Early background.

Born in Montreal, Quebec, on July 5, 1946, Johnson is of French-Canadian and Irish descent and is a Roman Catholic. He received a degree in law from the Université de Montréal in 1970 and a medical degree from the Université de Sherbrooke in 1976.  He is the son of Reine Gagné and Daniel Johnson, Sr., who served as Premier of Quebec from 1966 to 1968. His brother, Daniel Johnson, Jr., served as Premier for nine months in 1994.  Each of the Johnsons led different political parties:

Member of the Cabinet.

In 1976, Pierre-Marc Johnson successfully ran as the Parti Québécois candidate for the district of Anjou. Premier René Lévesque appointed him to the cabinet in 1977 and he was re-elected in 1981.  Johnson served as Minister of Labour from 1977 to 1980, Minister to Consumers, Cooperatives and Financial Institutions from 1980 to 1981, Minister of Social Affairs from 1981 to 1984 and Attorney General from 1984 to 1985.

Premier of Quebec.

In the leadership election of 1985, Johnson was chosen, following PQ founder René Lévesque as leader of the party and, consequently, as Quebec Premier.  Johnson was generally considered to be soft on the sovereignty of Quebec issue. He put independence on the back burner, as Lévesque had begun to do under the "Beau risque" approach and eventually made this approach the official constitutional policy of his party, calling it "National Affirmation".  Johnson was described as somewhat to the right of the PQ as a whole.

Leader of the Official Opposition.

He was re-elected to the legislature in 1985, but his party was defeated by the Liberals, led by Robert Bourassa.  His leadership was contested by more radical PQ supporters, such as Gérald Godin. On November 10, 1987, he resigned as head of the party, Leader of the Opposition and member of the National Assembly. He was succeeded as head of the PQ by interim leader Guy Chevrette and later Jacques Parizeau, who again made independence a primary goal.

Elections as party leader.

Johnson lost in the December 1985 election after becoming leader in October. Johnson became as opposition leader and stepped down as party leader in 1987 (with next election in 1989).

Life after leaving politics.

Both a lawyer and a physician, he is a former Professor of Law at McGill University in Montreal and was Counsel at the firm of Heenan Blaikie LLP in Montreal, Quebec until 2014. He is now Counsel at the firm of Lavery, also in Montreal. In 2001 he was appointed as chief advisor and negotiator of the Quebec government in the Softwood Lumber dispute between Canada and the United States by then Premier Bernard Landry.  In October 2006, he was chosen by the Charest government to preside over a public inquiry into the collapse of a viaduct over Autoroute 19 in Laval, Quebec, leaving five dead and six injured. The choice of Johnson was criticized by both leaders in opposition André Boisclair (PQ) and Mario Dumont (Action démocratique du Québec) because of the possibility of conflict of interest. As president, he was invested with the responsibility of investigating government administration while being a former Minister of the Quebec Government, a former Premier of Quebec, and, until shortly after this nomination, member of the board of directors of Ciment Saint-Laurent, a cement company.  Johnson was appointed by the minority Conservative government to the Canadian delegation at the United Nations' Bali Conference on climate change.  Johnson was Quebec's negotiator for CETA (Canada-European-union Trade Agreement).

Attitude about sovereignty.

Johnson refused to take a stance regarding the 1995 Quebec referendum on independence.  In December 2005 he made waves in sovereigntist circles by supporting Liberal candidate and close, longtime friend Raymond Bachand in a provincial by-election in the Outremont riding.

External links.

Pierre-Marc Johnson,, (born July 5, 1946) is a Quebec lawyer, physician and politician. He was the 24th Premier of Quebec from October 3 to December 12, 1985, making him the province's shortest-serving premier.

Pierre Marc Johnson, né le à Montréal, est un avocat, médecin et homme politique québécois. Ministre sous René Lévesque et le premier chef à lui succéder à la tête du Parti québécois, il devient le premier ministre du Québec, fonction qu'il occupe du au.


Demographics.

The vast majority of Egyptian Christians are Copts. The word "Copt" is indirectly derived from the Greek Αἰγύπτιος Aigýptios meaning simply "Egyptian".  Over 92% of Egyptian Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria,<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt"></ref> an Oriental Orthodox Church. The Coptic Church constitutes the largest Christian community in the Middle East and has approximately 10 million members, including a global diaspora of about 1 million. The Coptic Orthodox Church is headed by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy See of Saint Mark, currently Pope Tawardos II. Affiliated sister churches are located in Armenia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Lebanon and Syria.  Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Coptic Evangelical Church and various Coptic Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Alexandria and Cairo, and are members of the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Latin Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Maronite Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, or the Syriac Orthodox Church. Scattered among the various churches are a number of believers in Christ from a Muslim background. A 2015 study estimates some 14,000 such believers in Egypt.  In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment, relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims.

History.

Egyptian Christians believe that the Patriarchate of Alexandria was founded by Mark the Evangelist around AD 33, and Christianity entered Egypt because of The Apostle Mark.  By AD 300 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian apologists Clement of Alexandria and Origen both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated.  With the Edict of Milan in 313, Constantine I ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 4th century, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as the poet Palladas bitterly noted. Graffiti at Philae in Upper Egypt proves worship of Isis persisted at its temples into the 5th century.  Alexandria became the centre of the first great schism in the Christian world, between the Arians, named for the Alexandrian priest Arius, and their opponents, represented by Athanasius, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the First Council of Nicaea rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century. In the course of one of these, the great temple of Serapis, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times. Another religious development in Egypt was the monasticism of the Desert Fathers, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church.  Under Muslim rule, the ethnic Copts were cut off from the main stream of Christianity, and were compelled to adhere to the Pact of Umar covenant. They were assigned to Dhimmi status. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed ethnic Copts to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.  Some ethnic Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid. In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état against King Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The ethnic Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10–20% of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.

Pharaonism.

Many Coptic intellectuals hold to "Pharaonism," which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic scholars in the early 20th century. Most scholars today see Pharaonism as a late development shaped primarily by western Orientalism, and doubt its validity.

Persecution and discrimination.

Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.  In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the Ministry of Interior. In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against ethnic Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh, a Bedouin mob of 3,000 Muslims tried to attack the city's Coptic population, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.  Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.  Boutros Boutros-Ghali is a Copt who served as Egypt's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat. Today, only two Copts are on Egypt's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George. There is also currently one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena, and the first Coptic governor in a few decades. In addition, Naguib Sawiris, an extremely successful businessman and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, is a Copt. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Most Copts do not support independence or separation movement from other Egyptians.  While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.  In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Sunni Muslims.  "USA Today" reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts", according to journalist Kirsten Powers. The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, In December... Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi... morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by... the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage... throughout the sit-in.  On February 25, 2016 an Egyptian court convicted four Coptic Christian teenagers for contempt of Islam, after they appeared in a video mocking Muslim prayers.

Christianity is the second largest religion in Egypt. Verifiable data available from Egyptian censuses and other large-scale nationwide surveys indicate that Christians presently constitute around 5% of the Egyptian population. Nevertheless, some media and other agencies, estimate the Christian population of Egypt to be between 10-15%. The higher estimates are sometimes based on figures provided by the churches themselves. While a minority within Egypt, Egypt's Christian population is the largest in absolute numbers in the Middle East and North Africa. The history of Egyptian Christianity dates to the Roman era as Alexandria was an early center of Christianity.

Les chrétiens d'Égypte représentent de 10 à 25 % de la population du pays. C'est la plus nombreuse en nombre absolu des communautés chrétiennes du Proche-et-Moyen-Orient, et la seconde en pourcentage après celle du Liban, environ un chrétien oriental sur deux dans le monde est égyptien.


History.

Foundation & early years (1924–1927).

The club was founded on 7 August 1924 as "Federación Universitaria" by students and professors of the National University of San Marcos such as José Rubio, the first president, and Dr. Luis Málaga, the creator of the club crest. Others present during the foundation were Plácido Galindo, Eduardo Astengo, Mario de las Casas, Alberto Denegri, Luis de Souza Ferreira and Andrés Rotta. At first, Federacion Universitaria was a small league that held tournaments between the faculty departments of the university.  The National Sports Committee ("El Comité Nacional de Deportes")—the highest-ranking sports committee of Peru at the time—recognized "Federación Universitaria" as an official league; along with other small leagues in Lima and Callao. They all joined the Peruvian Football Federation. Although there was no requirement to play a tournament to be promoted to the Primera División, the club did not play in it between 1924 and 1927. During this period it only played friendly matches with other teams.

The amateur era (1928–1950).

