Fermat's method.

Fermat used "adequality" first to find maxima of functions, and then adapted it to find tangent lines to curves.  To find the maximum of a term formula_1, Fermat equated (or more precisely adequated) formula_1 and formula_3 and after doing algebra he could cancel out a factor of formula_4 and then discard any remaining terms involving formula_5 To illustrate the method by Fermat's own example, consider the problem of finding the maximum of formula_6 (In Fermat's words, it is to divide a line of length formula_7 at a point formula_8, such that the product of the two resulting parts be a maximum.) Fermat "adequated" formula_9 with formula_10. That is (using the notation formula_11 to denote adequality, introduced by Paul Tannery): Canceling terms and dividing by formula_13 Fermat arrived at Removing the terms that contained formula_13 Fermat arrived at the desired result that the maximum occurred when formula_16.  Fermat also used his principle to give a mathematical derivation of Snell's laws of refraction directly from the principle that light takes the quickest path.

Descartes' criticism.

Fermat's method was highly criticized by his contemporaries, particularly Descartes. Victor Katz suggests this is because Descartes had independently discovered the same new mathematics, known as his method of normals, and Descartes was quite proud of his discovery. Katz also notes that while Fermat's methods were closer to the future developments in calculus, Descartes' methods had a more immediate impact on the development.

Scholarly controversy.

Both Newton and Leibniz referred to Fermat's work as an antecedent of infinitesimal calculus. Nevertheless, there is disagreement amongst modern scholars about the exact meaning of Fermat's adequality. Fermat's "adequality" was analyzed in a number of scholarly studies. In 1896, Paul Tannery published a French translation of Fermat’s Latin treatises on maxima and minima (Fermat, Œuvres, Vol. III, pp. 121–156). Tannery translated Fermat's term as “adégaler” and adopted Fermat’s “adéquation”. Tannery also introduced the symbol formula_11 for adequality in mathematical formulas.  Heinrich Wieleitner (1929) wrote:Fermat replaces "A" with "A"+"E". Then he sets the new expression roughly equal (angenähert gleich) to the old one, cancels equal terms on both sides, and divides by the highest possible power of "E". He then cancels all terms which contain "E" and sets those that remain equal to each other. From that [the required] "A" results. That "E" should be as small as possible is nowhere said and is at best expressed by the word "adaequalitas". (Wieleitner uses the symbol formula_18.)
  Max Miller (1934) wrote:Thereupon one should put the both terms, which express the maximum and the minimum, approximately equal (näherungsweise gleich), as Diophantus says.(Miller uses the symbol formula_19.)
  Jean Itard (1948) wrote:One knows that the expression "adégaler" is adopted by Fermat from Diophantus, translated by Xylander and by Bachet. It is about an approximate equality (égalité approximative) ". (Itard uses the symbol formula_20.)
  Joseph Ehrenfried Hofmann (1963) wrote:Fermat chooses a quantity "h", thought as sufficiently small, and puts "f"("x" + "h") roughly equal (ungefähr gleich) to "f"("x"). His technical term is "adaequare".(Hofmann uses the symbol formula_19.)
  Peer Strømholm (1968) wrote:The basis of Fermat's approach was the comparition of two expressions which, though they had the same form, were not exactly equal. This part of the process he called ""comparare par adaequalitatem"" or ""comparer per adaequalitatem"", and it implied that the otherwise strict identity between the two sides of the "equation" was destroyed by the modification of the variable by a "small" amount:  formula_22.  This, I believe, was the real significance of his use of Diophantos' πἀρισον, stressing the "smallness" of the variation. The ordinary translation of 'adaequalitas' seems to be "approximate equality", but I much prefer "pseudo-equality" to present Fermat's thought at this point.He further notes that "there was never in M1 (Method 1) any question of the variation "E" being put equal to zero. The words Fermat used to express the process of suppressing terms containing "E" was 'elido', 'deleo', and 'expungo', and in French 'i'efface' and 'i'ôte'. We can hardly believe that a sane man wishing to express his meaning and searching for words, would constantly hit upon such tortuous ways of imparting the simple fact that the terms vanished because "E" was zero.(p. 51)
  Claus Jensen (1969) wrote:Moreover, in applying the notion of "adégalité" – which constitutes the basis of Fermat's general method of constructing tangents, and by which is meant a comparition of two magnitudes as if they were equal, although they are in fact not ("tamquam essent aequalia, licet revera aequalia non sint") – I will employ the nowadays more usual symbol formula_19. The Latin quotation comes from Tannery's 1891 edition of Fermat, volume 1, page 140.
  Michael Sean Mahoney (1971) wrote:Fermat's Method of maxima and minima, which is clearly applicable to any polynomial 'P(x)", originally rested on purely "finitistic" algebraic foundations. It assumed, counterfactually, the inequality of two equal roots in order to determine, by Viete's theory of equations, a relation between those roots and one of the coefficients of the polynomial, a relation that was fully general. This relation then led to an extreme-value solution when Fermat removed his counterfactual assumption and set the roots equal. Borrowing a term from Diophantus, Fermat called this counterfactual equality 'adequality'.(Mahoney uses the symbol formula_24.) On p. 164, end of footnote 46, Mahoney notes that one of the meanings of adequality is "approximate equality" or "equality in the limiting case".
  Charles Henry Edwards, Jr. (1979) wrote:For example, in order to determine how to subdivide a segment of length formula_25 into two segments formula_26 and formula_27 whose product formula_28 is maximal, that is to find the rectangle with perimeter formula_29 that has the maximal area, he [Fermat] proceeds as follows. First he substituted formula_30 (he used "A", "E" instead of "x", "e") for the unknown "x", and then wrote down the following "pseudo-equality" to compare the resulting expression with the original one:  After canceling terms, he divided through by "e" to obtain formula_32 Finally he discarded the remaining term containing "e", transforming the pseudo-equality into the true equality formula_33 that gives the value of "x" which makes formula_34 maximal. Unfortunately, Fermat never explained the logical basis for this method with sufficient clarity or completeness to prevent disagreements between historical scholars as to precisely what he meant or intended."  Kirsti Andersen (1980) wrote:The two expressions of the maximum or minimum are made ""adequal"", which means something like as nearly equal as possible.(Andersen uses the symbol formula_24.)
  Herbert Breger (1994) wrote:I want to put forward my hypothesis: "Fermat used the word "adaequare" in the sense of" "to put equal"... In a mathematical context, the only difference between "aequare" and "adaequare" seems to be that the latter gives more stress on the fact that the equality is achieved.(Page 197f.)
  John Stillwell (Stillwell 2006 p. 91) wrote:Fermat introduced the idea of adequality in 1630s but he was ahead of his time. His successors were unwilling to give up the convenience of ordinary equations, preferring to use equality loosely rather than to use adequality accurately. The idea of adequality was revived only in the twentieth century, in the so-called non-standard analysis.
  Enrico Giusti (2009) cites Fermat's letter to Marin Mersenne where Fermat wrote:Cette comparaison par adégalité produit deux termes inégaux qui enfin produisent l'égalité (selon ma méthode) qui nous donne la solution de la question" ("This comparison by adequality produces two unequal terms which finally produce the equality (following my method) which gives us the solution of the problem").. Giusti notes in a footnote that this letter seems to have escaped Breger's notice.
  Klaus Barner (2011) asserts that Fermat uses two different Latin words (aequabitur and adaequabitur) to replace the nowadays usual equals sign, "aequabitur" when the equation concerns a valid identity between two constants, a universally valid (proved) formula, or a conditional equation, "adaequabitur", however, when the equation describes a relation between two variables, which are "not independent" (and the equation is no valid formula). On page 36, Barner writes: "Why did Fermat continually repeat his inconsistent procedure for all his examples for the method of tangents? Why did he never mention the secant, with which he in fact operated? I do not know."  Katz, Schaps, Shnider (2013) argue that Fermat's application of the technique to transcendental curves such as the cycloid shows that Fermat's technique of adequality goes beyond a purely algebraic algorithm, and that, contrary to Breger's interpretation, the technical terms "parisotes" as used by Diophantus and "adaequalitas" as used by Fermat both mean "approximate equality". They develop a formalisation of Fermat's technique of adequality in modern mathematics as the standard part function which rounds off a finite hyperreal number to its nearest real number.

Adequality is a technique developed by Pierre de Fermat in his treatise "Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam" (a Latin treatise circulated in France c. 1636) to calculate maxima and minima of functions, tangents to curves, area, center of mass, least action, and other problems in calculus. According to André Weil, Fermat "introduces the technical term adaequalitas, adaequare, etc., which he says he has borrowed from Diophantus. As Diophantus V.11 shows, it means an approximate equality, and this is indeed how Fermat explains the word in one of his later writings." (Weil 1973). Diophantus coined the word παρισότης ("parisotēs") to refer to an approximate equality. Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac translated Diophantus's Greek word into Latin as "adaequalitas". Paul Tannery's French translation of Fermat’s Latin treatises on maxima and minima used the words "adéquation" and "adégaler".

L’adégalité, dans l'histoire du calcul infinitésimal, est une technique développée par Pierre de Fermat, dont il dit qu'il l'a empruntée à Diophante. L'adégalité a été interprétée par certains chercheurs comme signifiant «l'égalité approximative». John Stillwell illustre la technique dans le cadre de différentiation de formula_1 comme suit. Si nous désignons l'adégalité par formula_2, alors il est juste de dire que et donc que formula_4 pour la parabole est adégal à formula_5. Cependant, formula_6 n'est pas un nombre ; en fait, formula_5 est le seul nombre auquel formula_4 est adégal. C'est le « vrai » sens dans lequel formula_4 représente la pente de la courbe. Une procédure similaire dans le calcul infinitésimal s'appelle la.


Data collection.

The census data were collected as of midnight October 9, 2002.

Resident population.

The census was primarily intended to collect statistical information about the resident population of Russian Federation. The resident population included:  All detailed census tables are for the resident population.  All (resident) participants were asked question on their gender, birth date, marital status, household composition, birthplace, citizenship, ethnic or tribal self-identification (национальность), education level, language competence, sources of income, and employment status. A sample of the participants were also asked more detailed questions about their economic and housing situation.

Non-residents.

