Background.

British paper currency.

The designs used on British paper currency at the beginning of the Second World War were introduced in 1855 and had been altered only slightly over the intervening years. The notes were made from white rag paper with black printing on one side and showed an engraving of Britannia by Daniel Maclise of the Royal Academy of Arts in the top left-hand corner. The £5, also known as the White Fiver, measured, while the £10, £20 and £50 notes measured.  The notes had 150 minor marks that acted as security measures to identify forgeries. These were often assumed to be printing errors, and were changed between issues of notes. Each note bore an alphanumeric serial designation and the signature of the Chief Cashier of the Bank of England. Prior to the release of any notes by the Bank of England, all serial numbers were recorded in ledgers so the bank could verify its liabilities; these numbers were checked when the notes circulated back through the bank.  A watermark appeared across the middle of every note; it differed depending on the value of the currency and the alphanumeric serial designation used. According to John Keyworth, the curator of the Bank of England Museum, as the paper currency had never been successfully counterfeited, the Bank of England "was a little complacent about the design of its notes and the production of them"; he described the notes as "technologically... very simple".

Origins of the plan.

At a meeting on 18 September 1939 Arthur Nebe, the head of the —the central criminal investigation department of Nazi Germany—put forward a proposal to use known counterfeiters to forge British paper currency. The forged notes—amounting to £30 billion—would then be dropped over Britain, causing a financial collapse and the loss of its world currency status. Nebe's superior officer, Reinhard Heydrich, liked the plan, but was unsure of using the police files to find the available individuals. Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda, described it as "", "a grotesque plan", although he saw it had potential. The main objection to the plan came from Walther Funk, the Reich Minister for Economic Affairs, who said it would breach international law. Adolf Hitler, the German Chancellor, gave the final approval for the operation to proceed.  Although the discussion was supposed to be secret, in November 1939 Michael Palairet, Britain's ambassador to Greece, met a Russian émigré who gave him full details of the plan discussed at the 18 September meeting; according to the émigré's report, the plan was titled "Offensive against Sterling and Destruction of its Position as World Currency". Palairet reported the information to London, who alerted the US Department of the Treasury and the Bank of England. Although the Bank considered the existing security measures were sufficient, in 1940 it released a blue emergency £1 note which had a metal security thread running through the paper. It also banned the import of pound notes for the duration of the war in 1943, stopped producing new £5 notes and warned the public about the danger of counterfeit currency.

Operation Andreas.

On receipt of Hitler's go-ahead, Heydrich opened a counterfeiting unit under the operational title (Operation Andreas). Heydrich's order to set up the unit stated that  This is not to be a forgery or counterfeiting in the usual sense, but authorised facsimile production. The notes must be such a perfect copy of the original that even the most experienced bank-note experts cannot tell the difference.  In early 1940 the forgery unit was set up in Berlin within the technical department of the (SD), headed by Alfred Naujocks, a major in the paramilitary Schutzstaffel (SS). Daily operational control fell under the auspices of Naujocks's technical director, Albert Langer, a mathematician and code-breaker. The pair broke the task down into three stages: producing identical paper, preparing identical printing plates to the British notes, and duplicating the British serial numbering system.  The Germans decided to concentrate on the notes with the largest number in circulation, the £5. Samples of British notes were sent to technical colleges for analysis, which reported back that it was rag paper with no added cellulose. Naujocks and Langer realised that the paper would have to be handmade. The colour of the first samples differed from the original; the Germans had used new rags. After tests at the Hahnemühle paper factory, the rags were used by local factories and then cleaned before being used to make the paper; the colours of the counterfeit and original notes then matched. When the initial paper samples were produced, at a factory in Spechthausen, they looked identical to British notes in normal light, but looked dull in ultraviolet light when compared to the originals. Langer surmised it was because of the chemical composition of the water used for making the paper and in the ink. He duplicated the chemical balance of British water in order to make the colours match.  To break the coded arrangement of the alphanumeric serial designation, Langer worked with banking experts, examining records of currency from the previous 20 years in order to replicate the correct order. No records were kept by Operation Andreas and the method of how the Germans identified the correct sequences is not known; the paper historian Peter Bower states that it is possible that techniques adapted from those used in cryptanalysis were used to break the sequences. The German engravers working on the engraving plates struggled to reproduce the vignette of Britannia, which they nicknamed "Bloody Britannia" because it was so difficult. After seven months the forgers finished what they thought was a perfect copy, although Kenworthy states that the figure's eyes are incorrect.  By late 1940 Naujocks had been removed from his position after he fell out of favour with Heydrich. The counterfeiting unit continued under Langer before he left in early 1942 at which point it closed down; he later stated that over 18 months, the unit had produced around £3 million in forged notes; the historian Anthony Pirie puts the figure at £500,000. Most of the currency produced in Operation Andreas was never used.

Revival under Krüger.

In July 1942, following changes in the aim of the plan, Heinrich Himmler revived the operation. Whereas the original plan was to bring about the collapse of the British economy through dropping the notes over the UK, Himmler's new intention was to use the counterfeit money to finance German intelligence operations. The security services under Himmler's control were poorly funded, and the counterfeit funds were used to cover the financial shortfalls in revenue from the.  SS Major Bernhard Krüger replaced Naujocks; searching through the offices used daily by Operation Andreas, he found the copper engraving plates and the machinery, although some of the wire gauzes used to make the watermarks were bent. He was ordered to use the Jewish prisoners incarcerated in the Nazi concentration camps, and set up his unit in blocks 18 and 19 at Sachsenhausen. The blocks were isolated from the rest of the camp by additional barbed wire fences, and a unit was assigned as guards.  Krüger visited several other concentration camps to assemble the people he needed, primarily selecting those with skills in draftsmanship, engraving, printing and banking. In September 1942 the first 26 prisoners for Operation Bernhard arrived at Sachsenhausen; 80 more arrived in December. When met by Krüger, he called them in the formal and polite form, rather than the more demeaning, which was normally used when the Nazis spoke to a Jew. Several of the prisoners selected later reported that Krüger had interviewed them for the role, and treated them with politeness and good manners. He also provided the prisoners with cigarettes, newspapers, extra rations and a radio. Prisoners had a ping pong table, and they would play with the guards and among themselves; evenings of amateur theatricals also took place, staged by the prisoners, with a mixed audience of guards and counterfeiters; Krüger provided musicians for musical numbers. The printing equipment was also delivered in December, and 12,000 sheets of banknote paper a month began to arrive from Hahnemühle; it was large enough for four notes to be printed on each sheet. Production of counterfeit notes started in January 1943; it took a year for production to return to the levels achieved in Operation Andreas.  Each section of the process was overseen by one of the prisoners, and the day-to-day operations were run by Oscar Stein, a former office manager and bookkeeper. Two twelve-hour shifts ensured non-stop production, with around 140 prisoners working. The printed sheets, each containing four notes, were dried and cropped using a steel ruler; the edges were roughened to imitate the deckle finish of the British notes. The operation peaked between mid-1943 and mid-1944, with approximately 65,000 notes a month produced from six flat-bed printing presses.  To age the notes, between 40 and 50 prisoners stood in two columns and passed the notes among them to accumulate dirt, sweat and general wear and tear. Some of the prisoners would fold and refold the notes, others would pin the corners to replicate how a bank clerk would collect bundles of notes. British names and addresses were written on the reverse, as happened with some English notes, and numbers were written on the front – duplicating how a bank teller would mark the value of a bundle. Four grades of note quality were introduced: grade 1 was the highest quality, to be used in neutral countries and by Nazi spies; grade 2 was to be used to pay collaborators; grade 3 was for notes that were to be possibly dropped over Britain; grade 4 were too flawed to be of use and were destroyed.  The Nazi authorities were so pleased with the results of the operation that twelve prisoners, three of whom were Jewish, were awarded the War Merit Medal while six of the guards received the War Merit Cross, 2nd class. In May 1944 Ernst Kaltenbrunner, an SS (general) in the (Reich Main Security Office; RSHA), ordered that the counterfeiting unit begin to produce forged US dollars. The artwork on the notes was more complex than that of the British currency and caused problems for the forgers. Additional challenges they faced included the paper, which contained minute silk threads, and the intaglio printing process, which added small ridges to the paper.  The prisoners realised that if they managed to fully counterfeit the dollars, their lives would no longer be safeguarded by the work they were undertaking, so they slowed their progress as much as they could. The journalist Lawrence Malkin, who wrote a history of Operation Bernhard, writes that prisoners considered this to have the tacit approval of Krüger, who would face front-line duty if Operation Bernhard ended. In August 1944 Salomon Smolianoff, a convicted forger, was added to the production team at Sachsenhausen to aid the counterfeiting of US dollars, although he also assisted in quality control for the pound notes. The Jewish prisoners working on the operation at the time complained to Krüger at having to work with a criminal, so he was given his own room to sleep in.  In late 1944 the prisoners had counterfeited the reverse of the dollar, and the obverse by January 1945. Twenty samples of the $100 note were produced—without the serial number, whose algorithm was still being examined—and shown to Himmler and banking experts. The standard of engraving and printing was considered excellent, although the paper used was technically inferior to the genuine notes.

