Significance.

The USFL is historically significant in part for the level of talent that played in the league. The league was noteworthy for signing three consecutive Heisman Trophy winners: Georgia running back Herschel Walker and Boston College quarterback Doug Flutie signed with the New Jersey Generals, and Nebraska running back Mike Rozier signed with the Pittsburgh Maulers out of college as did numerous other collegiate stars. Future Pro Football Hall of Fame members defensive end Reggie White of the University of Tennessee, offensive tackle Gary Zimmerman and quarterbacks Jim Kelly of the University

History.

Background.

For many decades after its inception, American football was widely regarded as a second-tier sport behind baseball which was long-regarded as America's national pastime. As a result, the elite levels of American football lacked the financial wherewithal to consistently finance their own facilities and instead played primarily in ballparks hastily re-purposed for football. However, since gridiron football in particular is responsible for excessive wear and tear on a grass playing field, baseball clubs were not keen to see football played in their parks throughout the entire baseball season. Thus, the need to use ballparks played a large part in ensuring that the National Football League and early rivals would delay the start of their seasons until September when the baseball season was winding down, thus affording baseball teams

Organization.

Over the next 15 years, Dixon studied the last two challengers to the NFL's dominance of pro football—the successful American Football League and the troubled World Football League. In 1980, he commissioned a study by Frank Magid Associates that found promising results for a spring and summer football league. He had also formed a blueprint for the prospective league's operations, which included early television exposure, heavy promotion in home markets, and owners with the resources and patience to absorb years of losses—which he felt would be inevitable until the league found its feet. He also assembled a list of prospective franchises located in markets attractive to a potential television partner.  Dixon was well aware that many attempts to challenge the NFL had foundered due to financial troubles. The WFL, for instance, was plagued by teams that were so badly underfinanced that they could not meet the most basic expenses. With this in mind, Dixon wanted to ensure that USFL teams had the wherewithal to put a credible

Stumbles before play begins.

Like almost all startup pro football leagues, the USFL had some off-the-field factors that prevented the league from starting out with their preferred membership. The problems started when the original owner of the Los Angeles franchise, Alex Spanos, pulled out and instead became a minority owner (and eventually majority owner) of the NFL's San Diego Chargers. Jim Joseph, a real estate developer who had lost out to friend Tad Taube for the USFL's San Francisco Bay Area franchise, had thought he would be content

The 1983 season.

On the whole, the inaugural season was a success for the league. Attendance was in line with league expectations at about 25,000 fans per game, and television ratings slightly exceeded projections (an average Nielsen rating of 6.1, when the league had aimed for 5.0). The brand of

The 1985–1986 off-season.

Some franchises folded before or after a season's play, and others moved and/or merged. However, unlike the WFL and other leagues that have competed against the NFL, no USFL team actually folded "during" a season's play. This was because, with the notable exception of

1986.

Arizona, Baltimore, Birmingham, Jacksonville, Memphis, New Jersey, Orlando and a newly reorganized Tampa Bay team were scheduled to play an ultimately

Competition vs. NFL.

The Dixon Plan vs. building a league of stars.

At first the USFL competed with the older, more established National Football League by following the Dixon plan. The plan allowed the league to compete not just by playing its games on a March–June schedule during the NFL off-season, but also by having  The Dixon plan laid out a budget to allow all teams to manage losses in the initial lean years. As mentioned earlier, prospective owners had to meet strict capitalization requirements and post a $1.3 million line of credit for emergencies.  The league's TV revenue met the requirements of the Dixon plan. The Plan called for first year attendance over 18,000 per game. In 1983, 10 of the 12 teams exceeded that threshold. Player spending was where the league deviated from the plan, in the name of pursuing stars.  The league's biggest splash—the signing of Herschel Walker, a three time All-American and the 1982 Heisman Trophy winner—represented a significant breach from the Dixon

Spring schedule vs. fall schedule.

In 1984, the league began discussing the possibility of competing head-to-head with the NFL by playing its games in the fall beginning in 1986. The strongest proponents of playing in the fall were Chicago owner Eddie Einhorn and Generals owner Donald Trump. Einhorn and Trump argued that if the USFL moved to the fall, it would eventually force a merger with the NFL in which the older league would have to admit at least some USFL teams. They also argued that if a merger did occur, the surviving teams' original investment would more than double.  A consulting firm recommended sticking with a spring season. Despite the protests of many of the league's "old guard", who wanted

"USFL v. NFL" lawsuit.

In another effort to keep themselves afloat while at the same time attacking the more established National Football League, the USFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the older league, claiming it had established a monopoly with respect to television broadcasting rights, and in some cases, on access to stadium venues.  The case was first heard by Judge Peter K. Leisure. The USFL claimed that the NFL had bullied ABC, CBS and NBC into not televising USFL games in the fall. It also claimed that the NFL had a specific plan to eliminate the USFL, the "Porter Presentation." In particular, the USFL claimed the NFL conspired to ruin the Invaders and Generals. The USFL sought damages of $567 million, which would have been tripled to $1.7 billion under antitrust law. It hoped to void the NFL's contracts with the three major networks. The USFL proposed two remedies: either force the NFL to negotiate new television contracts with only two networks, or force the NFL to split

Aftermath.

The USFL had a significant impact on the NFL both on the field and off. Almost all of the USFL's on-field innovations were eventually adopted by the older league, and a multitude of star players in the USFL would go on to enjoy very successful careers in the NFL.  The NFL would also eventually have franchises in some of the markets which the USFL had proved fertile for pro football or had renewed interest in the game. Jacksonville, in particular, was being courted by the Houston Oilers as a potential relocation destination as early as 1987; that city eventually got the expansion Jaguars in 1995. The Oilers would instead relocate to Tennessee in 1997, initially playing one season in Memphis (to minuscule crowds) before moving to Nashville to become the Tennessee Titans. Although the USFL's stay in Baltimore

Rule changes.

The USFL, compared to other professional leagues of the late 20th and 21st centuries, did not radically change the rules of the game; its rules largely resembled a hybrid of the NFL and college football rulebooks. The league's rule on stopping the clock was one example of this hybrid approach: outside the two-minute warning, the clock ran between plays after a first down like in the NFL, while after the warning, it stopped between the end of

Notable people and achievements.

USFL alumni in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

As of August 2015, there are eight USFL

Teams.

1986 proposal.

Prior to the jury award in "USFL v. NFL", the league had planned to go forward with a 1986 season with eight teams, divided into an "Independence Division" and a "Liberty Division":  merged with Denver Gold  Due to the legal aftermath of the failed

Championship games.

The 1985 game was originally to be played at the Pontiac Silverdome, but after the Panthers merged with Oakland, the game was awarded to Giants Stadium.  Had there been a 1986 season, the championship game was scheduled to be played at Jacksonville's Gator Bowl Stadium on February 1, 1987.  The USFL's championship trophy had a silver USFL-logoed helmet with a gold facemask, mounted on a marble base

Drafts.

The USFL held its 1983, 1985 and 1986 college drafts at the Grand Hyatt Hotel in New York. The 1984 draft was held at the Roosevelt Hotel in New York. The 1983–85 drafts were in January while the 1986 draft was held in May.  The USFL held an expansion draft in September 1983 for the 6 expansion teams that started play in 1984. In December 1984, they had a dispersal draft for Chicago, Pittsburgh, Oklahoma and Michigan.  In addition to the four college drafts, the league also held three USFL Territorial Drafts that allowed teams to select collegiate players from within their geographic area before they entered the general collegiate draft.

First overall pick in college drafts.

Of the four first overall draft picks in its history, only 1984 top pick Mike Rozier actually played in the USFL. Dan Marino and Jerry Rice chose to play in the NFL, where they were

The United States Football League (USFL) was an American football league that played for three seasons, 1983 through 1985. The league played a spring/summer schedule in each of its active seasons. The 1986 season was scheduled to be played in the autumn/winter, directly competing against the long-established National Football League (NFL). However, the USFL ceased operations before that season was scheduled to begin.

La (USFL) est une ligue de football américain qui a joué pendant trois saisons, de 1983 à 1985. Elle dispute un programme printemps / été à chacune de ses saisons actives. La saison 1986 doit se dérouler en automne / hiver et concurrencer directement la National Football League (NFL), établie de longue date. Cependant, l'USFL cesse ses activités avant son démarrage prévu.


Saison cyclonique 2004 dans l'océan Atlantique nord

Seasonal forecasts.

Since 1984, forecasts of hurricane activity have been issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University (CSU), and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). According to CSU, the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9.6 tropical storms, 5.9 hurricanes, and 2.3 major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale. A normal season, as defined by NOAA, has 12.1 named storms, of which 6.4 reach hurricane strength and 2.7 become major hurricanes.  CSU released its first prediction on December 5, 2003, which projected an above average season, with 13 named storms, seven hurricanes, and three major

Seasonal summary.

Activity.

The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, 2004. However, the first system, Hurricane Alex, did not develop until July 31. It was an above average season in which 16 tropical cyclones formed. All but one tropical depression attained tropical storm status, and nine of these became hurricanes. Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes. Due to a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average. Five hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 3,270 deaths and about $60.9 billion in damage. Additionally, Hurricanes Alex and Tropical Storm Earl also caused losses and fatalities, though neither

Impact.

The 2004 season was very deadly, with about 3,270 fatalities overall. Nearly all of the deaths were reported in Haiti following the floods and mudslides caused by Tropical Storm Jeanne. The other tropical cyclones that caused fatalities include Hurricane Alex, Charley, Frances, Gaston, and Ivan, and Tropical Storms Bonnie and Earl. Because four out of the six major hurricanes made several landfalls, the season was

Records.

The 2004 season had numerous unusual occurrences and set many records. However, most of them were surpassed by the following year. With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity, 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996, a record which would be surpassed in 2005. Florida was directly impacted by four major hurricanes during the season – Hurricane Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne. This was the first time four tropical cyclones produced hurricane-force winds in one state during a single season since four hurricanes made landfall in

Accumulated cyclone energy (ACE).

