Names and titles.

Besides "Buddha" and the name Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali: Siddhattha Gotama), he was also known by other names and titles, such as Shakyamuni ("Sage of the Shakyas").  In the early texts, the Buddha also often refers to himself as Tathāgata (Sanskrit: [tɐˈthaːɡɐtɐ]). The term is often thought to mean either "one who has thus gone" (tathā-gata) or "one who has thus come" (tathā-āgata), possibly referring to the transcendental nature

Historical person.

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most people accept that the Buddha lived, taught, and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara (, or c. 400 BCE), the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatasatru, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.  The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not been accepted by all historians.

Historical context.

According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilvastu, which may have been either in what is present-day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. According to Buddhist tradition, he obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.  One of Gautama's usual names was "Sakamuni" or "Sakyamunī" ("Sage of the Shakyas"). This and the evidence of the early texts suggests that he was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern

Earliest sources.

No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter. But from the middle of the 3rd century BCE, several Edicts of Ashoka (reigned c. 269–232 BCE) mention the Buddha, and particularly Ashoka's Lumbini pillar inscription commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to Lumbini as the Buddha's birthplace, calling him the "Buddha Shakyamuni" (Brahmi script: 𑀩𑀼𑀥 𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻 "Bu-dha Sa-kya-mu-nī", "Buddha, Sage of the Shakyas"). Another one of his edicts (Minor Rock Edict No. 3) mentions the titles of several "Dhamma" texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era. These texts may be the precursor of the Pāli Canon. "Sakamuni" is also mentioned in the reliefs of Bharhut, dated to circa 100 BCE, in relation with his illumination and

Traditional biographies.

Biographical sources.

The sources which present a full and complete picture of the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the "Buddhacarita", "Lalitavistara Sūtra", "Mahāvastu", and the "Nidānakathā". Of these, the "Buddhacarita" is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa in the first century CE. The "Lalitavistara Sūtra" is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The "Mahāvastu" from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka

Nature of traditional depictions.

In the earliest Buddhist texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience ("sabbaññu") nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent ("lokottara") being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the "Mahāvastu". In the "Sandaka Sutta", the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the "Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta" the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty-five-year career as a teacher.  Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha

Previous lives.

Legendary biographies like the Pali "Buddhavaṃsa" and the Sanskrit "Jātakamālā" depict the Buddha's (referred to as "bodhisattva" before his awakening) career as spanning hundreds of lifetimes before his last birth as Gautama. Many stories of these previous lives are depicted in the Jatakas. The format of a Jataka typically begins by telling a story in the present which is then explained by a story of someone's previous life.  Besides imbuing the pre-Buddhist past with a deep karmic history, the Jatakas also serve to explain the bodhisattva's (the Buddha-to-be) path to Buddhahood. In

Biography.

Birth and early life.

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, in present-day India, or Tilaurakot, in present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only apart.  The earliest Buddhist sources state that the Buddha was born to an aristocratic Kshatriya (Pali: "khattiya") family called Gotama (Sanskrit: Gautama), who were part of the Shakyas, a tribe of rice-farmers living near the modern border of India and Nepal. the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected

Renunciation.

While the earliest sources merely depict Gotama seeking a higher spiritual goal and becoming an ascetic or "sramana" after being disillusioned with lay life, the later legendary biographies tell a more elaborate dramatic story about how he became a mendicant.  The earliest accounts of the Buddha's spiritual quest is found in texts such as the Pali "Ariyapariyesanā-sutta" ("The discourse on the noble quest," MN 26) and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204. These texts report that what led to Gautama's renunciation was the thought that

Ascetic life and Awakening.

All sources agree that the ascetic Gautama practised under two teachers of yogic meditation. According to MN 26 and its Chinese parallel at MĀ 204, after having mastered the teaching of Ārāḍa Kālāma (), who taught a meditation attainment called "the sphere of nothingness", he was asked by Ārāḍa to become an equal leader of their spiritual community. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice because it "does not lead to revulsion, to dispassion, to cessation, to calm, to knowledge, to awakening, to Nibbana", and moved on to become a student of Udraka Rāmaputra (). With him, he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness (called "The Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception") and was again asked to join his teacher. But, once more, he was not

First sermon and formation of the saṅgha.

According to MN 26, immediately after his awakening, the Buddha hesitated on whether or not he should teach the "Dharma" to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed, and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is "subtle, deep and hard to grasp." However, the god Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some "with little dust in their eyes" will understand it. The Buddha relented and agreed to teach. According to Analayo, the Chinese parallel to MN 26, MĀ 204, does not contain

The growth of the saṅgha.

For the remaining 40 or 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, ascetics and householders, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. According to Schumann, the Buddha's wanderings ranged from "Kosambi on the Yamuna (25 km south-west of Allahabad )", to Campa (40 km east of Bhagalpur)" and from "Kapilavatthu (95 km north-west of Gorakhpur) to Uruvela (south of Gaya)." This covers an area of 600 by 300 km. His sangha enjoyed the patronage of the kings of Kosala and Magadha and he thus spent a lot of time in their respective capitals, Savatthi and Rajagaha.  Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it is likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardisation.  The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the Dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the

Formation of the bhikkhunī order.

The formation of a parallel order of female monastics (bhikkhunī) was another important part of the growth of the Buddha's community. As noted by Analayo's comparative study of this topic, there are various versions of this event depicted in the different early Buddhist texts.  According to all the major versions surveyed by Analayo, Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī, Buddha's step-mother, is initially turned down by the Buddha after requesting ordination for her and some other women. Mahāprajāpatī and her followers then shave their hair, don robes and begin following the Buddha on his travels. The Buddha is eventually convinced by Ānanda to grant ordination to Mahāprajāpatī on her acceptance of eight conditions called gurudharmas which focus on the relationship between the

Later years.

According to J.S. Strong, after the first 20 years of his teaching career, the Buddha seems to have slowly settled in Sravasti, the capital of the Kingdom of Kosala, spending most of his later years in this city.  As the sangha grew in size, the need for a standardized set of monastic rules arose and the Buddha seems to have developed a set of regulations for the sangha. These are preserved in various texts called "Pratimoksa" which were recited by the community every

Last days and "parinirvana".

The main narrative of the Buddha's last days, death and the events following his death is contained in the "Mahaparinibbana Sutta" (DN 16) and its various parallels in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan. According to Analayo, these include the Chinese Dirgha Agama 2, "Sanskrit fragments of the "Mahaparinirvanasutra"", and "three discourses preserved as individual translations in Chinese".  The "Mahaparinibbana sutta" depicts the Buddha's last year as a time of war. It begins with Ajatasattu's decision to make war on the Vajjian federation, leading him to send a minister to ask the Buddha for advice. The Buddha responds by saying that the Vajjians can be expected to prosper as long as they do seven things, and he then applies these seven principles to the Buddhist Sangha, showing that he is concerned about its future welfare. The Buddha says that the Sangha will prosper

Posthumous events.

According to the "Mahaparinibbana sutta," the Mallians of Kushinagar spent the days following the Buddha's death honoring his body with flowers, music and scents. The sangha waited until the eminent elder Mahākassapa arrived to pay his respects before cremating the body.  The Buddha's body was then cremated and the remains, including his bones, were kept as relics and they were distributed among various north Indian kingdoms like Magadha, Shakya and Koliya.

Teachings.

Tracing the oldest teachings.

One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest versions of the Pali Canon and other texts, such as the surviving portions of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka, and the Chinese Agamas. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility of drawing out a core

Influences.

According to scholars of Indology such as Richard Gombrich, the Buddha's teachings on Karma and Rebirth are a development of pre-Buddhist themes that can be found in Jain and Brahmanical sources, like the "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad". Likewise, "samsara", the idea that we are trapped in cycle of rebirth and that we should seek liberation from this through non-harming ("ahimsa") and spiritual practices, pre-dates the Buddha and was likely taught in early Jainism.  In various texts, the Buddha is depicted as having studied under two named teachers, Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta. According to Alexander Wynne, these were yogis who taught doctrines and practices similar to those in the Upanishads.  The Buddha's tribe of origin, the Shakyas, also seem to have had non-Vedic religious

Teachings preserved in the Early Buddhist Texts.

The Early Buddhist Texts present many teachings and practices which may have been taught by the historical Buddha. These include basic doctrines such as Dependent Origination, the Middle Way, the Five Aggregates, the Three unwholesome roots, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Theravada Pali texts and the Mahasamghika school's "Śālistamba Sūtra".  A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravada "Majjhima Nikaya" and Sarvastivada "Madhyama Agama" contain mostly the same major doctrines. Likewise, Richard Salomon has written that the doctrines found in the Gandharan Manuscripts are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."  These basic teachings such as the Four Noble Truths tend to be widely accepted as basic doctrines in all major schools of Buddhism, as seen in ecumenical documents such as the "Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna."

Critique of Brahmanism.

In the early Buddhist texts, the Buddha critiques the Brahmanical religion and social system on certain key points.  The brahmin caste held that the Vedas were eternal revealed ("sruti") texts. The Buddha, on the other hand, did not accept that these texts had any divine authority or value.  The Buddha also did not see the Brahmanical rites and practices as useful for spiritual advancement. For example, in the Udāna, the Buddha points out that ritual bathing does not lead to purity, only "truth and morality" lead to purity. He especially critiqued animal sacrifice as taught in Vedas. The Buddha contrasted his teachings, which were taught openly to all people, with that of the Brahmins', who kept their mantras secret.  He also critiqued numerous other brahmanical practices, such astrology, divination, fortune-telling, and so on (as seen in

Analysis of existence.