Laundering and use of the forged notes.

The counterfeit money was transported from Sachsenhausen to Schloss Labers, an SS-run facility in the South Tyrol. It was put through a money laundering operation run by, who had been running an illegal currency and smuggling business since the 1930s. He negotiated a deal in which he would be paid 33.3% of the money he laundered; 25% was given to his agents undertaking the work—as payment to them and their sub-agents, and for expenses—leaving him with 8.3%. He recruited what he called "salesmen" in various territories, and built a network of 50 agents and sub agents; some of these were Jewish, deliberately selected because there was less chance that the authorities would consider them to be working for the Nazis. He informed his agents that the money had been seized from the banks of occupied countries.  Schwend was given two objectives: to exchange the counterfeit money for genuine Swiss francs or US dollars, and to assist with the funding of special operations, including buying black market arms from the Yugoslav Partisans then selling them to pro-Nazi groups in Southeast Europe. He also arranged for the counterfeit notes to pay the Turkish agent Elyesa Bazna—code named Cicero—for his work in obtaining secrets from the British ambassador in Ankara. Counterfeit notes with a face value of £100,000 were used to obtain information that helped to free the Italian leader Benito Mussolini in the Gran Sasso raid in September 1943.

Final stages of the war.

Between late February and early March 1945, with the advance of the Allied armies, all production of notes at Sachsenhausen ceased. The equipment and supplies were packed and transported, with the prisoners, to the Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp in Austria, arriving on 12 March. Shortly afterwards Krüger arranged for a further transfer to the Redl-Zipf series of tunnels where they were to restart production. The order to resume production was soon rescinded, and the prisoners were ordered to destroy the cases of money they had with them. That which was not burnt by the prisoners was loaded onto trucks with the printing equipment and sunk in the Toplitz and Grundlsee lakes.  At the start of May, Operation Bernhard was officially closed down and the prisoners were transported from the caves to the nearby Ebensee concentration camp. They were divided into three groups, and a truck was to make trips to and from the camp. An order had been issued that the prisoners were to be killed, but only once they were together at Ebensee. The truck delivered the first two groups to the camp, where the men were housed separately from the general camp population. On the third journey the vehicle broke down after it had picked up the final group of prisoners; the men in the last group were marched to the camp, which took two days. As the order had specified that the prisoners had to be killed together, the first two groups were kept safe to await their comrades. Because of the delay with the third journey and the close proximity of the advancing Allied army, on 5 May the first two groups were released from their isolation into the general population and their SS guards fled. That afternoon the third group arrived at the camp. When the guards learned what had happened to the first two groups, they also released their prisoners into the main prison population and fled. The Americans arrived the following day and liberated the camp.  Estimates of the number and value of notes printed during Operation Bernhard vary from a total of £132,610,945 (of which £10,368,445 were sent to the RHSA central office), up to £300 million (of which £125 million were usable notes).

Aftermath and legacy.

Krüger hid at his home until November 1946 when he handed himself over to the British authorities. Forging an enemy's currency was not a war crime; he faced no charges. He was detained until early 1947 when he was handed over to the French. They attempted to persuade him to forge passports for them, but he refused; he was released in November 1948. He underwent a denazification process, during which statements were produced from the forger-inmates whose lives he had been responsible for saving. He later worked for the Hahnemühle paper company. In 1965 the East German writer Julius Mader published, an attack on the West German government for harbouring Krüger.  Schwend amassed a fortune from Operation Bernhard. He was captured by American forces in June 1945, who tried to use him to assist in setting up a counterintelligence network in Germany, the Gehlen Organization. After he was caught trying to defraud the network, he fled to Peru. Although he periodically acted as an informant for Peruvian intelligence, he was arrested for currency smuggling and selling state secrets. After a two-year prison sentence, he was deported to West Germany where he was tried for a wartime murder in 1979; he was given a suspended sentence for manslaughter. Lake Toplitz has been the site of several large-scale searches. In 1958 an expedition located several cases of the counterfeit money from Operation Bernhard and a book that detailed the Bank of England's numbering system. Following the death of a diver in the lake in 1963—his two companions on the lake included "a former Nazi secret agent and... a German business man mentioned in connection with counterfeit gold coins"—the Austrian government undertook a month-long search of the lake, during which they recovered more boxes of notes. The zoologist Hans Fricke from the Max Planck Institute searched the lake bottom for several years for rare aquatic life; in 1989 he took Krüger in a mini-submarine on one of his exploratory trips. In 2000 the submersible that was used to search the wreck of RMS "Titanic" was used to survey the lake floor, and several boxes of notes were recovered, witnessed by Adolf Burger, a former prisoner involved in the counterfeiting operation.  On seeing the quality of the notes, one bank official described them as "the most dangerous ever seen"; the watermark was the most reliable source for detecting the forgeries. Counterfeit notes worth £15–20 million were in general circulation at the end of the war. With such a volume in general circulation, in April 1943 the Bank of England stopped releasing all notes of £10 and above. In February 1957 a new £5 banknote was issued; the blue note was printed on both sides and "relied on subtle colour changes and detailed machine engraving" for security. Other denominations were also reintroduced: the £10 in February 1964, the £20 in July 1970 and the £50 note in March 1981.  The "Tilhas Tizig Gesheften", a small group formed from the British Army's Jewish Brigade, obtained a supply of counterfeit pounds from Jaacov Levy, one of Schwend's money-laundering agents. The forged notes were used to buy equipment and to bring displaced persons to Palestine, in defiance of the British blockade of the territory.  Several memoirs have been published by former prisoners, which include the 1949 Norwegian account by, and "Des Teufels Werkstatt", the 1983 German-language account by Adolf Burger. Both works have been translated into English; several histories about the operation have also been published.  In 1981 "Private Schulz", a fictional version of Operation Bernhard, was broadcast on the BBC as a comedy-drama. The television serial starred Michael Elphick and Ian Richardson. In 2007 Burger's memoirs were used as the basis for a film adaption, "The Counterfeiters" (), which tells the story of Salomon Sorowitsch, a character loosely based on the lives of Smolianoff and Burger. The film won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 80th Academy Awards.  It is the policy of the Bank of England to redeem all withdrawn notes for current currency at the face value shown on the note, except for counterfeit currency. Examples of counterfeits from Operation Bernhard have appeared at auction and been sold through dealers for a higher face value than the original £5. There are also examples of the notes in the museum of the National Bank of Belgium and the Bank of England Museum.

