History.

Sassel is first mentioned in 1177 as "Sases".

Geography.

Sassel has an area,, of. Of this area, or 67.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 27.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 4.6% is settled (buildings or roads).  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.1% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.1%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 50.9% is used for growing crops and 15.3% is pastures.  The municipality was part of the Payerne District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and Sassel became part of the new district of Broye-Vully.  The village is located on the north-east portion of the Jorat region on the left bank of the Broye river. It consists of the "haufendorf" village (an irregular, unplanned and quite closely packed village, built around a central square) of Sassel.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per pale Argent and Gules, two Roses counterchanged."

Demographics.

Sassel has a population () of 154., 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999-2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of 5.5%. It has changed at a rate of 10.3% due to migration and at a rate of -5.5% due to births and deaths.  Most of the population () speaks French (139 or 93.9%), with German being second most common (7 or 4.7%) and Italian being third (2 or 1.4%).  Of the population in the village 62 or about 41.9% were born in Sassel and lived there in 2000. There were 35 or 23.6% who were born in the same canton, while 35 or 23.6% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 11 or 7.4% were born outside of Switzerland.  In there were 2 live births to Swiss citizens and were 2 deaths of Swiss citizens. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens remained the same while the foreign population remained the same. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 2 and the non-Swiss population remained the same. This represents a population growth rate of -1.3%.  The age distribution,, in Sassel is; 22 children or 14.3% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 15 teenagers or 9.7% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 8 people or 5.2% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 27 people or 17.5% are between 30 and 39, 22 people or 14.3% are between 40 and 49, and 20 people or 13.0% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 28 people or 18.2% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 8 people or 5.2% are between 70 and 79, there are 4 people or 2.6% who are between 80 and 89. , there were 58 people who were single and never married in the village. There were 68 married individuals, 11 widows or widowers and 11 individuals who are divorced. , there were 57 private households in the village, and an average of 2.4 persons per household. There were 16 households that consist of only one person and 3 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 58 households that answered this question, 27.6% were households made up of just one person. Of the rest of the households, there are 18 married couples without children, 22 married couples with children There was one single parent with a child or children.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Sights.

The entire village of Sassel is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites

Politics.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 43.25% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (25.1%), the Green Party (12.9%) and the SP (10.28%). In the federal election, a total of 59 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.0%.

Economy.

, Sassel had an unemployment rate of 0.8%., there were 36 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 7 businesses involved in this sector. 2 people were employed in the secondary sector and there was 1 business in this sector. 9 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 3 businesses in this sector. There were 80 residents of the village who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 45.0% of the workforce. , there were 9 workers who commuted into the village and 40 workers who commuted away. The village is a net exporter of workers, with about 4.4 workers leaving the village for every one entering. Of the working population, 5% used public transportation to get to work, and 67.5% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 26 or 17.6% were Roman Catholic, while 107 or 72.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 8 individuals (or about 5.41% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 person who was Buddhist. 9 (or about 6.08% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 1 individuals (or about 0.68% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Sassel about 57 or (38.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 14 or (9.5%) have completed additional higher education (either University or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 14 who completed tertiary schooling, 64.3% were Swiss men, 28.6% were Swiss women.  In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 21 students in the Sassel school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 155 children of which 83 children (53.5%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 15 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 6 students in those schools. , there were 10 students in Sassel who came from another village, while 6 residents attended schools outside the village.

Sassel is a former municipality in the district of Broye-Vully in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. The villages of Cerniaz (VD), Combremont-le-Grand, Combremont-le-Petit, Granges-près-Marnand, Marnand, Sassel, Seigneux and Villars-Bramard merged on 1 July 2011 into the new municipality of Valbroye.

Sassel est une localité et une ancienne commune suisse du canton de Vaud, située dans la commune de Valbroye et le district de la Broye-Vully.


Early life.

Antonios Rigas Velestinlis (Αντώνιος Ρήγας Βελεστινλής) was born in 1757 into a wealthy family in the village of Velestino in the Sanjak of Tirhala, Ottoman Empire (modern Thessaly, Greece). He later was at some point nicknamed "Pheraeos" or "Feraios", by future scholars, after the nearby ancient Greek city of Pherae, but he does not seem ever to have used this name himself; he is also sometimes known as "Konstantinos" or "Constantine Rhigas" (Κωνσταντίνος Ρήγας). He is often described as being of Aromanian ancestry, with his native village of Velestino being Aromanian. Rigas' family had its roots in Perivoli, another Aromanian village, but it usually overwintered in Velestino. Some scholars question whether there is good evidence for this.  According to his partner Christoforos Perraivos, Rigas was educated at the school of Ampelakia, Larissa. Later he became a teacher in the village of Kissos, and he fought the local Ottoman presence. At the age of twenty he killed an important Ottoman figure, and fled to the uplands of Mount Olympus, where he enlisted in a band of soldiers led by Spiros Zeras.  He later went to the monastic community of Mount Athos, where he was received by Cosmas, hegumen of the Vatopedi monastery; from there to Constantinople (Istanbul), where he became a secretary to the Phanariote Alexander Ypsilantis (1725-1805).  Arriving in Bucharest, the capital of Ottoman Wallachia, Rigas returned to school, learned several languages and eventually became a clerk for the Wallachian Prince Nicholas Mavrogenes. When the Russo-Turkish War (1787-1792) broke out, he was charged with the inspection of the troops in the city of Craiova.  Here he entered into friendly relations with an Ottoman officer named Osman Pazvantoğlu, afterwards the rebellious Pasha of Vidin, whose life he saved from the vengeance of Mavrogenes. He learned about the French Revolution, and came to believe something similar could occur in the Balkans, resulting in self-determination for the Christian subjects of the Ottomans; he developed support for an uprising by meeting Greek bishops and guerrilla leaders.  After the death of his patron Rigas returned to Bucharest to serve for some time as "dragoman" at the French consulate. At this time he wrote his famous Greek version of "La Marseillaise", the anthem of French revolutionaries, a version familiar through Lord Byron's paraphrase as "sons of the Greeks, arise".

In Vienna.

Around 1793, Rigas went to Vienna, the capital of the Holy Roman Empire and home to a large Greek community, as part of an effort to ask the French general Napoleon Bonaparte for assistance and support. While in the city, he edited a Greek-language newspaper, "Efimeris" (i.e. "Daily"), and published a proposed political map of "Great Greece" which included Constantinople and many other places, including a large number of places where Greeks were minority.  He printed pamphlets based on the principles of the French Revolution, including "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" and "New Political Constitution of the Inhabitants of Rumeli, Asia Minor, the Islands of the Aegean, and the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia" — these he intended to distribute in an effort to stimulate a Pan-Balkan uprising against the Ottomans.  He also published Greek translations of three stories by Retif de la Bretonne, and many other foreign works, and he collected his poems in a manuscript (posthumously printed in Iaşi, 1814).

Death.

He entered into communication with general Napoleon Bonaparte, to whom he sent a snuff-box made of the root of a Bay Laurel taken from a ruined temple of Apollo, and eventually he set out with a view to meeting the general of the Army of Italy in Venice. While traveling there, he was betrayed by Demetrios Oikonomos Kozanites, a Greek businessman, had his papers confiscated, and was arrested at Trieste by the Austrian authorities (an ally of the Ottoman Empire, Austria was concerned the French Revolution might provoke similar upheavals in its realm and later formed the Holy Alliance).  He was handed over with his accomplices to the Ottoman governor of Belgrade, where he was imprisoned and tortured. From Belgrade, he was to be sent to Constantinople to be sentenced by Sultan Selim III. While in transit, he and his five collaborators were strangled to prevent their being rescued by Rigas's friend Osman Pazvantoğlu. Their bodies were thrown into the Danube River.  His last words are reported as being: "I have sown a rich seed; the hour is coming when my country will reap its glorious fruits".

Ideas and legacy.

