NTA in Q1 2020. The station is to be called Woodbrook.

Former/Suspended Proposals.

Plans have been laid out to expand the DART network beyond the coastal main line and provide service to the north and west of the city. Part of this expansion will consist of a purpose built tunnel linking the Docklands Station at Spencer Dock in the city's quays and Heuston Station This tunnel, the planned DART Underground, which includes plans for services from Celbridge/Hazelhatch to the Docklands via St. Stephen's Green. To accommodate this change, the plans called for the existing line to be realigned to run from Greystones in the south to Maynooth with the electrification of the Connolly to Maynooth line. An interchange at Pearse Street was to connect the proposed lines. The DART Underground project was however, put on indefinite hold in September 2015.

DART Line 1.

The southern portion of the existing DART line is to branch west after Connolly Station to run onto the "Western Commuter" line, which is to be electrified as far as Maynooth. The branch to Navan (currently constructed and operational to M3 Parkway with further extension also postponed) is also due to be electrified as far as Dunboyne, with the goal of increasing the frequency of services on these lines.

DART Line 2.

The Northern portion of the DART line (North of Connolly Station) will be linked using the DART Underground to the Kildare line via Docklands station at Spencer Dock and Heuston Station. This strategic tunnel will link the DART directly with existing Luas light rail lines, hundreds of bus routes, planned Metro lines and extend the high frequency DART service to the Kildare commuter line. A DART service originating from the Northside (i.e. Howth) will divert to the Docklands and from there through a tunnel to Heuston station to continue service on the Kildare line. In April 2009, it was announced that an electrification project would extend the DART as far as Drogheda.

Rolling Stock.

Future Fleet.

In October 2008, Iarnród Éireann announced plans for a massive expansion of the DART fleet, with a €900 million order for a total of 432 individual EMU cars for delivery between 2011–2012. Due to the economic downturn this delivery was put on hold.  In May 2019, IÉ announced its Invitations to Tender for a new fleet of 300 bi-mode vehicles with the intention of extending DART services beyond the existing electrified network from 2023 onwards. A further 300 EMU vehicles are to be procured to replace the 8100 Class units. The bi-mode trains will be capable of dual voltage operation, as future electrification on the Irish network is planned to be at 25 kV AC power, while the existing DART network will remain at 1.5 kV DC.

DART's competitors.

Irish Rail operates a rail monopoly. The only other company to operate on lines in the Republic of Ireland is Northern Ireland Railways, which jointly operates the cross-border Enterprise service between Dublin and Belfast.  A number of other public transport modes are available in Dublin. The CIÉ-owned Dublin Bus and the private Go-Ahead Ireland (owned by Go-Ahead Group) are virtually ubiquitous, running all over the city. As such, they have many routes that run parallel to DART for stretches. However, they do not have any scheduled routes that traverse the entire length of the DART line. As in the rest of Ireland, integration of bus and rail services is very limited though there are some "feeder bus" routes for which it is possible to buy a through ticket valid for both the rail and bus section of the journey. Travel passes and integrated ticketing (Leap Cards) for DART, Luas and Dublin Bus services were introduced in 2011.  The Luas light rail system, which partially integrates with the DART at Connolly Station, is not seen as a competitor, as neither of its routes run along similar routes to DART.  It is also unlikely that the future MetroLink will be seen as a competitor to the DART.

Broken lifts.

Broken lifts are a regular occurrence on the DART and commuter lines and deny people with disabilities on usually 9 stations on the DART line. On 26 July 2019, people protested at Clontarf Road. Irish Rail are undertaking a programme of preventive maintenance to address lifts with recurring faults and misuse including vandalism.

The Dublin Area Rapid Transit system (stylized as DART) is an electrified commuter rail railway network serving the coastline and city centre of Dublin. The service makes up the core of Dublin's suburban railway network, stretching from Greystones, County Wicklow, in the south to Howth and Malahide in north County Dublin. The DART serves 31 stations and consists of 53 kilometres of track, and carries in the region of 20 million passengers per year.

Le Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) est un service de transport en commun ferroviaire desservant Dublin et son agglomération. Il est exploité par la compagnie des chemins de fer irlandais Iarnród Éireann. Le réseau est actuellement composé d'une seule ligne de 53 km de long et desservant 31 stations qui relie la ville de Greystones dans le comté de Wicklow au sud à Howth et Malahide au nord. Sa fréquentation annuelle s'élève à 16 millions de passagers par an.


Sponsors.