The early Buddhist texts present the Buddha's worldview as focused on understanding the nature of "dukkha", which is seen as the fundamental problem of life. Dukkha refers to all kinds of suffering, unease, frustration, and dissatisfaction that sentient beings experience. At the core of the Buddha's analysis of dukkha is the fact that everything we experience is impermanent, unstable and thus unreliable.  A common presentation of the core structure of Buddha's teaching found in the early texts is that of the Four Noble Truths. This teaching is most famously presented in the "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta" ("The discourse on the turning of the Dharma wheel") and its many parallels. The basic outline of the four truths is as follows:  According to Bhikkhu Analayo, the four truths schema appears to be based "on an analogy with Indian medical diagnosis" (with the form: "disease, pathogen, health, cure") and this comparison is "explicitly made in several early Buddhist texts".  In another Pali sutta, the Buddha outlines how "eight worldly conditions", "keep the world turning around...Gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain." He then

Dependent Origination.

In the early texts, the process of the arising of dukkha is most thoroughly explained by the Buddha through the teaching of Dependent Origination. At its most basic level, Dependent Origination is an empirical teaching on the nature of phenomena which says that nothing is experienced independently of its conditions.  The most basic formulation of Dependent Origination is given in the early texts as: 'It being thus, this comes about' (Pali: "evam sati idam hoti"). This can be taken to mean that certain phenomena only arise when there are other phenomena present (example: when there is craving, suffering arises), and so, one can say that their arising is "dependent" on other phenomena. In other words, nothing in experience exists without a cause.  In numerous early texts, this basic principle is expanded with a list

Metaphysics and personal identity.

Closely connected to the idea that experience is dependently originated is the Buddha's teaching that there is no independent or permanent self (Sanskrit: "atman", Pali: "atta").  Due to this view which (termed "anatta"), the Buddha's teaching was opposed to all soul theories of his time, including the Jain theory of a ""jiva"" ("life monad") and the Brahmanical theories of atman and purusha. All of these theories held that there was an eternal unchanging essence to a person which transmigrated from life to life.  While

Worldly happiness.

As noted by Bhikkhu Bodhi, the Buddha as depicted in the Pali suttas does not exclusively teach a world transcending goal, but also teaches laypersons how to achieve worldly happiness ("sukha").  According to Bodhi, the "most comprehensive" of the suttas that focus on how to live as a layperson is the "Sigālovāda Sutta" (DN 31). This sutta outlines how a layperson behaves towards six basic social relationships: "parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and friend, employer and workers, lay follower and religious guides." This Pali text also has parallels in Chinese and in Sanskrit fragments.  In another sutta ("Dīghajāṇu Sutta", AN 8.54) the Buddha teaches two types of happiness. First, there is the happiness visible in this very life. The Buddha states

The Path to Liberation.

Liberation ("vimutti") from the ignorance and grasping which create suffering is not easily achieved because all beings have deeply entrenched habits (termed "āsavas", often translated as "influxes" or "defilements") that keep them trapped in samsara. Because of this, the Buddha taught a path ("marga") of training to undo such habits. This path taught by the Buddha is depicted in the early texts (most famously in the Pali "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta" and its numerous parallel texts) as a "Middle Way" between sensual indulgence on one hand and mortification of the body on the other.  One of the most common formulations of the path to liberation in the earliest Buddhist texts is the Noble Eightfold

Monasticism.

The early Buddhist texts depict the Buddha as promoting the life of a homeless and celibate ""sramana"", or mendicant, as the ideal way of life for the practice of the path. He taught that mendicants or "beggars" ("bhikkhus") were supposed to give up all possessions and to own just a begging bowl and three robes. As

Socio-political teachings.

The early texts depict the Buddha as giving a deflationary account of the importance of politics to human life. Politics is inevitable and is probably even necessary and helpful, but it is also a tremendous waste of time and effort, as well as being a prime temptation to allow ego to run rampant. Buddhist political theory denies that people have a moral duty to engage in politics except to a very minimal degree (pay the taxes, obey the laws, maybe vote in the elections), and it actively portrays engagement in politics and the pursuit of enlightenment as being conflicting paths in life.  In the "Aggañña Sutta", the Buddha teaches a history of how monarchy arose which according to Matthew J. Moore is "closely analogous to a social contract." The "Aggañña Sutta" also provides a social explanation of how different classes arose, in contrast to the Vedic views on social caste.  Other early texts like the "Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta" and the "Mahāsudassana Sutta" focus on the figure

Scholarly views on the earliest teachings.

Numerous scholars of early Buddhism argue that most of the teachings found in the Early Buddhist texts date back to the Buddha himself. One of these is Richard Gombrich, who argues that since the content of the earliest texts “presents such originality, intelligence, grandeur and—most relevantly—coherence...it is hard to see it as a composite work." Thus he concludes they are "the work of one genius."  Peter Harvey also agrees that “much” of the Pali Canon “must derive from his [the Buddha’s] teachings.” Likewise, A. K. Warder has written that “there is no evidence to suggest that it [the shared teaching of the early schools] was formulated by anyone other than the Buddha and his immediate followers.”  Furthermore, Alexander Wynne argues that "the internal evidence of the early Buddhist literature proves its historical

Physical characteristics.

In early sources.

Early sources depict the Buddha's as similar to other Buddhist monks. Various discourses describe how he "cut off his hair and beard" when renouncing the world. Likewise, Digha Nikaya 3 has a Brahmin describe the Buddha as a shaved or bald ("mundaka") man. Digha Nikaya 2 also describes how king Ajatasattu is unable to tell which

The 32 Signs.

Various Buddhist texts attribute to the Buddha a series of extraordinary physical characteristics, known as "the 32 Signs of the Great Man" (Skt. "mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa").  According to Analayo, when they first appear in

Gautama Buddha in other religions.

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. However, Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and the concepts of Brahman-Atman. Consequently Buddhism is generally classified as a "nāstika" school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") in contrast to the six orthodox schools of Hinduism. In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.  Classical Sunni scholar Tabari reports that Buddhist idols were brought from Afghanistan to Baghdad in the ninth century. Such idols had been sold in Buddhist temples next to a mosque in Bukhara, but he does not further discuss the role of Buddha. According to the works on Buddhism by Al-Biruni (973–after 1050), views regarding the exact identity of Buddha was diverse. Accordingly, some regarded him as the divine incarnate, others as an apostle of the angels or as an Ifrit and others as an apostle of God sent to human race. By the 12th century,

Artistic depictions.

Some of the earliest artistic depictions of the Buddha found at Bharhut and Sanchi are aniconic and symbolic. During this early aniconic period, the Buddha is depicted by other objects or symbols, such as an empty throne, a riderless horse, footprints, a Dharma wheel or a Bodhi tree. The art at Sanchi also depicts the Jataka narratives of the Buddha in his past lives.  Other

Further reading.

The Buddha  Early Buddhism  Buddhism general

The Buddha (also known as Siddhattha Gotama or Siddhārtha Gautama) was a philosopher, mendicant, meditator, spiritual teacher, and religious leader who lived in Ancient India (c. 5th to 4th century BCE). He is revered as the founder of the world religion of Buddhism. He taught for around 45 years and built a large following, both monastic and lay. His teaching is based on his insight into "duḥkha" (typically translated as "suffering") and the end of dukkha – the state called "Nibbāna or Nirvana".

Siddhārtha Gautama (sanskrit ; pāli : "Siddhattha Gotama"), dit Shakyamuni (« sage des Śākyas ») ou le Bouddha (« l’Éveillé »), est un chef spirituel qui vécut au ou au, fondateur historique d'une communauté de moines errants qui donnera naissance au bouddhisme.


History.

It was formed as Ispat International in 1978, at the time it was part of the Indian Steel making company Ispat Industries which was founded by Lakshmi Mittal's father and was owned by his family, but in 1995 it separated from that company after various disagreements between Lakshmi and his father.  In 1989, the company acquired Iron & Steel Company of Trinidad & Tobago. In 1992, the company acquired Sibalsa. In 1994, the company acquired Sidbec-Dosco. In 1995, the company acquired Hamburger Stahlwerke, which formed Ispat International Ltd. and Ispat Shipping, and also bought Karmet Steel of Temirtau, Kazakhstan. In 1997, the company acquired Walzdraht Hochfeld GmbH and Stahlwerk Ruhrort. In 1997, the company went public as Ispat International NV. In 1998, the company acquired Inland Steel Company. In 1999, the company acquired Unimétal. In 2001, the company acquired ALFASID and Sidex. In 2002, it bought a majority stake in Iscor. In 2003, the company acquired Nowa Huta.  In 2004, the company acquired Polskie Huty Stali, BH Steel, and certain Macedonian facilities from Balkan Steel. In 2005, the company hired Deloitte as the primary auditors for the company. In 2005, the company acquired International Steel Group. In 2005, the company acquired Kryvorizhstal. In 2005, the company announced the investment of $9 billion in Jharkhand, India. In 2006, the company merged with Arcelor after much controversy. In 2006, the company announced investment for a 12 million tonne capacity steel plant in Odisha, India.

Bids and acquisitions.

In October 2005 Mittal Steel acquired Ukrainian steel manufacturer Kryvorizhstal for $4.8 billion in an auction after a controversial earlier sale for a much lower price to a consortium including the son-in-law of ex-President Leonid Kuchma was cancelled by the incoming government of President Viktor Yushchenko.  In 2005 Lakshmi Mittal flew into Jharkhand, India to announce a $9 billion investment to build a greenfield steel plant with a 12 million tonnes per annum production capacity.  On 27 January 2006 it announced a $23.3 billion (€18.6 billion, £12.7 billion) bid for Arcelor. On 19 May 2006 Mittal increased its offer for Arcelor by 38.7% to $32.4bn, or $47.34 per share (€25.8bn, €37.74 per share). On 25 June 2006 Arcelor, in a board meeting announced that it has accepted a further sweetened offer ($50.68 or €40.4 per share) and the new company would now be called ArcelorMittal, thus successfully ending one of the most controversial and publicised takeover bids in modern corporate history. ArcelorMittal is now by far the largest steelmaker in the world by turnover as well as volume, controlling 10% of the total world steel output.

