Origins - Hurricane.

Formerly known as Hurricane Hydrocarbons Ltd. the company was founded in 1981 and initially operated in Western Canada. It changed to a more international focus and grew after making several major oil and gas finds in Southern Kazakhstan, in 1991 becoming a partner in a JV to develop the Kyzylkiya, Aryskum, Maibulak and South Kumkol fields.  In 1996 it purchased Yuzhneftegaz from the Kazakh government, making it one of the largest players in the country.  However the company ran into severe problems in the late 1990s. All the company's oil went through refineries owned by Central Asian Industrial Holdings N.V. (CAIH), a Dutch-registered offshore affiliate of Kazkommertsbank (KKB) Kazakhstan's leading banking group, which used their monopoly to charge high prices. At the same time oil prices plunged. In 1999 the company was forced into receivership and almost broken up.  The company was saved by Bernard Isautier, a board member who had long been involved in the Canadian oil industry and in Central Asia. He became CEO and negotiated a merger with Central Asian Industrial Holdings N.V. From mid-October 1999 to 2000 Hurricane acquired 88.4% of OJSC Shymkentnefteorgsintez (now PetroKazakhstan Oil Products LLP) which owns the 160,000 bpd Shymkent Oil Refinery, the most modern of the country's three refineries (commissioned 1985). In doing so Isautier put 30% of Hurricane's stock in CAIH's hands. This eventually made the investors in both companies very wealthy, especially Isautier who had demanded no salary and was at first only paid in stock options. The rapid increase in the stock's value made Isautier by far the most generously compensated executive in Canada in 2004.

Renamed PetroKazakhstan.

In 2003 Hurricane was renamed PetroKazakhstan to reflect that its entire operations are in that country.  In the following years Hurricane/PetroKazakhstan saw considerable conflict with the government of Kazakhstan, including a fine for anti-competitive behaviour and protests of its environmental and labour record reportedly organized by government agents. In June 2005 PetroKazakhstan announced that it had been approached for a possible takeover or merger, sending stock prices up significantly. The most frequently mentioned possible suitor was a branch of India's ONGC. The stock quickly fell back down when the government of Kazakhstan announced that it would demand the right to acquire PetroKazakhstan prior to any merger, in part because India would have to export their oil through Russia, thus increasing Kazakhstan’s dependence on Russia.

CNPC and PetroChina.

On 21 August 2005 China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), agreed to buy the company for US$4.18 billion via CNPC International Ltd. (CNPCI), a 100% subsidiary of China National Oil & Gas Exploration and Development Corp. (CNODC). This made the PetroKazakhstan deal the largest overseas acquisition by a Chinese company. PetroKazakhstan was delisted in Kazakhstan, Toronto, New York, London and Frankfurt Stock Exchanges.  As part of the deal with CNPC, on 15 October 2005, according to the "Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan On Subsoil Use", CNPC agreed to sell back 33% of the shares of PetroKazakhstan Inc. to KazMunaiGas (KMG), a transaction which was completed on 5 July 2006. Further on 6 July 2007 KMG bought back a 50% share in PetroKazakhstan subsidiary PetroKazakhstan Oil Products LLP [PKOP) thereby allowing the Kazakh government to regain an equal share of the nation's most modern oil refinery.  In 2006 CNPC transferred its remaining 67% of shares to China Petroleum Engineering & Construction Company (CPECC), a 50/50 joint venture with its own listed subsidiary PetroChina, who currently manage and operate the company.

PetroKazakhstan is a Canadian oil company, based in Calgary, Alberta, that has all of its business focused on Kazakhstan where it had some of oil and of natural gas reserves (January 2005 estimate) in the Turgai basin region. These are the second largest Kazakhstani proven reserves after ChevronTexaco's TengizChevroil. Estimated production is of oil per day. In 2005, PetroKazakhstan was acquired by China National Petroleum Corporation and then in 2006 transferred to PetroChina.

PetroKazakhstan est un groupe pétrolier canadien basé à Calgary, dont les affaires sont concentrées au Kazakhstan, où il possède environ 550 millions de barils de réserves dans la région du bassin de Turgai. C'est la deuxième plus grande réserve trouvée au Kazakhstan après celle de Tengiz exploitée par ChevronTexaco. La compagnie extrait trois millions de tonnes de brut par an, près de 5 % de la production du Kazakhstan.


Early life.

Abubakar was born on 13 June 1942 to his father Abubakar Jibrin and his mother Fatikande Mohammed, in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.  From 1950-1956 he attended Minna Native Authority Primary school. From 1957-1962, he had his secondary school education at Government College, Bida, Niger state. From January to October 1963 he studied at Kaduna Technical College.

Military career.

Air force career.

Abubakar is a member of the pioneering sets of officer cadets who enlisted into the Nigerian Air force on 3 October 1963. From 1964- 1966, he was flown to Uetersen, West Germany with a team of officer cadets, for Basic and Advance Military Training. When he returned to Nigeria in 1966 he was seconded to the Nigeria Army.

Army career.

After joining the army in 1966 as an officer cadet, Abubakar attended the emergency combatant short service course two. In October 1967, Abubakar was commissioned second lieutenant, infantry division, Nigerian army. From 1967-1968, Abubakar was general staff officer two, second garrison, and commanding officer, 92 infantry battalion from 1969-1974. Between 1974 and 1975, he was made brigade major, 7th infantry brigade. In 1975 he served as commanding officer, 84 infantry battalion. In 1978-1979, Abubakar was commanding officer for the 145 infantry battalion (NIBATT II), United Nations Interim force, Lebanon.  In 1979 he was made assistant adjutant general 3rd Infantry division, Nigeria. From 1980-1982, Abubakar was chief instructor at the Nigerian Defence Academy. In 1982 he was appointed as the colonel of administration and quartering, 1st mechanised division. A position he held up until 1984. From 1985-1986, Abubakar was the commander 3rd mechanised brigade. He served as the military secretary of the army, 1986–1988. Abubakar was made general officer commanding 1st mechanised division 1990-1991. Between 1991-1993, he was the principal staff officer, as the army chief of plan and policy, Defence Headquarters.  From 1993-1998, General Sani Abacha appointed Abubakar as the Chief of Defence Staff. Upon Abacha’s death on 8 June 1998, Abubakar took power as the military president of Nigeria and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces on 9 June 1998.

Presidency.

Military.

Nigeria had been ruled by military leaders since Muhammadu Buhari seized power from Shehu Shagari in a 1983 coup. Although democratic elections had been held in 1993, they were annulled by General Ibrahim Babangida. Reported to have had an initial reluctance to accepting the position, Abubakar was sworn in as president on 9 June 1998 after the unexpected death of Abacha. He declared a weeklong period of national mourning.

Politics.

A few days after assuming office, Abubakar promised to hold elections within a year and transfer power to an elected president. He established the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), appointing former Supreme Court Justice Ephraim Akpata as chairman. The INEC held a series of elections first for Local Government Areas in December 1998, then for State Assemblies and Governors, National Assemblies and finally for the President on 27 February 1999. Although efforts were made to ensure that the elections were free and fair, there were widespread irregularities that drew criticism from foreign observers.

Transfer of power.

Surprising some critics of the country's military, In May 1999 General Abubakar, handed over power to the newly elected civilian president, Olusegun Obasanjo and retired from the army.

Legacy.

Abubakar's legacy is mixed. A lecture circuit at Chicago State University in Chicago, Illinois, United States featuring him encountered opposition, because he had supported Abacha's government. (Abacha's administration was notorious for its human rights abuses). He was also sued in that country by other Nigerians who claimed he was responsible for the death of 1993 president-elect Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola, who died in custody after being prevented by the military from taking office, and for the violation of the rights of others during his administration. Abubakar helped in the Liberian peace movement by presiding over the 2003 peace talks between Charles Taylor and the opposing rebels. This is seen in the movie "Pray the Devil Back to Hell".

Personal life.

Abubakar is married to Fati and they have six children together.

Awards.

Abudulsalami Abubakar has received several awards and medals. In alphabetical order they include:

General Abdulsalami Abubakar (; born June 13, 1942) is a Nigerian statesman and military general who served as the "de facto" President of Nigeria from 1998 to 1999. He was also Chief of Defence Staff between 1993 to 1998. He succeeded General Sani Abacha upon his death.

Abdulsalami Abubakar (né le ) est un général et homme d'État nigérian. Il a été à la tête de son pays du au. Succédant au dictateur Sani Abacha, le général Abdulsalami Abubakar s'engage à remettre le pouvoir en 1999 à un régime démocratiquement élu.


Political career.

Amoussou was born in Djakotomey in south-western Benin. In the 1991 presidential election, he received 5.8% of the vote and fourth place, therefore failing to qualify for the second round. Following the March 1995 parliamentary election, he was elected as President of the National Assembly on 12 June 1995. During his political career, his support was locally concentrated in his native southwest, but it was sufficient to enable him to be a consistent player on the political scene during the 1990s and 2000s. He placed fourth in the March 1996 presidential election with 7.8% of the vote; along with third-place finisher Houngbédji, Amoussou backed Kérékou against President Nicéphore Soglo for the second round of the election, and Kérékou was victorious.  Amoussou was re-elected to the National Assembly in the March 1999 parliamentary election, but on 29 April 1999, he was defeated in his bid for re-election as President of the National Assembly by Adrien Houngbédji in a parliamentary vote, despite being the favored candidate of Kérékou for the position. Amoussou received 38 votes against 45 for Houngbédji. Under Kérékou, Amoussou was appointed as Minister of Development and Planning in 1999. The PSD held its first ordinary congress in early 2000, and Amoussou was elected as the party's President.  In the first round of the March 2001 presidential election, he placed fourth yet again with 8.6% of the vote, but participated in the runoff when the second- and third-placed candidates, Soglo and Houngbédji, withdrew from the race. Running against heavily favored incumbent Kérékou, to whom he had previously given his support for the second round, Amoussou received nearly 16% of the vote. By providing token opposition to Kérékou after the President's most important opponents decided to boycott the vote, he gave the outcome a limited measure of legitimacy that it would have otherwise lacked. He remained Minister of Development and Planning until 2005.  Amoussou ran again in the March 2006 presidential election, obtaining 16.29% of the vote and placing third. He supported Yayi Boni in the second round.  In the March 2007 parliamentary election, Amoussou and the PSD participated in the Alliance for a Dynamic Democracy, and Amoussou was again elected to a seat. Afterwards he was again a candidate for President of the National Assembly, losing to Mathurin Nago of the Cauris Forces for an Emerging Benin in a vote on 3 May 2007. Amoussou received 34 votes, while Nago received 45.  At the PSD's second ordinary congress in mid-2009, Amoussou was re-elected as PSD President. He was re-elected to the National Assembly in the March 2011 parliamentary election.  Amoussou resigned as PSD President on 22 January 2012. In the April 2015 parliamentary election, he was re-elected to the National Assembly as a candidate of the Union Makes the Nation coalition in the 11th constituency.  He has used the campaign slogan, "He knows the country."

