Suburbs and localities in the local government area.

The following suburbs and localities are located within the City of Penrith:

Council history.

The Municipality of Penrith was incorporated on 12 May 1871 under the. On 3 March 1890, St Marys was separately incorporated, and on 26 July 1893 and 9 September 1895, Mulgoa and Castlereagh followed respectively. In 1913, Mulgoa became the "A" Riding of the neighbouring Nepean Shire.  On 1 January 1949, under the "Local Government (Areas) Act 1948", the Municipalities of Penrith, St Marys and Castlereagh and A Riding of the Nepean Shire amalgamated to form a new Municipality of Penrith. It was declared a City on 21 October 1959, and expanded westwards to include Emu Plains and Emu Heights, formerly part of the City of Blue Mountains, on 25 October 1963.

Demographics.

At the 2016 census, there were 196,066 people in the Penrith local government area, of these 49.4% were male and 50.6% were female. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 3.9% of the population; notably above the national average of 2.8%. The median age of people in the City of Penrith was 34 years; notably below the national median of 38 years. Children aged 0 – 14 years made up 21.06% of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 11.69% of the population. Of people in the area aged 15 years and over, 47.3% were married and 12.3% were either divorced or separated.  Population growth in the City of Penrith between the 2001 Census and the was 0.15% and in the subsequent five years to the, population growth was 3.68%. When compared with total population growth of Australia for the same periods, being 5.78% and 8.32% respectively, population growth in the Penrith local government area was significantly lower than the national average. The median weekly income for residents within the City of Penrith was on with par with the national average.  At the, the proportion of residents in the Penrith local government area who stated their ancestry as Australian or Anglo-Saxon exceeded 62.5% of all residents (national average was 59.6%). In excess of 52.8% of all residents in the City of Penrith area nominated a religious affiliation with Christianity at the, which was significantly higher than the national average of 38.5%. Meanwhile, as at the Census date, compared to the national average, households in the Penrith local government area had a marginally lower than average proportion (20.7%) where two or more languages are spoken (national average was 22.2%); and a higher proportion (77.2%) where English only was spoken at home (national average was 72.7%).

Council.

Current composition and election method.

Penrith City Council is composed of fifteen Councillors elected proportionally as three separate wards, each electing five Councillors. All Councillors are elected for a fixed four-year term of office. The Mayor is elected by the Councillors at the first meeting of the Council for a two-year term, while the Deput Mayor is elected for a single-year term only. The most recent election was held on 10 September 2016, with a by-election held on 12 May 2018 to replace two Councillors who resigned during the Council term. The current Council is as follows:  The current Council, elected in 2016, in order of election by ward, is:

Sister cities.

Since it signed its first agreement with Fujieda, Japan in 1984, Penrith City has gradually expanded its sister cities and international links programme. Presently Penrith has links with:

Heritage listings.

The City of Penrith has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:

The City of Penrith is a local government area in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The seat of the city is located in Penrith, located about west of Sydney's central business district. It occupies part of the traditional lands of the Darug people. First incorporated as a municipality on 12 May 1871, on 1 January 1949, the municipalities of Penrith, St Marys and Castlereagh and part of the Nepean Shire amalgamated to form a new Municipality of Penrith. Penrith was declared a City on 21 October 1959, and expanded westwards to include Emu Plains and Emu Heights, formerly part of the City of Blue Mountains, on 25 October 1963. As at the the City of Penrith had an estimated population of.

La ville de Penrith () est une zone d'administration locale de l'agglomération de Sydney, située dans l'État de Nouvelle-Galles du Sud, en Australie. La population s'élevait à en 2016.


History.

Kinoautomat (1967) was the world's first interactive movie. Modern Hypervideo systems implements some of core concepts of this movie such as non linear narrative and interactivity.  Video-to-video linking was demonstrated by the Interactive Cinema Group at the MIT Media Lab. "Elastic Charles" was a hypermedia journal developed between 1988 and 1989, in which annotations, called "micons", were placed inside a video, indicating links to other content. When implementing the Interactive Kon-Tiki Museum, Listol used in order to represent video footnotes. Video footnotes were a deliberate extension of the literary footnote applied to annotating video, thereby providing continuity between traditional text and early hypervideo. In 1993, Hirata et al. considered media based navigation for hypermedia systems, where the same type of media is used as a query as for the media to be retrieved. For example, a part of an image (defined by shape, or color, for example) could link to a related image. In this approach, the content of the video becomes the basis of forming the links to other related content.  "HotVideo" was an implementation of this kind of hypervideo, developed at IBM's China Research Laboratory in 1996. Navigation to associated resources was accomplished by clicking on a dynamic object in a video. In 1997, a project of the MIT Media Lab's Object-Based Media Group called "HyperSoap" further developed this concept. It was a short soap opera program in which a viewer could click with an enhanced remote control on objects in the video to find information on how they could be purchased. The company Watchpoint Media was formed in order to commercialize the technology involved, resulting in a product called "Storyteller" oriented towards interactive television.  Illustrating the progression to hypervideo from hypertext, "Storyspace", a hypertext writing environment, employs a spatial metaphor for displaying links. It utilizes 'writing spaces', generic containers for content, which link to other writing spaces. in 1996 "HyperCafe", a popular experimental prototype of hypervideo, made use of this tool to create "narrative video spaces". It was developed as an early model of a hypervideo system, placing users in a virtual cafe where the user dynamically interacts with the video to follow different conversations.  In 1997, the Israeli software firm Ephyx Technologies released a product called "v-active", one of the first commercial object based authoring system for hypervideo. This technology was not a success though: Ephyx changed its name to Veon in 1999, at which time it shifted focus away from hypervideo to the provision of development tools for web and broadband content..  eline Technologies, founded in 1999, developed a hypervideo solutions called VideoClix. Today VideoClix is a used SaaS (Software as a Service) solution to distribute and monetize clickable video on the web and mobile devices. With the advantage that its videos can play back in popular video players such as QuickTime and Flash as well as multiple online video platforms such as Brightcove, ThePlatform, and Ooyala. VideoClix also offers technology that can be integrated into any 3rd party players based on Quicktime, Flash, MPEG-4 and HTML5.

Rise of hypervideo.

As the first steps in hypervideo were taken in the late 1980s, it would appear that hypervideo is taking unexpectedly long to realize its potential. Many experiments ("HyperCafe", "HyperSoap") have not been extensively followed up on, and authoring tools are at the moment available from only a small number of providers.  As the amount of video content increases and becomes available, the possibilities for linking video increase even faster. Digital libraries are constantly growing, of which video is an important part. News outlets have amassed vast video archives, which could be useful in education and historical research. Direct searching of pictures or videos, a much harder task than indexing and searching text, could be greatly facilitated by hypervideo methods.

Concepts and technical challenges.

Hypervideo is challenging, compared to hyperlinked text, due to the unique difficulty video presents in node segmentation; that is, separating a video into algorithmically identifiable, linkable content.  Video, at its most basic, is a time sequence of images, which are in turn simply two dimensional arrays of color information. In order to segment a video into meaningful pieces (objects in images, or scenes within videos), it is necessary to provide a context, both in space and time, to extract meaningful elements from this image sequence. Humans are naturally able to perform this task, but it's desirable to do so algorithmically. Developing a method to achieve this, however, is a complex problem. At an NTSC frame rate of 30 frames per second, even a short video of 30 seconds comprises 900 frames. The identification of distinct video elements would be tedious if human intervention were required for every frame. For moderate amounts of video material, manual segmentation is clearly unrealistic.  From the standpoint of time, the smallest unit of a video is a single frame. Node segmentation could be performed at the frame level—a straightforward task as a frame is easily identifiable. However, a single frame cannot contain video information, since videos are necessarily dynamic. Analogously, a single word separated from a text does not convey meaning. Thus it is necessary to consider the scene, which is the next level of temporal organization. A scene can be defined as the minimum sequential set of frames that conveys meaning. This is an important concept for hypervideo, as one might wish a hypervideo link to be active throughout one scene, though not in the next. Scene granularity is therefore natural in the creation of hypervideo. Consequently, hypervideo requires algorithms capable of detecting scene transitions. One can imagine coarser levels of temporal organization: scenes can be grouped together to form a narrative sequence, which in turn are grouped to form a video. From the point of view of node segmentation, however, these concepts are not as critical.  Even if the frame is the smallest time unit, one can still spatially segment a video at a sub-frame level, separating the frame image into its constituent objects. This is necessary when performing node segmentation at the object level. Time introduces complexity in this case also, for even after an object is differentiated in one frame, it is usually necessary to follow the same object through a sequence of frames. This process, known as object tracking, is essential to the creation of links from objects in videos. Spatial segmentation of object can be achieved, for example, through the use of intensity gradients to detect edges, color histograms to match regions, motion detection, or a combination of these and other methods.  Once the required nodes have been segmented and combined with the associated linking information, this metadata must be incorporated with the original video for playback. The metadata is placed conceptually in layers, or tracks, on top of the video; this layered structure is then presented to the user for viewing and interaction. Thus the display technology, the hypervideo player, should not be neglected when creating hypervideo content. For example, efficiency can be gained by storing the geometry of areas associated with tracked objects only in certain keyframes, and allowing the player to interpolate between these keyframes, as developed for "HotVideo". Furthermore, the creators of "VideoClix" emphasize the fact that its content plays back on standard players, such as Quicktime and Flash. When one considers that the Flash player alone is installed on over 98% of internet-enabled desktops in mature markets, this is perhaps a reason for the success of this product in the current arena.

Commentary.

User replies to video content, traditionally in the form of text or image links which are not embedded into the playback sequence of the video, have been allowed through such video hosting services as Viddler to become embedded both within the imagery of the video and within portions of the playback (via selected time lengths inside the progress slider element); this feature has become known as "video comments" or "audio comments".

Commercial exploitation.