Mittal Steel Company N.V. was one of the world's largest steel producers by volume, and also one of the largest in turnover. The Indian owned company is now part of ArcelorMittal.

Mittal Steel Company NV () était une société de droit néerlandais, fondée par Lakshmi Mittal, sise à Rotterdam, aux Pays-Bas. Elle a été absorbée en 2007 par ArcelorMittal, leader mondial de la sidérurgie.


Administrative districts.

Karawang Regency is divided into thirty districts ("kecamatan"), listed below with their areas and populations at the 2010 Census and according to the official estimates for 2015:

Topography.

Most of Karawang Regency consists of broad coastal plain; it lies on the northern coast and is the result of the deposition of sedimentary rocks formed by loose materials, especially marine sediments and volcanic alluvium. While in the middle of the regency are hills mostly formed by sedimentary rocks, in the south there is a mountain (Sanggabuana) with a height of about 1,291 metres above sea level. The regency is roughly equidistant from Jakarta and Bandung, and the two metropolitan areas have a combined home population of over 40 million people.

Demography.

The general population is ethnically Sundanese, with Islam adherents comprising 98.17% of the population according to the 2010 census.

Sport.

The football club Persika Karawang, which plays in Liga 2, is based in Karawang's Singaperbangsa Stadium. The city had also hosted the Madura United F.C. between 2010 and 2012 when it was known as Pelita Jaya Karawang.

Industrial estates.

Currently, according to the data of the Indonesian Industrial Zone Association (HKI), there are at least nine major industrial areas, namelyKarawang International Industrial City (KIIC), Bukit Indah City, Surya Cipta Industrial Area, Karawang Jabar Industrial Estate, Podomoro Industrial Park, Kujang Industrial Area, Karawang Mitrakarawang Industry, GT Tech Park Karawang, and Artha Industrial Hill.

New Airport.

A new main airport for Greater Jakarta and the heavily populated surrounding area is planned for bids in 2014; it is located within the regency, to provide relief to severely congested Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, the nation's largest gateway, as well as overloaded Bandung Airport. The new airport is expected to have space for 4 long runways and 2 jumbo terminals. The current airport takes up some 18 square kilometers of land, in all likelihood a similar allocation of land will be required.

Transportation.

Trans-Java main rail line runs across the central part of the Regency, with a stop at Karawang Station. Likewise, Jakarta's main airport is also mulled for the regency. The Jakarta–Cikampek Toll Road runs through the regency, connecting to Cipularang Toll Road which goes to Purwakarta and Bandung. This district will also be crossed by Jakarta-Bandung a fast train.

Karawang Regency is a regency "(kabupaten)" of West Java, Indonesia. The town of Karawang is its capital. The regency has an area of 1,652.2 km and census population of 2,127,791 people in 2010; the latest official estimate (for 2015) is 2,273,579 for a density of 1,376 people per km. The regency borders Bekasi and Bogor regencies in the west, the Java Sea in the north, Subang Regency in the east, Purwakarta Regency in the southeast, and Cianjur Regency in the south. The regency lies on the eastern outskirts of Metropolitan Jakarta, just outside the Jabodetabek region, and is the site of industrial activity (like factories).

Le kabupaten de Karawang, en indonésien, est un kabupaten de la province de Java occidental. Son chef-lieu est la ville de Karawang, qui est administrativement distincte et a le statut de "kota".


Provisions.

Under the treaty, the states parties agree to prohibit and prevent the "testing, use, manufacture, production or acquisition by any means whatsoever of any nuclear weapons" and the "receipt, storage, installation, deployment and any form of possession of any nuclear weapons."  There are two additional protocols to the treaty: Protocol I binds those overseas countries with territories in the region (the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands) to the terms of the treaty. Protocol II requires the world's declared nuclear weapons states to refrain from undermining in any way the nuclear-free status of the region; it has been signed and ratified by the USA, the UK, France, China, and Russia.  The treaty also provides for a comprehensive control and verification mechanism, overseen by the Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL), based in Mexico City.

History.

Meeting in the Tlatelolco district of Mexico City on 14 February 1967, the nations of Latin America and the Caribbean drafted this treaty to keep their region of the world free of nuclear weapons. Whereas Antarctica had earlier been declared a nuclear-weapon-free zone under the 1961 Antarctic Treaty, this was the first time such a ban was put in place over such a vast, populated area.  COPREDAL was the Preparatory Commission for the Denuclearization of Latin America created after the Cuban Missile Crisis. It consisted of four sets of sessions, all of them which held in Mexico City. The purpose of the sessions was to prepare a possible draft of the Treaty of Tlatelolco.  The United Nations Assembly authorized COPREDAL on 27 November 1963. The Preliminary Meeting on the Denuclearization of Latin America (REUPRAL) created the "Preparatory Commission for the Denuclearization of Latin America", COPREDAL.  There were four sets of COPREDAL's sessions. The first set of sessions took place from 15 to 22 March 1965, the second set of sessions from 23 August to 2 September 1965 and the third set of sessions from 19 April to 4 May 1965. The fourth set of sessions, also known as the Final Act, was divided into two parts. Part I started on 30 August 19 and Part II followed on 31 January to 14 February 1967.  In the first two sets of sessions, participants simply reported the activities that needed to be done in the following sets of sessions. The agreements made in the third set of sessions consisted of presenting a report of the previous changes to de Co-ordinating Committee and preparing the draft for the following Treaty of the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America. At the end of the fourth session, the objective was to entry the treaty into force.  Preparatory Commission created two working groups. Working group 1 was in charge of investigating control systems and predominant technical problems. Working group 2 dealt with legal and political questions. A Drafting Group was also created in order to prepare the final texts.

Observers.

Some other countries participated as observers, in every set of sessions such as Austria, Canada, Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany, France, India, Japan, Sweden, United Kingdom and United States of America. International organizations were present as well, for example the Internacional Atomic Agency.  The Latin American countries other than Cuba all signed the treaty in 1967, along with Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, and all of these ratified the treaty by 1972. The treaty came into force on 22 April 1968, after El Salvador had joined Mexico in ratifying it and waived the conditions for its entry into force in accordance with its Article 28.  Argentina ratified in 1994, more than 26 years after signature, and was thus unprotected by the zone during the Falklands War.  Other English-speaking Caribbean nations signed either soon after independence from the U.K. (1968, 1975, 1983) or years later (1989, 1992, 1994, 1995), all ratifying within 4 years after signing. However, as British territories they had been covered since 1969 when the U.K. ratified Protocol I.  The Netherlands ratified Protocol I in 1971; Suriname signed the Treaty in 1976 soon after independence from the Netherlands but did not ratify until 1997, 21 years after signing. The U.S. signed Protocol I applying to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands in 1977 and ratified in 1981. France signed Protocol I applying to its Caribbean islands and French Guiana in 1979 but only ratified in 1992. All five NPT-recognized nuclear weapon states ratified Protocol II by 1979.  Cuba was the last country to sign and to ratify, in 1995 and on 23 October 2002, completing signature and ratification by all 33 nations of Latin America and the Caribbean. Cuba ratified with a reservation that achieving a solution to the United States hostility to Cuba and the use of the Guantánamo Bay military base for U.S. nuclear weapons was a precondition to Cuba's continued adherence.  The Mexican diplomat Alfonso García Robles received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982 for his efforts in promoting the treaty.

Diplomatic consequences.

The basic agreement for Latin America is the possession of nuclear weapons directly or indirectly is prohibited. With the intention of The Kingdom of the Netherlands desire to participate, COPREDAL's members decided not to include extracontinental countries, including those which had territories in Latin America.  The Latin American territories belonging to extra continental countries would decide either to permit or deny the passage of nuclear weapons; countries such as United States and France recognized those transit agreements. The Soviet Union refused to recognize such transit agreements.

The Treaty of Tlatelolco is the conventional name given to the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean. It is embodied in the OPANAL (, ). Signed in 1967, it was the first treaty of its kind covering a populated area of the world, but now around 40% of the world's population live in a Nuclear-weapon-free zone.

Le traité de Tlatelolco, ou traité visant l'interdiction des armes nucléaires en Amérique latine est un traité international qui crée une zone exempte d'armes nucléaires en Amérique latine et dans les Caraïbes. Il est signé à Tlatelolco (quartier de Mexico), le. Le traité est entré en vigueur le. Cuba en 2002 a été le dernier État à ratifier le traité. 33 pays ont donc aujourd'hui signé et ratifié le traité.


Life.