The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 227, one of the highest values on record in the Atlantic basin. ACE is, broadly speaking, a measure of the power of

Systems.

Hurricane Alex.

The interaction between a trough and tropical wave resulted in the development of a tropical depression on July 31, while centered about east of Jacksonville, Florida. After initially being poorly organized, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Alex late on August 1. The storm tracked northeastward and became a hurricane on August 3. As Alex moved out to sea, it intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and peaked with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h). Alex reached major hurricane status second farthest north in the Atlantic, after Hurricane Ellen in 1973. Eventually, Alex weakened due to cooler sea surface temperatures. The hurricane fell to tropical storm intensity around 12:00 UTC

Tropical Storm Bonnie.

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 3, while located about 315 mi (505 km) east of Barbados. The depression crossed the Lesser Antilles on August 4, before degenerating back into a tropical wave. The remnants traversed the Caribbean Sea, and re-developed into Tropical Depression Two on August 8. The depression strengthened further upon reaching the Gulf of Mexico and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Bonnie on August 9. A break in a mid-level ridge re-curved Bonnie northward on August 10 and then northeastward on August 11. Later that day, the storm peaked with winds of 65 mph (100 km/h), before wind shear began weakening it. At 14:00 UTC on August 12,

Hurricane Charley.

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Three on August 9 to the south-southeast of Barbados. Early on August 10, it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley, before reaching hurricane intensity south of Jamaica on August 11. Charley continued to strengthen after curving northwestward and was a 120 mph (195 km/h) Category 3 hurricane when it made landfall near Alquízar, Cuba on August 13. After emerging into the Straits of Florida, Charley weakened to a Category 2 hurricane. However, the storm abruptly strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane later on August 13, with winds peaking at 150 mph (240 km/h). At 19:45 UTC on August 13, Charley made landfall at Cayo Costa, Florida, followed by another landfall in Punta Gorda about an hour later. Charley rapidly weakened over Florida, falling to Category 1 by early on August 14. Later that day, the storm emerged into the Atlantic, before making two more landfalls in Cape Romain and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina as a minimal hurricane. Late on August 14, Charley weakened to a tropical storm over southeastern North Carolina, shortly before becoming extratropical near Virginia Beach, Virginia.

Hurricane Danielle.

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Four while south-southeast of Cape Verde on August 13. Although sea surface temperatures were only marginally warm, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Danielle early on August 14. Further intensification occurred and by early on August 15, Danielle reached hurricane status. The storm deepened significantly over the next 24 hours and became a Category 2 hurricane. Later on August 16, Danielle peaked as strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of.

Tropical Storm Earl.

By August 13, a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Five while located about east of the Lesser Antilles. The depression headed westward between due to a strong subtropical ridge located to its north. After developing banding features and an increase in Dvorak intensity estimates, the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Earl at 18:00 UTC on August 14. The storm strengthened slightly further and on the following day, it reached maximum sustained winds of 50 mph

Hurricane Frances.

Around 00:00 UTC on August 24, a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Six, while located about west-southwest of the southernmost islands of Cape Verde. Moving west-northwestward, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Frances later that day. Frances reached hurricane status late on August 25 while curving northwestward. By August 28, the storm reached an initial peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph (215 km/h). Late the following day, Frances weakened to a Category 3 hurricane during an eyewall replacement cycle. However,

Hurricane Gaston.

A frontal low pressure area developed into Tropical Depression Seven at 12:00 UTC on August 27, while located about east-southeast of Charleston, South Carolina. The depression gradually strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gaston early on August 28. Initially, Gaston tracked slowly, moving southeastward and then westward, before a developing mid- to upper-level ridge re-curved the storm northwestward. Gaston strengthened and briefly became a hurricane at 120:00 UTC on August 29, although operationally it was thought to have peaked as a strong tropical storm. Two hours later, the storm made landfall near Awendaw, South Carolina with winds of 75 mph (120 km/h). Gaston weakened rapidly inland and was only a tropical depression by early on August 30. Gaston re-strengthened into a tropical storm while located over eastern Virginia on

Tropical Storm Hermine.

The frontal zone that spawned Hurricane Gaston developed an area of convection south of Bermuda on August 25. After detaching from the front and developing a circulation, the system became a tropical depression at 18:00 UTC on August 27. It initially remained weak while the convection fluctuated, until intensifying into Tropical Storm Hermine at 12:00 UTC on August 29. Later that day, wind shear exposed the circulation to the north of the convection, though the storm was able to a peak as

Hurricane Ivan.

A westward-moving tropical wave developed into a tropical depression on September 2, before becoming Tropical Storm Ivan on the following day. Tracking westward, Ivan gradually strengthened, reaching hurricane intensity on September 5. On September 6, the storm strengthened significantly, becoming a Category 4 hurricane, despite being located at an unusually low latitude. It subsequently weakened, though it reached major hurricane status again the next day. Late on September 7, Ivan passed close to Grenada while heading west-northwestward. Although located near the Netherlands Antilles on September 9, Ivan briefly

Tropical Depression Ten.

A tropical wave accompanied with a well-organized area of convection emerged off the western coast of Africa on August 29. Performing a slow curve over the eastern Atlantic, the wave became increasingly less-defined over subsequent days as a result of strong southwesterly wind shear. Following the development of shower and thunderstorm activity

Hurricane Jeanne.

Tropical Depression Eleven developed from a tropical wave at 18:00 UTC on September 13, while located about 70 mi (110 km) east-southeast of Guadeloupe. After crossing the island while moving west-northwestward, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Jeanne around midday on September 14. It strengthened further in the Caribbean Sea, before making landfall near Guayama, Puerto Rico with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) at 16:00 UTC the following day. Hours later, Jeanne emerged into the Mona Passage and resumed deepening, becoming at Category 1 hurricane at midday on September 16. Around the time, the hurricane made another landfall at the

Hurricane Karl.

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Twelve early on September 16, while located southwest of Cape Verde. The depression moved westward under a subtropical ridge and became Tropical Storm Karl later that day. On September 17, the storm curved northwestward and continued strengthening, reaching hurricane status early on September 18. Karl intensified significantly while moving west to west-northwestward and became a major hurricane by early the next day. The storm briefly deepened to a Category 4 hurricane on September 20, before weakening slightly and subsequently re-strengthening to that intensity. With a steadily increasing

Hurricane Lisa.

At 18:00 UTC on September 19, a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Thirteen, which was centered located about west-southwest of Cape Verde. Despite unfavorable conditions due to outflow from nearby Hurricane Karl, the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Lisa on September 20. After nearly reaching hurricane status, Lisa began executing a small cyclonic loop due to a Fujiwhara interaction with a tropical wave. Additionally, the interaction caused Lisa to weaken to a tropical depression on September 23. As Lisa merged with the tropical wave, convection became difficult to distinguish between the two systems, although Lisa maintained a

Tropical Storm Matthew.

A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen on October 8, while located about southeast of Brownsville, Texas. The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Matthew about six hours later. The storm moved generally northeastward or northward throughout its duration. After briefly weakening, Matthew attained its peak intensity late on October 9, with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of. At 11:00 UTC on October 10, Matthew made landfall near Cocodrie, Louisiana with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). Only an hour later, Matthew

Subtropical Storm Nicole.

The interaction between an upper-level trough and a decaying cold front led to the development of a low pressure area on October 8 to the southwest of Bermuda. Although it lacked a well-defined center of circulation, the system was already producing gale-force winds. Early on October 10, the low developed a curved band of convection northwest of the center, and it organized into Subtropical Storm Nicole by 06:00 UTC. An approaching mid-level trough turned the system northeastward. Early on October 11, Nicole passed about 60 mi (95 km) northwest of Bermuda. On the island, Nicole and its precursor dropped 5.86 in (148 mm) of rainfall

Tropical Storm Otto.

A cold front and a strong upper-level trough interacted, resulting in the development of an extratropical low pressure area on November 26. After losing frontal characteristics, the system transitioned into Subtropical Storm Otto at 12:00 UTC on November 29, while located about east-southeast of Bermuda. Initially, the storm moved northwestward due to a weakness in a subtropical ridge. Late on November 29, Otto attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 50 mph (85 km/h). Deep convection formed near the center and the storm began transitioning to a

Season effects.

The following table lists all of the storms that have formed in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season. It includes their duration, names, landfall(s) (in parentheses), damages, and death totals. Deaths in parentheses

Storm names.

The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 2004. This is the same list used for the 1998 season except for "Gaston" and "Matthew", which replaced "Georges" and "Mitch". The names not retired from this list were used again in 2010. Storms were named "Gaston", "Matthew", and "Otto" for the first time in 2004. Names that were not assigned are marked in.

Retirement.

On April 5, 2005, The World Meteorological Organization retired four names – "Charley", "Frances", "Ivan", and "Jeanne" due to extreme damages and death toll and will not be used again for an Atlantic hurricane.

The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was a very deadly, destructive, and hyperactive Atlantic hurricane season, with over 3,200 deaths and more than $61 billion (2004 USD) in damage. More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States. Due to the development of a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average. The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30, though the season's last storm, Otto, dissipated on December 3, extending the season beyond its traditional boundaries. The first storm, Alex, developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31, one of the latest dates on record to see the formation of the first system in an Atlantic hurricane season. It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic, causing one death and $7.5 million (2004 USD) in damage. Several storms caused only minor damage, including tropical storms Bonnie, Earl, Hermine, and Matthew. In addition, hurricanes Danielle, Karl, and Lisa, Tropical Depression Ten, Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones.

