Design.

The was ordered in the context of global naval rearmament during the breakdown of the Washington treaty system that had controlled battleships construction during the 1920s and early 1930s. Under the Washington and London treaties, so-called treaty battleships were limited to a standard displacement of and a main battery of guns. In 1936, following Japan's decision to abandon the treaty system, the United States Navy decided to invoke the "escalator clause" in the Second London treaty that allowed displacements to rise to and armament to increase to guns. Congressional objections to increasing the size of the new ships forced the design staff to keep displacement as close to 35,000 LT as possible while incorporating the larger guns and armor sufficient to defeat guns of the same caliber.  "Indiana" was long overall and had a beam of and a draft of. She displaced as designed and up to at full combat load. The ship was powered by four General Electric steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. Rated at, the turbines were intended to give a top speed of. The ship had a cruising range of at a speed of. She carried three Vought OS2U Kingfisher floatplanes for aerial reconnaissance, which were launched by a pair of aircraft catapults on her fantail. Her peace time crew numbered 1,793 officers and enlisted men, but during the war the crew swelled to 2,500 officers and enlisted.  The ship was armed with a main battery of nine 16"/45 caliber Mark 6 guns guns in three triple-gun turrets on the centerline, two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward, with the third aft. The secondary battery consisted of twenty 5-inch /38 caliber dual purpose guns mounted in twin turrets clustered amidships, five turrets on either side. As designed, the ship was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of twelve guns and twelve.50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns, but she was completed with a battery of seven quadruple Bofors guns in place of the 1.1 in guns and thirty-five Oerlikon autocannon instead of the.50-cal. guns.  The main armored belt was thick, while the main armored deck was up to thick. The main battery gun turrets had thick faces, and they were mounted atop barbettes that were thick. The conning tower had thick sides.

Modifications.

"Indiana" received a series of modifications through her wartime career, consisting primarily of additions to anti-aircraft battery and various types of radar sets. The first addition was the installation of SC air search radar in 1941, fitted in the foremast, which was later replaced with an SK type set. At the same time, an SG surface search radar was installed on the forward superstructure; a second SG set was added to the main mast after experiences during the Guadalcanal campaign in 1942. In 1943, she received a Mark 3 fire-control radar, mounted on her conning tower to assist in the direction of her main battery guns. The Mark 3 was quickly replaced with more modern Mark 8 fire-control radar, and Mark 4 radars for the secondary battery guns. She later received Mark 12/22 sets in place of the Mark 4s. "Indiana" also received a TDY jammer. In 1945, her traditional spotting scopes were replaced with Mark 27 microwave radar sets.  The ship's light anti-aircraft battery was gradually expanded. Three more 40 mm quad mounts were added in late 1942. By January 1943, she had another eighteen 20 mm guns installed, bringing the total to fifty-three of the guns. Two more 40 mm quadruple mounts were added in February, and another seven 20 mm guns were added later that year for a total battery of sixty barrels. By July 1944, "Indiana" had had five of the 20 mm guns removed; three more had been removed by the end of the war in mid-1945.

Service history.

Construction.

The new battleship was authorized on 27 March 1934 by the Vinson-Trammell Act, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt approved the name "Indiana" on 21 September 1938. The keel for "Indiana" was laid down on 20 November 1939 at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Newport News, Virginia. The completed hull was launched on 21 November 1941, with the christening performed by Margaret Robbins, the daughter of the Governor of Indiana, Henry F. Schricker. "Indiana" was completed by April 1942 and was commissioned into the fleet on the 30th. Then-Captain Aaron S. Merrill was the ship's first commanding officer. During the elaborate commissioning ceremony, which was attended by Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, the ship flew the flag from the old battleship that had been used during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba in 1898.  Fitting-out work continued at Newport News through 20 May, and the following day "Indiana" departed on sea trials. Initial trials were conducted in Chesapeake Bay from 26 to 29 May; on the 31st, she departed for Hampton Roads, Virginia. Speed trials followed on 1 June, during which she was escorted by the destroyers,,, and. Trials, gunnery training, and various exercises continued into September, and on the 29th she departed for Casco Bay in Maine for more gunnery training. The ship was declared fit for combat service on 9 November, and she departed for the Panama Canal that day. By this time, the United States had been at war with Germany and Japan for nearly a year, and was in the midst of the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific; "Indiana" was ordered to join the forces engaged there.

Pacific Theater operations.

Battles of Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Kwajalein.

On 14 November, "Indiana" was assigned as the flagship for Task Group (TG) 2.6, which included the light cruiser and the destroyers and. The four ships then proceeded to Tonga, arriving on the afternoon of 28 November. After refueling, "Indiana" transferred to TG 66.6 two days later and continued on to Nouméa, arriving on 2 December. There, she took part in exercises with ships from Task Force (TF) 64. The ship served as a replacement for her sister, which had been badly damaged during the Second Naval Battle of Guadalcanal; while operating off Guadalcanal, "Indiana" provided gunfire support to American forces ashore.  By January 1943, the ship had been joined by the fast battleships and ; the three battleships were grouped together as TF 64 under Rear Admiral Willis Lee, and they covered convoys to support the fighting in the Solomons into the next year. These operations included covering a group of seven transports carrying elements of the 25th Infantry Division to Guadalcanal from 1 to 4 January 1943. During another of these convoy operations later that month, the battleships were too far south to come to aid of the American cruiser force during the Battle of Rennell Island at the end of the month. During the invasion of New Georgia, the battleship force, which now included "Indiana", "North Carolina", and, was assigned to cover the invasion fleet against possible Japanese attacks. "Indiana" supported the carrier task force that raided Marcus Island on 31 August – 1 September. She took part in the invasion of Tarawa on 20–23 November and provided part of the anti-aircraft screen for the aircraft carriers of Task Group 50.2 off Makin Atoll, including "Enterprise",, and. During operations in the area, "Indiana"s anti-aircraft gunners claimed their first Japanese aircraft. On 8 December, "Indiana", four other battleships, and twelve destroyers bombarded Japanese positions on Nauru. Between the five battleships, a total of 810 sixteen-inch shells were fired at the island.  On 1 January 1944, "Indiana" was assigned to TG 37.2, and on 16 January she took part in gunnery practice with "South Dakota" and the destroyers,, and. The five ships, joined by "North Carolina", "Washington", and three more destroyers, then got underway on 18 January for the next major amphibious operation the Pacific, the Marshall Islands campaign. While en route, the ships conducted training with their anti-aircraft batteries. They rendezvoused with the carriers and "Monterey" at sea, and after arriving in Funafuti on 20 January the unit was redesignated as TG 58.1. By this time, the group had grown to include the carriers "Enterprise", "Yorktown", "Belleau Wood", and several more cruisers and destroyers. Further training took place from 25 to 28 January, including more anti-aircraft practice; "Indiana" also served as a target for simulated air attacks from the carrier aircraft. During the operation, "Indiana" served as the flagship of Battleship Division 8 (BatDiv), commanded by Rear Admiral Glenn B. Davis.  In late January, "Indiana" took part in operations to prepare for the invasion of Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands. On 29 January, the ship attacked Maloelap Atoll, along with "Washington" and the aircraft carriers and, and the following day the ships began bombarding Kwajalein to soften Japanese defenses. On 30 January, "Indiana", "Massachusetts", and "Washington", escorted by four destroyers, were detached to shell Kwajalein as part of the invasion bombardment. They reached their firing positions early the next morning and "Indiana" opened fire at 09:56; she and the other ships sank a submarine chaser and five guard ships that were moored in the atoll. Japanese artillery batteries engaged the American ships, but "Indiana" was not hit. She continued to bombard Japanese positions around the island until 14:48 before departing at 17:15 to return to the carriers. She had fired some 306 shells from her main battery and 2,385 rounds from her 5-inch guns.  "Indiana" thereafter withdrew to escort the carrier task force overnight. While operating off the islands in the early hours of 1 February, "Indiana" collided with "Washington". The ships were blacked out to prevent Japanese observers from spotting them, and in the darkness, "Indiana" turned in front of "Washington". "Indiana" was badly damaged, with the starboard propeller shaft destroyed and significant damaged inflicted on the belt armor and torpedo defense system. The ship had some of armor plating torn from her hull, and "Washington" had a section of her bow ripped away and lodged into "Indiana"s side. The accident killed three men and injured another six aboard "Indiana", one of whom later died. A subsequent inquiry into the accident placed the blame on "Indiana", faulting her crew for failing to inform the other ships in the unit about her course changes.  Davis transferred his flag to another vessel and on 2 February, "Indiana" departed for Majuro for temporary repairs before proceeding on to Pearl Harbor on 7 February in company with the escorting destroyer and the destroyer escort. Four days later, two more destroyers joined the group, which reached Pearl Harbor on 13 February. "Indiana" was dry-docked the next day for repairs that lasted until 7 April. She then conducted sea trials and test fired her main battery to ensure there were no remaining structural issues from the collision. She spent the next two weeks training her gun crews before departing in late April to rejoin the fleet for the next operation in the central Pacific.

Marianas campaign.