Also, the census also counted two more groups of people: Foreign citizens present in Russia as employees of foreign diplomatic missions or international organizations, and members of their household, were excluded from the census altogether.

Census results.

The Census recorded the resident population of 145,166,731 persons, including 67,605,133 men and 77,561,598 women. That included urban population of 106,429,000 (73%) and rural population of 38,738,000 (27%).  The non-resident populations included:

Citizenship.

Census participants were asked what country (or countries) they were citizens of. 142,442,000 respondents reported being Russian citizens; among them, 44,000 also had citizenship of another country.  Among Russia's resident population, 1,025,413 foreign citizens and 429,881 stateless persons were counted. 1,269,023 persons did not report their citizenship.

Language abilities.

Among the questions asked were "Are you competent in the Russian language?" (Владеете ли Вы русским языком?) and "What other languages are you competent in?" (Какими иными языками Вы владеете?). As the census manual explained, "competence" (владение) meant either the ability to speak, read and write a language, or only the ability to speak it. The questions did not distinguish native and non-native speakers, nor did they try to measure the degree of language competence. For small children, presumably, the recorded answer was based on the language(s) spoken by the parents.  142.6 million (98.3%) of the responders claimed competence in Russian. Other widely reported languages (more than 500,000 speakers each) are listed in the table below. 1.42 million responders did not provide language information.  For a more detailed list, see List of languages of Russia.

The Russian Census of 2002 () was the first census of the Russian Federation since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, carried out on October 9 through October 16, 2002. It was carried out by the Russian Federal Service of State Statistics (Rosstat).

Le recensement de 2002 en Russie (en ) est le premier recensement de la Fédération de Russie effectué du au par le (Rosstat).


History.

Formation and consolidation.

The Left originated from a parliamentary group inside the Sardinian Parliament as the opposition to the right-wing government of the Marquess of Azeglio. It was not a structured party, but simply an opposition divided in two tendencies:  The cooperation between Rattazzi and Cavour grew strong and the two plotted to oust D'Azeglio from office. After the 1851 self-coup of President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte in France, the fake rumors about a same decision by the government caused the fall of D'Azeglio in 1852, orchestrated by Cavour and Rattazzi with the final goal of took the power, with Cavour becoming Prime Minister while Rattazzi became President of the Chamber of Deputies. This unusual coalition between Left and Right was sharply nicknamed "Connubio Rattazzi–Cavour" (literally "marriage") by conservative opposition.  The Sardinian intervention in the Crimean War, which Rattazzi opposed, caused the decline of the Left–Right coalition in 1855. After pressions by now-Emperor Napoleon III over Cavour in 1858, Rattazzi was forced to reisgn as Minister of the Interior because he was reputed to be too nationalist and intransigent about Italian unification, which Cavour intended only as a Sardinian–Piedmontese expansion. Despite the exclusion from the government, the Left and Rattazzi, thanks to his friendship with Rosa Vercellana, mistress of the King, rapidly gained Victor Emmanuel II's favour.  During the 1860s after the Italian unification, the Left was in opposition, but the turmoils of that age were also reflected inside the group, which was now divided into three main factions:

Depretis and Cairoli.

After the death of Rattazzi in 1873, Depretis took over the leadership of the Left. In 1862, Depretis was briefly Minister of Public Works in a government led by Rattazzi with both Left and Right ministers. He justified the agreement with the Right by stating the following: We cannot allow that majorities must remain unchangeable [...]. Ideas grow up with actions, and like science advance and the world moves, so parties are transforming. They also undergo the law of motion, the occurrence of transformations.  This statement was the basis of the phenomenon of "trasformismo" (literally transformism), which constist in a constant changing of political faction motivated by opportunity rather than ideals. In 1876, the Right Prime Minister Marco Minghetti lost parliamentary confidence thanks to an agreement between Depretis and liberist factions of the Right, opposed to the railways nationalization project. King Victor Emmanuel II verified the impossibility for the Right to gain confidence and nominated Depretis as Prime Minister, who formed a Left-only government. In November 1876, the legislative election confirmed the stability of the Left that gained the 56% of votes. The Depretis ministry realized a tax reform and tried to align Italy with Germany against the currently conservative France and Austria-Hungary, but after strong criticism for his decision to abolish the Ministry of Agricolture, Industry and Trade he resigned and was substituted by his rival Benedetto Cairoli in 1877. Differently by the pragmatic Depretis, Cairoli was a strong opponent of "trasformismo", an irridentist and Francophile. Isolated by the European powers at the Congress of Berlin, Cairoli was forced to resign in 1878 after a failed life attempt to King Umberto I and after lesser than nine months of government. Despite a short break with a new Depretis cabinet (survived eight months), Cairoli formed a new executive with Depretis support in 1879. Despite the Left's elctoral success in the election of 1880, the Cairoli ministry was unable to prevent the French conquest of the Beylik of Tunis in 1881 that resulted his political death, becoming unpopular with both Left and Right. The decline of Cairoli opened the door to Depretis, who was chosen to form a new government. During this long term from 1881 to 1887, the Left led by Depretis achieved a series of success, like the manhood suffrage toward the low-educated citizens and the adoption of protectionism to favour the development of textile, iron and steel industries while facing many internal and international troubles. Particularly, the executive faced the difficult relationship with Austria that showed an anti-Italian attitude despite the common adhesion to the Triple Alliance with Germany, and ended the Italian international isolation. Another problem was the rupture with the radical-progressive Left led by Giuseppe Zanardelli and Francesco Crispi, who formed with other dissidents The Pentarchy, allied with the Historical Far Left, forcing the majority to fully embrace the "trasformismo", opening the government to the Right. Depretis was also unable to start a colonial empire in Africa after the defeat in the Battle of Dogali in 1887. Despite the victory in the election of 1886, the Left was tested by decline of "traformismo", with many opportunist Right politicians who joined in the Liberal Constitutional Party, causing the necessity of Depretis to find an agreement with Crispi and Zanardelli.

Crispi era and dissolution.

In 1887, the longtime Depretis died in office and Zanardelli and Crispi were favoured for the succession. King Umberto I finally chose the radical Crispi because he was more favourable to an alliance with Germany rather than progressive Zanardelli. Internally, Crispi reformed justice, supporting a law against administrative abuses and introducing the Zanardelli Code (named after the now Justice Minister), expanded the suffrage for the communal voters, obtained more executive powers for the government, established undersecretaries in the several ministries and created the Helth Superior Council. Despite Crispi being more leftist than Depretis, he was also a strong nationalist and rapidly became near to German chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the Germanophile King Umberto II. Crispi wanted reunite all the Italian-speaking territories in one nation, revealing to the German general Alfred von Waldersee his desire to annex the Austrian Trentino and French Nice. Despite his successes, Crispi lost the parliamentary confidence in 1891 after a failed attempt to reduce state expensens and prefecture against the interests of many politicians. During the momentary isolation of Crispi, the former Treasury Minister Giovanni Giolitti took over the Left leadership. By contrast with the statist Crispi, Giolitti was a liberal like Zanardelli and did not support colonialism and militarization. After the fall of the conservative government of the Marquess of Rudinì in 1892, Giolitti was designated to form a new government. As Prime Minister, Giolitti tried to introduce a progressive taxation and stop the "trasformismo" with the establishment of an organized political party. However, the Giolitti ministry did not survive long and after nine months of stability in January 1893 the Banca Romana scandal erupted, which involved many politicians of the Left, including Giolitti and Crispi. After months of polemics, Giolitti resigned in December 1893.  After that short parenthesis, Crispi was re-nominated Prime Minister despite the critics for his involvement in the Banca Romana scandal. One of the first act of the government was the reduction of state expenses together with income, land, salt and treasury bill taxes to face the economic crisis. Despite the initial Left tendencies, Crispi got worried about the Italian Socialist Party and after the suppression of the labour movement of the Fasci Siciliani the executive changed the electoral law, permitting the vote only to the litirate citizens, excluding 800,000 voters. At the same time, Crispi tried to re-obtain popular support prosecuting a colonialist policy in Africa, consolidating the acquisition of Somaliland and Eritrea and starting the First Abyssinian War in 1894. Despite the initial successes, the Italian campaign resulted disastrous, with rovinous defeat at Amba Alagi in 1895 and Adwa in 1896. The last confirmed the end of the Crispi's political rule, who resigned from office. The Crispi's resignation and the impairment of many members of the majority after the Banca Romana scandal, confirmed the end of the Left. The Left's remnants now constituted the Ministerial bloc inside the Parliament led by Giolitti, who finally realized the fusion between Right and Left in the Liberal Union in 1913.

The Left group (), later called Historical Left () by historians to distinguish it from the left-wing groups of the 20th century, was a liberal and reformist parliamentary group in Italy during the second half of the 19th century. The members of the Left were also known as Democrats or Ministerials. Different to its Right counterpart, the Left was the result of coalition who represented Northern and Southern middle class, urban bourgeoisie, small businessmen, journalists and academics. It also supported a right to vote and the public school for all children. Moreover, the party was against the high tax policies promoted by the Right. After the 1890s, the Left began to show more conservative tendencies, including advocating breaking strikes and protests and promoting a colonialist policy in Africa.

La Gauche (en italien "Sinistra") est un mouvement politique italien post-risorgimental qualifié d'historique pour la distinguer des partis et des mouvements de masse qui se sont affirmés au cours du. L'époque de la gauche historique va de 1876, année de la « révolution parlementaire » qui provoque la chute de la Droite historique, jusqu'à la « crise de la fin du siècle » (1896) qui débouche sur la ère giolittienne.


History.

Gerdau was founded by Johannes Heinrich Kaspar Gerdau, also known as João Gerdau, a German migrant who left the port of Hamburg for Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil, in 1869 in search of new business opportunities. He arrived at the port of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul and, at only 20 years of age, established himself in Colônia de Santo Ângelo (now the town of Agudo), where he invested in trade, transport and the subdivision of land. He moved to the town of Cachoeira do Sul in 1884, where he founded an important General Store. Always seeking new opportunities, João Gerdau moved again, this time to Porto Alegre, with his wife Alvine Gerdau and his three children, Hugo, Walter and Bertha. There he went into industry, buying the Pontas de Paris Nail Factory in 1901 marking the entry into steel industry.  Curt Johannpeter's entry into the Gerdau family marked the beginning of a new direction for the company. Born in Germany in 1899, Curt Johannpeter made his career in finance. In 1922 he began to work for the German Transatlantic Bank, a subsidiary of Deutsche Bank. In 1930 he became the branch inspector for Portugal, Spain and Latin America, and in the same year was introduced to the young Helda Gerdau during a trip to Brazil. They married and had four sons: Germano, Klaus, Jorge and Frederico. In 1946, Johannpeter took the wheel of the Gerdau company and oversaw a critical phase in its expansion.  See history of Gerdau

Today.