Rigas, using demotikì (Demotic Greek) rather than puristic (Katharevousa) Greek, aroused the patriotic fervor of his Greek contemporaries. His republicanism was given an aura of heroism by his martyrdom, and set liberation of Greece in a context of political reform. As social contradictions in Ottoman Empire grew sharper in the tumultuous Napoleonic era the most important theoretical monument of Greek republicanism, the anonymous "Hellenic Nomarchy", was written, its author dedicating the work to Rigas Ferraios, "who had been sacrificed for the salvation of Hellas".  His grievances against the Ottoman occupation of Greece regarded its cruelty, the drafting of children between the ages of five and fifteen into military service ("Devshirmeh" or "Paedomazoma"), the administrative chaos and systematic oppression (including prohibitions on teaching Greek history or language, or even riding on horseback), the confiscation of churches and their conversion to mosques.  Rigas wrote enthusiastic poems and books about Greek history and many became popular. One of the most famous (which he often sang in public) was the "Thourios" or battle-hymn (1797), in which he wrote, "It's finer to live one hour as a free man than forty years as a slave and prisoner" («Ως πότε παλικάρια να ζούμε στα στενά.... Καλύτερα μίας ώρας ελεύθερη ζωή παρά σαράντα χρόνια σκλαβιά και φυλακή»).  In "Thourios" he urged the Greeks (Romioi) and other Orthodox Christian peoples living at the time in the area of Greece (Arvanites, Bulgarians, etc.) and generally in the Balkans, to leave the Ottoman-occupied towns for the mountains, where they could find freedom, organize and fight against the Ottoman tyranny. His call included also the Muslims of the empire, who disagreed and reacted against the Sultan's governance.  It is noteworthy that the word "Greek" or "Hellene" is not mentioned in "Thourios"; instead, Greek-speaking populations in the area of Greece are still referred to as "Romioi" (i.e. Romans, citizens of the Christian or Eastern Roman Empire), which is the name that they proudly used for themselves at that time.  Statues of Rigas Feraios stand at the entrance to the University of Athens and in Belgrade at the beginning of the street that bears his name ("Ulica Rige od Fere").  "Rigas Feraios" was also the name taken by the youth wing of the Communist Party of Greece (Interior), and a branch of this youth wing was "Rigas Feraios - Second Panhellenic". But there is nothing in Rigas's own writings that supports Communism, as his political vision was influenced by the French Constitution (i.e. democratic liberalism)  Feraios' portrait was printed on the obverse of the Greek 200-drachmas banknote of 1996-2001. A 50-drachmas commemorative coin was issued in 1998 for the 200th anniversary of his death. His image is stamped on the 0.10 Euro Greek coin.

In popular culture.

Nikos Xydakis and Manolis Rasoulis wrote a song called "Etsi pou les, Riga Feraio" (That's how it is, Rigas Feraios, Greek: Έτσι που λες, Ρήγα Φεραίο), which was sung by Rasoulis himself. Also, composer Christos Leontis wrote music based upon the lyrics of ""Thourio"" and Cretan Nikos Xylouris performed the song in the 1970s.

Rigas Feraios (, or "Rhegas Pheraeos", ) or Velestinlis (Βελεστινλής, or "Velestinles", )) ; 1757 – 24 June 1798) was a Greek writer, political thinker and revolutionary, active in the Modern Greek Enlightenment, remembered as a Greek national hero, a victim of the Balkan uprising against the Ottoman Empire and a pioneer of the Greek War of Independence.

Rigas (ou Rhigas) dit Rigas Vélestinlis () voire Rigas Féréos () né à Velestíno (Magnésie en Thessalie) vers 1757 et mort à Belgrade en était un écrivain, lettré et patriote grec, figure majeure de la renaissance culturelle grecque.


Overview.

The Arabic word'is derived from the three-letter Arabic verbal root of "Q-L-D" ('), which means to imitate. The term is believed to have originated from the idea of allowing oneself to be led "by the collar". One who performs "taqlid" is called a "muqallid", whereas one who rejects "taqlid" is called a "ghair-muqallid". Sheikh Shaamee Hanafi said it is "to take the statement of someone without knowing the evidence." There are several verses ("ayat") in the Quran that condemn "those who follow others blindly in matters of belief" ("taqlid" in matters of belief), namely 5:104-105, 17:36, 21:52-54 43:22-24. This is interpreted as referring only to fundamentals ("usul ad-din") and not to subsidiary elements ("furu `ad-din") such as details of law and ritual practices that can only be learned through extensive study.

Sunni Islam.

Traditionally, "taqlid" is lawful and obligatory when one is not qualified as a "mujtahid". According to Rudolph Peters, this is by consensus and known in the religion by necessity ("ma'lum min al din daruratan") in the eyes of traditional Muslim scholars.  Traditional Sunni scholars rely on two verses of the Qur'an, which order one to ask the people of knowledge or remembrance if they do not know and to obey Allah, the Messenger and those in authority among them. They also rely on several "hadiths" including one where the Prophet Muhammad tells his companions "If one does not know what to do, the only remedy is to inquire." Prophet Muhammad did this after a companion who had fractured his skull asked other companions with him whether he could perform dry purification. They said no. So this injured companion washed his head with water and died. The Prophet admonished his companions by saying, "They killed him. May Allah kill them. If one does not know what to do, the only remedy is to inquire."

Shia Islam.

In Shia Islam, "taqlid" "denotes the following of the dictates of a "mujtahid"". Following the Greater Occultation ("al-ghaybatu 'l-kubra") in 941 CE (329 AH), the Twelver Shia are obliged to observe "taqlid" in their religious affairs by following the teachings of a thinker ("mujtahid") or jurist ("faqih"). As of the 19th century the Shia "ulama" taught believers to turn to "a source of "taqlid"" ("marja' at-taqlid") "for advice and guidance and as a model to be imitated." Thus Shia who are not experts in Islamic jurisprudence ("fiqh") are "legally required to follow the instructions of the expert, i.e., the "mujtahid"" in matters of "sharia", but are forbidden to do so in "matters of belief" ("usulu 'd-din").

Taqlid (Arabic تَقْليد "taqlīd") is an Islamic terminology denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs "taqlid" is termed "muqallid". The definite meaning of the term varies depending on context and age. Classical usage of the term differs between Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Sunni Islamic usage designates the unjustified conformity of one person to the teaching of another, apart from justified conformity of layperson to the teaching of "mujtahid" (a person who is qualified for independent reasoning). Shia Islamic usage designates the general conformity of non-"mujtahid" to the teaching of "mujtahid", and there is no negative connotation. In contemporary usage, especially in the context of Islamic reformism, it is often shed in a negative light, and translated as "blind imitation". This refers to the perceived stagnation of independent intellectual effort ("ijtihad") and uncritical imitation of traditional religious interpretation by the religious establishment in general.

Le taqlīd (, "copie ; imitation ; routine ; coutume") est l'acception littérale du contenu d'un enseignement d'un marja, l'adhésion à une école juridique (maḏhab) particulière ou à un mujtahid. Le taqlīd est le respect, sans les remettre en cause, des préceptes d'une jurisprudence. Le taqlīd consiste, pour celui qui ne possède pas la capacité d'ijtihād, à suivre les directives énoncées par un mujtahid.


History.

Before electronic light sensitive elements were developed, photometry was done by estimation by the eye. The relative luminous flux of a source was compared with a standard source. The photometer is placed such that the illuminance from the source being investigated is equal to the standard source, as the human eye can judge equal illuminance. The relative luminous fluxes can then be calculated as the illuminance decreases proportionally to the inverse square of distance. A standard example of such a photometer consists of a piece of paper with an oil spot on it that makes the paper slightly more transparent. When the spot is not visible from either side, the illuminance from the two sides is equal.  By 1861, three types were in common use. These were Rumford's photometer, Ritchie's photometer, and photometers that used the extinction of shadows, which was considered to be the most precise.

Rumford's photometer.

Rumford's photometer (also called a shadow photometer) depended on the principle that a brighter light would cast a deeper shadow. The two lights to be compared were used to cast a shadow onto paper. If the shadows were of the same depth, the difference in distance of the lights would indicate the difference in intensity (e.g. a light twice as far would be four times the intensity).

Ritchie's photometer.

Ritchie's photometer depends upon equal illumination of surfaces. It consists of a box (a,b) six or eight inches long, and one in width and depth. In the middle, a wedge of wood (f,e,g) was angled upwards and covered with white paper. The user's eye looked through a tube (d) at the top of a box. The height of the apparatus was also adjustable via the stand (c). The lights to compare were placed at the side of the box (m, n)—which illuminated the paper surfaces so that the eye saw both surfaces at once. By changing the position of the lights, they were made to illuminate both surfaces equally, with the difference in intensity corresponding to the square of the difference in distance.

Method of extinction of shadows.

This type of photometer depended on the fact that if a light throws the shadow of an opaque object onto a white screen, there is a certain distance that, if a second light is brought there, obliterates all traces of the shadow.