The sponsors of both the Banking Act of 1933 and the Glass–Steagall Act of 1932 were southern Democrats: Senator Carter Glass of Virginia (who in 1932 had been in the House, Secretary of the Treasury, or in the Senate, for the preceding 30 years), and Representative Henry B. Steagall of Alabama (who had been in the House for the preceding 17 years).

Legislative history.

Between 1930 and 1932 Senator Carter Glass (D-VA) introduced several versions of a bill (known in each version as the Glass bill) to regulate or prohibit the combination of commercial and investment banking and to establish other reforms (except deposit insurance) similar to the final provisions of the 1933 Banking Act. On June 16, 1933, President Roosevelt signed the bill into law. Glass originally introduced his banking reform bill in January 1932. It received extensive critiques and comments from bankers, economists, and the Federal Reserve Board. It passed the Senate in February 1932, but the House adjourned before coming to a decision. The Senate passed a version of the Glass bill that would have required commercial banks to eliminate their securities affiliates.  The final Glass–Steagall provisions contained in the 1933 Banking Act reduced from five years to one year the period in which commercial banks were required to eliminate such affiliations. Although the deposit insurance provisions of the 1933 Banking Act were very controversial, and drew veto threats from President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President Roosevelt supported the Glass–Steagall provisions separating commercial and investment banking, and Representative Steagall included those provisions in his House bill that differed from Senator Glass's Senate bill primarily in its deposit insurance provisions. Steagall insisted on protecting small banks while Glass felt that small banks were the weakness to U.S. banking.  Many accounts of the Act identify the Pecora Investigation as important in leading to the Act, particularly its Glass–Steagall provisions, becoming law. While supporters of the Glass–Steagall separation of commercial and investment banking cite the Pecora Investigation as supporting that separation, Glass–Steagall critics have argued that the evidence from the Pecora Investigation did not support the separation of commercial and investment banking.  This source states that Senator Glass proposed many versions of his bill to Congress known as the Glass Bills in the two years prior to the Glass–Steagall Act being passed. It also includes how the deposit insurance provisions of the bill were very controversial at the time, which almost led to the rejection of the bill once again.  The previous Glass Bills before the final revision all had similar goals and brought up the same objectives which were to separate commercial from investment banking, bring more banking activities under Federal Reserve supervision and to allow branch banking. In May 1933 Steagall's addition of allowing state chartered banks to receive federal deposit insurance and shortening the time in which banks needed to eliminate securities affiliates to one year was known as the driving force of what helped the Glass–Steagall act to be signed into law.

Separating commercial and investment banking.

The Glass–Steagall separation of commercial and investment banking was in four sections of the 1933 Banking Act (sections 16, 20, 21, and 32). The Banking Act of 1935 clarified the 1933 legislation and resolved inconsistencies in it. Together, they prevented commercial Federal Reserve member banks from:  Conversely, Glass–Steagall prevented securities firms and investment banks from taking deposits.  The law gave banks one year after the law was passed on June 16, 1933 to decide whether they would be a commercial bank or an investment bank. Only 10 percent of a commercial bank's income could stem from securities. One exception to this rule was that commercial banks could underwrite government-issued bonds.  There were several "loopholes" that regulators and financial firms were able to exploit during the lifetime of Glass–Steagall restrictions. Aside from the Section 21 prohibition on securities firms taking deposits, neither savings and loans nor state-chartered banks that did not belong to the Federal Reserve System were restricted by Glass–Steagall. Glass–Steagall also did not prevent securities firms from owning such institutions. S&Ls and securities firms took advantage of these loopholes starting in the 1960s to create products and affiliated companies that chipped away at commercial banks' deposit and lending businesses.  While permitting affiliations between securities firms and companies other than Federal Reserve member banks, Glass–Steagall distinguished between what a Federal Reserve member bank could do directly and what an affiliate could do. Whereas a Federal Reserve member bank could not buy, sell, underwrite, or deal in any security except as specifically permitted by Section 16, such a bank could affiliate with a company so long as that company was not "engaged principally" in such activities. Starting in 1987, the Federal Reserve Board interpreted this to mean a member bank could affiliate with a securities firm so long as that firm was not "engaged principally" in securities activities prohibited for a bank by Section 16. By the time the GLBA repealed the Glass–Steagall affiliation restrictions, the Federal Reserve Board had interpreted this "loophole" in those restrictions to mean a banking company (Citigroup, as owner of Citibank) could acquire one of the world's largest securities firms (Salomon Smith Barney).  By defining commercial banks as banks that take in deposits and make loans and investment banks as banks that underwrite and deal with securities the Glass–Steagall act explained the separation of banks by stating that commercial banks could not deal with securities and investment banks could not own commercial banks or have close connections with them. With the exception of commercial banks being allowed to underwrite government-issued bonds, commercial banks could only have 10 percent of their income come from securities.