Perhaps the most significant consequence of hypervideo will result from commercial advertising. Devising a business model to monetize video has proven notoriously difficult. The application of traditional advertising methods—for example introducing ads into a video—is likely to be rejected by the online community, while revenue from selling advertising on video sharing sites has so far not been promising.  Hypervideo offers an alternate way to monetize video, allowing for the possibility of creating video clips where objects link to advertising or e-commerce sites, or provide more information about particular products. This new model of advertising is less intrusive, only displaying advertising information when the user makes the choice by clicking on an object in a video. And since it is the user who has requested the product information, this type of advertising is better targeted and likely to be more effective.

Hypervideo, or hyperlinked video, is a displayed video stream that contains embedded, interactive anchors, allowing navigation between video and other hypermedia elements. Hypervideo is thus analogous to hypertext, which allows a reader to click on a word in one document and retrieve information from another document, or from another place in the same document. Hypervideo combines video with a non-linear information structure, allowing a user to make choices based on the content of the video and the user's interests.

La vidéo cliquable, également désignée par les anglicismes ou, est une nouvelle technique de vidéo interactive sur Internet dans laquelle l'internaute peut, à tout moment du visionnement, cliquer sur un élément de la vidéo (personnage, produit, objet du décor) afin de suivre un lien vers un emplacement où il trouvera des informations sur cet élément et, dans certains cas, où il pourra l'acheter en ligne.


Background.

Dancing Brave was a bay colt with a white snip and three white feet, standing sixteen hands high, bred by the Glen Oak Farm in Kentucky. He was not a particularly attractive individual as a young horse, being described as parrot-mouthed with imperfect forelegs. Dancing Brave was sired by Lyphard out of Navajo Princess, a mare who won sixteen races including the Molly Pitcher Handicap. Navajo Princess was a descendant of the mare Stolen Kiss, who was the ancestor of notable racehorses including the Epsom Derby winner Henbit and the Kentucky Derby winner Lucky Debonair.  He was purchased as a yearling by James Delahooke, on behalf of Khalid Abdullah for US$200,000 in Kentucky. The colt was sent into training with Guy Harwood at Pulborough. At the time, Harwood was noted for his modern approach to training, introducing Britain to features such as artificial gallops and barn-style stabling.

Racing career.

1985: Two-year-old season.

Dancing Brave was a May foal, and as Harwood did not believe in racing horses until they were at least two years and three months old, the colt was given only light training until late summer. Dancing Brave made his first racecourse appearance in the one-mile Dorking Stakes at Sandown in which he started odds-on favourite against three opponents. He won easily by three lengths from Mighty Memory. In the Soham House Stakes at Newmarket, Dancing Brave again started favourite after reports that he had been performing better at home than the stable's William Hill Futurity winner Bakharoff. He won by two and a half lengths from Northern Amethyst, with Nisnas in third. Despite never having contested a Group Race and being rated eleven pounds below the top-rated Bakharoff in the International Classification, he was made 10/1 winter favourite for the following year's 2000 Guineas.

1986: Three-year-old season.

Spring.

Dancing Brave opened his three-year-old campaign with a victory over Faraway Dancer and Mashkour in the Craven Stakes at Newmarket in April. Over the same course and distance two weeks later he started 15/8 favourite against fourteen opponents in the 2000 Guineas. Ridden by Greville Starkey, he quickened in the closing stages of a slowly run race to win by three lengths from Green Desert and Huntingdale. After the race, Starkey was confident that the colt would stay one and a half miles in the Derby, although Harwood was more cautious.

Summer.

In The Derby a month later Dancing Brave started favourite, despite concerns about his ability to stay the distance of twelve furlongs. Starkey employed exaggerated waiting tactics and Dancing Brave was close to last place entering the home straight. Switched to the outside to make his challenge, Dancing Brave accelerated in the last quarter mile, being clocked at 10.3 seconds for the penultimate furlong. He failed to catch the leader Shahrastani finishing second by half a length. His jockey, Greville Starkey, was widely criticised for his tactics, but he has been defended by others, including Harwood, who pointed out that the race was run at a muddling pace and that Starkey could only have won if he had "cut the horse in half", which as the stable jockey he was unwilling to do. Starkey kept the ride for Dancing Brave's next race, Eclipse Stakes at Sandown Park. Racing against older horses for the first time he won in "breathtaking style" by four lengths from Triptych and Teleprompter. However, when Starkey was injured and unable to ride the horse in the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes at Ascot he was replaced by Pat Eddery who became the preferred choice in the colt's remaining races. The Ascot race saw a rematch between Dancing Brave and Shahrastani. Since winning the Derby, Shahrastani had won the Irish Derby by eight lengths and started favourite for the King George. Eddery produced Dancing Brave's run earlier than usual, taking him into the lead over a furlong from home and the colt had to be ridden out to hold off Shardari by three-quarters of a length, with Triptych third, Shahrastani fourth and Petoski fifth.

Autumn.

After a break, Dancing Brave returned in the Select Stakes at Goodwood Racecourse in September. He tracked the leaders before pulling away in the closing stages to win by ten lengths. On his final European appearance, Dancing Brave was sent overseas for the first time to contest the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe at Longchamp in Paris. Apart from Shardari, Shahrastani and Triptych, the field also included the German champion Acatenango and the French colt Bering, who was unbeaten in four races in 1986. Eddery restrained Dancing Brave in the early stages before switching him to the wide outside to challenge in the straight as the runners spread across the width of the course. With 200m to run he was not in the first ten, but produced an "electrifying burst" to take the lead 50m from the finish and won by a length and a half from Bering in a race record time of 2:27.7. On his final appearance was then sent to California to contest the Breeders' Cup Turf at Santa Anita Park but failed to reproduce his best form, finishing fourth behind Manila. Dancing Brave suffered an injury in the race when he was struck in the eye by a clod of turf.

Assessment.

At the end of 1986, the panel of Racehorse handicappers met from the major racing nations of Europe to determine the International Classifications, the annual rating of thoroughbred racehorses who have run in Europe. Dancing Brave was awarded a rating of 141, the highest rating ever given to any horse up to that time. These are the official ratings as recognised by the organised racing bodies in Great Britain, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Scandinavia, Switzerland and Austria. In January 2013 the ratings were "recalibrated" and Dancing Brave was given a revised rating of 138, now putting him second to Frankel who was rated at 140. Dancing Brave was given a rating of 140 by Timeform. In 1999, "The Independent" described Dancing Brave as "the greatest British Flat champion of the last quarter of a century".  Dancing Brave was voted the official British Horse of the Year in 1986 by the Racegoers' Club. By taking all 27 votes in the poll he was the first horse to be unanimously elected since Brigadier Gerard in 1971.  Pat Eddery called Dancing Brave the best horse he ever rode, and a "once in a lifetime ride", while Khalid Abdulla described him as the outstanding horse to have carried his colours. Guy Harwood called him "very much the best I trained". In their book "A Century of Champions", John Randall and Tony Morris rated Dancing Brave as the sixth best British racehorse of the 20th century, and the sixteenth best horse of the century trained in any country.

Stud career.

Dancing Brave was syndicated with an estimated value of £14m. He retired to stand as a stallion at the Dalham Hall Stud at Newmarket with an initial stud fee of £120,000. According to Tony Morris in "Thoroughbred Stallions (1990)", he was known to often pass on his parrot mouth to his stock. In November 1987 he was found to be suffering from Marie's disease and had fertility problems in 1988. His modest early success led to his being exported to Japan, to stand at the Shizunai Stallion Station at Hokkaidō in 1991. He died on August 2, 1999 of a heart attack.  He sired numerous winners, having a particularly good crop of three-year-olds in 1993, foaled in the year before his export, including Commander in Chief, who won The Derby, and White Muzzle, second in both the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe. Other good winners included Wemyss Bight, Cherokee Rose and Ivanka. The best of his Japanese offspring was the filly T M Ocean who won the Oka Sho and the Shuka Sho in 2001.

Dancing Brave (11 May 1983 – 2 August 1999) was an American-bred, British-trained thoroughbred racehorse. In a racing career which lasted from the autumn of 1985 until October 1986 he ran ten times and won eight races. he was the outstanding European racehorse of 1986 when he won the 2000 Guineas, the Eclipse Stakes, the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes and the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe. His only defeats came in The Derby and the Breeders' Cup Turf. He was retired to stud where he was a successful sire of winners in Europe before being exported to Japan where he died in 1999.

Dancing Brave (1983-1999) était un cheval de course pur-sang anglais né aux États-Unis, par "Lyphard" et "Navajo Princess", par "Drone". Représentant la casaque du Prince Khalid Abdullah, entraîné par Guy Harwood et monté par Greville Starkey puis Pat Eddery, il est considéré comme l'un des meilleurs chevaux du.


History.

The can-can is believed to have evolved from the final figure in the quadrille, a social dance for four or more couples. The exact origin of the dance is obscure, but the steps may have been inspired by a popular entertainer of the 1820s, Charles Mazurier, well known for his acrobatics, including the grand écart or jump splits—both popular features of the can-can.  The dance was considered scandalous, and for a while there were attempts to suppress it. This may have been partly because in the 19th century, women wore pantalettes, which had an open crotch, and the high kicks were intentionally revealing. There is no evidence that can-can dancers wore special closed underwear, although it has been said that the Moulin Rouge management did not permit dancers to perform in "revealing undergarments". Occasionally, people dancing the can-can were arrested, but there is no record of its being banned, as some accounts claim. Throughout the 1830s, it was often groups of men, particularly students, who danced the can-can at public dance-halls.  As the dance became more popular, professional performers emerged, although it was still danced by individuals, not by a chorus line. A few men became can-can stars in the 1840s to 1861 and an all-male group known as the "Quadrille des Clodoches" performed in London in 1870. However, women performers were much more widely known.  The early can-can dancers were probably prostitutes, but by the 1890s, it was possible to earn a living as a full-time dancer and stars such as La Goulue and Jane Avril emerged, who were highly paid for their appearances at the Moulin Rouge and elsewhere. The most prominent male can-can dancer of the time was Valentin le Désossé (Valentin the Boneless) a frequent partner of La Goulue. The professional dancers of the Second Empire and the fin de siècle developed the can-can moves that were later incorporated by the choreographer Pierre Sandrini in the spectacular "French Cancan", which he devised at the Moulin Rouge in the 1920s and presented at his own Bal Tabarin from 1928. This was a combination of the individual style of the Parisian dance-halls and the chorus-line style of British and American music halls (see below).