Very little information is known about Propertius outside of his own writing. His praenomen "Sextus" is mentioned by Aelius Donatus, a few manuscripts list him as "Sextus Propertius", but the rest of his name is unknown. From numerous references in his poetry it is clear he was born and raised in Umbria. His birthplace is generally regarded as modern Assisi, where tourists can view the excavated remains of a house thought to have belonged at least to the poet's family, if not to the poet himself.  During Propertius' childhood, his father died and the family lost land as part of a confiscation, probably the same one which reduced Virgil's estates when Octavian allotted lands to his veterans in 41 BC. Along with cryptic references in Ovid that imply that he was younger than his contemporary Tibullus, this suggests a birthdate after 55 BC.  After his father's death, Propertius' mother set him on course for a public career, indicating his family still had some wealth, while the abundance of obscure mythology present in his poetry indicates he received a good education. Frequent mention of friends like Tullus, the nephew of Lucius Volcatius Tullus, consul in 33 BC, plus the fact that he lived on Rome's Esquiline Hill indicate he moved among the children of the rich and politically connected during the early part of the 20s BC. It was during this time that he met Cynthia, the older woman who would inspire him to express his poetic genius.  Propertius published a first book of love elegies in 25 BC, with Cynthia herself as the main theme; the book's complete devotion gave it the natural title "Cynthia Monobiblos". The "Monobiblos" must have attracted the attention of Maecenas, a patron of the arts who took Propertius into his circle of court poets. A second, larger book of elegies was published perhaps a year later, one that includes poems addressed directly to his patron and (as expected) praises for Augustus. The 19th century classics scholar Karl Lachmann argued, based on the unusually large number of poems in this book and Propertius' mention of "tres libelli", that the single Book II actually comprises two separate books of poetry conflated in the manuscript tradition, an idea supported by the state of the manuscript tradition of "Book II." An editor of Propertius, Paul Fedeli, accepts this hypothesis, as does G.P. Goold, editor of the Loeb edition.  The publication of a third book came sometime after 23 BC. Its content shows the poet beginning to move beyond simple love themes, as some poems (e.g. III.5) use "Amor" merely as a starting point for other topics. The book also shows the poet growing tired of the demanding yet fickle Cynthia, and implies a bitter end to their torrid love affair. Book IV, published sometime after 16 BC, displays more of the poet's ambitious agenda, and includes several aetiological poems explaining the origin of various Roman rites and landmarks.  Book IV, the last Propertius wrote, has only half the number of poems as Book I. Given the change in direction apparent in his poetry, scholars assume only his death a short time after publication prevented him from further exploration; the collection may in fact have been published posthumously. It is also possible that Propertius had children, either with Cynthia or a later liaison. An elegy of Ovid dated to 2 BC makes it clear that Propertius was dead by this time.

Poetry.

Propertius' fame rests on his four books of elegies, totaling around 92 poems (the exact number cannot be known as over the intervening years, scholars have divided and regrouped the poems, creating doubt as to the precise number). All his poems are written using the elegiac couplet, a form in vogue among the Roman social set during the late 1st century BC.  Like the work of nearly all the elegists, Propertius' work is dominated by the figure of a single woman, one he refers to throughout his poetry by the pseudonym Cynthia. She is named in over half the elegies of the first book and appears indirectly in several others, right from the first word of the first poem in the "Monobiblos": Apuleius identifies her as a woman named "Hostia", and Propertius suggests she is a descendant of the Roman poet Hostius. Scholars guess that she was probably a courtesan. Propertius frequently compliments her as "docta puella" 'learned girl', and, like Sulpicia, she herself was a writer of verse. Their affair veers wildly between emotional extremes, and as a lover she clearly dominates his life at least through the publication of the third book: It is difficult to precisely date many of Propertius' poems, but they chronicle the kind of declarations, passions, jealousies, quarrels, and lamentations that were commonplace subjects among the Latin elegists. The last two poems in Book III seem to indicate a final break with her ("versibus insignem te pudet esse meis" - "It is a shame that my verses have made you famous"), and Cynthia died some time before the publication of the final book IV. In this last book Cynthia is the subject of only two poems, best regarded as a postscript. The bi-polar complexity of the relationship is amply demonstrated in a poignant, if amusing, poem from the final book. Cynthia's ghost addresses Propertius from beyond the grave with criticism (among other things) that her funeral was not lavish enough, yet the longing of the poet remains in the final line "inter complexus excidit umbra meos." - "Her shade then slipped away from my embrace."  Book IV strongly indicates Propertius was planning a new direction for his poetry. The book includes several aetiological poems which, in reviewing the mythological origins of Rome and its landmarks, can also be read as critical—even vaguely subversive—of Augustus and his agenda for the new Rome. The position is currently a subject of debate among modern classicists. The final poem is a touching address by the recently deceased Cornelia consoling her husband Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus and their three children. Although the poem (given Cornelia's connection to Augustus' family) was most likely an imperial commission, its dignity, nobility, and pathos have led critics to call it the "queen of the elegies", and it is commonly considered the best in the collection.  Propertius' style is marked by seemingly abrupt transitions (in the manner of Latin neoteric poetry) and a high and imaginative allusion, often to the more obscure passages of Greek and Roman myth and legend. His idiosyncratic use of language, together with the corrupted state of the text, have made his elegies a challenge to edit; among the more famous names who have offered criticism of and emendations to the text have been the classicist John Percival Postgate and the English poet A. E. Housman.

Textual problems.

The text contains many syntactic, organizational and logical problems as it has survived. Some of these are no doubt exacerbated by Propertius' bold and occasionally unconventional use of Latin. Others have led scholars to alter and sometimes rearrange the text as preserved in the manuscripts.  A total of 146 Propertius manuscripts survive, the oldest of which dates from the 12th century. However, some of the poems in these manuscripts appear disjointed, such as I.8, which begins as a plea for Cynthia to abandon a planned sea voyage, then closes with sudden joy that the voyage has been called off. This poem has therefore been split by most scholars into a I.8a (comprising the first 26 lines) and I.8b (lines 27-46). More complicated organizational problems are presented by poems like II.26, a confusing piece in which Propertius first (1) dreams of Cynthia being shipwrecked, and then (2) praises Cynthia's faithfulness. Following this, he (3) declares that she plans to sail and he will come along, (4) shifts to the couple together on the shore, and then (5) quickly has them back on-board ship, ready to face the potential dangers of the sea. The images seem to conflict logically and chronologically, and have led different commentators to rearrange the lines or assume some "lacuna" in the text.  More modern critics have pointed out that all the proposed rearrangements assume Propertius' original poetry adhered strictly to the classical literary principles as set down by Aristotle, and so the apparent jumble is a result of manuscript corruptions. Another possibility is that Propertius was deliberately presenting disjointed images in violation of principles such as the Classical Unities, a theory which argues for different unifying structures in Propertius' elegies. This interpretation also implies that Propertius' style represented a mild reaction against the orthodoxy of classical literary theory. However, although these theories may have some bearing on issues of continuity in the other three surviving books of Propertius, modern philological scholarship tends toward a consensus that the extant text "Book Two" in fact represents the conflated remains of what were originally two books of poems.

Influence.

Propertius himself says he was popular and even scandalous in his own day. Horace, however, says that he would have to "endure much" and "stop up his ears" if he had to listen to "Callimachus...to please the sensitive stock of poets"; Postgate and others see this as a veiled attack on Propertius, who considered himself the Roman heir to Callimachus. This judgement also seems to be upheld by Quintilian, who ranks the elegies of Tibullus higher and is somewhat dismissive of the poet, but Propertius' popularity is attested by the presence of his verses in the graffiti preserved at Pompeii.  Propertius fell into obscurity in the Middle Ages, but was rediscovered during the Italian Renaissance along with the other elegists. Petrarch's love sonnets certainly show the influence of his writing, and Aeneas Silvius (the future Pope Pius II) titled a collection of his youthful elegies "Cinthia". There are also a set of "Propertian Elegies" attributed to the English writer Ben Jonson, though the authorship of these is disputed. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's 1795 collection of "Elegies" also shows some familiarity with Propertius' poetry.  Propertius is the lyrical protagonist of Joseph Brodsky's poem "Anno Domini" (1968), originally written in Russian. His relationship with Cynthia is also addressed in Robert Lowell's poem, "The Ghost. After Sextus Propertius", which is a free translation of Propertius' Elegy IV 7.

Modern assessment.

In the 20th century Ezra Pound's poem "Homage to Sextus Propertius" cast Propertius as something of a satirist and political dissident, and his translation/interpretation of the elegies presented them as ancient examples of Pound's own Imagist theory of art. Pound identified in Propertius an example of what he called (in "How to Read") 'logopoeia', "the dance of the intellect among words." Gilbert Highet, in "Poets in a Landscape", attributed this to Propertius' use of mythic allusions and circumlocution, which Pound mimics to more comic effect in his "Homage". The imagist interpretation, the poet's tendency to sustain an interior monologue, and the deeply personal nature of his poetry have made Propertius a favorite in the modern age. Two modern English translations of his work have appeared since 2000, and the playwright Tom Stoppard suggests in his best-known work "The Invention of Love" that the poet was responsible for much of what the West regards today as "romantic love".

Sextus Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet of the Augustan age. He was born around 50–45 BC in Assisium and died shortly after 15 BC.

Properce, de son nom latin Sextus Propertius, est un poète latin né aux alentours de 47 av. J.-C. en Ombrie, sans doute à proximité de la ville actuelle d'Assise, et mort vers 16/15 av. J.-C..


History.

The Calder Memorial Trophy is named in honour of Frank Calder, the former President of the National Hockey League (NHL) from its inception in 1917 to his death in 1943. Although "Rookie of the Year" honors were handed out beginning in 1932–33, the Calder Trophy was first presented at the conclusion of the 1936–37 NHL season. After Calder's death in 1943 the trophy was renamed the Calder Memorial Trophy.  In 1991, goaltender Ed Belfour won the Calder having previously appeared in 32 games with the Chicago Blackhawks over the 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons. Belfour was eligible for the award because nine of those appearances came during the 1990 Stanley Cup playoffs, and the other 23 appearances were made during the 1988–89 season. The nine playoff games did not count towards the regular season eligibility requirements. In 2010–11, Logan Couture was eligible for the Calder Trophy despite having played in 40 previous games (25 in the regular season and 15 in the playoffs, both in 2009–10), while Alex Pietrangelo was ineligible despite having played only 17 previous games (eight in 2008–09 and nine in 2009–10, both times sent back to juniors).  The trophy has been won the most times by rookies from the Toronto Maple Leafs, who have won it on ten occasions, with the most recent being Auston Matthews in 2017. The voting is conducted at the end of the regular season by members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association, and each individual voter ranks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL Awards ceremony after the playoffs.