"Indiana" arrived in Seeadler Harbor, Manus Island on 26 April and Davis came back aboard his flagship two days later. That same day, she got underway in company with "Massachusetts" and four destroyers to join TF 58 for Operation Hailstone, the major attack on Truk Atoll conducted over the course of 29–30 April. On 1 May, "Indiana" took part in an attack on Pohnpei in the Senyavin Islands, shelling the island for about an hour before disengaging after having difficulty in locating suitable targets. Three days later the American fleet arrived in Majuro, where it began preparations for the invasion of several islands in the Marianas. The fleet sortied on 6 June to embark on the first stage of the campaign, the invasion of Saipan. "Indiana", "Washington", and four escorting destroyers were designated as Task Unit (TU) 58.7.3, the Western Bombardment Unit; over the course of the pre-invasion bombardment that began on 13 June and continued for two days, "Indiana" fired 584 shells from her main battery. Late in the day on 15 June, after the ground forces had gone ashore, Japanese air strikes targeted the invasion fleet. "Indiana" began evasive maneuvers to avoid the attacks, including a torpedo bomber that launched a torpedo at the ship at around 19:10 that failed to explode. Her anti-aircraft gunners shot the aircraft down, along with another bomber three minutes later. The ship was not damaged in the attacks and remained on station.  A more significant Japanese counterattack came in the form of the 1st Mobile Fleet, the main carrier strike force. In the ensuing Battle of the Philippine Sea from 19 to 20 June, "Indiana" provided anti-aircraft support to the American carrier fleet. She and "South Dakota" reported the initial wave of Japanese aircraft early on 19 June, and at 10:48 her anti-aircraft gunners opened fire, quickly shooting down one Japanese aircraft. The ship was forced to take evasive maneuvers at around 11:50, when a torpedo bomber attacked her; the torpedo exploded harmlessly in the ship's wake. As a Japanese fighter approached to strafe "Indiana", her guns shot away the plane's tail at 12:13, sending it crashing into the sea. The ship's luck ran out shortly thereafter, as a burning Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bomber crashed into her starboard side, hurling burning debris over the deck. The ship was not damaged in the crash and "Indiana" remained on station. In the course of the battle, she had fired 416 shells from her secondary guns, 4,832 rounds of 40 mm ammunition and around 9,000 rounds from her 20 mm guns; she suffered five casualties, all men injured by shell fragments from other ships' anti-aircraft guns.  On 4 July, one of "Indiana"s Kingfishers picked up two men from the carrier after their aircraft had gone down. "Indiana" remained off the Marianas until early August when she was detached to Eniwetok to replenish ammunition and supplies. She got underway on 30 August with TF 34 and met TG 38 on 3 September, which was scheduled to attack the Palau Islands later that month. "Indiana" developed engine problems, however, and she was sent to Seeadler Harbor for repairs that lasted from 21 September to 4 October. During this period, Davis shifted his flag to "Massachusetts". "Indiana" then joined the battleship and the cruisers and for the voyage to Pearl Harbor. They arrived there on 14 October, and two days later "Indiana" and "Idaho", escorted by two destroyers, left for Puget Sound Navy Yard for a thorough overhaul that was completed on 30 November. Following another round of sea trials, "Indiana" left on 6 December, bound for Pearl Harbor, where she conducted training exercises and additional repairs that lasted through the end of the year.

Battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa.

Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger II, the commander of TU 12.5.2, hoisted his flag aboard the ship on 8 January 1945, and she departed Pearl Harbor two days later in company with the destroyer and the destroyer minelayer. The ships cruised to Eniwetok, and from there, continued on to Saipain where she joined the rest of her unit on 20 January. The unit sortied on 22 January, headed for Iwo Jima and arrived there two days later. On arrival, "Indiana", three heavy cruisers, seven destroyers, and "Gwin" shelled the island in preparation for the invasion of the island a month later. At 13:17, a Nakajima B6N torpedo bomber attacked the ships but was driven off by heavy anti-aircraft fire. "Indiana" fired a total of 200 shells from her main battery before poor visibility forced her to cease fire at 15:55. She left the area the next morning and steamed to Ulithi, arriving on 26 January. Badger then transferred to the battleship and "Indiana" occupied herself with anti-aircraft training for the rest of the month.  The ship got underway again on 10 February as part of TG 58.1 for a raid on Tokyo, Japan; a group of carriers launched air strikes on targets in the area on 16 February, followed by a series of strikes on various targets in the Bonin Islands (including Iwo Jima), after which they conducted a second strike on the Tokyo area on 25 February. In addition to providing anti-aircraft defense for the carriers, "Indiana" also frequently used her Kingfishers to pick up downed aircrews, and on 1 March one of her aircraft picked up the crews of two such aircraft. The fleet returned to Ulithi on 3 March for replenishment. On 14 March, "Indiana" sortied with "South Dakota", "Massachusetts", "North Carolina", and "Washington", now designated TU 58.1.3, to support another round of strikes on Japan that were conducted three days later. She shot down a Japanese aircraft in the early hours of 19 March before the carriers attacked various points on the island of Kyushu. Later that day, the fleet steamed to strike the Kure Naval Arsenal. The carriers and were badly damaged by Japanese air attacks and were forced to withdraw. On 23 March, "Indiana" steamed to Okinawa to join the preparatory bombardment of the island. She fired 180 main battery shells the next day and then rejoined the fleet. She resumed her air defense role for the next several days while the carriers launched raids on the island. For much of April, "Indiana" and the rest of TG 58.1 provided support to the marines and soldiers fighting in the Battle of Okinawa. On 7 April, the Japanese launched a major counter-attack on the Allied naval forces, including large-scale kamikaze strikes and Operation Ten-Go with the battleship, but they were repelled with heavy losses. The kamikaze raids continued throughout the month, and on 12 April two fighters—a Mitsubishi A6M Zero and a Nakajima Ki-43—attempted to crash into "Indiana", but her heavy anti-aircraft fire shot both down before they could strike her, though a fragment from one of the kamikazes struck a marine aboard the ship. Two days later, she shot down three more Ki-43s. She accidentally opened fire on a pair of American Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters on 15 April, but did not damage them. Later that day, she met wth replenishment oilers to refuel.  The ships of BatDiv 8 left Okinawa at the end of the month and returned to Ulithi, where they remained from 1 to 9 May. "Indiana" then got underway again to escort aircraft carriers for another series of strikes on Kyushu that began on 12 May. Two days later, she shot down an A6M kamikaze and assisted in the recovery of an F6F pilot who had been shot down by Japanese fire. On 27 May, Third Fleet relieved Fifth Fleet as the operational command, and all of the fleet's task forces and subordinate units were renumbered back to 30-series designations, returning "Indiana" to TG 38.1. In early June, a powerful cyclone formed in the Philippine Sea and moved north toward Okinawa; it struck Third Fleet on 5 June south of the island. "Indiana" recorded winds as high as, which tore one of her Kingfishers from its catapult and hurled it into the sea. The winds also blew seawater into the ventilation intakes for the engine room, shorting out her switchboard and disabling her steering controls for about forty minutes. Thirty-six ships of the fleet were damaged by the storm, though "Indiana" only superficially so.  The fleet resumed its normal operations in support of the Okinawa fight on 7 June, including air strikes on Japanese airfields on Kyushu the next day that "Indiana" supported. With an escort of five destroyers on 9 June, "Indiana", "Alabama", and "Massachusetts" steamed to shell Japanese facilities on the island of Minami Daito Jima; they repeated the attack the next day. "Indiana" was thereafter detached to replenish ammunition and other supplies in San Pedro Bay in the Philippines, arriving there on 11 June.

Operations off Japan.

"Indiana" got underway again in early July and returned to TF 38. She supported carrier strikes on the Tokyo area on 10 July and took part in the first bombardment of the Japanese home islands by capital ships during the war. For the attack, which took place on 14 July, "Indiana" was assigned to TU 34.8.1, which included "Massachusetts" and "South Dakota", the heavy cruisers and, and nine destroyers. The primary target was an industrial complex in Kamaishi that included the Japan Iron Co. and the Kamaishi Steel Works. "Indiana" fired 271 shells from her 16-inch guns, but smoke hindered the efforts of her spotter aircraft from observing the effects of the shooting, though a destroyer returned the next day and reported that fires were still burning. "Indiana" then resumed her anti-aircraft support duties with the fast carrier task force until being detached for another bombardment operation with TU 34.8.1 on 29 July. This attack, made in concert with the British TF 37—centered on the battleship —targeted industrial facilities at Hamamatsu. "Indiana" fired 270 shells during the bombardment.  On 1 August, BatDiv 8 was detached to form Support Unit 38.1.2; the ships continued their attacks on coastal cities in company with TF 37. One of "Indiana"s Kingfishers accidentally crashed in the sea on 7 August, killing its crew. The ships of BatDiv 8 conducted a second attack on Kamaishi on 9 August, with "Indiana" firing a total of 270 shells between 12:46 and 14:45. Poor visibility again hampered the observers, though this proved to be the ship's last offensive operation. Japan agreed to surrender unconditionally on 15 August while "Indiana" was en route to the coast to support another wave of carrier strikes. Instead of munitions, food and medical supplies were loaded onto the carriers' aircraft to be dropped on prisoner of war (POW) camps. "Indiana" contributed a landing party to be sent ashore on 30 August, which was part of the initial occupation forces.  After the formal surrender on 2 September, "Indiana" steamed into Tokyo Bay on the 5th. Over the course of the next week, "Indiana" was moored in the harbor and used to process POWs, including 54 USN personnel, 28 marines, 64 civilians, and a number of US Army and Canadian soldiers. On 15 September, she got underway in company with the destroyer, bound for California. She was forced to steam at a speed of since her number 3 shaft had locked up and could not be used. On the way, her crew conducted a variety of shooting drills. The two ships reached Pearl Harbor on 22 September before "Indiana" continued on the next day for San Francisco, which she reached on 29 September. There, she disembarked 1,013 passengers.

Postwar.

"Indiana" immediately went into drydock at Hunters Point Naval Shipyard for repairs that lasted until 31 October. From there, she transferred to Puget Sound, where her ammunition and other flammable material was unloaded. She then went into drydock on 15 November to be prepared for deactivation. On 29 March 1946, the Navy announced Postwar Plan Number Two, which detailed the reductions in force necessary to bring the fleet back to a peacetime footing; "Indiana" was to be transferred to the Pacific Reserve Fleet along with "Alabama".  Plans were drawn up during the period she was in reserve to modernize "Indiana" and the other ships of her class should they be needed for future active service. In March 1954, a program to equip the four ships with secondary batteries consisting of ten twin guns were proposed, but the plan came to nothing. Another plan to convert the ship into a guided missile battleship arose in 1956–1957, but the cost of the conversion proved to be prohibitive. She would have had all three main battery turrets removed and replaced with a twin RIM-8 Talos missile launcher forward, two RIM-24 Tartar launchers aft, anti-submarine weapons, and equipment to handle helicopters. The cost of the project amounted to $120 million.  The ships remained laid up in Bremerton, Washington into the early 1960s; on 27 June 1961, Admiral Arleigh Burke, the Chief of Naval Operations, designated the four "South Dakota"-class battleships as eligible for disposal, and on 1 May 1962, Fred Korth, the Secretary of the Navy, recommended she be stricken from the Naval Vessel Register effective on 1 June. She was thereafter sold for scrap on 6 September 1963 and broken up.  Several parts of the ship have been preserved in her namesake state, including one of her anchors, which is on display at the Allen County War Memorial Coliseum in Fort Wayne, Indiana; her bell is at the Heslar Naval Armory in Indianapolis, Indiana; her wheel is at Shortridge High School, also in Indianapolis; and her main mast, prow, and a pair of anti-aircraft guns stand on display at Memorial Stadium of Indiana University. The mast and guns had been donated by the Navy in 1966, but her bow section had been kept in California until 2013 when it was moved to Indiana University. Twenty members of the ship's crew attended the dedication ceremony in September 2013. Some of the low-background steel that made up Indiana's hull was recycled to create the low background counting chamber at the in Vivo Radioassay and Research Facility (IVRRF) at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

USS "Indiana" (BB-58) was the second of four fast battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1930s. The first American battleships designed after the Washington treaty system began to break down in the mid-1930s, they took advantage of an escalator clause that allowed increasing the main battery to guns, but refusal to authorize larger battleships kept their displacement close to the Washington limit of. A requirement to be armored against the same caliber of guns as they carried, combined with the displacement restriction, resulted in cramped ships, a problem that was exacerbated as wartime modifications that considerably strengthened their anti-aircraft batteries significantly increased their crews.