Bruno Ange-Marie Amoussou (born 2 July 1939) is a Beninese politician who was President of the National Assembly of Benin from 1995 to 1999 and Minister of State for Planning and Prospective Development under President Mathieu Kérékou from 1999 to 2005. He is currently a Deputy in the National Assembly. As the long-time leader of the Social Democratic Party (PSD), Amoussou stood as a presidential candidate in 1991, 1996, 2001, and 2006.

Bruno Amoussou (né le, Djakotomey), est un ingénieur en agronomie et homme politique béninois. Il est le leader du Parti social-démocrate (PSD) et a été président de l’Assemblée nationale de 1995 à 1999 et Ministre d’État, du Plan de la perspective et du développement de 1999 à 2005. Il est surnommé par la classe politique béninoise "le renard de Djakotomey".


Profile.

Gordon was born in Montreal, Quebec, educated in both Canada and England. He had various jobs including working in a bank, in a silver mine, contracting, as a commercial traveller, and being a cigarette factory owner before settling on the stage and at one time acted with Ethel Barrymore. His Broadway credits included "Life" (1914) and "Our Mrs. McChesney" (1915).  He began his screen career in 1916 when given a chance by Thomas Ince. Gordon was once a model for Arrow Collars; he was once painted by American commercial illustrator J. C. Leyendecker.  He served in the Canadian Army during World War I and began a career in motion pictures in England where he had been stationed during the war. With his suave manner and classic good looks he was sought out in Hollywood, California where he acted in both silent and talking films.  In Hollywood, he appeared in numerous films including starring opposite Gloria Swanson in the 1923 film "Bluebeard's 8th Wife". That same year he starred in "The Wanters" with Norma Shearer and Marie Prevost.  For most of his career, Gordon traveled between America and Britain, making films in both countries, appearing in more than 120 films. He was with MGM studios when he retired from film in 1940 and invested in the manufacture of silk stockings, a lucrative business at a time when Canadian and British women could not get them due to the rationing brought on by the Second World War. Although he no longer made motion pictures, Huntley Gordon remained active in the world of network radio.  Gordon died of a heart attack in Van Nuys, California, and was interred in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.

Huntley Ashworth Gordon (October 8, 1879 – December 7, 1956) was a Canadian actor who began his career in the Silent Film era.

Huntley Gordon né le à Montréal (Québec), et mort d’une attaque cérébrale le à Van Nuys, en Californie à l'âge de 77 ans, est un acteur canadien. Il a servi dans l’armée de son pays pendant la Première Guerre mondiale entre fin 1916 et 1918. Il est enterré dans le cimetière de Forest Lawn Mémorial Park de Glendale, dans le même État.


History.

Founding.

St Edmund's House was founded in 1896 by Henry Fitzalan Howard, the 15th Duke of Norfolk, and Baron Anatole von Hügel as an institution providing board and lodging for Roman Catholic students at the University of Cambridge. After Catholic Emancipation, in particular after the Universities Tests Act 1871, students who were Roman Catholics were finally admitted as members of the university. In its early days the college functioned predominantly as a lodging house, or hall of residence, for students who were matriculated at other colleges. Most of the students, at that time, were ordained Catholic priests who were reading various subjects offered by the university. The college was established in the buildings of Ayerst Hostel, which had been set up for non-collegiate students by the Reverend William Ayerst in 1884, and its founding master for Fr Edmund Nolan, then Vice-Rector of St Edmund's College Ware. In 1896 Ayerst Hostel had to close due to lack of funds, and the property was transferred to the Catholic Church.  Attempts to make St Edmund's House into a fully-fledged constituent college were made at various times after foundation, but were met by continuing hostility by the predominantly Protestant body of Cambridge MAs, graduates of the university who had the right to vote in the Senate House. Due to Cambridge's largely Anglican student body, large numbers of MAs scuppered any attempt to grant St Edmund's House full collegiate status as they viewed it as a "papist" institution.  Despite the initial pushback, the college continued its development, and the chapel was officially consecrated in 1916 by Cardinal Francis Bourne, Archbishop of Westminster. A new dining hall was constructed in 1939 and the membership of the college increased steadily as it became a recognized House of Residence of the university, just below official college status.

Development.

In response to growing postgraduate student numbers in the early 1960s, the Regent House of the university established several colleges primarily for postgraduate students, and St Edmund's House became one of the graduate colleges in the university (the others being Wolfson College, Lucy Cavendish College, Hughes Hall, Clare Hall and Darwin College). This spurred further progress regarding St Edmund's status within the university, and in 1965, the college was permitted to matriculate its own students and new fellows were elected. In 1975 St Edmund's acquired the status of an "Approved Foundation", and after the transfer of the college assets from the Catholic Church to the Masters and Fellows of the college in 1986, the college changed its name from "St Edmund's House" to "St Edmund's College". It received university approval for full collegiate status in 1996, and was granted its Royal Charter in 1998. The college now accepts students of all faiths and none; the Catholic character of the foundation is, however, still reflected in the chapel, which is unique among colleges of the universities of Cambridge and Oxford in following the Roman Catholic tradition.

Expansion.

In 2000, a new residential building housing 50 students was opened, named after Richard Laws, one of the former masters. In 2006, two new residential buildings, including rooms for 70 students as well as apartments for couples, were opened; these were named after the former master of the college, Sir Brian Heap, and the former vice-master, Geoffrey Cook.  In 2016, major plans were announced for the development of two new courts and several buildings which will expand the college and provide modern, world class facilities for the scholars and students of St Edmunds College. While contemporary, the buildings external features and material will be in the traditional architectural vernacular that is found elsewhere in the college. Large brick buildings with close detail will form the perimeter of the two new courts and a new multi-million pound student centre will frame the west side of the college. The expansion plans were approved by Cambridge city councillors in June 2017.

Buildings and grounds.

Norfolk Building.

The Norfolk Building is the oldest building on site, dating back to 1896 as the former Ayerst Hostel; it provided accommodation for Fr Edmond Nolan, the first Master of St Edmund's, along with the first four students of the college. Known for its clean Gothic revival style, the building underwent a three-phased extension scheme designed by the late Roderick Gradidge in 1989, and now houses 21st century amenities including the Middle Combination Room, Dining Hall, Kitchens and a Porter's office.

Okinaga Tower.

Created in 1993 by the bequest of the Teikyo Foundation, the Okinaga Tower is the college's tallest structure. It houses the master's lodge, as well as an air-conditioned suite with views of the city centre. The tower was opened by the Right Honourable Betty Boothroyd, Speaker of the House of Commons.

Chapel.

St Edmund's College Chapel is a Grade II listed building designed by Fr. Benedict Williamson, CSSP, and blessed by Cardinal Francis Bourne, Archbishop of Westminster, in 1916. Noted for its prayerful simplicity and Gothic Revival architecture, the chapel is a Catholic foundation, although it is open to other denominations of the Christian faith. In 2003, a stained glass window depicting the ministry of St Boniface of Crediton (c. 675 - 754 AD), the apostle to Germany, was donated by Professor Stephen Frowen and blessed by Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, Archbishop of Westminster.  A bronze sculpture of the college patron, St Edmund of Abingdon, sits at the front of the chapel, his left hand holding a bible. The statue was made by Rodney Munday, an alumnus of St Edmund Hall, Oxford, and commissioned by the college in 2007. The Chapel Schola and Choir frequently perform in concerts in collaboration with St Edmund Hall, Oxford and St Edmund's College, Ware in commemoration of their college patron.

Courts and other buildings.

Old Court, built in the early 2000s, is located to the west of the Norfolk Building, and surrounded by New Edwardian buildings: Brian Heap Building, Richard Laws Building, Geoffrey Cook Building and the Library Building. It was constructed to accommodate growing student numbers at this time, and most of its constituent buildings are appropriately student dormitories.  New Court, constructed in 2019, consists entirely of the new student accommodation buildings, Mount Pleasant Halls. It mainly houses postgraduate and upperclass undergraduate students.  The College Sporting Grounds is located west of the Richard Laws Building, and offers a full-sized soccer pitch for college sports and other outdoor activities.  The College Orchard is south of the Sporting Grounds, and consists of expansive lawns with 5 apple trees, outdoor seating, and a barbecue pit for students.  White Cottage is a Tudor style Grade II listed building situated directly east of the Norfolk Building Extension that accommodates first-year students. It is the former home of the Von Hugel Institute, a Catholic Institute that undertakes academic work in the fields of Christianity and society and was founded in 1987 to preserve the Roman Catholic heritage of the college.  Bene't House is an Edwardian style building located south-east of the Norfolk Old Wing. Named after St Benedict for Nursia (c.480 - 547 AD), the house has since 2018 contained the facilities and offices for the Von Hugel Institute, and hosted the Von Hugel and Lattey Lecture.

Academic profile.

St Edmund's is one of the most international colleges of the university, with students from over 80 countries (2018-2019 academic year). The full spectrum of academic subjects is represented in the college. The fellowship of the college (academic staff) represents many academic disciplines, spread across arts, humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and veterinary medicine.  The college has two research institutes: the Von Hügel Institute founded in 1987 to carry out research on Catholic Social Teaching; and the Faraday Institute which explores the relationship between religion and science. The Von Hügel Institute is another link with the Roman Catholic origins of the college.  The overall examination results of the college's comparatively few undergraduates tend to be in the middle among the Cambridge colleges, with St Edmund's ranking 21st on the Tompkins table in 2018.