The Calder Memorial Trophy is an annual award given "to the player selected as the most proficient in his first year of competition in the National Hockey League (NHL)." It is named after Frank Calder, the first president of the NHL. Serving as the NHL's Rookie of the Year award, this version of the trophy has been awarded since its creation for the 1936–37 NHL season. The voting is conducted by members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association at the conclusion of each regular season to determine the winner.

Le trophée Calder ("") est remis au joueur de hockey sur glace qui a su démontrer des qualités exceptionnelles durant sa première saison en tant que joueur dans la Ligue nationale de hockey (« "Rookie of the Year" »).


Taxonomy.

The consensus in 2005, when the group consisting of the glaucophytes and red and green algae and land plants was named 'Archaeplastida', was that it was a clade, i.e. was monophyletic. Many studies published since then have provided evidence in agreement. Other studies, though, have suggested that the group is paraphyletic. To date, the situation appears unresolved, but a strong signal for Plantae (Archaeplastida) monophyly has been demonstrated in a recent study (with an enrichment of red algal genes). The assumption made here is that Archaeplastida is a valid clade.  Various names have been given to the group. Some authors have simply referred to the group as plants or Plantae. However, the name Plantae is ambiguous, since it has also been applied to less inclusive clades, such as Viridiplantae and embryophytes. To distinguish, the larger group is sometimes known as Plantae "sensu lato" ("plants in the broad sense").  To avoid ambiguity, other names have been proposed. Primoplantae, which appeared in 2004, seems to be the first new name suggested for this group. Another name applied to this node is Plastida, defined as the clade sharing "plastids of primary (direct prokaryote) origin [as] in "Magnolia virginiana" Linnaeus 1753".  Although many studies have suggested the Archaeplastida form a monophyletic group, a 2009 paper argues that they are in fact paraphyletic. The enrichment of novel red algal genes in a recent study demonstrates a strong signal for Plantae (Archaeplastida) monophyly and an equally strong signal of gene sharing history between the red/green algae and other lineages. This study provides insight on how rich mesophilic red algal gene data are crucial for testing controversial issues in eukaryote evolution and for understanding the complex patterns of gene inheritance in protists.  The name Archaeplastida was proposed in 2005 by a large international group of authors (Adl "et al."), who aimed to produce a classification for the eukaryotes which took into account morphology, biochemistry, and phylogenetics, and which had "some stability in the near term." They rejected the use of formal taxonomic ranks in favour of a hierarchical arrangement where the clade names do not signify rank. Thus, the phylum name 'Glaucophyta' and the class name 'Rhodophyceae' appear at the same level in their classification. The divisions proposed for the Archaeplastida are shown below in both tabular and diagrammatic form.  Archaeplastida:

Cladogram.

Below is a consensus reconstruction of green algal relationships, mainly based on molecular data. While the Glaucophyta are typically figured as deepest rooting Archeaplastida, some genomic research points to Rhodophyta as basal, possibly with Cryptista and picozoa emerging in Archaeplastida.  However, there is a lot of contention near the Archaeplastida root, e.g. whether Glaucophyta or Rhodophyta are basal, or whether e.g. Cryptista emerged within the Archaeplastida. In 2014 a thorough review was published on these inconsistencies. The position of Telonemia and Picozoa are not clear. Also Hacrobia (Haptista + Cryptista) may be completely associated with the SAR clade. The SAR are often seen as eukaryote-eukaryote hybrids, contributing to the confusion in the genetic analyses. A sister of Gloeomargarita lithophora has been engulfed by an ancestor of the Archaeplastida, leading to the plastids which are living in permanent endosymbiosis in most of the descendent lineages. Because both Gloeomargarita and related cyanobacteria, in addition to the most primitive archaeplastids, all live in freshwater, it seems the Archaeplastida originated in freshwater, and only colonized the oceans in the late Proterozoic.

Morphology.

All archaeplastidans have plastids (chloroplasts) that carry out photosynthesis and are believed to be derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. In glaucophytes, perhaps the most primitive members of the group, the chloroplast is called a "cyanelle" and shares several features with cyanobacteria, including a peptidoglycan cell wall, that are not retained in other members of the group. The resemblance of cyanelles to cyanobacteria supports the endosymbiotic theory.  The cells of most archaeplastidans have walls, commonly but not always made of cellulose.  The Archaeplastida vary widely in the degree of their cell organization, from isolated cells to filaments to colonies to multi-celled organisms. The earliest were unicellular, and many groups remain so today. Multicellularity evolved separately in several groups, including red algae, ulvophyte green algae, and in the green algae that gave rise to stoneworts and land plants.

Endosymbiosis.

Because the ancestral archaeplastidan is hypothesized to have acquired its chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria, the event is known as a "primary endosymbiosis" (as reflected in the name chosen for the group 'Archaeplastida' i.e. 'ancient plastid'). One species of green algae, "Cymbomonas tetramitiformis" in the order Pyramimonadales, is a mixotroph and able to support itself through both phagotrophy and phototrophy. It is not yet known if this is a primitive trait and therefore defines the last common ancestor of Archaeplastida, which could explain how it obtained its chloroplasts, or if it is a trait regained by horizontal gene transfer.  Evidence for primary endosymbosis includes the presence of a double membrane around the chloroplasts; one membrane belonged to the bacterium, and the other to the eukaryote that captured it. Over time, many genes from the chloroplast have been transferred to the nucleus of the host cell. The presence of such genes in the nuclei of eukaryotes without chloroplasts suggests this transfer happened early in the evolution of the group.  Other eukaryotes with chloroplasts appear to have gained them by engulfing a single-celled archaeplastidan with its own bacterially-derived chloroplasts. Because these events involve endosymbiosis of cells that have their own endosymbionts, the process is called "secondary endosymbiosis". The chloroplasts of such eukaryotes are typically surrounded by more than two membranes, reflecting a history of multiple engulfment. The chloroplasts of euglenids, chlorarachniophytes and a small group of dinoflagellates appear to be captured green algae, whereas those of the remaining photosynthetic eukaryotes, such as heterokont algae, cryptophytes, haptophytes, and dinoflagellates, appear to be captured red algae.

Fossil record.

Perhaps the most ancient remains of Archaeplastida are putative red algae ("Rafatazmia") within stromatolites in 1600 Ma (million years ago) rocks in India. Somewhat more recent are microfossils from the Roper group in northern Australia. The structure of these single-celled fossils resembles that of modern green algae. They date to the Mesoproterozoic Era, about 1500 to 1300 Ma. These fossils are consistent with a molecular clock study that calculated that this clade diverged about 1500 Ma. The oldest fossil that can be assigned to a specific modern group is the red alga "Bangiomorpha", from 1200 Ma.  In the late Neoproterozoic Era, algal fossils became more numerous and diverse. Eventually, in the Paleozoic Era, plants emerged onto land, and have continued to flourish up to the present.

The Archaeplastida (or kingdom Plantae "sensu lato") are a major group of autotrophic eukaryotes, comprising the red algae (Rhodophyta), the green algae, and the land plants, together with a small group of freshwater unicellular algae called glaucophytes. The Archaeplastida have chloroplasts that are surrounded by two membranes, suggesting that they were acquired directly from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. All other groups besides the amoeboid "Paulinella chromatophora", have chloroplasts surrounded by three or four membranes, suggesting they were acquired secondarily from red or green algae. Unlike red and green algae, glaucophytes have never been involved in secondary endosymbiosis events.

Le groupe Archaeplastida (ou "lignée verte" selon Le Guyader et Lecointre, "Plantae" selon Cavalier-Smith) regroupe des êtres vivants capables de photosynthèse, comme ce que l’on peut appeler les algues rouges et les végétaux verts...


History.

In Christian sources.

Justin Martyr wrote in his "Apology" (152 AD) that the sect of the Simonians appeared to have been formidable, as he speaks four times of their founder, Simon.  The Simonians are mentioned by Hegesippus; their doctrines are quoted and opposed in connection with Simon Magus by Irenaeus, by the "Philosophumena", and later by Epiphanius of Salamis. Origen also mentions that some of the sect were called Heleniani.

Origin and development.

According to John D. Turner, the Simonians originated as a local Jewish cult in the first century CE, which centered on a Samaritan holy man. This early cult was syncretistic, but not Gnostic. In the second century, under influence of Christianity, Simon was transformed into a Gnostic saviour. The influence of Greek philosophy resulted in a Gnostic "monistic theogony."  According to Aldo Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot of John the Baptist. One offshoot was in turn headed by Dositheus, Simon Magus, and Menander. It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels. Their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and lead to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome. The Samaritan leaders were viewed as "the embodiment of God's power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of 'true knowledge'."  Dositheus, a Samaritan who died from starvation, is said to have originally been the "Standing One," or leader, of John the Baptist's sect, but stepped aside in favor of Simon Magus. Origen, who was ordained priest in AD 231, speaks of Dositheus, and also mentions Simon Magus. As late as the beginning of the 7th century, Eulogius of Alexandria opposed Dositheans, who regarded Dositheus as the great prophet foretold by Moses.  Like Simon, Menander, who was a pupil and, after Simon's death, his most important successor, taught the creation of the world by angels who were sent by the "Ennoia". He asserted that men received immortality and the resurrection by his baptism and practiced magical arts. The sect named after him, the Menandrians, continued to exist for a considerable length of time.  Simonian influences continued through Menander's own followers who included Saturninus of Antioch and Basilides, the latter identified by Ireneus with the further development of his predecessors ideas. Carpocrates practised in the tradition of Basildes, and his own follower, Marcellina, became one of the few female leaders of early Christianity in 2nd century Rome.