Decline and repeal.

It was not until 1933 that the separation of commercial banking and investment banking was considered controversial. There was a belief that the separation would lead to a healthier financial system. As time passed, however, the separation became so controversial that in 1935, Senator Glass himself attempted to "repeal" the prohibition on direct bank underwriting by permitting a limited amount of bank underwriting of corporate debt.  In the 1960s the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency issued aggressive interpretations of Glass–Steagall to permit national banks to engage in certain securities activities. Although most of these interpretations were overturned by court decisions, by the late 1970s bank regulators began issuing Glass–Steagall interpretations that were upheld by courts and that permitted banks and their affiliates to engage in an increasing variety of securities activities. Starting in the 1960s banks and non-banks developed financial products that blurred the distinction between banking and securities products, as they increasingly competed with each other.  Separately, starting in the 1980s, Congress debated bills to repeal Glass–Steagall's affiliation provisions (Sections 20 and 32). Some believe that major U.S. financial sector firms established a favorable view of deregulation in American political circles, and in using its political influence in Congress to overturn key provisions of Glass-Steagall and to dismantle other major provisions of statutes and regulations that govern financial firms and the risks they may take. In 1999 Congress passed the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, to repeal them. Eight days later, President Bill Clinton signed it into law.

Aftermath of repeal.

After the financial crisis of 2007–2008, some commentators argued that the repeal of Sections 20 and 32 had played an important role in leading to the housing bubble and financial crisis. Economics Nobel prize laureate Joseph Stiglitz, for instance, argued that "[w]hen repeal of Glass-Steagall brought investment and commercial banks together, the investment-bank culture came out on top", and banks which had previously been managed conservatively turned to riskier investments to increase their returns. Another laureate, Paul Krugman, contended that the repealing of the act "was indeed a mistake"; however, it was not the cause of the financial crisis.  Other commentators believed that these banking changes had no effect, and the financial crisis would have happened the same way if the regulations had still been in force. Lawrence J. White, for instance, noted that "it was not [commercial banks'] investment banking activities, such as underwriting and dealing in securities, that did them in".  At the time of the repeal, most commentators believed it would be harmless. Because the Federal Reserve's interpretations of the act had already weakened restrictions previously in place, commentators did not find much significance in the repeal, especially of sections 20 and 32. Instead, the five year anniversary of its repeal was marked by numerous sources explaining that the GLBA had not significantly changed the market structure of the banking and securities industries. More significant changes had occurred during the 1990s when commercial banking firms had gained a significant role in securities markets through "Section 20 affiliates".

Post-financial crisis reform debate.

Following the financial crisis of 2007–2008, legislators unsuccessfully tried to reinstate Glass–Steagall Sections 20 and 32 as part of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Both in the United States and elsewhere around the world, banking reforms have been proposed that refer to Glass–Steagall principles. These proposals include issues of “ringfencing” commercial banking operations and narrow banking proposals that would sharply reduce the permitted activities of commercial banks.

The Glass–Steagall legislation describes four provisions of the United States Banking Act of 1933 separating commercial and investment banking. The article 1933 Banking Act describes the entire law, including the legislative history of the provisions covered herein.

Le Glass-Steagall Act est le nom sous lequel est généralement connu le Banking Act de 1933 aux États-Unis par lequel sont instaurés :


Life.

Early life.

She was the daughter of Robert IV, Count of Dreux, and Beatrice, Countess of Montfort. Her father was a patrilineal descendant of King Louis VI of France, making her a member of a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty with powerful connections.

Queen of Scotland.