Outside France.

In the United States and elsewhere, the can-can achieved popularity in music halls, where it was danced by groups of women in choreographed routines. This style was imported back into France in the 1920s for the benefit of tourists, and the "French Cancan" was born—a highly choreographed routine lasting ten minutes or more, with the opportunity for individuals to display their "specialities". The main moves are the high kick or battement, the "rond de jambe" (quick rotary movement of lower leg with knee raised and skirt held up), the "port d'armes" (turning on one leg, while grasping the other leg by the ankle and holding it almost vertically), the cartwheel and the grand écart (the flying or jump splits). It has become common practice for dancers to scream and yelp while performing the can-can.  The can-can was introduced in America on 23 December 1867 by Giuseppina Morlacchi, dancing as a part of "The Devil's Auction" at the Theatre Comique in Boston. It was billed as "Grand Gallop Can-Can, composed and danced by Mlles. Morlacchi, Blasina, Diani, Ricci, Baretta... accompanied with cymbals and triangles by the coryphees and corps de ballet." The new dance received an enthusiastic reception.  By the 1890s the can-can was out of style in New York dance halls, having been replaced by the hoochie coochie.  The can-can became popular in Alaska and Yukon, Canada, where theatrical performances feature can-can dancers to the present day.

Perception.

The can-can is now considered a part of world dance culture. Often the main feature observed today is how physically demanding and tiring that the dance can be to perform, but it still retains a bawdy and suggestive element in dance culture.  When the dance first appeared in the early 19th century, it was considered a scandalous and repulsive dance, similar to how rock and roll was perceived in the 1950s. Similarly in the mid-19th century, it was often viewed morally reprehensible, due to its erotic context, and the once-popular moral code of women having to suppress exposure of their legs in public. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the can-can was viewed as much more erotic because the dancers made use of the extravagant underwear of the period, and the contrasting black stockings. They lifted and manipulated their skirts much more, and incorporated a move sometimes considered the most cheeky and provocative; bending over and throwing their skirts over their backs, presenting their bottoms to the audience (this gesture is often referred to as the "derrière"). The Moulin Rouge dancer La Goulue was well known for this gesture, and had a heart embroidered on the seat of her drawers.  A can-can dancer would sometimes stand very close to a man, and bet that she could take off his hat without using her hands. When he took the bet, she would execute a high kick that would take off his hat—and give him a quick look at her pantaloons while she was at it. It was also a warning that anyone taking unwanted liberties with a dancer could expect a kick in the face.  Early editions of "The Oxford Companion to Music" defined the can-can as a "boisterous and latterly indecorous dance of the quadrille order, exploited in Paris for the benefit of such British and American tourists as will pay well to be well shocked. Its exact nature is unknown to anyone connected with this Companion."

In other arts.

Many composers have written music for the can-can. The most famous music is French composer Jacques Offenbach's "Galop Infernal" in his operetta "Orphée aux Enfers" ("Orpheus in the Underworld") (1858). However, the galop is actually another sort of dance. Other examples occur in Franz Lehár's operetta "The Merry Widow" (1905) and Cole Porter's musical play "Can-Can" (1954), which in turn formed the basis for the 1960 musical film "Can-Can" starring Frank Sinatra and Shirley MacLaine. Some other songs that have become associated with the can-can include Aram Khachaturian's "Sabre Dance" from his ballet "Gayane" (1938) and the music hall standard "Ta-ra-ra Boom-de-ay". In 1955 Jean Renoir's film "French Cancan", starring Jean Gabin as the director of a music hall which features the can-can, was released.  The can-can has often appeared in ballet, most notably Léonide Massine's "La Boutique fantasque" (1919) and "Gaîté Parisienne" (1938), as well as The Merry Widow. A particularly fine example can be seen at the climax of Jean Renoir's film "French Cancan", mentioned above. Another well-known can-can occurs at the finale of the "Dance of the Hours" from the opera "La Gioconda" by Amilcare Ponchielli.  French painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec produced several paintings and a large number of posters of can-can dancers. Other painters to have treated the can-can as a subject include Georges Seurat, Georges Rouault, and Pablo Picasso.

The can-can (also spelled cancan as in the original French kɑ̃kɑ̃), is a high-energy, physically demanding dance that became a popular music-hall dance in the 1840s, continuing in popularity in French cabaret to this day. Originally danced by both sexes, it is now traditionally associated with a chorus line of female dancers. The main features of the dance are the vigorous manipulation of skirts and petticoats, along with high kicks, splits, and cartwheels.

Dernière figure du quadrille, le cancan, ou coincoin, est une danse française, un galop exécutée en couple, dans les bals et cabarets, inventée au début du, qui apparut d'abord sous le nom de « chahut » ou « chahut-cancan ». Elle faisait partie des danses très mal vues par les autorités et les défenseurs de la morale traditionnelle. À l'époque, les femmes portaient sous leurs jupons des culottes fendues. Par la suite, on a dérivé du cancan une forme touristique et très édulcorée, baptisée "French cancan", que les femmes dansent en rang, face au public, en portant des culottes fermées.


History.

Many patents had been filed covering tubeless tires. "Killen Tire" applied for a patent in 1928 and was granted in the UK in 1930. The Wingfoot Corporation, a subsidiary of Goodyear Tire were granted a patent in South Africa in 1944. Due to technical problems, most of these designs saw only limited production or were abandoned.  Frank Herzegh working for BF Goodrich applied for a patent in 1946 and eventually received in 1952 in the United States. By 1955 tubeless tires became standard equipment on new cars. BF Goodrich had to defend their patent in court several times, due to the similarities of previous designs. The primary difference between the BF Goodrich design and their predecessors was the usage of butyl rubber, which was more resistant to air leakage than the natural rubber used in the other designs.

Safety.

Traditional designs of pneumatic tires required a separate inner tube which could fail for a number of reasons, such as incorrect tire fit, friction between the tire wall and inner tube generating excess heat, or a puncture. Tubeless tire technology does away with the need for an inner tube thereby increasing safety. In a tubeless tire, the tire and the rim of the wheel form an airtight seal, with the valve being directly mounted on the rim. If a tubeless tire gets a small puncture, air escapes only through the hole, leading to a gentle deflation. Conversely, a tubed tire, with an inner tube, could potentially burst like a balloon, leading to deflation of the tire which could result in sudden loss of control of the vehicle. However, the "bursting like a balloon" scenario is highly unlikely due to fact that the inner tube is inside of the tire and will deflate at a rate proportional to the puncture hole size. In antique automobiles, made before the mid 1950s, the rims are not designed for tubeless tires, and an inner tube is required to prevent slow leaks at the bead.

Tire sealants.

Liquid tire sealant can be injected into tubeless tires to prevent deflation in case of small punctures, although there is controversy regarding its compatibility with direct tire pressure monitoring systems (TPMS) that employ sensors mounted inside the tire. Some manufacturers of sealants assert that their products are indeed compatible, but others warned that, e.g., the "sealant may come in contact with the sensor in a way that renders the sensor TEMPORARILY inoperable until it is properly cleaned, inspected and re-installed by a tire care professional". Such doubts are also reported by others. Use of such sealants may void the TPMS sensor warranty.

Bicycle tires.

A tubeless bicycle tire system requires a compatible tire, an airtight rim—capable of being sealed at the valve stem, spoke holes (if they go all the way through the rim) and the tire bead seat. The main benefit of tubeless tires is the ability to use low air pressure for better traction without getting pinch flats because there is no tube to pinch between the rim and an obstacle.

UST.

"UST" or "Universal System Tubeless" is a rim designed by Mavic with hooked edges designed to seal with specially designed tires. Several companies such as Michelin and Hutchinson make tires compatible with UST rims. UST was the first tubeless system for bicycles. Other companies such as Stan’s NoTubes, Bontrager, DT Swiss, and WTB have their own similar system called "Tubeless Ready".

Road tubeless.

In 2006, Shimano and Hutchinson introduced a tubeless system for road bicycles. Tubeless tires have not yet gained popular acceptance in road racing due to lack of sponsorship, the tradition of using tubular tires and the fact that, even without the innertube, the combined weight of tubeless rims and tires is more than top-of-the-line tubular tire wheelsets. Road tubeless is gaining popularity among riders for whom the benefits are worth the costs.

Tubeless tires or tyres (in some Commonwealth Nations) are pneumatic tires that do not require a separate inner tube. Unlike pneumatic tires which use a separate inner tube, tubeless tires have continuous ribs molded integrally into the bead of the tire so that they are forced by the pressure of the air inside the tire to seal with the flanges of the metal rim of the wheel.

Le pneu sans chambre à air, dit parfois « pneu sans chambre » (en anglais, pneu « », littéralement « sans chambre à air »), est un pneu sans chambre à air visible qui a l'avantage de présenter moins de risques de crevaisons rapides, par rapport à un pneu classique comportant une chambre à air.


History.

Jackson Parish was founded in 1845 after Indian Removal and named for President Andrew Jackson.

Civil War.

During the American Civil War Confederate General Richard Taylor sent five companies into Jackson and Winn parishes to arrest conscripts who failed to report for duty, and to halt jayhawker groups in the area.  General Edmund Kirby-Smith had directed that  all men who shirked their military duty be hunted down and forced into camp. Those who tried to escape the conscript hunters would be shot. The terrain of Louisiana with its many canebrakes, swamps, and hills in which to hide, made such an order difficult to carry out,  explains the historian John D. Winters in "The Civil War in Louisiana" (1963).