Doctrine.

"The Great Declaration".

In the "Philosophumena" of Hippolytus, Simon's doctrine is recorded according to his reputed work, "The Great Declaration", as it existed in the 2nd century. As Hippolytus himself in more than one place points out, it is an earlier form of the Valentinian doctrine, but there are things reminiscent of Aristotelian and Stoic physics.

Outline.

The whole book is a mixture of Hellenism and Hebraism, in which the same method of allegory is applied to Homer and Hesiod as to Moses. Starting from the assertion of Moses that God is "a devouring fire" (Deuteronomy 4:24), Simon combined therewith the philosophy of Heraclitus which made fire the first principle of all things. This first principle he denominated a "Boundless Power," and he declared it to dwell in the sons of men, beings born of flesh and blood. But fire was not the simple thing that the many imagined, and Simon distinguished between its hidden and its manifest qualities, maintaining that the former were the cause of the latter. Like the Stoics he conceived of it as an intelligent being. From this ungenerated being sprang the generated world of which we know, whereof there were six roots, having each its inner and its outer side, and arranged as follows:  These six roots, "Mind, Voice, Reason, Reflection, Name", and "Thought", are also called six powers. Commingled with them all was the great power, the "Boundless Power." This was that which "has stood, stands, and will stand," the seventh power (root) corresponding to the seventh day after the six days of creation. This seventh power existed before the world, it is the Spirit of God that moved upon the face of the waters (Genesis 1:2). It existed potentially in every child of man, and might be developed in each to its own immensity. The small might become great, the point be enlarged to infinity. This indivisible point which existed in the body, and of which none but the spiritual knew, was the Kingdom of Heaven, and the grain of mustard-seed. But it rested with us to develop it, and it is this responsibility which is referred to in the words—"that we may not be condemned with the world" (1 Corinthians 11:32). For if the image of the Standing One were not actualized in us, it would not survive the death of the body. "The axe," he said, "is nigh to the roots of the tree: Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is cut down and cast into the fire" ("cf." Matthew 3:10).

Eden.

There is a remarkable physiological interpretation of the Garden of Eden that evinces a certain amount of anatomical knowledge on the part of Simon or his followers. Here, Paradise is the womb, and the river going out of Eden is envisioned as the umbilical cord.  The five books of Moses are made to represent the five senses:

Fragment.

As the female side of the original being appears the "thought" or "conception" ("ennoia"), which is the mother of the Aeons. There is a mystical passage on the unity of all things, suggestive of the "Emerald Tablet." Its language seems to throw light on the story about Helen.

Practices.

In Christian sources.

The Simonians were variously accused of using magic and theurgy, incantations and love-potions; declaring idolatry a matter of indifference that was neither good nor bad, proclaiming all sex to be perfect love, and altogether leading very disorderly, immoral lives. Eusebius of Caesarea, in his 4th century Historia Ecclesiastica, writes that 'every vile corruption that could either be done or devised, is practised by this most abominable heresy'. In general, they were said to regard nothing in itself as good or bad by nature: it was not good works that made men blessed, in the next world, but the grace bestowed by Simon and Helena on those who followed them.  To this end, the Simonians were said to venerate Simon under the image of Zeus, and Helena under that of Athena. However, Hippolytus adds that "if any one, on seeing the images either of Simon or Helen, shall call them by those names, he is cast out, as showing ignorance of the mysteries." From this it is evident that the Simonians did not allow that they actually worshipped their founders. In the Clementine "Recognitions" Helena is called Luna, which may mean that the images were allegorical representations of the sun and moon.  The writer of the pseudo-Cyprian "De Rebaptismate" says that on the strength of the words of John, that "we were to be baptized with the Holy Ghost and with fire," the Simonians maintained that the orthodox baptism was a mere form, and that they had the real baptism, for, as soon as their neophytes went down into the water, a fire appeared on it. The writer does not dispute the fact, but is at a loss what to make of it. Was it a bit of jugglery, or a natural phenomenon, or a piece of self-deception, or an effect of magic? In advocacy of this baptism, we are told, there was composed by the same heretics a book which was inscribed the "Preaching of Paul."

In "The Testimony of Truth".

Outside of these patristic sources, the Simonians are briefly mentioned in the "Testimony of Truth" (58,1-60,3) from the Nag Hammadi Library, wherein the Gnostic author seems to include them among a long list of "heretics":  Translator Birger A. Pearson notes that these passages probably deal with the practices of libertine Gnostic sects, but from the fragmentary state of the text, it is impossible to know to what groups are being referred. The staunchly ascetic author may have had no more issue with the Simonians than their marrying and having children. However, Epiphanius also accuses the Simonians of having "enjoined mysteries of obscenity and—to set it forth more seriously—of the sheddings of bodies, "emissionum virorum, feminarum menstruorum", and that they should be gathered up for mysteries in a most filthy collection; that these were the mysteries of life, and of the most perfect "gnosis"."

The Simonians were a Gnostic sect of the 2nd century which regarded Simon Magus as its founder and traced its doctrines, known as Simonianism, back to him. The sect flourished in Syria, in various districts of Asia Minor and at Rome. In the 3rd century remnants of it still existed, which survived until the 4th century.

Le simonisme est un courant gnostique et paléochrétien fondé par Simon le Mage ou « Simon le Magicien ». Les simoniens croyaient que Simon était Dieu ayant pris forme humaine.


Life.

Early years and family.

Born in 1541, in either the village of Fodele or Candia (the Venetian name of Chandax, present day Heraklion) on Crete, El Greco was descended from a prosperous urban family, which had probably been driven out of Chania to Candia after an uprising against the Catholic Venetians between 1526 and 1528. El Greco's father, Geórgios Theotokópoulos (d. 1556), was a merchant and tax collector. Nothing is known about his mother or his first wife, also Greek. El Greco's older brother, Manoússos Theotokópoulos (1531 –

Italy.

It was natural for the young El Greco to pursue his career in Venice, Crete having been a possession of the Republic of Venice since 1211. Though the exact year is not clear, most scholars agree that El Greco went to Venice around 1567. Knowledge of El Greco's years in Italy is limited. He lived in Venice until 1570 and, according to a letter written by his much older friend, the greatest miniaturist of the age, Giulio Clovio, was a "disciple" of Titian, who was by then in his eighties but still vigorous. This may mean he worked in Titian's large studio, or not. Clovio characterized El Greco as "a rare talent in painting".  In 1570, El Greco moved

Spain.

Move to Toledo.

In 1577, El Greco migrated to Madrid, then to Toledo, where he produced his mature works. At the time, Toledo was the religious capital of Spain and a populous city with "an illustrious past, a prosperous present and an uncertain future". In Rome, El Greco had earned the respect of some intellectuals, but was also facing the hostility of certain art critics. During the 1570s the huge monastery-palace of El Escorial was still under construction and Philip II of Spain was experiencing difficulties in finding good artists for the many large paintings required to decorate it. Titian was dead, and Tintoretto, Veronese and Anthonis Mor all refused to come to Spain. Philip had to rely on the lesser talent of Juan Fernández de Navarrete, of whose "gravedad y decoro" ("seriousness and decorum") the king approved. However, Fernández died in 1579; the moment should have been ideal for El Greco.  Through Clovio and Orsini, El Greco met Benito Arias Montano, a Spanish humanist and agent of Philip; Pedro Chacón, a clergyman; and Luis de Castilla, son of Diego de Castilla, the dean of the

Mature works and later years.

Lacking the favor of the king, El Greco was obliged to remain in Toledo, where he had been received in 1577 as a great painter. According to Hortensio Félix Paravicino, a 17th-century Spanish preacher and poet, "Crete gave him life and the painter's craft, Toledo a better homeland, where through Death he began to achieve eternal life." In 1585, he appears to have hired an assistant, Italian painter Francisco Preboste, and to have established a workshop capable of producing altar frames and statues as well as paintings. On 12 March 1586 he obtained the commission for "The Burial of the Count of Orgaz", now his best-known work.  The decade 1597 to 1607 was a period of intense activity for El Greco. During these years he received several major commissions, and his workshop created pictorial and sculptural ensembles for a variety of religious institutions. Among his major commissions of this period were three altars for the Chapel of San José in Toledo (1597–1599); three paintings (1596–1600) for the Colegio de Doña María de Aragon, an Augustinian monastery in Madrid, and the high altar, four lateral altars, and the painting "St. Ildefonso" for the Capilla Mayor of the Hospital de la Caridad (Hospital of Charity) at Illescas (1603–1605). The minutes of the commission of "The Virgin of the Immaculate Conception" (1607–1613), which were composed

Art.

Technique and style.

The primacy of imagination and intuition over the subjective character of creation was a fundamental principle of El Greco's style. El Greco discarded classicist criteria such as measure and proportion. He believed that grace is the supreme quest of art, but the painter achieves grace only if he manages to solve the most complex problems with obvious ease.  El Greco regarded color as the most important and the most ungovernable element of painting, and declared that color had primacy over form. Francisco Pacheco, a painter and theoretician who visited El Greco in 1611, wrote that the painter liked "the colors

Painting materials.