Operation Bernhard was an exercise by Nazi Germany to forge British bank notes. The initial plan was to drop the notes over Britain to bring about a collapse of the British economy during the Second World War. The first phase was run from early 1940 by the (SD) under the title (Operation Andreas, Operation Andrew). The unit successfully duplicated the rag paper used by the British, produced near-identical engraving blocks and deduced the algorithm used to create the alpha-numeric serial code on each note. The unit closed in early 1942 after its head, Alfred Naujocks, fell out of favour with his superior officer, Reinhard Heydrich.

L'opération Bernhard était le nom d'un projet secret allemand destiné à déstabiliser l'économie britannique, d'abord, puis l'économie américaine ensuite, en inondant l'Europe de faux billets de banque de 5 £,,, et,.


Biography.

Background and early life.

Sadeq Khan belonged to the Zand tribe, a small and little-known tribe of Laks, a branch of Lurs who may have been originally Kurdish. The Zands were concentrated on the villages of Pari and Kamazan in the Malayer district, but were also found roaming in the central Zagros ranges and the countryside of Hamadan. Sadeq Khan was the son of a certain Inaq Khan Zand, and had 3 sisters, a brother named Karim Khan Zand, and two half-brothers named Zaki Khan Zand and Eskandar Khan Zand. In 1722, the Safavid Empire was on the verge of collapsing—Isfahan and most of central and east Iran had been seized by the Afghan Hotak dynasty, while the Russians had conquered many cities in northern Iran. Around the same time, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of Iran’s decadence to conquer a large number of western frontier districts. There they faced bold opposition from the local clans, including the Zands, who under the chief Mehdi Khan Zand harassed their forces and stopped them from advancing further into Iran.  In 1732, Nader Qoli Beg, who had restored Safavid rule in Iran and had become the "de facto" ruler of the country, he made an expedition into the Zagros ranges of western Iran in order to subdue the tribes, whom he considered bandits. He first defeated the Bakhtiari and the Feylis, whom he forced to mass-migrate in larger numbers into Khorasan. He then baited Mehdi Khan Zand and his forces out of their stronghold at Pari, killing the latter and 400 of his Zand kinsmen. The surviving members of the tribe were forced to mass-migrate under the leadership of Inaq Khan Zand and his younger brother Budaq Khan Zand to Abivard and Dargaz, where its able members were incorporated into Nader's army.

Service under Karim Khan Zand.

In 1774, the Mamluk governor of the Ottoman province of Iraq, Omar Pasha began meddling in the affairs of his vassal principality of Baban, which since the death of his predecessor Sulayman Abu Layla Pasha in 1762, had fallen more and more under the influence of the Zand governor of Ardalan, Khosrow Khan Bozorg. This made Omar Pasha dismiss the Baban ruler Muhammad Pasha, and appoint Abdolla Pasha as its new ruler. This, and Omar Pasha's seizure of the remnants of Iranian pilgrims who had died during the plague that ravaged Iraq in 1773—and his exaction of payment from Iranian pilgrims to visit the holy Shia places of Najaf and Karbala, gave Karim Khan the "casus belli" to declare war against the Ottomans.  There were also other reasons for Karim Khan to declare war—Mashhad, where the holy Imam Reza shrine was situated, was not under Zand control, which thus meant that free entry to the sanctuaries of Iraq was of more significance to Karim Khan than it had been to the Safavid and Afsharid shahs. The Zand army was discontent, and sought to restore their reputation after Zaki Khans humiliating blunders on the Hormuz Island. Most importantly, Basra was a prominent trading port, which had surpassed the competing city of Bushehr in Fars in 1769, when the East India Company dropped the city for Basra.  The Zand forces under Ali-Morad Khan Zand and Nazar Ali Khan Zand shortly clashed with the Pasha's forces in Kurdistan, where they kept them at bay, whilst Sadeq Khan, with an army of 30,000, besieged Basra in April 1775. The Arab tribe al-Muntafiq, which was allied with the governor of Basra, quickly withdrew without any effort to reject Sadeq Khan from passing through the Shatt al-Arab, whilst the Banu Ka'b and the Arabs of Bushehr supplied him with boats and supplies.  Suleiman Agha, who was the commander of the fort of Basra, resisted Sadeq Khan's forces with resolve, which made the latter establish an encirclement, which would last over a year. Henry Moore, who belonged to the East India company, assaulted some of Sadeq Khan's stockpile boats, tried to block the Shatt al-Arab, and then departed to Bombay. A few months later, in October, a group of ships from Oman gave supplies and military aid to Basra, which considerably lifted the morale of its forces. However, their combined attack the next day occurred to be wavering—the Omani ships eventually chose to withdraw back to Muscat during winter, in order to avoid further losses.  Reinforcements from Baghdad arrived shortly afterwards, which was repelled by the Khaza'il, a Shia Arab tribe which was allied with the Zand forces. In the spring of 1776, the narrow encirclement by Sadeq Khan had resulted in the defenders being on the fringe of famine—a considerable portion of the Basra forces had deserted Suleiman Agha, whilst the rumours of a possible uprising, made Suleiman Agha surrender on 16 April 1776.  Even though the able Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III (r. 1757–1774) had died and was succeeded by his incompetent brother Abdul Hamid I (r. 1774–1789), and the recent Ottoman defeat to the Russians, the Ottoman response to the Ottoman–Iranian war was unusually slow. In February 1775, before the announcement of the siege of Basra had approached Istanbul, and while the Zagros front was temporarily peaceful, the Ottoman ambassador, Vehbi Efendi, was sent to Shiraz. He reached Shiraz around the same time Sadeq Khan besieged Basra, "but was not empowered to negotiate over this new crisis."  In 1778, Karim Khan had made a compromise with the Russians for a cooperative offensive into eastern Anatolia. However, the invasion never took place due to Karim Khan's death on 1 March 1779, after having been ill for six months, most likely due to tuberculosis. Sadeq Khan and his forces shortly abandoned Basra.

Reign.

Karim Khan's death in March 1779 was followed by a power struggle. His sons Mohammad Ali Khan and Abol-Fath Khan Zand were declared co-rulers, but their rule was only nominal; real power was in the hands of their uncle Zaki Khan. After Zaki Khan's murder by the people of Isfahan, there was widespread rebellion. Ali-Morad Khan Zand, the commander of the royal army, who was sent to undermine a Qajar attack in the north, betrayed Abol-Fath and left the capital defenseless. Sadeq Khan, supported by the Nizari imam Abū-l-Ḥasan ʻAlī, collected an army in Kerman and invaded Shiraz, where he faced little resistance. On August 22, 1779, Abol-Fath died from a heart attack and he became the ruler of Iran.  His cause of death is not known, but Ali-Morad succeeded him.

Sadeq Khan Zand (, d. 1781), also known as Mohammad Sadeq, was the fifth Shah of the Zand dynasty from August 22, 1779 until March 14, 1781.

Sadeq Khan Zand (en ), mort en 1782, fut le cinquième chah de la Dynastie Zand, qui régna sur la Perse du au.


Narrow energy band theory.

The Hubbard model is based on the tight-binding approximation from solid-state physics, which describes particles moving in a periodic potential, sometimes referred to as a lattice. For real materials, each site of this lattice might correspond with an ionic core, and the particles would be the valence electrons of these ions. In the tight-binding approximation, the Hamiltonian is written in terms of Wannier states, which are localized states centered on each lattice site. Wannier states on neighboring lattice sites are coupled, allowing particles on one site to "hop" to another. Mathematically, the strength of this coupling is given by a "hopping integral", or "transfer integral", between nearby sites. The system is said to be in the tight-binding limit when the strength of the hopping integrals falls off rapidly with distance. This coupling allows states associated with each lattice site to hybridize, and the eigenstates of such a crystalline system are Bloch wave functions, with the energy levels divided into separated energy bands. The width of the bands depends upon the value of the hopping integral.  The Hubbard model introduces a contact interaction between particles of opposite spin on each site of the lattice. When the Hubbard model is used to describe electron systems, these interactions are expected to be repulsive, stemming from the screened Coulomb interaction. However, attractive interactions have also been frequently considered. The physics of the Hubbard model is determined by competition between the strength of the hopping integral, which characterizes the system's kinetic energy, and the strength of the interaction term. The Hubbard model can therefore explain the transition from metal to insulator in certain interacting systems. For example, it has been used to describe metal oxides as they are heated, where the corresponding increase in nearest-neighbor spacing reduces the hopping integral to the point where the on-site potential is dominant. Similarly, the Hubbard model can explain the transition from conductor to insulator in systems such as rare-earth pyrochlores as the atomic number of the rare-earth metal increases, because the lattice parameter increases (or the angle between atoms can also change – see Crystal structure) as the rare-earth element atomic number increases, thus changing the relative importance of the hopping integral compared to the on-site repulsion.