L'USS "Indiana" est un cuirassé de classe South Dakota en service dans l"'US Navy" durant la seconde guerre mondiale. Il est lancé en 1941, armé en 1942 et sert jusqu'à la fin de la guerre dans le Pacifique. Désarmé en 1947 et placé dans la flotte de réserve, il est vendu pour démolition en 1963.


Cardinal electors.

The dynamic of the conclave was divided between the French Angevin cardinals, mostly created by Pope Urban IV, who were amenable to an invasion of Italy by Charles of Anjou, and the non-French (mostly Italian) cardinals whose numbers were just sufficient to prevent a French pope from being elected. Clement IV's crowning of Charles of Anjou as King of Naples and Sicily, previously a papal fief, had cemented the influence of the French monarchy in the Italian peninsula and created an intense division within the College of Cardinals between those who opposed and supported French influence, and by extension, ultramontanism. Conradin, the last ruler of the House of Hohenstaufen, had been beheaded in Naples just a month before the death of Clement IV.  At the death of Clement IV there were twenty cardinals in the Sacred College. One cardinal (Rodolphe of Albano) was absent throughout and died during the vacancy. The other nineteen cardinals participated in the election in 1269, but two died before the cardinals settled on a new pope. † denotes a cardinal elector who died during the election.

Parties in the College of Cardinals.

According to contemporary accounts in the "Annales Piacentines" the College of Cardinals was divided into adherents of Charles d'Anjou ("pars Caroli") and the Imperial party ("pars Imperii"), but the exact reconstruction of these parties is very difficult. It is almost certain that this account is inaccurate when it claims that "pars Caroli" had six (or seven, in another place in that account) members, including Giovanni Gaetano Orsini and Ottobono Fieschi, while "pars Imperii" had eleven (or ten) members, Riccardo Annibaldi, Ottaviano Ubaldini and Uberto Coconati among them. Certainly five cardinals, namely Ottobono Fieschi, Guillame de Bray, Anchero Pantaleone, Simon Monpitie de Brie and Odo of Châteauroux belonged to the Angevin faction. But if Giovanni Gaetano Orsini was really one of their leaders, then his relatives Matteo Orsini Rosso and Giacomo Savelli should also be added here, and since Henry of Segusio is also likely to have belonged to this faction, its true size would have amounted to nine cardinals. The imperial party, on the contrary, could not have had more than ten members, including two who had died during "sede vacante".  According to Sternfeld it is possible to identify not only two, but as many as four parties in the Sacred College, of which two were "pars Caroli" and "pars Imperii" in the strict sense, while the remaining two represented the factions inside the Roman aristocracy:  Nevertheless, it seems that these four parties actually formed two blocs in the election: Annibaldi joined "pars Imperii", while Orsini aligned himself with "pars Caroli".

Procedure.

The cardinals began the election by meeting and voting once a day in the Episcopal Palace in Viterbo, before returning to their respective residences; tradition dictated that the election should take place in the city where the previous pope died, if the late pontiff had died outside Rome. There is little reliable data about the candidates proposed during almost three years of deliberations; certainly cardinals Odo of Châteauroux, John of Toledo, Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, Ottaviano Ubaldini, Riccardo Annibadi and Ottobono Fieschi were counted among papabili. According to later accounts, not supported by the contemporary sources, after two months, the cardinals nearly elected Philip Benizi, general of the Servite Order, who had come to Viterbo to admonish the cardinals, but fled to prevent his election. Also the candidature of Saint Bonaventure had allegedly been proposed. Modern scholars treat these accounts with scepticism, considering them as products of invention of the hagiographers of these two saints. Charles of Anjou was in Viterbo for the entirety of the election; Philip III of France visited the city in March 1271.  In late 1269, after several months of deadlock during which the cardinals had met only intermittently, Ranieri Gatti, the Prefect of Viterbo, and Albertus de Montebono, the "Podesta", ordered (some sources say, at the urging of Saint Bonaventure) the cardinals sequestered in the Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo until a new pope was elected. On 8 June 1270, the cardinals addressed a Diploma to the two magistrates asking that Henry of Segusio, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, be dismissed from the ""Palatio discooperto"" ("the uncovered Palace") owing to his ill health and his having already renounced his right to vote. Some sources say that a makeshift roof was reassembled after the cardinals threatened to put the entire city of Viterbo under interdict.  According to the account of Onofrio Panvinio, Cardinal John of Toledo suggested that the roof be removed ("Let us uncover the Room, else the Holy Ghost will never get at us"—the first recorded reference to the notion that the Holy Spirit should guide cardinal electors), which the two magistrates readily obliged. Other sources say it was Charles of Anjou who orchestrated the reduction of the diet of the cardinals to bread and water and removal the roof of the Papal Palace.

The Committee.

Under pressure from Philip III of France and other rulers, on 1 September 1271, the cardinals agreed to cede their authority to a committee of six. The committee included two cardinals of the faction of Orsini (Giovanni Gaetano Orsini and Giacomo Savelli), three Ghibelines (Simone Paltinieri, Ottaviano Ubaldini and Guy de Castella) and Cardinal Riccardo Annibaldi, while Angevin cardinals seem to have been entirely marginalized.  The committee chose an Italian from Piacenza, Teobaldo Visconti, a non-cardinal, who was then in Acre with the retinue of Edward (the eldest-son of Henry III of England) as papal legate to the Ninth Crusade. Informed of his election, Visconti departed on 19 November 1271 and reached Viterbo on 12 February 1272, where he took the name Gregory X. He entered Rome on 13 March 1272 and was ordained a priest on 19 March 1272. He was consecrated a bishop and crowned on 27 March 1272 in St. Peter's Basilica. During the final leg of his journey, from Brindisi on 11 January 1272, Visconti was accompanied by Charles of Anjou.

Legacy.

The techniques employed against the dilatory cardinals in Viterbo formed the basis for the canon law of papal conclaves as laid out in the papal bull "Ubi periculum" of Pope Gregory X, promulgated during the Second Council of Lyon on 7 July 1274. Popular accounts of the conclave, as early as those of French historian Georges Goyau, neglect to mention the political intrigue of Charles I of Naples or his nephew, Philip III of France, as the masterminds of the hardships employed by the "citizens of Viterbo."  Designed both to accelerate future elections and reduce outside interference, the rules of "Ubi periculum" provide for the cardinal electors to be secluded for the entirety of the conclave, including having their meals passed through a small opening, and for their rations to be reduced to a single meal at the end of three days, or bread and water (with a little wine) after eight days. Cardinals also do not collect from the Apostolic Camera any payments they might otherwise receive during the conclave.  The stringent rules of "Ubi periculum" were used in the conclaves that elected Pope Innocent V (January 1276) and Pope Adrian V (July 1276), lasting one and nine days respectively. However, at the urgings of the College, the newly elected Adrian V suspended those rules on 12 July 1276—indicating that he wished to revise it—and died on 18 August without having promulgated a revised version.  Therefore, the election of Pope John XXI (August–September 1276) did not follow "Ubi periculum", and John XXI promulgated another bull, "Licet felicis recordationis", formally revoking "Ubi periculum". The next five papal elections—1277 (Pope Nicholas III), 1280—1281 (Pope Martin IV), 1285 (Pope Honorius IV), 1287—1288 (Pope Nicholas IV), and 1292—1294 (Pope Celestine V)—occurred "sans" conclave, often at great length. Celestine V, whose election took two years and three months, reinstated the conclave with a series of three decrees, and his successor, Pope Boniface VIII restored the conclave by his "Regulae Iuris".

The papal election of 1268–71 (from November 1268 to 1 September 1271), following the death of Pope Clement IV, was the longest papal election in the history of the Catholic Church. This was due primarily to political infighting between the cardinals. The election of Teobaldo Visconti as Pope Gregory X was the first example of a papal election by "compromise", that is, by the appointment of a committee of six cardinals agreed to by the other remaining ten. The election occurred more than a year after the magistrates of Viterbo locked the cardinals in, reduced their rations to bread and water, and removed the roof of the Palazzo dei Papi di Viterbo.

L’élection pontificale de 1268-1271 est celle par laquelle les cardinaux de l'Église catholique romaine élisent un pape à la succession de Clément IV (mort le 29 novembre 1268). Il s'agit de l'élection la plus longue de l'histoire de la papauté. La période de "sede vacante" dure en effet deux ans et huit mois, ou 1006 jours précisément, s'achevant le septembre 1271 par l'élection de Tebaldo Visconti qui prend le nom de Grégoire X. Cette longue élection allait provoquer une réforme de la tenue des élections, aboutissant aux procédures de conclave que nous connaissons aujourd'hui.


Background.

In January 2006, a sampler was released containing full versions of "Be Easy," "Back Like That," and "Kilo," as well as shortened versions of "Big Girl" and "Charlie Brown". It also included an alternate version of "The Champ". "Charlie Brown," which was produced by MF Doom, contained a sample from Caetano Veloso's "Alfomega" that did not ultimately receive clearance, and the song did not appear on the final album. Similarly, "The Champ" was not cleared and an altered version found its way on to the album.  J Dilla created his two productions for Ghostface, but also used them on his instrumental album "Donuts"; MF Doom's productions are taken from his "Special Herbs" series of albums.

Critical reception.