Principle of photometers.

Most photometers detect the light with photoresistors, photodiodes or photomultipliers. To analyze the light, the photometer may measure the light after it has passed through a filter or through a monochromator for determination at defined wavelengths or for analysis of the spectral distribution of the light.

Photon counting.

Some photometers measure light by counting individual photons rather than incoming flux. The operating principles are the same but the results are given in units such as photons/cm or photons·cm·sr rather than W/cm or W·cm·sr.  Due to their individual photon counting nature, these instruments are limited to observations where the irradiance is low. The irradiance is limited by the time resolution of its associated detector readout electronics. With current technology this is in the megahertz range. The maximum irradiance is also limited by the throughput and gain parameters of the detector itself.  The light sensing element in photon counting devices in NIR, visible and ultraviolet wavelengths is a photomultiplier to achieve sufficient sensitivity.  In airborne and space-based remote sensing such photon counters are used at the upper reaches of the electromagnetic spectrum such as the X-ray to far ultraviolet. This is usually due to the lower radiant intensity of the objects being measured as well as the difficulty of measuring light at higher energies using its particle-like nature as compared to the wavelike nature of light at lower frequencies. Conversely, radiometers are typically used for remote sensing from the visible, infrared though radio frequency range.

Photography.

Photometers are used to determine the correct exposure in photography. In modern cameras, the photometer is usually built in. As the illumination of different parts of the picture varies, advanced photometers measure the light intensity in different parts of the potential picture and use an algorithm to determine the most suitable exposure for the final picture, adapting the algorithm to the type of picture intended (see Metering mode). Historically, a photometer was separate from the camera and known as an exposure meter. The advanced photometers then could be used either to measure the light from the potential picture as a whole, to measure from elements of the picture to ascertain that the most important parts of the picture are optimally exposed, or to measure the incident light to the scene with an integrating adapter.

Visible light reflectance photometry.

A reflectance photometer measures the reflectance of a surface as a function of wavelength. The surface is illuminated with white light, and the reflected light is measured after passing through a monochromator. This type of measurement has mainly practical applications, for instance in the paint industry to characterize the colour of a surface objectively.

UV and visible light transmission photometry.

These are optical instruments for measurement of the absorption of light of a given wavelength (or a given range of wavelengths) of coloured substances in solution. From the light absorption, Beer's law makes it possible to calculate the concentration of the coloured substance in the solution. Due to its wide range of application and its reliability and robustness, the photometer has become one of the principal instruments in biochemistry and analytical chemistry. Absorption photometers for work in aqueous solution work in the ultraviolet and visible ranges, from wavelength around 240 nm up to 750 nm.  The principle of spectrophotometers and filter photometers is that (as far as possible) monochromatic light is allowed to pass through a container (cell) with optically flat windows containing the solution. It then reaches a light detector, that measures the intensity of the light compared to the intensity after passing through an identical cell with the same solvent but without the coloured substance. From the ratio between the light intensities, knowing the capacity of the coloured substance to absorb light (the absorbency of the coloured substance, or the photon cross section area of the molecules of the coloured substance at a given wavelength), it is possible to calculate the concentration of the substance using Beer's law.  Two types of photometers are used: spectrophotometer and filter photometer. In spectrophotometers a monochromator (with prism or with grating) is used to obtain monochromatic light of one defined wavelength. In filter photometers, optical filters are used to give the monochromatic light. Spectrophotometers can thus easily be set to measure the absorbance at different wavelengths, and they can also be used to scan the spectrum of the absorbing substance. They are in this way more flexible than filter photometers, also give a higher optical purity of the analyzing light, and therefore they are preferably used for research purposes. Filter photometers are cheaper, robuster and easier to use and therefore they are used for routine analysis. Photometers for microtiter plates are filter photometers.

Infrared light transmission photometry.

Spectrophotometry in infrared light is mainly used to study structure of substances, as given groups give absorption at defined wavelengths. Measurement in aqueous solution is generally not possible, as water absorbs infrared light strongly in some wavelength ranges. Therefore, infrared spectroscopy is either performed in the gaseous phase (for volatile substances) or with the substances pressed into tablets together with salts that are transparent in the infrared range. Potassium bromide (KBr) is commonly used for this purpose. The substance being tested is thoroughly mixed with specially purified KBr and pressed into a transparent tablet, that is placed in the beam of light. The analysis of the wavelength dependence is generally not done using a monochromator as it is in UV-Vis, but with the use of an interferometer. The interference pattern can be analyzed using a Fourier transform algorithm. In this way, the whole wavelength range can be analyzed simultaneously, saving time, and an interferometer is also less expensive than a monochromator. The light absorbed in the infrared region does not correspond to electronic excitation of the substance studied, but rather to different kinds of vibrational excitation. The vibrational excitations are characteristic of different groups in a molecule, that can in this way be identified. The infrared spectrum typically has very narrow absorption lines, which makes them unsuited for quantitative analysis but gives very detailed information about the molecules. The frequencies of the different modes of vibration varies with isotope, and therefore different isotopes give different peaks. This makes it possible also to study the isotopic composition of a sample with infrared spectrophotometry.

Atomic absorption photometry.

Atomic absorption photometers are photometers that measure the light from a very hot flame. The solution to be analyzed is injected into the flame at a constant, known rate. Metals in the solution are present in atomic form in the flame. The monochromatic light in this type of photometer is generated by a discharge lamp where the discharge takes place in a gas with the metal to be determined. The discharge then emits light with wavelengths corresponding to the spectral lines of the metal. A filter may be used to isolate one of the main spectral lines of the metal to be analyzed. The light is absorbed by the metal in the flame, and the absorption is used to determine the concentration of the metal in the original solution.

References.

"Article partly based on the corresponding article in Swedish Wikipedia"

A photometer is an instrument that measures the strength of electromagnetic radiation in the range from ultraviolet to infrared and including the visible spectrum. Most photometers convert light into an electric current using a photoresistor, photodiode, or photomultiplier.

Un photomètre est un appareil servant à mesurer les grandeurs lumineuses en fonction de la courbe de sensibilité de l'œil (courbe photopique pour une réponse diurne et courbe scotopique pour une réponse nocturne).


History.

Heitenried is first mentioned in French in 1228 as "Essers". The German name was first mentioned in 1257 as "Ried".

Geography.

Heitenried has an area of. Of this area, or 73.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 18.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 6.7% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.9% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.1% is unproductive land.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.6% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.3%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 42.8% is used for growing crops and 29.2% is pastures, while 1.1% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality is located in the Sense district, east of Fribourg on the border with the Canton of Bern. It consists of the village of Heitenried and the hamlets of Scheuergraben, Schönfels, Selgiswil, Unterwinterlingen and Wiler vor Holz.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per fess Gules a Fleur de Lys issuant Argent and of the last."

Demographics.

Heitenried has a population () of., 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11.2%. Migration accounted for 9%, while births and deaths accounted for 5.1%.  Most of the population () speaks German (1,070 or 97.2%) as their first language, French is the second most common (7 or 0.6%) and Portuguese is the third (7 or 0.6%). There is 1 person who speaks Italian. , the population was 50.8% male and 49.2% female. The population was made up of 618 Swiss men (48.9% of the population) and 24 (1.9%) non-Swiss men. There were 599 Swiss women (47.4%) and 22 (1.7%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 485 or about 44.1% were born in Heitenried and lived there in 2000. There were 305 or 27.7% who were born in the same canton, while 236 or 21.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 38 or 3.5% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 27.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 61.7% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 11%. , there were 492 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 555 married individuals, 35 widows or widowers and 19 individuals who are divorced. , there were 386 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.8 persons per household. There were 79 households that consist of only one person and 53 households with five or more people., a total of 376 apartments (92.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 14 apartments (3.4%) were seasonally occupied and 16 apartments (3.9%) were empty., the construction rate of new housing units was 15.8 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.63%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Heritage sites of national significance.

The parish church of St. Michael is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance.

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 24.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (23.3%), the CSP (12.4%) and the SPS (11.7%).  The CVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (29.0% in 2007 vs 24.8% in 2011). The SVP moved from third in 2007 (with 18.4%) to second in 2011, the CSP moved from second in 2007 (with 18.9%) to third and the SPS moved from below fourth place in 2007 to fourth. A total of 506 votes were cast in this election, of which 5 or 1.0% were invalid.

Economy.

