Foundation.

The Abbey of Saint-Pierre & Saint-Paul in Bèze, Côte-d'Or, was the fourth of the Merovingian abbeys of the diocese of Langres, after Moûtiers-Saint-Jean, Saint-Bénigne and Saint-Seine. The abbey was founded by Amalgaire, Duke of Lower Burgundy, brother of Waldalenus, Duke of Upper Burgundy and father of Saint Donatus of Besançon. Amalgaire founded the abbey in the reign of Chlothar II (r. 613–629) in the autumn of 629. The abbey's location was called the "Fountain of Bèze", after a karst spring that is the source of the Bèze river. The "Chronique de Bèze" from the first 3rd of the 12th century, describes foundation of the abbey on an unoccupied site. The Chronicle says: Amalgaire's wife Aquilina gave him two sons and one daughter, born between 595 and 605. His son Adalric would succeed him while his son Waldelene was educated as a monk at the Luxeuil Abbey under the Rule of Saint Columbanus. His daughter Adalsinde also became a nun. Waldelene became the first abbot at Bèze. Amalgaire also founded a monastery at Bregille on the right bank of the Doubs for his daughter Adalsinde, who became its first abbess. This monastery was given the existing Church of Saint Martin at Bregville. Amalgaire gave the Bèze Abbey a rich endowment of 31 domains with forests, vineyards and buildings, cultivators and winegrowers. He gave it vineyards in the Gevrey-Chambertin region that today are the source of the famous Chambertin-Clos de Bèze red Burgundy wine.

Merovingian period (629–714).

The monks of Bèze followed the Rule of Saint Columbanus, which Waldalène brought from Luxeuil Abbey. The first buildings were a rectangular stone structure surrounded by wood and earth outbuildings with thatched roofs. After the death of Amalgaire around 655 civil war raged in Burgundy and the country was ravaged by rival bands of Neustrian and Austrasian Franks. The reign of Chlothar III (r. 657–673), son of Clovis II (r. 639–657), had just started in Austrasia in late 657 when civil disturbances made Brégille untenable. Adalsinde and her brother Adalric begged her brother Waldelène and his monks to give her and her nuns refuge in Bèze, and in return transferred to him the priests of Saint Martin.  Bèze was also ruined, its property titles destroyed and its monks scattered. When peace was restored Waldalene made haste to repair the losses of his monastery. To proceed faster he used credit from the new Duke of Burgundy, Sichelm. A diploma was issued by Chlothar III in 658 or 664 that confirmed the donations made by Amalgaire. Duke Adalric lost his duchy some time between 658 and 664. The king entrusted the lord Gengoul with the protection of the abbey. The duke, or his son Adalrich, Duke of Alsace, was restored to possession of the monastery of Bèze by the royal precept of 665. Adalric abused his authority to ransack the abbey. Later Adalric deserted King Theuderic III of Neustria (r. 673–691) and joined his enemies, who chose Dagobert II (r. 676–679) as King of Austrasia. The war between Theuderic of Neustria and Dagobert of Austrasia once more devastated Bèze. Waldalène had to rebuild the abbey from ruins. In 676 Theuderic, now victorious, gave Waldalène all of Adalric's property. Adalric settled permanently in Alsace after the troubles of 675–676. Waldalène died in 680. The abbey flourished under the three abbots that followed, Bercand or Bercang, around 680, Ferréol around 700 and Syranne around 720.

Carolingian period (714–990).

The Saracens, who had conquered Spain in 714, crossed the Pyrennees and devastated the south of France. They penetrated up the Rhône, the Saône and the Loire until finally defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. The Saracens sacked the abbey of Bèze around 730. Dom Jean Mabillon relates that they destroyed Autun, pulled down the Abbey of Bèze ("monasterium Besuense"), were repulsed from Sens when they attacked it in 732, but then massacred Saint Mellin and the monks of Luxeuil Abbey. The anthropologist Gustave Lagneau considered that some of the present population of the region showed signs of Saracen descent.  Between 751 and 754 King Pepin the Short (r. 751–768) gave the abbey to his concubine, Angla or Anglais wife of Théodard, to be desecrated or dilapidated by her according to her caprice. Pepin also dismissed the bishop of Langres at this time, and replaced him by his brother Remi. After this the abbey was entrusted to the bishops of Langres, but due to the difficulties of the times it was only rebuilt under the Emperor Louis the Pious (r. 814–840), when Bishop Albéric restored the buildings and reintroduced discipline.  Albéric was made Bishop of Langres by Louis the Pious around 820. The Chronicle of Bèze relates that Albéric was afflicted by a violent colic that made him despair of his life. An old man appeared to him in a dream and told him he would recover if he promised to reestablish the monastery. He made the promise and regained his health. Albéric gave Bèze the church of Saint Laurent in Beurey in 830. Louis the Pious visited Langres in 830 with his son Lothair and held a provincial council. This council and other synods seem to have resulted in the general reform that reestablished the common life of the canons and caused all the monasteries to restore their original rules. At Albéric's request Louis issued a charter that confirmed all the property of the abbey. Albéric repaired the church of Saint-Mammès at the abbey. Alberic died in 839 and his body was taken to Bèze on 22 December 839. On 6 October 883 Geilon, bishop of Langres, gave the abbey of Bèze the relics of Saint Prudent de Narbonne, which he had brought back from a chapel in Narbonne after his pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. In 887, when marauding Normans approached the monks of Bèze transported the body of Saint Prudent to Saint-Etienne de Dijon. When the invasion was over the monks rebuilt the ruins of the abbey and asked for the saint's body from Dijon. The canons of Dijon at first refused, then at the command of Bishop Gauthier of Langres pretended to comply, but in fact gave the monks the body of Saint Silvin. Eventually the ruse was discovered, and the body of Saint Prudent was carried with great ceremony from Dijon to Bèze in 931.  The abbey was destroyed twice during the Hungarian invasions of Europe. It was burned in July 936 when the Hungarians came from Burgundy, and again the next year when the Hungarians had spread through France, Burgundy and Aquitaine, plundering and ravaging everywhere. The Hungarians caused so much damage to the monastery that it could not be restored for eleven years.

Golden age (990–1200).

At the end of the 10th century Bruno de Roucy, Bishop of Langres, asked Majolus of Cluny to send monks to rebuild the abbeys of the Langres diocese. Among them was William of Volpiano, who became abbot of Saint-Bénigne at Dijon, and was also abbot of Bèze from 990 until his death in 1031. William introduced the customs of Cluny to both abbeys. The Rule of Saint Benedict is first mentioned in the Chronicle of Beze when it comes to the William, an Italian who became abbot in 990. Unlike Saint-Bénigne, the properties of the abbey were concentrated in the immediate vicinity, towards Champlitte and the Saône. Thanks to William's reforms Bèze attracted gifts from local nobles such as the Fouvents, descendants of the counts of Atuyer, the Beaumonts and Montsaugeons towards Langres and the Beaujeus on the Saône. The property included serfs. For example, in the 11th century the abbey received the serf Arnulf and "one half of the sons or daughters of the said Arnulf" for the benefit of Sir Henri de Ferté's soul.  Raoul le Blanc, Viscount of Dijon, became a monk at Saint-Bénigne, then was made grand-prior of Bèze under abbot William and played a major role in the restoration of the abbey. Raoul dedicated his immense fortune to entirely rebuilding the abbey, including executing two ossuaries in the chapel of the Virgin and replacing the remains of the old destroyed tombs. He rebuilt the church on a larger scale, and it was dedicated in 1016 or 1018 in a ceremony arranged by Lambert de Vignory, Brunon's successor as bishop in a ceremony attended by many bishops and clergy from various provinces of France. In 1018 the lord of Fouvent founded the priory of Saint-Sépulcre beside his castle, subordinate to Bèze abbey.  Ulger or Olger 1, former prior of Beze, was abbot from 1031 to 1052. He died on return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. In October 1050 Pope Leo IX visited Langres, where he settled a dispute between the Bèze monks and the Langres canons over tithes from one of the monks' vineyards. He said that "By the authority of the Holy Fathers who preceded me in the see of Rome, it was permitted that no church founded in honour of St Peter, the prince of the Apostles, should pay a rent of tithes to another church." This silenced the canons. In 1066 a solemn assembly of bishops, abbots and local lords was held at the abbey of Bèze to settle difference between the abbot of Saint-Benigne and the officers of Robert, Duke of Burgundy. In 1083 Ponce, lord of the Château de Beaujeu, gave the abbey a chapel built in honour of Saint Vallier with lands and various rights.  Étienne de Joinville was the son and grandson of counts on his father's side, and grandson of Arnoul, count of Reynel on his mother's side. He served as a soldier before becoming a monk. He was a monk at the Priory of Saint-Oyan-de-Bar and then at Cluny, where his uncle Widon was Grand Prior. He was appointed prior at Sainte-Germaine de Bar-sur-Aube, then of Bar-sur-Seine. In 1088 he was chosen as abbot of Bèze by bishop Robert. Under the abbot Étienne de Jonvelle (c. 1088–1124) the grants multiplied, particularly in the form of restitution of churches. Humbert de Fouvent, who had been killed in the service of the Bishop of Langres around 1085–87, was buried at Bèze. His widow gave the abbey the chapel of his castle, the church of Lavoncourt and two silver "cyphes". In 1093 Irmuin de Seveux gave the abbey the churches of Saint-Denis and Saint-Laurent. Pope Paschal II stayed at the abbey in 1107. He was accompanied by Henry, Abbot of Saint-Jean-d'Angély. Étienne doubled the size of the abbey's domain by restitution and donations, and expanded the abbey buildings, extending the church to the river.  There are still remains of an axial chapel from the early 12th century. This is all that is left of Étienne's buildings. The chapels would have extended towards the Bèze river from the apse of the church. Under Étienne's rule the number of monks grew to about 50 living in the abbey and another 50 in subordinate priories. The monk Jean (died 1120) wrote the "Chronicon Besuense", a history of the abbey from its foundation to the start of the 12th century. The monk Teobaudus (died 1130) wrote the "Miracula Sancti Prudentii", which described the miraculous cures that had been effected by the relics of Saint Prudent. The monk Raoul the Bald wrote the "Libri Quinque Historiae", a history of events from 900 to 1044. He famously wrote of the period, "At that time the kingdom of France was covered with a white cloak of churches." In 1198 the abbey was accidentally burned.