Student life.

The college is younger than some of the older, more traditional colleges of the university. Despite this St Edmunds maintains many ancient Cambridge traditions including formal hall, albeit with some college modifications. Fellows at most Cambridge and Oxford colleges dine at a "high table" (separately from the students); however, St Edmund's has no such division, allowing undergraduates, postgraduates and Fellows to mix over dinner and other social activities. St Edmund's students are still strictly required to wear their academic gowns during formal halls, ceremonies, and college occasions. The St Edmund's gown is fashioned from distinctive black cloth with close detailing around the neck and sleeves. The robe may only be worn by members of St Edmund's College, Cambridge. The college has a long sporting tradition, including the St Edmund's College Boat Club. In recent years members have competed in varsity teams representing Cambridge University against Oxford University in a wide variety of sports, most notably, at The Boat Race and The Varsity Match.  On 15 September 2017, a team of four rowers from the college broke the World record for the 'Longest Continual Row' in the male 20-29 small team category by over an hour. The following year, on 13 April 2018, a team of ten rowers from the college went on to set the British and World record for "One Million Meters" on the indoor rowing machine in the male 20-29 large team category.

People associated with St Edmund's College, Cambridge.

List of Masters of St Edmund's College.

St Edmund's House St Edmund's College

St Edmund's College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. Founded in 1896, it is the second-oldest of the four Cambridge colleges oriented to mature students, which only accept students reading for either masters or doctorate degrees, or undergraduate degrees if they are a'mature student', defined as aged 21 or older.

St Edmund's College est un des 31 collèges de l'université de Cambridge au Royaume-Uni. Il a été fondé en 1896.


Etymology.

The term "Françafrique" was derived from the expression "France-Afrique", which was used in 1955 by President Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Ivory Coast, who advocated maintaining a close relationship with France, while acceding to independence. Close cooperation between Houphouët-Boigny and Jacques Foccart, chief advisor on African policy in the Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou governments (1958–1974) is thought to have contributed to the "Ivorian miracle" of economic and industrial progress.  The term was subsequently renamed "Françafrique" by François-Xavier Verschave and was used as the title of his 1998 book, "La Françafrique: le plus long scandale de la République", which criticises French policies in Africa. Verschave and the association Survie, of which he was president until his death in 2005, re-used the expression of Houphouët-Boigny to name and denounce the many concealed bonds between France and Africa. He later defined Françafrique as "the secret criminality in the upper echelons of French politics and economy, where a kind of underground Republic is hidden from view". He said that it also means ""France à fric"" ("fric" is French slang for "cash"), and that "Over the course of four decades, hundreds of thousands of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, cocoa... or drained through French importing monopolies, have financed French political-business networks (all of them offshoots of the main neo-Gaullist network), shareholders' dividends, the secret services' major operations and mercenary expeditions".

History.

When Charles de Gaulle returned to power as French President in 1958, France had already been severely weakened by World War II and by the conflicts in Indochina and Algeria. He proceeded to grant independence to France's remaining colonies in sub-Saharan Africa in 1960 in an effort to maintain close cultural and economic ties with them and to avoid more costly colonial wars. Compared to the decolonisation of French Indochina and Algeria, the transfer of power in sub-Saharan was, for the most part, peaceful. Nevertheless, de Gaulle was keen on preserving France's status as a global power (or "grandeur") and as a bulwark to British and American influence in a post-colonial world. Thus, he saw close links with France's former African colonies as an opportunity to enhance France's image on the world stage, both as a major power and as a counterbalancing force between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The United States supported France's continuing presence in Africa to prevent the region from falling under Soviet influence. Similarly, the United Kingdom had little interest in West Africa, which left France as the only major power in that region.  To implement his vision of France's "grandeur", de Gaulle appointed Jacques Foccart, a close adviser and former intelligence member of the French Resistance during World War II, as Secretary-General for African and Malagasy Affairs. Foccart played a pivotal role in maintaining France's sphere of influence in sub-Saharan Africa (or "Françafrique") as he put in place a series of cooperation accords that covered political, economic, military and cultural sectors with an ensemble of African countries, which included France's former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Djibouti, Gabon, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Republic of the Congo and Senegal), former United Nations trust territories (Cameroon and Togo), former Belgian colonies (Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo) and ex-Portuguese (Guinea-Bissau) and Spanish (Equatorial Guinea) territories. France's relationship with this whole ensemble was managed by the Ministry of Cooperation, which was created in 1961 out of the old colonial ministry, Ministry for Overseas France. The Ministry of Cooperation served as a focal point for France's new system of influence in Africa and was later merged with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1999. Foccart also built a dense web of personal networks that underpinned the informal and family-like relationships between French and African leaders. These accords and relationships, along with the franc zone, allowed France to maintain close ties with its former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa that were multi-layered, involving institutional, semi-institutional and informal levels.  Foccart continued to serve as chief adviser until he was replaced with his younger deputy, René Journiac, by French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. When Jacques Chirac became French Prime Minister in 1986-1988, he consulted Foccart on African issues. Upon becoming President of France in 1995, Chirac again sought Foccart's council and even brought him on his first trip to Africa as French President. Foccart continued to play a role in Franco-African relations until his death in 1997.

Features from the Cold War.

African cell.

Decisions on France's African policies have been the responsibility (or "domaine réservé" in French) of French Presidents since 1958. They along with their close advisors formed the "African cell", which made decisions on African countries without engaging in broader discussions with the French Parliament and civil society actors such as non-governmental organisations. Instead, the African cell worked closely with powerful business networks and the French secret service.  The African cell's founding father, Jacques Foccart, was appointed by President Charles de Gaulle. He became a specialist on African matters at the Élysée Palace. Between 1986 and 1992, Jean-Christophe Mitterrand, the son of President François Mitterrand and a former AFP journalist in Africa, held the position of chief advisor on African policy at the African cell. He was nicknamed "Papamadi" (translated as "Daddy told me"). He was appointed as a diplomatic advisor on Africa but the difference in titles was only symbolic. Subsequently, Claude Guéant served as Africa Advisor to President Sarkozy. In 2017, President Macron appointed Franck Paris to the same role.

Franc zone.

The franc zone, a currency union in sub-Saharan Africa, was established when the CFA franc (or "franc de la Communauté Financière Africaine") was created in 1945 as a colonial currency for over a dozen of France's African colonies. The zone continues to exist even after the colonies had achieved their independence in the early 1960s, with only three African countries ever leaving the zone, mostly for reasons of national prestige. One of the three countries, Mali, rejoined the zone in 1984. The CFA franc was pegged to the French franc (now the euro) and its convertibility was guaranteed by the French Treasury. Despite sharing the same exchange rate, the CFA franc is actually two currencies, the Central African CFA franc and the West African CFA franc, which are run by their respective central banks in Central and West Africa. The foreign exchange reserves of member countries are pooled and each of the two African central banks keeps 65% of its foreign reserves with the French Treasury.  The franc zone was intended to provide African countries with monetary stability, with member countries such as Ivory Coast experiencing relatively low inflation at an average rate of 6% over the past 50 years compared to 29% in neighboring Ghana, a non-member country. Moreover, the fixed exchange rate between the CFA Franc and the French franc has changed only once in 1994 when the CFA franc was considered overvalued. However, this monetary arrangement has enabled France to control the money supply of the CFA franc and to influence the decision-making process of the African central banks through their boards.

Cooperation accords.

In the early 1960s, French governments had developed a discourse around the concept of "coopération", or "post-independence relationship". This concept was linked to the effort of spreading French influence across the world such as promoting French language and culture, securing markets for French goods and projecting French power. It was to be achieved outside of a traditional colonial context whereby sovereign states such as France and the newly independent African countries would work together for mutual benefit. The concept of "coopération" also appealed to France's sense of historic responsibility to advance the development of its former colonial "family". To that end, France signed cooperation accords with its former colonies, which provided them with cultural, technical and military assistance such as sending French teachers and military advisors to work for the newly formed African governments. The accords also allowed France to maintain troops in Chad, Djibouti, Gabon, Ivory Coast and Senegal, and to establish a framework that would allow France to intervene militarily in the region. During 1970-1981, the French military cooperation budget constituted 11 to 19% of the entire coopération budget. Under President de Gaulle, French aid and assistance were made contingent on the signing of these accords. For example, when Guinea refused to sign the accords, France immediately withdrew its personnel from Guinea and terminated all assistance to that country. The implementation of these accords was the responsibility of Jacques Foccart, Secretary-General for African and Malagasy Affairs under Presidents Charles de Gaulle and Georges Pompidou. In 1987 alone, France was the largest source of development aid to sub-Saharan Africa, providing up to 18% of total aid to the region, followed by the World Bank (13%), Italy (8.5%), United States (6.8%), Germany (6.8%), and the European Community (6.4%). All French aid was provided through the Ministry of Cooperation. France has benefited from its aid, trade and investments in Africa, which has consistently generated a positive balance of payment in France's favour.

Military interventions.

After decolonisation, France established formal defence agreements with many francophone countries in sub-Saharan Africa. These arrangements allowed France to establish itself as a guarantor of stability and hegemony in the region. France adopted an interventionist policy in Africa, resulting in 122 military interventions that averaged once a year from 1960 to the mid-1990s and included countries such as Benin (Operation Verdier in 1991), Central African Republic (Operation Barracuda in 1979 and Operation Almandin in 1996), Chad (Opération Bison in 1968–72, Opération Tacaud in 1978, Operation Manta in 1983 and Opération Épervier in 1986), Comoros (Operation Oside in 1989 and Operation Azalee in 1995), Democratic Republic of Congo (Operation Léopard in 1978 and Operation Baumier in 1991 when it was Zaire, and Operation Artemis in 2003), Djibouti (Operation Godoria in 1991), Gabon (1964 and Operation Requin in 1990), Ivory Coast (Opération Licorne in 2002), Mauritania (Opération Lamantin in 1977), Republic of Congo (Opération Pélican in 1997), Rwanda (Operation Noroît in 1990–93, Operation Amaryllis in 1994 and Opération Turquoise in 1994), Togo (1986), Senegal (prevent a "coup d'état" in 1962) and Sierra Leone (Operation Simbleau in 1992). France often intervened to protect French nationals, to put down rebellions or prevent coups, to restore order or to support particular African leaders.