20th century to present.

Jonesboro became an industrial mill town in the 20th century, producing lumber and turpentine products from the pine forests. Industrialization stimulated its growth. By the 1950s and 1960s, numerous African Americans had become industrial workers. Many were veterans of World War II and the Korean War, and they began to press to gain civil rights in the segregated state and region. Ku Klux Klan chapters were active here, and they intimidated and attacked civil rights activists.  In November 1964 Rev. Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick, ordained that year as a minister of the Church of God in Christ, and Earnest "Chilly Willy" Thomas founded the Deacons for Defense and Justice, an organized African-American, armed self-defense group to protect activists and their families.  In February 1965, these two men and other CORE workers traveled 300 miles to Bogalusa, Louisiana, another small mill town, where they founded another chapter of the Deacons. They advised local activists on strategies of self-defense. They helped found chapters of the Deacons in other cities of Louisiana, as well as in Mississippi and Alabama in these years.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of, of which is land and (1.9%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 15,397 people, 6,086 households, and 4,302 families residing in the parish. The population density was 27 people per square mile (10/km2). There were 7,338 housing units at an average density of 13 per square mile (5/km2). The racial makeup of the parish was 71.01% White, 27.87% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.24% from other races, and 0.37% from two or more races. 0.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 6,086 households out of which 31.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.80% were married couples living together, 14.40% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.30% were non-families. 27.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.01.  In the parish the population was spread out with 25.30% under the age of 18, 9.30% from 18 to 24, 25.70% from 25 to 44, 23.60% from 45 to 64, and 16.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 91.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.50 males.  The median income for a household in the parish was $28,352, and the median income for a family was $36,317. Males had a median income of $31,977 versus $19,992 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $15,354. About 16.00% of families and 19.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.30% of those under age 18 and 15.80% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Jackson Parish was historically part of the Solid South, as Louisiana had disenfranchised most blacks in the state at the turn of the century, as had other southern states. This made the Republican Party non-competitive in the state and region, and excluded blacks from politics into the 1960s. The conservative whites consistently voted for Democratic candidates in the one-party region. Governor Al Smith of New York received 100 percent of the vote in 1928 (from white voters) in his losing race against Herbert C. Hoover.  In the 1960s, the majority of conservative white voters began to shift their support to Republican presidential candidates, and then to those at the state level. In 1960, Richard M. Nixon led parishwide with 43.9 percent against both John F. Kennedy and a rival slate of unpledged segregationist electors. These included future Governor David C. Treen and Leander Perez of Plaquemines Parish. In that election, blacks were still disenfranchised.  Since the late 20th century, Democrat Bill Clinton and Republican George W. Bush each carried the parish twice. In 1992, Clinton polled 3,370 votes (44.5 percent) to Republican George Herbert Walker Bush's 3,072 (40.6 percent). Another 882 ballots (11.7 percent) were held by Ross Perot of Texas, who ran as an Independent and thereafter founded his Reform Party.  In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Republican U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona outpolled Barack H. Obama of Illinois by 30 percentage points. In 2012, Republican Mitt Romney carried Jackson Parish.with 5,132 votes (68.2 percent) to President Obama's 2,305 ballots (30.6 percent), a margin of nearly 38 percentage points and roughly equivalent to the proportion of races in the parish. Most African Americans vote for Democratic candidates and overwhelmingly supported Obama in both of his elections.

Education.

Public schools in Jackson Parish are operated by the elected Jackson Parish School Board.

National Guard.

A Company 199TH FSB (Forward Support Battalion) of the 256TH IBCT resides in Jonesboro, Louisiana. This unit has deployed twice to Iraq in 2004-5 and 2010. Also deployed in 1990 for Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm.

Jackson Parish (French: "Paroisse de Jackson") is a parish located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 16,274. The parish seat is Jonesboro. The parish was formed in 1845 from parts of Claiborne, Ouachita, and Union Parishes. In the twentieth century, this part of the state had several small industrial mill towns, such as Jonesboro.

La paroisse de Jackson (anglais : "Jackson Parish") est une paroisse en Louisiane aux États-Unis d'Amérique. Le siège est la ville de Jonesboro. Elle était peuplée de 15 397 habitants en 2000. Elle a une superficie de 1 476 km2 de terre émergée et de 27 km2 d’eau. Elle est nommée en l'honneur de l'ancien président américain Andrew Jackson.


History.

Founding and early years, 1990-1991.

The Rastriya Prajatantra Party was formed by the ruling elite of the Panchayat era on May 29, 1990. The party split in 1991 over technical differences and two parties bearing the same name, ideology and statute came into existence. The two parties one led by Surya Bahadur Thapa and the other led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand contested the 1991 elections. The two parties did not perform as expected, Thapa's party winning 1 seat and Chand's party winning 3 seats, and the two parties decided to merge again.

First general convention, 1992-1994.

The party held its first general convention on 1992 in Kathmandu and unanimously elected Surya Bahadur Thapa as its chairman. Lokendra Bahadur Chand and Rajeshwor Devkota were elected leader and co-chairman respectlively.  In the 1994 elections, the party received 18 percent of the votes and won 20 seats to the House of Representatives, making them the third largest party in the parliament. No other party got a majority and the party joined coalition governments with Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) and Nepali Congress successively.

Second split, 1997-1999.

In 1997 the party split after a faction led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand joined a coalition government with Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist), with Chand as Prime Minister. The faction led by Surya Bahadur Thapa allied itself with Nepali Congress and toppled the government. The party expelled Lokendra Bahadur Chand and nine supporters for threatening to back a no-confidence motion against the Thapa led government and Chand started his own party. The second general convention of the party took place in 1998 in Birgunj with Surya Bahadur Thapa again becoming chairman. Prakash Chandra Lohani, Pashupati SJB Rana and Kamal Thapa were nominated as vice-chairman, general secretary and spokesman respectively.  The two parties contested the 1999 elections and fared badly in the election with the partly led by Surya Bahadur Thapa winning 11 seats and the party led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand not winning any seats. Following the elections the parties decided to merge again.

King's rule and Mass Movement II, 2002-2006.

After the king dismissed the government led by Sher Bahadur Deuba on October 2002, Lokendra Bahadur Chand was appointed Prime Minister but he resigned in May 2003 and was replaced by Surya Bahadur Thapa.  At the third general convention of the party held in Pokhara on December 2002, Surya Bahadur Thapa retired from his post as party chairman (which was mandatory according to the party constitution, as he had served two four-year terms). Pashupati SJB Rana was elected chairman during the convention and Padam Sundar Lawati, Kamal Thapa and Roshan Karki were nominated vice-president, general secretary and spokesperson respectively.  The party on December 2003 called for Surya Bahadur Thapa to resign as Prime Minister for undermining people's multiparty democracy and he eventually resigned on May 2004. The party split again in March 2005 when former party president Surya Bahadur Thapa broke away and formed a new centre-right liberal party, the Rastriya Janashakti Party.  When the King dissolved the parliament and started his own rule in 2006, the party announced their support for the pro-democracy agitation led by the Seven Party Alliance but ten members of the party's central committee, including spokesperson Kamal Thapa, supported the King. The party members were expelled, including six cabinet ministers, and they eventually formed their own party, the royalist Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, led by Kamal Thapa.

Constituent Assembly, 2007-2015.

When the Interim-Legislature Parliament was formed under the leadership of Girija Prasad Koirala, the party had nine seats becoming the largest opposition party. In the 2008 elections the party won 8 seats to the Constituent Assembly of Nepal through the party-list proportional representation system. The party joined the Madhav Kumar Nepal led government on June 2009.  In May 2013, the Rastriya Janashakti Party merged with the Rastriya Prajatantra Party, with Surya Bahadur Thapa leading the party. The party won 13 seats in the 2013 elections, 3 first past the post and 10 party-list proportional representation seats, becoming the sixth largest party in the 2nd Constituent Assembly. The support for the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist)-Nepali Congress coalition government earned the party two portfolios in the new cabinet.

Unification and splits, 2016-present.

On 21 November 2016, Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal and Rastriya Prajtantra Party announced their unificaion. The new party retained the name of Rastriya Prajatantra Party. The new party had a total strength of 37 in the Parliament of Nepal becoming the fourth largest party Kamal Thapa was elected chairman of the party in a special general convention in Kathmandu on February 2017. The party split again due to differences in selecting the electoral symbol of the party and Dr. Prakash Chandra Lohani formed a new party, the Unified Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist) on March 29, 2017. Another split occurred after Pashupati SJB Rana broke away forming Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Democratic). In the 2017 legislative and provincial elections, Rastriya Prajantatra Party formed an alliance with Nepali Congress and Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Democratic). The party only won one seat to the House of Representatives with only Rajendra Lingden being elected. The party also could not become a national party after failing to pass the three percent threshold in proportional representation. The party also won one seat each to provincial assemblies of Province No. 1, Province No. 3 and Province No. 6.  The Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Samyukta) merged with the party on March 12, 2020 with Kamal Thapa, Pashupati SJB Rana and Dr. Prakash Chandra Lohani all acting as chairs.

Ideology.

The Rastriya Prajatantra Party was established as an alternative force to the major political parties, Nepali Congress and Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist). The party was founded on the principles of democracy, constitutional monarchy, nationalism and economic liberalization. When the monarchy was abolished in 2008 and Nepal was declared a secular state, the Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal changed its constitution to support monarchy and the re-establishment of the Hindu state. After the merger between the two parties it was announced that the Rastriya Prajatantra Party would take up the constitution of Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal. The party has stated support for a Hindu state with religious freedom and registered an amendment proposal for such on March 19, 2017.

The Rastriya Prajatantra Party (; translation: National Democratic Party; RPP) is a royalist and Hindu nationalist political party in Nepal. It was formed by former Prime Ministers, Surya Bahadur Thapa and Lokendra Bahadur Chand. The party has had two Prime Ministers, Thapa and Chand, serving two terms each since the end of the Rastriya Panchayat.