Feudalism, decline and ruin (1200–1662).

In 1215 the abbot Albert received a letter from Pope Innocent III on the subject of damages caused by a fire which had forced the abbot to send the monks to Cluny. In 1219 the abbey finally accepted an offer that had first been made in 1049 and sold its Clos de Bèze vineyard to the canons of Langres. Over time the rule was relaxed and the monks became more concerned with temporal than spiritual matters. In 1253 the abbot Geoffroy II was the first to hold the feudal title "Baron de Bèze". Around 1280 the abbot Girard III built a school outside the village for children who were not destined for the church. The building on the Place de Verdun still stands. The archives tell of disputes between the abbot and the bishop of Langres, disputes between the monks and the people of Bèze, disputes with the local lords, disputes over feudal dues and rights of use. In 1307 a dispute between the Bèze Abbey and some burgesses of the abbey was heard first by the Jours de Troyes, then escalated to the king's Parlement.  The Hundred Years' War began in 1337. The Black Death appeared in Marseille, then spread throughout France in 1348–49. Some thought the world was ending, and others thought God was punishing France for her sins. Guillaume de Chanac became abbot in 1352. He later became bishop of Chartres and a cardinal. In 1389 a complaint was lodged by 15 officers and monks of the abbey against the abbot Thiéry de Charmes concerning maladministration of the neighboring school. The award, issued by the court of Langes on the Saturday before Pentecost, meticulously itemized the rights and duties of the abbot. These included the requirement to supply wine to the master and clerics of Bèze to drink after vigils. Simon de Torcenay was abbot from 1423 until his death in 1444. He repaired the buildings and strengthened the fortifications. In 1425 he built the first forges on the Bèze. He was a "warrior monk" and fortified the abbey with walls surrounded by a moat and accessed over a drawbridge He built a second line of walls to fortify the village. Around 1428 Claus de Werve made a polychromed limestone statue of the "Virgin and Child" for the abbey, which was installed in the Church of Saint-Martin at Bézouotte and has survived. Construction of the fortified enclosure began in 1429. The Chaux tower in the south and the Oysel tower in the north still stand, and carry the arms of Simon de Torcenay. In 1433 there was a risk of rebellion by the lords of Château-Vilain, Grancey and Vergy against the Duke of Burgundy. On 10 May 1433 the duke addressed letters patent to the monks and people of Bèze telling them to remain faithful to the king of France and refuse entry to any stranger or enemy. That year he invited the abbot Simon de Torcenay, his councilor and chamberlain, to attend a solemn ceremony of a chapter of the Order of the Golden Fleece.  Bèze was devastated by the war between the Duchy of Burgundy and Franche-Comté, in which the Swiss invaded in 1513. During the French Wars of Religion the Bishop of Langres supported Henry IV of France but Bèze was occupied by forces of the Catholic League. In 1592 there were only six monks and two novices left. With the introduction of the ""commende"" system the abbot was appointed by the king and had sole responsibility for managing the property. Abbots, living outside the abbey, kept most of the income and granted the monks the bare minimum. In 1615 the lay lord Charles de Ferrières was appointed abbot.  In 1636, as a precaution, the relics of the Abbey of Bèze were deposited with the Abbey of Saint-Bénigne in Dijon. They were brought back from there 22 years later. During the Thirty Years' War in 1636 the Austrian army of Matthias Gallas ravaged the Vingeanne valley. Swedish mercenaries, nominally allies of France, destroyed what was left. The abbey was ruined, with only a few monks left, each living in a small house they had built for themselves.

Last revival (1662–1789).

In 1662 a final revival of the monastery began with the arrival of 12 monks of the Congregation of Saint-Maur. The Congregation of St Maur had been granted letters patent by Louis XIII of France in 1618 to manage the reformed monasteries of France. It contained more than 180 monasteries by the end of the 17th century. The congregation enforced a return to the strict Rule of Saint Benedict. It is best known for its scholarship, including historical research, biblical studies, chronology and liturgy. The abbey was probably partially rebuilt in the 17th century. In 1731 the abbey and its revenues were transferred to the newly created Bishopric of Dijon. It was now administered by a simple "prior" rather than an abbot, and depended on the bishop for funding.  The Congrégation de Saint-Maur planned a reconstruction program for the abbey, with plans that provided more southern light and air to the monks' cells. The buildings and Saint Peter and Paul church were destroyed and rebuilt from 1738, using materials from the old building. The initial plans were changed in 1769 under the direction of the architect Charles Saint-Père, who conceived a large building south of the church. It had a central section holding the refectory and the dormitory, with two wings. Of the long "monastic palace", the wings have survived but the main building, which held the cells of the monks on the first floor, has been destroyed.  The buildings included an infirmary, guest rooms for distinguished visitors, a library that had 4,175 volumes according to the May 1790 inventory and apartments for the Cellerier and Sous-Cellerier, who looked after the material life of the abbey. The west wing held a large library on the second floor. A cloister gallery runs along the central north side. There is a storehouse arranged symmetrically with the west wing. The church was roughly the same as the former church, but somewhat shortened and no longer extending to the river.

Post-revolution (1789–present).

At the start of the French Revolution, on 2 November 1789 the Constituent Assembly decreed nationalization of the lands of the church and the religious houses. The monks were turned out of the abbeys and left to look after themselves. In May 1790 the municipality of Bèze made an inventory of the monks' property. The last three monks left in January 1791. The municipality acquired the storehouse to hold the town hall and the school.  In August 1791 a Langres paper maker named Faitout obtained possession of the other buildings. After a failed spinning project the abbey church began to be destroyed around 1796 and the stones sold. The central part of the buildings was demolished in 1805. The former "convent house" was sold in 1804 to Frédéric Rochet, an ironmaster. The property then passed through several hands before being acquired by the Dijon industrialist Philippe Breuil in 1872, whose descendants owned the property as of 2014. The forges on the Belle Ile en Bèze operated until the end of the 19th century, when they were replaced by a hydroelectric power station, which operated until the 1960s. Sheds, stables and an orangerie in the southwest were built after 1845 and a park laid out. The English-style park was planted with many unusual trees in the 19th century and includes a flower garden with old roses.  The site has a total area of. There are two 4-level horseshoe towers from the old enclosure. The Oysel tower to the north has had its internal divisions destroyed. The Chaix tower to the west has a vaulted ground floor and 2nd and 3rd floors reached by a stairway in the thickness of the wall. Of the main structure what remains are two symmetrical buildings with basements and two floors. There is an elongated building to the east and remains of other structures including a barrel-vaulted chapel. The axial chapel survives with two pilasters and their capitals. The east and west wings of the 18th century convent building, the Chaux and Oysel towers including the washhouse, the floor of the old church and the axial chapel, facades, roofs and cellar structure were registered as "Monuments Historiques" on 15 September 2010. The property is privately owned. Both the park and gardens are open to visitors, for a small fee.

The Bèze Abbey (), was a monastery founded in 629 AD in Burgundy, France. It was destroyed several times during the next three centuries by Frankish warlords, Saracens, Normans and Hungarians. At the end of the 10th century the abbey was re-founded and entered a golden age for the next two centuries. By the 13th century the spiritual life of the abbey had declined and the monks were mainly concerned with temporal matters. The abbey lost most of its monks during the Hundred Years' War and the Black Death of the 14th century. In 1429 it was fortified with stone walls, a moat and towers, two of which have survived. The abbey was again devastated by feuds in 1513, by the French Wars of Religion (1562–98) and by the Thirty Years' War (1618–48).

Labbaye Saint-Pierre et Saint-Paul de Bèze a été fondée en 630 sur le territoire qui deviendra la commune de Bèze, à quelque 30 km au nord-est de Dijon dans l'actuelle Côte-d'Or. Elle suivit d'abord pendant la règle de saint Colomban, puis en 826, la règle de saint Benoît. Ce qui subsiste de cette ancienne abbaye bénédictine est un patrimoine classé monument historique inscrit en 2010. Elle était jusqu'en 1731 rattachée au Diocèse de Langres, puis à partir de cette date, à celui de Dijon. L'abbaye est la propriété privée de M. et Jean Brasart. Elle est ouverte au public à l'occasion des Journées du Patrimoine.


History.