, Heitenried had an unemployment rate of 1.4%., there were 96 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 36 businesses involved in this sector. 44 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 10 businesses in this sector. 113 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 27 businesses in this sector. There were 611 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.7% of the workforce. , there were 96 workers who commuted into the municipality and 432 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 4.5 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 9.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 65.6% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 747 or 67.8% were Roman Catholic, while 259 or 23.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 4 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.36% of the population), and there were 24 individuals (or about 2.18% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 7 (or about 0.64% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 2 individuals who belonged to another church. 50 (or about 4.54% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 20 individuals (or about 1.82% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Heitenried about 405 or (36.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 118 or (10.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 118 who completed tertiary schooling, 75.4% were Swiss men, 17.8% were Swiss women.  The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 147 students attending 8 classes in Heitenried. A total of 233 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. There were 2 kindergarten classes with a total of 33 students in the municipality. The municipality had 6 primary classes and 114 students. During the same year, there were no lower secondary classes in the municipality, but 51 students attended lower secondary school in a neighboring municipality. There were no upper Secondary classes or vocational classes, but there were 21 upper Secondary students and 36 upper Secondary vocational students who attended classes in another municipality. The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes, but there was one specialized Tertiary student who attended classes in another municipality. , there were 13 students in Heitenried who came from another municipality, while 57 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Heitenried is a municipality in the district of Sense in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland. It is one of the municipalities with a large majority of German speakers in the mostly French speaking Canton of Fribourg.

Heitenried (anciennement en français "Essers") est une localité et une commune suisse du canton de Fribourg, située dans le district de la Singine.


History.

Plasselb is first mentioned in 1324 as "Plannaseyva".

Geography.

Plasselb has an area of. Of this area, or 37.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 55.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 4.0% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.1% is either rivers or lakes and or 2.2% is unproductive land.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.6%. Out of the forested land, 51.9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 9.6% is pastures and 27.2% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality is located in the Sense district, at the foot of the Schweinsberg at the entrance to the Plasselbschlund. It consists of the village of Plasselb and, since 1971, Neuhaus.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Sable a Bar Argent and overall a Deer salient Or."

Demographics.

Plasselb has a population () of., 7.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of -3.2%. Migration accounted for -5.2%, while births and deaths accounted for 0.7%.  Most of the population () speaks German (913 or 93.2%) as their first language, French is the second most common (22 or 2.2%) and Albanian is the third (21 or 2.1%). There are 2 people who speak Italian. , the population was 52.1% male and 47.9% female. The population was made up of 465 Swiss men (47.0% of the population) and 50 (5.1%) non-Swiss men. There were 432 Swiss women (43.7%) and 42 (4.2%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 469 or about 47.9% were born in Plasselb and lived there in 2000. There were 298 or 30.4% who were born in the same canton, while 112 or 11.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 77 or 7.9% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 65% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 10.3%. , there were 419 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 479 married individuals, 39 widows or widowers and 43 individuals who are divorced. , there were 391 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 99 households that consist of only one person and 31 households with five or more people., a total of 376 apartments (82.8% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 55 apartments (12.1%) were seasonally occupied and 23 apartments (5.1%) were empty., the construction rate of new housing units was 1 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 3.13%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (15.8%), the FDP (12.5%) and the SPS (11.6%).  The SVP gained an additional 10.5% of the vote from the 2007 Federal election (28.3% in 2007 vs 38.8% in 2011). The CVP lost popularity (26.7% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (16.5% in 2007) and the SPS moved from below fourth place in 2007 to fourth. A total of 331 votes were cast in this election, of which 5 or 1.5% were invalid.

Economy.

, Plasselb had an unemployment rate of 1.6%., there were 46 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 15 businesses involved in this sector. 36 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 11 businesses in this sector. 60 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 25 businesses in this sector. There were 525 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 39.8% of the workforce. , there were 34 workers who commuted into the municipality and 419 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 12.3 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 9.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 72.6% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 797 or 81.3% were Roman Catholic, while 72 or 7.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 3 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.31% of the population), there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 10 individuals (or about 1.02% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 36 (or about 3.67% of the population) who were Islamic. 42 (or about 4.29% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 23 individuals (or about 2.35% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Plasselb about 346 or (35.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 71 or (7.2%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 71 who completed tertiary schooling, 69.0% were Swiss men, 16.9% were Swiss women, 11.3% were non-Swiss men.  The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 86 students attending 4 classes in Plasselb. A total of 163 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. There was one kindergarten class with a total of 18 students in the municipality. The municipality had 3 primary classes and 68 students. During the same year, there were no lower secondary classes in the municipality, but 33 students attended lower secondary school in a neighboring municipality. There were no upper Secondary classes or vocational classes, but there were 17 upper Secondary students and 24 upper Secondary vocational students who attended classes in another municipality. The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes, but there were 2 specialized Tertiary students who attended classes in another municipality. , there were 57 students from Plasselb who attended schools outside the municipality.

Plasselb is a municipality in the district of Sense in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland. It is one of the municipalities with a large majority of German speakers in the mostly French speaking Canton of Fribourg.

Plasselb ("Plassäub" en suisse allemand; "Pyanachiva" en patois fribourgeois) est une localité et une commune suisse du canton de Fribourg, située dans le district de la Singine.


Gameplay.

Although "Chaos Strikes Back" describes itself as an expansion pack, the original "Dungeon Master" is not required. Whereas the first game saw the player following a fairly linear path through the adventure, with the completion of each flat level marked by a staircase leading down onto a new slightly harder level below, "Chaos Strikes Back" features a choice of paths which twist back and forth over all levels. The puzzles are far more convoluted, often demanding quick mastery of the control system to deal with intense combat, along with brain vexing riddles and room layouts.  The game is therefore pitched at a much higher difficulty level than its predecessor. The player can choose from a selection of moderately high-level characters or can import characters from a "Dungeon Master" saved game. In an indication of the game's uncompromising toughness, the player's very first task is to get out of a dark, enclosed room filled with ferociously toothed man-eating giant worms. The game is made a little easier by the inclusion of a separate program which dispenses cryptic hints based on the player's current saved game. Another new, useful feature is an ingame real time map of the dungeon, which makes use of the GOR magic glyph (It had no use in the first game though it's said it was used to create FUL bomb attack potions, which wasn't kept as a spell for the released game) The original had countless guides but the much harder sequel did not, perhaps due to the game itself having an inbuilt map as well as the 'oracle' hint feature, even so though a shorter game it is a lot harder.  The player's task is to collect four pieces of corbum, a magical material from which the eponymous Lord Chaos draws his power. This requires the traversing of four separate paths each leading to a piece of corbamite and each themed around one of the disciplines open to characters in the game. These disciplines are fighter, wizard, priest and ninja.

Champion Editor.

"Chaos Strikes Back" comes with a utility for editing the portraits and names of the four-character party. This utility allows custom character portraits to be created for both "Chaos Strikes Back" and for "Dungeon Master".  For users who do not want to draw new characters, but who would like more powerful looking versions of the existing characters (to better represent the higher levels), the game's utility disk also comes with "enhanced" versions of the game's prepackaged character art.

Reception.

The game was reviewed in 1991 in "Dragon" #171 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column. The reviewers gave the game 4 out of 5 stars.

Legacy.

Notable reception received ""CSBWin"", an Atari ST version based reverse engineered source code reconstruction by Paul R. Stevens around 2003, which led to many ports for modern platforms like Windows and Linux.

Chaos Strikes Back is an expansion and sequel to "Dungeon Master", the earlier 3D role-playing video game. "Chaos Strikes Back" was released in 1989 and is also available on several platforms (including Atari ST, Amiga, X68000, PC-98, FM Towns). It uses the same engine as "Dungeon Master", with new graphics and a new, far more challenging, dungeon.

Chaos Strikes Back est un jeu vidéo de type "dungeon crawler" développé et édité par la société FTL Games en 1989 sur Amiga et Atari ST. Il est également disponible sur les micro-ordinateurs japonais FM Towns, X68000 et PC-98.


Montagnais, Naskapi or Innu.