Upon its release, "Fishscale" received universal acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 88, based on 32 reviews. Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" called it a crack-trade "trend record that ranks with any Biggie or Wu CD". He found Ghostface Killah's stories to be as "vivid, brutal, and thought-out as any noir" and felt that the music features "a powerfully souled and sampled Clan-type groove" and a "screeching intensity" similar to Public Enemy's 1988 album "It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back". Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Raymond Fiore said that "he may not be reinventing himself with "Fishscale", but as a must-hear street storyteller, Ghostface Killah's still at the top of his game." Matt Barone from "XXL" wrote that, "with a few forced collaborations being its only flaw, "Fishscale" is Ghost’s most addictive dosage post "Supreme Clientele". Packed with vivid street tales, comic relief and straight spittin’, the album continues his standard of excellence."  Steve Jones from "USA Today" wrote that "Ghostface takes a timeworn hip-hop theme — dealing cocaine, and creates a riveting listening experience. He doesn't so much deliver rhymes as narrate graphically detailed scenes, rife with violence, passion and a little humor." AllMusic writer Andy Kellman wrote in his review "...Ghost responds by pouring all that he has, both lyrically and vocally, into every track on the album. The scenarios he recounts are as detailed and off-the-wall as ever, elaborate screenplays laid out with a vocal style that's ceaselessly fluid and never abrasive." In "Q", Ted Kessler wrote, "Rappers rarely improve with age, but Wu-Tang Clan veteran Ghostface is the exception... Whether Ghostface's explaining how to cook crack on 'Kilo', how he likes his hair cut on 'Barbershop', or how he came to swim with 'SpongeBob in a Bentley Coupe' on 'Underwater', he remains rap's finest storyteller." In his review for "The A.V. Club", Nathan Rabin wrote:

Accolades.

"Fishscale" was ranked as one of the best albums of the year by many famous publishers. It also appeared on several lists for best albums of the decade, with" Stylus Magazine" ranking it number eleven. "Uncut" ranked it number 62 on their 150 Best Albums of the 2000s, while "Pitchfork" ranked it number 75 on their Top 200 Albums of the 2000s, stating "History will remember "Fishscale" as Ghostface's "Magical Mystery Tour": an artist convinced of his own genius empties every chamber on a batshit, pseudo-conceptual headtrip." In 2009, Rhapsody ranked the album at number nine on its "Hip-Hop’s Best Albums of the Decade" list. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".

Fishscale is the fifth studio album by American rapper and Wu-Tang Clan member Ghostface Killah, released March 28, 2006 on Def Jam in the United States. The album features guest appearances from every member of the Wu-Tang Clan, as well as Ghostface Killah's Theodore Unit. It also features production from several acclaimed producers, such as MF Doom, Pete Rock, J Dilla, and Just Blaze, among others. The album follows an organized crime theme, and is named after a term for uncut cocaine.

FishScale est le cinquième album studio de Ghostface Killah, sorti le. L'album s'est classé au Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, au Billboard 200 et au Top Internet Albums.


Origin.

He was the sixth son of Lý Anh Tông. His mother was Đỗ Thụy Châu who later became Empress Dowager Đỗ. He was born Lý Long Cán (or Trát) on May 25, 1173 according to the Eastern calendar. He was enthroned when he was very young, at the age of three, as one of the youngest Emperors in Vietnam's history. Prior to this, his predecessor Emperor Lý Anh Tông disposed the former Crown Prince Long Xưởng and replaced Prince Cán with this title. Tô Hiến Thành was trusted to become the regent to help the young Emperor run the court and administer his nation. It is often noted that his age and inexperience proved to be a minimal disadvantage in his ability to govern.

Regent Tô Hiến Thành.

Tô Hiến Thành was considered a talent and competent official when he was conferred the title Regent. After the death of Anh Tông, his uppermost consort (now became Empress Dowager Chiêu Linh) wanted to dethrone her son Long Xưởng, who was the former Crown Prince. But thanks to Tô Hiến Thành's peremptoriness, Cán eventually became the successor of the throne.  Tô Hiến Thành fell ill not long after. At death's door, he recommended Empress Dowager Đỗ an official named Trần Trung Tá. She said a good word for his recommendation but it was merely something to please the dying people. After he died in 1179, she chose Đỗ An Di to become the Regent for her son.  In 1181, Lý Long Xưởng led his army in a mutiny and looted the capital. One year later, Empress Dowager Đỗ appointed Lý Kính Tu to teach her son. He was a capable official tutoring the young emperor in literature and morality. Thereafter, Empress Dowager Chiêu Linh and his son gave up the plot to mutiny.

Epicurean Emperor.

The Emperor was meek and lenient while young, but after he grew and directly administered his reign, he became more and more cruel and sent the nation into turmoil. He loved to hunt and built himself large palaces at his people's expense. The codes and rules of his reign were obscure and immoral, leading the people to conflict with the local administration and rebel from the injustice and drudgery. At worst, they devastated buildings and looted villages.  In March 1189, Cao Tông took a trip around the nation and built pagoda or temples wherever a deity or spirit was said to reside. Nine years later, he built Nghênh Thiềm palace. The apex of his indulgence was in 1203, when he had numerous palaces built. By 1208, there were multiple famines and many people died of starvation. Despite the state of his country, the Emperor continued to indulge in pleasure and personal building projects.  An official named Cao Đường Long observed a strange-bird nesting on the roof of the unfinished palace Kính Thiên (means Respecting the Heaven) and predicted that a new and more powerful dynasty would soon supersede the current dynasty. He advised the Emperor to stop the injurious building projects, but the Emperor ignored him and instead listened to a eunuch named Phạm Bỉnh Di. The Emperor also ignored the looting and robberies outside the citadel.

Turbulent era.

Some rebellions.

At that time, the affairs of the state were abandoned. Civil belief was replaced by disgust. Many revolts and secessions exploded amongst the peasantry and small local nobles. The court tried to suppress the rebellions, but it was to no actual effect.  In 1192, the civilians from Cổ Hoằng, Thanh Hóa rioted. The rebellions of Câu Diễn and Đinh Khả followed in 1198, who professed to be the descendants of Đinh Tiên Hoàng.  In August 1203, the king of Champa, Vidyanandana, entered Cửa Lò seeking asylum from a Khmer invasion. Vidyanandana killed the governor of Nghệ An, Pham Gieng. Vidyanandana then fled, never to be heard from again.  There was a potent force rebelling in September 1203 under the leading of two people from Đại Hoàng River. Many years ago they had accused Đàm Dĩ Mông of bleeding monetary and civil property. They used the turbulent society and lack of a central power to establish a force to oppose the court. All generals sent to suppress them failed. The first generals were Trần Lệnh Hinh and Từ Anh Nhữ, a minister, who were both killed, and the last general was Đỗ Kính Tu.  In 1207, in the mountainous area of Tản Viên ( now Hà Tây ) there has a revolt of some minorities, which was quite prestigious.  In addition to the internal conflict and constant hunger during this time, the Song Dynasty invaded with their Northern Army and the Vietnamese living in the areas tried to flee.

The shifty official Phạm Du.

March 1207, two squires in Hồng Châu area ( now Hải Dương and Hải Phòng) Đoàn Thượng and Đoàn Chủ rioted, built fortifications, and conferred the title Lord on themselves. Cao Tông dispatched a great number of soldiers, dividing them on some corps to conquest the rebellion. There were 4 main corps from 4 directions: the Đại Thông corps of Đàm Dĩ Mông, the Khả Liễu corps of Phạm Bỉnh Di, the Phù Đái corps of Trần Hinh, the Nam Sách corps of Bảo Trinh; they all would assemble to suppress Đoàn Thượng's army. Recognizing that confronting Du with such a large army would kill them all, Thượng bribed Du with costly furniture and willingly followed him, establishing a coalition between Du and Thượng. Thanks to Du's efforts to implore Cao Tông for forgiving Thượng, Thượng saved his neck.  Du went to Nghệ An to manage the army in 1209. This province underwent a catastrophic starvation whereby a large number of people died of hunger. The survivors left their homes and wandered, penniless. Most of them became beggars. Hence Phạm Du told the king that: "The society now is chaotic, and the pillaging and the rebellions are uncontrolled. Please allow me to recruit soldier for establishing a self-defense army..."  Cao Tông agreed with him. Du recruited the local people to blockade the transport system, both on land and water. Cao Tông identified his army as rebellious and sent Phạm Bỉnh Di with an army from Đằng Châu Hưng Yên to conquer him. Du retreated to Cổ Miệt and united with the army of Đòan Thương and Đoàn Chủ from Hồng Châu. Pham Bỉnh Di was defeated in Đằng Châu. In February 1209, Bỉnh Di fought again with an army from Đằng Châu and Khoái Châu and defeated Du, who fled in retreat. He confiscated all of Du's property and set it on fire.  Đoàn Thượng's army was overthrown in April 1209. Phạm Du bribed high-ranking officials in the capital and accused Bỉnh Di of a ferocious massacre. Cao Tông allowed Trần Hinh to convoke Phạm Du to come to the court and also called Bỉnh Di back. Phạm Du returned to the capital first and told the king false rumors about Bỉnh Di. When Bỉnh Di arrived, Cao Tông sent both him and his son to prison.

General Quách Bốc.

After being told of Bỉnh Di's imprisonment, one of his subordinates named Quách Bốc led his army to the Đại Thanh Gate of the citadel and overthrew it to save *.. Phạm Du and Phạm Kinh killed Bỉnh Di and his son and then escaped the citadel with Cao Tông.  Quách Bốc occupied the citadel and enthroned the young prince Lý Thầm. Cao Tông fled to Tam Nông, Phú Thọ and lodged at the residence of Hà Vạn, who was a minority leader holding a substantial force. The Crown Prince Sảm, who later became the succeeding king Lý Huệ Tông, fled to Hải Ấp, Thái Bình with his mother, Noble Consort Đoàn and his two younger sisters. Sảm stayed at the residence of Trần Lý and married his daughter Trần Thị Dung. Then he conferred the title Minh Tự on Trần Lý, and the title Commander of Anterior Citadel on Trần Lý's brother-in-law Tô Trung Từ. Lý Thái Tổ also held the title of Commander of the Anterior Citadel during the time he was an official of the Anterior Lê Dynasty ). They recruited soldiers from the surrounding area and fought against Quách Bốc.  When that Lý Sảm established his own court and arbitrarily conferred titles, Cao Tông sought to suppress his military power. He sent Phạm Du to associate with Đoàn Thượng, but Du missed the meeting with Đoàn Thượng because he spent time with the Princess Thiên Cực. Du was killed by the army of the landlord of Bắc Giang when crossing over Ma Lãng to go to another meeting.  Trần Lý and Tô Trung Từ led their army to the capital to defeat Quách Bốc. At the end of 1209, they suppressed the rebellion Cao Tông was once again king. Trần Lý died in battle. Because Phạm Du was dead and Tô Trung Từ held the most power in the court, Cao Tông was forced to work with him. Even though Đàm Dĩ Mông worked with the rebel Quách Bốc when he occupied the citadel, he became the Thái úy – a rather high official.  There is no document confirming how Quách Bốc and Lý Thầm died.