The authors of the first Estonian constitution, with memories of the Russian emperors' abuses of power, tried to avoid concentrating too much power in one person's hands by all means possible. This eventually led to a creation of an ultra-parliamentary system. The power of the Parliament (Riigikogu) was practically unlimited. Until 1934, the nominal head of state was the State Elder, ("riigivanem"), who also served as "de jure" chairman of the cabinet—officially known as "the Government." However, he could not play a balancing role in the event of conflict between the Parliament and the Government. The State Elder and the Government were completely dependent on the Parliament and could be sacked by it at any time. The functions that are usually vested on a president in parliamentary systems were divided among the speaker of the Riigikogu, the State Elder and the Government.  Estonia's constitution was amended in 1933, instituting a strongly presidential system. The head of state, according to the new constitution, was also called the State Elder, but this time was vested with sweeping executive powers. However, it never came into effect as a result of Konstantin Päts's self-coup in 1934. In 1938, another constitution was enacted, and the head of state's title was changed to "President of the Republic." He was given very broad executive power, though he was somewhat less powerful than the State Elder of the 1933 constitution. Konstantin Päts became the first person to bear this title. His term was to last for six years.  Within days after the Soviet occupation of Estonia in 1940, Päts was forced to appoint a Communist-dominated puppet government headed by Johannes Vares, following the arrival of demonstrators accompanied by Red Army troops with armored vehicles to the Presidential palace. The Vares government had actually been chosen by Soviet official Andrei Zhdanov. Following the sham elections in July, Päts was dismissed from office. Later in July Päts, along with his son, daughter-in-law and two grandsons, was deported to Ufa in Russia.  According to the 1938 constitution, if the President was ever incapacitated or was otherwise unable to carry out his functions, his duties were assumed by the Prime Minister under the title "Prime Minister in duties of the President." In accordance with this provision, Vares took over the functions of the president in order to give legal sanction to the formal annexation of Estonia by the Soviet Union in August. However, during times of war or incapacitation lasting longer than six months, the constitution provides for the election of an acting President by the Electoral Council. The Electoral Council met in secret on 20 April 1944, and determined that the appointment of Vares as Prime Minister in 1940 was unlawful according to the 1938 constitution. The Council elected Jüri Uluots as Acting President on 21 April. Uluots appointed Otto Tief as Prime Minister. Tief was subsequently arrested by the re-occupying Soviet forces in September.  In September 1944, Uluots and the surviving members of the Tief government escaped to Sweden. The day before Uluots died in January 1945, a successor, August Rei, was named to assume the position of acting President. Following Rei's death in 1963, the role passed to Aleksander Warma, then to Tõnis Kint in 1971, then to Heinrich Mark in 1990. In October 1992, Mark handed over his credentials to the newly elected President of the restored republic, Lennart Meri.  After Estonia regained independence, a new constitution was adopted that was based on a mixture of the 1920 and 1938 documents. During the drafting of the new constitution, it was initially planned to use the older, more traditional title, State Elder, for the head of state. However, the more modern term president was eventually chosen after public consultations. Five presidential elections have taken place (in 1992, 1996, 2001, 2006 and 2011). In the first four elections parliament failed to choose the President and the election passed to the electoral assembly. Lennart Meri was elected in 1992 (this election, unlike later ones, had a public round) and re-elected in 1996, defeating Arnold Rüütel both times. Rüütel himself became the next President in 2001. In 2006, Toomas Hendrik Ilves won the election and he was reelected by the parliament in 2011. Kersti Kaljulaid was elected President in 2016.

Constitutional role.

The President of the Republic of Estonia:  Unlike his or her counterparts in other parliamentary republics, the President is not even the "nominal" chief executive. Rather, the Constitution explicitly vests executive power in the Government.

Living former presidents.

There are two living former Estonian presidents:

The President of the Republic of Estonia () is the head of state of the Republic of Estonia. The current President is Kersti Kaljulaid, elected by Parliament on 3 October 2016, becoming the first woman and youngest person ever who holds the position.

Le président de la république d'Estonie () est le chef de l'État de la république d'Estonie, dont les compétences politiques et institutionnelles sont régies par le chapitre V de la Constitution de l'Estonie.


Biography.

Burningham was born 27 April 1936, in Farnham, Surrey, England, to Charles and Jessie (Mackintosh) Burningham. He was educated at the alternative school Summerhill. When called up for National Service he registered as a conscientious objector, and served in forestry and housing projects. He entered the Central School of Art when he was 20 and graduated in 1959. After work on posters (for London and British Transport) and animated films, Burningham debuted both as book author and book illustrator in 1963 with the picture book "", published by Jonathan Cape. For that he won the 1963 Kate Greenaway Medal from the Library Association, recognising the year's best children's book illustration by a British subject. For the 50th anniversary of the Medal (1955–2005), a panel of experts named "Borka" one of the top ten winning works, which composed the ballot for a public election of the nation's favourite.  Cape was soon looking for someone to illustrate a forthcoming children's adventure serial called "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang" that was written by Ian Fleming, its most successful author at the time. Fleming had suggested cartoonist "Trog" (Wally Fawkes) of the "Daily Mail", but the newspaper would not allow the illustrator of their popular "Flook" strip to work for an author whose James Bond stories were adapted as a comic strip for its arch-rival "Daily Express". Fleming consulted his motor engineer friend Charles Amherst Villiers, who produced a sketch based on Fleming's description of the magical car—this drawing was passed to Cape's popular new illustrator John Burningham, who was asked to illustrate the whole series on the strength of his debut story "Borka". "Chitty-Chitty-Bang-Bang" was originally published in three volumes, 1964–1965; the omnibus edition followed in 1968. Burningham's witty and timeless art-work, along with Fleming's imaginative text, led Chitty to become the most famous and best loved car in English-language fiction.  In 1964 Burningham married author-illustrator Helen Gillian Oxenbury, who won the 1969 Greenaway Medal. He won the next year for "Mr Gumpy's Outing" (Cape, 1970), the first illustrator to win twice. Oxenbury was later a highly commended runner up four times, and eventually won a second Medal of her own for an edition of "Alice in Wonderland" (Walker, 1999) that was also named to the anniversary top ten.  Burningham has contributed to more than 60 other books and has received many awards including the 1980 Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, Picture book category, for "Was ist dir lieber..." (), the German-language edition of "Would you rather..." (Cape, 1978, ). Google books calls it 'A series of comical choices such as, "Would you rather eat spider stew or slug dumplings or mashed worms?"'  For both writing and illustrating "Granpa" (1984), he won the "Emil": the Kurt Maschler Award, annually (1982 to 1999) recognising one UK-published "work of imagination for children, in which text and illustration are integrated so that each enhances and balances the other." It was adapted as a 1989 animated film of the same name.  In 2012 Burningham was one of five finalists for the biennial international Hans Christian Andersen Award for Illustration, which recognises a living "illustrator whose complete works have made lasting contributions to children's literature." Thirty national sections of the International Board on Books for Young People had exercised the option to nominate someone. The jury summarised, "John Burningham from the UK uses delicate irony mixed with innocence and high seriousness that with his use of line and colour, creates an intimacy with the reader."  Burningham died in London on 4 January 2019, at the age of 82, after contracting pneumonia.

Selected works.

Burningham both wrote and illustrated almost all of his published books. The exceptions are listed here:

John Burningham (27 April 1936 – 4 January 2019) was an English author and illustrator of children's books, especially picture books for young children. He lived in north London with his wife Helen Oxenbury, another illustrator. His last published work was a husband-and-wife collaboration, "There's Going to Be a New Baby" (Walker Books, September 2011), written by John and illustrated by Helen for "ages 2+".

John Burningham (né le à Farnham (Surrey) et mort le à Londres) est un auteur et illustrateur britannique de littérature jeunesse.


Disk cleaners.

Disk cleaners are computer programs that find and delete potentially unnecessary or potentially unwanted files from a computer. The purpose of such deletion may be to free up disk space, to eliminate clutter or to protect privacy.  Disk space consuming unnecessary files include temporary files, trash, old backups and web caches made by web browsers. Privacy risks include HTTP cookies, local shared objects, log files or any other trace that may tell which computer program opened which files.  Disk cleaners must not be mistaken with antivirus software (which delete malware), registry cleaners (which clean Microsoft Windows Registry) or data erasure software (which securely delete files), although multifunction software (such as those included below) may fit into all these categories.

Disk compression utilities.

A disk compression utility increases the amount of information that can be stored on a hard disk drive of given size. Unlike a file compression utility which compresses only specified files – and which requires the user designate the files to be compressed – an on-the-fly disk compression utility works automatically without the user needing to be aware of its existence.  When information needs to be stored to the hard disk, the utility will compress the information. When information needs to be read, the utility will decompress the information. A disk compression utility overrides the standard operating system routines. Since all software applications access the hard disk using these routines, they continue to work after disk compression has been installed. The compression/expansion process adds a small amount of overhead to disk access and may complicate error recovery on the affected volume. Also, if the compression utility's device driver was uninstalled or became corrupted, all data on the disk would be lost.  Disk compression utilities were popular especially in the early 1990s, when microcomputer hard disks were still relatively small (20 to 80 megabytes). Hard drives were also rather expensive at the time, costing roughly 10 USD per megabyte. For the users who bought disk compression applications, the software proved to be in the short term a more economic means of acquiring more disk space as opposed to replacing their current drive with a larger one. A good disk compression utility could, on average, double the available space with negligible speed loss. Disk compression fell into disuse by the late 1990s, as advances in hard drive technology and manufacturing led to increased capacities and lower prices.  Some examples of disk compression utilities:

Disk checkers.

A disk checker is a utility program which can scan a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive. This is not to be confused with a disk cleaner, which can find files that are unnecessary for computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space.  Some disk checkers can perform a whole surface scan to attempt to find any possible bad sectors, whereas others scan only the logical structure of files on the hard disk.  Operating systems often include one such tool. For example:

Disk layout tools.

Disk formatting and disk partitioning tools are responsible for generating low level disk layouts and file systems. Operating systems typically supply one or more programs performing these functions as part of their standard install:  In Windows: In Mac OS: In Linux:

Disk space analyzers.

A disk space analyzer (or disk usage analysis software) is a software utility for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub-folders) and files in a folder or drive. Most of these applications analyze this information to generate a graphical chart showing disk usage distribution according to folders or other user defined criteria.  Some disk space analyzers like DiskReport allow analysis of history of size and file count for each folder, to help find growing folders.  Examples:

A disk utility is a utility program that allows a user to perform various functions on a computer disk, such as disk partitioning and logical volume management, as well as multiple smaller tasks such as changing drive letters and other mount points, renaming volumes, disk checking, and disk formatting, which are otherwise handled separately by multiple other built-in commands. Each operating system (OS) has its own basic disk utility, and there are also separate programs which can recognize and adjust the different filesystems of multiple OSes. Types of disk utilities include disk checkers, disk cleaners and disk space analyzers

L'utilitaire de disque est un utilitaire inclus dans macOS permettant de partitionner, réparer, effacer et restaurer votre disque dur, votre disque SSD ou des périphériques de stockage externes. L'utilitaire de disque est également accessible depuis la partition Recovery HD.


