SS career.

Born in Salzburg, Austria, Höfle joined the NSDAP on 1 August 1933, with party number 307,469. He joined the SS at the same time. Before the war, he worked as an auto mechanic.

Crimes against humanity.

After the conquest of Poland, Höfle served in Nowy Sącz, in Southern Poland. In November 1940 he served as an overseer of a Jewish labour camp southeast of Lublin. Up to December 1941 Höfle was in Mogilev, Russia. He was involved in deportations to the camps of Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka. He lived and worked from the Aktion Reinhard headquarters with the Julius Schreck Barracks, Ostland Strasse, in Lublin.  Höfle was "Coordinator" of Operation Reinhard and deputy to Odilo Globočnik (effectively making Höfle second-in-command within the program), serving as his main deportation and extermination expert. Höfle had chief authority of Operation Reinhard beside Globočnik. At the beginning of the operation, he held the rank of "Hauptsturmführer" (captain). SS members, including those from Action T4 who were assigned to the operation, reported to the headquarters in Lublin and were instructed to their duties by Höfle. For an example of the limited paperwork, every member of Operation Reinhard signed the following declaration of secrecy:  As head of the "Main Department" ("Hauptabteilung"), Höfle was in charge of the organization and manpower of Operation Reinhard. He coordinated the deportations of Jews from all areas of the General Government and directed them to one of the extermination camps. The deportation orders were coordinated and channeled through SS authorities from Höfle's office for the Lublin reservation, through the district SS and Police Leaders, down to the localities where the expulsions were to take place.  Around May 1942 in the General Government, a substitution policy developed for a short time in which Polish workers who were sent to the German Reich were gradually replaced with Jewish laborers. It became standard procedure to stop deportation trains from the Reich and Slovakia in Lublin in order to select able-bodied Jews for work in the General Government, the others being sent on to their deaths in Belzec. In this way, many Jews were temporarily spared death and instead relegated to forced labor. Hermann Höfle was one of the chief supporters and implementers of this policy.  Höfle personally oversaw the deportation of the Warsaw Ghetto, the so-called Großaktion Warschau. The operation was preceded on 20 and 21 July 1942 by a spree of randomly killing actions along the streets of the Ghetto and by the arrest and brutal imprisonment of many others taken as hostages among counselors, department managers and those connected in a way or another to the Judenrat. All this was to intimidate and soften the Judenrat to the new upcoming measures. The day after, in the morning of 22 July, "Sturmbannführer" Höfle, accompanied by an entourage of SS and government officials, arrived at the Judenrat in the Warsaw Ghetto and announced to the chairman, Adam Czerniaków, that the Jews, regardless of sex or age and with but a few exceptions, were to be evacuated to the East. The exceptions were workers in German factories who had valid work permits, Judenrat employees, the Jewish Order Service, hospital patients and employees, and the families of the exempt. The deportees were allowed to carry with them 15 kg of baggage, food for three days, money, gold, and other valuables. The order also called for 6,000 Jews to report to the Umschlagplatz every day by 4 p.m. to board the trains for deportation.  Adam Czerniaków wrote in his diary on 22 July 1942 (he committed suicide the next day):  Höfle also played a key role in the Harvest Festival massacre of Jewish inmates of the various labour camps in the Lublin district in early November 1943. Approximately 43,000 Jews were murdered during this operation which was the single largest German massacre of Jews in the entire war. Höfle rejoined Globočnik in Trieste, after various missions in the Netherlands and Belgium.

Höfle Telegram.

On 11 January 1943, Höfle sent a radiogram from Lublin to SS-"Obersturmbannführer" Franz Heim in Kraków, who was at the time the deputy commander of the Security Police and SD in the General Government, and to SS-"Obersturmbannführer" Adolf Eichmann in Berlin. The message documented the total deportations of Jews to the four Operation Reinhard camps through 31 of December 1942. Today this document is called the Höfle Telegram.

After the war.

On 31 May 1945 Höfle was found hiding in Möslacher Alm near the Weissensee Lake in Carinthia (Southern Austria) by the British, along with SS storm troopers Ernst Lerch and Georg Michalsen. After two years in the British interrogation center Wolfsberg (Carinthia), he was released to the Austrian judicial system. On 30 October 1947, under oath, he was released to continue his earlier occupation as an auto mechanic in his birthplace, Salzburg.  After an extradition request on 9 July 1948 by the Polish government, he fled to Italy, where he lived under a false name until 1951. Later he returned to Austria and then emigrated to the Federal Republic of Germany. There he was employed briefly as an informant for U.S. Army Counterintelligence.  Höfle returned to Salzburg, where he lived as a free man until 2 January 1961, when he was arrested by the Austrian authority and sent to prison in Vienna, where in 1962 he hanged himself before his trial could begin.

Hermann Julius Höfle also Hans (or) Hermann Hoefle (19 June 1911 – 21 August 1962) was an Austrian-born SS commander and Holocaust perpetrator during the Nazi era. He was deputy to Odilo Globočnik in the "Aktion Reinhard" program, serving as his main deportation and extermination expert. Arrested in 1961 in connection with these crimes, Höfle committed suicide in prison before he could be tried.

Hermann Julius Höfle, né le à Salzbourg et mort le à Vienne, est un membre du parti nazi et un SS-"Sturmbannführer". En 1942, il est nommé par Odilo Globocnik chef de l'état-major spécial de.


History.

Pope Pius IX separated territory from the Diocese of Detroit, to create the Vicariate Apostolic of Upper Michigan on July 29, 1853. On January 9, 1857, he raised the Vicarate to the status of a Diocese, as the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sault Sainte Marie. In 1865, Bishop Baraga transferred the See city to Marquette, and requested it be renamed the Diocese of Sault Ste. Marie and Marquette. In 1937 it became simply the Diocese of Marquette, and the Diocese of Sault Sainte Marie became a titular see.  As early as the 17th century, Jesuit missionaries from France traveled to the Upper Peninsula to evangelize the Native American population. The first Catholic Mass in the Upper Peninsula was celebrated in 1641 by St. Isaac Jogues, in the area that would later become Sault Ste. Marie.  The first resident pastor was noted missionary Jacques Marquette, who arrived in 1668. Marquette founded Michigan's first European settlement, Sault Ste. Marie, and later founded St. Ignace, Michigan. Other Jesuits would follow, and maintain a presence throughout the years.  Father Frederic Baraga settled at L'Anse in 1843, after forming Catholic missions in Wisconsin. He would devote the rest of his life to evangelizing in the Upper Peninsula. He later would become the first Bishop of the newly formed diocese, in 1857.  In 1953, on the 100th anniversary of the diocese being named a Vicariate Apostolic, a centennial Mass was held in Marquette on August 30.  In 2020, former Diocese of Marquette priest Gary Allen Jacobs was arrested in New Mexico and charged with 10 criminal charges, including eight counts of first-degree criminal sexual conduct and two counts of second-degree criminal sexual conduct, from his time in the Diocese of Marquette.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Marquette () is a suffragan diocese of the Roman rite, encompassing all of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, in the ecclesiastical province of the Archdiocese of Detroit. It encompasses an area of 16,281 square miles (42,152 square kilometers). Its cathedral is St. Peter Cathedral in Marquette, which replaced Holy Name of Mary Pro-Cathedral at Sault Ste. Marie.

Le diocèse de Marquette ("Dioecesis Marquettensis") est un territoire ecclésiastique de l'Église catholique romaine aux États-Unis, suffragant de l'archidiocèse de Détroit, qui englobe la péninsule supérieure de l'État du Michigan. Son évêque actuel est qui siège à la cathédrale Saint-Pierre de Marquette.


Biography.

Prior to becoming minister, Fornero was professor of Political Economics at the School of Management and Economics of the University of Turin starting in 2000. She taught macroeconomics and the economics of savings, social security, and pension funds. Her scientific research focused on public and private social security systems, social security reforms, aging populations, retirement choices, family savings, and life insurance.She is a member of the doctoral board in Economic Sciences of the University of Turin as well as the doctoral board in Social Protection Policy at the Maastricht Graduate School of Governance (Maastricht University); she is a member of the evaluation unit for social security expenditure established at the Ministry of Labour and Social Policies; member of the scientific committee of the Observatoire de l'Epargne Européenne (Paris); member of the editorial board of the "Rivista Italiana degli Economisti"; and columnist for the economic and financial newspaper "Il Sole 24 Ore".  From 1993 to 1998, she was councillor to the Municipality of Turin during the tenure of center-left mayor Valentino Castellani. In 2001, she received (together with Ignazio Musu) the Saint Vincent prize for economics and in 2003, together with Olivia Mitchell, she was granted the INA-Accademia dei Lincei award for studies in insurance matters.  Fornero was vice president of the Supervisory Board of Intesa Sanpaolo (2010-2011), vice president of the Compagnia di San Paolo (2008-2010), member of the board of directors of the Italian Society of Economists (2005-2007), member of the scientific committee of the General Confederation of Italian Industry (2005-2006), member of the commission of expert evaluators at the World Bank (2003-2004), member of the expert commission of the task force on "Portability of Pension Rights and Taxation of Pension Schemes in the EU" established at the CEPS (Centre for European Policy Studies) (2001-2003), member of the Ministerial Commission of Independent Experts for Social Security Verification (2001), member of the Mefop Scientific Committee (2000-2003), and non-executive independent director of Buzzi Unicem from 2008 to November 2011. She is currently member of the Advisory Group of New Pact for Europe.  In 2013, she received the Ezio Tarantelli Prize for "Best Economic Idea of the Year". The prize was awarded to her for having created ASPI (social employment insurance), a new social safety net which was introduced through the labour market reform that bears her name. In 2014, she joined the board of directors of the Centrale del Latte di Torino as an independent director. She held the position until 31 December 2016.