In 1928, the Peruvian Football Federation allowed the club to enter the Peruvian Primera División, the country's premier division. The club surprised opposing and supporting fans that year because they were the runners-up of the season. During that season, on 23 September 1928, Universitario played the first clásico with Alianza Lima, the defending champion of the season, and won 1–0. However, the team lost to Alianza in an end-of-season play-off for the league title after drawing 1–1 in the first leg and losing 2–0 in the second leg. The following year Universitario won its first season title and was crowned Peruvian champion, preventing "los Blanquiazules" from winning a third consecutive title. In 1931, the rector of the university, José Antonio Encinas, forbade the club to use the name "Federación Universitaria". As a result, the club changed its name to "Club Universitario de Deportes" retaining the symbolic "U" in their name. In that same year, 18-year-old Teodoro Fernández, historically known as "Lolo" Fernández, debuted as a regular player of the team in an international friendly against the Deportes Magallanes of Chile.  Universitario's second title, in 1934, generated controversy because according to the season regulations, the season champion would be determined by the points earned by the senior teams and a fraction of the respective reserve teams. Under these regulations, Alianza Lima would be league champions; however, both senior teams had individually attained six wins, one draw, and one loss and the determining factor was the points obtained in the reserve league. Universitario's officials asked that a play-off between the first division teams be played in order to determine the season champion. Alianza Lima agreed to the play-off match and was subsequently won by Universitario with a score of 2–1. But according to other sources, this title Universitario won was not the league title itself, but a secondary title; thus creating controversy. Because of that, Alianza Lima considered itself as the champion of this year. However, the Peruvian Football Federation and the Sports Association of Professional Football, both recognize the title of this year belong to Universitario. Furthermore, in 2012, FIFA published an article in which Universitario appears holding the 1934 championship.  The 1941 season included eight clubs and was played in 2 legs. However, by the twelfth round, the tournament was suspended due to participation of the national team in the South American Championship. Once the season resumed, Universitario de Deportes reached the title after winning their last two games against Atlético Chalaco and Alianza Lima, 1–0 and 3–1 respectively. Back-to-back titles in 1945 and 1946, led to the club's first "bicampeonato" thanks to the offensive trio formed by Víctor Espinoza, Teodoro Fernández and his brother Eduardo Fernández; the three players accounted for 41 goals. The following season, in its worst performance in the amateur era, finished in a mediocre eighth place with Sporting Tabaco and only staved off relegation because both teams refused to play a play-off match to determine the relegated team. Hence, the organizing association of the time decided to suspend relegation for the season. In 1949, the club celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary by winning the championship after winning its last match against Atlético Chalaco 4–3.  In 1950, the last championship in the amateur era took place, where "La U" finished fifth after nine wins, two draws and seven defeats. They finished with seven league titles, one less than Alianza Lima, which held the most titles at the end of the amateur era.

The professional era (1951–present).

Professional football came to Peru in 1951, when the Peruvian Football Federation adapted the championship according to the global guidelines for a professional league, but only with the participation of clubs located in the city of Lima and Province of Callao. The club debuted in the professional era with a win over Mariscal Sucre FBC with a score of 4–1. On 20 July 1952, the inauguration of Teodoro Lolo Fernandez stadium took place, with sporting facilities and a spectator stand which previously belonged to the first national stadium of the country. At the opening, Universitario beat Universidad de Chile by 4–2, with three goals scored by Teodoro Fernández himself. In 1954 Plácido Galindo took the club's presidency, in what was the first of his three administrations at the helm of the institution. Throughout this decade, the club conducted irregular campaigns in the newly professional league, which saw titles shared between Alianza Lima, Sport Boys, Mariscal Sucre, Sporting Cristal, and Centro Iqueño. The title drought of the fifties ended in 1959 when they won their eighth crown, after tying 3–3 with Deportivo Municipal in the final match, totaling fifteen wins, three draws and four losses.  In the 1960s, the club's successes were the greatest yet after winning five more championships. The first of them in 1960 after a scoreless draw with Sport Boys, totaling eleven wins, three draws and four defeats in eighteen games; hence achieving its second "bicampeonato". As 1960 champion, Universitario was the first Peruvian club to qualify to the first Copa de Campeones de América, the first edition of the Copa Libertadores. On 19 April 1961, the club debuted in South America's premier competition in Montevideo, Uruguay against Peñarol, which ended in a loss of 5–0. After finishing third place in two consecutive season, Universitario rose again with the title in 1964, nine points ahead of second place. At the end of 1965, the Peruvian Football Federation expanded the professional league to the entire country by creating the first national tournament as the Torneo Descentralizado, or Decentralized Tournament. In 1966, the first Descentralizado was played. Under the leadership of manager Marcos Calderón, became the first national champion after nineteen wins, three draws and four defeats. In 1967, Universitario successfully defended its crown, winning its third "bicampeonato". On 27 February 1968 in the Copa Libertadores, Universitario achieved its biggest win in Copa Libertadores against Always Ready of Bolivia by 6–0. The club finished the decade with a third national title after drawing 1–1 with Atlético Grau in the league final.

1972 Copa Libertadores.

In 1971, Universitario won its fourteenth First División title and qualified for the 1972 edition of the Copa Libertadores under the Uruguayan head coach Roberto Scarone along with Alianza Lima who placed second that season. They were grouped with the Chilean teams Unión San Felipe and Universidad de Chile in Group 4. Universitario's first game was the Peruvian Superclásico which it won 2–1. The following game was held in Santiago de Chile against Universidad de Chile where it lost 1–0. Universitario later tied with the other Chilean team in Santiago. Universitario returned to Lima to face Alianza Lima again where they tied 2–2. At that point, Universitario and Universidad de Chile had accumulated 4 points while Alianza Lima and Unión San Felipe had 3. Universitario won the remaining games against the Chilean teams in Lima, obtaining 8 points and qualifying for the next round.  Universitario was grouped with the Uruguayan clubs Peñarol—a three-time winner of the Copa Libertadores—and Nacional—the previous edition's winner—in the semi-final group stage. La U started off losing their first match against Peñarol in Lima. In that match, La U did not play with five of their starting players because they were called to play for the Peru national football team. However, they won the following game against Nacional 3–0. They then visited both teams in Montevideo tying both games, 3–3 against Nacional and 1–1 against Peñarol. Universitario had accumulated 4 points and there was only one game left between Peñarol and Nacional, which had 4 and 2 points respectively. All three teams had a chance of qualifying for the next round. Peñarol only needed a win but Nacional needed a win by 5 goals. The game ended 3–0 in favor of Nacional allowing Universitario to qualify for the final round where they would face Independiente.  The first leg of the final was played in Lima where they tied 0–0. The game in Argentina ended 2–1 in favor of the Argentines; Percy Rojas scored the late goal for Universitario. This was Percy Rojas' sixth goal in the tournament. He, along with Oswaldo Ramírez, Teófilo Cubillas, and Toninho, were the top-scorers. Although Universitario lost, they had achieved something a Peruvian club had never before, reach the final of the Copa Libertadores, the most prestigious international competition in South America.  Two years later, in 1974, the club celebrated its 50th anniversary, created a football school for minors and finished the year as champion under the leadership of Argentine Juan Eduardo Hohberg.

The regional tournaments (1980–1991).

The 1980s of Peruvian football began to see notable changes in the competition format. The 1982 season saw the tournament played in group stages. Universitario advanced from its Metropolitan Group to Group B of the second stage and finally to the four-team group final, known as the Liguilla. Universitario successfully defeated all of its opponents in the Liguilla and reached its sixteenth first division title. The decisive victory was against Deportivo Municipal after a lone goal by Hugo Gastulo. In 1985, José Luis Carranza, to become an important icon of the club, debuted on the first team. Universitario won the Torneo Regional, or Regional Tournament, of the early season successfully remained at the top of the league by advancing to the Liguilla by placing second in the Torneo Descentrlizado and conquering the Liguilla by winning all five matches played, the last of which was a 4–0 win over Los Espartanos de Pacasmayo with goals by Miguel Seminario, Fidel Suárez, Eduardo Rey Muñoz and Jaime Drago. As Universitario won both tournaments of the season, they were automatically declared 1985 champions. Universitario de Deportes returned to the top of Peruvian football in 1987. As in 1985, Universitario began the season by winning the Regional Tournament, which put them in the season final to face off the winner of the Descentralizado for the national title. The Descentralizado went to their classic rival, Alianza Lima which meant the season final would be contested as another edition of the Clásico. Also, both Universitario and Alianza Lima reached the final with seventeen first division titles under their belts. The defining derby was won by Universitario with a single goal by Fidel Suárez, overcoming the tie they had in the most Peruvian titles. In 1990, with the arrival of Fernando Cuellar as coach, Universitario de Deportes won the First Regional Tournament of the season, automatically advancing to the season final where they faced Sport Boys, winner of the Second Regional Tournament.

The mid-nineties (1992–1997).