Early life.

Born in Detroit, Michigan, Dorf was a fan of comic books and comic strips, particularly Chester Gould's work on the daily strip "Dick Tracy".  Dorf studied at Chicago's Art Institute before moving to New York and beginning his career as a freelancer in the field of commercial design. In the 1960s, Dorf had made the acquaintance of a number of creators working in the two fields, among them Jack Kirby, upon whom Dorf would occasionally call.

Career.

Comic-Con.

In 1964 back in Detroit, teenager Robert Brusch organised a convention for fans of the comics medium, which Dorf and Jerry Bails, the "father of comics fandom," attended. The next year Dorf and Bails took over the event, christening it the "Detroit Triple Fan Fair" (referring to fantasy literature, fantasy films, and comic art) and organizing it as an annual event. The Detroit Triple Fan Fair (DTFF) is credited as being the first regularly held convention featuring comic books as a major component. Dorf went on to produce the DTFF in 1967 and 1968 as well.  In 1970, Dorf moved to San Diego, California, to take care of his aging parents. Almost immediately, he organized a one-day convention "as a kind of 'dry run' for the larger convention he hoped to stage," with Forrest J Ackerman as the star attraction.  Dorf's first three-day San Diego comics convention, the Golden State Comic-Con, was held at the U. S. Grant Hotel from August 1–3, 1970. It would eventually grow into the San Diego Comic-Con International, now considered the standard bearer for U.S. comic conventions. The convention moved in subsequent years to the El Cortez Hotel; the University of California, San Diego; and Golden Hall, before settling into the San Diego Convention center in 1991.

Later endeavors.

As "'Founding Father' of San Diego Comic-Con," Dorf received an Inkpot Award at the 1975 San Diego Comic-Con.  In 1984 Dorf began compilation and editing of the "Dick Tracy" comic strips in comic book format for Blackthorne Publishing, "proudly" publishing ninety-nine issues and collecting the material again in twenty-four collections.  Chester Gould's daughter, Jean Gould O'Connell credits Dorf with bringing "Tracy out to another generation." Comics historian Mark Evanier said Caniff "honored Shel by making him into a character. It was a well-meaning football player named "Thud Shelley" who appeared a few times in the Canyon strip. Jack Kirby also made Shel into a character... a father figure named Himon who appeared in "Mister Miracle". In 1990, Dorf was employed as a consultant on Warren Beatty's big-screen adaptation of Dick Tracy.  Dorf would also contribute interviews to the comics press and movie collector magazines (including for "The Buyer's Guide for Comic Fandom" <nowiki>[</nowiki>TBG<nowiki>]</nowiki> and "Film Collector's World"), and his conversations with Milton Caniff and Mort Walker have both been collected in the University Press of Mississippi's "Milton Caniff: Conversations" and "Mort Walker: Conversations" respectively. His interview with Wally Wood (among the few to see print) for "TBG" was reprinted in "Comic Book Artist" #14 (July 2001).

Death and legacy.

Dorf died at age 76 on November 3, 2009, from diabetes-related complications in Sharp Memorial Hospital, San Diego. He was survived by his brother, Michael.  Since 2010, the Shel Dorf Awards have been presented at conventions in Michigan, including Detroit Fanfare and C4 (the Cherry Capital Comic Con).

Sheldon "Shel" Dorf (July 5, 1933 – November 3, 2009) was an American comic book enthusiast and the founder of the San Diego Comic-Con International. Dorf was also a freelance artist and graphic designer, who lettered the "Steve Canyon" comic strip for the last 12 to 14 years of the strip's run.

Sheldon Dorf, dit Shel Dorf (né à Détroit le et mort à San Diego le ) est une personnalité de bande dessinée américaine. Il fut lettreur, éditeur scientifique d'albums reprenant des comic strips, a interviewé des auteurs de comics pour des revues et a créé le Comic-Con de San Diego en 1970. Il a reçu le prix Inkpot en 1975.


CHADS.

The CHADS score does not include some common stroke risk factors, and its various pros/cons have been carefully discussed. Adding together the points that correspond to the conditions that are present results in the CHADS score, that is used to estimate stroke risk.

CHADS-VASc.

To complement the CHADS score, by the inclusion of additional'stroke risk modifier' risk factors, the CHADS-VASc-score has been proposed.  In clinical use, the CHADS score has been superseded by the CHADS-VASc score, which gives a better stratification of low-risk patients. The CHADS score has been outperformed by the CHADS-VASc in multiple patient groups including patients with AF who are receiving outpatient elective electrical cardioversion. Thus, the CHADS-VASc score is a refinement of CHADS score and extends the latter by including additional common stroke risk factors, that is, age 65–74, female gender and vascular disease. In the CHADS-VASc score, 'age 75 and above' also has extra weight, with 2 points.  The maximum CHADS score is 6, whilst the maximum CHADS-VASc score is 9 (not 10, as might be expected from simply adding up the columns; the maximum score for age is 2 points).  Major guidelines have used the above fixed annual stroke risk as a guideline of starting anticoagulant treatment; where the ischemic stroke risk of more than 1% to 2% should be an indication to start an anticoagulant therapy. However, actual risk of getting stroke varies according to sampling method and geographical regions, as well as use of appropriate study analysis methodology. A meta-analysis of various studies in 2015 shown that annual stroke risk is less than 1% in 13 of the 17 studies for CHADS-VASc score of 1, 6 out of 15 studies reported risk of 1 to 2% and 5 out of 15 studies reported risk of more than 2% for CHADS-VASc score of 2. Nevertheless, stroke rates vary by study setting (hospital vs community), population (trial vs general), ethnicity, etc. Some studies included in the metaanalysis include females with score 1 by virtue of gender (who are low risk), into the aggregate rates; others included do not account for followup anticoagulation use (thus lowering rates) and were analysed by excluding all patients ever started on anticoagulants ('conditioning on the future' error).  The CHADS-VASc Score has shown increasing popularity over time while the CHADS has shown decreasing popularity, which could "partly be related to introduction of guidelines recommending the use of the CHADS-VASc score for stroke risk stratification".

Treatment recommendations.

The CHADS-VASc score has been used in the 2012 European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation. The 2014 American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society guidelines also recommend use of the CHADS-VASc score.  The European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines recommend that if the patient has a CHADS-VASc score of 2 and above, oral anticoagulation therapy (OAC) with a Vitamin K Antagonist (VKA, e.g. warfarin with target INR of 2-3) or one of the direct oral anticoagulant drugs (DOACs, e.g. dabigatran, rivaroxaban, edoxaban, or apixaban) is recommended.  If the patient is 'low risk' using the CHADS-VASc score (that is, 0 in males or 1 in females), no anticoagulant therapy is recommended.  In males with 1 stroke risk factor (that is, a CHADS-VASc score=1), antithrombotic therapy with OAC may be considered, and people values and preferences should be considered. Even a single stroke risk factor confers excess risk of stroke and mortality, with a positive net clinical benefit for stroke prevention with oral anticoagulation, when compared to no treatment or aspirin. As mentioned above, thromboembolic event rates differ according to various guideline treatment thresholds and methodological approaches.

Anticoagulation.

Treatment recommendations based on the CHADS-VASc score are shown in the following table: Based on the ESC guidelines on Atrial Fibrillation, oral anticoagulation is recommended or preferred for patients with one or more stroke risk factors (i.e. a CHADS-VASc score of ≥1 in males, or ≥2 in females). This is consistent with a recent decision analysis model showing how the 'tipping point' on the decision to anticoagulate has changed with the availability of the'safer' DOAC drugs, where the threshold for offering stroke prevention (i.e. oral anticoagulation) is a stroke rate of approximately 1%/year.  Those patients recommended for stroke prevention treatment via oral anticoagulation, choice of drug (i.e. between a Vitamin K Antagonist and Direct Oral Anticoagulant (DOAC)) can be evaluated using the SAMe-TT2R2 score to help decision-making on the most appropriate oral anticoagulant.

Bleeding risk.

Stroke risk assessment should always include an assessment of bleeding risk. This can be done using validated bleeding risk scores, such as the HEMORRHAGES or HAS-BLED scores. The HAS-BLED score is recommended in guidelines, to identify the high risk patient for regular review and followup and to address the reversible risk factors for bleeding (e.g. uncontrolled hypertension, labile INRS, excess alcohol use or concomitant aspirin/NSAID use). If the patient is taking warfarin, then knowledge of INR control is needed to assess the 'labile INR' criterion in HAS-BLED; otherwise for a non-warfarin patient, this criterion scores zero. A high HAS-BLED score is not a reason to withhold anticoagulation. Also, when compared to HAS-BLED, other bleeding risk scores that did not consider 'labile INR' would significantly underperform in predicting bleeding on warfarin, and would often inappropriately categorise many patients who sustained bleeds as 'low risk'.

The CHADS score and its updated version, the CHADS-VASc score, are clinical prediction rules for estimating the risk of stroke in patients with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation (AF), a common and serious heart arrhythmia associated with thromboembolic stroke. Such a score is used to determine whether or not treatment is required with anticoagulation therapy or antiplatelet therapy, since AF can cause stasis of blood in the upper heart chambers, leading to the formation of a mural thrombus that can dislodge into the blood flow, reach the brain, cut off supply to the brain, and cause a stroke.

Les scores de risque embolique sont des échelles permettant d'estimer le risque d'embolie artérielle lors d'une fibrillation auriculaire sans maladie valvulaire mitrale. Ils permettent d'aider à la décision de la mise en place d'un traitement anticoagulant ou non.


Treaty of Paris (1763).

On February 10, 1763, France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the cession of Canada, including all its dependencies, Acadia (Nova Scotia) and Cape Breton Island to Great Britain. A

Royal proclamation (1763).