Gerdau's core business is to transform steel scrap and iron ore into steel products.  Gerdau is a leading producer of long steel in the Americas and one of the largest suppliers of special steel in the world. It is the largest recycler in Latin America and around the world it transforms, each year, millions of metric tons of scrap into steel, reinforcing its commitment to sustainable development in the regions where it operates. With more than 140,000 shareholders, the Company is listed on the stock exchanges of São Paulo, New York and Madrid.  Its operations are based on the integrated regional market mill concept by which raw materials are bought from nearby suppliers and products are primarily sold in the same region. This brand of by-product synergy led to the acquisition of Chaparral Steel in 2007, a company which has been noted for creating interchange between head management and workers and deliberately employs a maximum of 1000 people (the size of a village). Gerdau operates through three different processes:

Products and services.

Gerdau produces long carbon steel, long special steel, flat steel and forged and cast parts. These products are used in different sectors, such as industry, metallurgy, farming and livestock, civil construction, automotive industries, petrochemicals, railway and naval sectors, in addition to orthodontic, medical and food areas. Gerdau is also the main supplier of specialty steel for the international automotive network.

Internationalization of the Gerdau Group.

Long before its possibilities of expansion on the Brazilian market were exhausted, Gerdau had established strategies for external expansion, starting at the end of the 1970s. Their fundamental objectives were to conquer the U.S. market. Based on limited international experience managing a mini mill plant in Uruguay for almost a decade, the group first aimed at the North American market for long steel, starting with Canada. Later, after a decade of experience in conditions that were radically different than those existing in Uruguay (the location of its first foreign venture), Gerdau entered the U.S. market. Entry into North America was complemented by other ventures in all of Latin America, from Chile and Argentina to Mexico and the Caribbean. The North American experience, like the Brazilian, demonstrated the strategic necessity to enter new markets such as Europe (with special steels) and Asia (with long steel and final structures of special steel)

Business operations.

Gerdau is spread globally across 13 countries with its integrated and semi-integrated steel mills. Apart from steel mills, Gerdau also has downstream processing facilities.  Offices: Gerdau has its major offices at Porto Alegre, São Paulo, Tampa, Whitby, Polanco, Lima, Caracas, Bogota, Jackson and Bangalore.  Brazil Business Division: Gerdau has two Brazil business divisions divided as Mining Americas and Steel Brazil  Special Steel Business Division: Gerdau produces specialty steel especially for the automotive industry through its special steel divisions, Special Steel North America, Special Steel Brazil, and Special Steel India.  Latin America Business Division: Gerdau produces most of the long and flat products at Latin America North, Colombia, Mexico, Sizuca (Venezuela), Latin America South, Argentina, Chile, Peru and Uruguay

Further reading.

Werlang, William. "A Família de Johannes Heinrich Kaspar Gerdau: Um estudo de caso sobre an industrialização no sul do Brasil Dissertação de Mestrado defendida em 1999". MILA. UFSM

Gerdau is the largest producer of long steel in the Latin America, with steel mills in Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Peru, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela. It also holds a 40% stake in the Spanish company Sidenor. Currently, Gerdau has an installed capacity of 26 million metric tons of steel per year and offers steel for the civil construction, automobile, industrial, agricultural and various sectors.

Gerdau S.A. est une entreprise sidérurgique brésilienne basée à Porto Alegre, dans l'État brésilien du Rio Grande do Sul. L'entreprise opère principalement au Brésil, mais également en Uruguay, au Chili, en Argentine, au Canada et aux États-Unis.


Code formation.

The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes (which are also used as the basis for national top-level domains on the Internet) and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself. So Japan's currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the names "dollar, franc, peso" and "pound" being used in dozens of countries, each having significantly differing values. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. In some cases, the third letter is the initial for "new" in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code sometimes outlasts the usage of the term "new" itself (for example, the code for the Mexican peso is MXN). Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB, where the B comes from the third letter in the word "ruble".  Another example of the third letter not being the initial of the unit's name is EUR for the euro.

X currencies.

In addition to codes for most active national currencies ISO 4217 provides codes for "supranational" currencies, procedural purposes, and several things which are "similar to" currencies:  The use of an initial letter "X" for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO 3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO 4217 can use "X" codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with a future country code. ISO 3166 country codes beginning with "X" are used for private custom use (reserved), never for official codes. For instance, the ISO 3166-based NATO country codes (STANAG 1059, 9th edition) use "X" codes for imaginary exercise countries ranging from XXB for "Brownland" to XXR for "Redland", as well as for major commands such as XXE for SHAPE or XXS for SACLANT.  The inclusion of EU (denoting the European Union) in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, allows the euro to be coded as EUR rather than assigned a code beginning with X, even though it is a supranational currency.

Treatment of minor currency units (the "exponent").

The ISO 4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the currency "exponent" and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD (the United States dollar) is equal to 100 of its minor currency unit the "cent". So the USD has exponent 2 (10 to the power 2 is 100, which is the number of cents in a dollar). The code JPY (Japanese yen) is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases (including most varieties of the dinar) 1/1000 is used, and sometimes ratios apply which are not integer powers of 10. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya (UM) equal to 5 khoums, and Madagascar has 1 ariary = 5 iraimbilanja. Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value.

Currency numbers.

There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of ISO 3166. This numeric code is usually the same as the ISO 3166-1 numeric code. For example, USD (United States dollar) has code 840 which is also the numeric code for the US (United States).

Position of ISO 4217 code in amounts.

The ISO standard does not regulate either the spacing, prefixing or suffixing in usage of currency codes. According however to the European Union's Publication Office, in English, Irish, Latvian and Maltese texts, the ISO 4217 code is to be followed by a hard space and the amount:  In Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish and Swedish the order is reversed; the amount is followed by a hard space and the ISO 4217 code:  Note that, as illustrated, the order is determined not by the currency, but by the native language of the document context.

History.

In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978), the related UN/ECE Group of Experts agreed that the three-letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, "Codes for the representation of currencies and funds", would be suitable for use in international trade.  Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Such changes usually originate from the formation of new countries, treaties between countries on shared currencies or monetary unions, or redenomination from an existing currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), SIX Interbank Clearing, is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.

Active codes.

The following is a list of active codes of official ISO 4217 currency names. In the standard the values are called "alphabetic code", "numeric code", and "minor unit".

USD/USS/USN, three currency codes belonging to the US.

The US dollar has two codes assigned: USD and USN (next day). The USS (same day) code is not in use any longer, and was removed from the list of active ISO 4217 codes in March 2014.  According to UN/CEFACT recommendation 9, paragraphs 8–9 ECE/TRADE/203, 1996, available online:

Future codes.

As of August 2018, there are no new codes planned to be added to the standard.

Non ISO 4217 currencies.

Currencies without ISO 4217 currency codes.

A number of active currencies do not have an ISO 4217 code, because they may be: (1) a minor currency pegged at par (1:1) to a larger currency, even if independently regulated, (2) a currency only used for commemorative banknotes or coins, or (3) a currency of an unrecognized or partially recognized state. These currencies include:  See for a list of all currently pegged currencies.

Unofficial currency codes.

Despite having no official recognition in ISO 4217, the following non-ISO codes are sometimes used locally or commercially.  In addition, GBX is sometimes used (for example on the London Stock Exchange) to denote Penny sterling, a subdivision of pound sterling, the currency for the United Kingdom. Another example is ZAC (South African Cents), a subdivision of South African Rand (ZAR)

Cryptocurrencies.

Recently, cryptocurrencies have unofficially used ISO-like codes on various cryptocurrency exchanges, for instance LTC for Litecoin, NMC for Namecoin and XRP for the XRP Ledger. SIX Interbank Clearing (a Maintenance Agency of ISO) is currently studying the impact and role of cryptocurrencies and other independent currencies on ISO 4217.

Historical currency codes.

A number of currencies had official ISO 4217 currency codes and currency names until their replacement by another currency. The table below shows the ISO currency codes of former currencies and their common names (which do not always match the ISO 4217 names). These codes were first introduced in December 1988.

ISO 4217 is a standard first published by International Organization for Standardization in 1978, which delineates currency designators, country codes (alpha and numeric), and references to minor units in three tables:

La norme ISO 4217 est une norme internationale définissant les codes pour la représentation des devises utilisées dans le monde. L’édition la plus récente est ISO 4217:2015. Elle est regroupée dans la classification ICS 03.060 et 01.140.30.


Playing career.

Junior hockey.

Born in Moncton, New Brunswick, Bowness began his junior hockey career with the Quebec Remparts of Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) in 1972–73, where in 30 games, Bowness had two goals and nine points. In 14 playoff games with Quebec, Bowness had a goal and five points.  Bowness started 1973–74 season with the Remparts. He appeared in 34 games, scoring 16 goals and 45 points. Midway through the season, the Remparts traded Bowness to Montreal Bleu Blanc Rouge, with whom he finished the season, scoring nine goals and 26 points in 33 games with the club, helping them to reach the playoffs. In nine postseason games, Bowness had four goals and eight points.  In 1974–75, Bowness played the entire season with Bleu Blanc Rouge, appearing in 71 games, scoring 24 goals and 95 points to finish fourth in team scoring. In eight playoff games, Bowness scored five goals and eight points. After the season, Bowness was drafted by the Atlanta Flames in the second round, 26th overall in 1975 NHL Amateur Draft, as well as in fifth round, 62nd overall by the Indianapolis Racers of the World Hockey Association (WHA) in the 1975 WHA Amateur Draft.

Professional playing career.