La saison cyclonique 2004 dans l'océan Atlantique nord commence officiellement le 2004 et se finit le 30 novembre 2004. Ces dates conventionnelles délimitent la période durant laquelle il est le plus probable qu'un cyclone tropicale se forme. Dans les faits, elle débuta tardivement avec l'Alex qui se forma le 31 juillet. Elle se termina également tardivement en raison de la formation d'Otto le dernier jour de la période et qui se prolongea durant quelques jours au début du mois de décembre. La saison fut particulièrement active. l'une des raisons est le passage de l'AMO en phase positive depuis 1995 qui réchauffe l'Océan Atlantique nord. Cet effet a peut-être été accentué dans une certaine mesure par le récent réchauffement climatique. Des anomalies de pression sur l'Est de l'Atlantique ont forcé les ouragans à avoir une trajectoire très à l'Ouest. Ainsi, il existe un vide où seules Nicole et Hermine se sont développées. La conséquence fut un nombre important d'ouragans qui frappèrent la Côte Est des États-Unis. La Floride fut particulièrement éprouvée. Jamais autant d'ouragans n'avaient frappé un état depuis la saison cyclonique 1886, où quatre ouragans touchèrent le Texas.


History.

Foundation and the chequered shirts (1903–1933).

The club was founded on 1 August 1903, in the Boavista area of the western part of the city of Porto, by two English brothers, Harry and Dick Lowe. Having received an imported football from their father in England, they founded The Boavista Footballers, and an early rival was another English club in the city, the Oporto Cricket and Lawn Tennis Club. The team had an early schism as its British contingent refused to play on Sundays due to their Anglican faith, while the Catholic locals could only play on Sundays due to work commitments; the locals won, drastically changing the demographics of the club. In 1910 the current name was adopted, and on 11 April that year the ground now occupied by the Estádio do Bessa was inaugurated with a match against Leixões SC. In 1913–14, the team won the inaugural Porto Football Association.  In the 1920s the club increased the number of sports practiced. The team boasted "the best defensive trio of the North": goalkeeper Casoto and defenders Lúzia and Óscar Vasques de Carvalho. In the following decade, the club lobbied for the legalisation of professionalism after being sanctioned, having been investigated after complaining that FC Porto had paid Boavista's Nova to join them. In 1933, the club adopted its black-and-white shirts, based off a French team that club president Artur Oliveira Valença had watched.

League entry and golden 1970s (1934–1980).

Boavista's first decades in league football saw the club bounce between the Primeira and the Segunda Divisão, winning the latter's title in 1937 and 1950. In 1966, they fell to the Terceira Divisão, and stayed there for two years.  The team bounced back to the top flight by 1970 with two consecutive promotions, finished renovation of its stadium two years later and in 1974 hired manager José Maria Pedroto and president Valentim Loureiro. In their first year, Boavista achieved their best classification of fourth in the 1974-1975 championship, and won the Taça de Portugal for the first time after defeating Benfica 2–1 in the final. A year later, the club finished as runners-up to S.L. Benfica by two points, and defended their cup title by defeating Vitória de Guimarães 2–1 in the 1976 final at rival Porto's Estádio das Antas; Pedroto left for Porto at the end of the season.  Experienced English manager Jimmy Hagan led the club to its third Taça de Portugal win in five years after defeating Sporting CP 1–0 in the replay of the 1979 final, after a 1–1 draw occurred the day prior. At the beginning of the following season, Porto and Boavista organised the first edition of the Portuguese Supercup, a season-opening match between the league and cup holders. The match was contested at the Estádio das Antas, and Boavista (with new manager Mário Lino) beat Pedroto's Porto 2–1 in a violent match where Boavista had two men sent off.

From contenders to Champions and European forays (1980–2003).

In 1997, Valentim Loureiro was succeeded as president by his son João, who at 34 was the youngest in the whole league. Also, former Portugal international Jaime Pacheco was appointed manager, and led the club to runners-up in 1999 and fourth place in 2000. In 2000–01, they won the derby in the second half of the season against Porto and went on to win the league with a 3–0 win over C.D. Aves on 18 May. This was only the second time that a team from outside the Big Three won the league, after C.F. Os Belenenses in 1946. Pacheco's team conceded just 22 goals in 34 games and lost at home only once. The team featured Ricardo in goal, academy product Petit in midfield, Bolivian free-kick specialist Erwin Sánchez in attacking midfield, Duda and Martelinho on the wings, and Brazilian striker Elpídio Silva was the club's top scorer with 11 goals.  After finishing runners-up to Sporting a year later, the squad began to break up, with Petit heading to Benfica and fellow midfielder Pedro Emanuel going to Porto; both skippered their new teams. The club rebuilt the Estádio do Bessa for UEFA Euro 2004, contributing to their financial problems. Pacheco left for Spain's RCD Mallorca in 2003, returning soon to replace Sánchez briefly as manager the following year, and came back again in October 2006.  Boavista were regulars in UEFA competitions in the 1990 and early 2000s. In the 2002–03 UEFA Cup, they reached the semi-finals before a 2–1 aggregate loss to Celtic due to a late Henrik Larsson strike; they would have faced Porto in the final.

Downfall and return (2008–present).

In June 2008, Boavista was sentenced to relegation for its part in the "Apito Dourado" (Golden Whistle) matchfixing scandal, for three games in the 2003–04 season. A year later the club was relegated again: originally saved by promoted club F.C. Vizela being sanctioned for corruption, the team withdrew from the second division for financial reasons.  In January 2013, João Loureiro, pressed by thousands of members of the club to return to the presidency, was elected president once again. After a long legal battle, in June 2013, Boavista was entitled the right to come back to the Primeira Liga. Also, after a negotiation with the creditors of the club, the debt was cut in half. After a six-year absence, Boavista returned to the Primeira Liga in the 2014–15 season, coached by Petit, a member of the title-winning side of 2001.

League and cup history.

The club has made 55 appearances at the top level of Portuguese football and has won the Portuguese cup five times. In 1979, it also won the very first edition of the national supercup.  "As of 24 May 2019"  Sources: Soccer Library, Zero a Zero,

Managers.

"Since 1970"

Stadium.

The Estádio do Bessa (later Estádio do Bessa XXI) is Boavista's home ground, used for football and occasionally for music concerts. The stadium was first used in 1911, then known as 'Campo do Bessa'.  The stadium had several renovations in its history, namely in 1967–72, where turf was installed as well as floodlights. Like other stadiums used in UEFA Euro 2004, the stadium was rebuilt for the competition, but on top of the old stands, and each one of them at a different time, allowing Boavista to continue playing there. It cost €45,164,726, from which €7,785,735 were supported from the Portuguese state, and featured an all-seater capacity of 28,263 spectators. Plans for improvement actually existed before the organization of the Euro 2004 was given to Portugal in 1999, and by then, the first works were already underway. It was designed by Grupo 3 Arquitectura.  The stadium has also been used several times in matches of the Portuguese national team.

Colours.

Boavista's black-and-white chequered shirt was introduced by journalist and club president Artur Oliveira Valença, based on a French team he had seen.

Women's team.

The women's team is one of the strongest in Portugal, having won several titles in a row during the 1990s, as well as the formation U-19, U-17. U-15 and U-13 teams, that won all national championships, and brought up several talented and famous international players.

Boavista Futebol Clube, commonly known as Boavista (), is a Portuguese sports club from the city of Porto. Founded on 1 August 1903 by British entrepreneurs and Portuguese textile workers (thus the "FC" being appended – the British way as opposed to the more common Portuguese way of being prepended to the club's name), it is one of the oldest clubs in the country and plays in the Primeira Liga, Portuguese football's top flight.

Le Boavista Futebol Clube est un club de football portugais basé à Porto, fondé en 1903. Il joue actuellement en Liga Nos du football portugais.


Club career.

Following his eight successful years in Peñarol in his native Uruguayan league, Schiaffino was purchased by Italian Serie A club A.C. Milan, for an at the time world record fee of 52 million Lire, in September 1954. He played 171 games with A.C. Milan and scored 60 goals, and participated in the 1958 European Cup Final, which Milan lost to Real Madrid 2–3 (aet). He was among the crucial offensive players in a Milan team that was dominated by foreign stars such as Nils Liedholm and Gunnar Nordahl. Schiaffino won three national championships with Milan, the victories being in 1955, 1957 and 1959. Schiaffino left in 1960 to join Roma, where he played out his career during two moderately successful seasons, in which Roma finished fifth in the standings.

International career.

Schiaffino played for two national teams; first with the Uruguyan national team from 1946 to 1954, and later with the Italian national team from 1954 to 1958, courtesy of his paternal grandfather who was a Ligurian from the province of Genoa.  He obtained 21 caps with the Uruguyan national team, scoring nine goals, and four caps with the Italian national team.  Schiaffino participated actively in Uruguay's victory in the 1950 World Cup, scoring one goal in the final and beating Brazil in its own stadium, in what was called the "Maracanazo". He also played in the 1954 World Cup, helping his nation to a fourth-place finish in the tournament.

Style of play.

A tactically versatile player, with a slender physique, Schiaffino was usually deployed as a left-sided inside forward or second striker in the early part of his career, in particular with CA Peñarol and A.C. Milan, or as an attacking midfielder, although he was also capable of playing as a deep-lying playmaker in midfield, a role which he occupied more frequently as his career progressed. Schiaffino was renowned for his creative ability and for having a unique capacity to read the game, organise his teammates, orchestrate goalscoring opportunities, and dictate the tempo of his team's play in midfield, which made him a highly proficient playmaker and assist provider; as a footballer, he was best known for his excellent technical ability, passing range, intelligence, positional sense, leadership, and vision. A well-rounded and hard-working player, who is regarded by pundits as one of the greatest footballers of all time, in addition to his skill, elegance, and creativity on the ball, Schiaffino was also known for his defensive contribution and willingness to track back, put pressure on opponents, and challenge them for the ball, often with sliding tackles; his wide range of skills also enabled him to play as a sweeper with Roma in his later career.

Death.

Schiaffino died on 13 November 2002. His remains are buried at the Cementerio del Buceo, Montevideo.

Juan Alberto ""Pepe"" Schiaffino Villano (; 28 July 1925 – 13 November 2002) was an Italian-Uruguayan football player who played as an attacking midfielder or forward. A highly skilful and creative playmaker, at club level, he played for CA Peñarol in Uruguay, and for A.C. Milan, and Roma in Italy. At international level, he won the 1950 FIFA World Cup with the Uruguayan national team, and also took part at the 1954 FIFA World Cup; he later also represented the Italy national football team.