The policy of Great Britain regarding its newly acquired colonies of America was revealed in a Royal Proclamation, issued on October 7, 1763. The proclamation renamed Canada "The Province of Quebec", redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. Although not an act of Parliament, the proclamation expressed the will of the British Crown to govern its new possessions. The proclamation was thus considered constitution of Quebec until the passing of the Quebec Act, by which the colony was granted a legislature. The new governor of the colony was given "the power and direction to summon and call a general assembly of the people's representatives" when the "state and circumstances of the said Colonies will admit thereof".  The governor was also given the mandate to "make, constitute, and ordain Laws, Statutes, and Ordinances for the Public Peace, Welfare, and good Government of our said Colonies, and of the People and Inhabitants thereof" with the consent of the British-appointed councils and representatives of the people. In the meantime, all British subjects in the colony were guaranteed of the protection of the law of England, and the governor was given the power to erect courts of judicature and public justice to hear all causes, civil or public.  The Royal Proclamation contained elements that conflicted with the "Articles of Capitulation of Montreal", which granted Canadians the privilege to maintain their civil laws and practise their religion. The application of British laws such as the penal Laws caused numerous administrative problems and legal irregularities. The requirements of the Test Act also effectively excluded Catholics from administrative positions in the British Empire.  When James Murray was commissioned as captain general and governor in chief of the Province of Quebec, a four-year military rule ended, and the civil administration of the colony began. Judging the circumstances to be inappropriate to the establishment of British institutions in the colony, Murray was of the opinion that it would be more practical to keep the current civil institutions. He believed that, over time, the Canadians would recognize the superiority of British civilization and willingly adopt its language, its religion, and its customs. He officially recommended to retain French civil law and to dispense the Canadians from taking the Oath of Supremacy. Nevertheless, Murray followed his instructions and British institutions began to be established. On September 17, 1764, the Courts of the King's Bench and Common Pleas were constituted.  Tensions quickly developed between the British merchants or old subjects, newly established in the colony, and Governor Murray. They were very dissatisfied with the state of the country and demanded that British institutions be created immediately. They demanded that common law be enforced to protect their business interests and that a house of assembly be created for English-speaking Protestants alone. Murray did not think very highly of these tradesmen. In a letter to the British Lords of Trade, he referred to them as "licentious fanatics" who would not be satisfied but by "the expulsion of the Canadians".  The conciliatory approach of Murray in dealing with the demands of the Canadians was not well received by the merchants. In May 1764, they petitioned the king for Murray's removal, accusing him of betraying the interests of Great Britain by his defence of the Canadian people's interests. The merchants succeeded in having him recalled to London. He was vindicated, but did not return to the Province of Quebec. In 1768, he was replaced by Sir Guy Carleton, who would contribute to the drafting of the 1774 Quebec Act.  Murray called in the representatives of the people in 1765; however, his attempt to constitute a representative assembly failed, as, according to historian Francois-Xavier Garneau, the Canadians were unwilling to renounce their Catholic faith and take the test oath required to hold office.

Quebec Act (1774).

The Quebec Act granted many of the requests of the Canadians. Enacted on June 13, 1774, the act changed the following:  No assembly of representatives was created, which allowed the governor to keep ruling under the advice of his counsellors.  The British merchants of Quebec were not pleased by this new act, which ignored their most important demands. They continued to campaign to abolish the current civil code and establish a house of assembly excluding Catholics and French-speakers.  The Quebec Act was also very negatively received in the British colonies to the south. (See the Intolerable Acts.) This act was in force in the Province of Quebec when the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775.

Letters to the inhabitants of the Province of Quebec (1774-1775).

During the revolution, the Continental Congress attempted to rally the Canadian people to its cause. The delegates wrote three letters (Letters to the inhabitants of Canada) inviting them to join in the revolution. The letters circulated in Canada, mostly in the cities of Montreal and Quebec. The first letter was written on October 26, 1774, and signed by the president of the congress, Henry Middleton. It was translated into French by Fleury Mesplet, who printed it in Philadelphia and distributed the copies himself in Montreal.  The letter pleaded the cause of democratic government, the separation of powers,

Resumption of the reform movement (1784).

Soon after the war, which ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the constitutional question resurfaced.  In July 1784, Pierre du Calvet, a rich French merchant established in Montreal, published a pamphlet entitled "Appel à la justice de l'État" (Call to the Justice of the State) in London. Printed in French, the document is the first plea in favour of a constitutional reform in Canada. Du Calvet, imprisoned at the same time and for the same reasons as Fleury Mesplet and Valentine Jautard, both suspected of sympathizing and collaborating with the American revolutionaries during the war, undertook to have the injustice committed towards him be publicly known by publishing "The Case of Peter

Parliamentary constitution project (1789).

In 1786, the British government appointed Guy Carleton, as "governor-in-chief" and also governor of Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and St. John's Island (present-day Prince Edward Island). Carleton, now Lord Dorchester, had been British commander in Canada and governor of Quebec during the American Revolutionary War. When he returned as governor, he was already informed that the arrival of the Loyalists would require changes.  On October 20, 1789, Home Secretary William Wyndham Grenville wrote a private and secret letter to Carleton, informing him of the plans of the king's counsellors to modify Canada's constitution. The letter leaves little doubt as to the influence that American independence and the taking of the Bastille (which had just occurred in July) had on the decision. In the first paragraph, Grenville writes: "I am persuaded that it is a

Constitutional Act (1791).

On June 10, 1791, the Constitutional Act was enacted in London and gave Canada its first parliamentary constitution. Containing 50 articles, the act brought the following changes:  This partition ensured that Loyalists would constitute a majority in Upper Canada and allow for the application of exclusively British laws in this province. As soon as the province was divided, a series of acts were passed to abolish the French civil code in Upper Canada. In Lower Canada, the coexistence of French civil law and English criminal law continued.  Although it solved the immediate problems related to the settlement of the Loyalists in Canada, the new constitution brought a whole new set of political problems which were rooted in the constitution. Some of these problems were common to both provinces, while others were unique to Lower Canada or Upper Canada. The problems that eventually affected both provinces were:  In the two provinces, a movement for constitutional reform took shape within the majority party, the Parti canadien of Lower Canada and the Reformers of Upper Canada. Leader of the Parti Canadien, Pierre-Stanislas Bédard was the first politician of Lower Canada to formulate a project of reform to put an end to the opposition between the elected Legislative Assembly and the Governor and his Council which answered only the Colonial Office in London. Putting forward the idea of ministerial responsibility, he proposed that the members of the Legislative Council be appointed by the Governor on the recommendation of the elected House.

Union Bill (1822).

In 1822, the Secretary of Colonial Office Lord Bathurst and his under-secretary Robert John Wilmot-Horton secretly submitted a bill to British House of Commons which projected the legislative union of the two Canadian provinces. Two months after the adjournment of the discussions on the bill, the news arrived in Lower Canada and caused a sharp reaction.  Supported by Governor Dalhousie, anglophone petitioners from the Eastern Townships, Quebec City and Kingston, the bill submitted in London provided, among other things, that each of the two sections of the new united province would have a maximum of 60 representatives, which would have put the French-speaking majority of Lower Canada in a position of minority in the new Parliament.

Report of the Special Committee of the House of Commons (1828).

A Select Committee of the House of Commons on the Civil Government of Canada was appointed on May 2, 1828 "to enquire into the state of the civil government of Canada, as established by the Act 31 Geo.

The Ninety-Two Resolutions of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada (1834).

These constituted a sort of declaration of rights on the part of the patriote party. They were drafted by A. N. Morin, but were inspired by Louis-Joseph Papineau. They demanded the application of the elective principle to the political institutions of the province, after the American model;

Royal Commission for the Investigation of all Grievances Affecting His Majesty's Subjects of Lower Canada (1835).

Following the adoption of the Ninety-Two Resolutions, the Governor Gosford arrived in Lower Canada to replace governor Aylmer. Gosford set up royal commission of inquiry conducted

John Russell's Ten Resolutions (1837).

On March 2, 1837, John Russell, the British Colonial Secretary, submitted ten resolutions to the Parliament in response to the ninety-two resolutions. The Parliament adopted the resolutions on March 6.  Most of the recommendations brought forth by the elected assemblies were systematically ignored by the Executive Councils. This was particularly true in Lower Canada with an assembly consisting mostly of French-Canadian members of the Parti Patriote. This impasse created considerable tensions between the French-Canadian political class and the British government. In 1834 Louis-Joseph Papineau, a French-Canadian political leader, submitted a document entitled the Ninety-Two Resolutions to the Crown. The document requested vast democratic reforms such as the transfer of power to elected representatives. The reply

Suspension of the Constitutional Act (1838).

Approximately four months after having proclaimed martial law in the district of

Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839).

Following the rebellions, in May 1838, the British government sent Governor General Lord Durham to Lower and Upper Canada in order to investigate the uprisings and to bring forth solutions. His recommendations were formulated in what is known as "Lord Durham's Report" and suggested the

Act of Union (1840).

Following the publication of the Report on the Affairs of British North America, the British Parliament adopted, in June 1840, the Act of Union. The new Act, which effected the legislative union of Upper Canada and Lower Canada to form a single province named the Province of Canada, implemented the principal recommendation of John George Lambton's report, but did not grant a "responsible government" to the new political entity. Entering into force as of February 1841, the 62 articles of the Act of Union brought about the following changes:  As a result, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with its enormous debt, were united in 1840, and French was banned in the legislature for about eight years. Eight years later, an elected and responsible government was granted. By this time, the French-speaking majority of Lower Canada had become a political minority in a unified Canada. This, as Lord Durham had recommended in his report, resulted in English political control over the French-speaking part of Canada, and ensured the colony's loyalty to the British crown. On the other hand, continual legislative deadlock between English and French led to a movement to replace unitary government with a federal one. This movement culminated in Canadian Confederation.

Ministerial responsibility (1848).

Ministerial responsibility, the principal object of parliamentary struggles conducted by the Parti Canadien in Lower Canada and the Reformers in Upper Canada, becomes a reality in 1848, when Governor Lord Elgin agreed to let the leaders of the majority parties in Canada-East and the Canada-West, Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine and

Confederation projects (1858–1864).