Bowness spent majority of first professional hockey season in 1975–76 with Tulsa Oilers of the Central Hockey League (CHL), where in 64 games, he earned 25 goals and 63 points, and had 160 penalty minutes. In nine playoff games, Bowness had four goals and seven points. Bowness also played two games with Nova Scotia Voyageurs of American Hockey League (AHL), recording one assist. Bowness also made his National Hockey League(NHL) debut during the 1975–76 season, going pointless in five games with the Atlanta Flames.  His 1976–77 season was split between Tulsa and the Flames, as Bowness appeared in 39 games with Tulsa, scoring 15 goals and 30 points. In eight postseason games with Oilers, Bowness had one assist. He also played in 28 games with Atlanta Flames, recording four assists. On August 18, 1977, the Flames traded Bowness to the Detroit Red Wings for cash considerations.  Bowness spent the entire 1977–78 NHL season in the NHL with Detroit, scoring eight goals and 19 points in 61 games, helping the team reach the playoffs. In four playoff games with Detroit, Bowness was held off the scoresheet as the Red Wings lost to the Montreal Canadiens in the quarter-finals. He was set to return to the Red Wings for the 1978–79 season, however, on October 10, 1978, Detroit traded Bowness to the St. Louis Blues for cash.  Bowness spent most of the 1978–79 season in the CHL with the Salt Lake Golden Eagles, appearing in 48 games with the team, scoring 25 goals and 53 points with Salt Lake. In ten playoff games with the Golden Eagles, Bowness had five goals and nine points. Bowness also did appeared in 24 games with the St. Louis Blues, scoring a goal and four points with the club. Bowness once again spent a majority of the 1979–80 with the Golden Eagles. In 71 games with Salt Lake, Bowness had 25 goals and 71 points to finish fifth in team scoring, while accumulating a team high 135 penalty minutes. In 13 playoff games with Salt Lake, Bowness had five goals and 14 points. He also played in 10 games with the Blues, scoring a goal and three points. On June 13, 1980, the Blues traded Bowness to the Winnipeg Jets for Craig Norwich.  Bowness played in 45 games with the Winnipeg Jets in the 1980–81, scoring eight goals and 25 points, however, the Jets failed to make the playoffs. Bowness also returned to the Tulsa Oilers of the CHL for 35 games, scoring 12 goals and 32 points. He spent the entire 1981–82 regular season playing with Tulsa, finishing second on the team in scoring with 34 goals and 87 points in 79 games. In three playoff games with the Oilers, Bowness had two assists. Bowness also appeared in a playoff game with the Jets, and was held off the scoresheet.  In the 1982–83 season, Bowness was a player-coach with the Sherbrooke Jets of the American Hockey League (AHL). In 65 games, Bowness had 17 goals and 48 points with Sherbrooke. Bowness wrapped up his playing career in the 1983–84 season with Sherbrooke, playing in 21 games, scoring nine goals and 20 points. He retired after the season to become an assistant coach with the Winnipeg Jets.

Coaching career.

Winnipeg Jets organization.

Bowness became the first head coach of the Winnipeg Jets' new AHL affiliate, the Sherbrooke Jets, in the 1982–83 AHL season, as a player-coach with the club. Sherbrooke had a tough season, finishing in last place in the North Division with a 22–54–4 record, earning 48 points. He stepped down as player-coach before the 1983–84, as he played one last season before retiring in the summer of 1984.  Bowness became an assistant coach of the Winnipeg Jets under head coach Barry Long in the 1984–85 season. Winnipeg had a successful season, going 43–27–10, earning 96 points, finishing second in the Smythe Division. In the playoffs, the Jets defeated the Calgary Flames before losing to the Edmonton Oilers in the Smythe Division final.  Bowness remained on the Jets coaching staff in the 1985–86 season, however, the club changed head coaches during the season, as Barry Long was replaced with John Ferguson late in the season. The Jets struggled to a 26–47–7 record, earning 59 points, but still good for third in the Smythe Division. In the season opener against the Calgary Flames, Bowness was once fined $500 and suspended for three games after punching Calgary forward Tim Hunter in the head during a brawl. Brian Hayward and Hunter had been involved in a scuffle which escalated to a full brawl, after Hunter continued to attack Hayward. In the playoffs, the Jets were swept by the Flames in the first round.  In 1986–87, Winnipeg hired a new head coach, Dan Maloney, and retained Bowness as an assistant. The Jets rebounded from their poor season, going 40–32–8, earning 88 points, to finish in third place in the Smythe Division. In the playoffs, Winnipeg defeated the Flames in the opening round, however, they were swept by the Oilers in the Smythe Division final. After the season, Bowness became the first head coach of the Moncton Hawks for the 1987–88 season. Bowness led the expansion team to a 27–43–8–2 record, earning 64 points and a sixth place finish in the North Division, failing to qualify for the playoffs.  He began the 1988–89 season with Moncton, leading the club to a 28–20–5 record in 53 games. Bowness was then promoted to the NHL, as the Winnipeg Jets fired Dan Maloney, and named Bowness as his replacement.  Bowness coached his first NHL game on February 9, 1989, as the Jets lost to the New York Rangers 4–3 at Madison Square Garden. After a 0–3–1 start, Bowness earned his first NHL victory on February 17, 1989, defeating the New Jersey Devils 3–2 in overtime at the Winnipeg Arena. Bowness led the team to an 8–17–3 record to finish the 1988–89 season, as the Jets missed the playoffs. After the season, the Jets hired Bob Murdoch as their new head coach, and Bowness left the organization.

Boston Bruins organization.

Bowness became the head coach of the Boston Bruins' AHL affiliate, the Maine Mariners, for the 1989–90 AHL season. In his first season with Maine, Bowness led the club to a 31–38–11 record, earning 73 points and a fifth place finish as the club failed to qualify for the playoffs. He returned to the Mariners for a second season in 1990–91, as the Mariners improved to a 34–34–12 record, getting 80 points, however, Maine finished in fifth place yet again, and failed to make the playoffs.  Bowness returned to the NHL to become the head coach of the Bruins for the 1991–92 season. He coached his first game as a Bruin on October 3, 1991, defeating the New York Rangers 5–3 at the Boston Garden. Overall, the Bruins finished the season with a 36–32–12 record, earning 84 points and second place in the Adams Division. Bowness coached his first playoff game on April 19, 1992, losing 3–2 to the Buffalo Sabres. The Bruins eventually won the series in seven games, followed by a four-game sweep over the Montreal Canadiens to reach the Wales Conference finals. It was the Bruins' first four-game playoff sweep over the Canadiens. Boston was then swept by the Pittsburgh Penguins, who went on to win the Stanley Cup.  After just one season with the Bruins, Bowness was not brought back, as Boston replaced him with Brian Sutter. Bowness then took a job with the expansion Ottawa Senators, becoming that franchise's first head coach.

Ottawa Senators.

Bowness became the first head coach of the expansion Ottawa Senators when he was hired in 1992. On October 8, 1992, the Senators won the franchise's first game, over the eventual Stanley Cup champion Montreal Canadiens 5–3 at the Ottawa Civic Centre. With a lineup perilously thin on talent, wins for Bowness and the Senators were few and far between, and Ottawa finished with a league-worst 10–70–4 record, earning 24 points and a tie for last place in the overall NHL standings with the San Jose Sharks.  Bowness returned to the Senators for the 1993–94 season. Though Ottawa boasted a somewhat stronger lineup and improved its season total by 13 points, the team nonetheless finished in last place in the NHL with 37 points.  Under Bowness' leadership, the Senators continued to go through some growing pains but also steadily improved. In the team's lockout-shortened third season, Ottawa finished with a 9–34–5 record in the shortened 48 game schedule, finishing in last place in the league for the third straight season.  Bowness began a fourth season with the Senators in 1995–96. After a promising start which saw Ottawa record a 6–5–0 record after 11 games, the club fell into an eight-game losing streak and fell to 6–13–0, and Bowness was relieved of his duties. He was replaced by Dave Allison, who would ultimately win only two of 27 games and be himself fired mere weeks later.

New York Islanders.

Bowness joined the New York Islanders as an associate coach for the 1996–97 under head coach Mike Milbury. After the Islanders got off to a rough 13–23–9 start, Milbury resigned and Bowness became the new head coach of the Islanders. On January 22, 1997, Bowness coached his first game with New York, leading the team to a huge 8–1 victory over the Edmonton Oilers. The Islanders went 16–18–3 under Bowness; however, they failed to reach the playoffs. Bowness returned as the Islanders' head coach for the 1997–98 season; however, the club struggled to a 22–32–9 record, and he was fired, as Mike Milbury replaced him behind the bench.

Phoenix Coyotes.

Bowness joined the Phoenix Coyotes (the former Winnipeg Jets) coaching staff as an assistant under Bobby Francis for the 1999–2000 season. The Coyotes had a strong season, going 39–31–8–4, earning 90 points and third place in the Pacific Division, sixth in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, the Coyotes lost in five games to the Colorado Avalanche in the first round. Despite finishing with a 35–27–17–3 record, earning 90 points, the Coyotes failed to reach the playoffs in the 2000–01, as Phoenix finished in ninth place in the Western Conference.  The Coyotes rebounded in the 2001–02, going 40–27–9–6 to earn 95 points and finish in sixth place in the Western Conference and reach the postseason. In the playoffs, the Coyotes lost in five games to the San Jose Sharks in the first round. After the season, the Coyotes' head coach Francis won the Jack Adams Award for Coach of the Year.  Phoenix struggled in the 2002–03 season, going 31–35–11–5, earning 78 points and 11th place in the Western Conference, well out of a playoff position. The club had another tough season in 2003–04, as the Coyotes had a 20–24–15–3 before the team fired Francis and named Bowness as interim head coach. Under Bowness, Phoenix continued to struggle, as they went 2–12–3–3, and finished well out of the postseason once again.  With the 2004–05 NHL lockout cancelling the season, Bowness returned to the club in 2005–06 as an assistant under new head coach Wayne Gretzky. The Coyotes missed the playoffs once again with a 38–39–5 record, earning 81 points. After the season, Bowness left the club.

Vancouver Canucks.