In the year 1992, the national championship regulations were generally amended again by dropping the regional tournaments and returning to a similar system before the 1980s where the clubs would first play in a league and subsequently advance to the Liguilla. The club won the title a week before the final round, after defeating CD San Agustín 4–1, with goals two goals from Ronald Baroni and the remaining coming from César Charún and José Luis Carranza. With Sergio Markarián in charge of the first team, "la U" defended its title in 1993, achieving a new "bicampeonato" for the club. The defining match that gave Universitario its twenty-first title was a 3–0 over San Agustín; two goals were scored by Jorge Amado Nunes and one by Roberto Martinez. This was the fourth time in the club's history that it won back-to-back titles.

The treble (1998–2000).

By winning in 1998, 1999, and 2000, Universitario won their first treble or "Tricampeonato". The 1998 title was won under Oswaldo Piazza, Miguel Company and Roberto Challe led the club to the other two titles. It was the third Peruvian team to do this; the first being in the amateur era won by Alianza Lima and the second in the early nineties by Sporting Cristal. It was also during the 2000 season that they were the second Peruvian club to win an Apertura and Clausura in a single season; the first being Alianza Lima in 1997. In the Copa Libertadores, Universitario made it to the Round of 16 in 1998 but lost to Vélez Sársfield. In 1999 and 2000 they failed to advance past the group stage. Universitario also participated in all four editions of the Copa Merconorte between 1999 and 2001 but did not have a lot of success, being eliminated in the group stage all four times.

Recent decade (2001–2010).

Universitario saw little success after its "Tricampeonato". In 2002, Universitario beat Alianza Lima in the Apertura two-legged play-off but were unable to finish in the top four of the 2002 Clausura and were ineligible to dispute the national title. In 2005, Universitario placed first on the aggregate table and qualified for the 2006 Copa Libertadores, where they won on away goals against Nacional in the first phase of the tournament, however, they were eliminated in the group stage. Universitario continually failed to win a twenty-fifth national title but qualified to the Copa Sudamericana in 2007 and 2008. In both editions, they were eliminated in the first stage.  Minor success came in 2008 when Ricardo Gareca led Universitario to an Apertura tournament. The last time they won an Apertura title was in 2002. They won the tournament on their twenty-second game 10 points ahead of Sporting Cristal and four games away from the end of the Apertura. They defeated Cienciano 3–1 to secure first place and accumulated 50 points to win the title. They qualified for the 2009 Copa Libertadores but did not finish in the top seven of the Clausura and consequently could not contest the season final for the national title against Universidad San Martín. In 2009, following the resignation of Ricardo Gareca the club hired Juan Reynoso as the new manager, a former player of the club in the 90s and with a long history in the Mexican football. Much of the 2008 squad remained for the 2009 season, but with the departure of some notable players like Héctor Hurtado, Mayer Candelo and Donny Neyra. The most important signing prior to the 2009 season was Nolberto Solano. Other players to arrive were Carlos Orejuela, John Galliquio, Piero Alva, Francisco Bazán, Rodolfo Espinoza, and Ronaille Calheira. Reynoso intelligently led Universitario to the season final which would be a repeat of the 1987 final in which they would face arch-rival Alianza Lima. Universitario won both legs; in the first leg they won 1–0 with a goal from Piero Alva in and in the second leg Nolberto Solano scored the defining goal from the penalty mark in the tenth minute of play. As of 2009, Universitario has twenty-five Primera División titles. The first seven titles won by Universitario were during the amateur era. The remaining eighteen titles were won during the professional era, the most any Peruvian club has.  The balance of the 2009 tournament could not be better, as the Universitario had the highest cumulative score, claimed victory in the four "super clásicos" of the year, and ensured their participation in the Copa Libertadores 2010.  In the continental tournament "la U" was part of Group 4 of the Copa Libertadores 2010 with Blooming, Lanús from Argentina and Libertad. In the first game scored an away victory to Blooming 2–1. A week later defeated by a score of 2–0 to Lanús and then tied 0–0 with Libertad, this meeting was the number 200 in the history of the club in the Copa Libertadores.  Universitario ended his participation in the group stage with three more draws for a total of 10 points, and alongside Brazilian teams Internacional and São Paulo became the best defenders in the tournament to receive only two goals against. Coincidentally, the São Paulo was the merengue's rival in the knockout stage, both matches ended 0–0 so the winner was decided by penalty kicks resulting in the Brazilian club winning 3–1. La U left the Cup undefeated, having achieved 2 wins and 6 draws,  Meanwhile, in the league the club had its worst season start in history after being defeated during the first three games of the season. The team quickly recovered with three straight wins and not again suffer defeat until the twelfth journey when they lost by 1:0 before the León de Huánuco in visitor status. Once again a number of problems dirigenciales and constant technical changes not allowed the team to fulfill a good season. During the first part of the tournament the Chamber of Conciliation and Dispute Resolution Peruvian Football Federation took away two points for having an outstanding debt to Ricardo Gareca and finished in fifth place with 51 points product of 16 wins, 5 draws and 9 defeats. In the second stage championship of the "U" joined the league odd in which it scored 5 wins and 6 ties for a total of 72 points and obtain the qualification for the Copa Sudamericana 2011.

Colors and badge.

Universitario's colors are cream ("crema" in Spanish), burgundy ("granate" in Spanish), and black. When playing a home game they use the cream-colored kit with black socks and when playing away they use the burgundy-colored kit with black socks.  The club's colors at first were not cream. They started out with a white kit which had the badge on the chest. During one of their early seasons, Universitario could not participate in an upcoming match because their uniforms had been sent to the laundry to be washed. The managers pleaded that they hurry with the laundry and they quickly washed them. However, when the club received the jerseys, they found that they were no longer white, but yellow. The laundry workers had forgotten to remove the badges from the jerseys and consequently the red color from the badges mixed with the white jerseys giving it a yellow tint. The club had no choice but to use the jersey to play. They managed to win that game and a few others as well and thus the club kept the new-colored kit as a good-luck charm.  The badge is a red U inside a deep-red circle drawn by Luis Malaga, one of the founders of the club.

Stadium.

Universitario's first stadium was "Estadio Lolo Fernandez". It had a capacity of 15,000. Its capacity was reduced to 4,000 and now serves as a football academy for its club members and hosts football games for the Segunda División reserve team "América Cochahuayco" and youth teams in the youth divisions. It was built in honor of Teodoro "Lolo" Fernandez, Universitario's most revered player.  Estadio Monumental is a stadium that was built by the Peruvian construction company Gremco throughout the 1990s and opened in 2000, replacing "Estadio Lolo Fernandez" and the "Nacional". The inauguration game was between Universitario and Sporting Cristal; Universitario won 2–0. It was given to Universitario the same year it was opened and they now own the largest stadium in Peru with a capacity of 85,000. This stadium is the third largest in South America. Its eastern and western stands are all-seaters and its northern and southern stands have standing terraces. Exactly 1,251 luxury boxes, known as "palcos", are above the stands.  The stadium was deemed not fit to host the classic derby between Universitario and Alianza Lima between 2002 and 2007 by the Peruvian Police. The first time this stadium hosted the derby was on 26 June 2002—the first leg of the Apertura play-off—where Universitario won 1–0. Alianza's fans, in the southern stand, reacted violently to the loss by vandalizing the premises and causing two reported stabbings. Consequently, La U was forced to play all future derbies at Estadio Nacional where the Instituto Peruano del Deporte installed artificial turf which is constantly criticized by the First Division players. For the next five years this derby was not played at this stadium. On 14 September 2008, the derby returned to the Estadio Monumental with a loss for Universitario.  This stadium was rejected as a venue for the Copa América 2004 because of problems with Alfredo Gonzalez, President of Universitario de Deportes, and the stadium's owners. Many saw this as a typical bullying behavior on the part of the president since this stadium would have been the perfect venue to host the 2004 Copa América intro as well as final games.

Supporters.