In 1858, Joseph-Charles Taché, doctor and journalist from Quebec City, published a detailed project of federation. It was the first time that a project of this type was presented publicly since the proposal that John A.

British North America Act (1867).

The British North America Act 1867 was the act that established Canada, by the confederation of the North American British colonies of the Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The former subdivisions of Canada were renamed from Canada West and Canada East to the Province of Ontario and Province of Quebec, respectively. Quebec and Ontario were given equal footing with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in the Parliament of Canada. This was done to counter the claims of manifest destiny made by the United States, for the defence of Britain's holdings. American claims are evinced by the invasions of the Canadas during the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812.  Prior to the BNA Act of 1867, the British colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, discussed the possibility of a fusion to counter the threat of American annexation, and to reduce the costs of governance. The Province of Canada entered these negotiations at the behest of the British government, and this led to the ambivalence of Prince Edward Island, which delayed joining the new Dominion until 1873. The constitutional conference, ironically, was held on Prince Edward Island, in Charlottetown. Newfoundland also participated (at the Quebec Conference) and likewise declined to join.

Province of Manitoba (1870).

On May 12, 1870, the British Crown proclaimed the "Manitoba Act", enacted by the Parliament of Canada, effectively giving birth to the province of Manitoba. The 36 articles of the Act established the territorial limits, the subjects' right to vote, the representation in the Canadian House

Statute of Westminster (1931).

Canada and the other British dominions achieved full legislative sovereignty with the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, but

The Quiet Revolution (1960s).

In the early 1960s, the Quiet Revolution, stemming from a new assertiveness and a heightened sense of national identity among Québécois, dramatically changed the face of Quebec's institutions. The new provincial government headed by Jean Lesage and operating under the slogans ""Il faut que ça change!"" and ""Maître chez nous"" ("It must change!", "Masters in our own house") secularized government institutions, nationalized electricity production and encouraged unionization. The reforms sought to redefine the relations between the vastly working-class francophone Québécois and the mostly anglophone business class. Thus passive Catholic nationalism stylized by Father Lionel Groulx gave way to a more active pursuit of independence, and in 1963 the

Fulton Formula (1961).

The Fulton Formula was named for federal Minister of Justice E. Davie Fulton. It proposed an amending formula that included unanimous consent of Parliament and all provinces for select areas of jurisdiction, the consent of Parliament and of the provinces concerned for provisions affecting one or more, but not all of the provinces, the consent of Parliament and of all

Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963).

For the federal government this demand for an enormous shift in power to a province done under a threat of a possible unilateral declaration of independence, was cause for great alarm. In 1967, on the initiative of Premier John Robarts of Ontario, a provincial first ministers' conference was held in Toronto to discuss the Canadian confederation of the future. From this, a first round of what would become annual constitutional meetings of all provincial premiers and the prime minister of Canada, was held in February 1968. On the initiative of Prime Minister Lester Pearson the conference undertook

Fulton-Favreau Formula (1964).

The Fulton–Favreau formula was a proposed formula of amendment of the Constitution of Canada developed by federal justice minister E. Davie Fulton and Quebec Liberal Guy Favreau in the 1960s and approved at a federal-provincial conference in 1965. The formula would have achieved the patriation of the Constitution. Under the formula, all provinces would have to approve amendments that would be relevant to provincial jurisdiction, including

Victoria Charter (1971).

The 1971 Victoria Conference, a meeting between the federal government and the provinces, brought about the Victoria Charter. This Charter sought to establish a formula for amending the Constitution without requiring the unanimous consent of the provinces. Notably, it would give a veto to any province

Bill C-60, the Constitutional Amendment Bill.

Bill C-60 was tabled in the House of Commons by the Prime Minister It contained a guarantee of "the right of the individual to the use and enjoyment of property, and the right not to be deprived thereof except in accordance with law." This language was contentious, especially in PEI. and as

Referendum on Sovereignty-Association (1980).

In 1976 the Parti Québécois won the provincial election in Quebec with a 41.4 per cent to 33.8 per cent margin over the Parti libéral du Québec, and in the 1980 Quebec referendum the Parti Québécois sought a mandate from the people of Quebec to negotiate new terms of association with the rest of Canada. With an 84-per-cent voter turnout, 60 per cent of Quebec voters rejected the proposal.  After the 1980 referendum was defeated, the government of Quebec passed Resolution 176, which stated, "A lasting solution to the constitutional issue presupposes recognition of the Quebec-Canada duality."  Meeting in Ottawa on June 9, 1980, the newly re-appointed Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau and the provincial premiers set an agenda and gave their ministers responsibility for constitutional issues and a mandate to proceed with exploratory discussions to create a new Canadian constitution. However, given the separatist government of Quebec's position that there be two nations established first in accordance with Resolution 176, approval by Quebec of any changes to the BNA Act was impossible. This assertion of national duality was immediately

Patriation: Canada Act (1982).

Subsequently, an agreement between the federal government and all provincial governments, except that of Quebec, agreed to Canada's assumption of full responsibility for its own constitution in 1982 (formerly the responsibility of the Parliament of the United Kingdom). The agreement was enacted as the Canada Act by the British Parliament, and was proclaimed into law by Queen Elizabeth II on April 17, 1982. In Canada, this was called the patriation of the Constitution.  This action (including the creation of a new Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms) came from an initiative by Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau to create a multicultural and bilingual society in all of Canada. Some Canadians saw Trudeau's actions as an attempt to "shove French down their throats" (a common phrase at the time). Many Québécois viewed his compromise as a sell-out and useless: Quebec already had a charter enacted in 1975 and was not interested in imposing French on other provinces; rather, it wished to safeguard it inside Quebec. Many Canadians recognize

Constitutional reform and upheaval (1982 onwards).

Since Canada's constitution was patriated without Quebec's consent, later initiatives would seek to ameliorate the constitutional "status quo", with varying results. Two formal, and unsuccessful, attempts were made to reform the constitution. A subsequent sovereignty referendum in 1995 – only narrowly lost – shook Canada to its core, and would bring about the Clarity Act.

Meech Lake Accord (1989).

In 1987, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to address these concerns and bring the province into an amended constitution. Quebec's provincial government, then controlled by a party that advocated remaining in Canada on certain conditions (the Parti libéral du Québec), endorsed the accord (called the Meech Lake Accord). Premier Robert Bourassa of Quebec referred to it as the "first step" towards gaining

Referendum on Charlottetown Accord (1992).

The federal government, the twelve provincial and territorial governments, and four first peoples' groups then negotiated a second proposed constitutional accord in 1992—the Charlottetown Accord. Despite near-unanimous support from the country's political leaders, this second effort at constitutional reform was rejected in a nationwide October 1992 referendum. Only 32 per cent of British Columbians supported the

Referendum on sovereignty (1995).

A referendum held in Quebec on October 30, 1995

Clarity Act (1998).

Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien referred the matter over whether a province could unilaterally secede from the federation to the Supreme Court of Canada in December 1999. In its Quebec Secession Reference decision, the Court ruled that the Canadian constitution did not give provinces the power to unilaterally secede. However, it also ruled that, in the event that a clear majority of the population voted in favour of a clear referendum question on secession, the democratic principles of the constitution required political leaders to

The constitutional history of Canada begins with the 1763 Treaty of Paris, in which France ceded most of New France to Great Britain. Canada was the colony along the St Lawrence River, part of present-day Ontario and Quebec. Its government underwent many structural changes over the following century. In 1867 Canada became the name of the new federal Dominion extending ultimately from the Atlantic to the Pacific and the Arctic coasts. Canada obtained legislative autonomy from the United Kingdom in 1931, and had its constitution (including a new rights charter) patriated in 1982. Canada's constitution includes the amalgam of constitutional law spanning this history.

L'histoire constitutionnelle du Canada reflète l'histoire du pays : soumis au régime colonial français à partir du, le Canada est conquis par le Royaume-Uni lors de la Guerre de Sept Ans. Il connait alors plusieurs textes constitutionnels et la construction progressive d'un système parlementaire.


Weight or clock jacks.

A great majority of the jacks used prior to the 19th century were powered by a descending weight, often made of stone or iron, sometimes of lead. Although most commonly referred to as spit engines or jacks, these were also termed weight or clock jacks (clock jacks was the more common term in North America).  Earlier jacks of this type had a train of two arbors (spindles), later ones had a more efficient three arbor train. In the case of British examples, almost without exception, the governor or flywheel was set above the engine (as opposed to being located within the frame) and to one side; to the right for two train and to the left for three train engines.  European jacks are characterised by a flywheel set centrally and often within the frame; commonly the highest part of the frame has a bell-like arch that the shaft for the flywheel passes through.

Steam jack.

A steam-powered roasting jack was first described by the Ottoman polymath and engineer Taqi al-Din in his "Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya" ("The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines"), in 1551. A steam-driven jack was patented by the American clockmaker John Bailey II in 1792, and steam jacks were later commercially available in the United States.

Smoke jack.

Leonardo da Vinci sketched a smoke-jack in the form of a turbine with four vanes. Smoke-jacks were also illustrated in Vittorio Zonca's book of machines (1607), and in Wilkins's "Mathematical Magick". The 1826 "A Treatise of Mechanics" describes a smoke-jack: Smoke-jack is an engine used for the same purpose as the common jack; and is so called from its being moved by means of the smoke, or rarefied air, ascending the chimney, and striking against the sails of the horizontal wheel AB (plate XXI. fig 1.), which being inclined to the horizon, is moved about the axis of the wheel, together with the pinion C, which carries the wheels D and E; and E carries the chain F, which turns the spit. The wheel AB should be placed in the narrow part of the chimney, where the motion of the smoke is swiftest, and where also the greatest part of it must strike upon the sails.—The force of this machine depends on the draught of the chimney, and the strength of the fire. Smoke-jacks are sometimes moved by means of spiral flyers coiling about a vertical axle; and at other times by a vertical wheel with sails like the float-boards of a mill: but the above is the more customary construction.