Personal networks.

A central feature of "Françafrique" was that state-to-state relations between French and African leaders were informal and family-like and were bolstered by a dense web of personal networks (or "réseaux" in French), whose activities were funded from the "coopération" budget. Jacque Foccart put in place these networks, which served as one of the main vehicles for the clientelist relations that France had maintained with its former African colonies. The activities of these networks were not subjected to parliamentary oversight or scrutiny, which led to corruption as politicians and officials became involved in business activities that resulted in state racketeering.  The blurring of state, party and personal interests made it possible for the informal, family-like relationships of the Franco-African bloc to benefit specific interest groups and small sections of French and African populations. For example, major French political parties have received funding from the recycling of part of the "coopération" budget, which secretly made its way to the party's coffers via Africa and from Elf, a French state-owned oil company, when it achieved its strategic objectives in Africa. African leaders and the small French-speaking elites to which they belonged also benefited from this informal relationship as it provided them with political, economic and military support.

Post-Cold War era.

The "Françafrique" regime was at its height from 1960 to 1989 but after the Cold War, it has weakened due to France's budgetary constraints, greater public scrutiny at home, the deaths of pivotal "Françafrique" figures and the integration of France into the European Union. Economic liberalisation, high indebtedness and political instability of the former African colonies have reduced their political and economic attractiveness, leading France to adopt a more pragmatic and hard-nose approach to its African relations. Furthermore, many of the dense web of informal networks that have bound France to Africa has declined.  The pre-1990 aid regime of the old "Françafrique", which has made the sub-Saharan African countries economically dependent on France has now given way to a new regime that is supposed to promote self-sufficiency as well as political and economic liberalism. France has also adopted the "Abidjan doctrine", which has internationalised the economic dependency of African countries by having them first reach an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) before receiving French aid. This in turn has decreased the French government's ability to manoeuvre freely to pursue its own distinctive African policy. As a result, the old Franco-African bloc has now splintered, with France abandoning its old family-like relationships for a more pragmatic and hard-nosed approach to its relationship with its former African colonies.  France has made efforts to reduce its military footprint in Africa by making multilateral arrangements with African and European states. French President François Hollande started his tenure with a commitment to non-interventionism. However, a year later, France unilaterally intervened in Mali, sending 4,000 troops (see Operation Serval, then Operation Barkhane). According to a 2020 study, "France’s commitment to multilateralism is genuine yet not absolute – meaning that French policy-makers do not shy away from operational unilateralism if conditions on the ground seem to require swift and robust military action, as long as they can count on the political support of key international partners."

See also.

Film:  Music:  Literature:

In international relations, () is France’s sphere of influence (or "pré carré" in French, meaning "backyard") over its former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa. The term was derived from the expression "France-Afrique", which was used by the first President of Ivory Coast, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, in 1955 to describe his country's close ties with France. It was later renamed "Françafrique" by François-Xavier Verschave in 1998 to criticise the alleged corrupt and clandestine activities of various Franco-African political, economic and military networks.

L’expression « Françafrique » est utilisée, en général de façon péjorative, pour désigner la relation spéciale, qualifiée de néo-coloniale par ses détracteurs, établie entre la France et ses anciennes colonies en Afrique subsaharienne. Les fondements de cette relation sont mis en place à la demande du général De Gaulle par Jacques Foccart, nommé secrétaire général de l'Élysée aux affaires africaines et malgaches de 1960 à 1974, et se caractérise par le rôle des réseaux extra-diplomatiques (services de renseignement, entreprises, "barbouzes", militaires etc.) et l'ingérence directe des autorités françaises dans les affaires intérieures des anciennes colonies.


Vehicles.

There are seven types of cars: Tuners, Luxury Sedans, SUVs/Trucks, Exotics, Muscle Cars, Sport Bikes, and Choppers. As the game continues, different clubs that drive a specific type of car will invite the player to race with them: American Royalty Car Club (Muscle Cars), Big Playas (SUV s/Trucks), By Invitation Only (Exotics), Chopper of America Bike Club (Choppers), Luxury Rollers (Luxury Cars), Original Riders (Sport Bikes) and Unbeatable Street Racers (Tuners). If the player beats a club in three races they unlock a special ability for that class. Tuners, Sport Bikes, Exotics, the Lexus SC430, Mercedes Benz SL 500 and the Cadillac XLR in "Remix" get "Zone" (a form of bullet time which allows for more precise handling at high speeds), Trucks/SUVs and Luxury Cars get "Agro" (which allows the vehicle to plow through traffic and other obstacles without taking damage or slowing down), and Muscle Cars and Choppers get "Roar" (the only offensive ability, it launches a sonic wave that blows away any vehicles in its path).

Gameplay.

"Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition" is an open world racing video game and the first game in the series to include car modification, both visual and performance. By winning races, the player unlocks new cars and options to customize them with. These options include enhancing the performance, adding vinyls and new paint jobs, and physically modifying the car by changing parts such as wheels, bumpers, spoilers, neon, hoods, and engine components. The cars are divided into four classes: D, C, B and A, depending on their performance.  There are five types of races in the game: Ordered Race, Circuit Race, Unordered Race, Autocross Race, Track and Frenzy. In ordered races the player races through the city on a course marked by yellow-orange flares to reach a finish line. In circuit races the player races along a circuit course through the city for a set number of laps. In unordered races the player is free to go through scattered checkpoints in any order before crossing the finish line. Autocross races take place in a walled-in circuit of the street with no traffic or police, the goal being to finish the circuit faster than a set time. Track events, available in arcade mode, are similar to autocross races, except that the player competes against other races inside the barricaded track, often taking more damage. Frenzy events also available in Arcade, are time trial races where the player gets every 15 second a nitrous boost, also the handbrake won't work and the race only ends when the time is over.  Players can also create their own races in the Race Editor (not available in PSP release) Players can create either a circuit, ordered or unordered race by placing checkpoints throughout the city, and can change racing conditions such as traffic, weather, and time of day.

Multiplayer.

The game includes an online mode, where players can race with other players from all around the world. There are also many clubs available to join, but players can also start and manage their own. Most offline modes are available for play online, while in online mode it's possible to chat in-game, including a cruise mode, capture the flag, circuit racing, ordered racing, unordered racing, tag, paint and Autocross. Tracks created via the Race Editor offline can be used Online.

Plot.

San Diego.

The player begins in San Diego by meeting Oscar, the mechanic of Six-One-Nine Customs, a tuning garage in San Diego. Oscar guides the player through the game by providing helpful tips and information about races. The player begins with a choice of six cars: a 1964 Chevrolet Impala, a 1978 Chevrolet Monte Carlo, a 2004 Dodge Neon SRT-4, a 2004 Mitsubishi Eclipse, a Volkswagen Golf R32, or a 2004 Volkswagen Jetta ("Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition Remix" added the option of a Scion tC). As the player wins races new customization options and cars are unlocked for purchase.  The street racers available to challenge at the beginning of the game are: Vanessa (Mitsubishi Eclipse), Bishop (Lexus GS430), and Carlos (1978 Chevrolet Monte Carlo). Beating two of these street racers will allow the player to challenge Phil for ownership of his Hotmatch Cuevito, and an invitation to challenge the Chopper of America bike club. Once the player defeats Phil, Vanessa will challenge them again.  After defeating all racers and tournaments in San Diego, the player is introduced to Vince, a mechanic from Detroit. Oscar mentions that the player has been building a reputation as a skilled racer, and that there are some big time races in Atlanta that the player may be interested in. He tells the player to go to the shipping company to make the trip.

Atlanta.

The player arrives in a rather nice looking garage in Atlanta called "Apone Team Racing". The owner, Apone, introduces himself, but is distracted by his most prized procession: a 1964 gold painted Chevrolet Impala that he customized and is constantly tinkering with. In Atlanta, the player is challenged by three racers. There is also a tournament going on, for which the prize is a "DUB'd-Out" 2004 Cadillac Escalade EXT. After defeating all racers and tournaments in Atlanta, Apone mentions that there are more races going on in Detroit and that he thinks it's a good idea for the player to check it out.  Street racers in Atlanta are: Roy (1969 Dodge Charger R/T, later a 1999 Dodge Charger R/T Concept), Dre (2005 Cadillac Escalade), Cheng (Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution VIII), Vito (Ducati Monster S4R), Lamont (Chevrolet Silverado SS) and Naomi (Hotmatch Skully).

Detroit.

The player arrives in Detroit and sees a familiar face, Vince. Remembering him, he welcomes the player to town and his shop. He later points to a Lamborghini Murciélago and says it's the prize to whatever car club turns out the best street racer. Some returning faces from Atlanta come to Detroit, including Roy and Angel, who are plot-affected racers but they are never seen or mentioned. The player races them a couple of times, as well as the car clubs. Early in the player's Detroit career, a tournament is held and a 1949 Chevrolet Fleetline (as Oscar describes it "Just the car to win in Detroit!") is the prize. Upon defeating the racers, the player scores a challenge from the By Invitation Only Exotic Car Club. Defeating them unlocks "Zone" for Exotics and a special, rare 2004 Chrysler ME Four-Twelve. At this point, the player races all drivers twice, and upon defeating them, is crowned the victor of the U.S. Champion Series. Afterwards, the player returns to Vince's and is rewarded the Lamborghini Murcielago from before. Vince says "It should be driven with respect, and not by some San Diego swinger who thinks he's hot stuff or something."  Street racers in Detroit are: Roy (returning with a Dodge Viper GTS-R), Spider (Hotmatch D'Elegance), Leo (1981 Camaro Z28), Caesar (Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren, later a Lamborghini Gallardo), Kioshi (Aprilla Mille Factory), and Angel (Saleen S7).

Development.

According to the developer, the three cities present in the original release of the game were chosen due to their significance to the game's themes. Atlanta was chosen for its pioneering of automobile customization, and San Diego was chosen for its influence on developing street racing culture.  In February 2006, Rockstar Games announced that the "Remix" version was in development.

"Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition Remix".

Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition Remix is a revised edition of "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition". It is available as a Greatest Hits release on PlayStation 2 and a Platinum Hits release on Xbox (the remix edition of the game is not available for the PlayStation Portable). The game was released on March 12, 2006 or exactly eleven months after the original version's release. It was released on December 19, 2012 on PlayStation Network for the PS3; However, it was removed after a passing of time due to licensing issues.  The game features all of the cities, vehicles, music, and other features from "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition". This version of the game also allows the player to import the "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition" data on their memory card to "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition Remix" to make up for lost progress, thus saving the player from starting all over again.  The following features were added in "Remix":

Soundtrack.

The following music can be found in "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition", the "Remix" soundtrack is also included. Music artists found in the game include numerous members, The Game, Paul Wall, T.I., 50 Cent, Big Tymers, Mannie Fresh, Bump J, Calyx, Deep Blue, Ash, Aztec Mystic, Jimmy Eat World, Kasabian, Marilyn Manson, Nine Inch Nails, and other artists. The soundtrack consisted of 99 tracks. The "Remix"s soundtrack consisted of 25 extra tracks; 124 tracks altogether.

Reception.

The PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions of "Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition" received "favorable" reviews, while the PSP version received "average" reviews, according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.  The game has sold at least 1.1 million copies worldwide on the PS2 version, and 3.64 million copies worldwide on the PSP version. The PlayStation Portable release received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom.

"Remix".

The "Dub Edition Remix" received "favorable" reviews, more so than the original, according to Metacritic.

Midnight Club 3: Dub Edition is a racing game developed by Rockstar San Diego and published by Rockstar Games. It is the third installment in the "Midnight Club" series. Like previous installments in the series, the game is an arcade-style racer and focuses on wild, high-speed racing, rather than realistic physics and driving. The name is derived from a partnership between Rockstar and "DUB Magazine", which features heavily in the game in the form of DUB-sponsored races and DUB-customized vehicles as prizes.

Midnight Club 3: DUB édition est un jeu vidéo de course développé par Rockstar San Diego et édité en 2005 par Rockstar Games sur PlayStation 2, Xbox et PlayStation Portable.


Description in Seitz.

"E. christi" Rätzer (36 c). This species comes nearest to "cassiope", being however at least one-third larger. The forewing more elongate than in "cassiope", apex and distal margin rounded, also in the hindwing, the apex of the latter being obtusely pointed in "cassiope". The brown transverse band of the forewing is of even width and runs parallel with the distal margin, being sharply defined proximally and distally and separated by the veins into spots, usually 6. The 2. and 3. of these spots counted from the costal side are not prolonged both ways as is "cassiope", but are of the same size as the others. In the upper spots there is a straight row of 3 or 4 black dots, of which the 2 middle ones are always larger than the others. The hindwing bears 4, more rarely 3, oval russet-yellow spots with ovate black dots, which in the female are sometimes prolonged to streaks. The underside of the forewing is russet-brown, being darker basally, the lighter band contrasting distinctly with the central area. Costal and distal margins brown-grey. Only the 2 central black dots are as large as above, while the others are either completely absent or are represented but by small black specks. The hindwing beneath violet-grey, with a darker dentate band, which is obsolete in the female, but distinct in the male. — The only locality so far known is the Laquin Valley at the southern Simplon-road below the village of Simplon. The flight-place is very limited, having only an extent of 5—600 m, consisting of grassy and flowery slopes covered with rocks and boulders. The butterfly is not abundant.

Biology.

The butterflies often bask in the sun with their wings wide open. The males congregate regularly on damp ground. The females visit different nectar plants and are especially fond of thyme. They lay their eggs on the dry grass stems of "Festuca ovina". Before completing their development, the caterpillars hibernate twice.

The Raetzer's ringlet ("Erebia christi") is a species of butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in Italy and Switzerland. Its natural habitat is temperate grassland. It is one of the rarest European butterflies, having not more than six or seven populations.

Le Moiré du Simplon ("Erebia christi") est un lépidoptère appartenant à la famille des Nymphalidae, à la sous-famille des Satyrinae et au genre "Erebia".


History.

Tracing their origins all the way back to 1898, the club was formed as Fathul Karib and based in Farrer Park. One of the highlights over the following half century, before the side was renamed Balestier United Recreation Club in the 1970s, was providing nine players to the Singapore side which competed in the 1958 Asian Games, losing 2–1 to both continental heavyweights South Korea and Israel.

Balestier United Recreational Club.

The club's name was changed to Balestier United Recreation Club in April 1975, when it joined the inaugural National Football League. The team captured the Singapore Cup in 1958 and 1992. The club played in the Singapore Premier League (the forerunner to the S.League) from 1988 to 1995. The club became the first club in Singapore to bring in foreign players when they signed two Yugoslavian players, Josko Spanjic and Boris Lucic, for the 1989 season. Balestier United are currently still active in local football, competing in the National Football League Division 1. Former Balestier Khalsa players such, Ruhaizad Ismail, Daniel Ong and Syafiq Zainal all playing for this team currently.

Balestier Central.

In 1996, Balestier United Recreational Club became a founder member of the S.League and changed its name to Balestier Central.

Clementi Khalsa.

Clementi Khalsa was formed as a club to represent Singapore's Sikh community and joined the S.League in 1999. Prior to the merger with Balestier Central, the club was based in the Clementi area of Singapore and played its home games at the Clementi Stadium.

Merger.

The club is an amalgamation of Balestier Central Football Club and Clementi Khalsa Football Club who merged at the end of the 2002 S.League season. Due to its link with Clementi Khalsa, the club is very popular amongst Singapore's Sikh community.

Balestier Khalsa.

On 10 August 2012, Balestier Khalsa won the first League Cup Plate Final as the team defeated Young Lions in the Jalan Besar Stadium.  In 2013, Darren Stewart signed several players from his former team, Gombak United and formed a strong foundation of the team, including foreign players Kim Min-ho and Park Kang-jin, together with Singapore national team player Qiu Li and proved to be a success. On 14 September 2013, The Tigers went one level higher by scoring a huge 4–0 win over DPMM FC in the League Cup Final and clinched their first ever silverware. Captain, Paul Cunningham and the team lift the trophy as well as clinching 3rd placing in the Singapore Cup.  Balestier Khalsa signed former U-21 Croatian international Goran Ljubojević on 11 February 2014 as their first ever marquee signing. As well as Emir Lotinac of Serbia from Novi Pazar. The Tigers won their first ever Singapore Cup on 7 November 2014, beating Home United 3–1 with Goran, Kim and Park scoring the goals. Thus, qualified for AFC Cup in the following year.  The Tigers make their continental competition debut on 24 February 2015, losing 0–3 to Hong Kong Premier League champions, Kitchee. 10 March, they almost held eventual 2015 champions, Johor Darul Ta'zim to goalless draw but the visitor scored in the stoppage time. Balestier Khalsa finally got their historical first win in the following week, Jonathan Xu scoring his and Tiger's maiden AFC Cup goal and Miroslav Krištić's goal beating East Bengal 2–1. On 10 July 2015, Balestier Khalsa lost narrowly 2–1 against Albirex Niigata (S) to finish runner up in the League Cup.  In 2016, Balestier Khalsa qualified for AFC Cup as Singapore's 2nd best local team and got their first away goals/ point in the AFC Cup, held Dhivehi Premier League champions, New Radiant 2–2 at Malé. They continue to improved their run in the competition and winning Kitchee & New Radiant 1–0 and 3–0 at home. Balestier Khalsa finished 4th in the Singapore Cup after losing to Ceres-La Salle in the third place playoff.  In 2017, due to tight budget, Balestier Khalsa signed 3 Myanmar national football team players, Aung Kyaw Naing, Kyaw Zayar Win, Nanda Lin Kyaw Chit from Nay Pyi Taw, Ayeyawady United and Yadanabon respectively.

Domestic record.

As Balestier Central/ Balestier Khalsa  As Clementi Khalsa

Balestier Khalsa Football Club is a professional football club which plays in Singapore Premier League. The club's logo depicts a Tiger, the nickname of the club, on top of a pair of Kirpan. The logo is made up of key elements from the two clubs it was merged from. The Tiger is the mascot of the Balestier half of the merged entity while the kirpan is a religious dagger worn by members of the Sikh faith, who were a major backer of half of the merged entity through the Clementi club.

Le Balestier Khalsa Football Club, est un club de football singapourien fondé en 1898. Un titre en Coupe de Singapour lors de l'année 1958, compose le palmarès du club.


History.

The club has been one of the most successful in Panama in recent years, winning 15 titles (more than any other team since 1998) and finishing second five times.  It was founded in 1990 by Arab immigrants to Panama, under the name of Club Atlético Argentina, and experienced immediate success. After climbing the Panamanian league system, in 1994 they took advantage of a split in Panama's governing body to move into the top division. What happened was that a rival league (LINFUNA) formed in opposition to the older, existing top flight (ANAPROF). Árabe Unido was almost immediately successful in LINFUNA, winning both championships that the splinter league held in 1994 and 1995.  Their success continued once they re-entered ANAPROF; at that time, Tauro FC was the dominant team in the league and would win three championships in four years between 1996-2000. The only club to break that string was Árabe Unido, which won the 1998-99 title by beating Tauro 3-0 in the playoff final.  After the league switched to the Aprtura/Clausura format in the 2001 season, "Los Arabes" really began winning titles. The original plan was for the winners of the Apertura to meet the Clausura in a "Grand Final" that would determine the year's champion. Árabe rendered this unnecessary by winning both tournaments. They claimed a third straight championship in Apertura 2002, although they did lose that year's grand final to Plaza Amador.  "El Expreso Azul" (as fans also called Árabe Unido) would go on to add further honors by sweeping the 2003 season, then winning back to back titles in Clausura 2008 and Apertura 2009. They have also won titles in Clausura 2010, Apertura 2012, Clausura 2015, Apertura 2015, and most recently Apertura 2016.l

Players.

Retired numbers.

21 — Amílcar Henríquez, midfielder (2003–08) — "posthumous honour."

Club Deportivo Árabe Unido is a professional football club located in Colón, Panama that plays in Liga Panameña de Fútbol, the top tier of the Panamanian football pyramid. The club plays its games in Estadio Armando Dely Valdés.