The ending of the reign and some comments.

October 28, 1210, Cao Tông died at the age of 38 at Thánh Thọ palace. The affairs of the court were committed to Đỗ Kính Tu who became the Regent. The Crown Prince Sảm acceded to the throne and became the Emperor Lý Huệ Tông. The society was more and more turbulent. Ten years later the Lý Dynasty was replaced by the Trần Dynasty  Historians criticize Cao Tông about his incompetence leading to the Lý Dynasty being lost. There were some comments given by Vietnamese ancient historians:  Lê Văn Hưu (1230–1322), a historian of the next generation, criticized Lý Cao Tông for presuming himself to be a Buddha.

Lý Cao Tông (1176–1210), born Lý Long Trát, courtesy name Long Cán, was the seventh emperor of the Lý dynasty, ruling for 35 years. Some consider his reign to begin the fall into decay of the Lý Dynasty because of his erroneous determinations. However, many historians agree that he had an important influence in Vietnamese history.

Lý Cao Tông, né sous le nom Lý Long Trát en 1173 et mort en 1210, est l'empereur du Đại Việt (ancêtre du Viêt Nam) de 1175 à 1210 et le septième représentant de la dynastie Lý.


Plot.

In 786 AD, three large Viking ships land in England. King Harald (Folco Lulli), the only Viking chieftain interested in maintaining peace, makes a plea to King Loter (Franco Ressel). The English king sends Sir Rutford (Andrea Checchi) to work out a deal with the Vikings. Rutford stages a surprise attack on the Vikings. King Harald is felled by an arrow fired by Rutford's chief assassin. During the battle, Harold's two young sons, Erik and Eron, are whisked away by one of his chiefs. Eron is rescued but Erik is left behind in the chaos.  Later, King Loter arrives on the scene, where he threatens to strip Rutford of his title. Rutford retaliates by having his assassin kill Loter with an arrow. Loter's wife, Queen Alice (Françoise Christophe), runs away and after finding Erik hiding on the beach decides to raise him as her own son.  20 years later, the Vikings once again wage war against England. The adult Eron (Cameron Mitchell ), has fallen in love with a vestal virgin named Daya (Ellen Kessler), the identical twin sister of the vestal Rama (Alice Kessler). They hide their love out of fear of being executed. Eron tells Daya that a king is permitted to marry a vestal. Viking leader King Olaf (Jean-Jacques Delbo) makes a pact with the kingdoms of Iceland, Norway, and Sweden to invade England once again. Due to his age, Olaf appoints a younger to lead the attack. Olaf chooses Eron but his choice is contested by Garian (Joe Robinson). Garian wishes to be elected leader, and a vote by 100 warriors is taken. Olaf declares that they will have to fight to the death. Eron is victorious but refuses to kill his opponent, asking Garian to serve as his right-hand man.  In England, the adult Erik (Giorgio Ardisson) is appointed Duke of Helford and leader of the English sea forces, replacing Sir Rutford. Rutford plants an agent on board to set fire to Erik's ship while at sea.  The Viking and English fleets meet in the North Sea and a sea battle begins. Vikings board Erik's flagship just as the agent sets fire to it. In the battle, Erik and Eron meet and engage in a sword fight. Erik's ship catches fire. Erik jumps overboard and later washes ashore in Viking land. He is found by Rama. Rama points Erik in the direction of a local fishing village, where he is accepted by the Vikings as a shipwrecked fisherman.  Back in England, Sir Rutford proposes marriage to the queen, who rebuffs him. Eron and his men arrive. Eron then appoints Rutford as Regent and takes Queen Alice as a hostage back to Viking land. There, Rama is assigned to look after Queen Alice. Rama notices that the queen also wears a cross and mentions this to Erik. Demanding to know the prisoner's name, Erik is shocked to find that it's his'mother'.  The next day, Eron and Daya are to be married. As Erik watches the wedding ceremony, he mistakenly believes that it is Rama who is being married. Enraged by this imagined 'affront', Erik confronts Daya, who doesn't know him. Erik is then locked away by King Olaf to be executed the following morning.  Rama drugs Erik's guards, explains to him that the woman he saw married was her twin sister, and cuts him free. While they flee, Eron and a horde of Vikings give pursuit. Eron nearly falls to his death but Erik, urged by Rama, rescues him from certain death. Eron continues to pursue them but Erik and Rama meet up with Queen Alice and they safely sail to England.  Erik gathers a combined English-Scottish force to attack Rutford's castle but finds that Eron and the Vikings have arrived before him. Erik challenges Eron to a duel. Eron accepts, leaving Daya in Rutford's care. In the ensuing sword fight, Eron catches sight of the tattoo on Erik's chest and recognises him as his brother. He declares a ceasefire, upsetting Rutford, who responds by having his henchman fire an arrow at Erik. Eron throws himself in the path of the arrow and is fatally wounded. The enraged Vikings attempt to storm the castle, but Rutford raises the drawbridge and threatens to kill Daya by the next morning if the Vikings do not disband.  As Eron lies dying, he names Erik as his successor. Becoming more and more delirious, he asks to see Daya one last time. Erik determines to do this by breaking her out of the castle. Erik scales the castle wall. Meanwhile, Rama realizes that the dying Eron will not last much longer and poses as her sister to him. Eron is oblivious to the deception and, upon declaring his love for her, finally dies.  Erik makes his way into the castle, where he rescues Daya. At dawn, the combined Viking, English and Scottish armies attack the castle, scaling the walls and slaughtering the defenders. All of Rutford's men are killed, with Rutford himself being the last to fall when he attempts to throw a spear at the escaping Eron but is pierced with at least a dozen Viking arrows.  With peace restored, Queen Alice reclaims her throne and allows Erik to leave England to claim his title as King of the Vikings. Erik returns to Viking land with Rama, while Daya sails alone with the dead Eron.

Production.

"Erik the Conqueror" was shot in Rome's Titanus Studios.

Release.

"Erik the Conqueror" was released theatrically in Italy on 7 December 1961 with a 98 minute running time. It was released in the United States on 12 June 1963 with an 81 minute running time.

Reception.

In a contemporary review, reviewing an English-dubbed 88 minutes version, the "Monthly Film Bulletin" stated that the film is "enhanced by Mario Bava's luridly filtered photography and fluid camera technique, and his effortlessly eclectic direction" The review concluded that apart from the soundtrack which was described as "shattering", the technical credits were "above average, as is some of the acting", specifically pointing out Giorgio Ardisson and Andrea Checchi.  Due to the "effective" acting of Cameron Mitchell and the "full-sized Viking ships" this film has been named the best Viking picture made in Italy.

Erik the Conqueror (, lit. "The invaders") is a 1961 Italian-French epic swashbuckling film directed by Mario Bava and starring George Ardisson and Cameron Mitchell as long-lost Viking brothers in the 9th century, one of whom is raised in England, the other in Scandinavia. They finally meet after almost 20 years, as rivals on opposite sides of an English–Viking war. It is a loose remake of the American film "The Vikings".

La Ruée des Vikings (titre italien : "Gli invasori") est un film franco-italien réalisé par Mario Bava, sorti en 1961.


Early life and career.

Silayev was born on 21 October 1930 in Baktyzino, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, and graduated from the Kazan Aviation Institute in 1954 as a mechanical engineer. In 1959 Silayev became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). During his tenure at the Gorky Aviation Plant (Gorky is now Nizhny Novgorod), where he started in 1954, he advanced from the lowest level to become the plant's foreman from 1971 to 1974. Silayev then served as Deputy Minister of Aviation Industry, and was later appointed Minister of Aviation Industry in 1981 in Nikolai Tikhonov's first government. He served briefly as Minister of Machine-Tool and Tool Building Industry of the Soviet Union from 1980 to 1981. At the 26th Congress Silayev was elected to the Central Committee (CPSU). In 1985, during Mikhail Gorbachev's rule, Silayev was appointed deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers and chairman of the Machine-Building Bureau of the Council of Ministers in Nikolai Ryzhkov's first and second government. He served in these posts until he was appointed Premier of the Russian SFSR in 1990.

Russian premiership.

Appointment.

The election of a Chairman of the Council of Ministers – Government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), literally Premier of the Russian SFSR, was not considered a very important event; the Premier was elected following the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, the Supreme Soviet's deputy chairman, and after a debate on Russian agriculture. Boris Yeltsin, the chairman of the Russian SFSR Supreme Soviet, was ordered to select candidates for the post of Premier to the Supreme Soviet. Mikhail Bocharov, a successful businessman and leader of the cooperative movement, rector of the Moscow Aviation Institute Yuri Ryzhkov, and Silayev were chosen as the candidates. Ryzhkov withdrew his candidacy before the first round of voting was finished. During the election Bocharov revealed his radical economic reform plan to the Supreme Soviet deputies; in it industry would be privatised, and subsidies to unprofitable enterprises would cease in a 100 Days reform package. Silayev did not have any similar economic reform plans, but was widely considered to be Yeltsin's favourite for the post.  In the first round of voting Silayev earned 119 votes, while Bocharov earned 86 votes. To be elected to the post, a candidate needed to win over half of the vote; neither Silayev or Bocharov succeeded in this. Seeing that Silayev was Yeltsin's favourite, and had won more votes than Bocharov, Silayev ran unchallenged in the second election round, and was thus elected by a large margin.  Gorbachev tried to break the Silayev–Yeltsin alliance but to no avail. In 1989, Valentin Pavlov, the Prime Minister of the Soviet Union from 14 January to 28 August 1991, had gathered together enough information on the errors and omissions of Silayev to weaken his position as Deputy Premier. Silayev never forgave Pavlov and relations between the two grew colder when Pavlov became the Prime Minister.

Silayev's government.