Political career.

On 16 November 2011, Fornero was appointed Minister of Labour, Social Policies, and Gender Equality, replacing Maurizio Sacconi.

Pension reform and the "exodus case".

Elsa Fornero assumed the role of minister in the Monti government, boasting twenty years of experience in the study of public pension systems, in a moment of serious financial crisis of the state that began in the summer of 2011 with the public debt crisis and the risk of not being able to pay public wages and pensions. As part of the "Save Italy" decree presented on 4 December 2011, the ministry presented a set of reforms of the Italian public pension system, drawn up in just 20 days. The reforms contemplated a number of measures to cut public spending and increase revenue with a concomitant increase in pension contributions.  The pension reform resulted in the so-called "exodus case" of 2012: this affair was at the centre of political and social disputes, as well as ideological and social clashes between workers' unions and the Monti government, with various controversies in the political arena and several debates within the Confindustria. The parliamentary clash ended on 4 July 2012 when the Chamber of Deputies rejected a no-confidence motion filed against Fornero by the Italia dei Valori party together with the Lega Nord party.

Controversy.

Fornero was accused by many journalists, media, and politicians belonging to opposition parties of acting with a snobbish attitude towards the problems of common people during the economic crisis. Her statement that "nowadays, a job would not be a right anymore" became quite famous.  In December 2011, shortly after her appointment to the government post, Fornero cried publicly while presenting new austerity measures.

Personal life.

Fornero is married to economist and journalist Mario Deaglio; they have two children together: Silvia Deaglio, who is an associate professor of medical genetics at the University of Turin; and Andrea Deaglio, a film director. In 2012, Silvia was criticized for teaching genetics at the same university where both her parents worked, as well as for managing a fund operated by Intesa Sanpaolo, whose vice president at the time was her mother Elsa. In November of the same year, a letter was sent to the university, bearing a French stamp, containing threats against Silvia.

Elsa Fornero (San Carlo Canavese, 7 May 1948) is an Italian economist, university lecturer, and politician who served as Minister of Labour, Social Policies, and Gender Equality in the Monti cabinet from November 2011 to April 2013.

Elsa Fornero (née le à San Carlo Canavese) est une économiste et une universitaire italienne, professeur à l'université de Turin, devenue ministre du Travail, des Politiques sociales, avec la délégation sur le département de l'Égalité des chances du gouvernement Monti, depuis le.


Early life.

Lafayette McLaws was born in Augusta, Georgia. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1842, placing 48th out of 56 cadets. McLaws served as an infantry officer in the Mexican–American War, in the West, and in the Utah War to suppress the Mormon uprising. While at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, he married Emily Allison Taylor, the niece of Zachary Taylor, making him a cousin-in-law of future Confederates Richard Taylor and Jefferson Davis.

Civil War.

1861–62.

At the start of the Civil War, resigning as a U.S. Army captain, McLaws was commissioned a major in the Confederate States Army. He was quickly promoted to colonel of the 10th Georgia Infantry regiment; then quickly again to brigadier general in brigade and division command in the Seven Days Battles; then, on May 23, 1862, to major general. He joined his childhood friend in Augusta and fellow West Point of '42 classmate, Maj. Gen. James Longstreet's First Corps in the Army of Northern Virginia as 1st Division commander and stayed with Longstreet for most of the war, but was left in Richmond to observe McClellan's withdrawal down the James River, and thus missed the Northern Virginia Campaign.  During Robert E. Lee's 1862 Maryland Campaign, McLaws's Division was split from the rest of the corps, operated in conjunction with Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, and captured Maryland Heights at Harpers Ferry. He marched his division to Sharpsburg, Maryland, and defended the West Woods in the Battle of Antietam. Lee was disappointed in McLaws's slow arrival on the battlefield. At the Battle of Fredericksburg, McLaws's Division was one of the defenders of Marye's Heights, and he satisfied Lee with his ferocious defensive performance.

1863–65.

At Chancellorsville, while the rest of Longstreet's corps was detached for duty near Suffolk, Virginia, McLaws fought directly under Lee's command. On May 3, 1863, Lee sent McLaws's Division to stop the Union VI Corps under Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick marching toward Lee's rear. He did accomplish this, but Lee was disappointed that McLaws had not attacked more aggressively and caused more harm to Sedgwick's corps, instead of letting him escape across the Rappahannock River. When Lee reorganized his army to compensate for Jackson's mortal wounding at Chancellorsville, Longstreet recommended his subordinate for one of the two new corps commands, but both men were disappointed when Lee chose Richard S. Ewell and A. P. Hill instead. McLaws requested a transfer, but it was denied.  On the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, 1863, McLaws commanded the second division to step off in Longstreet's massive assault on the Union left flank. He achieved great success (at a high cost in lives) in the areas known as the Wheatfield and the Peach Orchard, but the army as a whole was unable to dislodge the Union forces from their positions on Cemetery Ridge. His division did not participate in Pickett's Charge the next day, despite Longstreet's command of that assault.  McLaws accompanied Longstreet's corps to Tennessee to come to the aid of General Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee. He arrived too late to lead his division at Chickamauga, where it was led by Brig. Gen. Joseph B. Kershaw, but he did participate in the Chattanooga Campaign. In the Knoxville Campaign later in 1863, Longstreet relieved McLaws due to the failure of the attack on Fort Sanders, citing "a want of confidence in the efforts and plans which the Cmdg Genl has thought proper to adopt." In a letter addressed to Confederate Adjutant and Inspector General Samuel Cooper on December 30, Longstreet submitted three charges of "neglect of duty"; however, he did not request a court-martial because McLaws's "services might be important to the Government in some other position." (In that same letter, he requested a court-martial for Brig. Gen. Jerome B. Robertson, who had been charged with "incompetency" by his division commander.) McLaws also wrote to Cooper on December 30, disputing Longstreet's charges and requesting a court-martial to clear his name. Cooper forwarded Longstreet's letter to Secretary of War James Seddon and to Confederate President Jefferson Davis, with the annotation that Longstreet was not authorized to relieve and reassign officers under his command without a formal court-martial. Davis ordered the court-martial of both generals, although he opposed relieving McLaws until a successor could be appointed.  The courts-martial of Robertson and McLaws convened in Morristown, Tennessee, on February 12, 1864, with Maj. Gen. Simon B. Buckner serving as president of the court. The proceedings suffered delays as witnesses—including Longstreet—were not available to appear as scheduled, in some cases because Longstreet granted them leaves of absence. Cooper's office published the court's findings on May 5, exonerating him on the first two specifications of neglect of duty, but finding him guilty of the third—"failing in the details of his attack to make arrangements essential to his success." McLaws was sentenced to 60 days without rank or command, but Cooper overturned the verdict and sentence, citing fatal flaws in the procedures of the court, ordering McLaws to return to duty with his division. However, on May 18, McLaws was assigned by the War Department to the Defenses of Savannah in the Department of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.  McLaws was bitter about his fate, claiming that Longstreet had used him as a scapegoat for the failed Knoxville Campaign. Writing in his memoirs many years after the war, Longstreet expressed regret that he had filed charges against McLaws, which he described as happening "in an unguarded moment." In time, the animosity healed between the two Confederate veterans, but McLaws never fully forgave Longstreet for his actions.  McLaws left the First Corps, and since Lee would not accept him for command in Virginia, he proceeded to Savannah, which he was unable to defend successfully against Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman's March to the Sea in late 1864.  McLaws next saw active service opposing Sherman's advance into the Carolinas. At the Battle of Rivers' Bridge on February 2, 1865, his command resisted the advance of the Army of the Tennessee into South Carolina. His forces delayed the Federal crossing of the Salkehatchie River until they found other crossings and turned his right flank. McLaws led a division under Lt. Gen. William J. Hardee at the Battle of Averasborough, commanding the Confederate third line of defense, and at the Battle of Bentonville. His division was little engaged at Bentonville because of vague orders. In the aftermath of these battles, McLaws had problems with the discipline of his division, holding multiple roll calls per day to prevent desertion and looting. When Gen. Joseph E. Johnston reorganized the army, McLaws lost his command assignment. He was assigned command of the District of Georgia after Bentonville. He may have surrendered with Johnston's army in North Carolina on April 26, 1865; however, there is no record of his parole. On October 18, 1865, McLaws was pardoned by the U.S. government.