Le Deportivo Árabe Unido est un club panaméen de football basé à Colón. Le colombien Juan Guzman est l'entraineur depuis septembre 2019.


Nomenclature.

Most imides are cyclic compounds derived from dicarboxylic acids, and their names reflect the parent acid. Examples are succinimide, derived from succinic acid, and phthalimide, derived from phthalic acid. For imides derived from amines (as opposed to ammonia), the "N"-substituent is indicated by a prefix. For example, N-ethylsuccinimide is derived from succinic acid and ethylamine. Isoimides are isomeric with normal imides and have the formula RC(O)OC(NR′)R′′. They are often intermediates that convert to the more symmetrical imides. Organic compounds called carbodiimides have the formula RN=C=NR. They are unrelated to imides.

Imides from dicarboxylic acids.

The PubChem links gives access to more information on the compounds, including other names, ids, toxicity and safety.

Properties.

Being highly polar, imides exhibit good solubility in polar media. The N–H center for imides derived from ammonia is acidic and can participate in hydrogen bonding. Unlike the structurally related acid anhydrides, they resist hydrolysis and some can even be recrystallized from boiling water.

Occurrence and applications.

Many high strength or electrically conductive polymers contain imide subunits, i.e., the polyimides. One example is Kapton where the repeat unit consists of two imide groups derived from aromatic tetracarboxylic acids. Another example of polyimides is the polyglutarimide typically made from polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and ammonia or a primary amine by aminolysis and cyclization of the PMMA at high temperature and pressure, typically in an extruder. This technique is called reactive extrusion. A commercial polyglutarimide product based on the methylamine derivative of PMMA, called Kamax, was produced by the Rohm and Haas company. The toughness of these materials reflects the rigidity of the imide functional group.  Interest in the bioactivity of imide-containing compounds was sparked by the early discovery of the high bioactivity of the Cycloheximide as an inhibitor of protein biosynthesis in certain organisms. Thalidomide, famous for its adverse effects, is one result of this research. A number of fungicides and herbicides contain the imide functionality. Examples include Captan, which is considered carcinogenic under some conditions, and Procymidone. In the 21st century new interest arose in thalidomide's immunomodulatory effects, leading to the class of immunomodulators known as immunomodulatory imide drugs (IMiDs).

Preparation.

Most common imides are prepared by heating dicarboxylic acids or their anhydrides and ammonia or primary amines. The result is a condensation reaction: These reactions proceed via the intermediacy of amides. The intramolecular reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amide is far faster than the intermolecular reaction, which is rarely observed.  They may also be produced via the oxidation of amides, particularly when starting from lactams.  Certain imides can also be prepared in the isoimide-to-imide Mumm rearrangement.

Reactions.

For imides derived from ammonia, the N–H center is weakly acidic. Thus, alkali metal salts of imides can be prepared by conventional bases such as potassium hydroxide. The conjugate base of phthalimide is potassium phthalimide. These anion can be alkylated to give "N"-alkylimides, which in turn can be degraded to release the primary amine. Strong nucleophiles, such as potassium hydroxide or hydrazine are used in the release step.  Treatment of imides with halogens and base gives the "N"-halo derivatives. Examples that are useful in organic synthesis are "N"-chlorosuccinimide and "N"-bromosuccinimide, which respectively serve as sources of "Cl" and "Br" in organic synthesis.

Imides in coordination chemistry.

In coordination chemistry transition metal imido complexes feature the NR ligand. They are similar to oxo ligands in some respects. In some the M-N-C angle is 180o but often the angle is decidedly bent. The parent imide (NH) is an intermediate in nitrogen fixation by synthetic catalysts.

In organic chemistry, an imide is a functional group consisting of two acyl groups bound to nitrogen. The compounds are structurally related to acid anhydrides, although imides are more resistant toward hydrolysis. In terms of commercial applications, imides are best known as components of high-strength polymers, called polyimides.

En chimie organique, un imide est un amide secondaire, c'est-à-dire un amide ou le radical ammonium est lié à deux groupes carbonyle (R-C=O) via l'atome d'azote. Du point de vue de la nomenclature, une structure linéaire de type R-CO-NH-CO-R est un amide secondaire et non un imide.


History.

In 1982, Winners was founded in Toronto, Ontario by David Margolis and Neil Rosenberg. It was one of the first off-price department stores in Canada. In 1990, it merged with TJX Companies, the world's largest off-price department store owner.  Since late 2001, Winners stores have been paired with HomeSense, a home accessory retailer, modelled on TJX's American HomeGoods stores. Winners acquired the struggling "Labels" brand from Dylex in 2001. Labels had been meant to compete with Winners, but never succeeded; most of its stores have been turned into Homesense stores.  Les Ailes de la Mode opened a similar concept under the Labels banner after Winners did not renew its trademark on the name.

Controversy.

In 2016, CBC's Marketplace investigated Winner's "compared at" pricing and found that retail price of the manufacture could be misleading and inaccurate. For example, "researchers at Marketplace found that a Risk board game at Winners was being sold for $49.99, with a "compared at" price of $100.00. However, the game was available at full price from retailer F.G Bradley's Canadian website for $74.99." Winners responded by saying "compared at" prices are accurate and fair, and that the misunderstanding could be a result of an error in pricing merchandise due to their large volume of product intake.. In follow up letter to CBC marketplace, Winners was able to verify every "compared at" price for 20 out of the 21 items, by finding the items at the "compared at" prices at comparable retailers. For the remaining item, Winners admitted that it was an error on their part and pledged to fix the mismatch.

Winners Merchants International L.P is a chain of off-price Canadian department stores owned by TJX Companies. It offers brand name clothing, footwear, bedding, furniture, fine jewellery, beauty products, and housewares. Products are at a 20-60% discount rate and the stores generally do not carry the same merchandise for an entire season. The firm does not sell online. Its market niche is similar to the American store TJ Maxx, and it is a partnered retailer to department stores HomeSense and Marshalls.

Winners est un détaillant canadien de vêtements pour la famille, d'objets à offrir, de bijouterie fine, de décoration pour la maison, d'accessoires et de chaussures avec 168 magasins dans tout le pays (en 2004).


History and music.

This album marks the return of Simon Gallup in the group; he had performed and composed with Robert Smith and Lol Tolhurst on the dark trilogy "Seventeen Seconds", "Faith" and "Pornography". Guitarist Porl Thompson, who had played guitar during the very early days of the band, and also played keyboards and saxophone during "The Top" tour, became an official member. Drummer Boris Williams, who had previously worked with Thompson Twins, finally joined the ensemble after playing with the band during the US leg of the 1984 tour.  During promotion for the record, Smith stated that it was inspired by the albums "Kaleidoscope" by Siouxsie and the Banshees and "Dare" by the Human League. He wanted the album to be eclectic with different styles and moods: "It reminds me of the "Kaleidoscope" album, the idea of having lots of different sounding things, different colours". "Kyoto Song" contains an oriental hook while "The Blood" is played in a flamenco style. The piano tune of "Six Different Ways" was previously used by Smith during his tenure with Siouxsie and the Banshees, for the single "Swimming Horses". The last song of the album, "Sinking", was reminiscent of the band's "Faith" era, while "Close to Me" was described as a "disco thing" by critics. The opening track and first single, "In Between Days", was compared to New Order's material. "A Night Like This" contains a saxophone solo by Ron Howe from Fools Dance. The title of the album comes from a line in the chorus from the second and final single, "Close to Me".  When he was interviewed that year, Smith said that his five favourite albums were at that time "Mirror Moves" by the Psychedelic Furs, "This Year's Model" by Elvis Costello, "Low" by David Bowie, "Kaleidoscope" by Siouxsie and the Banshees and "Rattus Norvegicus" by the Stranglers.

Release, reception and legacy.

Released on 26 August 1985, "The Head on the Door" was the first big international success for the band, notably entering the top 75 in the US and reaching the top 20 in numerous other countries. The album is certified gold in the US, UK and France.  Upon its release, "The Head on the Door" was well received by the British press. In a very favourable review, "Melody Maker" hailed the "liberty" that Smith took to conceive a multifaceted record. Chris Roberts of "Sounds" said that it "makes you wish more pop stars were hip enough to stay in bed all day". "Record Mirror" reviewer Andy Strickland wrote that "The Head on the Door" "may lack the swirls of chorused guitar that many adore, but there's a wider more mature musical approach". "NME" wrote: "it's quite pop" and "tunes abound". In December 1985, "The Head on the Door" was named the best album of the year by "Melody Maker".  In 2000 it was voted number 833 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums".  In a retrospective review, AllMusic noted that "The Head on the Door" marked a new musical direction for the Cure, with Smith managing to make the band's trademark "gloom and doom" style both "danceable and popular", while also noting that its inventive arrangements "give the album a musical depth previous efforts lacked". Tom Doyle of "Q" wrote that the album found Smith "bridging the brooding of yore with their recent pop highs". "Pitchfork" said: it is the band's "most focused pop album" and "a tight, terrific package." "PopMatters" included it in their list of the "12 Essential 1980s Alternative Rock Albums" saying, ""The Head on the Door" is an outstanding example of Smith's ability to use pop music as a means to express angst while applying just a hint of the polish".  A cover version of "A Night Like This" was released on the 1996 reissue of the Smashing Pumpkins' "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" single.

Reissue.

In 2006, the album was re-released by Universal on their Fiction Records/Polydor Records labels, digitally remastered with various demos and live tracks from the era. Included were demos of the four B-sides from the era ("The Exploding Boy", "A Few Hours After This", "A Man Inside My Mouth" and "Stop Dead") and four previously unreleased songs. The remaining tracks included demos or live versions of all 10 songs from the first disc. It was released 8 August in the U.S. (where the album was instead released by Rhino Entertainment/Elektra Records) and 14 August in the UK. One of the four new songs, "Mansolidgone", is similar both musically and lyrically to another demo, "A Hand Inside My Mouth" (not to be confused with "A Man Inside My Mouth") which appeared on "The Top" Deluxe Edition. Both songs, and the uncovered demo "Lime Time", contain lyrics which would be later used in the songs "In Between Days" and "Six Different Ways."