Universitario's supporters are one of the largest in Peru, only rivaled by Alianza Lima's supporters. Universitario's ultra groups are known as "Barra Oriente" and "Trinchera Norte". Asociación Barra Dale U, the official name of the Barra Oriente, started in 1968 that notably grew over the years. Trinchera Norte is a barra brava that was formed in 1988; in contrast to Alianza Lima's supporters, named "Comando Svr", "Sicarios", and others.  In contrast with the more proletarian-oriented Alianza Lima supporter base, Universitario fans have traditionally come from middle- and upper-class sectors of Lima. They are also known to embrace far-right symbols and ideologies. It is common for their ultra groups to use names that extol fascism, such as Holocausto (Holocaust), and to display nazi symbols.  The two most popular teams in Peru are Universitario and Alianza Lima. They are at the top of the polls conducted by many different groups. The group Apoyo, Opinion y Mercado in 2006 revealed that Alianza Lima was popular amongst 35%, followed by Universitario, with 32%. In 2005, a study by "Grupo de Opinión Pública de la Universidad de Lima" showed that Universitario was the most popular team in Lima and Callao with 31.7% followed by Alianza Lima with 29.3%. However, in 2006 and 2007 Alianza Lima appeared first in their polls. There was a narrow margin in 2007 as Alianza Lima reached 29.6% and Universitario followed with 29.5% under a margin of error of ±4.16% In 2009, the university's results varied because Alianza reached first with 40% and Universitario second with 35.5% under a margin of error of ±4.47%. Another group known as CPI, revealed in May 2008 that Universitario was favored by 32% whilst Alianza Lima was favored by 33.5% under a margen of error of 2.7% at the national level. This report was divided into two parts. In the metropolitan capital, Universitario led with 42.8% and Alianza tailed behind with 39.9%. In the rest of the country, Universitario had a larger lead with 31.5% opposed to Alianza's 24.1%. In 2009, CPI released another poll indicating the Universitario was still the most popular team in Peru with 38.6% while Alianza reached 33.1%. A survey conducted by "Grupo de Opinión Pública de la Universidad de Lima" in February 2009, said that Alianza Lima ranked first in popularity with 27.2%; Universitario second with 26.6%. However, a second poll released by the same university group in September of the same year ranked Universitario first with 37.9% and Alianza second with 36.6%. The most recent report from the group indicates that Universitario has more sympathizers than Alianza with 40.6% over 36.% in the Province of Lima and Callao. In 2010, South American Football Confederation (Conmebol) stated that Universitario is the most popular team in Perú.

Women's team.

The women's team won the national championship in 2015 and 2016. It represented Peru at the Copa Libertadores Femenina in 2015 and finished 4th in their group.

Technical staff.

Noted managers.

Seventeen managers won at least one major trophy with the club but only fourteen won the Primera División. Arturo Fernández and Marcos Calderon won a record four major titles with the club. Roberto Scarone won 3 first division titles and also led the club to its first Copa Libertadores final in 1972. Universitario's first manager, Mario de las Casas, led the club to its first championship as a player-manager. Jack Greenwell, the club's only English manager in its history, won the club's second first division title and went on to succeed with the Peru national football team.  Three managers—Miguel Company, Ángel Cappa, and Ricardo Gareca—won a Torneo Apertura trophy but did not win the national championship. Company left the team shortly after winning the 1999 Torneo Apertura whilst Cappa resigned from his position after winning the 2002 Torneo Apertura due to financial difficulties in the club. Gareca was unable to reach the final championship match because of a string of poor results in the 2008 Torneo Clausura.

Honours.

Ranking.

Club Ranking for 2010–11 (Previous year rank in italics, IFFHS Club Coefficients in parentheses)

Average home attendances of Universitario de Deportes.

2017 Verano: 10,807  2017 Apertura: 10,729  2016 Clausura: 15,107  2016: Apertura: 14,105

Club Universitario de Deportes, popularly known as Universitario and La "U", is a Peruvian football club located in Lima. The club was founded in 1924 under the name Federación Universitaria by students of the National University of San Marcos but was forced to rename in 1931. Since 1928, the club competes in the top tier of Peruvian football, the Torneo Descentralizado. In 2000, they opened the 85,000-capacity stadium Estadio Monumental, currently the largest stadium in Peru and South America, retiring their smaller Estadio Teodoro Lolo Fernández. Universitario and Alianza Lima participate in the Peruvian Clásico, which has its roots in the club's first participation in the Primera División in 1928. It also has rivalries with Sporting Cristal, Deportivo Municipal, and Sport Boys.

L'Universitario de Deportes est un club péruvien de football basé à Lima. Fondé le, sous le nom de "Federación Universitaria de Fútbol", l'Universitario a disputé tous les championnats de première division du Pérou depuis 1928. Avec 26 titres de champion, c'est le club le plus titré du pays. En 2012, l'IFFHS lui a concédé la distinction honorifique de plus grand club péruvien du.


History.

Cameroonian National Union.

The Cameroonian National Union (CNU) (French Union nationale camérounaise [UNC]) was formed in 1966 through a merger of the Cameroon Union (Union Camerounaise) and the Kamerun National Democratic Party, the major political organizations, respectively, of the eastern and western regions, and four smaller parties. The UNC sponsored labor, youth, and women's organizations and provided the only list of candidates for the 1973, 1978, and 1983 legislative elections.  Ahmadou Ahidjo became the first head of the UNC in 1966 and continued in that capacity after his resignation as the nation's president in 1982. Following President Paul Biya's assumption of emergency powers in August 1983, Ahidjo, then in France, resigned as party leader. Biya was subsequently elected party chief at a special party congress in September.

CPDM.

In 1985, the UNC was renamed the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM or Rassemblement Démocratique du Peuple Camerounaise—RDPC). Opposition parties were legalized in 1990.  The CPDM won 88 of the 180 seats in the National Assembly of Cameroon in the March 1992 parliamentary election, and through an alliance with the Movement for the Defense of the Republic (MDR), which won six seats, it obtained a parliamentary majority. Biya subsequently won the October 1992 presidential election with about 40% of the vote, ahead of John Fru Ndi of the Social Democratic Front (SDF), who won about 36%. The CPDM gained 116 of the 180 seats in the May 1997 parliamentary election (it initially won 109 seats, but it subsequently won in the three constituencies where the election was held over again in August, gaining seven more seats) and in the October 1997 presidential election, Biya received 92.6% of the vote amidst an opposition boycott.

Political Opposition and Alliances in 2000.

The SDF and its allies in the Union for Change remain critical of Biya but are also critical of France, which they call an "accomplice of those in power." However, in 2000 the alliance reportedly was falling apart as the SDF sought to distance itself from the Southern Cameroon National Council (SCNC). The SCNC apparently was accusing the SDF of delaying independence for the northwest and southwest English-speaking provinces by refusing to force its English-speaking members of parliament to resign from the Francophone-dominated National Assembly. Moreover, some members of the opposition wanted their party leaders to join Biya's coalition government so they could share the spoils of office.  By 2000, Biya had shored up his government by forming a coalition with the northern-based UNDP, which had 13 Assembly seats, and with the UPC, which had one seat. Together, the ruling coalition gave Biya a four-fifth's majority in the Assembly. The coalition government enjoyed support from seven of Cameroon's 10 provinces, and thus secured former President Ahidjo's north-south alliance, which he had created in 1958.

From 2002.

In the parliamentary election held on 30 June 2002, the party won 149 out of 180 seats, including 16 seats won in a revote on 15 September for constituencies where the election had been invalidated. In the presidential election held on 11 October 2004, Biya won 70.9% of the vote.  The CPDM won 140 out of the 163 initially declared seats in the July 2007 parliamentary election, and it won another 13 seats (out of 17 at stake) in constituencies where the vote was held over again in September, thus winning a total of 153 seats.

Congresses.

The party held its first ordinary congress, at which Biya told the party to prepare for competition as the move toward multiparty democracy was beginning, on June 28, 1990 in Yaoundé. The CPDM's first extraordinary congress was held in Yaoundé on October 7, 1995, and its second ordinary congress was held on December 17–19, 1996. The party held its second extraordinary congress on July 7, 2001 and its third extraordinary congress on July 21, 2006 in Yaoundé. Biya has been consistently re-elected as the CPDM's National President.

The Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM,, "RDPC") is the ruling political party in Cameroon. Previously known as the Cameroonian National Union, which had dominated Cameroon politics since independence in 1960, it was renamed in 1985. The National President of the CPDM is Paul Biya, the President of Cameroon, while the Secretary-General of the RDPC's Central Committee is Jean Nkuete.

Le Rassemblement démocratique du peuple camerounais (RDPC, en anglais Cameroon People's Democratic Movement, CPDM) est le parti au pouvoir du Cameroun. Son ancien nom (1960-1984) était l'Union nationale camerounaise, ancien parti unique fondé par Ahmadou Ahidjo, ancien président de la République du Cameroun, qui a dominé la vie politique camerounaise depuis l'indépendance en 1960.


History.

Overview.

Named British Honduras whilst under British colonial rule, the country's first international game came on February 19, 1928, beating Honduras 1–0. Following independence, Belize's first game came on December 8, 1983, in a 2–0 loss against Canada in Belize. Although Belize gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1981 (and many of the UK's current colonies have international teams), Belize did not begin to regularly play international football until 1995. It made its debut at the 1995 UNCAF Nations Cup and was eliminated in the first round after losing to El Salvador and Costa Rica.  Belize has never qualified for the World Cup but finished fourth in the 2013 Copa Centroamericana. Their fourth-place finish in the 2013 Copa Centroamericana gave Belize its first qualification to a major international competition, that being the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup.