El Greco painted many of his paintings on fine canvas and employed a viscous oil medium. He painted

Suggested Byzantine affinities.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, scholars have debated whether El Greco's style had Byzantine origins. Certain art historians had asserted that El Greco's roots were firmly in the Byzantine tradition, and that his most individual characteristics derive directly from the art of his ancestors, while others had argued that Byzantine art could not be related to El Greco's later work.  The discovery of the "Dormition of the Virgin" on Syros, an authentic and signed work from the painter's Cretan period, and the extensive archival research in the early 1960s, contributed to the rekindling and reassessment of these theories. Although following many conventions of the Byzantine icon, aspects of the style certainly show Venetian influence, and the composition, showing the death of Mary, combines the different doctrines of the Orthodox Dormition of the Virgin and the Catholic Assumption of the Virgin. Significant scholarly works of the second half of the 20th century devoted to El Greco reappraise many of the interpretations of his work, including his supposed Byzantinism. Based on the notes written in El Greco's own hand, on his unique style, and on the fact that El Greco signed his

Architecture and sculpture.

El Greco was highly esteemed as an architect and sculptor during his lifetime. He usually designed complete altar compositions, working as architect and sculptor as well as painter—at, for instance, the Hospital de la Caridad. There he decorated the chapel of the hospital, but the wooden altar and the sculptures he created have in all probability perished. For the master designed the original altar of gilded wood which has been destroyed, but his small sculptured group of the "Miracle of St. Ildefonso" still survives on the lower center of the frame.  His most important architectural achievement was the church and

Legacy.

Posthumous critical reputation.

El Greco was disdained by the immediate generations after his death because his work was opposed in many respects to the principles of the early baroque style which came to the fore near the beginning of the 17th century and soon supplanted the last surviving traits of the 16th-century Mannerism. El Greco was deemed incomprehensible and had no important followers. Only his son and a few unknown painters produced weak copies of his works. Late 17th- and early 18th-century Spanish commentators praised his skill but criticized his antinaturalistic style and his complex iconography. Some of these commentators, such as Antonio Palomino

Influence on other artists.

According to Efi Foundoulaki, "painters and theoreticians from the beginning of the 20th century 'discovered' a new El Greco but in process they also discovered and revealed their own selves". His expressiveness and colors influenced Eugène Delacroix and Édouard Manet. To the Blaue Reiter group in Munich in 1912, El Greco typified that "mystical inner construction" that it was the task of their generation to rediscover. The first painter who appears to have noticed the structural code in the morphology of the mature El Greco was Paul Cézanne, one of the forerunners of Cubism. Comparative morphological analyses of the two painters revealed their common

Debates on attribution.

The exact number of El Greco's works has been a hotly contested issue. In 1937, a highly influential study by art historian Rodolfo Pallucchini had the effect of greatly increasing the number of works accepted to be by El Greco. Pallucchini attributed to El Greco a small triptych in the Galleria Estense at Modena on the basis of a signature on the painting on the back of the central panel on the Modena triptych ("", Created by the hand of Doménikos). There was consensus that the triptych was indeed an early work of El Greco and, therefore, Pallucchini's publication became the yardstick for attributions to the artist. Nevertheless, Wethey denied that the Modena triptych had any connection at all with the artist and, in 1962, produced a reactive catalogue with a greatly reduced corpus of materials. Whereas art historian José Camón Aznar had attributed between 787 and 829 paintings to the Cretan master, Wethey reduced the number to 285 authentic works and Halldor Sœhner, a German researcher of Spanish art, recognized only 137. Wethey and other scholars rejected the notion that Crete took any part in his formation and supported the elimination of a series of works

Notes.

a. Theotokópoulos acquired the name "El Greco" in Italy, where the custom of identifying a man by designating a country or city of origin was a common practice. The curious form of the article ("El") may be from the Venetian dialect or more likely from the Spanish, though in Spanish his name would be "". The Cretan master was generally known in Italy and Spain as "Dominico Greco", and was called only after his death El Greco ().  b. According to a contemporary, El Greco acquired his name, not only for his place of origin, but also for the sublimity of his art: "Out of the great esteem he was held in he was called the Greek (il Greco)" (comment of Giulio Cesare Mancini about El Greco in his "Chronicles", which were written a few years after El Greco's death).  c. There is an ongoing dispute about El Greco's birthplace. Most researchers and scholars give Candia as his birthplace. Nonetheless, according to Achileus A. Kyrou, a prominent Greek journalist of the 20th century, El Greco was born in Fodele and the ruins of his family's house are still extant in the place where old Fodele was (the village later changed location because of pirate raids). Candia's claim to him is based on two documents from a trial in 1606, when the painter was 65. Fodele natives argue that El Greco probably told everyone in Spain he was from Heraklion because it was the closest known city next to tiny Fodele.  d. This document comes from the notarial archives of Candia and was published in 1962. "Menegos" is the Venetian dialect form of, and (=) is a Greek term for painter.  e. The arguments of these Catholic sources are based on the lack of Orthodox archival baptismal records on Crete and on a relaxed interchange between Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic rites during El Greco's youth. Based on the assessment that his art reflects the religious spirit of Roman Catholic Spain, and on a reference in his last will and testament, where he described himself as a "devout Catholic", some scholars assume that El Greco was part of the vibrant Catholic Cretan minority or that he converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism before leaving the island.  f. According to archival research in the late 1990s, El Greco was still in Candia at the age of twenty-six. It was there where his works, created in the spirit of the post-Byzantine painters of the Cretan School, were greatly esteemed. On 26 December 1566 El Greco sought permission from the Venetian authorities to sell a "panel of the Passion of Christ executed on a gold background" ("un quadro della Passione del Nostro Signor Giesu Christo, dorato") in a lottery. The Byzantine icon by young Doménicos depicting the "Passion of Christ", painted on a gold ground, was appraised and sold on 27 December 1566 in Candia for the agreed price of seventy gold ducats (The panel was valued by two artists; one of them was icon-painter Georgios Klontzas. One valuation was eighty ducats and the other seventy), equal in value to a work by Titian or Tintoretto of that period. Therefore, it seems that El Greco traveled to Venice sometime after 27 December 1566. In one of his last articles, Wethey reassessed his previous estimations and accepted that El Greco left Crete in 1567. According to other archival material—drawings El Greco sent to a Cretan cartographer—he was in Venice by 1568.  g. Mancini reports that El Greco said to the Pope that if the whole work was demolished he himself would do it in a decent manner and with seemliness.  h. Toledo must have been one of the largest cities in Europe during this period. In 1571 the population of the city was 62,000.  i. El Greco signed the contract for the decoration of the high altar of the church of the Hospital of Charity on 18 June 1603. He agreed to finish the work by August of the following year. Although such deadlines were seldom met, it was a point of potential conflict. He also agreed to allow the brotherhood to select the appraisers. The brotherhood took advantage of this act of good faith and did not wish to arrive at a fair settlement. Finally, El Greco assigned his legal representation to Preboste and a friend of him, Francisco Ximénez Montero, and accepted a payment of 2,093 ducats.  j. Doña Jerónima de Las Cuevas appears to have outlived El Greco, and, although the master acknowledged both her and his son, he never married her. That fact has puzzled researchers, because he mentioned her in various documents, including his last testament. Most analysts assume that El Greco had married unhappily in his youth and therefore could not legalize another attachment.  k. The myth of El Greco's madness came in two versions. On the one hand Gautier believed that El Greco went mad from excessive artistic sensitivity. On the other hand, the public and the critics would not possess the ideological criteria of Gautier and would retain the image of El Greco as a "mad painter" and, therefore, his "maddest" paintings were not admired but considered to be historical documents proving his "madness".  l. This theory enjoyed surprising popularity during the early years of the twentieth century and was opposed by the German psychologist David Kuntz. Whether or not El Greco had progressive astigmatism is still open to debate. Stuart Anstis, Professor at the University of California (Department of Psychology), concludes that "even if El Greco were astigmatic, he would have adapted to it, and his figures, whether drawn from memory or life, would have had normal proportions. His elongations were an artistic expression, not a visual symptom." According to Professor of Spanish John Armstrong Crow, "astigmatism could never give quality to a canvas, nor talent to a dunce".

Doménikos Theotokópoulos ( ; 1 October 1541 7 April 1614), most widely known as El Greco ("The Greek"), was a Greek painter, sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance. "El Greco" was a nickname, a reference to his Greek origin, and the artist normally signed his paintings with his full birth name in Greek letters, Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος, "Doménikos Theotokópoulos", often adding the word Κρής "Krēs", Cretan.

Domínikos Theotokópoulos, dit Le Greco né le à Candie (aujourd'hui Héraklion) en Crète (alors possession de la république de Venise) et mort le à Tolède, est un peintre, sculpteur et architecte.


History.

Development in Mexico.

Mexico has been called the 'birth place and burial ground of the Green Revolution. It began with great promise and it has been argued that "during the twentieth century two'revolutions' transformed rural Mexico: the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920) and the Green Revolution (1950–1970)". It was on the lead of the Mexican government in 1943, under Presidential order and finance of the Mexican President Manuel Ávila Camacho, and support of the U.S. government, the United Nations, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Rockefeller Foundation. For the U.S. government, its neighbor Mexico was an important experimental case in the use of technology and scientific expertise in agriculture that became the model for international agricultural development. Mexico made a concerted effort to transform agricultural productivity, particularly with irrigated rather than dry-land cultivation in its northwest, to solve

In rice: IR8 and the Philippines.

In 1960, the Government of the Republic of the Philippines with the Ford Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation established the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). A rice crossing between Dee-Geo-woo-gen and Peta was done at IRRI in 1962. In 1966, one

Start in India.