Postbellum career.

After the war, McLaws worked in the insurance business, was a tax collector for the IRS, served as Savannah's postmaster in 1875-76, and was active in Confederate veterans' organizations. Despite his wartime differences with Longstreet, McLaws initially defended Longstreet in the post-war attempts by Jubal Early and others to smear his reputation. McLaws was a part owner of the Atlantic and Mexican Gulf Canal Company, a canal project approved in 1876. Its purpose was to construct a canal westward from the St. Marys River in Georgia to connect with the Gulf of Mexico on the coast of Florida.  Lafayette McLaws died in Savannah and is buried there in Laurel Grove Cemetery. He is the posthumous author of "A Soldier's General: The Civil War Letters of Major General Lafayette McLaws" (2002).

Memorial.

McLaws Circle, part of the Kingsmill development of Anheuser-Busch in James City County, Virginia, near Williamsburg, was named in his honor in the 1970s. In 1861, then Lt. Col. McLaws played a key role in the construction nearby of the Williamsburg Line, 4 miles of defensive works across the Virginia Peninsula, which played a crucial role in the Battle of Williamsburg of the 1862 Peninsula Campaign.

Lafayette McLaws ( ; January 15, 1821 – July 24, 1897) was a United States Army officer and a Confederate general in the American Civil War. He served at Antietam and Fredericksburg, where Robert E. Lee praised his defense of Marye's Heights, and at Gettysburg, where his division made successful assaults through the Peach Orchard and Wheatfield, but was unable to dislodge Union forces from Cemetery Ridge. After the Knoxville Campaign, he was court-martialed for inefficiency, though this was overturned for procedural reasons. Finally he was sent to his native Georgia to resist Sherman's March to the Sea, but had to retreat through the Carolinas, losing many men through desertion, and is presumed to have surrendered with Joseph E. Johnston in April 1865.

Lafayette McLaws ( – ) est un officier de la United States Army puis un général de l’armée confédérée pendant la Guerre de Sécession.


Production.

Production for the ninth season began in 2009, during the airing of the eighth season. The season was executive produced by series regulars Chris Sheridan, David Goodman, Danny Smith, Mark Hentemann and Steve Callaghan, along with series creator Seth MacFarlane. The showrunners for the ninth season were Hentemann and Callaghan, who oversaw the series's transition into 720p high definition in the premiere of the ninth-season episode "And Then There Were Fewer".  As production began, Callaghan, Andrew Goldberg, Mark Hentemann, Patrick Meighan, Brian Scully, Chris Sheridan, Danny Smith, Alec Sulkin, John Viener and Wellesley Wild all stayed on from the previous season. Matt Harrigan, Dave Willis, Anthony Blasucci and Mike Desilets received their first writing credit for the series. Series executive producer David A. Goodman returned as a writer for the series, with Goodman leaving immediately afterward to work on the Fox animated series "Allen Gregory". Kirker Butler, who wrote five episodes for the show, left the series before the beginning of the ninth season, in order to write for the Fox animated series "The Cleveland Show", a spin-off of "Family Guy". Writer John Viener left the series at the end of the season to also write for "The Cleveland Show".  Recurring directors Dominic Bianchi, Greg Colton, John Holmquist, Brian Iles, Jerry Langford, Pete Michels, James Purdum, Cyndi Tang and Julius Wu all stayed with the show from the previous season. Peter Shin briefly returned to the series as a director to direct the sequel to the episode "Something, Something, Something, Dark Side", entitled "It's a Trap!". Shin also served as supervising director for the season, along with James Purdum.  The main cast consisted of Seth MacFarlane (Peter Griffin, Stewie Griffin, Brian Griffin, Quagmire and Tom Tucker, among others), Alex Borstein (Lois Griffin, Loretta Brown, Tricia Takanawa and Barbara Pewterschmidt, among others), Mila Kunis (Meg Griffin), Seth Green (Chris Griffin and Neil Goldman, among others) and Mike Henry (Cleveland Brown and Herbert, among others).

Episodes.

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DVD release.

The remaining episodes of the eighth season and the first three episodes of the ninth season were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on December 13, 2011. The DVD release features bonus material including four featurettes, "Who Done It? The Making of 'And Then There Were Fewer'", "Brian & Stewie: The Lost Phone Call", "The History of the World According to "Family Guy"" and the "Family Guy" panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International, along with audio commentaries, animatics and deleted scenes.

"Family Guy" ninth season first aired on the Fox network in eighteen episodes from September 26, 2010 to May 22, 2011 before being released as two DVD box sets and in syndication. "Family Guy" follows the dysfunctional Griffin family—father Peter, mother Lois, daughter Meg, son Chris, baby Stewie and dog Brian, all of whom reside in their hometown of Quahog.

La neuvième saison de la série d'animation Les Griffin (""), composée de dix-huit épisodes, est initialement diffusée aux États-Unis du au sur le réseau Fox et en simultané sur le réseau Global au Canada. En France elle a été disponible en français sur Netflix du au.


History.

The Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission was created by the Convention for the Establishment of an Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, signed between the United States and Costa Rica on May 31, 1949. The Convention was signed by United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson and Costa Rica's Ambassador to the United States, Mario Echandi Jiménez. A number of additional countries later joined the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission. Each country is represented by up to four Commissioners.  In 2003, the members of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission signed the Antigua Convention, strengthening the Commission's powers. Most members of the Commission ratified the Antigua Convention between 2004 and 2009, but as of 2011, the U.S. had not ratified the Antigua Convention.  The headquarters of the IATTC are located in La Jolla, San Diego, California, United States.

Members of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission.

An asterisk indicates that the state has ratified the Convention on the Establishment of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Convention.  The IATTC also has significant responsibilities for the implementation of the International Dolphin Conservation Program (IDCP), and provides the Secretariat for that program.  The first objective of the Agreement on the International Dolphin Conservation Program (AIDCP) is to reduce incidental dolphin mortalities in the purse-seine fishery in the eastern Pacific Ocean to levels approaching zero. This Agreement and its predecessor, the 1992 La Jolla Agreement, have been spectacularly successful in meeting this objective, as shown by the reduction in mortality of dolphins incidental to fishing.  During 2013 95.4% of all sets made on tuna associated with dolphins were accomplished with no mortality or serious injury to the dolphins. Furthermore, the total mortality of dolphins in the fishery has been reduced from about 132,000 in 1986 to about 800 in 2013.

Tropical tunas research.

The IATTC, through the Alcotines Laboratory is a major contributor of research in the early life history of tropical tunas. The Achotines Laboratory was established as part of the IATTC's Tuna-Billfish Program. It is one of the few research facilities in the world designed specifically for studies of the early life history of tropical tunas. As tunas are pelagic (open-ocean) fish they are difficult to study in their natural habitat. Little is known from studies of live tunas of their reproductive activities or early life history (egg, larval, and early-juvenile stages), and for that reason the IATTC established a research laboratory to focus on these aspects of tuna biology. The Achotines Laboratory provides a unique setting for studying the reproductive behavior and early life stages of tropical tunas. While tunas are the main focus at the Laboratory, there are ample facilities to support research in other areas of marine and terrestrial science.

The Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (abbreviated IATTC) (Sp.: "Comisión Interamericana del Atún Tropical") is an international commission responsible for the conservation and management of tuna and other marine resources in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

La Commission interaméricaine du thon tropical (officiellement en anglais "Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission", communément abrégée "IATTC", ou en espagnol "Comisión Interamericana del Atún Tropical") est une commission internationale qui est responsable de la conservation et la gestion du thon et des autres ressources marines dans l'océan Pacifique oriental.


History.

Historically, the area around "Saskitwak" acted as a border land between the territories of the Cree and Dene peoples. The positioning of Île-à-la-Crosse at the entryway to the English River District encouraged increasingly interdependent economic, social, and political activity. This strategic position helped establish the community as a meeting place that promoted the cultural and socio-economic exchanges of the Cree, Dene, Scots, English, French, and Metis peoples.

Fur trade.

The intensely competitive fur trade shaped the community of Île-à-la-Crosse through the familial and business relationships formed between Indigenous inhabitants and European traders and created a district Métis community within northern Saskatchewan. Traders following depleting resources moved across the Plains northward and westward which made Île-à-la-Crosse a central place to organize trading from the Northern Plains into a larger global trade of furs and goods.

Early trading.