June 2011 suspension by FIFA.

On June 15, 2011, Belize kicked off its 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign against minnows Montserrat, winning 2–5 away in a match played in the Ato Boldon Stadium in Couva, Trinidad. However, the return which was scheduled for June 19 was postponed by FIFA when they suspended the FFB due to governmental interference.

Facilities.

FFB Field in Belmopan is the home stadium for the Belize national football team. Prior to this stadium, Belize had no facilities that met FIFA specifications. Apart from this Belize has many fields to play on but with no facilities for the players.

Competition records.

Copa Centroamericana.

The 1995 tournament in El Salvador saw Belize's international debut. They played the hosts in their first-ever international on November 29 in Group A. El Salvador won 3–0 with all goals coming in the second half. On December 1, Belize scored their first-ever international goal as they lost 2–1 to Costa Rica and were eliminated from the tournament. Both other teams advanced to the semi-finals and were defeated there, Costa Rica's conqueror Honduras beat Guatemala in the final.

Current squad.

The following 19 players were called up for the Nations League qualifying match against Guyana in March 23, 2019. "Caps and goals updated as November 16, 2018, after the game against Puerto Rico."

Managers.

Since the creation of the national team in 1995, several coaches have been in charge of managing Belize. From 1995 to 1996, Winston Michael was appointed as Belize's first ever manager., the Belize national football team has had 11 managers.

Schedule and recent results.

The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.

The Belize national football team represents Belize in international football and is controlled by the Football Federation of Belize, a member of the Central American Football Union of CONCACAF.

L'Équipe du Belize de football est une sélection des meilleurs joueurs béliziens sous l'égide de la Fédération du Belize de football.


Early life.

Sims was born in Canterbury, Kent, the son of, Robert Courthope Sims (1720–1812), a physician, and Rebecca née Tritton (1723–c1781). His father was a member of the Society of Friends who published "An Essay on the Nature and Constitution of Man".  He was educated at the Quaker school in Burford, Oxfordshire, with additional instruction from his father. He studied medicine at Edinburgh University, obtaining his PhD in 1774. His dissertation was "De usu aquæ frigidæ interno."

Career.

Medicine.

He moved to London in 1766, where he worked as a physician at the Surrey Dispensary. He bought an obstetric practice in 1779, and was he was admitted to the Royal College of Physicians. In 1780 he was appointed Physician and Man Midwife to the Charity for Delivering Poor Married Women at their own Houses. In 1817 he was called to the ill-fated childbirth of Princess Charlotte at which mother and baby died.

Botany.

He was the first editor of Curtis's Botanical Magazine (1801–1826 vols. xiv–xlii) after the death of the founder, William Curtis, and edited "Annals of Botany" (1805–06) with Charles Konig. He was a founding member of the Linnean Society. In March 1814 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.  His papers on botany include a description of the effect of moisture on "Mesembryanthemum" to the "Medical and Physical Journal" (vol. ii. 1799), and a "Description of Amomum exscapum" to the "Annals of Botany" (vol. i.).  The genus name "Simsia" was published by Robert Brown to honour his work. His herbarium was purchased by George Bentham and passed to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Death.

In 1825 he resigned from his medical practice and retired to Dorking, Surrey where he died in 1831. He is buried in Fittleworth, Sussex with his wife Ann née Christie (1765–1835) and their only son the Rev Dr Courthope Sims MD MB (1795–1833).

John Sims (13 October 1749 – 26 February 1831) was an English physician and botanist. He was born in Canterbury, Kent and was subsequently educated at the Quaker school in Burford, Oxfordshire, he then went on to study medicine at Edinburgh University. Later in life he moved to London(1766) where he worked as a physician, notably he was involved with the birth of Princess Charlotte in which both mother and baby died. He was the first editor of Curtis's Botanical Magazine.

John Sims est un médecin et un botaniste britannique, né le à Canterbury et mort le à Dorking dans le Surrey.


History.

Reg Presley (lead vocals) and Ronnie Bond (drums) were childhood friends and in the early 1960s formed an R&B band in their home town of Andover. In 1964 they were joined by Pete Staples (bass) and Chris Britton (guitar) and became the Troggs. They were signed by Larry Page, manager of the Kinks, in 1965. They recorded on Page's Page One Records, and Page also leased them to CBS for the debut single "Lost Girl". Their most famous hit was the single "Wild Thing" (written by Chip Taylor) (the song on the B-side of the single depended on the country where it was sold), which with the help of television exposure on "Thank Your Lucky Stars" reached number 2 in the UK (c/w Reg Presley's song "From Home") and number 1 in the United States in July 1966. Its combination of a simple heavy guitar riff and flirtatious lyrics helped it to quickly become a garage rock standard. It was recorded in one complete take (take two) at Olympic Studios in London, with Keith Grant engineering. Because of a dispute over US distribution rights, "Wild Thing" was released (along with the first album of the same name) on two labels: Fontana and Atco. The band's success in the US was also limited by not touring there until 1968.  They also had a number of other hits, including "With a Girl Like You" (a UK number 1 in July 1966, US number 29), "I Can't Control Myself" (a UK number 2 in September 1966; their first UK single release on the Page One label, POF 001; this was also their second and final dual-label release in the US, with Fontana retaining the rights to all subsequent releases), "Anyway That You Want Me" (UK number 10 in December 1966), all at Olympic Studios, "Give It To Me" (UK No.12 1967), "Night of the Long Grass" (UK number 17 in May 1967), "Love Is All Around" (UK number 5 in November 1967 and US number 7 in May 1968) plus "Hi Hi Hazel" (UK No.42, 1967). The band's popularity completely waned the following year. Former Plastic Penny bassist Tony Murray replaced Pete Staples in 1969. Richard Moore filled in for Britton on their 1972–1973 tour. In 1974, after a spell on Pye Records, in an attempt to re-create their 1960s successes, the Troggs re-united with Larry Page, now running Penny Farthing Records. The resulting cover version of the Beach Boys hit "Good Vibrations" failed to chart. A reggae version of "Wild Thing" also failed. Richard Moore and Colin Fletcher substituted for Britton, who temporarily quit music to manage a night club in Spain, for the recording of "The Troggs Tapes" album released in 1976. The band found a sympathetic ear at French label New Rose in the 1980s, releasing the "Black Bottom" LP (1982) and "AU" (1990).  In 1991, they recorded "Athens Andover", an 11-song collaboration between themselves and three members of R.E.M. It was recorded in the American band's hometown of Athens, Georgia, and was released in March 1992. The band attempted to capitalise on this new exposure with two collaborations on new versions of "Wild Thing". A 1992 recording with actor Oliver Reed and snooker player Alex Higgins failed to chart, but another version the following year featuring Wolf from the TV show "Gladiators" reached number 69 in the UK Singles Chart. In 1994, Wet Wet Wet's cover of "Love Is All Around" was #1 in the UK for 15 weeks, resulting in substantial royalties for Presley.  The band's original drummer, Ronnie Bond, died on 13 November 1992. In January 2012, Reg Presley retired after being diagnosed with lung cancer. The band carried on with new lead singer Chris Allen. Presley died on 4 February 2013.

Legacy and influence.