In 1281, King Alexander III of Scotland lost his son David and two other children in the two following years, leaving his granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway, as his heir presumptive. He was in need to remarry to have a new heir to the throne. Yolande was the stepdaughter of Jean de Brienne, the second spouse of king Alexander's mother, queen dowager Marie de Coucy, and considered a suitable match. Yolande was related to her husband Alexander III, through shared ancestry in the French noble houses of Coucy and Dreux. In addition to providing an heir for the Kingdom of Scotland, Alexander's marriage to Yolande represented a move to distance Alexander from his neighbour Edward I of England and to emphasize Scottish independence from England.  An embassy was sent from Scotland in February 1285 and returned with Yolande in the company of her brother Jean. The marriage was celebrated on 15 October 1285 at Jedburgh Abbey, attended by a great many nobles of France and Scotland.  Alexander died on either 18 March or 19 March 1286, after falling from his horse, while riding from his court at Edinburgh to join Yolande at Kinghorn. Following his death, queen dowager Yolande moved to Stirling Castle and declared that she was pregnant. The Guardians of Scotland were elected by a parliament held at Scone, Perth and Kinross on 2 April or 28 April 1286 and swore to govern the kingdom until Alexander's declared heir Margaret of Norway arrived to take the throne or Yolande gave birth to a child who would be preferred over Margaret.  It is unclear what happened to her pregnancy; either she had a miscarriage, or the baby was stillborn or died shortly after birth. However, by one account the Guardians gathered at Clackmannan on Saint Catherine's Day – 25 November 1286 – to witness the birth, but the child was stillborn. Tradition says the baby was buried at Cambuskenneth. After the queen dowager's pregnancy did not result in a living child, the council begun preparations for Margaret of Norway to be taken to Scotland as their new sovereign.  Queen dowager Yolande remained in Scotland for a couple of years supported by her dower provisions and living possibly at Stirling Castle: it is known that she was still in Scotland at least as late as in 1288. At some point, she returned to France.

Duchess of Brittany and Countess of Montfort.

In May 1294, she married Arthur II, Duke of Brittany. Together they had at least six children. Arthur died in 1312, being succeeded by his son John III, Duke of Brittany.  Yolande succeeded her mother as "suo jure" Countess of Montfort in 1311. She continued to manage her Scottish affairs: as late as shortly before her death, she is noted to have sent a knight to Scotland to see to her dower lands.  Yolande died on 2 August 1330. Her county of Montfort passed to her son John, who would later fight for his claim to his father's duchy in the Breton War of Succession.

Issue.

Yolande and Arthur had at least six children:

Yolande of Dreux (1263 – 2 August 1330) was a sovereign Countess of Montfort from 1311 until 1322. Through her first marriage to Alexander III of Scotland, Yolande became Queen consort of the Kingdom of Scotland. Through her second marriage to Arthur II, Duke of Brittany, she became Duchess Consort of Brittany.

Yolande de Dreux (vers 1269 – ), fut comtesse de Montfort-L'Amaury de plein droit, puis reine d'Écosse après avoir épousé Alexandre III d'Écosse.


Production.

Acrylic acid is produced by oxidation of propylene, which is a byproduct of the production of ethylene and gasoline:

Historical methods.

Because acrylic acid and its esters have long been valued commercially, many other methods have been developed. Most have been abandoned for economic or environmental reasons. An early method was the hydrocarboxylation of acetylene ("Reppe chemistry"): This method requires nickel carbonyl, high pressures of carbon monoxide, and acetylene, which is relatively expensive compared to propylene.  Acrylic acid was once manufactured by the hydrolysis of acrylonitrile, a material derived from propene by ammoxidation, but this route was abandoned because it cogenerates ammonium side products, which must be disposed of. Other now abandoned precursors to acrylic acid include ethenone and ethylene cyanohydrin.

Research.

Propane is a significantly cheaper raw material than propylene, so one alternative route being explored is the one-step selective oxidation of propane.  Carboxylating ethylene to acrylic acid under supercritical carbon dioxide condition is thermodynamically possible, but efficient catalysts have not been developed. 3-Hydroxypropionic acid (3HP), an acrylic-acid precursor by dehydration, can be produced from sugars, but the process is not competitive.

Reactions and uses.

Acrylic acid undergoes the typical reactions of a carboxylic acid. When reacted with an alcohol, it forms the corresponding ester. The esters and salts of acrylic acid are collectively known as acrylates (or propenoates). The most common alkyl esters of acrylic acid are methyl, butyl, ethyl, and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate.  Acrylic acid and its esters readily combine with themselves (to form polyacrylic acid) or other monomers (e.g. acrylamides, acrylonitrile, vinyl compounds, styrene, and butadiene) by reacting at their double bond, forming homopolymers or copolymers, which are used in the manufacture of various plastics, coatings, adhesives, elastomers, as well as floor polishes and paints.  Acrylic acid is a compound, which is used in many industries like the diaper industry, the water treatment industry or the textiles industry. On a worldwide scale the consumption rate of acrylic acid is projected to reach more than an estimated 8,000 kilotons, by 2020. This increase is expected to occur as a result of using this product in new applications, including personal care products, detergents and products that are used for adult incontinence.

Substituents.