In 1775, Thomas Frobisher joined a Dene hunting group to northern hunting territory, his expedition attempted to establish a passage from Lake Athabasca to the Arctic Ocean. While unsuccessful in his mission he visited Île-à-la-Crosse, where he realized accessibility to routes further north through the Athabasca River and east through the English River to Hudson Bay. He built the first trading post during the winter of 1776. The following year, Thomas and Joseph Frobisher, commissioned Peter Pond to chart a route from the post to Athabasca. In doing so, Pond helped establish a practice making Île-à-la-Crosse the central passage way and resting spot for those moving through the North-Western Territory. His trip was still used a century later by voyageurs going to the Methye Portage. The area's name of English River District was after Thomas Frobisher as the first English speaker in the region. Frobisher's success attracted the attention of the independent voyageurs from Montreal who would later join with the Frobisher brothers and Alexander Henry the Elder, to form the North West Company in 1783. The next year, the North West Company hired Patrick Small as the first trader at the post year round, showing the significance of the village in handling administration for the larger district.  The next post built was in 1785 by another group out of Montreal under the control of Alexander Mackenzie. Competition caused spurs of violence in the region over the control of economic resources, escalating with the arrival of Hudson's Bay Company. The late beginnings of Hudson's Bay Company in the North-Western Territory was due to a shortage of available voyageurs and the domination of the North West Company. It was not until 1791 a post was established and was operational year-round in 1799. The North West Company continued to rise to power up until the point of their merger with the Hudson's Bay Company in 1821.

English River District.

The 1821 Hudson's Bay Company merger made the trade post at Île-à-la-Crosse the administrative centre of the English River District. The administrative responsibilities ensured the surrounding outposts were given necessary provisioning and that it's northern and southern entries remained accessible. The delegation as administrative centre positioned the post as a point of contact for the surrounding trading posts and would attract attention from missionaries. The centrality allowed for a concentration of social and economic relations creating conditions to become a Métis homeland because of the direct involvement of and relationality held by the children descending from Cree and Dene women and men of the fur trade. Due to the detailed administrative record keeping of both by officials in the area the growing Métis population was documented through a series of record keeping instruments and distinguished the Métis of northwest Saskatchewan from those in the Red River Colony.  Starting after the establishment of the headquarters, the Hudson's Bay Company began trying to reduce the number of people posted to limit the amount of responsibility to support the trade families. This effort was never successful and the continuing presence of the Métis demonstrates their failure to do so. By 1856, the English River District encompassed trading posts in Green Lake, Rapid River, Portage La Loche, Cold Lake and Deer Lake on Reindeer Lake, however in the decades that followed many of these posts were no longer functioning because of settler encroachment, the sale of Rupert's Land, and the westward buffalo migration.

Catholic Missionaries.

In 1845, Chief Factor Roderick McKenzie wrote to Bishop Joseph-Norbert Provencher to request the establishment of a mission at Île-à-la-Crosse. The same year, Provencher received another letter from Jean-Baptiste Thibault, who perceived that it was urgent for the Catholic Church to send missionaries to Île-à-la-Crosse because of the eagerness of the Métis to convert and the imminent competition with Protestants. The Hudson’s Bay Company controlled the region outside the Red River Colony, known as the North-Western Territory or Rupert's Land, through strict management of transportation systems leading to their established trading posts. This gave the company implicit control to confine missionary activities to the Red River Colony]. The ban remained in place until the decision by George Simpson, the governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, granted missionaries access prompting the Catholic mission network to extend into the North-Western Territory.

Saint-Jean-Baptiste Mission.

In the context of expansion, the requests for a mission made by Chief Factor and Thibault were met in 1845 when the Oblate General Administration allowed the establishment of a mission presence in Île-à-la-Crosse. Joseph-Bruno Guigues, the superior Oblate General, chose the Fathers, Alexandre-Antonin Taché and Louis-François Richer Laflèche to set up the foundation for the mission. Taché and Laflèche arrived in September 1846, the pair were given a cabin left abandoned by the North West Company and began holding ceremonies the following spring. They operated the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Mission out of the single room cabin that functioned as both a dormitory and a mission. Later in 1848, a third Oblate Henri Faraud was sent to aid in the refurbishing of the cabin. The creation of the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Mission functioned primarily to initiate the establishment of satellite missions. This process was done though the extensive travel of Father Taché who made regular visits to Green Lake, Reindeer Lake, Portage La Loche, and Fort Chipewyan.  The missionary expansion throughout the North-Western Territory necessitated permanent funding separate from that paid to Bishop Provencher. The financial independence gave the responsibility to Saint-Jean-Baptiste Mission as the administrative base for the entirety of the North-West Territory. Furthermore, Alexandre-Antonin Taché became the first Oblate superior of Rupert`s Land and the North-Western Territory. In order to manage the increasing workload of both running the mission in Île-à-la-Crosse and satellite missions, four more Oblates were sent. Henri Grollier arriving in 1852 and sent to Fort Chipewyan and Fond-du-Lac, Valentin Végréville arriving in 1853 to establish a mission at Cold Lake, René Rémas arriving the same year sent to set up the Lac La Biche Mission, and finally Vital-Justin Grandin arriving in 1855 for the purpose of helping Henri Faraud and Henri Grollier. More assistance was given by selected lay brothers with the first being Louis Dubé followed by Patrick Bowes and Louis Boisramé who were able to construct a residence for missionaries. The Oblates enlisted the help of the Grey Nuns (Sisters of Charity of Montreal) to cope under the mounting pressure to operate facilities at the Saint-Jean-Baptiste mission, extending influence to satellite missions, and supplying resources to surrounding missions.  By 1860, Saint-Jean Baptiste began to act as resource depot administering food, clothing, and other items to surrounding posts. Saint-Jean-Baptiste also became a transshipment point for both manufactured goods and religious items sent from the Red River Colony and a conduit for communication into the disparate missions in the North. This continued until reoccurring fires and misfortunes struck the mission in 1867, depleting the mission of necessary resources needed to fulfill its administrative duties.

Le Couvent Saint-Bruno.

The Sisters of Charity of Montreal, known as the Grey Nuns, arrived at Île-à-la-Crosse on October 4, 1860. Three sisters were sent after the Oblates request for assistance, including Sister Agnès (born Marie-Rose Caron), Sister Philomène Boucher, and Sister Pepin (born Marie-Anne Lachance). The name Saint Bruno Convent was given a few days after their arrival with a blessed day of feast for Saint-Bruno. The mission had started the operation of a day school in 1847, however the school had poor and irregular attendance and encouraged the enlistment of the Grey Nuns to establish a boarding school. On November 25, 1860 the Sisters of Charity established the boarding school located within the Saint Bruno Convent that served to both educate and provide medical services.  A fire engulfed the building March 1st 1867, after which the entirety of the infrastructure was lost and needed to be rebuilt. In 1874, a new school building was constructed and named Notre-Dame du Sacré Cœur The Sisters of Charity would eventually temporarily relocate and return in 1917, to establish another school called the School of the Holy Family.

Demographics.

The population of this northern village was 1,296 in 2016. In the 2016 census, 985 or 77% of respondents self identified as being Métis peoples with another 18% identifying as First Nations, and 1.2% who identified as having Multiple Aboriginal responses. Within the northern village, 98.4% of residents are English speakers only, 18% speak Indigenous languages, most prominently 18% of those are speakers of Algonquian languages, and 7.4% identify as being Michif speakers.  Since the 2011 census, there has been a decease of -5.1% in population representing a net loss of 70 residents.  The remote location of the northern village causes the population to be seasonally variant and many are drawn outside of the community for employment. It is therefore relevant to consider the number private dwellings occupied by usual residents to obtain an understanding of the size of the community, these numbers are 406, 425, and 408 for 2016, 2011, and 2006 respectively.

Language.

Northern Michif.

The language spoken by those from Île-à-la-Crosse is distinct in its roots and is centred in the language of Northern Plains Cree with borrowing from mission and Métis French. Rather than a perfectly mixed language, the dialect of Michif spoken in northern Saskatchewan relies heavily on Plains Cree origins because of the wide spread knowledge of the Cree language compared to French. The language was developed as a means of communicating throughout the communities located in-between Île-à-la-Crosse, Green Lake, and Buffalo Narrows.  Historically the language has been referred to as Cree without distinction from the language it derived from, however, in recent decades the language has been acknowledged as being a variant of Michif. Modern speakers of Northern Michif have taken to substituting English words for those historically substituted with French because of the majority English speaking population.

Education.

Boarding school (1860-1972).

Enrollment in the boarding school run by the Sisters of Charity began with nine girls and six boys in 1860, this increased to seventeen students in 1862, nineteen in 1863, twenty-two in 1864, twenty-eight in 1865, and thirty in 1866. In the beginning years, complaints surfaced that the children were not progressing in developing their language skills and instead persisted in speaking the Cree language. The school was known to suffer from health issues and food shortages, that Oblates blamed on the absence of federal funding. After the 1867 fire burned the boys dormitory the school closed until 1874.  While parents were concerned with negligence and harsh treatment of children, Sara Riel who was a Grey Nun involved in the school, wrote to her brother Louis Riel that she felt parents were not appreciative of the teaching services especially language training. English lessons were dropped from curriculum in 1876. The school temporarily was relocated to the Beauval Indian Residential School at Lac la Plonge, but returned in 1917 where the Grey Nuns renamed the operation the School of the Holy Family. Fires would subsequently occur in both 1920 and 1921, however, instruction continued in the following years. In 1929, registration at the School of the Holy Family rose to forty-two.  A provincial report released in 1944 on the state of education in northern Saskatchewan, called for the reorganization of students into more day schools with establishing two new large boarding schools. Neither proposal was successful, however, the Sisters of Charity did open a school in a larger building by 1946. More fires in 1964 and again in 1972 eventually lead to the complete closure of the church-run schools that were replaced with the current Rossignol Elementary and Rossignol High School.