Silayev repeatedly opined that if he ever was given conflicting instructions by the Premier of the Soviet Union and Yeltsin, he would always "observe the laws of the RSFSR", meaning he would obey Yeltsin. During his tenure as Premier, Silayev was never the "de facto" leader of the government cabinet, and was loyal to Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet. In contrast to his predecessor, Aleksandr Vlasov, Silayev tried to modernise the Russian Government. Silayev decided to break with the old Soviet nomenklatura system of electing cabinet members by electing members using an "objective" and "scientific" basis. To accomplish this, Silayev asked professional psychologists to interview candidate cabinet members. Only 14 of the 200 cabinet candidates were recommended for a post in the government cabinet; even so, several of the candidates were given a post in the new government. All candidate members were selected by either Silayev, Yeltsin, or the Supreme Soviet.  Silayev's government lacked ideological unity, and several conservative members were elected to the cabinet in July 1990, among them Oleg Lobov and Gennadii Kulik. In November 1990 Grigory Yavlinsky resigned from his cabinet post, citing the failure of the 500 Days Programme. However, some commentators believe Yavlinsky resigned because of frequent conflict between him and other cabinet members. RSFSR Minister of Finance Boris Fyodorov resigned on 5 December 1990, and accused the First Deputy Premiers of taking important financial decisions on behalf of the ministry and him as minister behind his back. Lobov, the First Deputy Premier in charge of regional development, had become a "de facto" leader of the cabinet. Lobov was Yeltsin's favourite, and tried to weaken Silayev's position within the cabinet. With the consent of the Supreme Soviet Silayev established a 16-member Presidium for the cabinet.  Another problem facing Silayev was that the Supreme Soviet was usurping the power of the executive branch by strengthening the legislative branch. To accomplish this the Supreme Soviet established duplicated entities, such as the Committee for Mass Media, which duplicated the functions of the Ministry of Mass Media. Viktor Kisin, the Minister of Industry, told the press that the only employee of his ministry was in fact himself. In July 1990 Silayev agreed to create parallel executive-legislative administrative bodies.  In December 1990 the Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian SFSR entrusted Silayev and his government to create a new plan for economic reform. The plan was finished in April 1991, and was referred to as the "Yeltsin–Silayev Plan". The plan was heavily influenced by the 500 Days Programme, and supported privatisation and the marketisation of the economy. The reform plan was criticised by an official from the State Committee on Economic Reform of the central government; he called the plan "a statement of intents"; instead of an economic reform, he called it a "manifesto". A Supreme Soviet deputy noted the proposed reform lacked real statistical insight. Even so, the proposed reform received a majority in a Supreme Soviet vote; Yeltsin's supporters knew that his economic reform proposal had to be accepted before the July presidential election. Following the July presidential election the Russian government resigned, and the post of premier was once again up for election. Silayev had strong competitors for the post, such as Yurii Skokov, but won the election.

Soviet premiership.

The State Committee for the State of Emergency failed to arrest Silayev or any other high-standing Russian state officials during the August Coup. Silayev was one of several leading Russian SFSR politicians who flew to Gorbachev's summer house in the immediate aftermath of the failed coup. On 24 August the Russian SFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree transferring central government authority over economic and communications ministries to the RSFSR Government, and took control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and KGB archives. With the central government's authority greatly weakened, Gorbachev established a four-man committee, led by Silayev, that included Grigory Yavlinsky, Arkady Volsky, and Yuri Luzhkov, to elect a new Cabinet of Ministers. This committee was later transformed into the Committee on the Operational Management of the Soviet economy (COMSE), also chaired by Silayev, to manage the Soviet economy. COMSE was quickly surpassed in authority by the Interstate Economic Committee (IEC), also officially known as the Economic Community, which was established on 20 September under the name Inter-Republican Economic Committee. Its function was to coordinate economic policy across the Soviet Union. As Chairman of both COMSE and the IEC, Silayev presided over a quickly disintegrating Soviet Union. On 6 September 1991 a presidential decree temporarily gave the IEC the same authority as the Cabinet of Ministers, and Silayev became the Soviet Union's "de facto" Premier.  When he first took office, Silayev wanted to reduce the powers of the central government and give more powers to the Soviet Republics. This view changed; he demanded that Yeltsin give back much of the authority of the central government which he had usurped following the August Coup. In this he failed, and his position as Russian SFSR Premier was severely weakened as a result. Oleg Lobov, Silayev's First Deputy Premier, led the anti-Silayev faction in the Russian SFSR Council of Ministers and managed to oust him on 26 September 1991; Lobov succeeded Silayev as acting Premier of the Russian SFSR. Silayev, as overseer of the economy, was given the task of initiating economic reforms in the Soviet Union in a way that suited both the central government and the Soviet republics. Silayev tried to maintain an integrated economy while initiating the marketisation of the economy. On 19 December COMSE was dissolved by a presidential Russian SFSR decree, and on 26 December 1991 Silayev resigned from his post as IEC Chairman.

Post-Soviet Russia.

On 18 December 1991 Silayev became the Permanent Representative of Russia to the European Community in Brussels; he resigned from this post on 7 February 1994. In late 1994 Silayev became the President of the Machine-Building Association of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which consisted of more than a hundred civilian and military enterprises and associations, mostly of Russian origin. He became a member of the Ecological Movement "Cedar" in 1995. Since 1998, he has been President of Industrial Machine, an industrial and financial group; he has simultaneously headed the National Committee, which promotes economic cooperation with Latin America. On 26 September 2002 Silayev became Chairman of the Russian Union of Mechanical Engineers. His wife died on 18 March 2006. During the 2007 legislative election Silayev ran as a candidate for the Agrarian Party, but failed to get elected.

Recognition.

Silayev has been awarded an Order of Lenin on two different occasions—one in 1971, and another during a closed session of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1975, when he was also awarded a Hero of Socialist Labour. He was awarded a Lenin Prize in 1972. In 1981 he was awarded the Order of the October Revolution and in 2002 the National Prize of Peter the Great. On 19 October 2000 and on 21 October 2005 Silayev was awarded the Diploma of the Government of the Russian Federation.

Ivan Stepanovich Silayev (; born 21 October 1930) is a former Soviet and Russian politician. He served as Prime Minister of the Soviet Union through the offices of chairman of the Interstate Economic Committee and chairman of the Committee on the Operational Management of the Soviet economy from 24 August to 26 December 1991. Responsible for overseeing the economy of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev Era, he was the last head of government of the Soviet Union.

Ivan Stepanovich Silaïev (russe: Ива́н Степа́нович Сила́ев) né le à Bakhtyzino, Oblast de Nijni Novgorod, est un homme d'État soviétique. Il est du au le dernier premier ministre de l’Union soviétique. Il est également vice-président du conseil des ministres de l'URSS de novembre 1985 à juillet 1990 et président du Conseil des ministres de la RSFS de Russie de 1990 à 1991.


Early life.

The ancestors of the Trần clan originated from the province of Fujian before they migrated under Trần Kính (陳京, Chén Jīng) to Đại Việt.  Trần Thái Tông's given name was "Trần Cảnh" (陳煚). He was born in 1218 during the last years of the Lý Dynasty. Trần Thủ Độ, his uncle, prepared the way for his marriage to Queen Lý Chiêu Hoàng, the last queen of the Lý Dynasty, who later abdicated to make him the founder of the Trần Dynasty in 1226.  His progress to the throne in particular and the replacement of the Trần Dynasty over the Lý Dynasty in general were mostly thanks to the efforts of Trần Thủ Độ, Trần Cảnh's uncle. At that time, Trần Thủ Độ was the front commander of citadels of the Lý Dynasty. Trần Cảnh's father, Trần Thừa, was also an official under the Lý Dynasty, like Trần Thủ Độ. He had been "Nội thị khán thủ", one of the most important officials in the Lý Dynasty.

Reign.

During his reign Trần Thái Tông used three era names: Kiến Trung (1225–1232), Thiên Ứng Chính Bình (1232–1250) and Nguyên Phong (1251–1258).  In the autumn of 1257, Mongol general Uriyangkhadai addressed three letters to Trần demanding passage through to southern China in order to attack the Song dynasty. After the three successive envoys were imprisoned in the capital Thang Long (modern-day Hanoi) of Dai Viet, Uriyangkhadai invaded Dai Viet. A battle was fought in which the Vietnamese used war elephants: their Emperor even led his army from atop an elephant. Aju ordered his troops to fire arrows at the elephants' feet. The animals turned in panic and caused disorder in the Đại Việt army, which was routed. The Dai Viet senior leaders were able to escape on pre-prepared boats while part of their army was destroyed at No Nguyen (modern Viet Tri on the Hong River). The remainder of the Dai Viet army again suffered a major defeat in a fierce battle at the Phu Lo bridge the day after. This led the Tran leadership to evacuate the capital. The Dai Viet annals report that the evacuation was "in an orderly manner;" however this is viewed as a embellishment because the Dai Viet must have retreated in disarray to leave their weapons behind in the capital. While Chinese source material incorrectly stated that Uriyangkhadai withdrew from Vietnam due to poor climate, Uriyangkhadai left Thang Long after nine days to invade the Song dynasty. After the Mongol departure, Trần agreed to send tribute every 3 years to the court of the Mongol Empire.  Learned in both Confucianism and Buddhism, he ruled the country wisely and authored several profound works on Buddhism, the most famous of which is Khoa Hu Luc (Instructions on Emptiness), a Zen manual. A prodigious writer, he left behind a substantial number of works, of which only a small number survive.  A boy student was given money in exchange for becoming a eunuch by Tran Canh in 1254 since many men castrated themselves to become eunuchs during the Tran and Ly dynasties.  In 1258 he abdicated the throne in favor of his son, crown prince Trần Hoảng.

Family.

There is nothing that gives reference to exactly how many children he had, but it is known that he had children by the name of Trần Trịnh (died prematurely), Tĩnh Quốc Vương Trần Quốc Khang, Trần Hoảng, Chiêu Minh Vương Trần Quang Khải, Trần Nhật Vĩnh, Chiêu Quốc Vương Trần Ích Tắc, Chiêu Văn Vương Trần Nhật Duật, Chiêu Đạo Vương Trần Quang Xưởng, princesses Thiên Thành (wife of Hưng đạo Vương Trần Quốc Tuấn), Thiều Dương, Thuỵ Bảo, An Tư.

Relation with Trần Liễu.