Bowness joined the Vancouver Canucks as an assistant coach under Alain Vigneault for the 2006–07 season. In his first season with Vancouver, the team won the Northwest Division with a 49–26–7 record, earning 105 points and third in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, the Canucks defeated the Dallas Stars in seven games in the first round, however, Vancouver lost in five games to the Anaheim Ducks in the second round. The Canucks struggled to a 39–33–10 record in 2007–08, earning 88 points, and an 11th place finish in the Western Conference, out of the playoffs. Vancouver rebounded in 2008–09, winning the Northwest Division for the second time in three seasons, going 45–27–10, recording 100 points and third place in the Western Conference. In the playoffs, the Canucks swept the St. Louis Blues in four games, however, they lost to the Chicago Blackhawks in six games in the second round.  The 2009–10 was another very successful season for the Canucks, as the club once again won the Northwest Division with a 49–28–5 record, good for 103 points and third in the Western Conference. Vancouver defeated the Los Angeles Kings in six games, however, they lost to the Blackhawks in six games in the second round for the second consecutive season.  The club had a record breaking 2010–11, as the Canucks won the President's Trophy with a 54–19–9 record, earning a club record 117 points. In the postseason, Vancouver defeated their rivals, the Blackhawks in seven games, followed by winning a six-game series against the Nashville Predators to make the Western Conference final. The Canucks easily defeated the San Jose Sharks to clinch a berth in the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals against the Boston Bruins. In the final round, the Canucks built a 3–2 series lead, however, the club lost their last two games to lose the Stanley Cup in seven games. In 2013, after being swept in the first round of the playoffs, Bowness, head coach Vigneault, and assistant coach Newell Brown were all fired from their positions in the Canucks coaching staff on May 22, 2013.

Tampa Bay Lightning.

Bowness joined the Tampa Bay Lightning as associate coach on June 3, 2013, joining first-year head coach Jon Cooper. His responsibilities included the team's defense and penalty-killing. On February 7, 2015, Bowness coached in his 2000th game in the NHL. On June 14, 2016, Bowness signed a multi-year extension with the Lightning. He was dismissed on May 31, 2018 after General Manager Steve Yzerman called the defense "not quite good enough" during the regular season and the playoffs.  During his time in Tampa, Bowness passed Scotty Bowman for the most games coached in the NHL.

Dallas Stars.

Bowness was hired by the Dallas Stars as an assistant coach on June 22, 2018. On December 10, 2019, he was named interim head coach of the Stars after Jim Montgomery was fired due to unprofessional conduct. At that time of his promotion, Bowness had a career record of 123–289–51 as a head coach.

Richard Gary Bowness (born January 25, 1955) is a Canadian professional ice hockey coach and former player. He is the interim head coach for the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League (NHL). Bowness played for the Atlanta Flames, Detroit Red Wings, St. Louis Blues and original Winnipeg Jets and Central Hockey League, American Hockey League and Quebec Major Junior Hockey League teams. Bowness has been a head coach for the original Winnipeg Jets, Boston Bruins, Ottawa Senators, New York Islanders and Phoenix Coyotes, and associate coach with the Vancouver Canucks.

<dfn>Richard Gary Bowness</dfn> (né le à Moncton, au Nouveau-Brunswick au Canada) est un joueur professionnel canadien de hockey sur glace qui évoluait au poste de centre.


Counties.

Depending on which definition of the Research Triangle region is used, as few as three or as many as 16 counties are included as part of the region. All of these counties when included hold a population of over 2,167,000 people.  The three core counties of Wake, Durham and Orange are the homes of the three research universities for which the area is named.  The 2019 members of the Research Triangle Regional Partnership are:

NC Regional Councils of Governments Definition.

All counties in the State of North Carolina are in one of 16 regional councils which provide programs and services to local governments. The Triangle J Council of Governments includes Chatham, Durham, Johnston, Lee, Moore, Orange, and Wake Counties. The northern Triangle counties of Person, Granville, Franklin, Vance and Warren are part of the Kerr-Tar Regional Council of Governments.

Office of Management and Budget Definition.

As of September 14, 2018, the US Office of Management and Budget (OMB) delineated the Raleigh-Durham-Cary Combined Statistical Area as consisting of two metropolitan and one micropolitan statistical areas. Those three statistical areas in turn are defined as consisting of a total of nine counties. The MSAs and their constituent counties are:  Prior to September 2018, the OMB had used the name Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill Combined Statistical Area and it included several additional counties. The Dunn Micropolitan Statistical Area (Harnett County) and Sanford Micropolitan Statistical Area (Lee County) were moved to the Fayetteville-Sanford-Lumberton Combined Statistical Area, while the Oxford Micropolitan Statistical Area (Granville County) was folded into the Durham-Chapel Hill Metropolitan Statistical Area. The Raleigh Metropolitan Statistical Area was also renamed the Raleigh-Cary Metropolitan Statistical Area.  The table below outlines the populations of the constituent counties of the Raleigh–Durham-Cary Combined Statistical Area as of July 1, 2019.

Cities.

The Triangle region, as defined for statistical purposes as the Raleigh–Durham–Cary CSA, comprises nine counties, although the U.S. Census Bureau divided the region into two metropolitan statistical areas and one micropolitan area in 2003. The Raleigh-Cary metropolitan area comprises Wake, Franklin, and Johnston Counties; the Durham-Chapel Hill metropolitan area comprises Durham, Orange, Chatham, Granville, and Person Counties; and the Henderson micropolitan area comprises Vance County.  Some area television stations define the region as Raleigh–Durham–Fayetteville. Fayetteville is more than from Raleigh, but is part of the Triangle television market.

Education.

Public secondary education in the Triangle is similar to that of the majority of the state of North Carolina, in which there are county-wide school systems (the exception is Chapel Hill-Carrboro City Schools within Orange County but apart from Orange County Schools). Based in Cary, the Wake County Public School System, which includes the cities of Raleigh and Cary, is the largest school system in the state of North Carolina and the 15th-largest in the United States, with average daily enrollment of 159,949 as of the second month of the 2016–17 school year. Other larger systems in the region include Durham Public Schools (about 33,000 students) and rapidly growing Johnston County Schools (about 31,000 students).

Sports.

College sports.

With the significant number of universities and colleges in the area and the relative absence of major league professional sports, NCAA sports are very popular, particularly those sports in which the Atlantic Coast Conference participates, most notably basketball.  The Duke Blue Devils (representing Duke University in Durham), NC State Wolfpack (representing North Carolina State University in Raleigh), and North Carolina Tar Heels (representing the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) are all members of the ACC. Rivalries among these schools are very strong, fueled by proximity to each other, with annual competitions in every sport. Adding to the rivalries is the large number of graduates the high schools in the region send to each of the local universities. It is very common for students at one university to know many students attending the other local universities, which increases the opportunities for "bragging" among the schools. The four ACC schools in the state, Duke, North Carolina, North Carolina State, and Wake Forest University (the last of which was originally located in the town of Wake Forest before moving to Winston-Salem in 1956), are referred to as Tobacco Road by sportscasters, particularly in basketball. All four teams consistently produce high-caliber teams. Each of the Triangle-based universities listed has won at least two NCAA Basketball national championships.  Three historically black colleges, including recent Division I arrival North Carolina Central University and Division II members St. Augustine College and Shaw University also boost the popularity of college sports in the region.  Other colleges in the Triangle that field intercollegiate teams include Campbell University, Meredith College, and William Peace University.

Professional sports.

The region has only one professional team of the four major sports, the Carolina Hurricanes of the NHL, based in Raleigh. Since moving to the Research Triangle region from Hartford, Connecticut, they have enjoyed great success, including winning a Stanley Cup. With only one top-level professional sports option, minor league sports are quite popular in the region. The Durham Bulls in downtown Durham are a AAA Minor League baseball affiliate of the Tampa Bay Rays, and the Carolina Mudcats, based in Zebulon, 10 miles east of Raleigh, are the Advanced-A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers. In Cary, North Carolina FC plays in the second-level United Soccer League, and the North Carolina Courage began play in the National Women's Soccer League in 2017 after the owner of North Carolina FC bought the NWSL franchise rights of the Western New York Flash and relocated the NWSL franchise to the Triangle.  The area also had a team in the fledgling World League of American Football – however, the Raleigh–Durham Skyhawks, coached by Roman Gabriel, did not exactly cover themselves in glory; they lost all 10 games of their inaugural (and only) season in 1991. The team folded after that, being replaced in the league by the Ohio Glory, which fared little better at 1–9, ultimately suffering the same fate – along with the other six teams based in North America – when the league took a two-year hiatus, returning as a six-team all-European league in 1995.

Commerce.

Anchored by leading technology firms, government and world-class universities, medical centers and schools, the area's economy has performed exceptionally well. Significant increases in employment, earnings, personal income, and retail sales are projected over the next 15 years.  The region's growing high-technology community includes such companies as IBM, Lenovo, SAS Institute, Cisco Systems, NetApp, Red Hat, EMC Corporation, and Credit Suisse First Boston. In addition to high-tech, the region is consistently ranked in the top three in the U.S. with concentration in life science companies. Some of these companies include GlaxoSmithKline, Biogen Idec, BASF, Merck & Co., Novo Nordisk, Novozymes, and Pfizer. Research Triangle Park and North Carolina State University's Centennial Campus in Raleigh support innovation through R&D and technology transfer among the region's companies and research universities (including Duke University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill).  The area fared relatively well during the late-2000s recession, ranked as the strongest region in North Carolina by the Brookings Institution and among the top 40 in the country. The change in unemployment during 2008 to 2009 was 4.6% and home prices was 2%. The Greensboro metropolitan area was listed among the second-weakest and the Charlotte area among the middle in the country.

Major hospitals, medical centers and medical schools.

The Research Triangle region is served by these hospitals and medical centers:

Transportation.

Freeways and primary designated routes.