Example: 1D chain of hydrogen atoms.

The hydrogen atom has only one electron, in the so-called "s" orbital, which can either be spin up (formula_1) or spin down (formula_2). This orbital can be occupied by at most two electrons, one with spin up and one down (see Pauli exclusion principle).  Now, consider a 1D chain of hydrogen atoms. Under band theory, we would expect the 1s orbital to form a continuous band, which would be exactly half-full. The 1D chain of hydrogen atoms is thus predicted to be a conductor under conventional band theory.  But now consider the case where the spacing between the hydrogen atoms is gradually increased. At some point we expect that the chain must become an insulator.  Expressed in terms of the Hubbard model, on the other hand, the Hamiltonian is now made up of two terms. The first term describes the kinetic energy of the system, parameterized by the hopping integral, formula_3. The second term is the on-site interaction of strength formula_4 that represents the electron repulsion. Written out in second quantization notation, the Hubbard Hamiltonian then takes the form  where formula_6 is the spin-density operator for spin formula_7 on the formula_8-th site. The total density operator is formula_9 and occupation of formula_8-th site for the wavefunction formula_11 is formula_12. Typically "t" is taken to be positive, and "U" may be either positive or negative in general, but is assumed to be positive when considering electronic systems as we are here.  If we consider the Hamiltonian without the contribution of the second term, we are simply left with the tight binding formula from regular band theory.  When the second term is included, however, we end up with a more realistic model that also predicts a transition from conductor to insulator as the ratio of interaction to hopping, formula_13, is varied. This ratio can be modified by, for example, increasing the inter-atomic spacing, which would decrease the magnitude of formula_3 without affecting formula_4. In the limit where formula_16, the chain simply resolves into a set of isolated magnetic moments. If formula_13 is not too large, the overlap integral provides for superexchange interactions between neighboring magnetic moments, which may lead to a variety of interesting magnetic correlations, such as ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, etc. depending on the parameters of the model. The one-dimensional Hubbard model was solved by Lieb and Wu using the Bethe ansatz. Essential progress has been achieved in the 1990s: a hidden symmetry was discovered, and the scattering matrix, correlation functions, thermodynamic and quantum entanglement were evaluated.

More complex systems.

Although the Hubbard model is useful in describing systems such as a 1D chain of hydrogen atoms, it is important to note that in more complex systems there may be other effects that the Hubbard model does not consider. In general, insulators can be divided into Mott–Hubbard type insulators (see Mott insulator) and charge-transfer insulators.  Consider the following description of a Mott–Hubbard insulator:  This can be seen as analogous to the Hubbard model for hydrogen chains, where conduction between unit cells can be described by a transfer integral.  However, it is possible for the electrons to exhibit another kind of behavior:  This is known as charge transfer and results in charge-transfer insulators. Note that this is quite different from the Mott–Hubbard insulator model because there is no electron transfer between unit cells, only within a unit cell.  Both of these effects may be present and competing in complex ionic systems.

Numerical treatment.

The fact that the Hubbard model has not been solved analytically in arbitrary dimensions has led to intense research into numerical methods for these strongly correlated electron systems. One major goal of this research is to determine the low-temperature phase diagram of this model, particularly in two-dimensions. Approximate numerical treatment of the Hubbard model on finite systems is possible via a number of methods.  One such method, the Lanczos algorithm, can produce static and dynamic properties of the system. Ground state calculations using this method require the storage of three vectors of the size of the number of states. The number of states scales exponentially with the size of the system, which limits the number of sites in the lattice to about 20 on currently available hardware. With projector and finite-temperature auxiliary-field Monte Carlo, two statistical methods exist that also can obtain certain properties of the system. For low temperatures, convergence problems appear that lead to an exponential growth of computational effort with decreasing temperature due to the so-called fermion sign problem.  The Hubbard model can also be studied within dynamical mean-field theory (DMFT). This scheme maps the Hubbard Hamiltonian onto a single-site impurity model, a mapping that is formally exact only in infinite dimensions and in finite dimensions corresponds to the exact treatment of all purely local correlations only. DMFT allows one to compute the local Green's function of the Hubbard model for a given formula_4 and a given temperature. Within DMFT, one can compute the evolution of the spectral function and observe the appearance of the upper and lower Hubbard bands as correlations increase.

The Hubbard model is an approximate model used, especially in solid-state physics, to describe the transition between conducting and insulating systems. The Hubbard model, named after John Hubbard, is the simplest model of interacting particles in a lattice, with only two terms in the Hamiltonian (see example below): a kinetic term allowing for tunneling ("hopping") of particles between sites of the lattice and a potential term consisting of an on-site interaction. The particles can either be fermions, as in Hubbard's original work, or bosons, in which case the model is referred to as either the "Bose–Hubbard model".

Le modèle de Hubbard est un modèle étudié en théorie de la matière condensée. Il décrit des fermions (généralement des électrons) sur un réseau (en général les atomes qui forment un solide), qui interagissent uniquement lorsqu'ils se trouvent sur le même site (c'est-à-dire sur le même atome). Ce modèle a été introduit en 1963 à peu près simultanément par John Hubbard, Martin C. Gutzwiller et Junjiro Kanamori. Il est parfois appelé modèle de Hubbard-Gutzwiller-Kanamori pour cette raison. Cependant, dans sa théorie du superéchange dans les isolants antiferromagnétiques, P. W. Anderson avait déjà utilisé des approximations consistant à négliger la répulsion des électrons ne se trouvant pas sur le même site pour calculer l'énergie de l'état virtuel. Ces approximations sont analogues à celle utilisées dans la construction du modèle de Hubbard, et on pourrait argumenter que le modèle devrait s'appeler modèle de Hubbard-Gutzwiller-Kanamori-Anderson.


Politics.

Results of the 2011 Finnish parliamentary election in Hanko:

Features.

The Hanko Peninsula, on which the city is located, is the southernmost tip of continental Finland. The soil is a sandy moraine, and vegetation consists mainly of pine and low shrubs, mostly "Calluna". Hanko is known for its beautiful archipelago.  The city has a coastline of approximately, of which are sandy beaches. There are also over 90 small islands and islets within the city limits.  The skyline of Hanko is dominated by the church and the water tower. Both of them received their current appearance after World War II, as their predecessors were either damaged or destroyed by the Soviet Armed Forces.

Climate.

Hanko has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb"), similar to other locations in southern Finland.

Events.

The "Hangon Regatta" is a traditional fixture on the Finnish social scene, and is the town's main summer event. Sailing enthusiasts attend to compete, but there are also others, mostly young people, with little or no interest in sailing, who attend only in order to party and drink. The latter constitute the so-called "Regatta tail", which is not appreciated by most of the town's residents.  Other traditional summer activities are the "Tennis Week", the "Sea Horse" riding competitions, the "Summer Theatre" and Hanko Music Festival events.  Several sandy beaches and a multitude of leisure harbors attract tourists during the summer months.

History.