The Troggs are widely seen as a highly influential band whose sound was an inspiration for garage rock and punk rock. Influential American critic Lester Bangs "called the band the progenitors of punk", according to NPR. For example, the Troggs influenced artists such as Iggy Pop, and the early version of British pop-punk pioneers Buzzcocks featured "I Can't Control Myself" in their live repertoire. The Ramones are also among the punk bands who cited the Troggs as an influence. "I Can't Control Myself" is perhaps the most enduring favourite of critics; it continues to be championed for its originality and lasting influence by radio hosts such as "Little" Steven Van Zandt.  A specially tailored version of "Give It to Me" featured in the "Sadie's Daydream" sequence of Michelangelo Antonioni's 1966 film "Blowup". "I Can't Control Myself" appears at the climax of "The Little Chaos", the 1967 short film by German director Rainer Werner Fassbinder and in the "1967" episode of the 1996 British television serial "Our Friends in the North".  "With a Girl Like You" is featured uncut in a school dance scene from the 1991 Nicole Kidman/Noah Taylor movie "Flirting". It also is featured in "Shine", "The Good Night" and "The Boat That Rocked". "Wild Thing" is prominent in Jonathan Demme's 1986 film "Something Wild". A modified version of "Love Is All Around" was featured in the film "Love Actually" (2003), performed by actor Bill Nighy. The Troggs was the name of the high school gang in the movie "Bang Bang, You're Dead" that persuade the main character to join them in attacking their high school. The point-and-click adventure game "Hopkins FBI" features "I Can't Control Myself" and "Lost Girl". Trogg is the name of one of Bane's three henchmen in Dennis O'Neil's "Batman: Knightfall" comic arc. The other henchmen are Bird and Zombie, named after two other popular 1960s rock bands: the Byrds and the Zombies.  The Jimi Hendrix Experience famously covered "Wild Thing" during their appearance at the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival, introducing it as the British/American joint "national anthem", and climaxing with Hendrix burning his guitar. MC5 covered "I Want You" at their live shows and recorded the song for the album "Kick Out the Jams", although they renamed it "I Want You Right Now". In 1990, the first hit for (and first single by) the band Spiritualized was a cover of "Anyway That You Want Me". This cover later was used in the movie "Me and You and Everyone We Know". In 1991, "Love Is All Around" was covered by R.E.M. during live performances and was released later that year as a B-side on their "Radio Song" single. They also performed an acoustic version of the song on "MTV Unplugged". In 1994, Scottish band Wet Wet Wet's version of "Love Is All Around" spent 15 weeks at number one in the UK after its inclusion in "Four Weddings and a Funeral". The authorship royalties enabled Reg Presley's 1990s research and publication on extraterrestrials and other paranormal phenomena. In 2012, Norwegian band Ulver covered the song "66-5-4-3-2-1" for their covers album "Childhood's End". "Wild Thing" was covered by an ensemble featuring Queen guitarist Brian May to open the Wildlife Rocks' event at Guildford Cathedral in May 2014.  An in-studio tape of Reg Presley's running commentary on a recording session, filled with in-fighting and swearing (known as "The Troggs Tapes"), was widely circulated in the music underground, and was included in the "Archaeology" box set, as well as the compilation album, "The Rhino Brothers Present the World's Worst Records". The group infighting is believed to be the inspiration for a scene in the comedy film "This Is Spinal Tap", where the band members are arguing. Some of this dialogue was sampled by the California punk band the Dwarves on their recording of a cover version of the Troggs song "Strange Movies".

The Troggs (originally called the Troglodytes) are an English garage rock band formed in Andover, Hampshire in May 1964. They had a number of hits in the United Kingdom and the United States. Their most famous songs include the US chart-topper "Wild Thing", "With a Girl Like You" and "Love Is All Around", all of which sold over 1 million copies and were awarded gold discs. "Wild Thing" is ranked #257 on the "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and was an influence on garage rock and punk rock.

The Troggs est un groupe de rock britannique, originaire d'Andover, dans le Hampshire, en Angleterre. Leurs meilleurs morceaux classés dans les charts américains incluent "Wild Thing", "With a Girl Like You" et "Love Is All Around", tous vendus à plus d'un million d'exemplaires, et certifiés disques d'or.


Naming and etymology.

Originally called the "Hanover rat" by people wishing to link problems in 18th century England with the House of Hanover, it is not known for certain why the brown rat is named "Rattus norvegicus" (Norwegian rat), as it did not originate from Norway. However, the English naturalist John Berkenhout, author of the 1769 book "Outlines of the Natural History of Great Britain", is most likely responsible for popularizing the misnomer. Berkenhout gave the brown rat the binomial name "Rattus norvegicus", believing it had migrated to England from Norwegian ships in 1728.  By the early to middle part of the 19th century, British academics believed that the brown rat was not native to Norway, hypothesizing (incorrectly) that it may have come from Ireland, Gibraltar or across the English Channel with William the Conqueror. As early as 1850, however, a new hypothesis of the rat's origins was beginning to develop. The British novelist Charles Dickens acknowledged this in his weekly journal, "All the Year Round," writing:  Now there is a mystery about the native country of the best known species of rat, the common brown rat. It is frequently called, in books and otherwise, the 'Norway rat', and it is said to have been imported into this country in a ship-load of timber from Norway. Against this hypothesis stands the fact that when the brown rat had become common in this country, it was unknown in Norway, although there was a small animal like a rat, but really a lemming, which made its home there. Academics began to prefer this etymology of the brown rat towards the end of the 19th century, as seen in the 1895 text "Natural History" by American scholar Alfred Henry Miles:  The brown rat is the species common in England, and best known throughout the world. It is said to have travelled from Persia to England less than two hundred years ago and to have spread from thence to other countries visited by English ships. Though the assumptions surrounding this species' origins were not yet the same as modern ones, by the 20th century, it was believed among naturalists that the brown rat did not originate in Norway, rather the species came from central Asia and (likely) China.

Description.

The fur is coarse and usually brown or dark grey, while the underparts are lighter grey or brown. The brown rat is a rather large murid and can weigh twice as much as a black rat ("Rattus rattus") and many times more than a house mouse ("Mus musculus"). The head and body length ranges from while the tail ranges in length from, therefore being shorter than the head and body. Adult weight ranges from. Exceptionally large individuals can reportedly reach but are not expected outside of domestic specimens. Stories of rats attaining sizes as big as cats are exaggerations, or misidentifications of larger rodents, such as the coypu and muskrat. In fact, it is common for breeding wild brown rats to weigh (sometimes considerably) less than.  Brown rats have acute hearing, are sensitive to ultrasound, and possess a very highly developed olfactory sense. Their average heart rate is 300 to 400 beats per minute, with a respiratory rate of around 100 per minute. The vision of a pigmented rat is poor, around 20/600, while a non-pigmented (albino) with no melanin in its eyes has both around 20/1200 vision and a terrible scattering of light within its vision. Brown rats are dichromates which perceive colors rather like a human with red-green colorblindness, and their colour saturation may be quite faint. Their blue perception, however, also has UV receptors, allowing them to see ultraviolet lights that some species cannot.

Biology and behavior.

The brown rat is nocturnal and is a good swimmer, both on the surface and underwater, and has been observed climbing slim round metal poles several feet in order to reach garden bird feeders. Brown rats dig well, and often excavate extensive burrow systems. A 2007 study found brown rats to possess metacognition, a mental ability previously only found in humans and some primates, but further analysis suggested they may have been following simple operant conditioning principles.

Communication.

Brown rats are capable of producing ultrasonic vocalizations. As pups, young rats use different types of ultrasonic cries to elicit and direct maternal search behavior, as well as to regulate their mother's movements in the nest. Although pups will produce ultrasounds around any other rats at 7 days old, by 14 days old they significantly reduce ultrasound production around male rats as a defensive response. Adult rats will emit ultrasonic vocalizations in response to predators or perceived danger; the frequency and duration of such cries depends on the sex and reproductive status of the rat. The female rat will also emit ultrasonic vocalizations during mating.

Chirping.

Rats may also emit short, high frequency, ultrasonic, socially induced vocalization during rough and tumble play, before receiving morphine, or mating, and when tickled. The vocalization, described as a distinct "chirping", has been likened to laughter, and is interpreted as an expectation of something rewarding. Like most rat vocalizations, the chirping is too high in pitch for humans to hear without special equipment. Bat detectors are often used by pet owners for this purpose.  In research studies, the chirping is associated with positive emotional feelings, and social bonding occurs with the tickler, resulting in the rats becoming conditioned to seek the tickling. However, as the rats age, the tendency to chirp appears to decline.

Audible communication.

Brown rats also produce communicative noises capable of being heard by humans. The most commonly heard in domestic rats is bruxing, or teeth-grinding, which is most usually triggered by happiness, but can also be'self-comforting' in stressful situations, such as a visit to the vet. The noise is best described as either a quick clicking or 'burring' sound, varying from animal to animal.  In addition, they commonly squeak along a range of tones from high, abrupt pain squeaks to soft, persistent'singing' sounds during confrontations.

Diet.

The brown rat is a true omnivore and will consume almost anything, but cereals form a substantial part of its diet. Martin Schein, founder of the Animal Behavior Society in 1964, studied the diet of brown rats and came to the conclusion that the most-liked foods of brown rats include scrambled eggs, macaroni and cheese, raw carrots, and cooked corn kernels. According to Schein, the least-liked foods were raw beets, peaches, and raw celery.  Foraging behavior is often population-specific, and varies by environment and food source. Brown rats living near a hatchery in West Virginia catch fingerling fish. Some colonies along the banks of the Po River in Italy will dive for mollusks, a practice demonstrating social learning among members of this species. Rats on the island of Norderoog in the North Sea stalk and kill sparrows and ducks.

Reproduction and life cycle.