Contemporary schools (1972-present).

Île-à-la-Crosse has two schools: Rossignol Elementary Community School (Pre-K to Grade 6), designed by architect Douglas Cardinal; and Rossignol High School (Grades 7-12) located in the Île-à-la-Crosse Integrated Services Centre, a large complex which also includes a hospital, a daycare, senior's care and offices. The schools are within the Île-à-la-Crosse School Division No. 112.

Île-à-la-Crosse, or "Sakitawak" (Cree name), is a northern village in Division No. 18, northwestern Saskatchewan, and was the site of historic trading posts first established in 1778. Île-à-la-Crosse is the second oldest community in Saskatchewan, Canada, following establishment of the Red River Colony in 1811. It sits at the end of a long peninsula on the western shore of Lac Île-à-la-Crosse, and is linked with Peter Pond Lake (historically Buffalo Lake) and Churchill Lake (historically Clear Lake) through a series of interconnected lakes, rivers, and portage routes.

Île-à-la-Crosse ("Sakitawak" en langage métchif) est une communauté rurale métisse située au Nord de la province de la Saskatchewan au Canada au bord du lac Île-à-la-Crosse.


History.

Origins.

When the Fourth International (FI) split in 1953, Posadas and his followers sided with Michel Pablo and the International Secretariat of the Fourth International (ISFI). The Posadists began quarrelling with the majority of the ISFI in 1959 over the question of nuclear war with Posadas being a proponent as, he claimed, it would destroy capitalism and clear the way for socialism. The Posadists finally split with the ISFI in 1962 to form the Fourth International (Posadist). The group initially had a following in several countries, particularly among railway workers in Cuba, tin workers in Bolivia and farm workers in Brazil.  There was a significant Posadist group in Cuba. Posadist guerrillas fought alongside Castro and Che Guevara in the 1959 revolution. When the Posadists split from the Fourth International in 1962 they took the Cuban section with them, meaning no other Trotskyist group was represented in Cuba in the 1960s.  The Posadist group was accused by Soviet-friendly forces in Cuba of arguing that the Cuban government should forcibly expel the American military base at Guantanamo Bay and of trying to organize workers in the town of Guantánamo to march on the nearby military base. That was taken as a justification by the government for imposing a ban on them, Castro denouncing their influence as "pestilential" at the Tricontinental Congress held in January 1966. Cuban Posadists went on to claim that Castro had Guevara killed when, it turned out, he was actually in Bolivia fighting with the guerrilla movement there. Conversely, after Guevara was executed by Bolivian authorities, Posadas claimed in 1967 that Che Guevara was not actually dead but was being kept in prison by Castro's government.

Decline and resurgence.

In the late 1960s the Posadists became increasingly interested in UFOs, claiming they were evidence of socialism on other planets. The organization soon began to wane in influence and membership, aided by an increasingly paranoid Posadas who expelled many of its members by 1975.  Posadas' death in 1981 meant the virtual dissolution of the organization, with only a few isolated groups continuing to operate to the present day. In the United Kingdom, the Revolutionary Workers' Party (Trotskyist) was founded in 1963 by Posadist members of the Revolutionary Socialist League and despite several schisms and a dwindling membership, it continued to publish its newspaper "Red Flag" until 2000.  In recent years, interests in the Posadists, particularly in regard to their views in ufology has increased, with several satirical and non-satirical "neo-Posadist" groups emerging on social media, making Posadas "one of the most recognizable names in the history of Trotskyism".

Theories.

Nuclear first strike.

One of the most well-known positions of J. Posadas was his enthusiasm for nuclear war. More precisely, at the height of the Cold War, Posadas thought that nuclear war was inevitable. His idea was that rather than wait for the forces of capitalism, the nuclear-armed socialist states should launch a preemptive attack that would destroy the nuclear capabilities of capitalist countries. Additionally, he believed that this sort of catastrophe could spark the world revolution.  Posadas vocally opposed the Partial Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963 by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, believing that a nuclear war between the USA and Russia was inevitable and desirable, and would create the conditions for socialism, with the "workers' states" winning and resetting society.

Scientific progress.

Posadas was highly interested in the way scientific advancement could improve human lives when used for the common good, rather than for profit. In an essay written in 1978 entitled "Childbearing in space, the confidence of humanity, and Socialism", he espoused his vision of an Utopian future under the guidance of science:Humanity feels pressed and oppressed by the straightjacket that imprisons science. For science is oppressed! The capitalists oppress science by using it to kill people. When science is liberated – it will not be long, in only a few years – we will wipe out all the problems, floods, hunger and misery. All this could already be done, and it will not be long before we do. And when we do, everyone will be an architect, an engineer, a doctor, and the like. He was also a supporter of exploration by the former USSR and the People's Republic of China. He praised an alleged plan by the Soviet Union to have a woman give birth in space, considering such endeavors the mark of an advanced society, that is on a path of eliminating primal needs such as survival, security and comfort. He concluded that "if we have already the audacity to envisage childbearing in space, it is because we feel part of a quest that transcends life on Earth." These views are in line with the more mainstream positions of Russian cosmism and transhumanism.

Ufology.

Posadas was the author of a number of works with an unconventional slant and towards the end of his life he tried to create a synthesis of Trotskyism and Ufology. His most prominent thesis from this perspective was the 1968 pamphlet "Flying saucers, the process of matter and energy, science, the revolutionary and working-class struggle and the socialist future of mankind" which exposed many of the ideas associated today with Posadism. Here, Posadas claims that while there is no proof of intelligent life in the universe, the science of the time makes their existence likely. Furthermore, he claims that any extra-terrestrials visiting earth in flying saucers must come from a socially and scientifically advanced civilisation to master inter-planetary travel, and that such a civilisation could have only come about in a post-capitalist world.  Believing visiting aliens to be naturally non-violent, who are only here to observe, Posadas argues that humans must call on them to intervene in solving the Earth's problems, namely "to suppress poverty, hunger, unemployment and war, to give everyone the means to live in dignity and to lay the bases for human fraternity". The means to achieving this end remained within the mainstream Trotskyist and included ending capitalism as well as the bureaucracy of the workers’ states and establishing a socialist society.  Despite Posadas himself never publishing anything on the subject after 1968, ufology nonetheless became an important part of Posadism. After his death in 1981, some Posadists continued to explore the subject, notably Dante Minazzoli, and Paul Schulz. Others, however, have distanced themselves from the more unconventional notions and have claimed that Posadas' interest in extraterrestrial life was a marginal point that was blown out of proportions.

Member parties.

The Fourth International Posadist claims the following parties as members. It is unknown how many of these organisations still exist or how many members they have. However it is unlikely there are more than a hundred members of the Posadist movement throughout the world. The organization currently lists contacts in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay, however only Uruguay has a functioning party.

The Fourth International Posadist is a Trotskyist international. It was founded in 1962 by J. Posadas, who had been the leader of the Latin America Bureau of the Fourth International in the 1950s, and of the Fourth International's section in Argentina. Between their split from the International Secretariat of the Fourth International in 1962 and Posadas' death in 1981, Posadists developed a strain of communism that included several fringe ideas, which brought them into conflict with more mainstream left-wing groups.

La Quatrième internationale posadiste fait partie du mouvement communiste mondial. Elle s’est structurée à partir de 1962, lorsque Juan Posadas et le Bureau Latino-américain (BLA) de la ont rompu avec la direction internationale de l’époque, afin selon eux, d’une part, de rester fidèles au programme et aux objectifs de l’organisation fondée par Trotsky en 1938 et, d’autre part, de participer pleinement à l’organisation des nouvelles forces de la révolution, telles qu’elles ont surgi après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, avec le triomphe de l’Union Soviétique, le développement puissant de la révolution coloniale et la création de nouveaux États ouvriers et des États révolutionnaires sur tous les continents.


History.

First developed at an iPhoneDevCamp event in San Francisco, PhoneGap went on to win the People's Choice Award at O'Reilly Media's 2009 Web 2.0 Conference, and the framework has been used to develop many apps. Apple Inc. has confirmed that the framework has its approval, even with the change to clause 3.3.1 of the Apple iPhone SDK developer license agreement 4.0 adopted in 2010. The PhoneGap framework is used by several mobile application platforms such as Monaca, appMobi, Convertigo, ViziApps, and Worklight as the backbone of their mobile client development engine.  Adobe officially announced the acquisition of Nitobi Software (the original developer) on October 4, 2011. Coinciding with that, the PhoneGap code was contributed to the Apache Software Foundation to start a new project called Apache Cordova. The project's original name, Apache Callback, was viewed as too generic. Then, it also appears in Adobe Systems as "Adobe PhoneGap" and also as "Adobe PhoneGap Build". The Phonegap Blog shows more details, why finally the name "Cordova" was chosen. It says: "While genesis stories of PhoneGap often vary with the teller, most committers can agree the project was born at Nitobi, when the office was on Cordova Street in Vancouver."  Early versions of PhoneGap required an Apple computer to create iOS apps and a Windows computer to create Windows Mobile apps. After September 2012, Adobe's PhoneGap Build service allows programmers to upload CSS, HTML, and JavaScript source code to a "cloud compiler" that generates apps for every supported platform.