The site was already known by sailors in the 15th century. Petroglyphs from that time are carved into the rock at the "" (, ) island.  Hanko has a long history of wars and battles. The Battle of Gangut between Swedish and Russian navies was fought in 1714 in the archipelago north of the peninsula. The battle was the first-ever victory of the Russian regular fleet.  The fortification works on the Hanko Peninsula had already been started by the end of the 18th century, when the Swedish constructed three separate forts on the outlying islands. The forts were taken over by Russia in 1809, and were later bombarded by the Royal Navy during the Crimean War and were eventually blown up during the hostilities by their own defenders.  The city was founded in 1874, soon after the Hanko-Hyvinkää railway was inaugurated in 1872. The Imperial Charter for the city was granted by Tsar Alexander II.  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Hanko was the port of choice for emigrants leaving Finland for a new life in North America. A memorial statue, showing birds in flight, commemorates this.  In the late 19th century, while Finland was still a Grand Duchy under Russia, Hanko was a popular spa resort for the Russian nobility. Some of the buildings from that period survive, notably the Hanko Casino (which is not a gambling establishment, but a former banquet hall of the spa). It is currently a restaurant. The Hotel Continental (1901) (now the Hotel Regatta) was designed by architect Lars Sonck in the notable Jugendstil style of the time; after falling into disrepair, the hotel was restored to its former glory in 2013.  Field Marshal C. G. Mannerheim owned a café, (, ), which is still popular among tourists and residents alike.  The Bengtskär lighthouse, situated southwest of Hanko, is the tallest () in the Nordic countries. It was built in 1906 and was the first lighthouse museum in Finland.

Soviet naval base.

In the Moscow Peace Treaty that ended the Winter War on 13 March 1940, Hanko was leased to the Soviet Union as a naval base for a period of 30 years. During the Continuation War, Soviet troops were forced to evacuate Hanko in early December 1941. The Soviet Union renounced the lease formally in the Paris peace treaty of 1947. As a curiosity, it can be noted that the short Russo-Finnish front across the base of the peninsula on the Finnish side was held in part by volunteer troops from Sweden. A museum has been established at this location, among the trenches and other remnants of the war.  The role of the Hanko naval base was replaced by Porkkala in the armistice between Finland and the Soviet Union of 19 September 1944, but it was returned to Finland in January 1956.

Sports.

The following sports clubs are located in Hanko:

International relations.

Twin towns — Sister cities.

Hanko is twinned with:

Hanko (; ) is a bilingual port town and municipality on the south coast of Finland, west of Helsinki. Its current population is (), with a majority being Finnish speakers and a strong minority being Swedish speakers ().

Hanko ("Hangö" en suédois) est la ville la plus méridionale de Finlande. Elle est connue pour ses plages, ses récifs et ses maisons colorées. De grands ports de plaisance offrent un mouillage aux milliers de bateaux qui y font escale en été.


History.

Clearstream was founded as "Cedel" (Centrale de Livraison de Valeurs Mobilières) in September 1970 by 66 of the world's major financial institutions as a clearing organisation whose objective was to minimise risk in the settlement of cross-border securities trading, particularly in the growing Eurobond market.  In 1995, a new corporate structure was introduced, establishing a parent company - Cedel International - with a subsidiary company, Cedelbank; two years later, a new subsidiary - Cedel Global Services - was established.  Clearstream was formed in January 2000 through the merger of Cedel International and Deutsche Börse Clearing. The full integration of Clearstream was completed in July 2002.  Today Clearstream has operational centres in Cork, Luxembourg, Prague and Singapore. It also maintains representative offices in London, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Dubai, New York and Zurich.

Joint ventures.

In July 2010, Clearstream founded LuxCSD together with the Luxembourg Central Bank, to act as a CSD for Luxembourg.  In December 2010, Clearstream co-founded REGIS-TR, a joint venture with the Spanish Central Securities Depository Iberclear, to act as a trade repository for derivatives transactions, helping participants meet their regulatory reporting obligations brought about by the introduction of the European Market Infrastructure Regulation (EMIR).

Supervision.

Based in Luxembourg and Germany, Clearstream is subject to the supervision of the regulatory authorities of these two countries. In Luxembourg, the Commission de Surveillance du Secteur Financier (CSSF) is the prudential regulator with authority over all banks and financial service providers. In Germany, Clearstream is regulated as a bank according to the German Banking Act ("Kreditwesengesetz") and is therefore subject to the prudential supervision of the German Federal Financial Supervisory Authority (German: "Bundesanstalt für Finanzdienstleistungsaufsicht" - BaFin). Moreover, Clearstream is regulated in each market where it has operational centres, for example by the Monetary Authority of Singapore.  As the operator of securities settlement systems in both Luxembourg and Germany, Clearstream is additionally regulated by the central banks of these two countries, namely the Banque centrale du Luxembourg and the Deutsche Bundesbank.

Clearstream's business streams.

Asset Services.

Clearstream is responsible for the management, safekeeping/custody and administration of securities (assets) under custody. Services include income and redemption payments, corporate actions as well as tax and proxy voting.  The majority of securities safekept by Clearstream are immobilised. Securities are reflected in book-entry form in the accounts of customers at Clearstream regardless of whether they are held in physical or dematerialised form. This means that they are no longer represented by physical certificates, but instead by data entered into the Clearstream systems.

Global Securities Financing.

Securities financing is the ability to borrow or lend cash or securities against collateral. In securities financing, collateral comprises assets given as a guarantee by a borrower to secure a securities loan and subject to seizure in the event of default. Collateral management refers to the handling of all tasks related to the monitoring of collateral posted by a borrower to meet a financial obligation (optimisation, substitution, top-up, withdrawal, settlement instruction, reporting, processing of margin calls and returns, notification of corporate events, etc.).  Clearstream's collateral management, securities lending and borrowing services are gathered under the Global Liquidity Hub. It provides a pool of liquidity through links to agent banks, trading platforms, clearing houses and other market infrastructures.  Clearstream is a member of the Liquidity Alliance, which was established in January 2013 as a platform for CSDs to collaborate on collateral management. It was founded by ASX, Cetip, Clearstream, Iberclear and Strate.

Investment Fund Services.

Clearstream has developed the world's largest cross-border fund processing platform, called Vestima. It handles all types of funds, from mutual funds to exchange-traded funds (ETFs) and hedge funds.  In addition to providing access to all fund types, Vestima supports their cross-border distribution. Services offered by Vestima include order routing, centralised delivery versus payment (DVP) settlement, safekeeping, asset servicing and collateral management.

Issuance.

ICSDs and CSDs are often used to bring a security issue to the market, as they possess the necessary infrastructure for distributing the securities to the investors as well as for settlement and safekeeping. Clearstream's ICSD also provides custody services, which means that the security can be serviced throughout its entire lifecycle. Clearstream provides the infrastructure which enables issuers to reach investors worldwide.  Clearstream's services include eligibility assessments, issuance and distribution of domestic, foreign and international (i.e. Eurobonds) new issues of global and domestic instruments: certificates of deposit, depository receipts, treasury bills, commercial papers, short-term and medium-term notes, bonds, equities, warrants, equity-linked notes and investment fund shares.

Settlement.

Clearstream's ICSD settles trades in international securities and in domestic securities traded across borders. The CSDs settle domestic transactions in the German and Luxembourgish markets. Transactions between the two ICSDs Clearstream and Euroclear are settled via an electronic communications platform, called the Bridge.  Clearstream operates a delivery versus payment settlement system, ensuring simultaneous settlement of securities and cash transfers on a gross (trade-by-trade) basis. This helps to minimise the risk associated with the settlement of securities.

Controversies.

The Clearstream Affair.