The people are frequently classified into two groups: the "Neenoilno", often called by Europeans as "Montagnais" (French for "mountain people", English pronunciation: ), or "Innu proper" ("Nehilaw" and "Ilniw" - "people"), who live along the north shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, in Quebec; and the less numerous "Naskapi" ("Innu" and "Iyiyiw"), who live farther north. The Innu recognize several distinctions (e.g. Mushuau Innuat, Maskuanu, Uashau Innuat) based on different regional affiliations and speakers of various dialects of the Innu language.  The word "Naskapi" was first recorded by French colonists in the 17th century and was subsequently applied to distant Innu groups beyond the reach of missionary influence. It was particularly applied to those people living in the lands that bordered Ungava Bay and the northern Labrador coast, near the Inuit communities of northern Quebec and northern Labrador. It is here that the term came to be used for the Naskapi First Nation.  The Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the more sedentary "Montagnais", who establish settled territories. "Mushuau Innuat" (plural), while related to the Naskapi, split off from the tribe in the 1900s. They were subject to a government relocation program at Davis Inlet. Some of the families of the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach have close relatives in the Cree village of Whapmagoostui, on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay.  Since 1990, the Montagnais people have generally chosen to be officially referred to as the Innu, which means "human being" in "Innu-aimun", while the Naskapi have continued to use the word "Naskapi".

History.

The Norsemen referred to the Innu as "skrælingjar" in Greenlandic Norse. They referred to Nitassinan as "Markland".  The Innu were historically allied with neighbouring Atikamekw, Maliseet and Algonquin against their enemies, the Algonquian-speaking Mi'kmaq and Iroquois nations. During the Beaver Wars (1640–1701), the Iroquois repeatedly invaded their territories from areas near the Great Lakes, enslaving women and young warriors, and plundering their hunting grounds in search of more furs. Since these raids were made by the Iroquois with unprecedented brutality, the Innu themselves adopted the torment, torture, and cruelty of their enemies. The Naskapi, on the other hand, were usually in conflicts with the southward advancing Inuit in the east. Samuel de Champlain befriended members of this group who insisted that he help them in their conflict with the Iroquois, who were ranging north from their traditional territory around the Great Lakes in present-day New York and Pennsylvania. On July 29, 1609, at Ticonderoga or Crown Point, New York, (historians are not sure which of these two places), Champlain and his party encountered a group of Iroquois, likely Mohawk, who were the easternmost tribe of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. A battle began the next day. Two hundred Iroquois advanced on Champlain's position as a native guide pointed out the three Iroquois chiefs to the French. Champlain fired his arquebus and legend says he killed two of them with one shot before one of his men killed the third. The Iroquois then supposedly turned and fled. This was to set the tone for French-Iroquois relations for the next 100 years.  The Innu of Labrador and those living on the north shore of the Gulf of Saint-Lawrence in the Canadian Shield region have never officially surrendered their territory to Canada by way of treaty or other agreement. As European-Canadians began widespread forest and mining operations at the turn of the 20th century, the Innu became increasingly settled in coastal communities and in the interior of Quebec. The Canadian and provincial governments, the Catholic, Moravian, and Anglican churches, all encouraged the Innu to settle in more permanent, majority-style communities, in the belief that their lives would improve with this adaptation. This coercive assimilation caused a decline in the Innu people's traditional activities (hunting, trapping, fishing). Because of these social disruptions and the systemic disadvantages faced by Indigenous peoples, community life in the permanent settlements often became associated with high levels of substance abuse, domestic violence, and suicide.

Davis Inlet, Labrador.

In 1999, Survival International published a study of the Innu communities of Labrador. It assessed the adverse effects of the Canadian government's relocating the people far from their ancestral lands and preventing them from practising their ancient way of life. Survival International considered these policies to violate international law in human rights, drawing parallels with the treatment of Tibetans by the People's Republic of China. According to the study, from 1990–1997, the Innu community of Davis Inlet had a suicide rate more than twelve times the Canadian average, and well over three times the rate often observed in isolated northern villages.  By 2000, the Innu island community of Davis Inlet asked the Canadian government to assist with a local addiction public health crisis. At their request, the community was relocated to a nearby mainland site, now known as Natuashish. At the same time, the Canadian government created the Natuashish and Sheshatshiu band councils under the Indian Act.

Kawawachikamach, Quebec.

The Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach, of Quebec, signed a comprehensive land claims settlement, the Northeastern Quebec Agreement; they did so in 1978. As a consequence, the Naskapi of Kawawachikamach are no longer subject to certain provisions of the Indian Act. All the Innu communities of Quebec are still subject to the Act.

New York Power Authority controversy.

The New York Power Authority's proposed contract in 2009 with the province of Quebec to buy power from its extensive hydroelectric dam facilities has generated controversy, because it was dependent on construction of a new dam complex and transmission lines that would have interfered with the traditional ways of the Innu. According to the Sierra Club:  The Innu community, the Sierra Club, and the National Lawyers Guild are fighting to prevent this proposed contract, which would have to be approved by New York's Governor, under his regulatory authority. The problem is that construction of required electric transmission lines would hinder the Innu's hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle:  Chief Gregoire's comments at a press conference in Albany, New York were translated, but whether from French or Innu-aimun is not clear.

Natuashish and Sheshatshiu, Newfoundland and Labrador.

Although Innu have been only in Sheshatshiu since fur trading posts were established by the Hudson's Bay Company in Northwest River in the mid-1700s and only in Davis Inlet/Natuashish since the Moravians set up along the Inuit Coast in 1771, Newfoundland and Labrador Premier Danny Williams struck a deal on September 26, 2008, with Labrador's Innu to permit construction of a hydroelectric megaproject to proceed on the proposed Lower Churchill site. They also negotiated compensation for another project on the Upper Churchill, where large tracts of Actual traditional Innu hunting lands were flooded.

Culture.

Traditional crafts.

Traditional Innu craft is demonstrated in the Innu tea doll. These children's toys originally served a dual purpose for nomadic Innu tribes. When travelling vast distances over challenging terrain, the people left nothing behind. They believed that "Crow" would take it away. Everyone, including young children, helped to transport essential goods. Innu women made intricate dolls from caribou hides and scraps of cloth. They filled the dolls with tea and gave them to young girls to carry on long journeys. The girls could play with the dolls while also carrying important goods. Every able-bodied person carried something. Men generally carried the heavier bags and women would carry young children.

Traditional clothing, style and accessories.

Men wore caribou pants and boots with a buckskin long shirt, all made by women. With the introduction of trade cloth from the French and English, people began replacing the buckskin shirts with ones made of cloth. Most still wore boots and pants made from caribou hide. Women wore long dresses of buckskin and moccasins. Contemporary Innu women have often replaced these with manufactured pants and jackets. Women traditionally wore their hair long or in two coils. Men wore theirs long.  Both genders wore necklaces made of bone and bead. Smoke pipes were used by both genders, marked for women as shorter. If a man killed a bear, it was a sign of joy and initiation into adulthood and the man would wear a necklace made from the bear's claws.

Housing.

The houses of the Montagnais were cone shaped. The Naskapi made long, domed houses covered in caribou hides. These days the hearth is a metal stove in the centre of the house.

Traditional foods.

Animals traditionally eaten included moose, caribou, porcupine, rabbits marten, woodchuck, squirrel; Canada geese, snow geese, brants, ducks, teal, loons, spruce grouse, woodcock, snipe, passenger pigeons, ptarmigan; whitefish, lake trout, salmon, Arctic char, seal ("naskapi") pike, walleye, suckerfish ("Catostomidae"), sturgeon, catfish, lamprey, and smelt. Fish were eaten roasted or smoke-dried. Moose meat and several types of fish were also smoked. Bannock made from oats, introduced by the French in the 16th century, became a staple. Meat was eaten frozen, raw or roasted, and caribou was sometimes boiled in a stew. Pemmican was made with moose or caribou.  Plants traditionally eaten included raspberries, blueberries, strawberries, cherries, wild grapes, hazelnuts, crab apples, red martagon bulbs, Indian potato, and maple-tree sap for sweetening. Cornmeal was traded with Iroquois, Algonquin, and Abenaki First Nations peoples, and made into apon (cornbread), which sometimes also included oat or wheat flour when it became available. Pine-needle tea kept away infections and colds resulting from the harsh weather.

Buckskin.

Traditionally, buckskin was a most important material used for clothing, boots, moccasins, house covers and storage. Women prepared the hides and many of the products made from it. They scraped the hides to remove all fur, then left them outside to freeze. The next step was to stretch the hide on a frame. They rubbed it with a mixture of animal brain and pine needle tea to soften it. The dampened hide was formed into a ball and left overnight. In the morning, it would be stretched again, then placed over a smoker to smoke and tan it. The hide was left overnight. The finished hide was called buckskin.