Design and rationale.

The core of an Apache Cordova application uses CSS3 and HTML5 for rendering and JavaScript for logic. HTML5 provides access to underlying hardware such as the accelerometer, camera, and GPS. However, browsers' support for HTML5-based device access is not consistent across mobile browsers, particularly older versions of Android. To overcome these limitations, Apache Cordova embeds the HTML5 code inside a native WebView on the device, using a foreign function interface to access the native resources of it.  Apache Cordova can be extended with native plug-ins, allowing developers to add more functionalities that can be called from JavaScript, making it communicate directly between the native layer and the HTML5 page. These plugins allow access to the device's accelerometer, camera, compass, file system, microphone, and more.  However, the use of Web-based technologies leads some Apache Cordova applications to run slower than native applications with similar functionality. Adobe Systems warns that applications built with Apache Cordova may be rejected by Apple for being too slow or not feeling "native" enough (having appearance and functionality consistent with what users have come to expect on the platform).

Supported platforms.

As of version 9, Apache Cordova currently supports development for the operating systems Apple iOS, Google Android, Windows 8.1, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows 10 and Electron (software framework) (which in turn runs on Windows, Linux and macOS). Earlier version of Apache Cordova used to support Bada, BlackBerry, Firefox OS, LG webOS, Microsoft Windows Phone (7 and 8), Nokia Symbian OS, Tizen (SDK 2.x), and Ubuntu Touch. The table below is a list of supported features for each operating system for Adobe PhoneGap/ Apache Cordova 3.

Apache Cordova (formerly PhoneGap) is a mobile application development framework originally created by Nitobi. Adobe Systems purchased Nitobi in 2011, rebranded it as PhoneGap, and later released an open source version of the software called Apache Cordova. Apache Cordova enables software programmers to build hybrid web applications for mobile devices using CSS3, HTML5, and JavaScript, instead of relying on platform-specific APIs like those in Android, iOS, or Windows Phone. It enables wrapping up of CSS, HTML, and JavaScript code depending upon the platform of the device. It extends the features of HTML and JavaScript to work with the device. The resulting applications are hybrid, meaning that they are neither truly native mobile application (because all layout rendering is done via Web views instead of the platform's native UI framework) nor purely Web-based (because they are not just Web apps, but are packaged as apps for distribution and have access to native device APIs). Mixing native and hybrid code snippets has been possible since version 1.9.

Apache Cordova ou plus anciennement Apache Callback ou PhoneGap, est un framework open-source développé par la Fondation Apache. Il permet de créer des applications pour différentes plateformes (Android, Firefox OS, iOS, Ubuntu, Windows 8...) en HTML, CSS et JavaScript.


History.

Origin.

New Prague was laid out in 1856, and named after Prague, the capital of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic). The immigrants from Bohemia built the town of New Prague, and many of them identified as Czechs.  At the advice of Catholic Bishop Rev. Joseph Cretin, Anton Philipp, a native German, first settled within the present limits of New Prague. In 1856 Philipp purchased 160 acres in Helena Township, Scott County. Philipp did not make an official plat of the town but began selling lots that same year, marking the beginning of New Prague. Several Bohemian families came to the area shortly after Philipp arrived.

Late 1800s.

New Prague's early development was not spectacular for a variety of reasons. First, during the Civil War years, 1861–1865, European immigration almost stopped as European immigrants were naturally wary of the U.S. Civil War. Second, located in the middle of the Big Woods, the enormous challenge of clearing fields proceeded at a slow pace.  The town was known as Praha from 1872 to 1879. On March 1, 1877, state of Minnesota approved the incorporation of Praha as a village. In 1879 the name was changed to Prague.  One of the most important developments in the new village occurred in 1877 when the Minneapolis & St. Louis Railway (M & St. L) reached New Prague. The arrival of the railroad era expedited agriculture as New Prague's most important industry. A link with the outside world enabled farmers to send their commodities to markets and created a conduit to bring inventory to the village's businesses. Just four years after the M & St. L reached New Prague, the first grain elevator and flour mill were completed, marking the beginning of New Prague earning its nickname, the “Flour City.”  Czech immigration to the United States reached its peak during the 1880s with 62,000 coming to the U. S. during this decade. Along with Montgomery, which is approximately eight miles south of New Prague, New Prague was becoming the center of “The Bohemian Triangle” of Minnesota covering parts of Scott, Le Sueur and Rice counties, which are neighboring counties. Through the decades since 1856, Le Sueur County has had more Bohemians than any other county in the state.  Construction was booming in the 1880s. The town's first bank opened in 1883, the Czech-Slovak Protective Society (C. S. P. S.) Opera Hall was built, the New Prague Foundry started business, the second public school was built, and two hotels were constructed.  The village's name was changed from Prague to New Prague on February 25, 1884.  The 1890s were probably New Prague's heyday decade. The town was becoming a major market for farm produce and was providing goods and services for growing numbers of farmers and villagers for miles around. Streets were being graded and wooden sidewalks built along the streets. New Prague was incorporated as a city on April 4, 1891. New Prague Flouring Milling Company completed its mill in 1895. Electric lights were installed in the city in 1895, and telephone lines were installed in 1898.  Similar to the rest of the state, the 1880s and 1890s were two decades with the greatest growth in population. New Prague's population more than tripled during that 20-year period going from 384 residents to 1228, while the state's population more than doubled during that same period.  Original businesses outgrew their original log and wood-frame storefronts. A large commercial district filled with solid brick, stone, and wood-frame commercial structures developed along Main Street.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land. The land around the area varies from flat to hilly.  The city of New Prague is located in two counties, Scott and Le Sueur. North of Main Street (Highway 13/19) is Scott County; and on the south side is Le Sueur County.  Minnesota State Highways 13, 19, and 21 are three of the main routes in New Prague.  There is one lake in the New Prague area, Cedar Lake (Scott County). The lake is a popular destination for fishing, ice fishing, water skiing, and jet skiing. A snowmobile trail runs through the lake during the winter season. An aerated area is located in the eastern part of the lake. The lake is, has a maximum depth of and has a water clarity. There are numerous developments in the area, including a new development located on County Road 89 on the west side of the lake (which is located outside of the New Prague City Limits).

Climate.

The climate of New Prague is classified as warm-summer humid continental with features of a hot-summer humid continental (Köppen Dfa).

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 7,321 people, 2,711 households, and 1,910 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 2,862 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 96.5% White, 0.5% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.6% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.9% of the population.  There were 2,711 households of which 42.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.7% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.0% had a male householder with no wife present, and 29.5% were non-families. 24.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.22.  The median age in the city was 32.7 years. 31.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.1% were from 25 to 44; 20.4% were from 45 to 64; and 12.4% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.1% male and 51.9% female.

2000 census.

According to the 2000 census, 38.1% were of German, 20.9% Czech, 8.8% Norwegian, 8.0% Irish and 5.4% Czech/Slovak ancestry. Also, 99.6% spoke English, 0.3% Czech and 0.1% German as their first language.  The following Demographic Data is a result of the 2000 Census: There were 1,694 households out of which 39.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.7% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.3% were non-families. 25.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.20.  In the city, the population was spread out with 30.6% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $41,750, and the median income for a family was $50,341. Males had a median income of $37,393 versus $25,164 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,732. About 2.6% of families and 6.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.9% of those under age 18 and 13.7% of those age 65 or over.

Schools.

There are five schools in the New Prague Area Schools (District 721): New Prague High School (9–12), New Prague Middle School (6-8), Falcon Ridge Elementary in New Prague (K–5), Raven Stream Elementary in New Prague (K–5), and Eagle View Elementary in nearby Elko New Market (K–5). The total enrollment in the district for the 2005–2006 school year was 3,205 students. New Prague High School's nickname is the Trojans. The Trojans are members of the Wright County Conference, previously members of the Missota Conference prior to the 2014 season. The sports the Trojans participate in include baseball, softball, boys' and girls' basketball, boys' and girls' cross country, boys' and girls' hockey, boys' and girls' tennis, track, swimming, football, cheerleading, wrestling, golf, volleyball, adapted floor hockey, and adapted softball. New in the fall of 2007 is boys' and girls' soccer, and new in the winter of 2009–2010 is the New Prague Trojan Dance Team. New Prague Middle School has been ranked in the top 3 results in MN state standards test (MCA).  There is also a private K–8 school located in New Prague known as St. Wenceslaus Catholic School. Their athletic symbol is the Saints. They offer multiple sports for grade 4–8. The emphasis at St. Wenceslaus Catholic School is Christian Values and Academic Excellence.  Holy Cross Catholic Schools serves part of the New Prague District, representing three Catholic Parishes in Lonsdale, Elko New Market and Veseli. The school opened a new building near Webster in 2005.