Bottle-jack.

A bottle-jack was a clockwork motor in a brass shell, shaped like a bottle; it was introduced in the late 18th Century and in many case replaced the earlier and much more simple dangle spit.

A roasting jack is a machine which rotates meat roasting on a spit. It can also be called a spit jack, a spit engine or a turnspit, although this name can also refer to a human turning the spit, or a turnspit dog. Cooking meat on a spit dates back at least to the 1st century BC, but at first spits were turned by human power. In Britain, starting in the Tudor period, dog-powered turnspits were used; the dog ran in a treadmill linked to the spit by belts and pulleys. Other forms of roasting jacks included the steam jack, driven by steam, the smoke jack, driven by hot gas rising from the fire, and the bottle jack or clock jack, driven by weights or springs.

Un tournebroche est un appareil destiné à la cuisson d'un animal entier ou découpé en le faisant tourner sur une broche à rôtir d'un mouvement régulier, grâce à une manivelle, un mécanisme d'horlogerie actionné par un poids, un ressort ou de la vapeur, ou grâce à un moteur électrique.


Organizer.

Audiovisual diffusion of art.

A continuous aspect of his work is the realization of projects devoted to the diffusion of art. Pioneer in audiovisual diffusion of art through film, video and Internet, Natan Karczmar organizes in 1954 a festival of films on art in Tel Aviv, Jerusalem and Haifa, in Israel. Moving to Montreal, Quebec, She creates the Canadian Museum of Film on Art in 1956 and distributes the programs in 40 Canadian cities. In 1960, he organizes the Mexican Museum of Film on Art (Museo Mexicano de Peliculas sobre Art), and in 1962, the American Institute of Film on Art. In 1963, a meeting of the International Museum of Film on Art was held in Montreal.

Centre Canadien d'Essai – Canadian Workshop Center.

Simultaneously, Natan Karczmar starts in 1957 the theater of the Centre canadien d'Essai or Canadian Workshop Center at the Fine Art School of Montreal. He presents one hundred productions until 1964, combining theater, and mainly one act plays, contemporary dance, poetry and music. In 1958, he organizes the Salon de la Jeune Peinture, sculpture and graphic arts.  In 1983, back in Israel, Natan Karczmar went on with his theatrical activity by creating the Tel Aviv-Jaffa Street Theater showing his play "The Sandclock" (Noa's adventures).

Publishing.

Related to the "Centre Canadien d'Essai", Natan Karczmar publishes several "Cahiers d'Essai" and created the Editions d'Essai. Published were the Young Poetry Award "J'ai choisi la mort" by Guy Lafond as well as "Ballades du temps précieux" by Pierre Perrault illustrated by Anne Treze. Natan Karczmar started also the Editions Graph which published albums by the following sculptors and printmakers from Quebec: Armand Vaillancourt, Albert Roussil, Anne Kahane, Marcel Braitstein, Roland Giguère, Léon Bellefleur, Stanley Lewis and André Montpetit. In 1967, he publishes the first book on Canadian sculpture at the occasion of the World Fair "Terre des Hommes" in Montreal with a presentation by William Withrow and a foreword by Natan Karczmar. The photography was by Bruno Massenet.  Video publishing: "Art Planet", the interactive museum. In 1989, Natan Karczmar created the bimonthly "Art Planet" video magazine which was distributed in one hundred modern and contemporary art museums around the world. In the framework of "Art Planet", he organizes the Interactive Museum with real time visits at distance of museum exhibitions by using amplified telephone, video and slides, prefiguring thus Internet visioconferencing. The first presentation of the Interactive Museum happened in 1989 at the "Art Planet" Pavillon with the collaboration of the French FR3 broadcasting station, at the Grand palais, in Paris, during "L'Europe des Créateurs" event. Interactive Museum events were also held in 1992 at the UNESCO International Council of Museums congress in Quebec. He presented Art Planet in 1989 at the Canadian museums meeting at the Canadian Museum of Civilisation, in Hull, in Canada, and at the American museums meeting in New-Orleans, USA.  Internet Publishing : "Artmag" In April 1996, he founded the first art magazine on Internet http://www.artmag.com/ which presents temporary museum and gallery exhibitions around the world. Anguéliki Garidis is the artistic director and editor.

Art/Communication/New Technologies Seminar (ArtComTec).

From 1992 until 1994, he directs the Art/Communication/New Technologies Seminar at Université Européenne de la Recherche, at the Ministère de la Recherche, 1 rue Descartes, in Paris and invites many lecturers : Philippe Quéau, Jean-Marc Philippe, Jacques Jaffelin, Michel Bret, Pierre Lévy (philosophe), Fred Forest, Edmond Couchot, Stephan Barron, Frank Popper, Jean-Louis Boissier, Monique Nahas, Hervé Huitric, Merkado, Norbert Hillaire, Pierre Restany, Jean-Claude Anglade, Philippe Helary, Christian Sevette, Isabelle Rieusset-Lemarie, Joël Hubaut, Mario Costa, Jacques Monnier-Raball, Roberto Barbanti, Louis Bec, and Hubertus von Amelunxen.  In 2007 ArtComTec Seminars were held at the Chapelle des Recollets in Paris. Fred Forest, Louis-José Lestocart and Maurice Benayoun were lecturers.  In July 2015 he directed ArtComTec videoconferencing seminars in the framework of ArtCamp at the Ladislav Sutnar Faculty of Design and Art University of West Bohemia, Plzen, lecturers were Anat Pick, Annick Bureaud, Delphine Fabbri Lawson, Derrick de Kerckhove, Fernando Bayro-Corrochano, Fred Forest, Gabriel V. Soucheyre, Gilbertto Prado, Katerina Thomadaki, Marie Sylviane Buzin, Maurice Benayoun, Olga Kisseleva, Olivier Auber, Thomas Klinkowstein et Mauricio Dwek.  Journalist : Natan Karczmar was also active as an artistic journalist. He collaborated to the French division of Kol Israel (Israeli broadcasting) in 1953–54. He also worked as a musical critic for the French daily L'Echo d'Israël 1952–54 and as an art critic for the weekly Réalités d'Israël from 1982 to 1984.

Averroès-Maïmonides Center.

With Jean-Pierre Faye, president of L'Université Européenne de la Recherche and the collaboration of Anguéliki Garidis, Natan Karczmar organizes in 2007 the Centre Averroès-Maïmonides devoted to the Judeo-Christian dialog and produces visioconferences between Paris and Israeli institutions having inter-community cultural activities.

Artist.

Painter and photographer.

From 1969, Natan Karczmar devotes himself to painting and shows non-objective works in 1970 at Galerie Entremonde in Paris and at the Center Art Gallery in New-York. His artistic demarche includes also photography and lithography, in particular photomontages. Until 1983, he had shows in Canada, USA, Europe and Israel.

Communication artist.

In 1983, he organized "Installation Contact" (Mivne Maga) on the Kings Square (now Rabin Square), then in Haifa at Beth Rotschild and at the Acco Theater Festival with many games of communication, including 24 telephones in a closed circuit. In 1984, he met Fred Forest who invited him to join the group of Aesthetics of Communication which gathers theoreticians and artists using various technologies to produce communication works, networks, performances and installations. Artists, theoreticians, philosophers, art critics and institutional officials that have contributed to Aesthetics of communication include : Philippe Quéau, Jean-Marc Philippe, Jacques Jaffelin, Michel Bret, Pierre Lévy, and countless others. He also took part in the « L'immaginario tecnologico, Benevento, Museo del Sannio » curated by Mario Costa, and organized the « ARTCOM ISRAEL 1984 » Symposium at Israel Museum, Jerusalem, the Haifa Museum and Tzavta Center in Tel Aviv with Fred Forest and Antonio Muntadas as guest lecturers.

Videocollectives and installations.

He begins his art video activities by organizing in November 1984, in Israel, the first « Collective and Simultaneous Video Event ». The simultaneity occurs thanks to the collaboration of a radio broadcasting station which gives the starting cue to videomakers. In 1985, he organizes a second vidéo event in Salerno, Italy, in the framework of « ARTMEDIA 1 » directed by Prof. Mario Costa at Salerno University. Many videocollectives have been following and among them « VIDEO 6e » in the sixth borough in Paris with the participation of 22 videomakers. In 1986, he takes part to ARTMEDIA II in Salerno with the installation and video action « Investig'Action ». He co-organizes with Fred Forest the international symposium Artcom Paris 1986 at École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts de Paris and assiste Wolfgang Ziemer in the organization of Artcom Cologne 1986. In 1987, a Video twinning between the towns of Lille, Cologne, Liège, Asch-sur-Alzette and Grenoble is organized in the framework of the European Year of Environment with the participation of 60 videomakers. In 1988, he takes part to the "Transinteractifs" with « Transintercaricatures » between Paris and Toronto. That same year, the videocollective event « Vive la Tour » is organized for the preparation to the Centennial of the Tour Eiffel with the collaboration of Antenne 2 Broadcasting station, France Inter and France Info radio stations. He participates to a video installation Paris-Cologne at « Worauf Warten Sie » at Fermate at the Alter Wartesaal in Cologne. In 1990 he participates to "Arttransition" at the Center for advanced visual studies (CAVS) at M.I.T. At Cambridge, Mass. He participates in 1992 to the International Symposium « L'Europe de la Deuxième Renaissance » in Paris. He is also invited in England, Spain, Finlande, Hollande, Italy, USA, Canada and Russia to museums meetings.  Partnership with Vidéoformes : Since 2002, the Videocollectives http://videocollectifs.jimdo.com/ are partners with the International Vidéoformes Festival in Clermont-Ferrand where they are regularly presented and archived. They are produced by many videomakers around the world.

Relationnism.