Juan Alberto Schiaffino, né le à Montevideo (Uruguay) et mort le dans la même ville, est un joueur et entraîneur de football uruguayen, naturalisé italien.


History.

Kfar Darom was founded on 250 dunams of land (about 25 hectares or 60 acres) purchased in 1930 by Tuvia Miller for a fruit orchard on the site of an ancient Jewish settlement of the same name mentioned in the Talmud. Following the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, Miller sold his land to the Jewish National Fund in 1946. A community was established on the land at the close of Yom Kippur on 5 and 6 October 1946, by Hapoel HaMizrachi's kibbutz movement as part of the 11 points in the Negev settlement plan. The community was named after a Talmudic-period village of the same name that was located near the site.  In the summer of 1948, after numerous battles, the community was abandoned following a three-month siege by the Egyptian army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.  Following Israel's victory in the Six-Day War in 1967, and its subsequent occupation of the Gaza Strip, a Nahal military outpost was established at the site in 1970. In 1989, this was converted to a civilian community by the Israeli national unity government of Shimon Peres (Alignment) and Yitzhak Shamir (Likud).  The village also had an elementary school, a kollel for religious (adults married men) students and the "Torah and Land" Institute, for research into religious laws relating to agriculture in Israel. The visitor center contained the Garden of Commandments Museum, which illustrated commandments relating to the Land of Israel.

Disengagement.

At the point of the disengagement plan in 2005, there were about sixty families, totaling about 330 people, who earned their living from the free working professions, agriculture, and a central packing center for the vegetables produced by the Gaza settler communities.

Kfar Darom (, "lit." South Village), was a kibbutz and an Israeli settlement within the Gush Katif bloc in the Gaza Strip.

Kfar Darom, en, était une colonie israélienne de la bande de Gaza. En 1946, un kibboutz est établi sur une surface d'environ de terres achetées seize ans plus tôt par Tuvia Miller pour cultiver un verger. Une des motivations est d'assurer une continuité territoriale entre la plaine côtière et le Néguev pour justifier le rattachement de ce dernier au futur État juif.


Usage.

Multi-booting allows more than one operating system to reside on one computer; for example, if you have a primary operating system and an alternate system that you use less frequently. Another reason for multi-booting can be to investigate or test a new operating system without switching completely. Multi-booting allows a new operating system to configure all applications needed and migrate data before removing the old operating system, if desired. A possible alternative to multi-booting is virtualization, where a hypervisor is used to host one or more virtual machines running guest operating systems. Multi-booting is also useful in situations where different software applications require different operating systems. A multi-boot configuration allows a user to use all of this software on one computer. This is often accomplished by using a boot loader such as NTLDR, LILO, or GRUB which can boot more than one operating system. Multi-booting is also used by software developers when multiple operating systems are required for development or testing purposes. Having these systems on one machine is a way to reduce hardware costs.

Technical issues.

Number of operating systems per volume (logical drive).

In an OS/2 dual boot configuration, the C drive can contain both DOS and OS/2. The user issue the BOOT command from the DOS or OS/2 command line to do the necessary copy, move and rename operations and then reboot to the specified system on C:. Other systems provide similar mechanisms for alternate systems on the same logical drive.

Number of operating systems per storage device.

In a multi-boot computer each of the multiple operating systems can reside on its own storage device, or some storage devices might contain more than one operating system in different partitions. The boot loader in the MBR displays a menu of logical drives and loads the selected boot loader from the PBR of that drive.  An example of a computer with one operating system per storage device is a dual-booting computer that stores Windows on one disk drive and Linux on another disk drive. In this case a multi-booting boot loader is not strictly necessary because the user can choose to enter BIOS configuration immediately after power-up and make the desired drive first in the boot-order list. However, it is more convenient to have a multi-booting boot loader on one of the drives, set BIOS once to always start booting from (i.e. load the boot loader from) that drive, and then allow the user to choose an operating system from that boot loader's menu. No special disk partitioning is necessary when each operating system has its own dedicated disk drive.  An example of a computer with multiple operating systems per storage device is a dual-booting computer that stores both Windows and Linux on the same disk drive but where the bios in the system does not let the user boot individual drives and partitions. In this case a multi-booting boot loader "is" necessary. Also, the disk must be partitioned to give each operating system its own partition on the disk drive. This is necessary because each system has its own set of files and operating instructions. Also, when a completely separate operating system is used partitions may need to be formatted to a different format. For example, if you intend to install Windows and Linux, the Windows partition will be most likely formatted in the NTFS format and Linux Partition will most likely be formatted in the ext4 file format as Windows can't run off of ext4 and Linux can't run on NTFS. However, for example if a user intends to dual boot two versions of Windows (i.e. Windows 7 and Windows Vista) or two versions of Linux (i.e. Linux Mint and Ubuntu Linux), the same file system (e.g. NTFS or ext4) can be used across both drives and partitions.

Partitioning.

The basic concept involves partitioning a disk to accommodate each planned installation, usually including separate partitions for boot, root, data storage and backups.

Windows XP and 2000.

Windows Vista's partitioners may not be compatible with XP and 2000 (see Logical disk manager#Compatibility problems). If you use Windows 2000 and XP, probably the safest approach (for disks under 2 TiB) is to use a CHS partition table alignment that is chosen by Windows XP/2000 (not Vista or Windows 7). If starting with a disk with nothing important on it, delete all partitions, unplug the disk or reboot, create at least one partition with Windows XP/2000 Disk Management or the XP/2000 installer, and format all FAT partitions. The alignment can be checked with Ranish Partition Manager: All partitions (including Extended Boot Record [EBR] extended partitions—type 05) should start at the beginning of a head, and end at the end of a cylinder. If nothing is shown in red (with error messages when you highlight them) you probably have a disk with a standard CHS partition table alignment. If you wish to edit the partition table with Linux, first run sfdisk with "--show-geometry" and "--show-pt-geometry". If these return the same geometry, it should be safe to use GParted, so long as it is set to round to cylinders, and you only add partitions to the end of the partition table. If you add a partition to the middle of the extended partition table, GParted will not put them in the order they are on the disk (so that hda7 will follow hda9 instead of hda6). The order can be fixed with a Linux fdisk advanced function. Most Linux partitioners that don't use parted, may not end EBR extended partitions (type 05) on the same sector as their logical drives. When GParted or parted edit these "nonstandard" partition tables, they will "fix" all these EBRs, so that the extended partitions end on the same sector as their logical drives. The partitioner then may show these partitions as having no "errors". This can also be checked using (for example) sfdisk -l -x -us /dev/hda.

Windows and Linux.

One popular multi-boot configuration is to dual-boot Linux and Windows operating systems, each contained within its own partition. Windows does not facilitate or support multi-boot systems, other than allowing for partition-specific installations, and no choice of boot loader is offered. However, most current Linux installers accommodate dual-booting (although some knowledge of partitions is desirable). Commonly installations proceed without incident but upon restart, the boot loader will recognize only one of the two operating systems.  There are some advantages to installing a Linux boot manager/loader (usually GRUB) as the primary bootloader pointed to by the master boot record. Windows operating systems will be found by properly installed Linux bootloaders, but Windows boot managers do not recognize Linux installations (nor does Windows deal natively with Linux file systems). The MBR boot code can be backed up and restored with dd, available on System Rescue CD.  It is often recommended that Windows be installed to the first primary partition. The boot loaders of both Windows and Linux identify partitions with a number derived by counting the partitions. (Note, both Windows and Linux count the partitions according to the ordering of the partitions "in the partition table", which may be different from the order of the partitions on the disk.) Adding or deleting a partition at the end of a hard drive will have no effect on any partitions prior to it. However, if a partition is added or deleted at the beginning or middle of a hard drive, the numbering of subsequent partitions may change. If the number of the system partition changes, it requires boot loader reconfiguration in order for an operating system to boot and function properly.  Windows must be installed into a primary partition (and in older systems this must be the first partition). Linux can be installed into a partition in any position on the hard drive and can also be installed into logical partitions (within the extended partition). If Linux is installed into a logical partition within the extended partition, it is unaffected by changes in the primary partitions.

Neutral MBR.

An alternative to storing GRUB in the MBR is keeping Windows' or other generic PC boot code in the MBR, and installing GRUB or another bootloader into a primary partition other than that of Windows, thus keeping the MBR neutral. Operating system selection at boot time consequently depends on the bootloader configured within the primary partition that has the boot or "active" flag set on its partition table entry, which could be a bootloader of DOS, OS/2, eComStation, Blue Lion or BSD, in addition to Linux or Windows.  With the boot flag set on the Windows primary, the Windows Boot Manager can be used to chainload another installed bootloader by employing usage of a program like EasyBCD. This means the active partition's boot manager will first prompt the user for selection what OS to boot, then load another if necessary, such as GRUB, even a bootloader installed to a logical partition, and then GRUB will load the Linux kernel as it normally would were GRUB installed to the MBR.  The active partition could also be one that exists for no purpose other than choosing an operating system to boot, such as the Boot Manager that shipped with IBM's OS/2 Warp and with eComStation.

Apple Boot Camp.

Boot Camp allows owners of Intel-based Apple Macintosh computers to install Windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10 on their Macs. The software comes bundled with Mac OS X since version 10.5 (Leopard). Previously the application was available in beta version as a download from Apple's website.  Boot Camp allows non-destructive disk partitioning and resizing of HFS+ filesystems, boot menu options, and an option to burn a CD with necessary device drivers. Since Windows XP is incompatible with Extensible Firmware Interface (the successor to legacy BIOS), the firmware on early Intel Macs needs to be updated to support BIOS emulation first. BIOS emulation is achieved with a compatibility support module (CSM). Apple does not support non-Windows partition formats or drivers so therefore configuring other operating systems is not directly possible through Boot Camp itself. However, any operating system which can utilize the BIOS emulation of Intel Macintosh can be made to work, including non-XP versions of Windows. The Ubuntu Linux distribution is particularly popular for this purpose because they provide an option to use proprietary device drivers along with open source drivers.