The Triangle proper is served by three major interstate highways: I-40, I-85, and I-87 along with their spurs: I-440 and I-540, and seven U.S. Routes: 1, 15, 64, 70, 264, 401, and 501. US Highways 15 and 501 are multiplexed through much of the region as US 15-501. I-95 passes 30 miles east of Raleigh through Johnston County, with I-87 connecting I-95 at Rocky Mount, NC to Raleigh via the US 64–264 Bypass.  The two interstates diverge from one another in Orange County, with I-85 heading northeast through northern Durham County toward Virginia, while I-40 travels southeast through southern Durham, through the center of the region, and serves as the primary freeway through Raleigh. The related loop freeways I-440 and I-540 are primarily located in Wake County around Raleigh. I-440 begins at the interchange of US 1 and I-40 southwest of downtown Raleigh and arcs as a multiplex with US 1 northward around downtown with the formal designation as the Cliff Benson/Raleigh Beltline (cosigned with US 1 on three-fourths of its northern route) and ends at its junction with I-40 in southeast Raleigh. I-540, sometimes known as the Raleigh Outer Loop, extends from the US 64–264 Bypass to I-40 just inside Durham County, where it continues across the interstate as a state route (NC 540), prior to its becoming a toll road from the NC 54 interchange to the current terminus at NC Highway 55 near Holly Springs. I-95 serves the extreme eastern edge of the region, crossing north–south through suburban Johnston County.  U.S. Routes 1, 15, and 64 primarily serve the region as limited-access freeways or multilane highways with access roads. US 1 enters the region from the southwest as the Claude E. Pope Memorial Highway and travels through suburban Apex where it merges with US 64 and continues northeast through Cary. The two highways are codesignated for about until US 1 joins I-440 and US 64 with I-40 along the Raleigh–Cary border. Capital Boulevard, which is designated US 1 for half of its route and US 401 the other is not a limited-access freeway, although it is a major thoroughfare through northeast Raleigh and into the northern downtown area.  North Carolina Highway 147 is a limited-access freeway that connects I-85 with Toll Route NC 540 in northwestern Wake County. The older, toll-free portion of the four-lane route—known as the Durham Freeway or the I.L. "Buck" Dean Expressway—traverses downtown Durham and extends through Research Triangle Park to I-40. The Durham Freeway is often used as a detour or alternate route for I-40 through southwestern Durham the Chapel Hill area in cases of traffic accident, congestion or road construction delays. The tolled portion of NC 147, called the Triangle Expressway—North Carolina's first modern toll road when it opened to traffic in late 2011—continues past I-40 to Toll NC 540. Both Toll NC 147 and Toll NC 540 are modern facilities which collect tolls using transponders and license plate photo-capture technology.

Public transit.

A partnering system of multiple public transportation agencies currently serves the Triangle region under the joint GoTransit branding. Raleigh is served by the Capital Area Transit (CAT) municipal transit system, while Durham has the Durham Area Transit Authority (DATA) system. Chapel Hill is served by Chapel Hill Transit, and Cary is served by C-Tran public transit systems. However, Triangle Transit, formerly called the Triangle Transit Authority (TTA), works in cooperation with all area transit systems by offering transfers between its own routes and those of the other systems. Triangle Transit also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers and commute destinations.  Plans have been made to merge all of the area's municipal systems into Triangle Transit, and Triangle Transit also has proposed a regional rail system to connect downtown Durham, downtown Cary and downtown Raleigh with multiple suburban stops, as well as stops in the Research Triangle Park area. The agency's initial proposal was effectively cancelled in 2006, however, when the agency could not procure adequate federal funding. A committee of local business, transportation and government leaders currently are working with Triangle Transit to develop a new transit blueprint for the region, with various modes of rail transit, as well as bus rapid transit, open as options for consideration.

Air.

Raleigh–Durham International Airport (RDU).

Raleigh–Durham International Airport (RDU) has nonstop passenger service to 68 destinations with over 450 average daily departures, including nonstop international service to Canada, Europe, and Mexico. It is located near the geographic center of The Triangle, northeast of the town of Morrisville in Wake County. The airport covers 5,000 acres (2,023 ha) and has three runways.  In 1939 the General Assembly of North Carolina chartered the Raleigh–Durham Aeronautical Authority, which was changed in 1945 to the Raleigh–Durham Airport Authority. The first new terminal opened in 1955. Terminal A (now Terminal 1) opened in 1981. American Airlines began service to RDU in 1985.  RDU opened the runway, 5L-23R, in 1986. American Airlines opened its north–south hub operation at RDU in the new Terminal C in June 1987, greatly increasing the size of RDU's operations with a new terminal including a new apron and runway. American brought RDU its first international flights to Bermuda, Cancun, Paris and London.  In 1996, American Airlines ceased its hub operations at RDU due to Pan Am and Eastern Airlines. Pan Am and Eastern were Miami's main tenants until 1991, when both carriers went bankrupt. Their hubs at MIA were taken over by United Airlines and American Airlines. This created a difficulty in competing with US Airways' hub in Charlotte and Delta Air Lines' hub in Atlanta, Georgia for passengers traveling between smaller cities in the North and South. Midway Airlines entered the market, starting service in 1995 with the then somewhat novel concept of 50-seat Canadair Regional Jets providing service from its RDU hub primarily along the East Coast. Midway, originally incorporated in Chicago, had some success after moving its operations to the midpoint of the eastern United States at RDU and its headquarters to Morrisville, NC. The carrier ultimately could not overcome three weighty challenges: the arrival of Southwest Airlines, the refusal of American Airlines to renew the frequent flyer affiliation it had with Midway (thus dispatching numerous higher fare-paying businesspeople to airlines with better reward destinations), and the significant blow of September 11, 2001. Midway Airlines filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy on August 13, 2001, and ceased operations entirely on October 30, 2003.  In February 2000, RDU was ranked as the nation's second fastest-growing major airport in the United States, by Airports Council International, based on 1999 statistics. Passenger growth hit 24% over the previous year, ranking RDU second only to Washington Dulles International Airport. RDU opened Terminal A south concourse for use by Northwest and Continental Airlines in 2001. The addition added and five aircraft gates to the terminal. Terminal A became designated as Terminal 1 on October 26, 2008. In 2003, RDU also dedicated a new general aviation terminal. RDU continues to keep pace with its growth by redeveloping Terminal C into a new state-of-the-art terminal, now known as Terminal 2, which opened in October 2008.  Carriers at RDU International Airport:

Public general-aviation airports.

In addition to RDU, several smaller publicly owned general-aviation airports also operate in the metropolitan region:

Private airfields.

Several licensed private general-aviation and agricultural airfields are located in the region's suburban areas and nearby rural communities:

Heliports.

These licensed heliports serve the Research Triangle region:  A number of helipads (i.e. marked landing sites not classified under the FAA LID system) also serve a variety of additional medical facilities (such as UNC Hospitals in Chapel Hill), as well as private, corporate and governmental interests, throughout the region.

Rail.

Amtrak serves the region with the Silver Meteor, Silver Star, Palmetto, Carolinian, and Piedmont routes.

Shopping.

"Notable shopping centers and malls:"

Entertainment.

Film festivals and events: Notable performing arts and music venues: Theatre and dance events: Music festivals: Movie theatre chains:

Media.

The area is part of the Raleigh–Durham–Fayetteville television designated media area and is the 25th-largest in the country with 1,135,920 households (2014) included in that area and the second largest television market in North Carolina. It is part of the Raleigh–Durham Nielsen Audio radio market (code 115) and is the 42nd-largest in the country with a population of 1,365,900.  The Raleigh–Durham–Fayetteville market is defined by Nielsen as including Chatham, Cumberland, Dunn, Durham, Granville, Halifax, Harnett, Hoke, Johnston, Lee, Moore, Northampton, Orange, Robeson, Vance, Wake, Warren, Wayne, and Wilson Counties, along with parts of Franklin County.

Print.

Numerous newspapers and periodicals serve the Triangle market.

Television.

Broadcast.

The Triangle is part of the Raleigh–Durham–Fayetteville Designated Market Area for broadcast television. –16, the area was the 25th-largest in the country. This area includes these television stations:

Cable.

Raleigh is home to the Research Triangle Region bureau of the regional cable TV news channel News 14 Carolina.

Radio.

The Triangle is home to North Carolina Public Radio, a public radio station/NPR provider that brings in listeners around the country. Raleigh and a large part of the Triangle area is Arbitron radio market #43. Stations include:  FM stations:  AM stations:

Rankings.

Triangle  North Carolina

The Research Triangle, commonly referred to as simply The Triangle, is a region in the Piedmont of North Carolina in the United States, anchored by three major research universities: North Carolina State University, Duke University, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, as well as the cities of Raleigh and Durham and the town of Chapel Hill. The nine-county region, officially named the Raleigh–Durham–Cary combined statistical area (CSA), comprises the Raleigh–Cary and Durham–Chapel Hill Metropolitan Statistical Areas and the Henderson Micropolitan Statistical Area.

Raleigh-Durham, aussi appelé Research Triangle en anglais, ou simplement le Triangle, est une région du Piedmont de Caroline du Nord aux États-Unis démarquée par l'université d'État de Caroline du Nord, l'université Duke, l'université de Caroline du Nord à Chapel Hill, et des villes dans lesquelles elles se situent : Raleigh, Durham et Chapel Hill. Composé de 8 comtés, la région Raleigh-Durham-Cary, utilisée pour les statistiques, comprend les zones urbaines de Raleigh-Cary et Durham-Chapell Hill, et la zone de Dunn. En 2017, la population est estimée à personnes.


Drawbacks.

Although easy to implement, round-robin DNS has a number of drawbacks, such as those arising from record caching in the DNS hierarchy itself, as well as client-side address caching and reuse, the combination of which can be difficult to manage. Round-robin DNS should not solely be relied upon for service availability. If a service at one of the addresses in the list fails, the DNS will continue to hand out that address and clients will still attempt to reach the inoperable service.  Round-robin DNS may not be the best choice for load balancing on its own, since it merely alternates the order of the address records each time a name server is queried. Because it does not take transaction time, server load, and network congestion into consideration, it works best for services with a large number of uniformly distributed connections to servers of equivalent capacity. Otherwise, it just does load distribution.  Methods exist to overcome such limitations. For example, modified DNS servers (such as lbnamed) can routinely poll mirrored servers for availability and load factor. If a server does not reply as required, the server can be temporarily removed from the DNS pool, until it reports that it is once again operating within specs.  DNS GSLB method can also be used to enhance the simple round-robin distribution. By either working at the authoritative DNS server by checking the server availability (and sometimes the client one as well) or at the edge of the network in a recursive DNS server by modifying on the fly the DNS answers. Authoritative solution are generally embedded in load balancing solution and application delivery controller as a standard or optional solution. Recursive solution, also called Edge DNS GSLB, is pushing the concept by adding an easier way to validate record availability on the network from the client standpoint, then reducing interpretation errors.