In 1961, India was on the brink of mass famine. Norman Borlaug was invited to India by the adviser to the Indian minister of agriculture Dr. M. S. Swaminathan. Despite bureaucratic hurdles imposed by India's grain monopolies, the Ford Foundation and Indian government collaborated to import wheat seed from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). Punjab was selected by the Indian government to be the first site to try the new crops because of its reliable water supply and a history of agricultural success. India began its own Green Revolution program of plant breeding, irrigation development, and financing of agrochemicals.  India

Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research – CGIAR.

In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank; on 19 May 1971, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was established. co-sponsored by

Brazil's agricultural revolution.

Brazil's vast inland cerrado region was regarded as unfit for farming before the 1960s because the soil was too acidic and poor in nutrients, according to Norman Borlaug. However, from the 1960s, vast quantities of lime (pulverised chalk or limestone) were poured on the soil to reduce acidity. The effort went on for decades; by the late 1990s, between 14 million and

Problems in Africa.

There have been numerous attempts to introduce the successful concepts from the Mexican and Indian projects into Africa. These programs have generally been less successful. Reasons cited include widespread corruption, insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and a general lack of will on the part of the governments. Yet environmental factors, such as the availability of water for irrigation, the high diversity in slope and soil types in one given area are also reasons why the Green Revolution is not so successful in Africa.  A recent program in western Africa is attempting to introduce a new high-yielding 'family' of rice varieties known as "New Rice for

Agricultural production and food security.

Technologies.

The Green Revolution spread technologies that already existed, but had not been widely implemented outside industrialized nations. Two kinds of technologies were used in the Green Revolution and aim at cultivation and breeding area respectively. The technologies in cultivation are targeted at providing excellent growing conditions, which included modern irrigation projects, pesticides, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. The breeding technologies aimed at improving crop varieties developed through the conventional, science-based methods available at the time. These technologies included hybrids, combining modern genetics with selections.

High-Yielding Varieties.

The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars. Agronomists bred cultivars of maize, wheat, and rice that are the generally referred to as HYVs or "high-yielding varieties". HYVs have higher nitrogen-absorbing potential than other varieties. Since cereals that absorbed extra nitrogen would typically lodge, or fall over before harvest, semi-dwarfing genes were bred into their genomes. A Japanese dwarf wheat cultivar Norin 10 developed by Japanese agronomist Gonjiro Inazuka, which was sent to Orville Vogel at Washington State University by Cecil Salmon, was instrumental in developing Green Revolution wheat cultivars. IR8, the first widely implemented HYV rice to be developed by IRRI, was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named "Peta" and a Chinese variety named "Dee-geo-woo-gen". In the 1960s, when a food crisis happened in Asia, the spread of HYV rice was aggravated intensely.  Dr. Norman Borlaug, who is usually recognized as the "Father of the Green Revolution", bred

Production increases.

Cereal production more than doubled in developing nations between the years 1961–1985. Yields of rice, maize, and wheat increased steadily during that period. The production increases can be attributed roughly equally to irrigation, fertilizer, and seed development, at least in the case of Asian rice.  While agricultural output increased as a result of the Green Revolution, the

Effects on food security.

The effects of the Green Revolution on global food security are difficult to assess because of the complexities involved in food systems.  The world population has grown by about five billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution and many believe that, without the Revolution, there would have been greater famine and malnutrition. India saw annual wheat production rise from 10 million tons in the 1960s to 73 million in 2006. The average person in the developing world consumes roughly 25% more

Food security.

Malthusian criticism.

Some criticisms generally involve some variation of the Malthusian principle of population. Such concerns often revolve around the idea that the Green Revolution is unsustainable, and argue that humanity is now in a state of overpopulation or overshoot with regards to the sustainable carrying capacity and ecological demands on the Earth.  Although 36 million people die each year as a direct or indirect result of hunger and poor nutrition, Malthus's more extreme predictions have frequently failed to materialize. In 1798 Thomas Malthus made his prediction of impending famine. The world's population had doubled by 1923 and doubled again by 1973 without fulfilling Malthus's prediction. Malthusian Paul R. Ehrlich, in his 1968 book "The Population Bomb", said that "India couldn't possibly feed two hundred

Famine.

To some modern Western sociologists and writers, increasing food production is not synonymous with increasing food security, and is only part of a larger equation. For example, Harvard professor Amartya Sen wrote that large historic famines were not caused by decreases in food supply,

Quality of diet.

Some have challenged the value of the increased food production of Green Revolution agriculture. Miguel A. Altieri, (a pioneer of agroecology and peasant-advocate), writes that the comparison between traditional systems of agriculture and Green Revolution agriculture has been unfair, because Green Revolution agriculture produces monocultures of cereal grains, while traditional agriculture usually incorporates polycultures.  These monoculture crops are often used for export, feed for animals, or conversion into biofuel. According to Emile Frison of Bioversity International, the Green Revolution has also led to a change in dietary habits, as fewer people are affected by hunger and die from starvation, but many are affected by malnutrition such as iron or vitamin-A deficiencies. Frison further asserts that almost 60%

Political impact.

A major critic of the Green Revolution, U.S. investigative journalist Mark Dowie, writes: The primary objective of the program was geopolitical: to provide food for the populace in undeveloped countries and so bring social stability and weaken the fomenting of communist insurgency.  Citing internal Foundation documents, Dowie states that the Ford Foundation had a greater concern than Rockefeller in this area.  There is significant evidence that the Green Revolution weakened socialist movements in many nations. In countries such as India, Mexico, and the Philippines, "technological solutions" were sought as an alternative to expanding "agrarian reform" initiatives, the latter of which were often linked to socialist politics.

Socioeconomic impacts.

The transition from traditional agriculture, in which inputs were generated on-farm, to Green Revolution agriculture, which required the purchase of inputs, led to the widespread establishment of rural credit institutions. Smaller farmers often went into debt, which in many cases results in a loss of their farmland. The increased level of mechanization on larger farms made possible by the

Environmental impact.

Biodiversity.

The spread of Green Revolution agriculture affected both agricultural biodiversity (or agrodiversity) and wild biodiversity. There is little disagreement that the Green Revolution acted to reduce agricultural biodiversity, as it relied on just a few high-yield varieties of each crop.  This has led to concerns about the susceptibility of a food supply to pathogens that cannot be controlled by agrochemicals, as well as the permanent loss of many valuable genetic traits bred into traditional varieties over thousands of years. To address these concerns, massive seed

Greenhouse gas emissions.

According to a study published in 2013 in PNAS, in the absence of the crop germplasm improvement associated with the Green Revolution, greenhouse gas emissions would have been 5.2–7.4 Gt higher than observed in 1965–2004. High yield agriculture has dramatic effects

Dependence on non-renewable resources.

Most high intensity agricultural production is highly reliant on non-renewable resources. Agricultural machinery and transport, as well as the production of pesticides and nitrates all depend on fossil fuels. Nitrogen fertilizer is a direct fossil fuel product processed primarily from natural gas. It is estimated that no more than 3.7 billion people of the current world population could be fed without this single fossil fuel agricultural input. Moreover, the essential mineral nutrient phosphorus is often a limiting factor in crop cultivation, while phosphorus mines are rapidly being depleted worldwide. The failure to depart from these non-sustainable agricultural production methods could potentially lead to a large scale collapse of the current system of intensive food production within this century.

Health impact.

The consumption of the pesticides used to kill pests by humans in some cases may be increasing the likelihood of cancer in some of the rural villages using them. Poor farming practices including non-compliance to usage of masks and over-usage of the chemicals compound this situation. In 1989, WHO and UNEP estimated that there were around 1 million human pesticide poisonings annually. Some 20,000 (mostly in developing countries) ended in death, as a result of poor labeling, loose safety standards etc.

Pesticides and cancer.

Contradictory epidemiologic studies in humans have linked phenoxy acid herbicides or contaminants in them with soft tissue sarcoma (STS) and malignant

Punjab case.

The Indian state of Punjab pioneered green revolution among the other states transforming India into a food-surplus country. Environmental activist Vandana Shiva has written extensively about the social, political and economic impacts of the Green Revolution in Punjab. According to Shiva, the Green Revolution's reliance on heavy use of chemical inputs and monocultures has resulted in water scarcity, vulnerability to pests, and incidents of violent conflict and social marginalization.  A Greenpeace Research Laboratories investigation of 50 villages in Muktsar, Bathinda and Ludhiana districts revealed that twenty percent of the sampled wells had nitrate levels above WHO limits for drinking water. The 2009 study linked the nitrate pollution with high use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers.

Norman Borlaug's response to criticism.

Borlaug dismissed certain claims of critics, but also cautioned, "There are no miracles in agricultural production. Nor is there such a thing as a miracle variety of wheat, rice, or maize which can serve as an elixir to cure all ills of a stagnant, traditional agriculture."  Of environmental lobbyists, he said:  some of

The New Green Revolution.

Although the Green Revolution has been able to improve agricultural output in some regions in the world, there was and is still room for improvement. As a result, many organizations continue to invent new ways to improve the techniques already used in the Green Revolution. Frequently quoted inventions are the System of Rice Intensification, marker-assisted selection, agroecology, and applying existing technologies to agricultural problems of the developing world. Current challenges for nations trying to modernize their agriculture include closing the urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency.

The Green Revolution, or Third Agricultural Revolution, is a set of research technology transfer initiatives occurring between 1950 and the late 1960s, that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of cereals, especially dwarf wheats and rices. It was associated with chemical fertilizers, agro-chemicals, and controlled water-supply (usually involving irrigation) and newer methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole.

La Révolution verte est une politique de transformation des agricultures des pays en développement ou des pays les moins avancés, fondée principalement sur l'intensification et l'utilisation de variétés de céréales à hauts potentiels de rendements.