Multi-booting is the act of installing multiple operating systems on a computer, and being able to choose which one to boot. The term dual-booting refers to the common configuration of specifically two operating systems. Multi-booting may require a custom boot loader.

Le multiboot (en français, amorçage multiple) désigne la possibilité d'installer sur un même ordinateur plusieurs systèmes d'exploitation et de choisir l'un d'eux lors du démarrage de l'ordinateur.


Personal life.

Marian Lupu was born on 20 June 1966 in Bălţi into a Jewish family. When Marian was six, the family moved to Chişinău. His parents gave him the nickname Marcel, because they liked the Romanian accordion musician Marcel Budală (1926–1989). His father, Ilie Lupu (b. 1938), was a mathematics professor at the Moldova State University. His mother taught French language at the Nicolae Testemiţanu State University of Medicine and Pharmacy. He had been a member of Komsomol from 1980 until 1988 and a Member of Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1988 to 1991.  Until 1983, Lupu studied at "Gheorghe Asachi" High School of Chişinău. He studied Economics at Moldova State University (until 1987) and at Plekhanov Moscow Institute of the National Economy (1987–1991) in Moscow where he obtained his PhD in Economics. Lupu also attended stages at the Institute of the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C. (1994) and World Trade Organization in Geneva (1996).  Besides speaking his native Romanian, Lupu speaks English, French, and Russian. Lupu was married in 1992 and has two children, Alexandra and Cristian.

Political career.

He was named as Vice Minister of the Economy in the new Communist Tarlev cabinet in June 2001. Two years later in August 2003, Lupu was promoted to full Minister of the Economy (5 August 2003 - 24 March 2005).  After the Communists won re-election in 2005, Lupu was once again promoted, this time as Speaker of the Moldovan Parliament. Marian Lupu was Speaker of the Moldovan Parliament from March 2005 to May 2009. But in December 2008, Lupu was not included by president Vladimir Voronin in the composition of the Supreme Security Council. Lupu was a high-ranking member of the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova and was considered to be a leading candidate to become the next Prime Minister after Zinaida Greceanîi stepped down; however, shortly before the second (unsuccessful) attempt to elect the next president on 3 June 2009, he left the PCRM, stating that it was not possible to reform the PCRM from within. Subsequently, he was offered membership and even leadership in the Democratic Party of Moldova, which had not cleared the electoral threshold in the first elections in 2009.  After July 2009 parliamentary election, alongside Vlad Filat, Mihai Ghimpu, and Serafim Urechean, Marian Lupu signed the Alliance For European Integration in a press-conference on 8 August 2009.  He was the candidate of the Alliance For European Integration for President of Moldova up until the election of current president Nicolae Timofti on 16 March 2012.  On 25 April 2013 Marian Lupu was sacked from position of President of Moldovan Parliament with 76 of 101 votes (communists, liberal-democrats, socialists and some liberal-reformators).  In controversy over ethnic and linguistic identity in Moldova, Marian Lupu identifies himself as Moldovan ethnic and supported retention of "Moldovan language" in Constitution as state language of Moldova.  Though in 2010, in TV talk-show "În profunzime" on ProTV Chișinău, Marian Lupu stated: ""From scientifical point of view I speak Romanian, from political point of view - Moldovan!"”.  After two years, in the same talk-show Lupu stated: ""I changed my mind. Scientifically is not Romanian anymore, as I said previously, but Moldovan [language]."”  Lupu supports idea of existence of the Moldovan people and Moldovan nation and the idea that Moldova is a distinct entity apart from Romania.  In 2010 Lupu stated ""It is a pride for Moldova that its soldiers marched on the Red Square"” in Moscow on the Victory Day (9 May).

Marian Lupu (; born 20 June 1966) is a Moldovan politician who was the President of the Parliament of Moldova between 2010 and 2013. From this position he served as Acting President of the Republic from 2010 until 2012.

Marian Lupu (né le à Bălți) est un homme politique moldave, membre du Parti démocrate. Il est président du Parlement de 2005 à 2009 et de 2010 à 2013 et président de la République par intérim de à.


Early life.

Salihamidžić's father Ahmed and mother Šefika gave him the nickname "Braco", meaning "little brother" in Bosnian, since Hasan has an older sister, hence his current nickname "Brazzo". He finished elementary school and played in the local club. Then, Salihamidžić moved to Velež Mostar where he stayed until 1992. That year, Salihamidžić was called up to the Yugoslavia under-16 team for a match against the CIS U-16 team in Belgrade. Days after the match, Bosnian Serb troops began a siege on the Bosnian capital Sarajevo, forcing his father to look for opportunities in Western Europe for his son.

Club career.

Hamburger SV.

In November 1992, Salihamidžić moved to Hamburg, Germany, with the assistance of Ahmed Halilhodžić (cousin of football coach Vahid Halilhodžić), who was also a Jablanica native and had emigrated to Germany. Through Ahmed Halilhodžić's help, Salihamidžić joined the youth team of Bundesliga side Hamburger SV. He remained within the club's youth system for three seasons before being promoted to the senior squad. In his first season with the seniors, Salihamidžić made nine appearances, scoring two league goals. The following season, Salihamidžić became an integral part of the squad as he would make 37 appearances and score an impressive seven goals between Europe and the league. He would go on to make 31 league appearances, scoring ten goals during the 1997–98 season, which would be his last for the club before his high-profile transfer to Bundesliga giants Bayern Munich.

Bayern Munich.

Salihamidžić's transfer to Bayern Munich was completed during the 1998 summer transfer window, for an undisclosed fee. In his first season with his new club, 1998–99, Salihamidžić was instantly inserted into the club's starting line-up and made an impressive 43 appearances in all competitions, scoring five goals. During his first season, he came on as a substitute in the 89th minute of the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final against Manchester United. At this point, Bayern were 1–0 up and all seemed well until two last minute goals from Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær downed Bayern.  Salihamidžić would make an additional 46 appearances with three more goals in his second season for the Munich giants, in 1999–2000. His third season proved very successful as well, as he would score six goals in 46 appearances. Between 2001 and 2003, however, Salihamidžić lacked in appearances, mostly due to injury; he made just 50 appearances between both seasons in all competitions.  For the 2003–04 season, the Bosnian international worked his way back into the starting line-up for the entire season, making 47 appearances and scoring five goals, also tallying 43 appearances and five goals the following season.  Salihamidžić was limited to just 29 appearances for the 2005–06 season, but made 42 seasonal appearances in his final season with the club, in which he also scored five goals. One of Salihamidžić's most memorable plays in 2006–07 was in the UEFA Champions League round of 16 second leg against Real Madrid, where he dispossessed Roberto Carlos and fed the pass to Roy Makaay, who beat goalkeeper Iker Casillas and set the record for the fastest goal in tournament history, at 11 seconds after kickoff. This helped Bayern overcome a 3–2 loss from the first leg to level the tie at 2–1 and advance on the away goals rule.  As he spent many years being so loved in Munich, and his children are from the city, Salihamidžić settled there when his playing career was over.

Juventus.

On 15 January 2007, Salihamidžić signed a four-year pre-deal with Juventus. He joined them the following June after his contract with Bayern had expired. In his first season, under coach Claudio Ranieri, Salihamidžić was a regular starter, albeit with injury lay-offs, and made 30 official appearances for his new club, scoring an impressive five goals which included two in a 3–2 victory against Milan on 12 April 2008. His second and third season with the club, however, proved to be less successful as he suffered from several injury lay-offs.  In the 2010–11 season, new coach Luigi Delneri excluded Salihamidžić from the team's plans. Along with Fabio Grosso, Salihamidžić was the only healthy first-team player that was excluded from the 25-men 2010–11 UEFA Europa League squad. Salihamidžić was released from Juventus when his contract expired in June 2011.

VfL Wolfsburg.

On 4 July 2011, Salihamidžić moved to VfL Wolfsburg on a one-year contract. On 9 July 2011, in a friendly game against local team Bismark, Salihamidžić's left arm was broken in a challenge with another player.

International career.

Salihamidžić made his international debut for Bosnia and Herzegovina on 8 October 1996 against Croatia. On 6 November 1996, he scored the team's first goal in a friendly 2–1 win over Italy. During his 11 years with the national team, the closest they came was falling one goal short in a match against Denmark that would have enabled them to qualify for UEFA Euro 2004. He retired from the national team in 2006.

Administrative career.

On 31 July 2017, Salihamidžić was appointed Sporting Director of Bayern Munich, his predecessor Matthias Sammer had retired for health and family reasons a season ago in 2016. Salihamidžić signed a three-year contract until 30 June 2020. Bayern's Chairman, Karl-Heinz Rummenigge said, "In Hasan, we have brought a man to FC Bayern who knows the club very well. He is a very hard-working, serious, loyal and very alert person with great integrity and he speaks five languages. His time in Italy means he has a great network that will definitely be very helpful in his job. We have complete confidence that he will be able to do the job as he should do."

Personal life.

Salihamidžić has three children: Selina, Nick and Lara June, all born in Munich with his German-born Spanish wife Esther Copado. Footballer Francisco Copado is his brother-in-law.

Honours.

Player.

Bayern Munich

Individual.

Awards

Hasan Salihamidžić (born 1 January 1977), also known as Brazzo, is a Bosnian former professional footballer and current sporting director of Bundesliga club Bayern Munich. After starting his club career with German side Hamburger SV, he made a name for himself while playing for Bayern Munich for nine seasons with whom he won the Bundesliga title six times, DFB-Pokal title four times, the 2000–01 UEFA Champions League, and the 2001 Intercontinental Cup. His only match in the UEFA Super Cup ended in defeat. He also played for Italian club Juventus for four seasons.