Transportation.

In traditional Innu communities, people walked or used snow shoes. While people still walk and use snow shoes where necessary for hunting or trapping, many Innu communities rely heavily on trucks, SUVs, and cars; in Northern Innu communities, people use snowmobiles for hunting and general transportation.

Innu communities.

Labrador Communities.

Although Sheshatshiu and Natuashish are home to most of the province's Innu people, some also live at Labrador City, Wabush, Happy Valley-Goose Bay, St. John's, and elsewhere.

Labrador Innu organizations and land claims.

The Innu people of Labrador formally organized the Naskapi Montagnais Innu Association in 1976 to protect their rights, lands, and way of life against industrialization and other outside forces. The organization changed its name to the Innu Nation in 1990 and functions today as the governing body of the Labrador Innu. The group has won recognition for its members as status Indians under Canada's Indian Act in 2002 and is currently involved in land claim and self-governance negotiations with the federal and provincial governments.  In addition to the Innu Nation, residents at both Natuashish and Sheshatshiu elect Band Councils to represent community concerns. The chiefs of both councils sit on the Innu Nation's board of directors and the three groups work in cooperation with one another.  The Innu Nation's efforts to raise awareness about the environmental impacts of a mining project in Voisey's Bay were documented in Marjorie Beaucage's 1997 film "Ntapueu... i am telling the truth."

Notable people.

The best-known members of the Innu nation are Kashtin, a popular Canadian folk rock duo in the 1980s and 1990s, and one of the most commercially successful and well-known First Nations musical groups. The band was formed in 1984 by Claude McKenzie and Florent Vollant, two Innu from the Maliotenam reserve in northern Quebec. Shauit and Geneviève McKenzie-Sioui are singer-songwriters performing in the Innu language.  The writer and activist An Antane-Kapesh published the first book in French written by a First Nations woman in 1976, titled "Je suis une maudite sauvagesse".  Innu writers and poets include Joséphine Bacon, Natasha Kanapé Fontaine and Rita Mestokosho.  The first Innu ever elected to the House of Commons of Canada was Bernard Cleary, a Bloc Québécois MP first elected in the 2004 election.  Two Innu politicians, Peter Penashue of the Conservative Party and Jonathan Genest-Jourdain of the New Democratic Party, were elected to the House of Commons in the 2011 election, following which Penashue, as a member of the governing party caucus, became the first Innu person ever appointed to the Cabinet of Canada.

The Innu (or Montagnais) are the Indigenous inhabitants of an area in Canada they refer to as "Nitassinan" ("Our Land"), which comprises most of the northeastern portion of the present-day province of Quebec and some eastern portions of Labrador.

Les Innus ou Ilnus, ou encore Naskapis ou encore Montagnais (terme que certains considèrent désuet), sont un peuple autochtone originaire de l’Est de la péninsule du Québec-Labrador, plus précisément des régions de la Côte-Nord et du Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean au Québec ainsi que de la région du Labrador à Terre-Neuve-et-Labrador.


History.

An Air Advisory Board was formed in 1945 to assess on the feasibility of starting air services in the country, recommending to set up an air company with the aid of foreign carriers that would provide their technical and management expertise. Initially, the new airline would restrict its operations to on-demand services. Sudan Airways was formed in February 1946 with the technical assistance of Airwork Limited, and the commercial support of Sudan Railways.  The initial fleet was composed of four de Havilland Doves, with test flights commencing in. The first scheduled operations were launched in the same year, with the first timetable being published in. Khartoum became Sudan Airways' hub from the very beginning. From there, the carrier started flying four different services all across the Sudanese territory, as well as to Eritrea. The first routes the company flew linked Khartoum with Asmara, Atbara, El Fashir, El Obeid, Geneina, Juba, Kassala, Malakal, and Port Sudan, all of them served by de Havilland Dove aircraft. An Airwork Viking flew the Blackbushe–Khartoum long-haul route. A fifth Dove was ordered in. That year, a route to Wadi Halfa was launched. Sudan Railways withdrew from the airline's management in 1949; the government and Airwork continued running the company thereafter. Kassala and Asmara were removed from the airline list of destinations in 1952. In that year, a fifth Dove was phased in. There was such a demand for flying that the toilets on the Doves were removed to make room for more seats, with these aircraft even carrying passengers in the cockpit. This prompted the airline to look for newer and bigger airliners, with the Douglas DC-3 and the de Havilland Heron being under consideration. Flown with Austers and Doves, by the carrier was operating a domestic network that was long. That year, the carrier incorporated the first four DC-3s into the fleet. The boost in capacity allowed the company to carry both passengers and mail, to introduce new regular routes to Cairo and Wad Medani, and to carry out aerial survey tasks for the government. Also in 1953, the Chadian city of Abeche was made part of the route network, whereas regular flights to Jeddah were launched in. Services to Athens commenced in the mid-1950s. Two more DC-3s were bought in 1956. In 1958, after taking office, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces decided to expand the carrier's international operations. A seventh DC-3 was incorporated into the fleet that year. Long-haul services started in June 1959 between Khartoum and London via Rome –the so-called "Blue Nile" service– using a Viscount 831 that was acquired new earlier that year in a joint venture with British United Airways. Beirut was added to the destination network in the same year. Also in 1959, the airline joined IATA. By, the fleet included seven DC-3s, four Doves, and a Viscount 831. The latter aircraft was used to resume operations to Asmara in. Aimed at replacing the DC-3s and the Doves in domestic and regional routes, the airline acquired three Fokker F27s in that year; these were delivered in early 1962, with the first of them being deployed on domestic routes, making Sudan Airways the first African airline in operating the type. Also in 1962, two Comet 4Cs were bought in, intended as a replacement of the Viscount service; Sudan Airways had considered the acquisition of two jets for deployment on the ′′Blue Nile′′ route since the frequency on the service was increased to twice weekly in 1961. The airline took delivery of the first Comet in, and the second aircraft of the type was delivered a month later. Comets commenced flying the ′′Blue Nile′′ service in ; that year, the frequency was again increased to operate three times a week. The ′′Blue Nile′′ service first served Frankfurt in. Also in, a fourth Friendship was ordered. In 1967, the company became a corporation run on a commercial basis; also, three Twin Otters were ordered as a replacement for the DC-3s. The first of these aircraft joined the fleet in 1968; the second aircraft of the type delivered to the company was the produced by de Havilland Canada. By, the route network totalled, with international destinations including Aden, Addis Ababa, Asmara, Athens, Beirut, Cairo, Entebbe, Fort Lamy, Jeddah, London, Nairobi and Rome. At this time, the fleet was composed of two Comet 4Cs, three DC-3s, four F-27s and three Twin Otters. The last passenger DC-3 left the fleet in 1971. In 1972, the Comets were put on sale and were replaced by two Boeing 707s leased from British Midland. Sudan Airways ordered two Boeing 707-320Cs in 1973, for delivery in and. Pending delivery of two Boeing 737-200Cs ordered a year earlier, the two Boeing 707-320Cs were part of the fleet by, along with five F-27s, three Twin Otters, and a single DC-3. The company had 2,362 employees at, with an aircraft park that included one Airbus A300-600, one Airbus A300-600R, three Boeing 707-320Cs, one Boeing 727-200, one Boeing 737-200C and one Fokker F27-600. By this time, the airline provided scheduled services to Abu Dhabi, Addis Ababa, Al Ain, Amman, Bangui, Cairo, Damascus, Doha, Dongola, Dubai, El Fasher, El Obeid, Eldebba, Geneina, Istanbul, Jeddah, Juba, Kano, Lagos, London, Malakal, Merowe, Muscat, Ndjamena, Niamey, Nyala, Paris, Port Sudan, Riyadh, Sanaa, Sharjah, Tripoli, Wadi Haifa and Wau. In 2007, the Sudanese government privatised the airline, maintaining only a 30% stake of the national carrier. The Kuwaiti private group that owned 49% of the shares since then sold its stake back to the state in 2011.  In the wake of the crash of Flight 109, in the airline was grounded following an indefinite suspension of its operating certificate by the Sudanese government, despite it was stated as not being in connection with the accident. This decision was later rolled back, and the company was allowed to resume operations. In 2017, it was announced that the Sudanese President Omar al Bashir signed several cooperation agreements with King Salman of Saudi Arabia during a visit to Riyadh. Among the agreements was a pledge from the Saudi General Authority of Civil Aviation to restructure SAR22.5 million riyals (US$6 million) worth of debt. In addition, provisions for fleet renewal at Sudan Airways were also made. it was reported Saudi Arabia may equip the Sudan Airways with fourteen aircraft including three B777s, three A320-200s, six Embraer Regional Jets, and two A330-200s.  Following the lifting of American sanctions in 2017, Sudan Airways announced plans to revive its fleet.