The Head on the Door is the sixth studio album by English rock band the Cure, released in August 1985 on record label Polydor. Preceded by the single "In Between Days" which had reached No. 15 on the UK Singles Chart, "The Head on the Door" was described by "Melody Maker" as "a collection of pop songs". With its variety of styles, it allowed the group to reach a wider audience in both Europe and North America. In the United Kingdom, it became their most successful album to date, entering the albums chart at No. 7 on 7 September.

Il connaît un important succès commercial et devient disque d'or aux États-Unis, au Royaume-Uni et en France où le disque s'est vendu à 559 500 exemplaires.


Swedish East India Company.

The Swedish East India Company was established on 14June 1731, to trade in East Asia. The company followed the Portuguese, Dutch, Danish, French and English East India Companies. Situated in Gothenburg, the company secured a 15-year monopoly on far eastern trade, exchanging Swedish timber, tar, iron and copper for tea, porcelain and silk.  The company existed for 82 years and its vessels made 131 voyages using 37 different ships. Even though the company in the end went bankrupt, it made enormous profits during most of its years in operation and influenced the history of Sweden in several ways.

Original ship.

"Götheborg" was built at the in Stockholm and launched in 1738. According to writer Björn Ahlander, it only took about one and a half years to build a ship of this size in the 1700s. It was built in the Swedish capital and named "Götheborg" because the Swedish East India Company resided in Gothenburg, and all expeditions began and ended at this port. The ship had a tonnage equivalent to about. On its maiden voyage in 1739, the ship carried 30 cannons and an initial crew of 144.  The ship made three journeys to China and in 1745, it sank on its way into Gothenburg harbor. After 30 months at sea, and with only to go before the vessel reached its berth, it crashed into the Knipla Börö, a well known rock. Although it remains a mystery how this could happen theories abound. The ship remained stranded on the rock while much of the cargo, consisting of tea, porcelain, spices and silk was salvaged. The ship was clearly visible above the surface of the water for many years, but in time the remains sank to the bottom.

Sinking.

It is still unclear what caused the ship to run aground due to the scarcity of contemporary written sources. The "Götheborg" had a very experienced pilot on board, Caspar Matthisson (1712–1783) from Brännö, who had been a pilot for seven and a half years at the time of the accident. Even so, the ship suddenly ran aground, or crashed into, the underwater rock the "Hunnebådan"—in the 18th century known as the "Knipla Börö" and later the "Götheborgs-grundet" ("the Götheborg's rock") or the "Ostindiebådarna" ("the East India shallow").  The joint statement by captain Eric Moréen and the crew to the "Göteborgs Rådhusrätt" ("the Municipal Court of Gothenburg") on the 19September 1745 states that the weather on 12September was fair and clear, the wind amenable and blowing from south-west or west-southwest. These were ideal conditions since the wind would be coming almost straight from aft. Crossing the "Rivöfjorden" the ship met with the current from the northern part of Göta älv, "Nordre älv". Navigation and sailing seems to have been correct up until the time of the accident. Sailing at a speed of the ship suddenly veered to starboard and hit the rock. The cause may have been a now almost forgotten hydrographic phenomenon called dead water.  Hydrographic conditions at the mouth of the Göta älv in September 1745, are well known. The discharge of the Göta älv was unusually large due to heavy snowfall during the winter of 1744–45. The water level of Lake Vänern was also extremely high in 1745. These factors combined into an increase in the volume of fresh water flowing into the "Älvsborgsfjorden", affecting the layers of fresh and salt water, making the conditions for dead water very favorable on 12September 1745. It may be that the "Götheborg" was suddenly trapped by dead water when making its final change of course, causing the ship to lose rudder function, go off course and run aground.

Excavation.

In 9December 1984, five members from the "Marinarkeologiska Sällskapet, Göteborgskretsen" (MASG) ("the Marine Archeological Society of Gothenburg") dove at the Hunnebådan, the site of the shipwreck. One of the participants, Anders Wästfelt chairman of the MASG, wrote in his report: "Fair weather, sun, in the air. Northwesterly wind. Water temperature. Weak currents. Visibility in the water: Depth, visibility. Depth, visibility about. Depth, visibility about. Dives made between 12:00 a.m. and 1:00 p.m.... We picked up 38 pieces of porcelain. Three of these were almost undamaged. These were found on the softer sediments of the bottom. All the finds were on the bottom. No digging or use of a water eductor was done. The finds have been submitted to the Gothenburg Maritime museum."  Lots of porcelain shards were found strewn over the sea floor. In 1986, research in archives and examination of the wreck site had confirmed the find as the ship Götheborg from 1738, and the Gothenburg Maritime museum was given permission from the Swedish National Heritage Board to excavate the site. At the same time the "East Indiaman Götheborg Foundation" (the first foundation) was established, marking the beginning of one of Sweden's most comprehensive marine archeological surveys at the time. The purpose of the excavation was, among others, to use the wreck of the "Götheborg" as base for spreading knowledge about the history of Gothenburg and the significance of the Swedish East India Company during the 1700s. The excavations were carried out during the summers 1986–1992. The seabed was first investigated using sub-bottom and side scan sonar. Secondly the divers went over the site with metal detectors and probes. To facilitate the excavations, the search area, measuring, was divided into a grid system comprising boxes measuring. The divers also had two giant suction devices, which sucked up sludge and clay into large sieves, where the smallest finds could be sorted. The remains of the cargo and the ship had settled during the years, together with fine clay, into a thick carpet, hard to penetrate. A total of 5,750 finds were registered during the excavation. Most of it was porcelain, blue and white, blue and white with brown glaze, and multicolored made to order. In addition to this the finds also consisted of tea, mother-of-pearl shells, galangal, pepper, silk fabric, ingots of "tutanego" (these contained 99% zinc, 0,5% iron) not to be confused with paktong, cannonballs, lead shots, rapier handles, sword hilts, rigging material and objects belonging to the officers and crew. When compared to the Company's cargo list, which had been preserved, the finds from the excavation made up almost 10 per cent of the original cargo.  During the excavations the thought of building a replica of the "Götheborg" started to form among the divers who had found the ship. The decision to excavate and rebuild the ship has generated large interest over the years from researchers, volunteers, professionals, sponsors and the public. Knowledge about 18th century history, trade with China and the Swedish East India Company has thereby increased substantially.

"Götheborg" revived.

When the wreckage of the vessel "Götheborg" was found in 1984, the idea to make a replica of the vessel emerged. The keel for the replica was laid on 11June 1995. This was done at the disused Eriksbergs wharf by the Göta älv in Gothenburg. Led by Master of Ceremonies Anders Wästfeldt, two silver coins, one from 1745, and one from 1995, were placed in the halved joints of the long keel. About 3,000 people attended the forging of the keel, including Sören Gyll, director of Volvo and professor Jorgen Weibull. The project was blessed by the vicar Alf Österholm.  The construction and historical design of the ship was made by Joakim Severinsson. The blueprints for the ship was approved by international classification society Det Norske Veritas in November 1995. All that was left of the Eriksbergs wharf were two-thirds of building berth number six, the large gantry crane and the dry dock. Around this, a new shipyard for building the "Götheborg" began to grow. A new ship's hall was built over the building berth, a timber workshop, a forge, a rigging workshop with a sail loft and some modern facilities such as a restaurant, offices and conference rooms were also added to the site. Since the wharf was built on reclaimed land, it seemed very apt to call it Terra Nova ("new land" in Latin) just like the wharf where the original vessel had been built.  The vessel was built using old, traditional techniques, and it was made as close to the original as possible. One small change was that the headroom of the deck was increased by 10 cm, since today's seamen are taller than their ancestors.  While the exterior remains true to the original, the interior is highly modern. The ship has an electrical system and propellers powered by diesel engines. The engines were only intended for port navigation and emergency situations, but they have been used during unfavourable wind in order to keep the timetable for the journey to China. Other enhancements include satellite navigation, communications equipment, modern facilities for the crew (kitchen, lavatories, washing machines, desalination equipment, ventilation, refrigerators), watertight bulkheads and fire protection (fire sprinkler systems, fire hydrants etc.). Most of this new technology was necessary to pass national and international safety regulations.  The vessel was launched on 6June 2003, with great festivities and in the presence of representatives from the Swedish Royal Family.  Ten tons of hemp ropes were used for rigging the vessel, together with some 1,000 blocks and linen sail. All this was produced using 18th century techniques. The first trial under sail began on 18April 2005.

Financing.

At its completion in 2005, the project had cost about 250 million SEK (almost $40 million), some 40% from public funds and the rest from sponsors.  During the years the ship has been in the care of two foundations. The first foundation consisted of Volvo, SKF, Stena Line and the Port of Gothenburg among others. This foundation financed the ship up until the end of the journey to China and in 2010, its economical commitment ended. The second foundation, a non-profitable foundation, for the ship was created shortly afterwards. The business is operated by The Swedish East India Company Ltd. In January 2011, questions were raised about the future of the ship. The Gothenburg Municipality was willing to pay for the ongoing maintenance of the ship if sponsors made contributions for the expeditions and other activities. An immediate liquidation of the operation and turning the ship into a museum was also suggested. In February 2011, the future plans for the ship were postponed by the Västra Götaland Regional Council.  In August 2019, the Greencarrier Group announced they would be supporting and funding "Götheborg's" future sailing ventures. There are plans for the ship to sail to several different ports around the world, as well as taking part in different sailing events. There have also been talks of a new expedition to China.

Replica ship.

Name.

The correct name for the replica of the ship is the "Götheborg III". It is a replica of the "Götheborg I" which sank outside Gothenburg in 1745. A second ship the "Götheborg II" was built in Gothenburg in 1786. It was the largest of all the SOIC vessels and it made three journeys to Canton: 2February 1788–13May 1790, 13November 1791–12June 1793, and on 5December 1795, the ship sailed for Canton but was lost at Cape Town on 8March 1796, on the way out from Gothenburg.

Crew.

When leaving its home port the original ship could have over 130 crew members. This number of hands was necessary since many of the sailors died from diseases or disappeared during storms. Even though it was a high risk job under difficult conditions, the company did not have any problems recruiting sailors for these well paid jobs. Many of the recruits were poor young men, sons of farmers, seeking opportunity to become wealthy. The replica has a crew of 80 sailors.