Le Parti national démocratique (en népalais ) est un parti politique népalais de centre droit affilié à l'Union démocrate d'Asie et du Pacifique et traditionnellement classé comme étant un parti royaliste et conservateur.


Predecessors.

Horace Lawson Hunley provided financing for James McClintock to design three submarines: in New Orleans, Louisiana, built in Mobile, and "Hunley".  While the United States Navy was constructing its first submarine, in late 1861, the Confederacy were doing so as well. Hunley, McClintock, and Baxter Watson first built "Pioneer", which was tested in February 1862, in the Mississippi River, and was later towed to Lake Pontchartrain, for additional trials. But the Union advance towards New Orleans caused the men to abandon development and scuttle "Pioneer" the following month. The Bayou St. John Confederate submarine may have been constructed about this time. Hunley and McClintock moved to Mobile, to begin development of a second submarine, "American Diver" with the collaboration of two others. Their efforts were supported by the Confederate States Army. Lieutenant William Alexander of the 21st Alabama Infantry Regiment was assigned to oversee the project. The builders experimented with electric and steam propulsion for the new submarine, before falling back on a simple hand-cranked propulsion system. "American Diver" was ready for harbor trials by January 1863, but she proved too slow to be practical. Nonetheless, it was decided to tow the submarine down the bay to Fort Morgan and attempt an attack on the Union blockade. However, the submarine foundered in the heavy chop caused by foul weather and the currents at the mouth of Mobile Bay and sank. The crew escaped, but the boat was not recovered.

Construction and testing.

Construction of "Hunley" began soon after the loss of "American Diver". At this stage, "Hunley" was variously referred to as the "fish boat", the "fish torpedo boat", or the "porpoise". Legend held that "Hunley" was made from a cast-off steam boiler — perhaps because a cutaway drawing by William Alexander, who had seen her, showed a short and stubby machine. In fact, "Hunley" was designed and built for her role, and the sleek, modern-looking craft shown in R.G. Skerrett's 1902 drawing is an accurate representation. "Hunley" was designed for a crew of eight, seven to turn the hand-cranked ducted propeller, ~3.5 Horsepower, and one to steer and direct the boat. Each end was equipped with ballast tanks that could be flooded by valves or pumped dry by hand pumps. Extra ballast was added through the use of iron weights bolted to the underside of the hull. In the event the submarine needed additional buoyancy to rise in an emergency, the iron weight could be removed by unscrewing the heads of the bolts from inside the vessel.  "Hunley" was equipped with two watertight hatches, one forward and one aft, atop two short conning towers equipped with small portholes and slender, triangular cutwaters. The hatches, bigger than original estimates, measure about wide and nearly long), making entrance to and egress from the hull difficult. The height of the ship's hull was.  By July 1863, "Hunley" was ready for a demonstration. Supervised by Confederate Admiral Franklin Buchanan, "Hunley" successfully attacked a coal flatboat in Mobile Bay. Following this, the submarine was shipped by rail to Charleston, South Carolina, arriving on 12 August 1863.  However, the Confederate military seized the submarine from her private builders and owners shortly after arriving, turning her over to the Confederate Army. "Hunley" would operate as a Confederate Army vessel from then on, although Horace Hunley, and his partners would remain involved in her further testing and operation. While sometimes referred to as CSS "Hunley", she was never officially commissioned into service.  Confederate Navy Lieutenant John A. Payne of CSS "Chicora" volunteered to be "Hunley"s captain, and seven men from "Chicora" and CSS "Palmetto State" volunteered to operate her. On 29 August 1863, "Hunley"s new crew was preparing to make a test dive, when Lieutenant Payne accidentally stepped on the lever controlling the sub's diving planes as she was running on the surface. This caused "Hunley" to dive with one of her hatches still open. Payne and two others escaped, but the other five crewmen drowned.
 "H. L. Hunley" crew lost 29 August 1863:  The Confederate Army took control of "Hunley", with all orders coming directly from General P. G. T. Beauregard, with Lt. George E. Dixon placed in charge. On 15 October 1863, "Hunley" failed to surface after a mock attack, killing all eight crewmen. Among these was Hunley himself, who had joined the crew for the exercise and possibly had taken over command from Dixon, for the attack maneuver. The Confederate Navy once more salvaged the submarine and returned her to service.
 "H. L. Hunley" Crew lost 15 October 1863:

Armament.

"Hunley" was originally intended to attack by using a floating explosive charge with a contact fuse (a torpedo in 19th century terminology) which was towed at the end of a long rope. "Hunley" was to approach an enemy ship on the surface, then dive under her, and surface again once beyond her. The torpedo would be drawn against the targeted ship and explode. This plan was discarded as dangerous because of the possibility of the tow line fouling "Hunley"s screw or drifting into the submarine herself.  Instead, a spar torpedo—a copper cylinder containing of black powder—was attached to a -long wooden spar, as seen in illustrations made at this time. Mounted on "Hunley"s bow, the spar was to be used when the submarine was or more below the surface. Previous spar torpedoes had been designed with a barbed point: the spar torpedo would be jammed in the target's side by ramming, and then detonated by a mechanical trigger attached to the submarine by a line, so that as she backed away from her target, the torpedo would set off. However, archaeologists working on "Hunley" discovered evidence, including a spool of copper wire and components of a battery, that it may actually have been electrically detonated. In the configuration used in the attack on "Housatonic", it appears "Hunley"s torpedo had no barbs, and was designed to explode on contact as it was pushed against an enemy vessel at close range. After Horace Hunley's death, General Beauregard ordered that the submarine should no longer be used to attack underwater. An iron pipe was then attached to her bow, angled downwards so the explosive charge would be delivered sufficiently under water to make it effective. This was the same method developed for the earlier "David" surface attack craft used successfully against the USS "New Ironsides". "The Confederate Veteran" of 1902, printed a reminiscence authored by an engineer stationed at Battery Marshall who, with another engineer, made adjustments to the iron pipe mechanism before "Hunley" left on her last fatal mission on 17 February 1864. A drawing of the iron pipe spar, confirming her "David" type configuration, was published in early histories of submarine warfare.

Attack on "Housatonic".

"Hunley" made her only attack against an enemy target on the night of 17 February 1864. The target was USS "Housatonic", a wooden-hulled steam-powered sloop-of-war with 12 large cannons, which was stationed at the entrance to Charleston, about offshore. Desperate to break the naval blockade of the city, Lieutenant George E. Dixon, and a crew of seven volunteers successfully attacked "Housatonic", ramming "Hunley"s only spar torpedo against the enemy's hull. The torpedo was detonated, sending "Housatonic" to the bottom in five minutes, along with five of her crewmen.  Years later, when the area around the wreck of "Housatonic" was surveyed, the sunken "Hunley" was found on the seaward side of the sloop, where no one had considered looking before. This later indicated that the ocean current was going out following the attack on "Housatonic", taking "Hunley" with her to where she was eventually found and later recovered.

Disappearance.

After the attack, "H.L. Hunley" failed to return to her base. At one point there appeared to be evidence that "Hunley" survived as long as one hour following the attack at about 20:45. The day after the attack, the commander of "Battery Marshall" reported that he had received "the signals" from the submarine indicating she was returning to her base. The report did not say what the signals were. A postwar correspondent wrote that "two blue lights" were the prearranged signals, and a lookout on "Housatonic" reported he saw a "blue light" on the water after his ship sank. "Blue light" in 1864 referred to a pyrotechnic signal in long use by the U.S. Navy. It has been falsely represented in published works as a blue lantern; the lantern eventually found on the recovered "H. L. Hunley" had a clear, not a blue, lens. Pyrotechnic "blue light" could be seen easily over the () distance between Battery Marshall and the site of "Hunley"s attack on "Housatonic".  After signaling, Dixon's plan would have been to take his submarine underwater to make a return to Sullivan's Island. Although at one point the finders of "Hunley" suggested she was unintentionally rammed by USS "Canandaigua" when that warship was going to rescue the crew of "Housatonic", no such damage was found when she was raised from the bottom of the harbor. Instead, all evidence and analysis eventually pointed to the instantaneous death of "Hunley"s entire crew at the moment of the spar torpedo's contact with the hull of "Housatonic" from the explosion's shock wave which destroyed their lungs and brain tissue in milliseconds. In October 2008, scientists reported they had found that the crew of "Hunley" had not set her pump to remove water from the crew's compartment, and this might indicate she was not being flooded. In January 2013, it was announced that conservator Paul Mardikian, had found evidence of a copper sleeve at the end of "Hunley"s spar. This indicated the torpedo had been attached directly to the spar, meaning the submarine may have been less than 20 feet from "Housatonic" when the torpedo exploded. The short distance involved has led some researchers to theorize that "Hunley"s crew was killed by the resulting blast, though their conclusion has been disputed by US Navy and Naval History and Heritage Command researchers. In 2018, researchers reported that the keel blocks, which would allow the sub to surface quickly in an emergency, had never been released.

Recovery of wreckage.