EU ban.

In late, all Sudan-based airlines were banned by the European Union (EU) from flying into or within the member states. All the subsequent released ban lists included all airlines with an operator's certificate issued in Sudan as banned to operate into the member countries of the EU.

Corporate affairs.

Key people.

, the CEO position was held by Abd Elmahmoud Suleiman Mohammed.

Headquarters.

Sudan Airways has its headquarters in Khartoum.

Destinations.

, the airline serves six domestic and eight international destinations from its hub in Khartoum.

Fleet.

Current.

The Sudan Airways fleet consists of the following aircraft (as of August 2016):

Retired.

The company has flown the following aircraft throughout its history:

Accidents and incidents.

According to Aviation Safety Network, Sudan Airways records 21 accidents/incidents, 7 of them leading to fatalities. The worst accident experienced by the company took place in near Port Sudan, when 117 people lost their lives on an emergency landing. All events included in the list below carried with the hull-loss of the aircraft involved.

Sudan Airways () is the national airline of Sudan, headquartered in Khartoum. Since 2012, the company has been fully owned by the Government of Sudan.

Sudan Airways (Code AITA : SD ; code OACI : SUD) est une compagnie aérienne du Soudan. Son siège social est à Khartoum la capitale.


Biography.

Ellen Louise Axson Wilson, born in Savannah, Georgia, the daughter of the Reverend Samuel Edward Axson, a Presbyterian minister, and his wife Margaret Jane (née Hoyt) Axson, Ellen became a woman of refined tastes with a fondness for art, music, and literature. When she was eleven years old, she began studying art at the Rome Female College in Georgia, where she studied until training at the Rome (Georgia) Female College at the age of eleven. Afer her graduation in 1876, Ellen's drawing titled "School Scene" was submitted to the Paris International Exposition. where it won a bronze medal for excellence.  In April 1883, she met Woodrow Wilson when he was visiting his cousin Jesse Woodrow Wilson in Rome, Georgia, on family business. At that time, she was keeping house for her widowed father. Woodrow Wilson thought of Ellen, "What splendid laughing eyes!" They were engaged 5 months later, but postponed the wedding while he did postgraduate work at Johns Hopkins University and she nursed her ailing father. Ellen's father committed suicide while hospitalized for depression, after which she went North to study at the Art Students League of New York.  Wilson, who was 28 years of age, married Ellen, age 25, on June 24, 1885, at her paternal grandparents' home in Savannah, Georgia. The wedding was performed jointly by his father, the Reverend Joseph R. Wilson, and her grandfather, the Reverend Isaac Stockton Keith Axson. They honeymooned at Waynesville, a mountain resort in western North Carolina.  That same year, Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania offered Dr. Wilson a teaching position at an annual salary of $1,500. He and his bride lived near the campus, keeping her little brother with them.  Together, the Wilsons had three daughters: Insisting that her children must not be born as Yankees, Ellen went to stay with relatives in Gainesville, Georgia for Margaret's birth in 1886 and Jessie's in 1887. But Eleanor was born in Connecticut in 1889, while Wilson was teaching at Wesleyan University.  Wilson's career at Princeton University began in 1890, bringing Ellen new social responsibilities. She took refuge from such demands in her art. As First Lady, she drew sketches and painted in a studio set up on the third floor of the White House. She donated much of her work to charity. She arranged the White House weddings of two of her daughters.  After Wilson was elected as president in 1912, the Wilsons preferred to begin the administration without an inaugural ball. The First Lady's entertainments were simple, but her unaffected cordiality made her parties successful. In their first year, she convinced her scrupulous husband that it would be perfectly proper to invite influential legislators to a private dinner.  Wilson had grown up in a slave-owning family. As First Lady, she devoted much effort to the cause of improving housing in the national capital's largely black slums. She visited dilapidated alleys and brought them to the attention of debutantes and Congressmen.  She died of Bright's disease at the White House on August 6, 1914. She was buried in Rome, Georgia among her family at Myrtle Hill Cemetery.  In December 1915, President Woodrow Wilson married Edith Bolling Galt.

Ellen Louise Axson Wilson ("née" Axson; May 15, 1860 – August 6, 1914), was the first wife of Woodrow Wilson and the mother of their three daughters. Like her husband, she was a Southerner, as well as the daughter of a clergyman. She was born in Savannah, Georgia, but raised in Rome, Georgia. Having an artistic bent, she studied at the Art Students League of New York before her marriage, and continued to produce art in later life.

Ellen Axson Wilson, née le et morte le, en sa qualité d'épouse du président des États-Unis d'Amérique, Thomas Woodrow Wilson, fut la « Première dame » des États-Unis du au. Le président se remarie ensuite avec Edith Wilson.


Government.

The Kaw Nation's headquarters is in Kaw City, Oklahoma, and the tribal jurisdictional area is within Kay County, Oklahoma. The elected chairwoman is Lynn Williams currently serving a four-year term. Of the 3,126 enrolled members, 1,428 live within the state of Oklahoma.

Economic development.

Kaw Nation owns the Kanza Travel Plaza; Woodridge Market; Smoke Shop I, and II; SouthWind Casino; including a bingo hall, and an off-track wagering facility; and SouthWind Casino Braman, which opened September 2014. The estimated annual economic impact of the tribe is $200 million. The tribe also operates the Kanza Health Clinic, Kanza Wellness Center, Kaw Nation School Age Enrichment Center, Kanza Museum, Kaw Nation Environmental Department, Kaw Nation Police Department, Kaw Nation Social Service and Educational Department, Kaw Nation Emergency Management Department, Kaw Language Department and the Kaw Nation Judicial Branch. The Kaw Nation Judicial Branch includes a domestic violence program. The Kaw Nation operates its own Housing Authority, library, Title VI Food Services and issues its own tribal vehicle tags. The "Kanza News", the newsletter of Kaw Nation, is published quarterly.

History.

Early history.

The Kaw are a member of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family. Oral history indicates that the ancestors of the five Dhegiha tribes migrated west from the Ohio Valley. The Quapaw separated from the other Dhegiha at the mouth of the Ohio, going down the Mississippi River to live in what is today the state of Arkansas. The other Dhegiha proceeded up the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. The Osage left the main group in central Missouri; the Kaw halted upstream on the Missouri River in northeastern Kansas; the Omaha and Ponca continued north to settle in Nebraska and South Dakota.  This tradition is reinforced by the fact that the Illinois and Miami Indians called the lower Ohio and Wabash Rivers the Akansea River, because, as they told French explorers, the Akansea (Quapaw) formerly dwelt there.  The Dhegiha probably migrated westward in the early to mid-17th century. Their reason for leaving their traditional home may have been due to the displacement westward of Indian tribes caused by European settlement on the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Displacement and Western migration was the fate of many Indian tribes. The first certain knowledge we have of the Dhegiha is 1673 when the French explorer of the Mississippi River, Pere Marquette, drew a crude map which showed the Dhegiha tribes near their historic locations.  The French explorer Bourgmont was the first European known to visit the Kaws in 1724. He found them living in a single large village near the future site of the town of Doniphan, Kansas, on a bluff overlooking the Missouri River. In 1780 the Kaw abandoned this village and took up residence on the Kansas River, but the ruins of their earlier village were long a landmark for travelers. When Lewis and Clark ascended the Missouri, they noted passing the site of the "old village of the Kanzas" on July 2, 1804.

Traditional culture and subsistence.