Hasan Salihamidžić, né le à Jablanica (Yougoslavie, aujourd'hui en Bosnie-Herzégovine), est un ancien footballeur bosnien, possédant également la nationalité allemande, évoluant au poste de défenseur latéral droit ou milieu droit. Il était international bosnien. Il est le directeur sportif du Bayern de Munich depuis.


Club career.

Early years / Deportivo.

Born in Tàrrega, Lleida, Catalonia, and a product of RCD Espanyol's youth system, Capdevila started playing football as a forward, and he made his debut for its first team during the 1998–99 season in a 2–2 La Liga draw at Athletic Bilbao. He joined Atlético Madrid the following year.  After the "Colchoneros" relegation, Capdevila signed with Deportivo de La Coruña in the summer of 2000, and would be a regular fixture in the team as left-back, first competing with Enrique Romero then as the undisputed first-choice. On 16 September 2006, he scored twice as the Galicians overcame Villarreal CF 2–0 at the Riazor Stadium.

Villarreal.

For the 2007–08 campaign, Capdevila moved to Villarreal on a three-year deal, and played in all the league games except two for a side that finished runners-up, achieving direct qualification to the UEFA Champions League. He produced similar numbers in his second year, bettering his goal total in the process (five).  In the 2009–10 season, with no real competition for his position, Capdevila continued to figure prominently, only missing one league match – the defender added another five goals, but his team could not qualify for the UEFA Europa League this time after finishing seventh. On 6 December 2009 he scored twice in a 3–2 home win against Getafe CF, precisely the side that prevented the Valencians from reaching that achievement, even though they were later reinstated at the expense of RCD Mallorca.  Midway through 2010–11, Capdevila faced stiff competition from José Catalá, even being relegated to the bench on occasion. He did finish the campaign with more than 40 official appearances, including nine in Villarreal's Europa League semi-final run, where he scored in a 3–2 home win against eventual winners FC Porto (4–7 aggregate loss).

Benfica.

On 21 July 2011, aged 33, Capdevila moved abroad for the first time, joining S.L. Benfica of Portugal on a two-year contract. On 20 August he made his official debut in a 3–1 Primeira Liga victory over C.D. Feirense at the Estádio da Luz, but was not included in the squad for the group stages of the Champions League, which prompted rumours that he would seek to leave in the January transfer window. Manager Jorge Jesus confirmed that another newly signed, Brazilian Emerson, would be first-choice left-back and that the Spaniard would find it difficult to be included in matchday squads.  However, during the final stages of the season, Jesus gave Capdevila a long run as a starter, and he made his Champions League debut for the Lisbon club on 4 April 2012, playing the second leg of the quarter-finals against Chelsea, a 1–2 loss at Stamford Bridge (1–3 on aggregate). He was also the habitual first-choice during the domestic League Cup, which Benfica won for the fourth time in a row, and finished the campaign with 12 competitive matches.

Later years.

On 27 July 2012, Capdevila agreed on a return to his first professional club Espanyol. He was released alongside Simão Sabrosa on 22 May 2014, after only ten overall appearances in his second season.  On 16 July 2014, Capdevila signed for NorthEast United FC, as their marquee player ahead of the inaugural Indian Super League season. He said: “India is a huge country and it should be a privilege for me to be a small part in popularising this global game here and working with the young talented footballers of North East India”. He started in the franchise's first match, a 1–0 win over the Kerala Blasters at the Indira Gandhi Athletic Stadium, being deployed by manager Ricki Herbert as a central defender. On 27 November, in a 3–0 home defeat of league leaders Chennaiyin FC, he was sent off after 72 minutes for a second yellow card, as his team went on to rank in last position.  Capdevila changed countries again on 21 January 2015, joining Belgian Pro League's Lierse SK. In May, he suffered a knee injury in training, ruling him out for six months; he returned to the Iberian Peninsula on 1 June 2016, signing for FC Santa Coloma, champions of Andorra's Primera Divisió.  On 5 July 2017, 39-year-old Capdevila announced his retirement.

International career.

Capdevila played for Spain at the 2000 Summer Olympics, winning the silver medal and converting his penalty shootout attempt as his team lost the final to Cameroon. He made his debut for the full side on 16 October 2002 in a 0–0 friendly draw to Paraguay, scoring his first goal in an UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier against Sweden on 17 November 2007, a 3–0 win; previously, he made the country's final squad for Euro 2004 as an injury replacement for Míchel Salgado, but did not leave the bench.  On 6 February 2008, Capdevila scored the winner in Spain's 1–0 win over France in a friendly in Málaga. He was subsequently called up to the squad for Euro 2008, where he featured in all the games save one for the eventual champions. During the tournament he established himself as first-choice, his clearance in the dying seconds against Sweden being a crucial part of David Villa's late winner to make the score 2–1; together with right-back Sergio Ramos and central defenders Carles Puyol and Carlos Marchena, he helped keep clean sheets during all three matches of the knock-out stages.  During the first game of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup on 14 June 2009, Capdevila set up Fernando Torres's third goal of his hat-trick, and also assisted for Cesc Fàbregas's second international goal as Spain thrashed New Zealand 5–0 – in fact, all five goals were created from the left wing, with him playing a crucial part in the Spanish attack. In the second game against Iraq, three days later, he assisted Villa's on his 55th-minute goal (the match's only), which allowed for a run to the semi-finals of the competition. Eventually he, Puyol, Villa and Torres were named in the team of the tournament, as the national side finished third. During the group stages of the competition, he provided the most assists (three) and made the joint second–highest number of solo runs (ten).  On 20 May 2010, after appearing in all the matches during the qualifying stages, contributing with one goal in Spain's 4–0 home win against Armenia, Capdevila was selected by manager Vicente del Bosque to the squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, where he played all the games and minutes for the eventual champions, being the only member of the starting line-up for the final who was not a Real Madrid or FC Barcelona player, considering Villa had been signed by the latter days before the tournament. He was among the top ten players of the competition in terms of distance covered, having run 71.79 km.

Style of play.

An offensive–minded left-sided full-back or wing-back, Capdevila was known for his speed and passing ability, which enabled him to get forward, make overlapping runs, provide width to his team and link-up with the attack. Regarded as one of the best left-backs in the world in his prime, although he was not as flashy as other players in his position, he was also known for his leadership and consistency as well as his defensive ability, although he was stronger in the offensive aspect of his game.

Honours.

Club.

Deportivo  Benfica  Santa Coloma

International.

Spain U23  Spain

Joan Capdevila Méndez (; born 3 February 1978) is a Spanish former footballer who played as a left back. Over 15 seasons in La Liga, he amassed totals of 410 matches and 36 goals, mainly for Deportivo and Villarreal. In a 21-year senior career, he also played professionally in Portugal, India and Belgium.

Joan Capdevila Méndez, né le à Tàrrega en Espagne, est un ancien footballeur international espagnol qui évoluait au poste d'arrière gauche.


Early life.

Johnson was born 9 March 1915 in Barrow upon Soar, Leicestershire, to Alfred Johnson and Beatrice May Johnson. He lived and was brought up in Melton Mowbray, where his father was a policeman. Alfred Johnson was an Inspector by the mid-1930s. One evening Oswald Mosley, the leader of the British Union of Fascists, held a meeting in the town. The license for the meeting expired at 22:00 at which time Alfred Johnson went alone and ejected the Fascists from the building.  Johnson was educated at Camden Street Junior School and Loughborough Grammar School. Johnson's uncle,

Joining the RAF.

Johnson started taking flying lessons at his own expense. He applied to join the Auxiliary Air Force (AAF) but encountered some of the social problems that were rife in British society. Johnson felt he was rejected on the grounds of his class status. Johnson's fortunes were to improve. The prospect of war increased in the aftermath of the Munich Crisis, and the criteria for applicants changed as the RAF expanded and brought in men from ordinary social backgrounds. Johnson re-applied to the AAF. He was informed that sufficient pilots were already available but there were some vacancies in the balloon squadrons. Johnson rejected the offer.  Inspired by some Chingford friends who had joined, Johnson applied again to join the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (RAFVR). The RAFVR was a means to enter the RAF for young men with ordinary backgrounds. All volunteer aircrew were made Sergeant on joining with the possibility of a commission. Once again he was rejected, this time on the grounds that there were too many applicants for vacancies and his injury made him unsuitable for flight operations. His ambition frustrated, Johnson joined the Leicestershire Yeomanry, where the injury was not a bar to recruitment. He joined the Territorial Army unit because, though he was in a reserved occupation, if war came, he had "no intention of seeing out the duration building air raid shelters or supervising decontamination squads". Johnson was content in the Yeomanry. One day while riding through Burleigh, Berkshire on annual camp Johnson took a detour to RAF Wittering in Cambridgeshire. Upon seeing a line of Hawker Hurricane fighters Johnson remarked "If I've got to fight Hitler I'd sooner fight him in one of those than on a bloody great horse!".

Flight training.

In August 1939, Johnson was finally accepted by the RAFVR and began training at weekends at the airfield Stapleford Tawney, a satellite airfield of RAF North Weald. There he received ground instruction on airmanship. Taught by retired service pilots of 21 Elementary & Reserve Flying Training School, Johnson trained on the de Havilland Tiger Moth biplane. Upon the outbreak of war in September 1939, with the rank of sergeant, Johnson entrained for Cambridge. He arrived at the 2nd Initial Training Wing to begin flight instruction. He was interviewed by senior officers in which he said his profession and knowledge of topography, surveying and mapping would make him more useful in a reconnaissance role. The wing commander agreed, but nonetheless, Johnson was selected for fighter pilot training and given the service number 754750 with the rank of Sergeant. Johnson and several hundred others were entrained for Cambridge and the 2 initial Training Wing. While assigned here Johnson learned basic military drill, sometimes given the slang name "square bashing".  By December 1939, Johnson began his initial training at 22 EFTS (Elementary Flying Training School), Cambridge. He flew only three times in December 1939 and eight in January 1940, all as second pilot. On 29 February 1940, Johnson flew solo for the first time in Tiger Moth N6635. On 15 March

Second World War.