The brown rat can breed throughout the year if conditions are suitable, with a female producing up to five litters a year. The gestation period is only 21 days, and litters can number up to 14, although seven is common. They reach sexual maturity in about five weeks. Under ideal conditions (for the rat), this means that the population of females could increase by a factor of three and a half (half a litter of 7) in 8 weeks (5 weeks for sexual maturity and 3 weeks of gestation), corresponding to a population growing by a factor of 10 in just 15 weeks. As a result, the population can grow from 2 to 15,000 in a year. The maximum life span is three years, although most barely manage one. A yearly mortality rate of 95% is estimated, with predators and interspecies conflict as major causes.  When lactating, female rats display a 24-hour rhythm of maternal behavior, and will usually spend more time attending to smaller litters than large ones.  Brown rats live in large, hierarchical groups, either in burrows or subsurface places, such as sewers and cellars. When food is in short supply, the rats lower in social order are the first to die. If a large fraction of a rat population is exterminated, the remaining rats will increase their reproductive rate, and quickly restore the old population level.  Females are capable of becoming pregnant immediately after giving birth, and can nurse one litter while pregnant with another. Females are able to produce and raise two healthy litters of normal size and weight without significantly changing their own food intake. However, when food is restricted, females can extend pregnancy by over two weeks, and give birth to litters of normal number and weight.

Mating behaviors.

Males can ejaculate multiple times in a row, and this increases the likelihood of pregnancy as well as decreases the number of stillborns. Multiple ejaculation also means that males can mate with multiple females, and they exhibit more ejaculatory series when there are several oestrous females present. Males also copulate at shorter intervals than females. In group mating, females often switch partners.  Dominant males have higher mating success and also provide females with more ejaculate, and females are more likely to use the sperm of dominant males for fertilization.  In mating, female rats show a clear mating preference for unknown males versus males that they have already mated with (also known as the Coolidge effect), and will often resume copulatory behavior when introduced to a novel sexual partner.  Females also prefer to mate with males who have not experienced social stress during adolescence, and can determine which males were stressed even without any observed difference in sexual performance of males experiencing stress during adolescence and not.

Social behavior.

Rats commonly groom each other and sleep together. Rats are said to establish an order of hierarchy, so one rat will be dominant over another one. Groups of rats tend to "play fight", which can involve any combination of jumping, chasing, tumbling, and "boxing". Play fighting involves rats going for each other's necks, while serious fighting involves strikes at the others' back ends. If living space becomes limited, rats may turn to aggressive behavior, which may result in the death of some animals, reducing the burden over the living space.  Rats, like most mammals, also form family groups of a mother and her young. This applies to both groups of males and females. However, rats are territorial animals, meaning that they usually act aggressively or scared of strange rats. Rats will fluff up their hair, hiss, squeal, and move their tails around when defending their territory. Rats will chase each other, groom each other, sleep in group nests, wrestle with each other, have dominance squabbles, communicate, and play in various other ways with each other. Huddling is an additional important part of rat socialization. Huddling is often supposed to have a heat-conserving function. Nestling rats especially depend on heat from their mother, since they cannot regulate their own temperature. Huddling is an extreme form of herding. Other forms of interaction include: crawling under, which is literally the act of crawling underneath one another; walking over, also explained in the name; allo-grooming, so-called to distinguish it from self-grooming; and nosing, where a rat gently pushes with its nose at another rat near the neck.

Burrowing.

Rats are known to burrow extensively, both in the wild and in captivity, if given access to a suitable substrate. Rats generally begin a new burrow adjacent to an object or structure, as this provides a sturdy "roof" for the section of the burrow nearest to the ground's surface. Burrows usually develop to eventually include multiple levels of tunnels, as well as a secondary entrance. Older male rats will generally not burrow, while young males and females will burrow vigorously.  Burrows provide rats with shelter and food storage, as well as safe, thermo-regulated nest sites. Rats use their burrows to escape from perceived threats in the surrounding environment; for example, rats will retreat to their burrows following a sudden, loud noise or while fleeing an intruder. Burrowing can therefore be described as a "pre-encounter defensive behavior", as opposed to a "post-encounter defensive behavior", such as flight, freezing, or avoidance of a threatening stimulus.

Distribution and habitat.

Possibly originating from the plains of Asia, northern China and Mongolia, the brown rat spread to other parts of the world sometime in the Middle Ages. The question of when brown rats became commensal with humans remains unsettled, but as a species, they have spread and established themselves along routes of human migration and now live almost everywhere humans are.  The brown rat may have been present in Europe as early as 1553, a conclusion drawn from an illustration and description by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his book "Historiae animalium", published 1551–1558. Though Gesner's description could apply to the black rat, his mention of a large percentage of albino specimens—not uncommon among wild populations of brown rats—adds credibility to this conclusion. Reliable reports dating to the 18th century document the presence of the brown rat in Ireland in 1722, England in 1730, France in 1735, Germany in 1750, and Spain in 1800, becoming widespread during the Industrial Revolution. It did not reach North America until around 1750–1755.  As it spread from Asia, the brown rat generally displaced the black rat in areas where humans lived. In addition to being larger and more aggressive, the change from wooden structures and thatched roofs to bricked and tiled buildings favored the burrowing brown rats over the arboreal black rats. In addition, brown rats eat a wider variety of foods, and are more resistant to weather extremes.  In the absence of humans, brown rats prefer damp environments, such as river banks. However, the great majority are now linked to man-made environments, such as sewage systems.  It is often said that there are as many rats in cities as people, but this varies from area to area depending on climate, living conditions, etc. Brown rats in cities tend not to wander extensively, often staying within of their nest if a suitable concentrated food supply is available, but they will range more widely where food availability is lower. It is difficult to determine the extent of their home range because they do not utilize a whole area but rather use regular runways to get from one location to another. There is great debate over the size of the population of rats in New York City, with estimates from almost 100 million rats to as few as 250,000. Experts suggest that New York is a particularly attractive place for rats because of its aging infrastructure and high poverty rates. In addition to sewers, rats are very comfortable living in alleyways and residential buildings, as there is usually a large and continuous food source in those areas.  In the United Kingdom, some figures show that the rat population has been rising, with estimations that 81 million rats reside in the UK. Those figures would mean that there are 1.3 rats per person in the country. High rat populations in the UK are often attributed to the mild climate, which allow them higher survival rates during the winter. With the increase in global temperature and glacier retreat it is estimated that brown rat populations will see an increase.  The only brown rat-free areas in the world are the continent of Antarctica, the Arctic, some isolated islands, the Canadian province of Alberta, and certain conservation areas in New Zealand.  Antarctica is almost completely covered by ice, making it uninhabitable by rats. The Arctic has extremely cold winters that rats cannot survive outdoors, and the human population density is extremely low, making it difficult for rats to travel from one habitation to another, although they have arrived in many coastal areas by ship. When the occasional rat infestation is found and eliminated, the rats are unable to reinfest it from an adjacent one. Isolated islands are also able to eliminate rat populations because of low human population density and the geographic distance from other rat populations.

Faroe Islands.

The brown rat was first observed on the Faroe Islands in 1768. It is thought that the first individuals arrived on the southernmost island, Suðuroy, via the wreck of a Norwegian ship that had stranded on the Scottish Isle of Lewis on its way from Trondheim to Dublin. The drifting wreck, carrying brown rats, drifted northwards until it reached the village of Hvalba. Dispersion afterwards appears to have been fast, including all of Suðuroy within a year. In 1769, they were observed in Torshavn on the southern part of Streymoy, and a decade later, in the villages in the northern part of this island. From here, they crossed the strait and occupied Eysturoy during the years 1776 to 1779. In 1779, they reached Vagar. Whether the rats dispersed from the already established population in Suðuroy, or they were brought to the Faroe Islands with other ships, is unknown. The Northern islands were invaded by the brown rat more than 100 years later, after Norwegians built and operated a whaling station in the village of Hvannasund on Borðoy from 1898 to 1920. From there, the brown rat spread to the neighbouring islands of Viðoy and Kunoy. Today the brown rat is found on seven of the 18 Faroese islands, and is common in and around human habitations as well as in the wild. Although the brown rat is now common on all of the largest Faroese islands, only sparse information on the population is available in the literature. An investigation for infection with the spirochaete "Leptospira interrogans" did not find any infected animals, suggesting that "Leptospira" prevalence rates on the Faroe Islands may be among the lowest recorded worldwide.

Alaska.

Hawadax Island (formerly known as Rat Island) in Alaska was infested with brown rats following a Japanese shipwreck in 1780. They had a devastating effect on the native bird life. An eradication program was started in 2007 and the island was declared rat-free in June 2009.

Alberta.