Trần Liễu was Trần Thái Tông's elder brother. In 1237, Trần Thái Tông and Empress Chiêu Thành still did not have any son to maintain the continuation of his dynasty, due to Trần Trịnh's premature death.  At that time, Princess Thuận Thiên, Trần Liễu's wife, had been pregnant with Quốc Khang for 3 months. Trần Thủ Độ and his wife princess Thiên Cực advised the emperor to arrogate the pregnancy to himself to maintain the continuity of the dynasty. Taking their advice, the emperor gave injunction to appoint princess Thuận Thiên the status of empress, and demote Chiêu Hoàng to princess. In response, Trần Liễu took his army to Cai River to rebel.  This incident embarrassed Trần Thái Tông and he left the capital for Yên Tử mountain. Only after taking advice from the Buddhist priests Trần Thủ Độ and Phù Vân, did he return to the capital. Two weeks later, Trần Liễu surrendered. Trần Thủ Độ intended to behead him, but Trần Thái Tông intervened by covering him with his body, so that Trần Thủ Độ could not do anything. Afterwards, he gave him his territory, consisting of Yên Phụ, Yên Dưỡng, Yên Sinh, Yên Hưng, and Yên Bang.  Due to the name of his territory, Liễu is also called "Yên Sinh Vương."

Trần Thái Tông (birth name: Trần Cảnh, 17 July 1218 – 5 May 1277) was the first emperor of the Trần Dynasty, seated on the throne for 33 years (1226–58), being Grand Emperor for 19 years. He reigned during the first Mongol invasion of Vietnam before eventually abdicating in favor of his son Trần Thánh Tông in 1258.

Trần Thái Tông, né sous le nom Trần Cảnh en 1218 et mort en 1277, est l'empereur du Đại Việt (État prédécesseur du Viêt Nam) de 1226 à 1258. Il est le premier empereur de la dynastie Trần qui succède à la dynastie Lý. Son dernier descendant Lý Huệ Tông avait mené une vie dissolue, s'adonnant à la boisson, négligeant ses affaires et laissant le champ libre aux intrigues de ses courtisans tel le funeste Trần Thủ Độ qui trouva le moyen de placer son neveu Trần Cảnh sur le trône.


Life and career.

Chisholm graduated from Brown University in 1938 and received his Ph.D. at Harvard University in 1942 under Clarence Irving Lewis and D. C. Williams. He was drafted into the United States Army in July 1942 and did basic training at Fort McClellan in Alabama. Chisholm administered psychological tests in Boston and New Haven. In 1943 he married Eleanor Parker, whom he had met as an undergraduate at Brown. He spent his academic career at Brown University and served as president of the Metaphysical Society of America in 1973.  Chisholm trained many distinguished philosophers, including Selmer Bringsjord, Fred Feldman, Keith Lehrer, James Francis Ross, Richard Taylor, and Dean Zimmerman. He also had a significant influence on many colleagues, including Jaegwon Kim and Ernest Sosa.

Philosophical work.

Chisholm's first major work was "Perceiving" (1957). His epistemological views were summed up in a popular text, "Theory of Knowledge", which appeared in three very different editions (1966, 1977, and 1989). His masterwork was "Person and Object", its title deliberately contrasting with W. V. O. Quine's "Word and Object". Chisholm was a metaphysical Platonist in the tradition of Bertrand Russell, and a rationalist in the tradition of Russell, G. E. Moore, and Franz Brentano; he objected to Quine's anti-realism, behaviorism, and relativism.  Chisholm defended the possibility of empirical knowledge by appeal to "a priori" epistemic principles whose consequences include that it is more reasonable to trust your senses and memory in most situations than to doubt them. His theory of knowledge was also famously "foundationalist" in character: all justified beliefs are either "directly evident" or supported by chains of justified beliefs that ultimately lead to beliefs that are directly evident. He also defended a controversial theory of volition called "agent causation" much like that of Thomas Reid. He argued that free will is incompatible with determinism, and believed that we do act freely; this combination of views is known as libertarianism. He developed a highly original theory of first person thought according to which the things we believe are properties, and believing them is a matter of self-attributing them. (A similar view was developed independently by David Kellogg Lewis, and enjoys considerable popularity, although it is now known mainly through Lewis's work.) Chisholm was also famous for defending the possibility of robust self-knowledge (against the skeptical arguments of David Hume), and an objective ethics of requirements similar to that of W. D. Ross. Chisholm's other books include "The Problem of the Criterion", "Perceiving", "The First Person" and "A Realist Theory of the Categories", though his numerous journal articles are probably better known than any of these.  Chisholm read widely in the history of philosophy, and frequently referred to the work of Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and even Continental philosophers (although the use he made of this material has sometimes been challenged). Nonetheless, he greatly respected the history of philosophy, in the face of a prevailing indifference among analytic philosophers. Chisholm translated some work by Brentano and by Husserl, and contributed to the post-1970 renaissance of mereology.

Direct attribution theory of reference.

Chisholm argued for the primacy of the mental over linguistic intentionality, as suggested in the title of "Person and Object" (1976) that was deliberately contrasted with Quine's "Word and Object" (1960). In this regard, he defended the direct attribution theory of reference in "The First Person" (1981). He argues that we refer to things other than ourselves by indirectly attributing properties to them, and that we indirectly or relatively attribute properties to them by directly attributing properties to ourselves. Suppose the following bed scene:  If I were M and "U" were W, then I could directly attribute to myself the property (1) or M-B-W, while indirectly to "U" the property (2) or W-B-M, "thereby referring to "U"". That is, to say (1) is "relatively" to say (2), or to explicate M-B-W is to implicate W-B-M.  His idea of indirect attribution (1981) is relevant to John Searle's "indirect speech act" (1975) and Paul Grice's "implicature" (1975), in addition to entailment.

"Chisholming".

Stylistically, Chisholm was known for formulating definitions and subsequently revising them in the light of counterexamples. This led to a joke definition of a new verb:  While intended as a joke, the term has found some use in serious philosophical papers (for example, Kevin Meeker's "Chisholming away at Plantinga's critique of epistemic deontology").

Roderick Milton Chisholm (; November 27, 1916 – January 19, 1999) was an American philosopher known for his work on epistemology, metaphysics, free will, value theory, and the philosophy of perception.

Roderick Milton Chisholm (né le et mort le ) est un philosophe américain connu pour ses travaux en théorie de la connaissance et en métaphysique.


Terms.

Based on the terms of the treaty, Austria agreed to restore all conquered territories to the Ottoman Empire. Moreover, Austria agreed to grant the Belgians both amnesty and their old constitution. The Prussian statesman, Count Ewald Friedrich of Hertzberg, managed to insert a clause whereby Austria would be able to make small acquisitions of Ottoman territory. However, Austria must first receive permission from the Sublime Porte and must also allow Prussia to acquire an equivalent amount of Ottoman territory. Even though Austria had to relinquish its conquered territories to the Ottoman Empire, it was allowed to retain its garrison in Chotin. Moreover, the accord guaranteed protection of the Bosnian frontier. In return for these concessions, Prussia made herself responsible for several stipulated compensations. In another aspect of the treaty, Austria was not allowed to overtly or covertly support Russia in its campaigns against the Sublime Porte.

Results.

Due to Leopold's diplomatic skill and sense of moderation, Austria attained a diplomatic victory through the treaty. In other words, the Treaty of Reichenbach helped to strengthen the level of respect Leopold received from foreign powers. Moreover, the accord helped Austria to focus on establishing peace within its own territories. Prussia, on the other hand, was forced to abandon its plans for expansion, as well as any attempts to acquire strategic benefits from Austria's losses. The Treaty of Reichenbach is seen by historians as a significant marker representing a Prussian retreat from the policies of Frederick the Great, as well as the beginning of Prussia's decline that found its nadir at the Battle of Jena.

The Treaty of Reichenbach was signed on July 27, 1790 in Reichenbach (present-day Dzierżoniów) between Prussia under King Frederick William II and Austria under Leopold II, who was also Holy Roman Emperor. The two countries tried to settle their differences, specifically Leopold attempted to be conciliatory toward Prussia, as Austria and Russia had recently made gains against the Ottoman Empire.

En juin-, le congrès de Reichenbach réuni l'Angleterre, la Prusse, la Russie et les Provinces-Unies, qui proposent à l'Autriche, contre l'accord d'une paix séparée avec la Turquie, de l'aider à soumettre les Belges révoltés.


Plot.

Sang-man (Cha Tae-hyun) attempts to commit suicide by overdosing on pills, but fails. He then attempts to kill himself by jumping off a bridge and into a river, but is saved. Brought to the hospital, Sang-man awakens and sees a man smoking next to him. He tells the other hospital patrons, but no one believes him. During his stay in the hospital he eventually meets four ghosts. Meanwhile, Sang-man meets nurse Jung Yun-soo (Kang Ye-won) at the hospital and quickly falls in love.  Sang-man is released from the hospital and the ghosts follow him back to his apartment. He attempts to politely ask the ghosts why they are there, but he doesn't get an answer. He decides to visit a shaman to get some help and to learn how to get rid of the ghosts. He is told that the ghosts are using his body to enter the world of the living so the ghosts can experience their unfulfilled desires. Sang-man tries to get rid of them, but ghosts haunt him everywhere he goes. Sang-man then attempts to help the ghosts fulfill their unrealized dreams to get them to leave him alone once and for all.  One ghost, an old man, wants to return a camera to his friend. Another ghost, a fat smoker, wants to get his taxi back and drive it. He also uses Sang-man's body to swim at the beach. This leads to Sang-man being arrested, because he was caught driving without a license. Another ghost, a child, wants to watch a cartoon movie. The last ghost is a crying woman who wants to cook and to eat together with people she cares about. All these events also lead to Sang-man getting to know Yun-soo better.  Yun-soo's father dies, and Sang-man is the last person he speaks with. Yun-soo is uncomfortable with this, and pushes Sang-man away until she realizes that Sang-man is telling the truth when she sees her father's last gift for her.  Sang-man tells the ghosts to go away and blames them for Yun-soo's rejection. When he wakes up, the ghosts are gone. He goes to the hospital and asks Yun-soo out for lunch, and she accepts. She tells him that some people may lose their memories from extreme shock. As soon as Yun-soo asks about the parsley in the kimbap, Sang-man remembers that his mother used to put parsley in kimbap instead of spinach.  Sang-man runs to his apartment, and on his way he remembers what has happened to him. His father was the smoker, his mother the lady, his grandfather the old man, and his older brother the kid. On a family trip, his father forgot to put gas in the car. The car stopped in the road, and was hit by a truck and pushed off a cliff. Sang-man is the only survivor of the accident, after which he lost his memory and grew up in an orphanage. Sang-man calls to them in his apartment. One by one they appear and explain that their wishes each had something to do with the promises they left for Sang-man, and helped him remember them. His mother apologizes for leaving him alone and says that they wanted Sang-man to live, and they will always be with him. At the end, it is revealed that it was his family that stopped Sang-man from committing suicide.  At the post credit scene, Sang-man tells his son about his grandpa and dad while eating at the table, Yun-soo then founds picture of his childhood lying around and his son ask who are the people with him and smiles, implying he can see ghosts too.