Between 2001 and 2002, two books were published by co-authors Denis Robert and Ernest Backes, entitled "Révélation$" and "La Boîte Noire", accusing Clearstream of being a money laundering organisation and the worldwide centre for international financial crime committed by major banks, shell companies, and organised crime all over the world. An investigation opened by the Luxembourg authorities in 2001 found no evidence to support the authors' allegations, and the case was dismissed in 2004.  In 2004, a list leaked to a French judge indicated that Clearstream was a money laundering organisation covering illegal activities of French businessmen who were involved in the sale of warships by the French defence giant Thales (known as Thomson-CSF before 2000) to Taiwan, and related bribes paid to French officials and businessmen. An investigation that included the search of Clearstream's premises and an examination of accounts in 2004 found no evidence supporting the accusations.  In the same year, additional anonymous letters and CD-Roms sent to French judges accused Clearstream of running secret accounts for criminals and senior French politicians. In late 2005, French investigating authorities officially declared the documents forgeries and dismissed the case.  The controversy inspired the film "The Clearstream Affair" (2014).

Iranian funds controversy.

In 2008, several groups of plaintiffs commenced enforcement proceedings in the US to satisfy judgments which they had obtained against Iran by restraining certain positions held in a Clearstream securities account with its intermediary bank in the US, and asking for handover of the assets. Clearstream challenged the restraints and the handover.  In 2011, the plaintiffs filed additional claims, this time directly against Clearstream, for damages of USD 250 million in connection with the purported wrongful conveyance of some of the restrained positions. Clearstream entered into a settlement agreement with the plaintiffs that became effective in 2013. The settlement provided for the dismissal of the direct claims against Clearstream, and that the plaintiffs will not further sue Clearstream for damages and in return, Clearstream agreed to not further appeal an order directing the turnover of the restrained customer's assets to the plaintiffs. In 2013, a number of US plaintiffs from the 2011 case, as well as other US plaintiffs, filed a complaint targeting certain blocked assets that Clearstream holds as a custodian in Luxembourg. In 2015, the US court issued a decision dismissing the lawsuit.  Arising from the above, the U.S. Treasury Department Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) investigated certain securities' transfers in 2008 within Clearstream's settlement systems regarding US Iran sanctions regulations. These 2008 transfers had been undertaken as part of the decision taken by Clearstream in 2007 to close its Iranian customers' accounts. In 2013 Clearstream entered into settlement talks with OFAC. The matter was resolved in 2014 through a settlement and payment of USD 151.9 million that does not constitute a final determination that a violation of Iran sanctions had occurred.

Clearstream is a post-trade services provider owned by Deutsche Börse AG. It provides settlement and custody as well as other related services for securities across all asset classes. It is one of two European International central securities depositories (Euroclear being the other).

Clearstream (signifie en anglais « courant limpide ») est une chambre de compensation internationale située au Luxembourg, spécialisée dans l'échange de titres et doublée d'une banque Clearstream Banking S.A., basée en Allemagne et au Luxembourg. Il s'agit maintenant de divisions de Deutsche Börse.


History.

The event started in 2003 as a Tier IV event. It was held in SAAP Tennis Complex in Hyderabad, Telangana until 2005. In 2006, the event was upgraded to a Tier III event, and was moved to Bangalore. In 2008, it was upgraded further to a Tier II event.  The 2008 edition was won by 26-year-old, then eight-time Grand-Slam champion Serena Williams, who defeated Patty Schnyder in the finals, winning her 29th WTA Tour title.  In 2012, the tournament was featured as a WTA Challenger event, and named the Royal Indian Open. Pune is the fourth city in the history of India to host a WTA event, after Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Kolkata (Sunfeast Open). Later, Mumbai became the fifth city to do the same.  India's renewed participation through this "Challenger" event was originally supposed to be held in Delhi, but on 17 October 2012, just a few weeks before the tournament's first edition, it was announced the event had been shifted to Pune, to be held at the Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex.  In 2012, it became the second event (after the OEC Taipei Ladies Open) to be part of the WTA 125s.  The tournament was not held between 2013–16 due to various reasons, but in 2017 it was reinstated as a WTA 125K series tournament & relocated to Mumbai.  The Maharashtra State Lawn Tennis Association (MSLTA) and the Maharashtra State Government came together to reinstate the event, the first of its kind to be held in India since 2012 and the second overall in almost a decade. The Cricket Club of India, a prestigious sporting venue in Mumbai hosted the tournament.  The QNet Open was a tournament for professional female tennis players played on outdoor hard courts. The event was classified as a $50,000 ITF Women's Circuit tournament and was in New Delhi, India, in 2014, at the DLTA Complex. The tournament was sponsored by Qnet, a Hong Kong-based multi-level marketing company. In November 2014 the Mumbai Police's economic offences wing asked the All India Tennis Association for clarification of the tournament's sponsorship, as hundreds of the firm's accounts have been frozen.

Sponsors.

From 2003–2005, the event was sponsored by Andhra Pradesh Tourism (AP Tourism), and the tournament was named accordingly. In 2006 and 2007, the event was sponsored by Sony Ericsson, and the tournament was also named after the sponsor. In 2008, it was sponsored by the Canara Bank which would have continued to sponsor the event if it had been held 2009 onwards. The 2017 and 2018 editions were sponsored by Larsen & Toubro.

The WTA Indian Open is a tournament for professional female tennis players, held regularly since 2003 in various Indian cities. It was a WTA Tour event played on outdoor hardcourts. In 2008, it was classified as a Tier II event with the prize money of $600,000 – this made it the biggest women's tennis tournament in South and Southeast Asia that year. Following the restructure of the WTA in 2008, there has been no WTA tournaments in India since. In 2012, a tournament, classified as a WTA Challenger Series tournament, made its debut in Pune, India. The Challenger tournament has since been relocated to Mumbai.

Le tournoi d'Hyderabad (Inde) est un tournoi de tennis féminin du circuit professionnel WTA. Jouée de 2003 à 2005, l'épreuve est remplacée par le tournoi Bangalore en 2006.


History.

The University of Florida traces its origins to 1853, when the East Florida Seminary, the oldest of the University of Florida's four predecessor institutions, was founded in Ocala, Florida.  On January 6, 1853, Governor Thomas Brown signed a bill that provided public support for higher education in Florida. Gilbert Kingsbury was the first person to take advantage of the legislation, and established the East Florida Seminary, which operated until the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861. The East Florida Seminary was Florida's first state-supported institution of higher learning.  James Henry Roper, an educator from North Carolina and a state senator from Alachua County, had opened a school in Gainesville, the Gainesville Academy, in 1858. In 1866, Roper offered his land and school to the State of Florida in exchange for the East Florida Seminary's relocation to Gainesville.  The second major precursor to the University of Florida was the Florida Agricultural College, established at Lake City by Jordan Probst in 1884. Florida Agricultural College became the state's first land-grant college under the Morrill Act. In 1903, the Florida Legislature, desiring to expand the school's outlook and curriculum beyond its agricultural and engineering origins, changed the name of Florida Agricultural College to the "University of Florida," a name the school would hold for only two years.

"University of the State of Florida".

In 1905, the Florida Legislature passed the Buckman Act, which consolidated the state's publicly supported higher education institutions. The member of the legislature who wrote the act, Henry Holland Buckman, later became the namesake of Buckman Hall, one of the first buildings constructed on the new university's campus. The Buckman Act organized the State University System of Florida and created the Florida Board of Control to govern the system. It also abolished the six pre-existing state-supported institutions of higher education, and consolidated the assets and academic programs of four of them to form the new "University of the State of Florida." The four predecessor institutions consolidated to form the new university included the University of Florida at Lake City (formerly Florida Agricultural College) in Lake City, the East Florida Seminary in Gainesville, the St. Petersburg Normal and Industrial School in St. Petersburg, and the South Florida Military College in Bartow.  The Buckman Act also consolidated the colleges and schools into three institutions segregated by race and gender—the University of the State of Florida for white men, the Florida Female College for white

College reorganization.