Alberta, Canada, is the largest rat-free populated area in the world. Rat invasions of Alberta were stopped and rats were eliminated by very aggressive government rat control measures, starting during the 1950s.  The only species of "Rattus" that is capable of surviving the climate of Alberta is the brown rat, which can only survive in the prairie region of the province, and even then must overwinter in buildings. Although it is a major agricultural area, Alberta is far from any seaport and only a portion of its eastern boundary with Saskatchewan provides a favorable entry route for rats. Brown rats cannot survive in the wild boreal forest to the north, the Rocky Mountains to the west, nor can they safely cross the semiarid High Plains of Montana to the south. The first brown rat did not reach Alberta until 1950, and in 1951, the province launched a rat-control program that included shooting, poisoning, and gassing rats, and bulldozing or burning down some rat-infested buildings. The effort was backed by legislation that required every person and every municipality to destroy and prevent the establishment of designated pests. If they failed, the provincial government could carry out the necessary measures and charge the costs to the landowner or municipality.  In the first year of the rat control program, of arsenic trioxide were spread throughout 8,000 buildings on farms along the Saskatchewan border. However, in 1953 the much safer and more effective rodenticide, warfarin was introduced to replace arsenic. Warfarin is an anticoagulant that was approved as a drug for human use in 1954 and is much safer to use near humans and other large animals than arsenic. By 1960, the number of rat infestations in Alberta had dropped to below 200 per year. In 2002, the province finally recorded its first year with zero rat infestations, and from 2002 to 2007 there were only two infestations found. After an infestation of rats in the Medicine Hat landfill was found in 2012, the province's rat-free status was questioned, but provincial government rat control specialists brought in excavating machinery, dug out, shot, and poisoned 147 rats in the landfill, and no live rats were found thereafter. In 2013, the number of rat infestations in Alberta dropped to zero again. Alberta defines an infestation as two or more rats found at the same location, since a single rat cannot reproduce. About a dozen single rats enter Alberta in an average year and are killed by provincial rat control specialists before they can reproduce.  Only zoos, universities, and research institutes are allowed to keep caged rats in Alberta, and possession of unlicensed rats (including pet rats) by anyone else is punishable by a penalty of up to $5,000 or up to 60 days in jail. The adjacent and similarly landlocked province of Saskatchewan initiated a rat control program in 1972, and has managed to reduce the number of rats in the province substantially, although they have not been eliminated. The Saskatchewan rat control program has considerably reduced the number of rats trying to enter Alberta.

New Zealand.

First arriving before 1800 (perhaps on James Cook's vessels), brown rats pose a serious threat to many of New Zealand's native wildlife. Rat eradication programmes within New Zealand have led to rat-free zones on offshore islands and even on fenced "ecological islands" on the mainland. Before an eradication effort was launched in 2001, the sub-Antarctic Campbell Island had the highest population density of brown rats in the world. Predator Free 2050 aims to eradicate rats from the entirety of New Zealand.

Diseases.

Similar to other rodents, brown rats may carry a number of pathogens, which can result in disease, including Weil's disease, rat bite fever, cryptosporidiosis, viral hemorrhagic fever, Q fever and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. In the United Kingdom, brown rats are an important reservoir for "Coxiella burnetii," the bacterium that causes Q fever, with seroprevalence for the bacteria found to be as high as 53% in some wild populations.  This species can also serve as a reservoir for "Toxoplasma gondii", the parasite that causes toxoplasmosis, though the disease usually spreads from rats to humans when domestic cats feed on infected brown rats. The parasite has a long history with the brown rat, and there are indications that the parasite has evolved to alter an infected rat's perception to cat predation, making it more susceptible to predation and increasing the likelihood of transmission.  Surveys and specimens of brown rat populations throughout the world have shown this species is often associated with outbreaks of trichinosis, but the extent to which the brown rat is responsible in transmitting "Trichinella" larvae to humans and other synanthropic animals is at least somewhat debatable. "Trichinella pseudospiralis", a parasite previously not considered to be a potential pathogen in humans or domestic animals, has been found to be pathogenic in humans and carried by brown rats.  They can also be responsible in transmitting "Angiostrongylus" larvae to humans by eating raw or undercooked snails, slugs, mollusks, crustaceans, water and/or vegetables contaminated with them.  Brown rats are sometimes mistakenly thought to be a major reservoir of bubonic plague, a possible cause of the Black Death. However, the bacterium responsible, "Yersinia pestis", is commonly endemic in only a few rodent species and is usually transmitted zoonotically by rat fleas—common carrier rodents today include ground squirrels and wood rats. However, brown rats may suffer from plague, as can many nonrodent species, including dogs, cats, and humans. The original carrier for the plague-infected fleas thought to be responsible for the Black Death was the black rat, and it has been hypothesized that the displacement of black rats by brown rats led to the decline of bubonic plague. This theory has, however, been deprecated, as the dates of these displacements do not match the increases and decreases in plague outbreaks.

In captivity.

Uses in science.

Selective breeding of albino brown rats rescued from being killed in a now-outlawed sport called rat baiting has produced the albino laboratory rat. Like mice, these rats are frequently subjects of medical, psychological and other biological experiments, and constitute an important model organism. This is because they grow quickly to sexual maturity and are easy to keep and to breed in captivity. When modern biologists refer to "rats", they almost always mean "Rattus norvegicus".

As pets.

The brown rat is kept as a pet in many parts of the world. Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States are just a few of the countries that have formed fancy rat associations similar in nature to the American Kennel Club, establishing standards, orchestrating events, and promoting responsible pet ownership.  The many different types of domesticated brown rats include variations in coat patterns, as well as the style of the coat, such as Hairless or Rex, and more recently developed variations in body size and structure, including dwarf and tailless fancy rats.

Working rats.

A working rat is a rat trained for specific tasks as a working animal. In many cases, working rats are domesticated brown rats. However, other species, notably the Gambian pouched rat, have been trained to assist humans.

References.

Jensen, J.-K. & Magnussen, E. 2015. Occurrence of fleas (Siphonaptera) and lice (Phthiraptera) on Brown rats ("Rattus norvegicus") on the Faroes Islands. Norwegian Journal of Entomology 62, 154-159.

External links.

Overviews  "Rattus norvegicus" genome and use as model animal

The brown rat ("Rattus norvegicus"), also known as the common rat, street rat, sewer rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Norwegian rat, Parisian rat, or wharf rat is a widespread species of common rat. One of the largest muroids, it is a brown or grey rodent with a head and body length of up to long, and a tail slightly shorter than that. It weighs between. Thought to have originated in northern China, this rodent has now spread to all continents except Antarctica, and is the dominant rat in Europe and much of North America. With rare exceptions, the brown rat lives wherever humans live, particularly in urban areas.

Le rat brun ou surmulot (Rattus norvegicus) est une espèce de rat. C'est un rongeur trapu de la famille des Muridae. Il a un corps long d'environ et une queue d'à peu près la même taille. Adulte, il pèse environ. Il est donc plus grand et plus lourd que son proche parent le rat noir ("Rattus rattus").


Description.

It is an evergreen perennial growing to tall and across, with a thick succulent stem and glossy leaves. The drooping cup-shaped flowers appear in spring, and are yellowish-green, often with a purple edge to the five petal-like sepals on strongly upright stems. The flowers, typically for the family, contain numerous stamens as well as up to ten nectaries which make them attractive to bees and other insects. Each flower produces up to five (usually three) wrinkled follicles. Despite its common name, it is not noticeably malodorous, although the foliage is pungent when crushed.  All parts of the plant are poisonous, containing glycosides. Symptoms of intoxication include violent vomiting and delirium.  Yeasts colonise the nectaries of stinking hellebore and their presence has been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators to the flower by increasing the evaporation of volatile organic compounds. It was the first species in which this effect was discovered.

Horticulture.

"H. foetidus" is grown in gardens for its handsome evergreen foliage and large numbers of green, bell-shaped flowers borne in late winter. It prefers woodland conditions with deep, fertile, moist, humus rich, well-drained soil, and dappled shade. The species is, however, drought-tolerant. It often occurs naturally on chalk or limestone soils.  This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.  The cultivar 'Green Giant' has very bright green flowers and finely divided foliage; 'Miss Jekyll' has fragrant flowers, intensity varying with the time of day; 'Wester Flisk Group' has red-tinted leaves and stems and gray-green flowers; the 'Sierra Nevada Group' is dwarf, reaching 30 cm.  Propagation is by division or from seed, which can be prolific, naturalising well in ideal conditions. Rodents should be kept away from the garden since they depredate the seeds either when still in fruiting plants within the carpels or from the floor after seed release.

Helleborus foetidus, known variously as stinking hellebore, dungwort, setterwort and bear's foot, is a species of flowering plant in the buttercup family Ranunculaceae, native to the mountainous regions of Central and Southern Europe, Greece and Asia Minor. It is found wild in many parts of England, especially on limestone soil.

L'Hellébore fétide, Ellébore fétide ou Pied-de-griffon ("Helleborus foetidus" L.) est une plante vivace de la famille des "Ranunculaceae" et du genre "Helleborus". C’est la seule espèce de la section Griphopus.