"Hunley"s discovery was described by Dr. William Dudley, Director of Naval History at the Naval Historical Center as "probably the most important find of the century." The tiny sub and her contents have been valued at more than $40 million, making her discovery and subsequent donation one of the most important and valuable contributions made to South Carolina.  The discovery of "Hunley" has been claimed by two different individuals. Underwater Archaeologist E. Lee Spence, president, Sea Research Society, reportedly discovered "Hunley" in 1970, and has a collection of evidence claiming to validate this, including a 1980 Civil Admiralty Case. The court took the position that the wreck was outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. Marshals Office, and no determination of ownership was made.  On 13 September 1976, the National Park Service submitted Sea Research Society's (Spence's) location for "H. L. Hunley" for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. Spence's location for "Hunley" became a matter of public record when "H. L. Hunley"s placement on that list was officially approved on 29 December 1978. Spence's book "Treasures of the Confederate Coast", which had a chapter on his discovery of "Hunley" and included a map complete with an "X" showing the wreck's location, was published in January 1995.  Diver Ralph Wilbanks located the wreck in April 1995, while leading a NUMA dive team originally organized by archaeologist Mark Newell, and funded by novelist Clive Cussler, who announced the find as a new discovery and first claimed that the location was in about of water over a mile inshore of "Housatonic", but later admitted to a reporter that that was false. The wreck was actually away from and on the "seaward" side of "Housatonic" in of water. The submarine was buried under several feet of silt, which had both concealed and protected the vessel for more than a hundred years. The divers exposed the forward hatch and the ventilator box (the air box for the attachment of her twin snorkels) in order to identify her. The submarine was resting on her starboard side, at about a 45-degree angle, and was covered in a thick encrustation of rust bonded with sand and seashell particles. Archaeologists exposed part of the ship's port side and uncovered the bow dive plane. More probing revealed an approximate length of, with all of the vessel preserved under the sediment.  On 14 September 1995, at the official request of Senator Glenn F. McConnell, Chairman, South Carolina "Hunley" Commission, E. Lee Spence, with South Carolina Attorney General Charles M. Condon signing, donated "Hunley" to the State of South Carolina. Shortly thereafter, NUMA disclosed to government officials Wilbank's location for the wreck which, when finally made public in October 2000, matched Spence's 1970s plot of the wreck's location well within standard mapping tolerances. Spence avows that he discovered "Hunley" in 1970, revisiting and mapping the site in 1971 and again in 1979, and that after he published the location in his 1995 book he expected NUMA to independently verify the wreck as "Hunley", not to claim that NUMA had discovered her. NUMA was actually part of a SCIAA expedition directed by Dr. Mark M. Newell and not Cussler.) Dr. Newell swore under oath that he used Spence's maps to direct the joint SCIAA/NUMA expedition and credited Spence with the original discovery. Dr. Newell credits his expedition only with the official verification of "Hunley".  The "in situ" underwater archaeological investigation and excavation culminated with the raising of "Hunley" on 8 August 2000. A large team of professionals from the Naval Historical Center's Underwater Archaeology Branch, National Park Service, the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, and various other individuals investigated the vessel, measuring and documenting her prior to removal. Once the on-site investigation was complete, harnesses were slipped underneath the sub and attached to a truss designed by Oceaneering International. After the last harness had been secured, the crane from the recovery barge "Karlissa B" hoisted the submarine from the sea floor. She was raised from the open waters of the Atlantic Ocean, just over from Sullivan's Island outside the entrance to Charleston Harbor. Despite having used a sextant and hand-held compass, thirty years earlier, to plot the wreck's location, Dr. Spence's accuracy turned out to be well within the length of the recovery barge, which was long. On 8 August 2000, at 08:37, the sub broke the surface for the first time in more than 136 years, greeted by a cheering crowd on shore and in surrounding watercraft, including author Clive Cussler. Once safely on her transporting barge, "Hunley" was shipped back to Charleston. The removal operation concluded when the submarine was secured inside the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, at the former Charleston Navy Yard in North Charleston, in a specially designed tank of fresh water to await conservation until she could eventually be exposed to air.  The exploits of "Hunley" and her final recovery were the subject of an episode of the television series "", called "Hunley: First Kill". This program was based on a section ("Part 6") in Clive Cussler's 1996 non-fiction book of the same name (which was accepted by the Board of Governors of the Maritime College of the State University of New York in lieu of his Ph.D. thesis).  In 2001, Clive Cussler, filed a lawsuit against E. Lee Spence, for unfair competition, injurious falsehood, civil conspiracy, and defamation. Spence filed a countersuit against Cussler, in 2002, seeking damages, claiming that Cussler was engaging in unfair competition, tortious interference, and civil conspiracy by claiming Cussler had discovered the location of the wreck of "Hunley" in 1995, when she had already been discovered by Spence in 1970, and that such claims by Cussler were damaging to Spence's career, and had caused him damages in excess of $100,000. Spence's lawsuit was dismissed through summary judgment in 2007, on the legal theory that, under the Lanham Act, regardless of whether Cussler's claims were factual or not, Cussler had been making them for over three years before Spence brought his suit against Cussler, and thus the suit was not filed within the statute of limitations. Cussler dropped his suit a year later, after the judge agreed that Spence could introduce evidence in support of his discovery claims as a truth defense against Cussler's claims against him.  "Hunley" may be viewed during tours at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, in Charleston. A replica is on display at Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama, alongside the and the.

Crew.

The crew was composed of Lieutenant George E. Dixon (Commander) (of Alabama or Ohio), Frank Collins (of Virginia), Joseph F. Ridgaway (of Maryland), James A. Wicks (North Carolina native living in Florida), Arnold Becker (of Germany), Corporal Johan Frederik Carlsen (of Denmark), C. Lumpkin (probably of the British Isles), and Augustus Miller (probably a former member of the German Artillery).  Apart from the commander of the submarine, Lieutenant George E. Dixon, the identities of the volunteer crewmen of "Hunley" had long remained a mystery. Douglas Owsley, a physical anthropologist working for the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History, examined the remains and determined that four of the men were American born, while the four others were of European birth, based on the chemical signatures left on the men's teeth and bones by the predominant components of their diet. Four of the men had eaten plenty of corn, an American diet, while the remainder ate mostly wheat and rye, a mainly European one. By examining Civil War records and conducting DNA testing with possible relatives, forensic genealogist Linda Abrams, was able to identify the remains of Dixon, and the three other Americans: Frank G. Collins of Fredericksburg, Va., Joseph Ridgaway, and James A. Wicks. Identifying the European crewmen has been more problematic, but was apparently solved in late 2004. The position of the remains indicated that the men died at their stations and were not trying to escape from the sinking submarine.  On 17 April 2004, the remains of the crew were laid to rest at Magnolia Cemetery, in Charleston. Tens of thousands of people attended including some 6,000 reenactors and 4,000 civilians wearing period clothing. Color guards from all five branches of the U.S. armed forces—wearing modern uniforms—were also in the procession. Even though only two of the crew were from the Confederate States, all were buried with full Confederate honors, including being buried with the 2nd Confederate national flag, known as the Stainless Banner.  Another surprise occurred in 2002, when lead researcher Maria Jacobsen, examining the area close to Lieutenant Dixon, found a misshapen $20 gold piece, minted in 1860, with the inscription ""Shiloh April 6, 1862 My life Preserver G. E. D."" on a sanded-smooth area of the coin's reverse side, and a forensic anthropologist found a healed injury to Lt. Dixon's hip bone. The findings matched a legend, passed down in the family, that Dixon's sweetheart, Queenie Bennett, had given him the coin to protect him. However, the supposed relationship between Bennett and Dixon, has not been supported by archaeological investigation of the legend. Dixon had the coin with him at the Battle of Shiloh, where he was wounded in the thigh on 6 April 1862. The bullet struck the coin in his pocket, saving his leg and possibly his life. He had the gold coin engraved and carried it as a lucky charm.  A.J. Kronegh, of the Danish National Archive, has identified the J.F. Carlsen of "Hunley". Johan F. Carlsen, was born in Ærøskøbing 9 April 1841. The last year he is registered in the census of Ærøskøbing is 1860, where he is registered as "sailor". The teeth of his remains in "Hunley" still bear significant marks of a cobbler, which was the profession of his father. In 1861, J.F. Carlsen entered the freight ship "Grethe" of Dragør, which landed in Charleston, in February 1861, where J.F. Carlsen left (deserted) the ship. In June 1861, he entered "Jefferson Davis" (the Confederate privateer brig originally named "Putnam") as mate.

Tours.

Visitors can obtain tickets for guided tours of the conservation laboratory that houses "Hunley", at the Warren Lasch Conservation Center, on weekends. The actual "Hunley" is preserved and on display in a tank of water, while a replica can be entered by the public. The Center includes artifacts found inside "Hunley", exhibits about the submarine and a video.

H. L. Hunley, often referred to as Hunley, was a submarine of the Confederate States of America that played a small part in the American Civil War. "Hunley" demonstrated the advantages and the dangers of undersea warfare. She was the first combat submarine to sink a warship (), although "Hunley" was not completely submerged and, following her successful attack, was lost along with her crew before she could return to base. The Confederacy lost 21 crewmen in three sinkings of "Hunley" during her short career. She was named for her inventor, Horace Lawson Hunley, shortly after she was taken into government service under the control of the Confederate States Army at Charleston, South Carolina.

Le CSS "H. L. Hunley" est un sous-marin à propulsion humaine utilisé par la "Confederate States Navy" des États confédérés lors de la guerre de Sécession ayant démontré à la fois les avantages et les dangers de la guerre sous-marine.


Early years.

Arthur Schuster was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany the son of Francis Joseph Schuster, a cotton merchant and banker, and his wife Marie Pfeiffer.  Schuster's parents were married in 1849, converted from Judaism to Christianity, and brought up their children in that faith. In 1869, his father moved to Manchester where the family textile business was based. Arthur, who had been to school in Frankfurt and was studying in Geneva, joined his parents in 1870 and he and the other children became British citizens in 1875. Edgar Schuster (1897–1969) was his nephew.  From his childhood, Schuster had been interested in science and after working for a year (1870/71) for the family firm of Schuster Brothers in Manchester, he persuaded his father to let him study at Owens College. He studied mathematics under Thomas Barker and physics under Balfour Stewart, and began research with Henry Roscoe on the spectra of hydrogen and nitrogen. He spent a year with Gustav Kirchhoff at the University of Heidelberg, and having gained his PhD, returned to Owens as an unpaid demonstrator in physics. Schuster later used his family's wealth to buy material and equipment and to endow readerships in mathematical physics at Manchester and meteorology at the University of Cambridge. He also contributed to the Royal Society and the International Union for Co-operation in Solar Research.  After a further period of study in Germany with Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Hermann von Helmholtz, he returned to England, where his knowledge of spectrum analysis led to him being appointed to lead an expedition to Siam, to photograph the coronal spectrum during the total solar eclipse of 6 April 1875. This was an important appointment for such a junior scientist. On the way, he wrote a letter dated 21 February 1875, to "Nature" describing his observation of the "green flash" phenomenon.