Arts and culture.

"Dožínky" is a Czech Harvest Festival patterned after the "Old Country" original. The "Dožínky Festival" in the Czech Republic is celebrated annually to give thanks for the bountiful harvest.

New Prague ( ) is a city in Scott and Le Sueur counties in the state of Minnesota. The population was 7,321 at the 2010 census.

New Prague (ce qui signifie "La Nouvelle-Prague") est une petite ville du Minnesota aux États-Unis située dans les comtés de Le Sueur et de Scott. Sa population était de 7 321 habitants au recensement de 2010.


History.

HACs were first constructed "de novo" in 1997 by adding alpha-satellite DNA to telomeric and genomic DNA in human HT1080 cells. This resulted in an entirely new microchromosome that contained DNA of interest, as well as elements allowing it to be structurally and mitotically stable, such as telomeric and centromeric sequences. Due to the difficulty of "de novo" HAC formation, this method has largely been abandoned.

Construction methods.

There are currently two accepted models for the creation of human artificial chromosome vectors. The first is to create a small minichromosome by altering a natural human chromosome. This is accomplished by truncating the natural chromosome, followed by the introduction of unique genetic material via the Cre-Lox system of recombination. The second method involves the literal creation of a novel chromosome "de novo". Progress regarding "de novo" HAC formation has been limited, as many large genomic fragments will not successfully integrate into "de novo" vectors. Another factor limiting "de novo" vector formation is limited knowledge of what elements are required for construction, specifically centromeric sequences. However, challenges involving centromeric sequences have begun to be overcome.

Applications.

A 2009 study has shown additional benefits of HACs, namely their ability to stably contain extremely large genomic fragments. Researchers incorporated the 2.4Mb dystrophin gene, in which a mutation is a key causal element of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The resulting HAC was mitotically stable, and correctly expressed dystrophin in chimeric mice. Previous attempts at correctly expressing dystrophin have failed. Due to its large size, it has never before been successfully integrated into a vector.  In 2010, a refined human artificial chromosome called 21HAC was reported. 21HAC is based on a stripped copy of human chromosome 21, producing a chromosome 5Mb in length. Truncation of chromosome 21 resulted in a human artificial chromosome that was mitotically stable. 21HAC was also able to be transferred into cells from a variety of species (mice, chickens, humans). Using 21HAC, researchers were able to insert a herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase coding gene into tumor cells. This "suicide gene" is required to activate many antiviral medications. These targeted tumor cells were successfully, and selectively, terminated by the antiviral drug ganciclovir in a population including healthy cells. This research opens a variety of opportunities for using HACs in gene therapy.  In 2011, researchers formed a human artificial chromosome by truncating chromosome 14. Genetic material was then introduced using the Cre-Lox recombination system. This particular study focused on changes in expression levels by leaving portions of the existing genomic DNA. By leaving existing telomeric and sub-telomeric sequences, researchers were able to amplify expression levels of genes coding for erythropoietin production over 1000-fold. This work also has large gene therapy implications, as erythropoietin controls red blood cell formation.  HACs have been used to create transgenic animals for use as animal models of human disease and for production of therapeutic products.

A human artificial chromosome (HAC) is a microchromosome that can act as a new chromosome in a population of human cells. That is, instead of 46 chromosomes, the cell could have 47 with the 47th being very small, roughly 6–10megabases (Mb) in size instead of 50–250Mb for natural chromosomes, and able to carry new genes introduced by human researchers. Ideally, researchers could integrate different genes that perform a variety of functions, including disease defense.

Un chromosome artificiel humain (en anglais, "human artificial chromosome" ou "HAC") est un vecteur pouvant se comporter comme un chromosome supplémentaire dans une population de cellules humaines.


St. Anthony's Catholic Church (Davenport, Iowa)

Development.

In 1832, on what is now the city of Davenport, Chief Keokuk of the Sauk tribe signed a treaty with the United States government after the tribe's defeat in the Black Hawk War. The tribe ceded land on the west side of the Mississippi River, which was then opened to settlement. Antoine LeClaire, who was French-Pottawattamie and served as the translator at the treaty signing, received two parcels of land. The original section of the city was laid out in 1836. The next year an addition was made to the small town on one of LeClaire's parcels. He stipulated that a Catholic church be built on one of the squares. That same year a frontier missionary, the Rev. Samuel Charles Mazzuchelli, OP, arrived in Davenport and started the parish. At that time there were 25 Catholics in a town of 100 people. It is the oldest church congregation in Davenport.  Mazzuchelli drew up plans for a simple two-story structure that would serve as a church and priest's residence. He actually gave the parish two patron saints. St. Peter is the parish's primary patron, and St. Anthony of Padua is its secondary patron. However, the parish has always been known as St. Anthony's, the patron saint of its benefactor Antoine LeClaire. Ground was broken for the new church on April 27, 1838, and it was built by Harvey Leonard for more than $2,000. The first bricks manufactured in the city of Davenport were used to build the church. Bishop Mathias Loras of Dubuque dedicated the new structure on May 23, 1839. The building served many purposes for the small community. It was a church, city hall, courthouse, schoolhouse, public forum, and gathering place for the citizens of the town. The church's bell called parishioners to Mass, children to school, sounded the alarm for a fire, as well as summoning the city's aldermen for their sessions.  The title to the property, named Church Square, was deeded to Bishop Loras in 1839 to support the Catholic Church in Davenport. Commercial properties were built on the east side of the block. Income from these properties was a factor in Davenport being named a see city with its own bishop in 1881.  The church had a small choir which included Antoine LeClaire and Judge C.G.R. Mitchell, who would provide the land for the city's first Catholic cemetery and two of the churches in the city's west end. There was, however, no organ. Instead, music was led by a small ensemble made up of a violin, clarinet, flute, and cello.  The parish's first pastor was a French missionary priest recruited by Bishop Loras, the Rev. J.A.M. Pelamourgues, who arrived in Davenport in September 1839. He served the parish until 1868 when he remained in his native France while he was visiting there. Initially, Father Pelamourgues resided in a partitioned section of the gallery of the church. He was also responsible for more than the small parish in Davenport. He traveled to other Catholic communities in the region: Muscatine, Iowa City, Burlington, Columbus Junction, DeWitt and Lyons (the north side of present-day Clinton). Bishop Loras was also interested in evangelizing the Native Americans in his jurisdiction and he placed Father Pelamourgues in charge of the Sauk and Fox tribes in southeastern Iowa.

School.

St. Anthony's School opened in 1839 with Father Pelamourgues as its teacher. Initially, classes were taught in the body of the church with a curtain closing off the sanctuary. In 1844 the church building was extended to the east to accommodate the new classroom space. The most prominent pupil to be educated at St. Anthony's in its early years was John Forrest Dillon, who would go on to become the Chief Justice of the Iowa Supreme Court and a United States circuit court judge.  In 1844 Father Pelamourgues convinced the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary to teach in the school and to start a school for girls. However, financial conditions were such that the sisters only stayed for three years. They returned in 1855 to teach at St. Anthony's. Immaculate Conception Academy was founded as a girls' school in 1859, and was located up the hill from St. Anthony's in 1864. The Sisters who taught at St. Anthony's lived at the academy. It remained in operation until it was merged with St. Ambrose Academy to form Assumption High School in 1958. It was at that time the parish purchased the Fred Finch House on Main Street for a convent to house the sisters who taught a St. Anthony's. The parish school at St. Anthony's continued until it closed in 1968 because of low enrollment. The building continues to be used for the parish's religious education program.

Growth.

The parish continued to grow. By 1847 there were 450 parishioners, which was still a quarter of the town's population. In 1850 the front section of the present church was begun. Thomas Doyle and Henry Belken were responsible for constructing the new church. The building, completed in 1853 in the simple Greek Revival style, was built of locally quarried stone and measured. The original building was remodeled for more classroom space at this time. The rectory was built around 1877.  New parishes were beginning to form in Davenport that took parishioners from St. Anthony's. St. Kunigunda (1855), which was renamed St. Joseph in 1881, served the pastoral needs of the growing German Community. St. Margaret's (1856) was built on top of the bluff to the east of downtown. St. Margaret's became Davenport's first cathedral in 1881 with the establishment of the Davenport Diocese. St. Anthony's was not chosen to be the cathedral because its downtown location was considered inappropriate. St. Margaret's was renamed Sacred Heart when the present cathedral was built in 1891. St. Mary's Church was started in 1867 to serve the English speaking Catholics of the west end. Even though these new parishes were being formed, St. Anthony's continued to grow. Father Pelamourgues was succeeded by several priests who stayed for short periods of time until the Rev. D.J. Flannery arrived in 1882 and remained pastor until 1916. It was during his pastorate that transept wings with balconies were added to the church from 1885 to 1886 and the sanctuary was extended. A larger sacristy was also added to the church. The addition was built of brick.