Johnson returned to operational flying in early 1941 in 616 Squadron, which was forming part of the Tangmere Wing. Johnson often found himself flying alongside Wing Commander Douglas Bader and Australian ace Tony Gaze. On 15 January 1941, Johnson, the recently appointed Squadron Leader Burton and Pilot Officer Hugh Dundas, who arrived back at the squadron on 13 September 1940, took off to offer cover for a convoy off North Cotes. The controller vectored the pair onto an enemy aircraft, a Dornier Do 17. Both attacked the bomber and lost sight of it and each other. Although the controllers intercepted distress signals from the bomber Johnson did not see it crash. They were credited with one enemy aircraft damaged. It was the only time Johnson was to engage a German bomber. By the end of January, Johnson had added another 16.35 flying hours on Spitfires.  In the opening months, Johnson flew as a night fighter pilot. Using day fighters to act as night fighters without radar was largely unsuccessful in intercepting German bombers during The Blitz; Johnson's only action occurred on 22 February 1941 when he damaged a Messerschmitt Bf 110 in Spitfire R6611, QJ-F. A week later, Johnson's squadron was moved to RAF Tangmere on the Channel coast. Johnson was eager to see combat after just 10.40 operational hours and welcomed the prospect of meeting the enemy from Tangmere. If the Germans did not resume their assault the Wing was to take the fight to them.  In November 1940 Air Marshal Sholto Douglas became Air Officer Commanding (AOC) RAF Fighter Command. On 8 December 1940 a directive from the Air Staff called for "Sector Offensive Sweeps". It ordered hit-and-run operations over Belgium and France. The operations were to be conducted by three squadrons to harass German air defences. On 10 January 1941 "Circus" attacks were initiated by sending small bomber formations protected by large numbers of fighters. The escalation of offensive operations throughout 1941 was designed to draw up the "Luftwaffe" as Douglas' Command took an increasingly offensive stance. These operations became known as the Circus offensive. Trafford Leigh-Mallory, AOC 11 Group, penned "Operations Instruction No. 7", which he had written on 16 February. Leigh-Mallory outlined six distinct operations for day fighters: "Ramrod" (bomber escort with primary goal the destruction of the target); "Fighter Ramrod" (The same goal where fighters escorted ground-attack fighters); "Roadstead" (Bomber escort and anti-shipping operations); "Fighter Roadstead" (the same operation as "Roadstead" but without bombers) along with "Rhubarb" (poor weather ground attack operation) and "Circus" operations (see glossary).

Post-war.

Johnson was given a permanent commission by the RAF after the war initially as a squadron leader, on promotion to Wing Commander (his wartime rank) becoming OC Tactics at the Central Fighter Establishment at RAF West Raynham in Norfolk.

Korean War.

During an exchange posting to the US Air Force, in 1950 he served in the Korean War flying the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star, and later flew

Further RAF Service.

In 1951, Johnson commanded a wing at RAF Fassberg, a station in the RAF Second Tactical Air Force in West Germany.  In 1952, he was promoted to Group Captain and commanded RAF Wildenrath in West Germany until 1954.  From 1954 to 1957 he was deputy director operations (DD(Ops)) at the Air Ministry in London.  In 1956 his wartime memoir, "Wing Leader" was published.  On 20 October 1957, Johnson became Commanding Officer of RAF Cottesmore in the UK, commanding a Station operating the Victor V bomber.  In

Later life.

Johnson was a Deputy Lieutenant for the County of Leicestershire in 1967. He established the Johnnie Johnson Housing Trust. In 1969 and by 2001 the housing association managed over 4,000 properties.  After the death of the WW2 RAF fighter pilot Douglas Bader in 1982, Johnson, Denis Crowley-Milling and Sir Hugh Dundas set up the Douglas Bader Foundation, to continue supporting disabled charities, of which Bader was a passionate supporter.  Johnson was also the first to recognise the skills of Robert Taylor, aviation artist, in the 1980s. Depictions of aircraft and battle scenes in print began to become popular and he helped Taylor promote them.

Personal life.

As a teenager Johnson became fascinated by speed and joined the Melton Car Club with two boyhood friends. Johnson enjoyed the lifestyle of cars and "pacey women". Although he had many early interests, Johnson later settled and added to his family. On 14 November 1942, Johnson married Pauline Ingate in Norwich during home leave. Hugh Dundas acted as best man and Lord Beaverbrook's son, Wing Commander Max Aitken also attended. During the

List of air victories.

Johnson's wartime record was 515 sorties flown, 34 aircraft claimed destroyed with a further seven shared destroyed (three and one shared victories), three probable destroyed, 10 damaged, and one shared, destroyed on the ground. All his victories were fighters. As a Wing Leader, Johnson was able to use his initials "JE-J" in place of squadron code letters. He scored the bulk of his victories flying two Mk IXs: "EN398"/JEJ in which he shot down 12 aircraft and shared five plus six and one shared damaged, while commanding the Kenley Wing; "MK392"/JEJ, an L.F Mk. IX, 12 aircraft plus one shared, destroyed on the ground. His last victory of the war was scored in this aircraft. Johnson ended the war flying a Mk XIVE, "MV268"/JEJ. His post-war mount was "MV257"/JEJ; it was the last Spitfire to carry his initials.  The ability to verify British claims against the British' main opponents in 1941 and 1942, JG 26 and JG 2, is very limited. Only two of the 30 volumes of War Diaries produced by JG 26 survived the war. Historian Donald Caldwell has attempted to use what limited German material is available to compare losses and air victory claims but acknowledges the lack of sources leave the possibility for error.  A list of the 34 individual victories.

Pericarditis is inflammation of the pericardium (the fibrous sac surrounding the heart). Symptoms typically include sudden onset of sharp chest pain. The pain may also be felt in the shoulders, neck, or back. It is typically better sitting up and worse when lying down or breathing deeply. Other symptoms may include fever, weakness, palpitations, and shortness of breath. Occasionally onset of symptoms is gradual. The cause of pericarditis is believed to be most often due to a viral infection. Other causes include bacterial infections such as tuberculosis, uremic pericarditis, following a heart attack, cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chest trauma. The cause often remains unknown. Diagnosis is based on the chest pain, a pericardial rub, specific electrocardiogram (ECG) changes, and fluid around the heart. Other conditions that may produce similar symptoms include a heart attack. Treatment in most cases is with NSAIDs and possibly colchicine. Steroids may be used if those are not appropriate. Typically symptoms improve in a few days to weeks but can occasionally last months. Complications can include cardiac tamponade, myocarditis, and constrictive pericarditis. It is a less common cause of chest pain. About 3 per 10,000 people are affected per year. Those most commonly affected are males between the ages of 20 and 50. Up to 30% of those affected have more than one episode.

Une est une inflammation du péricarde, le sac fibro-séreux translucide qui entoure le cœur. Elle peut s'accompagner ou non d'un épanchement péricardique et en cas de fibrose et calcifications (avec alors épaississement du péricarde) évoluer vers une péricardite constrictive qui gêne le fonctionnement du cœur (insuffisance cardiaque droite, qui aura aussi des effets négatifs collatéraux sur le foie).


Definitions by geometry.

Twilight is defined according to the solar elevation angle "θ", which is the position of the geometric center of the sun relative to the horizon. There are three established and widely accepted "subcategories" of twilight: civil twilight (nearest the horizon), nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight (farthest from the horizon).

Definitions and illustrations by illumination.

Three "subcategories" of twilight are established and widely accepted: civil twilight (brightest), nautical twilight, and astronomical twilight (darkest).

Civil twilight.

Morning civil twilight begins when the geometric center of the sun is 6° below the horizon and ends at sunrise. Evening civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the geometric center of the sun reaches 6° below the horizon. In the United States' military, the initialisms BMCT (begin morning civil twilight, "i.e." civil dawn) and EECT (end evening civil twilight, "i.e." civil dusk) are used to refer to the start of morning civil twilight and the end of evening civil twilight, respectively. Civil dawn is preceded by morning nautical twilight and civil dusk is followed by evening nautical twilight.  Under clear weather conditions, civil twilight approximates the limit at which solar illumination suffices for the human eye to clearly distinguish terrestrial objects. Enough illumination renders artificial sources unnecessary for most outdoor activities. At civil dawn and at civil dusk sunlight clearly defines the horizon while the brightest stars and planets can appear. As observed from the Earth (see apparent magnitude), sky-gazers know Venus, the brightest planet, as the "morning star" or "evening star" because they can see it during civil twilight.  Lawmakers have enshrined the concept of civil twilight. Such statutes typically use a fixed period after sunset or before sunrise (most commonly 20–30 minutes), rather than how many degrees the sun is below the horizon. Examples include the following periods: when drivers of automobiles must turn on their headlights (called lighting-up time in the UK); when hunting is restricted; when the crime of burglary is to be treated as nighttime burglary, which carries stiffer penalties in some jurisdictions.  The period may affect when extra equipment, such as anti-collision lights, is required for aircraft to operate. In the US, civil twilight for aviation is defined in Part 1.1 of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) as the time listed in the American Air Almanac.

Nautical twilight.

Definition.

Morning nautical twilight begins (nautical dawn) when the geometric center of the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the morning and ends when the geometric center of the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the morning.  Evening nautical twilight begins when the geometric center of the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening and ends (nautical dusk) when the geometric center of the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the evening.

Nautical dawn and dusk.