As a substituent acrylic acid can be found as an acyl group or a carboxyalkyl group, depending on the removal of the group from the molecule. More specifically, these are:

Safety.

Acrylic acid is severely irritating and corrosive to the skin and the respiratory tract. Eye contact can result in severe and irreversible injury. Low exposure will cause minimal or no health effects, while high exposure could result in pulmonary edema. The is 340 mg/kg (rat, oral).  Acrylic acid is a constituent of tobacco smoke.

Acrylic acid (IUPAC: propenoic acid) is an organic compound with the formula CH=CHCOOH. It is the simplest unsaturated carboxylic acid, consisting of a vinyl group connected directly to a carboxylic acid terminus. This colorless liquid has a characteristic acrid or tart smell. It is miscible with water, alcohols, ethers, and chloroform. More than a million tons are produced annually.

L'acide acrylique ou acide acroléique ou acide prop-2-énoïque est un composé organique de formule brute CHO et de formule semi-développée CH=CHCOOH. C'est un acide carboxylique et un alcène vinylique, et se présente comme un liquide incolore à l'odeur âcre.


History.

Scheunen is first mentioned in 1226 as "Schunon".  The oldest trace of a settlement in the area are Hallstatt era grave mounds at Steinholz and Junkholz. During the Early Middle Ages the grave mounds were used as a cemetery again. The settlements that today make up Scheunen were originally the two independent villages of Oberscheunen and Jegenstorf-Scheunen. They were part of the parishes of Jegenstorf and Messen-Scheunen. After 1530 they both joined the new Reformed parish of Messen in the Canton of Solothurn. They two villages formed a school district in 1795. However, they both remained politically independent until they were merged by decree in 1911. Starting in 2007, the municipal clerk in Iffwil assumed responsibility for Scheunen.  They were both originally part of the Kyburg low court of Jegenstorf. After the extinction of the Kyburg family in 1406, Bern acquired the villages and placed them under the court at Zollikofen. After the 1803 Act of Mediation they became part of the district of Fraubrunnen.

Geography.

Before the merger, Scheunen had a total area of. Of this area, or 45.9% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 51.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 3.2% is settled (buildings or roads).  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 1.8% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.4%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 41.3% is used for growing crops and 3.7% is pastures.  Formerly the smallest Bernese municipality, it is located on the Rapperswil plateau. It consists of the hamlets of Scheunen and Oberscheunen.  On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Fraubrunnen, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per fess Or and Gules two Barns in pale counterchanged." The barns () makes this an excellent example of canting arms.

Demographics.

Scheunen had a population (as of 2011) of 82., 4.9% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000-2010) the population has changed at a rate of 30%. Migration accounted for 21.7%, while births and deaths accounted for 10%.  All of the population () speaks German as their first language. , the population was 49.4% male and 50.6% female. The population was made up of 36 Swiss men (44.4% of the population) and 4 (4.9%) non-Swiss men. There were 41 Swiss women (50.6%) and (0.0%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 26 or about 45.6% were born in Scheunen and lived there in 2000. There were 24 or 42.1% who were born in the same canton, while 5 or 8.8% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and or 0.0% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 28.4% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 58% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 13.6%. , there were 24 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 29 married individuals, 3 widows or widowers and 1 individuals who are divorced. , there were 6 households that consist of only one person and 1 households with five or more people., a total of 22 apartments (84.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 3 apartments (11.5%) were seasonally occupied and one apartment was empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 7.41%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 80.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (13.6%), the Green Party (2.1%) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP) (1.2%). In the federal election, a total of 37 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 64.9%.

Economy.

, Scheunen had an unemployment rate of 0%., there were a total of 33 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 18 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 7 businesses involved in this sector. 10 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 3 businesses in this sector. 5 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 1 business in this sector. There were 35 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 45.7% of the workforce. , there were 23 workers who commuted away from the municipality. Of the working population, 8.6% used public transportation to get to work, and 54.3% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 54 or 94.7% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church while there was one person who was Roman Catholic.

Education.

In Scheunen about 18 or (31.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 10 or (17.5%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 10 who completed tertiary schooling, 6 were Swiss men and 4 were Swiss women.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were no students attending school in Scheunen. , there were 6 students from Scheunen who attended schools outside the municipality.

Scheunen (German: "barn") is a former municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. On 1 January 2014 the former municipalities of Scheunen and Münchringen merged into the municipality of Jegenstorf.

Scheunen est une localité et une ancienne commune suisse du canton de Berne, située dans l'arrondissement administratif de Berne-Mittelland et la commune de Jegenstorf.