In 1909, Albert Murphree was appointed the university's second president. He organized the university into several colleges, increased enrollment from under 200 to over 2,000, and was instrumental in the founding of the Florida Blue Key leadership society. Murphree is the only University of Florida president honored with a statue on campus.  In 1924, the Florida Legislature mandated women of a "mature age" (at least twenty-one years old) who had completed sixty semester hours from a "reputable educational

Post World War II.

Beginning in 1946, there was dramatically increased interest among male applicants who wanted to attend the University of Florida, mostly returning World War II veterans who could attend college under the GI Bill of Rights (Servicemen's Readjustment Act). Unable to immediately accommodate this increased demand, the Florida Board of Control opened the Tallahassee Branch of the University of Florida on the campus of Florida State College for Women in Tallahassee. By the end of the 1946–47 school year, 954 men were enrolled at the Tallahassee Branch. The following semester, the Florida Legislature returned the Florida State

National and international prominence.

In 1985, the University of Florida was invited to join the Association of American Universities (AAU), an organization of sixty-two academically prominent public and private research universities in the United States and Canada. Florida is one of the seventeen public, land-grant universities that belong to the AAU. In 2009, President Bernie Machen and the University of Florida Board of Trustees announced a major policy transition for the university. The Board of Trustees supported the reduction in the number

Academics.

Tuition.

For the 2018–2019 academic year tuition and fees were $6,381 for in-state undergraduate

Demographics.

In fall 2018, the University of Florida had 56,079 students in total, 37,527 (67%) being undergraduate students, 11,763 (21%) being graduate students, 3,990 (7%) being professional students, 2,642 (5%) being unclassified, and 157 (0.3%) being correspondence students. Out of all 56,079 students, 3,587 were enrolled through UF Online. The ratio of women to men was 56:44 and 28 percent were graduate or professional students. Professional degree programs include architecture, dentistry, law, medicine, pharmacy and veterinary medicine. According to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, UF has "the largest Jewish student body in the US." It is estimated that 18% of UF undergraduate and graduate students identify as Jewish compared to around 2% of the United States population.  A social mobility report conducted by the New York Times in 2014 found that 48% of UF undergraduate students came from families with incomes above the 80th percentile (>$110,000), while

Rankings.

In its 2020 edition, "U.S. News & World Report" "(USN&WR)" ranked the University of Florida as tied for the 7th-best public university in the United States, and tied for 34th overall among all national universities, public and private.  Many of the University of Florida's graduate schools have received top-50 national rankings from "U.S. News & World Report" with the school of education 25th, Florida's Hough School of Business 25th, Florida's Medical School (research) tied for 43rd, the Engineering School tied for 45th, the Levin College of Law tied for 31st, and the Nursing School tied for 24th in the 2020 rankings.  Florida's graduate programs ranked for 2020 by "USN&WR" in the nation's top 50 were audiology tied for 26th, analytical chemistry 11th, clinical psychology tied for 31st, computer science tied for 49th, criminology 19th, health care management tied for 33rd, nursing-midwifery tied for 35th, occupational therapy tied for 17th, pharmacy tied for 9th, physical therapy tied for 10th, physician assistant tied for 21st, physics tied for 37th, psychology tied for 39th, public health tied for

Colleges and academic divisions.

The University of Florida is the flagship university of the state with 16 different colleges. UF

Admissions.

For the class of 2024, there were 49,401 applicants and 14,561 were accepted for summer and fall. The average GPA, SAT, and ACT of the newly admitted class have not been disclosed at this time.

Ending early decision.

In 2007, the University of Florida joined the University of Virginia, Harvard University, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and Princeton University in announcing the discontinuation of early decision admissions to foster economic diversity in their student bodies. These universities assert early decision admissions forces students to accept an offer of admission before evaluating the financial aid offers from multiple universities. The university's single application deadline is November 1.

Honors program.

The University of Florida has an honors program; after they are accepted to the university, students must apply separately to the Honors Program and show significant academic achievement to be accepted. There are over 100 courses offered exclusively to students in this program. In 2011, more than 1900 students applied for 700 available seats. The Honors Program also offers housing for freshman in the Honors Residential College at Hume Hall. The program also offers special scholarships, internships, research, and study abroad opportunities.

Scholarships.

The Lombardi Scholars Program, created in 2002 and named in honor of the university's ninth president John V. Lombardi, is a merit scholarship for Florida students. The scholarship offers $2,700 a semester for eight to ten semesters.  The J. Wayne Reitz Scholars Program, created in 1997 and named in honor of the university's fifth president J. Wayne Reitz, is a leadership and merit-based scholarship for Florida students. Its yearly $2,500 stipend may be renewed for up to three years.  The Machen Florida Opportunity Scholars Program was created in 2005. This is a full grant and scholarship financial aid package designed to help new, low-income UF students that are the first to attend college in their families. Every year, 300 scholarships are awarded to incoming freshmen with an average family income of $18,408.

Sustainability.

In 2005, the University of Florida became a Certified Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary for environmental and wildlife management, resource conservation, environmental education, waste management, and outreach.  Through long-term environmental initiatives, the University of Florida created an Office of Sustainability in 2006. Their mission is to

Satellite facilities.

The university maintains a number of facilities apart from its main campus. The J. Hillis Miller Health Science Center also has a teaching hospital at UF Health at Jacksonville, which serves as the Jacksonville campus for the University's College of Medicine, College of Nursing, and College of Pharmacy. A number of residencies are also offered at this facility. The University's College of Pharmacy

Research.

The University of Florida is one of the nation's largest research universities. According to a 2019 study by the university's Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, the university contributed $16.9 billion to Florida's economy and was responsible for over 130,000 jobs in the 2017–18 fiscal year. The Milken Institute named Florida one of the top-five U.S. institutions in the transfer of biotechnology research to the marketplace (2006). Some 50 biotechnology companies have resulted from faculty research programs. Florida consistently ranks among the top 10 universities in licensing. Royalty and licensing income includes the glaucoma drug Trusopt, the sports drink Gatorade, and the Sentricon termite elimination system. The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences is ranked No. 1 by the NSF in Research and Development. Florida ranked seventh among all private and public universities for the number of patents awarded for 2005.  The University of Florida was awarded $837.6 million in annual research expenditures in sponsored research in 2018. Research includes diverse areas such as health-care and citrus production (the world's largest citrus research center). In 2002, Florida began leading six other universities under a $15 million NASA grant to work on space-related research during a five-year period. The university's partnership with Spain helped to create the world's largest single-aperture optical telescope in the Canary Islands (the cost was $93 million). Plans are also under way for the University of Florida to construct a research facility in

Libraries.

George A. Smathers Libraries.

The George A. Smathers Libraries at the University of Florida is one of the largest university library systems in the United States. The George A. Smathers Libraries has a collection of over 6 million+ print volumes, 1.5 million digital books, 1,000+ databases, approximately 150 thousand print/digital journals, and over 14 million digital pages Collections cover virtually all disciplines and include a wide array of formats—from books and journals to manuscripts, maps, and recorded music. An increasing number of the collections are digital and are accessible on the Internet from the library web page or the library catalog. The George A. Smathers Libraries support all academic programs except those served by the Levin College of Law.

Lawton Chiles Legal Information Center.

The Levin College of Law's students, faculty, and guests are served by Lawton Chiles Legal Information Center.

Campus.

The University of Florida campus encompasses over. The campus is home to many notable structures, such as Century Tower, a carillon tower in the center of the historic district. Other notable facilities include the Health Science Center, Steve Spurrier-Florida Field at Ben Hill Griffin Stadium, Smathers Library, Phillips Center for the Performing Arts, Harn Museum, University Auditorium, O'Connell Center, and The Hub.

The Reitz Union.

The Reitz is the campus union at the University of Florida. On February 1, 2016, it was reopened after an

Historic sites.

A number of the University of Florida's buildings are historically significant. The University of Florida Campus Historic District comprises 19 buildings and encompasses approximately. Two buildings outside the

Student life.