Career and Later Life.

On his return to Manchester in 1875, he began research on electricity and then went on to spend five years at the Cavendish Laboratory of the University of Cambridge. His status there was quite unofficial; he was neither a student nor a fellow. He worked with James Clerk Maxwell and with Rayleigh. In 1881, he was appointed to the Beyer Chair of Applied Mathematics at Owens, by now one of the colleges of the new Victoria University. He succeeded his teacher Balfour Stewart as professor of physics in 1888. This appointment gave him the opportunity to establish a large, active teaching and research department. In 1900 a new laboratory, for which he had fought and which he had designed, was officially opened. It was the fourth largest in the world. The laboratory quickly became a serious rival to the Cavendish; see Manchester Science Hall of Fame. Much of this later fame was associated with Ernest Rutherford who succeeded Schuster as Langworthy Professor in 1907. Schuster resigned from the chair, partly for health reasons and partly to promote the cause of international science. He ensured that Rutherford would succeed him.  Schuster is credited with coining the concept of antimatter in two letters to "Nature" in 1898. He hypothesized antiatoms, and whole antimatter solar systems, which would yield energy if the atoms combined with atoms of normal matter. His hypothesis was given a mathematical foundation by the work of Paul Dirac in 1928, which predicted antiparticles and later led to their discovery.  Schuster is perhaps most widely remembered for his periodogram analysis, a technique which was long the main practical tool for identifying statistically important frequencies present in a time series of observations. He first used this form of harmonic analysis in 1897 to disprove C. G. Knott's claim of periodicity in earthquake occurrences. He went on to apply the technique to analysing sunspot activity. This was an old interest. In 1875 Stewart's friend and Roscoe's cousin, the economist Jevons, reported, "Mr. A Schuster of Owens College has ingeniously pointed out that the periods of good vintage in Western Europe have occurred at intervals somewhat approximating to eleven years, the average length of the principal sun-spot cycle."  Schuster is credited by Chandrasekhar to have given a fresh start to the radiative transfer problem. Schuster formulated in 1905 a problem in radiative transfer in an attempt to explain the appearance of absorption and emission lines in stellar spectra. This was the first use of the two-stream approximation that underpins the treatment of radiative transfer in virtually all weather and climate models.  In 1912 he bought Yeldall House near Twyford, Berkshire.  Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Schuster family was subjected to anti-German prejudice in the press and, in Arthur's case, in some quarters of the Royal Society. His brother Sir Felix Schuster had to issue a statement pointing out the family's loyalty to Britain and that they all had sons serving in the British army. On the day Arthur gave his presidential address to the 1915 British Association meeting, he learned that his son had been wounded.  Schuster was regarded by his contemporaries as a mathematical physicist of exceptional ability but also as a capable administrator and teacher, and an advocate for the role of science in education and industry.  He died in Twyford on 14 October 1934. He is buried in Brookwood Cemetery in outer London.

Family.

In 1887 he married Caroline Loveday.

Honours and awards.

Schuster was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1879, and knighted in the 1920 New Year Honours. Other honours include doctorates from the universities of Calcutta (1908), Geneva (1909), St Andrews (1911), and Oxford (1917) and the award of the Royal, Rumford and Copley medals of the Royal Society (1893, 1926 and 1931). ; LLD, Calcutta, 1876;  Schuster served as secretary of the Royal Society and was elected vice-president (1919–20) and foreign secretary (1920–24). He also served as secretary of the International Research Council (1919–28) and on the management committees for the Meteorological Office (1905–32) and National Physical Laboratory (1899–1902, 1920–25).  He was knighted by King George V in 1920.  The University of Manchester's Schuster Laboratory, home to the School of Physics and Astronomy is named after him.

Sir Franz Arthur Friedrich Schuster FRS FRSE (12 September 1851 – 17 October 1934) was a German-born British physicist known for his work in spectroscopy, electrochemistry, optics, X-radiography and the application of harmonic analysis to physics. Schuster's integral is named after him. He contributed to making the University of Manchester a centre for the study of physics.

Sir Franz Arthur Friedrich Schuster (-) est un physicien germano-britannique connu principalement pour ses travaux en spectroscopie, radiographie aux rayons X, électrochimie, optique et pour son application de l'analyse harmonique à la physique.


Extent.

According to the 1984 classification of the Eastern Alps by the German Alpine Club the Bavarian Prealps are delineated as follows: Prealp region from Murnau via Kochel am See, Bad Tölz to Rosenheim – Inn to Kiefersfelden – Kieferbach – Glemmbach – Ellbach – Kaiserhaus (in Brandenberg) – Brandenberger Ache – Erzherzog-Johann-Klause (at the Brandenberger Ache) – Sattelbach – Ampelsbach – Achenbach – Walchen – Isar to Krün – Kranzbach – Kankerbach – Garmisch-Partenkirchen – Loisach to Murnau.

Subdivision.

The westernmost part of the Bavarian Prealps is formed by the Ester Mountains and its highest peak, the Krottenkopf (), which is also the highest summit in the Prealps. To the northeast the range is enclosed by the Herzogstand and Heimgarten and the long ridge of the Benediktenwand. The eastern part of the Prealps between the rivers Isar and Inn is known as the Mangfall Mountains, because its streams – the Rottach, Weißach, Schlierach and Leitzach – all flow into the Mangfall river, which drains the whole area and forming an important groundwater store for the city of Munich. The highest peak in the eastern part of the Bavarian Prealps – located on Austrian state territory in spite of the name – is the Hinteres Sonnwendjoch at above sea level.

Neighbouring mountain ranges.

The Bavarian Prealps border the following mountain ranges in the Alps: To the north the Bavarian Prealps border on the Alpine Foreland.

Tourism.

Mountain climbing.

Many peaks in the Bavarian Prealps are part of Munich's "Hausbergen" ("home mountains") and may be climbed all year round on foot, by ski mountaineers or with snowshoes. There are good and simple, even family-friendly, routes to most of the summits. Several also offer scenic, generally well-protected climbing routes across a wide range of climbing grades (UIAA II to X): the Roßstein and Buchstein, Plankenstein (Direkter Ostgrat: IV+, Nadel Südwand: X), Ruchenköpfe (Münchner Riß: III, Dülfer Riß: IV). A ski touring classic is the Rotwand-Reib'n, which runs up to the Rotwand.

Long-distance hiking trails.

The Via Alpina, a cross-border long-distance trail with five route sections, runs over the entire Alps, including the Bavarian Prealps.  The Violette Way of the Via Alpina runs in 9 stages through the Bavarian Prealps as follows:  The Munich–Venice Dream Path ("Traumpfad München–Venedig"), first publicised in 1977, also runs through the Bavarian Prealps. Although it is not an official long-distance path, it has become well known because so many walking clubs and states were involved in its creation. The third section of the Dream Path runs from Geretsried to the Brauneck Gipfelhaus via Bad Tölz and Lenggries. Most of this stage is located in the Alpine Foreland. The fourth stage runs from the Brauneck-Gipfelhaus via the Benediktenwand in the Jachenau. The fifth stage runs from the Jachenau to Vorderriß, where the path enters the Karwendel. The end point is at Hinterriß.  In addition there is the Via Bavarica Tyrolensis, a cycle path from Munich to the Tyrol (see main article).

The Bavarian Prealps () are a mountain range within the Northern Limestone Alps in south Germany. They include the Bavarian Prealp region between the river Loisach to the west and the river Inn to the east; the range is about long and wide. The term is not defined politically, but alpine-geographically because small areas of the Bavarian Prealps lie in Tyrol (e.g. the Hinteres Sonnwendjoch south of the Rotwand).

Les Préalpes bavaroises sont un massif des Préalpes orientales septentrionales. Il s'élève entre l'Autriche (Land du Tyrol) et principalement l'Allemagne (Bavière, comme leur nom l'indique).


Race summary.

The close season had been fairly quiet – Jochen Mass had replaced Denny Hulme at McLaren, John Watson had joined Surtees and Mike Wilds, Rolf Stommelen and Jacques Laffite were confirmed at BRM, Hill and Williams respectively.  March had announced their retirement, but then in a dramatic U-turn confirmed their entry for 1975 with Vittorio Brambilla and Lella Lombardi.  There were contractual wrangles with Ronnie Peterson, reportedly discontent at Lotus and it was uncertain up until the start of practice whether he would be driving for them or Shadow.  Jean-Pierre Jarier proved the Shadow's effectiveness, putting in the fastest ever lap of the circuit, averaging 122 mph to gain his first pole from Carlos Pace and Carlos Reutemann.  However it was all in vain. On the warm-up lap, his crown-wheel-and-pinion stripped, leaving him a non-starter. Local hero Reutemann gratefully accepted the lead from Pace. James Hunt driving the newest Hesketh with new rubber suspension climbed from the 6th row up to third place, duelling with Niki Lauda. Jochen Mass and Jody Scheckter tangled. Meanwhile, John Watson was stranded with a loose fuel-pipe and was disqualified after attempting trackside repairs.  Wilson Fittipaldi crashed on lap 13, his car catching fire and requiring the fire engine to be deployed. By now, Hunt had passed Lauda and was catching the two Brabhams. Pace took the lead on lap 15, but spun on the very next lap. Reutemann having retaken the lead, was understeering badly and on lap 25 was passed by Hunt. There was a ferocious battle with Emerson Fittipaldi for the lead.

Lap leaders.

Laps led:

The 1975 Argentine Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Buenos Aires on 12 January 1975. It was race 1 of 14 in both the 1975 World Championship of Drivers and the 1975 International Cup for Formula One Manufacturers. It was the twelfth Argentine Grand Prix and only the second to be held on the lengthened six kilometre version of the race track that runs out towards Curvon Salotto around the lake which lies to the north-east of the circuit.