From 1780 to 1830 the Kaw lived at Blue Earth Village on the Kansas River, at the site of present-day Manhattan, Kansas. The Kaw probably moved to the Kansas River Valley to be closer to the buffalo herds on the Great Plains. The tribe increasingly depended upon buffalo hunting for its subsistence and less on agriculture. Also, living on the Kansas River gave them access to a rich territory of fur bearing animals to trade to the French for guns and other commodities, their villages forming important secondary centers in the Great Plains trading networks and their men being important intermediaries in the trade with the Pawnee and the Osage. Unfortunately, this movement west also made them more vulnerable to attack from powerful enemies such as the Pawnees. Lewis and Clark noted that they were "reduced by war with their neighbors". They estimated the Kaw to number 300 men—about 1,500 persons in all. The traveler George C. Sibley gave a favorable description of the Kaw in 1811. He visited their village at the junction of the Big Blue River and Kansas Rivers. "The town contains 128 houses, or lodges, which are generally about sixty feet long and twenty-five feet wide...They are commodious and quite comfortable..." The Kaw "are governed by a chief and the influence of the oldest and most distinguished warriors. They are seldom at peace with any of their neighbors, except the Osage, with whom there appears to be a cordial and lasting relationship. The Kansas are a stout, hardy, handsome race, more active and enterprising even than the Osage. They are noted for their bravery and heroic daring." The Kaw lived in their village about one-half the year. The women tended corn fields. The other half year they journeyed to western Kansas to hunt buffalo while living in teepees. Horse racing and hunting were said to be the two passions of the men. They were, in the words of Sibley, "homeless wanderers and such is the stubbornness of their Nature that they will rather remain as they are". The Kaw would continue to be regarded as conservative and resistant to change.

Interaction with the United States.

The purchase by the United States of Louisiana Territory in 1803 led to disastrous impacts on the Kaw. They were increasingly hemmed in, first, by Eastern Indians forced to migrate west and, secondly, by White settlers who coveted the "beautiful aspects" and "rich and exuberant soils" of Kaw lands. West of the Kaw lived the warlike Cheyenne and Comanche, and to the north were the Pawnee, their traditional enemies. In 1825, the Kaw ceded a huge area of land in Missouri and Kansas to the United States in exchange for a promise of an annuity of $3,500 annually for twenty years. The promised annuity—to be paid in goods and services—was often late in arriving or found its way into the pockets of unscrupulous government officials and merchants. The Kaw were indifferent to the pleas of government agents and missionaries that they take up farming as their sole livelihood.  Meanwhile, the Kaw faced smallpox epidemics in 1827–1828 and 1831–1832, which killed about 500. During the same period the tribe split into four different competing groups living in different villages, a consequence of rivalry between three groups of conservatives, who favored retaining traditional ways, and one group under White Plume which favored accommodation with the United States. Important in the latter group were 23 mixed bloods, the sons and daughters of French traders who had taken Kaw wives. The French influence among the Kaw is still seen today in common surnames such as Pappan, Bellmard, and Chouteau.  A disastrous flood in 1844 destroyed most of the land the Kaw had planted and left the tribe destitute. In 1846, the Kaw sold most of their remaining of land for $202,000 plus a reservation centered on Council Grove, Kansas. Council Grove is a beautiful area of forests, water, and tall grass prairie, but it was probably the worst location that could have been selected for the already weakened and demoralized tribe. It was a favorite stopping place for the rough-hewn teamsters and traders and voracious merchants on the Santa Fe Trail. The first Kaw arriving there were beaten up by traders. The flourishing whiskey trade in Council Grove also proved to be deleterious. Whites invaded Indian lands and sporadic efforts by soldiers to force them off the reservation were ineffective. In 1860, the Kaw reservation, overrun by White settlers, was reduced to.  With the coming of the American Civil War in 1861, the Kaw and other Indians in Kansas suddenly became an asset as the state recruited them as soldiers and scouts to stave off invasions by slave-holding tribes and Confederate supporters in Indian Territory. Seventy young Kaw men were persuaded—or forced—to join Company L, Ninth Kansas Cavalry. They served in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and Arkansas during the war and 21 of them never came home—a large loss to the already diminished numbers of the tribe.  After the war, European-Americans in Kansas agitated for removal of Indians, including the Kaw. However, amidst the gloom of a tribe that seemed likely to disintegrate came one colorful moment. The Kaw and the Cheyenne had long been enemies. On June 1, 1868, about one hundred Cheyenne warriors descended on the Kaw reservation. Terrified white settlers took refuge in Council Grove. The Kaw men painted their faces, donned their finery, and sallied forth on horseback to meet the Cheyenne. The two Indian armies put on a military pageant featuring horsemanship, fearsome howls and curses, and volleys of bullets and arrows. After four hours, the Cheyenne retired with a few stolen horses and a peace offering of coffee and sugar by the Council Grove merchants. Nobody was hurt on either side.  During the battle, the mixed-blood Kaw interpreter, Joseph James, Jr. (more commonly known as Jojim or Joe Jim) galloped 60 miles to Topeka to request assistance from the Governor. Riding along with Jojim was an eight-year-old, part-Indian boy named Charles Curtis or "Indian Charley". Curtis would later become a jockey, a lawyer, a politician, and Vice President of the United States under Herbert Hoover.  White pressure finally forced the Kaw out of Kansas. On June 4, 1873, they packed up their meager possessions in wagons and headed south to Indian Territory to a new reservation. Two weeks later, 533 men, women, and children arrived at the junction of the Arkansas River and Beaver Creek in what would become Kay County, Oklahoma. The Kaw made their last successful buffalo hunt that winter, journeying on horseback to the Great Salt Plains. They preserved the buffalo meat by jerking it and sold the buffalo robes for five thousand dollars. The Kaw continued their decline in Oklahoma. In 1879, their agent reported that nearly half of their number had died of contagious diseases in the previous seven years. In the 1880s and 1890s, the Kaw derived much of their income from leasing their land to White ranchers for grazing. In 1884, to manage grazing leases, they elected a government with a Chief Councilor and a representative from each of the four Kaw bands: the Picayune, Koholo, Rock Creek, and Half-breed. Washungah was elected as the Chief Councilor in 1885 and the tribal headquarters was later named Washunga to honor him.

20th century.

The Kaws found security from White harassment on their Indian Territory lands, but the tribe continued to decline, especially the full bloods. By 1888 they numbered only 188 persons and the Kaws seemed on the road to extinction. However, they slowly acculturated and their numbers increased, mostly through intermarriage as the number of full-bloods continued to decline. By 1910, only one old woman in the tribe could not speak English and more than 80 percent were literate.  The Curtis act of 1898 expanded the powers of the federal government over Indian affairs. The author of the act was Charles Curtis, now a Congressman. Curtis believed that the Indians should be assimilated and he supported the break-up of tribal governments and the allotment of tribal lands to their members. In 1902, at Curtis's urging, Congress abolished the Kaw tribal government and reservation and divided tribal lands among members. Each of 247 Kaw tribal members received, of which were for a personal homestead. Curtis and his son and two daughters thus received of land. Most Kaws sold or lost their land. By 1945, only 13 percent of the land of the former Kaw Reservation was owned by Kaws. Much former Kaw land was inundated by the creation of Kaw Lake in the 1960s, including their Council House and cemetery at Washunga which was moved to Newkirk, Oklahoma.  After the death of Washunga in 1908, the Kaw people had no formal organization for many years. In 1922, Washunga's adopted daughter Lucy Tayiah Eads (Little Deer) was elected principal chief along with a council of eight members, and was the first and only female chief, but in 1928 the government agency to the Kaw was abolished and the buildings sold. Thereafter, the Kaw had no recognized government until federal recognition and reorganization of the tribe in 1959. The last Chief of the Kaw, Ernest Emmett Thompson, was elected in 1934. According to Dorothy Roberts full-blooded Kaw women were subject to sterilisation by the Indian Health Service in the 1970s. In 1990, the Kaw ratified a new tribal constitution and created a tribal court in 1992. In 2000, the tribe purchased lands on their pre-1873 reservation near Council Grove, Kansas to create a park commemorating their history in Kansas named the Allegawaho Memorial Heritage Park.  The last fluent speaker of the Kansa language, Walter Kekahbah, died in 1983.  The last full-blood Kaw, William Mehojah, died in 2000.

The Kaw Nation (or Kanza or Kansa) are a federally recognized Native American tribe in Oklahoma and parts of Kansas. They come from the central Midwestern United States. The tribe known as Kaw have also been known as the "People of the South wind", "People of water", "Kansa", "Kaza", "Konza", "Conza", "Quans", "Kosa", and "Kasa". Their tribal language is Kansa, classified as a Siouan language.

Les Kaws sont un peuple amérindien du centre des États-Unis. La tribu nommée Kaw a aussi été appelée le Peuple du Vent (Wind People), Kaza, Kanza, Kosa et Kasa. Le nom de l'État américain du Kansas est dérivé du nom de ce peuple. Sous le régime français, cette tribu était nommée les Cansez.