Remake.

The remake rights was bought by American film production company 1492 Pictures in February 2011, with Chris Columbus and Adam Sandler reportedly attached.

Hello Ghost () is a 2010 South Korean comedy film about a man's multiple suicide attempts. After the most recent one, he discovers he can see a group of ghosts. The ghosts agree to leave him alone under the condition that he fulfill their requests.

Hello Ghost (coréen : 헬로우 고스트) est une comédie sud-coréenne réalisée par Kim Young-tak, sortie en 2010. Le film a pour sujet les multiples tentatives de suicide ratées d'un homme. Après la plus récente, il découvre qu'il peut voir une famille de fantômes. Ces derniers sont d'accord de le laisser tranquille à condition qu'il accomplisse leurs requêtes.


Production.

In 1949, 3M began producing POSF by electrochemical fluorination (ECF). From 1966 to the 1990s, 3M production increased to meet demand for POSF-based compounds. In 1999, 3M reported POSF was its most highly produced fluorochemical. Before 2000, 3M was the largest global producer of POSF (mainly at their Decatur, AL and Antwerp facilities) and global production peaked at ~4500 tonnes per year.  In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began investigating perfluorinated compounds after receiving data on the global distribution and toxicity of PFOS, the key ingredient in Scotchgard. For these reasons, and USEPA pressure, the primary American producer of PFOS, 3M, announced, in May 2000, the phaseout of the production of PFOS, PFOA, and PFOS-related products. 3M stated that they would have made the same decision regardless of USEPA pressure.  Immediately after the 2000–2002 3M phaseout, production plummeted, but dominant and growing production shifted to China. In 2004 Chinese production of PFOS-based compounds was estimated to be <50 tonnes. In 2005 global production was estimated to be between 73–162 tonnes, and by 2006 Chinese production was estimated at >200 tonnes. Total historical global production was estimated at ~120,000 tonnes in 2009.  "[M]ost, if not all" industrially synthesized perfluorooctanesulfonyl derivatives, such as PFOS, have POSF as their precursor.

Synthesis.

POSF is synthesized by electrochemical fluorination of octanesulfonyl fluoride in anhydrous hydrogen fluoride by the equation:  This reaction results in a 25% yield for POSF, less than that for shorter perfluorosulfonyl fluorides. The POSF obtained is impure as it is a mixture of linear and branched isomers, with ∼70% linear. POSF can also be obtained by ECF of the sulfonyl halide octanesulfonyl chloride.

Reactivity.

POSF and POSF-based polymers degrade to form PFOS which is not known to degrade by any environmental processes. POSF hydrolysis in water, however, occurs slowly.  POSF reacts with bases such as potassium hydroxide to form PFOS salts: Upon treatment with sulfuric acid the sulfonic acid PFOS tetrahydrate is obtained.  POSF also reacts with ammonia to form perfluorooctanesulfonamide: Sulfonamides and sulfonamidoethanols synthesized from POSF can in turn react to form a variety of different functional groups for different applications and products.

Uses.

Because of multiple carbon–fluorine bonds, POSF-derivatives have chemical properties that are hydrophobic ("water-afraid"), lipophobic ("fat-afraid"), and surface tension lowering (as fluorosurfactants). The main uses of chemical substances derived from POSF have been:  The Stockholm Convention lists a variety of acceptable purposes and specific exemptions for POSF and PFOS (and it salts) including

International status.

At the Fourth Conference of Parties, decision SC-4/17 put POSF, along with PFOS, in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (Annex B) in May 2009. As such, POSF is not "banned" but has approved uses and exemptions—along with a program (SC-4/19) in Annex B that encourages reduced production.

Environmental concern.

The POSF degradation product, PFOS, is the dominant perfluorinated compound detected in biomonitoring studies, where concentrations that have been detected are considered sufficient to "alter health parameters".

Perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (POSF) is a synthetic perfluorinated compound with a sulfonyl fluoride functional group. It is used to make perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and PFOS-based compounds. These compounds have a variety of industrial and consumer uses, but POSF-derived substances ultimately degrade to form PFOS.

Le fluorure de perfluorooctanesulfonyle (POSF) est un composé organofluoré de formule chimique. C'est un précurseur de l'acide perfluorooctanesulfonique (PFOS) et des composés apparentés, et, comme lui, est inscrit à l'annexe B de la Convention de Stockholm sur les polluants organiques persistants. On le produit par fluoration électrochimique (procédé Simons) du fluorure d'octanesulfonyle dans le fluorure d'hydrogène HF anhydre<ref name="10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.11.078">


Early life and career.

Li was born in 1951 in Lianshui County, Jiangsu province, to Li Gancheng (), a Communist Party official and later vice mayor of Shanghai; his mother is Lü Jiying (), a Communist revolutionary from Shuyang County in northern Jiangsu province; he was the fourth son among their seven children. He was named "Yuanchao" () after the "campaign to aid North Korea;" he would change the characters of this name later in life while maintaining the pronunciation. Li attended Shanghai High School in Shanghai, where he graduated in 1966, shortly prior to the Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, he worked in Dafeng County, Jiangsu, performing manual labour.  In 1973, Li was recommended to enter East China Normal University to study mathematics. He then worked as a teacher at the Nanchang Secondary School in Shanghai, then an instructor at the industry vocational college of Luwan District in Shanghai. After the resumption of the National College Entrance Examination Li was admitted to pursue a master's degree from Fudan University in mathematics. He joined the Communist Party of China in June 1978. In 1981, after graduating, he stayed at Fudan to teach as a lecturer and held a leadership position in the Communist Youth League organization of the university.  In 1983, Li was elevated on recommendation from then Shanghai party chief Chen Pixian to head the Shanghai Communist Youth League organization at age 32. Shortly thereafter he became a member of the Central Secretariat of the Communist Youth League, in charge of propaganda and ideology. He served in the post until 1991. During his time at the Youth League, Li obtained through part-time study a master's degree in economic management from Peking University under the supervision of economist Li Yining, and a doctoral degree (also on a part-time basis) in law from the Central Party School in 1998.  Agence France-Presse reported, in March 2019, that 20 paragraphs of his doctoral dissertation "Some Issues Concerning the Production of Socialist Culture and Art" had been plagiarised from a thesis of Zhang Mingeng.  In 1993, Li was named deputy head of the State Council Information Office. In 1996, he became Vice Minister of Culture. He pursued mid-career training at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University in 2001.

Jiangsu.

Li was elevated to Deputy Party Secretary of Jiangsu province and concurrently party chief of the provincial capital Nanjing in 2001. In October 2001, a mere month after he took office, Li garnered attention by firing several municipal officials accused of sexually harassing female hotel employees.  At the 16th Party Congress held in 2002, Li failed to secure a seat to the Central Committee, and was elected only an alternate member; however, at the time of the election, Li had already been agreed upon by senior party leaders to serve in the top post in Jiangsu, causing an awkward and rare situation where Li would serve as a party chief of a major province without holding a full seat on the Central Committee.  Li served as the Communist Party Provincial Committee Secretary for Jiangsu between 2002 and 2007. During his tenure in Jiangsu, Li assessed local officials in terms of performance measured by social and environmental factors, as opposed to purely economic ones. In response to the corruption case of Xu Guojian, the head of the provincial Organization Department, Li said, "Jiangsu is beginning the biggest anti-corruption drive since the founding of the People's Republic."

Politburo.

Seen as an ally of General Secretary Hu Jintao and a member of the "tuanpai" due to his Communist Youth League background, Li became a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China and the head of the Organization Department of the Communist Party of China after the 17th Party Congress in October 2007. After the 18th Party Congress, Li Yuanchao was no longer the head of the Organization Department of the Communist Party of China since 19 November 2012, the successor is Zhao Leji. Li was said to favour political reform.  During the 2012 National Congress, Li was considered a contender for promotion to the Politburo Standing Committee but was blocked by former general secretary Jiang Zemin, in what was seen as a major defeat for Hu Jintao. He, however, continued to serve on 25-member Politburo, to which he was first selected in 2007.

Vice President.

In March 2013, Li was elected to be the Vice President. The post of Vice-President had been held since 1998 by the top-ranked Secretary of the party's Secretariat; Li's selection as Vice President broke this fifteen-year convention; this meant Li was also the first Vice-President without a seat on the Politburo Standing Committee since 1998. Since taking on the office, which is largely ceremonial in nature, Li played a major role in foreign affairs. He served as the deputy leader of the Foreign Affairs Leading Group, the main foreign affairs coordination body of the Communist Party, and the deputy leader of the Central Coordination Group for Hong Kong and Macau Affairs. Li was the most senior Chinese official to attend the state memorial of South African leader Nelson Mandela and the state funeral of Singapore's founding leader Lee Kuan Yew.  Li stepped down from office in 2018, and was succeeded by Wang Qishan.

Publication.

Book: "The Strategic Choice for China's Prosperity" (English Version), Published in Dec. 2018, South Ocean Publishing House, Singapore. Specially for congratulation to China's 40th Anniversary of Reform and Opening-up. Li Yuanchao is one of the 4 authors. The others include Li Yining, Meng Xiaosu, Li Keqiang. Translated from Chinese by Shi Guangjun and Jiang Hongxing.

Li Yuanchao (born 20 November 1950) is a Chinese politician. He was the Vice President of the People's Republic of China from 2013 to 2018 and the Honorary President of the Red Cross Society of China. He was a member of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China and head of its Organization Department between 2007 and 2012. From 2002 to 2007, Li served as the Communist Party of China Secretary of Jiangsu, the top leader of an area of significant economic development. Between 2007 and 2017, he held a seat for two terms on the Politburo of the Communist Party of China. Once considered a rising political star, Li gradually faded from the political scene.

Li Yuanchao (chinois : 李源潮 ; pinyin : Lǐ Yuáncháo), né le dans le xian de Lianshui (province du Jiangsu), est un homme politique chinois, membre du Parti communiste (PCC). Il est membre du bureau politique du Parti communiste chinois de 2007 à 2017 et vice-président de la République populaire de 2013 à 2018.