Le Grand Prix automobile d'Argentine 1975 est une course de Formule 1 qui s'est déroulée sur le circuit Oscar Alfredo Galvez à Buenos Aires le.


Life.

Matthias Knutzen was born at Oldenswort (Schleswig-Holstein) early in 1646. His parents were Berend Knutzen, organist in Oldenswort and his wife Elisabeth (Elsebe). In the same year Knutzen was born his father died. As a boy, Knutzen was sent to his brother Johann Knutzen, an organist in Königsberg in East Prussia, and attended there a secondary school (the Altstädtisches Gymnasium) from 1661 to 1664. In 1664, he registered at the university of Königsberg and in 1668, at the University of Copenhagen to study theology. In between he earned some money as a private tutor. In 1673, he took a position as a village schoolteacher and auxiliary preacher in the Kremper Marsch (Schleswig-Holstein). However, he was dismissed at the end of that very year 1673, because he had sharply criticised the ecclesiastical authorities in his sermons. In the February 1674 he went to Rome and in the September 1674 to Jena (Thuringia). There, Knutzen distributed handwritten pamphlets with atheistic contents. The town and the university of Jena carried out an investigation. In order not to be arrested, Knutzen went first to Coburg and then to Altdorf near Nuremberg. On October 22, 1674, he was last seen in Jena. Then his track is lost. The author Johannes Moller wrote in his biography of North German writers, "Cimbria Literata" (printed in 1744), that Knutzen had died in an Italian monastery, but that was probably only an invention made up to discredit both Knutzen and the Roman Catholic church.

Teachings.

In his three pamphlets of 1674 (listed below under 'Writings'), Knutzen claimed that there was a sect or community called the “Gewissener” or “Conscientarians” (i.e. the conscience-people). According to him, the Conscientarians had many members at different places (Hamburg, Jena, Paris, Amsterdam, Rome), allegedly more than 700 at Jena alone. However, this claim is regarded as a disguise and the teachings which Knutzen spread as an alleged member of the Conscientarians were in fact his own.  According to Knutzen, there are no transcendent entities such as God, the devil and immortal souls. The Bible is not plausible because of its many contradictions. The guidelines for human behavior should be reason and conscience. Therefore, both secular and ecclesiastical authorities are superfluous. In his Latin letter "Amicus Amicis Amica!" Knudsen summarizes his beliefs as: "Insuper Deum negamus, Magistratum ex alto despicimus, Templa quoque cum omnibus Sacerdotibus rejicientes." <br>Moreover, we deny God, we despise authorities from above and we reject the churches together with all ministers.  The uppermost rule is for Knutzen, “Live honestly, do not harm anybody and give everybody what they deserve” (in Latin, "Honeste vivere, neminem laedere, suum cuique tribuere"), an old Roman legal principle according to Ulpian.

Sources and reception.

Knutzen was obviously inspired by Socinianism. Other influences (Spinoza?) are hard to tell and disputed. However, it can be shown that Knutzen was well versed in the philosophical literature of his time even when it comes to insignificant details.  Knutzen’s views provoked the violent rejection of ecclesiastical authors. E. g. in 1677, the German theologian Tobias Pfanner claimed that Knutzens work surpasses the infamy of all enemies of religion known until then. Pierre Bayle included Knutzen in his dictionary Dictionnaire historique et critique (first edition in 1697, further editions throughout the 18th century). Thus, for the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, Knutzen became the first modern atheist known by name.

Matthias Knutzen (also: "Knuzen", "Knutsen") (1646 – after 1674) was a German-languaged critic of religion and the author of three atheistic pamphlets. In modern Western history, he may be the first atheist known by name and in person.

Matthias (ou Mathias) Knutzen (Oldenswort 1646 -?) est, avec son contemporain Spinoza, un penseur allemand protestant, considéré comme précurseur de la philosophie athée moderne.


Organization and functions.

The Agency is headed by the Grand Steward and he is assisted by the Vice-Grand Steward. The main elements of the organization are:  The current Grand Steward is Shin'ichirō Yamamoto.  The Agency's headquarters is located within the grounds of the Imperial Palace in Tokyo. The Agency's duties and responsibilities encompass the daily activities, such as state visits, organising events, preservation of traditional culture, administrative functions, etc., the agency is also responsible for the various imperial residences scattered throughout the country. Visitors who wish to tour the Tokyo Imperial Palace, the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the Katsura Detached Palace, and other sites, should register for guided tours with the agency first.  The Agency has responsibility for the health, security and travel arrangements of the Imperial family, including maintaining the Imperial line. The "Board of the Chamberlains", headed by the Grand Chamberlain, manages the daily life of the Emperor and the Empress. It also keeps the Privy Seal and State Seal of Japan. A "Grand Master of the Board of the Crown Prince's Household" helps manage the schedules, dining menus, and household maintenance of the Crown Prince and his family.

History.

The Imperial Household Agency can trace its origins back to the institutions established by the Taihō Code (or more formally ) promulgated in 701–702 AD. The "Ritsuryō" system established the namesake which is a precursor to the present agency. The old code also gave rise to the which has its legacy in the under the current agency, and the which oversaw the that would now correspond to the Agency's. The basic structures remained in place until the Meiji Restoration (1868).

Meiji period.

The early Meiji government officially installed on 15 August 1869. However, there is a convoluted history of reorganization around how the government bodies that correspond to constituent subdivisions of the current Agency were formed or empowered during this period.  The and later the (1871–1872) were briefly in existence and placed in charge of, e.g., the under the, one of the tasks designated to the Agency today.  Meanwhile, the Meiji government created the in 1871, which was soon renamed in 1872. And by 1872 the Ministry of Shinto Affairs was abolished, with the bulk of duties moved to the and the administration of formal ceremonial functions transferred to the aforementioned Board/Bureau of the Ceremonies.  The Bureau of the Ceremonies was initially under the sway of the but was transferred to the control of the Imperial Household Ministry in September 1877. The Bureau underwent yet another name change to in October 1884. Since then, the name remained unchanged and is, today, headed by the Master of Ceremonies.  An Imperial Order in 1908 confirmed that the Imperial Household Minister, as the chief official was then called, was responsible for assisting the Emperor in all matters concerning the Imperial House.  The ministry also oversaw the official appointments of Imperial Household Artists and commissioned their work.

Imperial Household Office, 1947–1949.

The was a downgraded version of the ministry, created pursuant to Law No. 70 of 1947 during the American Occupation of Japan. Its staff size was downscaled from 6,200 to less than 1,500, and the Office was placed under the Prime Minister of Japan.

Imperial Household Agency, 1949–present.

In 1949, Imperial Household Office became the Imperial Household Agency (the current name), and placed under the fold of the newly created, as an external agency attached to it.  In 2001, the Imperial Household Agency was organizationally re-positioned under the.

Criticism.

The Agency has been criticized for isolating members of the Imperial Family from the Japanese public, and for insisting on hidebound customs rather than permitting a more approachable, populist monarchy. These criticisms have become more muted in recent years; Emperor Akihito has himself done much to make the Japanese monarchy less aloof.  Prince Naruhito, in May 2004, criticised the then-Grand Steward of the Imperial Household, Toshio Yuasa, for putting pressure on Princess Masako, Naruhito's wife, to bear a male child. At a press conference, Naruhito said that his wife had "completely exhausted herself" trying to adapt to the imperial family's life, and added "there were developments that denied Masako's career (up to our marriage) as well as her personality." It has officially been stated that Masako is suffering from an "adjustment disorder", but there has been extensive speculation in the press that she is suffering from clinical depression as a result of her treatment by Imperial Household officials.  Increasingly in recent years, the Agency's prevention of archaeological research regarding a large number (more than 740) of Kofun Period tombs putatively designated as "imperial" has come under criticism from academics. Such research, particularly on the ancient tombs in the Kansai region of western Japan, has the potential to yield a great bounty of information on the origins of Japanese civilization. The possibility that such finds could verify theories of formative civilizational ties with contemporary civilizations in China and the Korean Peninsula, with commensurate influence on thought about the origins of the Imperial Household itself, is generally considered to be the greater part of the jealousy with which the agency guards its authority over this large number of tombs (many of which are likely imperial only in name), and prevents scientific inquiry into these sites.

Grand Stewards.

The Imperial Household Agency is headed by the Grand Steward (, Article 8-1), whose appointment or dismissal is subject to the Emperor's approval (Article 8-2).  The Grand Steward is vested with comprehensive control over administrate activities within the agency, and supervisory authority over the service performance of the staff (8–3). He is empowered to interact with the Prime Minister on matters pertaining to the agency's authorized duties, either requesting the issuance of Cabinet Office ordinances (8–3), or notifying him on pertinent matters (8–4). He has the authorization to hand down orders or directives to staff members of government organs under the agency's direct control (8–6), and may also request the Commissioner General of the National Police Agency to take appropriate measures regarding administrative duties that involve the civilian.  The Grand Stewardship is a post customarily filled by former (≒permanent secretaries) at one of several internal affairs (home affairs) type ministries and agencies, or someone with a closely approximating (e.g., Superintendent General of the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department), after having served as Vice-Grand Steward.

The is an agency of the government of Japan in charge of state matters concerning the Imperial Family, and also keeping of the Privy Seal and State Seal of Japan. From around the 8th century AD up to the Second World War, it was named the.

LAgence impériale, Agence de la Maison impériale ou est une agence gouvernementale japonaise chargée de la gestion administrative de la Maison impériale du Japon. Son nom japonais signifie « administration [des affaires] intérieures du palais ». Elle conserve tant le que le, et organise la réception des ambassadeurs en visite officielle au palais. Elle est dirigée par un nommé et démis de ses fonctions par décision du Cabinet du Japon ; il est assisté par un vice-grand sénéchal. Elle est située à Tokyo sur le domaine du palais impérial.