Round-robin DNS is a technique of load distribution, load balancing, or fault-tolerance provisioning multiple, redundant Internet Protocol service hosts, e.g., Web server, FTP servers, by managing the Domain Name System's (DNS) responses to address requests from client computers according to an appropriate statistical model.

Le DNS round-robin (en français « tourniquet » DNS, le terme « round-robin » est un terme anglais provenant du français « ruban rond », une sorte de tourniquet, modifié par idiotisme) est une des techniques de répartition de charge consistant à associer plusieurs adresses IP à un nom de domaine pleinement qualifié (FQDN) afin de répartir les réponses à un service sur plusieurs serveurs, suivant un algorithme d'ordonnancement de type round-robin.


Representational systems within NLP.

For many practical purposes, according to NLP, mental processing of events and memories can be treated as if performed by the five senses. For example, Albert Einstein credited his discovery of special relativity to a mental visualization strategy of "sitting on the end of a ray of light", and many people as part of decision-making "talk to themselves" in their heads.  The manner in which this is done, and the effectiveness of the mental strategy employed, is stated by NLP to play a critical part in the way mental processing takes place. This observation led to the concept of a "preferred" representational system, the classification of people into fixed "visual", "auditory" or "kinesthetic" stereotypes. This idea was later discredited and dropped within NLP by the early 1980s, in favor of the understanding that most people use all of their senses (whether consciously or unconsciously), and that whilst one system may seem to dominate, this is often contextualized - globally there is a balance that dynamically varies according to circumstance and mood.  NLP asserts that for most circumstances and most people, three of the five sensory based modes seem to dominate in mental processing: The other two senses, gustatory (taste) and olfactory (smell), which are closely associated, often seem to be less significant in general mental processing, and are often considered jointly as one.  For this reason, one often sees the term "VAK" in NLP reference texts, to signify these three primary representational systems, as well as the term "4-tuple" (or "VAKOG") if the author wishes to include all senses including taste/smell. The same term is also known as "First Access" (John Grinder), or "primary experience" (Freud).

Notation and strategies.

In documenting mental strategies and processing by the senses, NLP practitioners often use a simple shorthand for different modalities, with a letter indicating the representation system concerned, and often, a superscript to indicate how that system is being used. Three key aspects are commonly notated: The "representation system" being used (visual/V, auditory/A, kinesthetic/K, and occasionally, O/G), whether the "direction of attention" is internal or external, and whether the event is a "recollection" of an actual past event or "construction" of an imaginary event. Due to its importance in human cognitive processing, auditory internal dialogue, or talking in one's head, has its own shorthand: A.  Putting these together, this is a very simplified example of some steps which might actually be involved in replying to a simple question such as "Do you like that dress?". The table below is useful for teaching how to identify and access each representational system in context:  Logically, these or similar steps "must" take place somewhere in consciousness in order to cognitively make sense of the question and answer it. A sequence of this kind is known in NLP as a "strategy" - in this case, a functional outline of the strategy used by the mind in answering that question. In a similar way, the process leading to a panic attack of the form "I see the clock, ask myself where the kids are, imagine everything that could be happening and feel scared" might be notated as having a subjective structure: V → A → V → K, signifying that an external sight leads to internal dialog (a question), followed by internal and constructed images, leading to a feeling.  Generally speaking, most human perceptual and cognitive processing occurs before conscious awareness. For example, few people would ordinarily be aware that between question and even considering an answer, there must be steps in which the mind interprets and contextualizes the question itself, and steps which explore various possible strategies to be used to obtain an answer and select one to be followed. The mental occurrence of these steps is often identified by deduction following skilled observation, or by careful inquiry, although their presence is usually self-apparent to the person concerned once noticed.

Sensory predicates and eye accessing cues.

Grinder and Bandler believed they identified pattern of relationship between the sensory-based language people use in general conversation, and for example, their eye movement (known as "eye accessing cues").  A common (but not universal) style of processing in the West is shown in the attached chart, where "eye flickers" in specific directions often seem to tie into specific kinds of internal (mental) processing.  NLP also suggests that sometimes (again not universally) such processing is associated with sensory word use; for example, a person asked what they liked about the beach, may flick their eyes briefly in some characteristic direction (visual memory access, often upwards) and then also use words that describe it in a visual sense ("The sea "looked" lovely", and so on). Likewise asked about a problem, someone may look in a different direction for a while (kinesthetic access, typically downwards) and then look puzzled and say "I just can't seem to "get a grip" on things". Taken together, NLP suggests such eye accessing cues (1) are idiosyncratic and habitual for each person, and (2) may form significant clues as to how a person is processing or representing a problem to themselves unconsciously. Common (but not universal) Western layout of eye accessing cues:  Eye movement to the left or right for many people seems to indicate if a memory was recalled or constructed. Thus remembering an actual image (V) is associated more with up-left, whilst imagining one's dream home (V) tends (again not universally) to be more associated with up-right.

Subjective awareness.

When we think about the world, or about our past experiences, we represent those things inside our heads. For example, think about the holiday you went on last year. Did you see a picture of where you went, tell yourself a story about what you did, feel the sun on your back and the wind in your hair? Can you bring to mind the smell of your favourite flower or the taste of a favourite meal??  The use of the various modalities can be identified based by learning to respond to subtle shifts in breathing, body posture, accessing cues, gestures, eye movement and language patterns such as sensory predicates.

Uses.

NLP's interest in the senses is not so much in their role as bridges to the outside world, but in their role as internal channels for cognitive processing and interpretation. In an NLP perspective, it is not very important "per se" whether a person "sees" or "hears" some memory. By contrast, NLP views it as potentially of great importance for the same person, to discover that some auditory sounds presented almost out of consciousness along with the memory, may be how the brain presents to consciousness, and how consciousness "knows", whether this is a heart-warming pleasant memory, or a fearsome phobic one.  Representational systems are also relevant since some tasks are better performed within one representational system than by another. For example, within education, spelling is better learned by children who have unconsciously used a strategy of visualization, than an unconscious strategy of phonetically "sounding out". When taught to visualize, previously poor spellers can indeed be taught to improve. NLP proponents also found that pacing and leading the various cues tended to build rapport, and allowed people to communicate more effectively. Certain studies suggest that using similar representational systems to another person can help build rapport whilst other studies have found that merely mimicking or doing so in isolation is perceived negatively.  Skinner and Stephens (2003) explored the use of the model of representational systems in television marketing and communications.  Some exercises in NLP training involve learning how to observe and respond to the various cues in real time.

The preferred representational system (PRS).

Originally NLP taught that people preferred one representational system over another. People could be stuck by thinking about a problem in their "preferred representational system" (PRS). Some took this idea further and categorised people as auditory, kinesthetic, and visual thinkers (see also: learning styles). It was claimed that swifter and more effective results could be achieved by matching this preferred system. Although there is some research that supports the notion that eye movement can indicate visual and auditory (but not kinesthetic) components of thought in that moment, the existence of a preferred representational system ascertainable from external cues (an important part of original NLP theory) was discounted by research in the 1980s. Some still believe the PRS model to be important for enhancing rapport and influence. Others have de-emphasized its relevance and instead emphasize that people constantly use all representational systems. In particular, new code emphasizes individual calibration and sensory acuity, precluding such a rigidly specified model as the one described above. Responding directly to sensory experience requires an immediacy which respects the importance of context. John Grinder has stated that a representational system diagnosis lasts about 30 seconds.  In a review of research findings, Sharpley (1987) found little support for individuals to have a "preferred" representational system (PRS), whether in the choice of words or direction of eye movement, and the concept of a "preferred representation system" (PRS). Similarly, The National Research Committee found little support for the influence of PRS as presented in early descriptions of NLP, Frogs into Princes (1979) and Structure of Magic (1975). However, "at a meeting with Richard Bandler in Santa Cruz, California, on July 9, 1986, the [National Research Committee] influence subcommittee... was informed that PRS was no longer considered an important component of NLP. He said that NLP had been revised." (p. 140) The NLP developers, Robert Dilts et al. (1980) proposed that eye movement (and sometimes bodily gesture) correspond to accessing cues for representations systems, and connected it to specific sides in the brain.

Representational systems (also known as sensory modalities and abbreviated to VAKOG is a postulated model from neuro-linguistic programming a pseudoscientific collection of models and methods regarding how the human mind processes and stores information. The central idea of this model is that experience is represented in the mind in sensorial terms, i.e. in terms of the putative five senses, qualia.

En programmation neuro-linguistique, la technique dite des « canaux sensoriels » (ou VAKOG, acronyme pour : « Visuel, Auditif, Kinesthésique, Olfactif, Gustatif ») pose que la relation au monde extérieur passe nécessairement par au moins l’un des cinq sens.


Name.

The oldest surviving written mention is in a letter dating from 1290, which refers to the river "Olza". The river was then mentioned in a written document in 1611 as the "Oldza". At the end of the 19th century, with the rise of mass nationalism, both Polish and Czech activists claimed the name "Olza" to be not Polish enough, on the one hand, and insufficiently Czech, on the other. Some Polish activists proposed the name "Olsza", Czech activists "Olše".  The Czech linguist and writer Vincenc Prasek demonstrated in 1900 that the name "Olza" has, in fact, an independent Old Slavic origin which predates both Polish and Czech. This revelation has been confirmed by various etymological studies in the 20th century. The regionally used form "Olza" is derived from the ancient "Oldza". German "Olsa" is a re-spelling of "Olza" but pronounced the same. Local people always used the "Olza" form, regardless of their national or ethnic origin.  However, the central administration in Prague saw "Olza" as a Polish name and when most of the river became a part of Czechoslovakia in 1920 it tried to change its name to the Czech form, "Olše". However, a degree of dualism in the naming persisted until the 1960s, when the Central State Administration of Geodesy and Cartography ruled that the only official form in the Czech Republic is "Olše". Locals on both sides of the border and from both nationalities continue to refer to the river as the "Olza" nevertheless.