Nautical dawn is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the morning. It is preceded by morning astronomical twilight and followed by morning civil twilight. Nautical dusk is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the evening. It marks the beginning of evening astronomical twilight and the end of evening civil twilight. Before nautical dawn and after nautical dusk, sailors cannot navigate via the horizon at sea as they cannot clearly see the horizon. At nautical dawn and nautical dusk, the human eye finds it difficult, if not impossible, to discern traces of illumination near the sunset or sunrise point of the horizon (first light after nautical dawn but before civil dawn and nightfall after civil dusk but before nautical dusk).  Sailors can take reliable star sightings of well-known stars, during the stage of nautical twilight when they can distinguish a visible horizon for reference (i.e. after astronomic dawn or before astronomic dusk). Under good atmospheric conditions with the absence of other illumination, during nautical twilight, the human eye may distinguish general outlines of ground objects but cannot participate in detailed outdoor operations.  Nautical twilight has military considerations as well. The initialisms BMNT (begin morning nautical twilight, "i.e." nautical dawn) and EENT (end evening nautical twilight, "i.e." nautical dusk) are used and considered when planning military operations. A military unit may treat BMNT and EENT with heightened security, e.g. by "standing to", in which everyone assumes a defensive position. This is partially due to tactics dating back to the French and Indian War (part of the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763), when combatants on both sides would launch attacks at nautical dawn or dusk.

Astronomical twilight.

Astronomical dawn and dusk.

Astronomical dawn is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the morning. Astronomical dusk is the moment when the geometric center of the Sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the evening. After astronomical dusk and before astronomical dawn, the sky is not illuminated by the sun.

Definition.

Morning astronomical twilight begins (astronomical dawn) when the geometric center of the sun is 18° below the horizon in the morning and ends when the geometric center of the sun is 12° below the horizon in the morning. Evening astronomical twilight begins when the geometric center of the sun is 12° below the horizon in the evening and ends (astronomical dusk) when the geometric center of the sun is 18° below the horizon in the evening. In some places (away from urban light pollution, moonlight, auroras, and other sources of light), where the sky is dark enough for nearly all astronomical observations, astronomers can easily make observations of point sources such as stars both during and after astronomical twilight in the evening and both before and during astronomical twilight in the morning. However, some critical observations, such as of faint diffuse items such as nebulae and galaxies, may require observation beyond the limit of astronomical twilight. Theoretically, the faintest stars detectable by the naked eye (those of approximately the sixth magnitude) will become visible in the evening at astronomical dusk, and become invisible at astronomical dawn. However, in other places, especially those with skyglow, astronomical twilight may be almost indistinguishable from night. In the evening, even when astronomical twilight has yet to end and in the morning when astronomical twilight has already begun, most casual observers would consider the entire sky fully dark. Because of light pollution, observers in some localities, generally in and near large cities, may never have the opportunity to view anything but the brightest stars, irrespective of the presence of any twilight at all, nor to experience anything close to a truly dark sky.

Times of occurrence.

Between day and night.

Observers within 48°34' of the Equator (within 50° of the Equator in May or November, within 57° of the Equator in April or October) can view twilight twice each day on every date of the year between astronomical dawn, nautical dawn, or civil dawn, and sunrise as well as between sunset and civil dusk, nautical dusk, or astronomical dusk. This also occurs for most observers at higher latitudes on many dates throughout the year, except those around the summer solstice. However, at latitudes closer than 9 degrees (between 81° and 90°) to either Pole, the Sun cannot rise above the horizon nor sink more than 18 degrees below it on the same day on any date, this example of twilight cannot occur because the angular difference between solar noon and solar midnight elevates less than 18 degrees.

Lasting from one day to the next.

At latitudes greater than 48°34' North or South, on dates near the summer solstice, twilight can last from sunset to sunrise, since the Sun does not go more than 18 degrees below the horizon, so complete darkness does not occur even at solar midnight. These latitudes include many densely populated regions of the Earth, including the entire United Kingdom and other countries in northern Europe and even parts of central Europe.

Between one night and the next.

In Arctic and Antarctic latitudes in wintertime, the polar night only rarely produces complete darkness for 24 hours each day. This can occur only at locations within 5.5 degrees of latitude of the Pole, and there only on dates close to the winter solstice. At all other latitudes and dates, the polar night includes a daily period of twilight, when the Sun is not far below the horizon. Around winter solstice, when the solar declination changes slowly, complete darkness lasts several weeks at the Pole itself, e.g., from May 11 to July 31 at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. North Pole has the experience of this from November 13 to January 29.  Solar Noon at Civil Twilight during a polar night: Between 67°24' and 72°34' North or South.  Solar Noon at Nautical Twilight during a polar night: Between 72°34' and 78°34' North or South.  Solar Noon at Astronomical Twilight during a polar night: Between 78°34' and 84°34' North or South.  Solar Noon at Night during a polar night: Between 84°34' and 90° North or South.

Lasting for 24 hours.

At latitudes within 9 degrees of either Pole, as the sun's angular elevation difference is less than 18 degrees, twilight can last for the entire 24 hours. This occurs for one day at latitudes near 9 degrees from the Pole and extends up to several weeks the further towards the Pole one goes. The only permanent settlement to experience this condition is Alert, Nunavut, Canada, where it occurs for a week in late February, and again in late October.

Duration.

The duration of twilight depends on the latitude and the time of the year. The apparent travel of the sun occurs at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (360° per day), but sunrise and sunset happen typically at oblique angles to the horizon and the actual duration of any twilight period will be a function of that angle, being longer for more oblique angles. This angle of the sun's motion with respect to the horizon changes with latitude as well as the time of year (affecting the angle of the Earth's axis with respect to the sun).  At Greenwich, England (51.5°N), the duration of civil twilight will vary from 33 minutes to 48 minutes, depending on the time of year. At the equator, civil twilight can last as little as 24 minutes. This is true because at low latitudes the sun's apparent movement is perpendicular to the observer's horizon. But at the poles, civil twilight can be as long as 2–3 weeks. In the Arctic and Antarctic regions, twilight (if there is any) can last for several hours. There is no astronomical twilight at the poles near the winter solstice (for about 74 days at the North Pole and about 80 days at the South Pole). As one gets closer to the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the sun's disk moves toward the observer's horizon at a lower angle. The observer's earthly location will pass through the various twilight zones less directly, taking more time.  Within the polar circles, twenty-four-hour daylight is encountered in summer, and in regions very close to the poles, twilight can last for weeks on the winter side of the equinoxes. Outside the polar circles, where the angular distance from the polar circle is less than the angle which defines twilight (see above), twilight can continue through local midnight near the summer solstice. The precise position of the polar circles, and the regions where twilight can continue through local midnight, varies slightly from year to year with Earth's axial tilt. The lowest latitudes at which the various twilights can continue through local midnight are approximately 60.561° (60°33′43′′) for civil twilight, 54.561° (54°33′43′′) for nautical twilight and 48.561° (48°33′43′′) for astronomical twilight.  Lowest latitude can be observed at local midnight in month of April:  Lowest latitude can be observed at local midnight in month of May:  Lowest latitude can be observed at local midnight in month of October:  Lowest latitude can be observed at local midnight in month of November:  These are the largest cities of their respective countries where the various twilights can continue through local solar midnight:  Although Helsinki, Oslo, Stockholm, Tallinn, and Saint Petersburg also enter into nautical twilight after sunset, they do have noticeably lighter skies at night during the summer solstice than other locations mentioned in their category above, because they do not go far into nautical twilight. A white night is a night with only civil twilight which lasts from sunset to sunrise.  At the winter solstice within the polar circle, twilight can extend through solar noon at latitudes below 72.561° (72°33′43′′) for civil twilight, 78.561° (78°33′43′′) for nautical twilight, and 84.561° (84°33′43′′) for astronomical twilight.

On other planets.

Twilight on Mars is longer than on Earth, lasting for up to two hours before sunrise or after sunset. Dust high in the atmosphere scatters light to the night side of the planet. Similar twilights are seen on Earth following major volcanic eruptions.

In religion.

Christianity.

In Christian practice, "vigil" observances often occur during twilight on the evening before major feast days or holidays. For example, the "Easter Vigil" is held in the hours of darkness between sunset on Holy Saturday and sunrise on Easter Day — most commonly in the evening of Holy Saturday or midnight — and is the first celebration of Easter, days traditionally being considered to begin at sunset.

Hinduism.

Twilight is sacred in Hinduism. It is called गोधूळिवेळ "gōdhūḷivēḷ" in Marathi or गोधूलिवेला "godhūlivelā" in Hindi, గొధూళివేళ "godhoolivela" in Telugu, literally "cow dust time". Many rituals, including Sandhyavandanam and Puja, are performed at twilight hour. Eating of food is not advised during this time. Sometimes it is referred to as Asurasandhya vela. It is believed that Asuras are active during these hours. One of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, Narasimha, is closely associated with the twilight period. According to Hindu scriptures, a daemonic king, Hiranakashipa, performed penance and obtained a boon from Brahma that he could not be killed during day or night and neither by human nor animal. Lord Vishnu appeared in a half-man half-lion form (neither human nor animal), ended the life of Hiranakashipa during twilight (neither day nor night).

Islam.

Twilight is important in Islam as it determines when certain universally obligatory prayers are to be recited. Morning twilight is when morning prayers ("Fajr") are done, while evening twilight is the time for evening prayers ("Maghrib prayer"). Suhoor (early morning meal) time for fasting (during Ramadan and other times) ends at morning twilight (at dawn). Fasting is from the beginning of dawn to sunset. There is also an important discussion in Islamic jurisprudence between "true dawn" and "false dawn".

Judaism.

In Judaism, twilight is considered neither day nor night; consequently it is treated as a safeguard against encroachment upon either. For example, the twilight of Friday is reckoned as Sabbath eve, and that of Saturday as Sabbath day; and the same rule applies to festival days.

Twilight on Earth is the illumination of the lower atmosphere when the Sun itself is not directly visible because it is below the horizon. Twilight is produced by sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere, illuminating the lower atmosphere so that Earth's surface is neither completely lit nor completely dark. The word "twilight" is also used to denote the periods of time when this illumination occurs.

Le crépuscule est une période avant le lever ou après le coucher du soleil durant laquelle les rayons solaires produisent une lueur atmosphérique qui apporte une clarté variable. Dans le langage courant, sans précision il correspond au crépuscule du soir, le moment de la journée situé entre le jour et la nuit, lorsque le ciel s'assombrit progressivement après le coucher du soleil. Le crépuscule du matin étant plus communément appelé l'aube.