Flag.

The East Indiaman "Götheborg" is classified as a passenger ship sailing under the ordinary Swedish flag. But when in port, the ship is entitled to fly the old swallowtailed version of the flag, the SOIC flag ("Svenska Ostindiska Companiet", "Swedish East India Company"), that the original vessel sailed under.  The flag used on Swedish boats is the ordinary, rectangular flag. Swedish warships, or ships carrying a military commander, fly the Swedish ensign a triple-tailed or swallowtail and tongue version of the rectangular flag. The Swedish East India Company displayed a fork-tailed or swallow-tailed flag on their ships. The intention was that the ship should resemble a warship and thereby not attract pirates. This was against the rules and regulations for flags at that time. The use of the swallowtail was prohibited in a royal decree in 1751, but the SOIC ignored this and ordered their flags in Canton instead. In a memorandum to the Riksdag in 2012, a proposition was made to a grant dispensation from the prohibition. The proposition was declined and the decree is still in effect.

Tours.

Voyage to Southeast Asia and China 2005–2007.

After various tests and achieving its safety certificates from Det Norske Veritas, the vessel sailed for China in October 2005, as the original vessel did, but it did not follow the same route. The vessel berthed at the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront in Cape Town, and then left for Hout Bay before continuing on its voyage. The voyage took some 18 months, and the crew of 80 were rotated during harbour stops. The vessel returned to Gothenburg on 9June 2007, welcomed by the president of China, Hu Jintao, who visited Sweden mainly for this reason, and by the King and Queen of Sweden, Carl Gustaf and Silvia. The ship was also welcomed by thousands of private boats, and a hundred thousand spectators on shore.  Among the harbours visited were Cádiz, Recife, Cape Town, Hong Kong, Singapore and Shanghai. The total legs with cities visited and distances are listed below.  The route to China approximately followed the original 18th century route (around the south end of Africa), with an added detour to Australia (although in the 18th century, the ships usually avoided ports to avoid pirates). The journey home took a shortcut through the Suez Canal, which did not exist in the time of the original vessel.  Stopovers. Stopovers. Stopovers.  Stopovers. Stopovers.

Stamps.

The Swedish postal service issued four stamps depicting the "Götheborg" on the 4October 2003.

Götheborg is a sailing replica of the Swedish East Indiaman "Götheborg I", launched in 1738 (not to be confused with the larger "Götheborg II" built some decades later). All sailors survived when the original ship sank off Gothenburg, Sweden, on 12September 1745, while approaching the harbour on her return from a third voyage to China. Construction of the replica started in 1995, with the hull launched in 2003, and the rig fully tested for the first time in 2005. Much of the time was spent researching how to rebuild the replica. In 2008, "Götheborg" completed the first "Baltic Sea Tour". It is one of the world's largest operational wooden sailing vessels.

Le Götheborg III (2003) est un trois-mâts carré suédois de 47 m de long, construit entre 1992 et 2005, réplique d'un Indiaman du.


Club career.

Belloumi spent almost his entire career at home (apart from a brief spell in Qatar late in his career), most notably with his hometown club GC Mascara, as well as MC Oran. He played also with MC Alger for two years during his military service in Algiers. He won two domestic championships during his career in 1984 with GC Mascara and in 1988 with MC Oran. After returning for another spell in Mascara in 1994, he continued playing until retirement in 1999.  Belloumi had contact with various European clubs, including Barcelona, before Spain '82, but "the law did not allow us to leave the country before the age of 27". In 1985, he caught the eye of Juventus after shining in a friendly against them, only to miss out on a dream transfer after breaking his leg in the African Champions' Cup in Libya against Al-Ittihad. He was understandably disappointed "It was a real shame for me that I couldn't go".  Often overlooked for international recognition due to not joining a major European club, despite the interest of major European clubs (Juventus were reportedly very keen to acquire his services despite the performances of Michel Platini). Belloumi was recognised by any who watched him play, including the great Pelé, as a fantastic player.

International career.

Belloumi has a total of 147 caps and 34 goals for Algeria national team but only 100 caps and 27 goals are recognized by FIFA. He participated at 1980 Summer Olympics, at two editions of FIFA World Cup (1982 and 1986), at four editions of Africa Cup of Nations (1980, 1982, 1984 and 1988) and at two editions of Mediterranean Games (1979 and 1983). In 1981, he was awarded African Footballer of the Year. Belloumi scored the winning goal in the 2–1 win over West Germany in the 1982 World Cup, and was a pivotal player in the Algerian national team throughout the 1980s. His last game for Algeria came in 1989.

News.

Belloumi was a subject of an arrest warrant in Egypt for almost 20 years following an incident in Cairo in 1989 when after a 1990 FIFA World Cup qualifying match a brawl erupted to the hostel residence of the Algeria team, between players of the Algerian squad and Egyptian supporters that left an Egyptian fan, doctor by profession, seriously injured in his eye by a broken bottle which was attributed to be thrown by Belloumi. From 2006, he was added among the lists of the accused in Interpol.  The Algerian authorities accused Egypt of wanting deliberately to accuse Belloumi who was the biggest star of the country, to make diversion against hostile events that Algeria team has suffered during the qualifying match in Cairo. Belloumi always claimed his innocence and teammates present at the incident had also testified before the Algerian justice that it was goalkeeper Kamel Kadri responsible for inflicting the injury.  The warrant was finally rescinded in April 2009 and Belloumi was cleared of all legal proceedings at the initiative of Algerian president Abdelaziz Bouteflika in collaboration of the Algerian and Egyptian authorities.

Lakhdar Belloumi (; born in 29 December 1958) is a former Algerian football player and manager. He is widely considered as the best Algerian player of all time and one of the best players in Africa. He is said to have invented the "Blind Pass". He is awarded the 4th best African player of the century. He holds the record as the most capped Algerian player with 100 national caps (147 caps not recognized by FIFA) and is also the third best goalscorer of the Algerian national team in all time with 27 goals (34 goals not recognized by FIFA).

Lakhdar Belloumi (en arabe : لخضر بلومي), né le à Mascara, est un footballeur international algérien, jouant au poste de milieu offensif. Il compte 100 sélections en équipe nationale entre 1978 et 1989 (147 sélections non reconnus par la FIFA) et un total de 27 buts (34 buts non reconnus par la FIFA).


Arabic.

A characteristic of Mashreqi varieties of Arabic (particularly Levantine and Egyptian) is to assibilate the interdental consonants of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) in certain contexts (defined more culturally than phonotactically). Thus,, pronounced in MSA, becomes (as MSA → Levantine "culture");, pronounced in MSA, becomes (as MSA → Levantine "guilt"); and, pronounced in MSA, becomes (as MSA → Levantine "lucky").  Diachronically, the phoneme represented by the letter has in, some dialects, experienced assibilation as well. The pronunciation in Classical Arabic is reconstructed to have been or (or perhaps both dialectically); it is cognate to in most other Semitic languages, and it is understood to be derived from that sound in Proto-Semitic. It has experienced extensive change in pronunciation over the centuries, and is pronounced at least six different ways across the assorted varieties of Arabic. A common one is, the end result of a process of palatalization starting with Proto-West Semitic, then or, then (a pronunciation still current) and finally (in Levantine and non-Algerian Maghrebi). The last pronunciation is considered acceptable for use in MSA, along with and.

Bantu languages.

In the history of several Bantu groups, including the Southern Bantu languages, the Proto-Bantu consonant "*k" was palatalised before a close or near-close vowel. Thus, the class 7 noun prefix "*kɪ̀-" appears in e.g. Zulu as "isi-", Sotho as se-", Venda as tshi-" and Shona as "chi-".

Finnic languages.

Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian and their closest relatives) had changed to. The alternation can be seen in dialectal and inflected word forms: Finnish "to deny" → ~ "s/he denied"; "water" vs. "as water".  An intermediate stage is preserved in South Estonian in certain cases: "tsiga" "pig", vs. Finnish, Standard (North) Estonian.

Germanic languages.

In the High German consonant shift, voiceless stops spirantized to at the end of a syllable. The shift of to (as in English "water", German ) is assibilation.  Assibilation occurs without palatalization for some speakers of African American Vernacular English in which is alveolarized to when it occurs at the end of a syllable and within a word before another consonant, leading to such pronunciations as the following:

Greek.

In Proto-Greek, the earlier combinations "*ty", "*ty" and "*dy" assibilated to become alveolar affricates, "*ts" and "*dz", in what's known as the first palatalization. Later, a second round of palatalization occurred, initially producing geminate palatal "*ťť" and "*ďď" from various consonants followed by "*y". The former was depalatalised to plain geminate "tt" in some dialects, and assibilated to "ss" in others. The latter evolved into an affricate "dz" in all Greek dialects. Some examples:  Some Greek dialects later underwent yet another round of assibilation. shifted to finally in Attic and Ionic, but not in Doric.

Romance languages.

The word "assibilation" itself contains an example of the phenomenon, as it is pronounced. The Classical Latin was pronounced (for example, was pronounced and ). However, in Vulgar Latin, it assibilated to, which can still be seen in Italian:.  In French, lenition then gave (like )., which was further palatalized in the English derived words to (like "attention" ).  Most dialects of Quebec French apply a more recent assibilation to all dental plosive consonants immediately before high front vowels and associated semivowels, so that the sequences become pronounced respectively.  Assibilation can occur in some varieties of Spanish such as in Ecuador and Mexico. It is closely related to the phonetic term "sibilation".

Slavic languages.

Palatalization effects were widespread in the history of Proto-Slavic. In the first palatalization, various consonants were converted into postalveolar fricatives and affricates, while in the second and third palatalizations, the results were alveolar.  Some Slavic languages underwent yet another round of palatalisation. In Polish, in particular, dental consonants became alveolo-palatal fricatives and affricates when followed by a front vowel.

In linguistics, assibilation is a sound change resulting in a sibilant consonant. It is a form of spirantization and is commonly the final phase of palatalization.

En phonétique, le terme assibilation (dérivé du latin "sibilare" : « siffler ») qualifie la modification phonétique d'une consonne dont le résultat est une sifflante.