Towns and villages on the river.

"(from source to the mouth)"

The (, ) is a river in Poland and the Czech Republic, a right (eastern) tributary of the River Oder. It flows from the Silesian Beskids mountains through southern Cieszyn Silesia in Poland and the Frýdek-Místek and Karviná districts of the Czech Republic, often forming the border with Poland. It flows into the Oder River north of Bohumín. The Olza-Oder confluence also forms a part of the border.

La rivière Olza (en tchèque ) est un cours d'eau qui prend sa source en Pologne puis s'écoule en République tchèque avant de se jeter dans le fleuve Oder.


Biography and profession.

Schmid was born in Perpignan, France and lived there for five years before his family moved to Germany. In 1908, the family moved to Stuttgart, where Schmid attended the prestigious humanist Karls-Gymnasium, where he passed his Abitur in 1914. From 1914 to 1918, Schmid fought in the German army. After the war he studied law at the University of Tübingen after which he successfully sat the first (1921) and second (1924) Legal State Exam. In 1923, he completed a doctoral dissertation under the supervision of the renowned legal scholar Hugo Sinzheimer.  After working as a lawyer for a short time, he was made a justice of Württemberg state in 1927. From 1927 to 1928, he worked as a research assistant for the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut for foreign public law. At the Institute, he was a colleague of Hermann Heller. In 1929, Schmid completed his Habilitation with a thesis on the jurisprudence of the Permanent Court of International Justice. From 1930 to 1940 he worked as a Privatdozent at the University of Tübingen. He was refused tenure by the Nazis on political grounds.  In 1940 he was made legal counsel of the 'Oberfeldkommandantur' of the German occupation forces in Lille (France).  In 1946, he was granted tenure as professor of public law at Tübingen, and in 1953, he relinquished the position for a chair in Political Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität in Frankfurt am Main.  Apart from pursuing an academic career, Schmid translated works of Niccolò Machiavelli, Charles Baudelaire and André Malraux. His personal archive was placed in the care of the German "Archive of Social Democracy" (Archiv der sozialen Demokratie) in Bonn. He worried about Martin Sandberger's conditions in Landsberg prison and spoke out in favor of a commutation.  He was awarded the "Großkreuz des Verdienstordens der Bundesrepublik Deutschland". He was also awarded the prestigious Hansischer Goethe-Preis. Schmid died in Bad Honnef on 11 December 1979 at the age of 83.

SPD.

After the war, Schmid joined the SPD and was one of the founders of the reconstituted SPD in Württemberg. He acted as chairman of the SPD in Württemberg-Hohenzollern from 1946 to 1950 and was member of the SPD board from 1947 to 1970. He was also a member of the Presidium of the SPD from 1958 to 1970 and acted as a catalyst for party reform, being one of the main authors of the Godesberg Program, which jettisoned most remnants of Marxist doctrine.  From 1961 to 1965 he was part of Willy Brandt's shadow cabinet as shadow foreign minister.

Parliamentary activity.

In 1947, Schmid was elected as representative in the Landtag of Württemberg-Hohenzollern. He was a member of the Landtag until the state ceased to exist upon the creation of the state Baden-Württemberg on 17 May 1952.  From 1948 to 1949, Schmid was a member of the Parlamentarischer Rat, acting as leader of the SPD faction and chair of the Chief Committee, playing a pivotal role in the drawing up of the German Basic Law. Arguably, Schmid's most distinctive contribution to the German constitutional system was the "Constructive Vote of No Confidence" which stated that a Chancellor can be removed from office by only the Federal Diet upon the Diet's election of another Chancellor. This type of vote of no confidence is constructive because it prevents the Federal Government from being paralyzed by recurring votes of no confidence as occurred in the Weimar Republic.  From 1949 to 1972, he was a member of the Federal Diet. He was active in a variety of Diet committees, the most notable of which was the Foreign Affairs Committee. He also served as vice-president of the Federal Diet from 1949 to 1966 and again from 1969 to 1972. He also served as vice-president of the SPD-faction in the Diet. During his entire membership of the Diet he represented the Mannheim I electoral district.

Other public offices.

In 1945 the French military authorities nominated Schmid to act as "President of the State Secretariat" for the Land Württemberg-Hohenzollern, which was located in the French Zone of Occupation. Simultaneously, Schmid was put in charge of the Land's educational and cultural policies until the first elections took place in 1947. From then to 1 May 1950, Schmid was Minister of Justice and acting President of the Württemberg-Hohenzollern. He represented Württemberg-Hohenzollern at the German Constitutional Convention were the Basic Law was ratified.  Carlo Schmid stood for election for the office of Federal President (Bundespräsident) in 1959 but was defeated by the CDU candidate Heinrich Lübke in the second round of voting.  Schmid was Federal Minister for the Affairs of the Federal Council (Bundesrat) and States (Bundesländer) in the cabinet of Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger from 1966 to 1969. In this position, he represented the Federal Government in the Bundesrat. Schmid quit the cabinet on 21 October 1969 after the election of 6th Bundestag.

International politics.

Carlo Schmid, whose mother was from France and who spoke excellent French, was always eager for reconciliation between France and Germany. He was a member of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe from 1950 to 1960 as well as from 1969 to 1973. He was President of the Assembly of the Western European Union, a regional defence organisation distinct from the European Union, from 1963 to 1966, after being vice-president of the Assembly since 1956.

Carlo Schmid (3 December 1896 – 11 December 1979) was a German academic and politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).

Carlo Schmid, né Karl Johann Martin Heinrich Schmid à Perpignan, le et décédé le à Bad Honnef, était un homme politique ouest-allemand, membre du Parti social-démocrate d'Allemagne (SPD).


History.

Formation and early years (1999–2001).

Kat Bjelland and her then-husband Glenn Mattson formed Katastrophy Wife in 1998, during the time in which Bjelland was still in Babes in Toyland. Seeing as Babes in Toyland were not performing much shows - and were unofficially defunct after bassist Maureen Herman left in 1996 - Katastrophy Wife soon became Bjelland's main musical output.  The band's first production was the soundtrack for the comic "Witchblade" on DreamWorks. The soundtrack featured other artists such as Buzz Osborne of the Melvins, Lydia Lunch, Miho Hatori of Cibo Matto, Girls Against Boys and Dave Ogilvie of Skinny Puppy.<ref name="Bjelland, Kat. "RiSH Publicity : Katastrophy Wife Biography" http://www.rishpublicity.com/kwife.htm Retrieved on June 12, 2010.">Bjelland, Kat. "RiSH Publicity : Katastrophy Wife Biography' Retrieved on June 12, 2010.</ref>  In 2000, the band recorded their debut album "Amusia" and released it in 2001. Featuring original bassist Keith St. Louis, the album achieved considerable indie success, even acquiring the band a slot at the infamous Reading Festival in 2002 and a headline spot on the UK leg of the United States' Ladyfest in 2001. Their first single, and opening track from the album, "Gone Away", was released in 2001. After the performance at the Reading Festival, Glenn Mattson and Keith St. Louis departed from the band, with Andrew Parker and Darren Donovan replacing them, respectively. Vanessa White, former guitarist of Twist, also joined the band.

Name issues, Bastard, and "All Kneel" (2002–2004).

During Katastrophy Wife's short tour of Europe in 2002, Kat Bjelland used the title of her old band Babes in Toyland. However, after facing legal problems from former band members, Bjelland reconsidered and reverted the name back to Katastrophy Wife. Around this time, Bjelland's friend Courtney Love of Hole announced her new, short-lived punk band, Bastard, which she asked Bjelland to join. Bjelland denied Love's offer stating that: "It seemed too conceptualised, like she'd spent too much time thinking about how a band should be [...] Courtney and I make great music together, there's a good spark there, but let's say our personalities would not have been a great mix at that time."  Katastrophy Wife's second studio album, "All Kneel", was released in June 2004 to favourable reviews. Three singles were released from the album, "Liberty Belle", "Money Shot" and "Blue Valient" with UK singer-songwriter Carina Round, a song originally written and recorded during the sessions for "Witchblade".

Reissue and current status (2005–present).

Parker, Donovan and White left the group in 2006, leaving Bjelland and Johnson the remaining band members. After their bandmates' departures, both Bjelland and Johnson continued to record under the name Katastrophy Wife. They began recording again and in May 2007 released "Heart-On", their first single in three years and first from the upcoming album "Pregnant".  "Pregnant" was initially planned for released in 2008 but was postponed for undisclosed reasons. Bjelland reported that in 2007 she suffered a schizophrenic breakdown and was receiving treatment. A further release date was announced for 2009, however, this did not follow through either. The band's Myspace page has been inactive since December 2010.

Katastrophy Wife is an American rock band formed by Kat Bjelland and her former husband Glen Mattson in 1998. Bjelland also fronted the punk rock band Babes in Toyland between 1987 and 2001. The band currently consists of Bjelland on lead vocals and guitar and her boyfriend, Adrian Johnson, on drums.<ref name="MissB, "Katastrophy Wife's Kat Bjelland gets her Heart-On on FasterLouder.com.au" http://www.fasterlouder.com.au/features/8900/Katastrophy_Wifes_Kat_Bjelland_gets_her_HeartOn Fasterlouder.com Retrieved on June 12, 2010.">MissB, "Katastrophy Wife's Kat Bjelland gets her Heart-On on FasterLouder.com.au" http://www.fasterlouder.com.au/features/8900/Katastrophy_Wifes_Kat_Bjelland_gets_her_HeartOn Fasterlouder.com Retrieved on June 12, 2010. The band released two albums, "Amusia" (2001) and "All Kneel" (2004). A third album was due for release in 2008, but, as of 2019, has yet to surface. In May 2014, a 10th anniversary reissue of "All Kneel" was released as part of Record Store Day. Kat Bjelland has since joined fellow Babes in Toyland band member Lori Barbero and new bass player, Clara Salyer in a reunion tour.

Katastrophy Wife est un groupe de rock américain, originaire de Minneapolis, dans le Minnesota. Il est formé par Kat Bjelland et son ex-mari Glenn Mattson en 1998. Le groupe se compose actuellement de Bjelland au chant et à la guitare, son petit ami Adrian Johnson est quant à lui à la batterie.