At the occasion of the launching of "Art Planet" in 1989 at the Grand Palais in Paris during "L'Europe des Créateurs", he publishes a text describing his actions and those of other artists, presenting them as « Relationnism ». He distinguishes it thus from Aesthetics of Communication which privileges the medium, the container, rather than the content of communicational actions and events while Relationnism grants an equal importance to the container and the content. The attention is given as much to the technological medium than to the content in the creation of communicational works and in art of communication.

Funface.

In the framework of the Festival Vidéoformes 2013, Natan Karczmar updated at the Corum Saint-Jean in Clermont-Ferrand the exhibition presented in 1983 at the Installation Contact produced at the Kings of Israel Square in Tel Aviv (now Rabin Square). Portraits on the themes of the smile, the wink, and grimaces were taken, projected and put online on the site http://funface.co/

Actions and theme.

As an artist of communication and organizer of events, his actions include the telephone, video, fax, Internet, radio, installations, symposiums and seminars. His main themes are ubiquity, simultaneity, interactivity, collective actions, events, ephemeral and the trace.

Retrospective.

In, 2004, a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the first festival of film on art held in 1954 is organized at the Tel Aviv and Jerusalem Cinematheques with the collaboration of André Parinaud, founder of the International Festival of Film on Art at UNESCO.  In 2007, a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Centre Canadien d'Essai is organized with the collaboration if six Maisons de la Culture in Montréal. In this framework, 2 visioconferences are held with the cooperation of the Canadian Cultural Center in Paris and la Maison de la Culture of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce in Montréal.  In 2009, a retrospective is organized at the occasion of the 25th anniversary of « Videocollectives » at the International Vidéoformes Festival in Clermont-Ferrand as well as in 5 Israeli cinematheques (Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, Haifa, Rosh-Pina, Sderot). A restrospective of Videocollectives is also presented at the International Traces de Vie festival in Clermont-Ferrand.

Natan Karczmar (born January 3, 1933 in Paris), is a cultural organizer in the fields of theater and the diffusion of art, mainly in France, Canada, and Israel. He is also an artist in the art of communication as well as a painter and photographer.

Natan Karczmar, né à Paris le, est organisateur culturel dans le domaine du théâtre et de la diffusion de l'art, principalement en France, au Canada et en Israël. Il est également peintre et photographe ainsi qu'artiste en « art de la communication ».


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

Although most of Roslyn Heights is served by the Roslyn School District, portions of the school-aged population are enrolled in the East Williston school district and attend The Wheatley School from eighth through twelfth grades. Portions of Roslyn Heights also belong to the Herricks School District, as well as the Mineola School District.  At the 2000 census there were 6,295 people, 2,168 households, and 1,773 families in the CDP. The population density was 4,223.6 per square mile (1,631.2/km2). There were 2,226 housing units at an average density of 1,493.5/sq mi (576.8/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 79.03% White, 6.45% African American, 0.11% Native American, 10.01% Asian, 2.00% from other races, and 2.40% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.45%.  Of the 2,168 households 39.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 18.2% were non-families. 15.6% of households were one person and 8.9% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.21.  The age distribution was 26.7% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 25.8% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.6 males.  The median household income was $84,705 and the median family income was $100,474. Males had a median income of $76,812 versus $38,343 for females. The per capita income for the village was $40,132. About 4.5% of families and 5.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.4% of those under age 18 and 2.7% of those age 65 or over.

Roslyn Heights aka The Heights is both a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) in Nassau County, New York, United States. It is considered part of the Greater Roslyn area, which is anchored by the Village of Roslyn. The population was 6,577 at the 2010 census.

Roslyn Heights est un village du Comté de Nassau, dans la banlieue nord-est de New York. La population était de en 2010.


Early life.

Bai Modi was born on 15 December 1933 at Kuntaur (a Gambian town) to Ebrima Joof and Aji Anna Samba. He was the younger brother of Alhaji Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof, the Gambian historian, politician and nationalist during the country's colonial period. Bai Modi attended the Roman School in Banjul before passing his primary exams and progressed to the Gambia High School in Banjul (now the Gambia Senior Secondary School). In the Gambia, Bai Modi held various jobs, but mainly as a civil servant working as a tax-assessor. He left for the United Kingdom in the late 1950s to study law where he was also employed as a civil servant working as a tax officer with the Inland Revenue (now the HMRC). Having studied law at the University of London (Senate House) he was called to the bar on 26 November 1974 and was a member of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn. The following year (1975), Bai Modi left the UK with his family and returned to the Gambia where he established his chambers called "Gal N'Goneh Fambai's Chambers" in the Gambian capital of Banjul at number 5 Wellington Street. His chambers which was next to the river had to be relocated to number 2 Hagan Street (Banjul) around 1990 - 1991, adjacent to the Point Newspaper at number 1A, which became its official base until Bai Modi's death.

Legal career.

As an expert on International and English Law, Bai Modi travelled extensively to Europe especially the E.U. during his legal career in order to represent his clients. In the Gambia, he was one of the prominent barristers of his generation. He achieved particular fame and notoriety when he represented the editor of the Nation Newspaper in 1984 charged with sedition, during the administration of president Sir Dawada Kairaba Jawara. The doyen of the Gambian press, William Dixon Colley who was a close friend and owner of the "Nation" newspaper as well as the co-founder and acting Director General of the Gambia Press Union (GPU), requested the legal services of Bai Modi Joof. Bai Modi represented the editor and won the case and all the charges were dismissed. From that year on, the veteran Gambian journalist and newspaper owner (William Dixon) among with his colleagues at the GPU impressed by Bai Modi performances in the Gambian court and abroad, decided to appoint him as the GPU's legal advisor, a position he occupied for several years. During his legal career, Bai Modi is reported to have played a crucial role through his performance of duty, in breaching the gap between the Gambian political elite and the GPU. His court performances brought about a "cordial relationship between the Gambia Press Union and the government" as well as "between him and his colleagues".

Death and legacy.

Alhaji Bai Modi Joof died on 3 June 1993 at his family home in Latrikunda, a suburb of Serekunda. During his legal career, Bai Modi possessed a reputation among the as the champion and defender of free speech and the freedom of the press. According to Gambian tradition, he represented all social classes, from the upper echelons of Gambian society to the poorest. Following his death, his elder brother (A.E. Cham Joof) dedicated his book ""Gambia, Land of our heritage"" to him. The death of Bai Modi in 1993 also coincided with William Dixon Colley's own retirement from professional journalism. In paying tribute to the passing of Bai Modi, William Dixon Colley said:

Alhaji Bai Modi Joof (or Bai Modi Joof, 15 December 1933 – 3 June 1993) was a barrister at law from the Gambia, practicing from the mid-1970s to 1993, the year he died. Also known as "Alhaji B.M. Joof", "B.M. Joof" or "Lawyer Joof", he was a member of the UK and Gambian Bar, and a barrister and solicitor of the Gambian Supreme Court. He was termed the "champion of free speech" by some quarters of the during the administration of president Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. He was a defense-barrister and came from a Wolof and Serer background of the family Joof. He is not to be confused with his former protegé, Joseph Henry Joof, who is also commonly referred to as Lawyer Joof (the former attorney general).

Bai Modi Joof,né le et mort le est un barrister gambien, plaidant entre le milieu des années 1970 et 1993. Il est aussi connu sous les noms de "BM Joof" ou "Lawyer Joof". Il est membre du Barreau gambien et britannique. Il est également "barrister" et solliciteur auprès de la Cour suprême gambienne. Il est surnommé le « champion de la liberté d'expression » par certains journaux de la durant la présidence de Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara. Il vient d'une famille wolof et sérère, la famille Joof et défend ces deux ethnies durant sa carrière d'avocat. Il est aussi le mentor de Joseph Henry Joof, communément appelé "Lawyer Joof," ministre de la justice en Gambie (2001–2003).


High School and College.

Werner graduated from Washington Community High School in 2005. He attended Illinois Central College in 2006 and 2007. He pitched for the University of Indianapolis in 2008 and 2009. On May 16, 2009, in his final game for the University of Indianapolis, Werner struck out 11 University of Southern Indiana batters in relief.

Professional career.

Independent Leagues.

Werner was never drafted. In 2009, Werner pitched for the Evansville Otters of the independent Frontier League. In 2010, Werner worked as the pitching coach for Eureka College, and then pitched for the Otters and the Windy City ThunderBolts, also of the Frontier League.

San Diego Padres.

Werner was signed by the San Diego Padres as an undrafted free agent after the 2010 season. In 2011, Werner pitched for the Fort Wayne TinCaps and the Lake Elsinore Storm. In 2012, he pitched for the San Antonio Missions and the Tucson Padres before being called up to the majors for the first time on August 22, 2012.

Oakland Athletics.

On November 16, 2012, Werner was traded to the Oakland Athletics with Andy Parrino for Tyson Ross and A.J. Kirby-Jones.  On December 4, 2013, Werner was designated for assignment by Oakland, to clear room on the 40-man roster for recently signed pitcher Scott Kazmir. Werner cleared waivers and was outrighted to Triple-A Sacramento.

Ottawa Champions.

Werner signed to play with the Ottawa Champions in the Canadian American Association of Professional Baseball in 2015. He became a free agent after the 2015 season.

Coaching career.

Werner began his coaching career as the head assistant coach at Illinois Central College. In 2017, Werner was the pitching coach at University of South Carolina Aiken. The following year he was named the pitching coach at Young Harris College. On August 16, 2019, Werner was named the pitching coach at Bradley University.

Personal life.

Werner married his wife, Melanie, in February 2012.

Andrew Steven Werner (born February 25, 1987) is an American college baseball coach former professional baseball pitcher. He is the pitching coach at Bradley University. He played college baseball at Illinois Central College in 2006 and 2007 before transferring to the University of Indianapolis in 2008 and 2009. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the San Diego Padres in 2012.

Andrew Steven Werner (né le à Peoria, Illinois, États-Unis) est un lanceur gaucher des Ligues majeures de baseball jouant avec les Athletics d'Oakland.