PaCE.

UF launched a new program in the fall of 2015 called PaCE, or Pathway to Campus Enrollment. PaCE was designed to provide an alternative way to enroll students who would have been accepted through regular admissions, but there is not enough space in dorms or classrooms.

Innovation Academy.

The Innovation Academy at UF is a program designed for students that want to focus on innovation, creativity, leadership, and entrepreneurship along with their intended major. Students that

Fraternities and sororities.

Approximately 5,200 undergraduate students (or approximately 15%) are members of either a sorority or fraternity. Sorority and Fraternity Affairs (formerly known as Greek Life) at the University of Florida is separated into four divisions: Interfraternity Council (IFC), National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), Multicultural Greek Council (MGC), and the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC). The Order of Omega has a chapter at the university.  The Interfraternity Council (IFC) comprises 25 fraternities, and the Panhellenic Council is made up of 17 sororities. Some of the fraternity chapters on campus are older than the university itself, with the first chapters being chartered

Dance Marathon at UF.

Dance Marathon at UF is an annual 26.2-hour event benefiting the patients of University of Florida Health Shands Children's Hospital in Gainesville, Florida. Each year, more than 800 students stay awake and on their feet to raise money and awareness

Reserve Officer Training Corps.

The University of Florida Reserve Officer Training Corps is the official officer training and commissioning program at the University of Florida. Officially founded in 1905, it is one of the oldest such programs in the nation.  The Reserve Officer Training Corps offers commissions for the United States Army, United States Navy, United

Housing.

The University of Florida provides over 9,200 students with housing in residence halls and complexes on the eastern and western sides of campus. Facilities vary in the cost of rent

Recreation and Fitness on Campus.

The University of Florida's Department of Recreational Sports (RecSports) includes operation of two lake-front parks at Lake Wauburg, group fitness, personal and small group training, massage therapy, intramural sports, 51 competitive sports clubs, two world-class indoor fitness and recreation facilities, four campus pools, outdoor rock climbing, an adventure travel recreation program, campus fields and facilities, a skate park and staff development services for over 700 students who are employed by the department's programs.  RecSports manages the University of Florida

Student government.

The University of Florida Student Government is the governing body of students who attend the University of Florida, representing the university's nearly 50,000 undergraduate, graduate and professional students. The university's student government operates

Alma mater.

The alma mater for the University

Campus and area transportation.

The university campus is served by nine bus routes of the Gainesville Regional Transit System (RTS). Students, faculty, and staff with university-issued ID cards are able to use the system for no

Student media.

The University of Florida community includes six major student-run media outlets and companion Web

Career placement.

The University of Florida Career Resource Center is in the Reitz Student Union. Its mission is to assist students and alumni who are seeking career development, career experiences, and employment opportunities. These services involve on and off-campus job interviews, career planning, assistance in applying to graduate and professional schools, and internship and

Museums.

The Florida Museum of Natural History, established in 1891, is one of the country's oldest natural history museums and was officially chartered by the state of Florida. This facility is dedicated to understanding, preserving and interpreting biological diversity and cultural heritage. In over 100 years of operations the Florida Museum of Natural History has been housed in several buildings, from the Seagle Building to facilities at Dickinson Hall, Powell Hall, and the Randell Research Center. In 2000 the McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity was opened after a generous donation from University of Florida benefactors. The McGuire Center houses a collection of more than

Performing arts and music.

Performing arts venues at the University of Florida include the Curtis M. Phillips Center for the Performing Arts, the University Auditorium, Constans Theatre, the Baughman Center, and performances at the O'Connell Center. The mission is to provide an unparalleled experience where performing artists create and share knowledge to serve the student body, faculty, and staff at the university; Gainesville residents; and visitors to North Central Florida.  The University Auditorium was founded in the mid-1920s and is home to the Anderson Memorial Organ. The auditorium has a concert stage and can seat up to 843 patrons. The venue is suitable for musical concerts, special lectures, convocations, dance concerts, and pageants.  The Phillips Center for the

In popular culture.

The University of Florida has been portrayed in several books, movies and television shows. In addition, the University of Florida campus has been the backdrop for a number

Athletics.

The University of Florida's intercollegiate sports teams, known as the "Florida Gators," compete in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I and the Southeastern Conference (SEC). The Gators compete in nine men's sports and twelve women's sports.  For the 2014–15 school year, the University Athletic Association budgeted more $100 million for its sports teams and facilities. Since 1987–88, the Gators have won twenty-three of the last twenty-six SEC All-Sports Trophies, recognizing Florida as the best overall athletics program in the SEC. Florida is the only program in the nation to finish among the nation's top ten in each of the last thirty national all-sports standings and is the only SEC school to place 100 or more student-athletes on the Academic Honor Roll each of the last fifteen years.  The Florida Gators have won a total of thirty-five national team championships, thirty of which are NCAA championships. Florida Gators athletes have also won 267 NCAA championships in individual sports events. Florida is one of only two Division I FBS universities to win multiple national championships in each of the two most popular NCAA sports: football (1996, 2006, 2008) and men's basketball (2006, 2007).

Football.

The University of Florida fielded its first official varsity football team in the fall of 1906, when the university held its first classes on its new Gainesville campus. Since then, the Florida Gators football team has played in 40 bowl games, won three consensus national championships and eight Southeastern Conference (SEC) championships, produced 89 first-team All-Americans, 45 National Football League (NFL) first-round draft choices, and three Heisman Trophy winners.  The Gators won their first post-season game on January 1, 1953, beating Tulsa 14–13 in Jacksonville, Florida. The Gators' first major bowl win was the 1967 Orange Bowl in which coach Ray Graves and Heisman

Basketball.

Center Neal Walk is the only Gator to have had his number retired by the basketball team. The Florida Gators men's basketball team has also gained national recognition over the past 20 years. The Gators went to the Final Four of the 1994 NCAA tournament under coach Lon Kruger, and coach Billy Donovan led the Gators back to the NCAA Final Four in 2000, losing to the Michigan State Spartans in the final. Under Donovan, the Gators won

Olympics.

Since 1968, 163 Gator athletes and 13 Florida coaches have represented 37 countries in the Olympic Games, winning 50 Olympic gold medals, 28 silver medals and 30 bronze medals through the 2012 Summer Olympics. The list of University of Florida alumni who are

Notable people.

Notable alumni.

As of August 2018 the University of Florida has 545,165 total alumni. Over 57,000 are dues-paying members of the University of Florida Alumni Association. Florida alumni live in every state and more than 100 foreign countries. Florida

Notable faculty.

Awards won by University of Florida faculty members include a Fields Medal, numerous Pulitzer Prizes, and NASA's top award for research, and the Smithsonian Institution's conservation award. There are more than sixty eminent scholar endowed faculty

The University of Florida (Florida or UF) is a public land-grant, sea-grant, and space-grant research university in Gainesville, Florida. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida and traces its origins to 1853 and has operated continuously on its Gainesville campus since September 1906.

L'université de Floride (en anglais : "University of Florida" ou UF) est une université américaine publique fondée officiellement en 1853 et située à Gainesville en Floride. C'est un établissement "land grant", c’est-à-dire bénéficiant d'un financement du gouvernement américain. À l'heure actuelle, UF est l'une des universités américaines les plus prestigieuses. Selon le Classement académique des universités mondiales elle est la numéro 53 (ce classement, en anglais "Academic Ranking of World Universities" est établi par des chercheurs de l'université Jiao-tong de Shanghai). Elle est la quatrième plus grande université des États-Unis, avec étudiants en 2006. Elle est aussi dotée du huitième budget le plus important (presque 1,9 milliard de dollars par an). C'est, en termes de classement, la seizième université publique des États-Unis et la cinquantième université des États-Unis en général. L’université de Floride est réputée pour ses équipes sportives, les Florida Gators, et qui se classent régulièrement parmi les premières du pays.