20th Century.

By the turn of the 20th century St. Anthony's became the only church downtown. By the end of the first decade the parish's boundaries had become fixed to the central city with the founding of two parishes on top of the hill: Holy Family (1898) in the northwest part of the city and St. Paul the Apostle (1909) on the east side. The grotto to the Blessed Virgin Mary on the north side of the church was added in the 1920s. It was rebuilt in 1998 and the current statue was placed in it in 1999. A major renovation was carried out in 1949 when a manufactured stone facing, or "permastone", was put on the 1886 addition to the church, the school (original church) and the rectory. This gave the parish complex a unified appearance. The sacristy was also expanded along the south transept. The north wing was also added to the school building. This was the last addition made to the original building. There was also an addition made to the rectory to create more living space for the resident clergy. In the 1960s changes were made to facilitate the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council. While the communion rail was removed and a new free-standing altar was created so the priest could face the congregation, the old altars, frescos and statuary remain in the church.  One of the more colorful chapters in the parish's history was the Folk Masses of the 1970s. Rev. James Grubb, the associate pastor, inspired the masses that included contemporary music played on guitars, colorful vestments, and young people sitting on the floor of the sanctuary.  In 1987 the parish celebrated its sesquicentennial. To commemorate the occasion, a sculpture was commissioned and placed on the front of the church property facing Main Street. It depicts Father Mazzuchelli, a Sister of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, a child representing the children who attended the parish school, Col. George Davenport (for whom the city of Davenport was named) and Antoine LeClaire. The statue group stands atop a pedestal that encloses the church's original bell.

21st Century.

In 2009 the rectory was torn down to make room for a new parish center. Called the Gathering Center, the new facility is a building that includes classrooms with moveable walls for religious education classes, church offices, a kitchen and a renovated “McAnthony’s Window,” a parish-based outreach program. A social hall that holds up to 300 people is also a part of the new facility. The new building and its landscaping are meant to blend into the historic Church Square property. The original church building was also renovated.  In 2017 a new pipe organ was built by the Noack Organ Company of Georgetown, Massachusetts and installed in the church. It is the fourth organ the parish has owned since the church was built. The previous instrument dated from the 1940s.

Social Action.

The parish has been involved in the social and civic life of the Davenport community almost from its very beginning. The Davenport Temperance Society, which was formed in 1842, held their weekly meetings at St. Anthony's. In 1985 the parish began its “Care and Share” program under the direction of its pastor, the Rev. Kenneth Martin. Ten percent of the parish's weekly collection was set aside to aid those in need. His successor, the Rev. James Conroy began what has been dubbed “McAnthony’s Window,” a program that serves lunch to the homeless and indigent people. Another food distribution program collects food for baskets that are distributed to the elderly and poor at Thanksgiving, Christmas and Easter.

Architecture.

St. Anthony's Church follows a Latin Cross plan. The exterior of the front part of the church, which is the oldest section, is composed of quarry-faced, coursed, ashlar limestone. It reflects a period when highly skilled stonemasons and finely worked materials were not readily available in Davenport. The structure features a gable front, deep eave returns and a modillion frieze. Crosses are located at the peaks of the three gable ends. The rear of the church has a hip roof. The interior plan features a larger central nave that is flanked by side aisles. The apse, which appears rounded on the interior, is squared on the exterior. As mentioned earlier, the back addition to the church is covered in permastone. The round arch is used throughout the church. It is found in the stained glass windows, the vault of the ceiling, and on the reredos in the apse. It is also found on the main entrance into the church, which is capped with a fan-shaped tympanum. The stained glass is original to each section of the building when it was built. The ceiling features paintings over the center aisle. From the front entrance to the altar they depict Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead (or possibly raising the daughter of Naim), the Assumption of Mary into Heaven, and Jesus healing the sick. In the middle of the transept over the altar are symbols that represent the Four Evangelists. The statues in the reredos include the Sacred Heart in the center and it is flanked by Saint Patrick and Saint John the Evangelist. A bas-relief of the Last Supper is on the former altar frontal. There are also numerous other statues throughout the church. The church is set back from the street and is located in a park-like setting with mature vegetation.  The former school building, which is also the original church, is a two-story, side gable building with a projecting entrance pavilion. It was originally a frame structure with a brick veneer exterior that has since been covered with permastone. Initially, it was rectangular in shape, but additions have created a cross-shaped plan. A round arch in the entrance gable end is its prominent decorative feature. There is also a cross above the entrance pavilion.  The rectory, no longer extant, was also a frame structure with brick veneer that was covered with permastone. Designed in a vernacular style, it was a two-story, three bay front-gable house with a two-story side wing and further additions. A portion of one of those additions that included the garages remains behind the Gathering Center.

St. Anthony's Catholic Church is a parish church in the Diocese of Davenport. The parish complex is located in downtown Davenport, Iowa, United States, at the corner of Fourth and Main Streets. It is the first church congregation organized in the city of Davenport and the second Catholic congregation, after St. Raphael's Cathedral in Dubuque, in the state of Iowa. The parish buildings are listed on the National Register of Historic Places as St. Anthony's Roman Catholic Church Complex. The designation includes the church and the former school building, which is the parish's original church building and the oldest standing church building in Iowa. The designation also included the rectory, which was torn down in 2009. The complex was also listed on the Davenport Register of Historic Properties in 1992 as St. Anthony's Church Square. The property has been known historically as Church Square.

L'église Saint-Antoine ("St. Anthony's Church") est une église catholique historique de la ville de Davenport (Iowa) aux États-Unis et l'une des plus anciennes du pays. C'est la première église et la première paroisse catholique de la ville et la deuxième de l'Iowa, après celle de la cathédrale Saint-Raphaël de Dubuque. Elle a été fondée par un missionnaire français, l'abbé Pelamourgues. Elle est inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques du ministère de l'Intérieur des États-Unis sous la dénomination de complexe historique de l'église catholique Saint-Antoine, comprenant l'église actuelle et l'ancienne école paroissiale qui était le premier édifice de l'église paroissiale. Ce dernier bâtiment est le plus ancien édifice ecclésial encore debout de tout l'Iowa.


History.

Walhalla was established in 1845. Walhalla is the second oldest town in North Dakota, its history bound up in the fur trade of the Red River Valley. One mile northeast of town was the North West Company fur trading post, established in 1797 by British-Canadian surveyor and cartographer David Thompson (1770–1857), and in 1801 moved to a site one mile east of Walhalla, where a reconstructed building is now located. Also about one mile northeast of Walhalla is the Gingras Trading Post, established in the 1840s by the Métis legislator and businessman Antoine Blanc Gingras (1821-1877). In town is the Kittson Trading Post, established in 1843 by Norman Kittson (1814–1888), an American Fur Company agent. This is the oldest building in North Dakota. It is located in the Walhalla State Historical Park and is preserved by the State Historical Society. The Great Northern Railway arrived in Walhalla in 1898.  The town was the site of a protest against TransCanada's Keystone Pipeline in October 2016, when documentarian Deia Schlosberg was arrested.

Geography.

Walhalla is located at (48.921996, −97.918014).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, is land and is water.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 996 people, 439 households, and 263 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 515 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 88.3% White, 0.1% African American, 8.7% Native American, 0.2% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.7% of the population.  There were 439 households of which 26.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.1% were married couples living together, 5.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.1% were non-families. 36.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.88.  The median age in the city was 45.5 years. 23.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.3% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.2% were from 25 to 44; 29.7% were from 45 to 64; and 20.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 51.4% male and 48.6% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,057 people, 452 households, and 271 families living in the city. The population density was 1,004.4 people per square mile (388.7/km2). There were 556 housing units at an average density of 528.3 per square mile (204.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 89.78% White, 5.96% Native American, 0.09% from other races, and 4.16% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.85% of the population.  There were 452 households out of which 25.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.8% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 36.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 21.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.90.  In the city, the population was spread out with 22.4% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 21.9% from 25 to 44, 24.9% from 45 to 64, and 23.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,875, and the median income for a family was $39,375. Males had a median income of $28,095 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,894. About 9.7% of families and 12.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.5% of those under age 18 and 14.2% of those age 65 or over.

Media.

From 1896 to 2020, Walhalla was served by "The Walhalla Mountaineer", a weekly newspaper. The nearby communities of Langdon and Cavalier continue to have weekly newspapers.  In broadcast media, Walhalla is part of the Grand Forks media market.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Walhalla has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Walhalla is a city in Pembina County, North Dakota, United States. It sits on the banks of the Pembina River, five miles (8 km) from the border with Manitoba (Canada) and approximately from the border with Minnesota. The population was 996 at the 2010 census.

La ville de Walhalla est située dans le comté de Pembina, dans l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.