History.

Origins.

The origin of Ayutthaya had been subjected to scholarly debates. Traditional accounts hold that King Uthong, the ruler of a city called "Uthong", moved his court due to the threat of an epidemic. The city of "Uthong" was not the modern U Thong District, Suphan Buri Province, which was a major Dvaravati site but had already been abandoned before the foundation of Ayutthaya. "Van Vliet's chronicles", a seventeenth-century work, stated that King Uthong was a Chinese merchant who established himself at Phetchaburi before moving to Ayutthaya. "Tamnan Mulla Satsana", a sixteenth-century Lanna literature, stated that King Uthong was from Lavo Kingdom. Whatever the origin he might have come from, King Uthong, who had been a post-Angkorian ruler of one of the cities in Lower Chao Phraya Valley, moved his court to an island on intersection of three rivers; Chao Phraya River, Lopburi River and Pa Sak

Early conquests and expansion.

The integrity of patchwork of cities of early Ayutthaya Kingdom was kept largely through familial connections under mandala system. King Uthong had his son Prince Ramesuan the ruler of Lopburi, his brother the ruler of Praek Sriracha(in modern Chainat Province) and his brother-in-law Khun Luang Pa-ngua the ruler of Suphanburi. The ruler of Phetchaburi was his distant relative. The king would appoint a prince or his relative to be the ruler of a city, and the city that was ruled by a prince was called "Muang Look Luang" (). Each city ruler swore allegiance and loyalty to the King of Ayutthaya but also retained their privileges.  Politics of Early Ayutthaya was characterized by rivalries between the two dynasties; the Uthong dynasty based on Lopburi and Suphannabhum dynasty based on Suphanburi. When King Uthong died in 1369, he was succeeded by his son

Centralization and institutionalization.

Ayutthaya had acquired two mandalas; Sukhothai and Ligor. The "Muang Look Luang" system was inadequate to govern relatively vast territories. The government of Ayutthaya was centralized and institutionalized under King Trailokanat in his reforms promulgating in Palatine Law of 1455, which became the constitution of Ayutthaya for the rest of its existence and continued to be the constitution of Siam until 1892, albeit in altered forms. The central government was dominated by the "Chatusadom" system ( lit. "Four Pillars), in which the court was led by two Prime Ministers; the "Samuha Nayok" the Civil Prime Minister and the "Samuha Kalahom" the Grand Commander of Forces overseeing Civil and Military affairs, respectively. Under the "Samuha Nayok" were the Four Ministries. In the regions, the king sent not "rulers" but "governors" to govern cities. The cities were under governors who were from nobility not rulers with privileges as it had previously been. The "Hierarchy of Cities" was established and cities were organized into four levels. Large, top level cities held authorities over secondary or

First Burmese wars.

Starting in the middle of the 16th century, the kingdom came under repeated attacks by the Taungoo Dynasty of Burma. The Burmese–Siamese War (1547–49) resulted in a failed Burmese siege of Ayutthaya. A second siege (1563–64) led by King Bayinnaung forced King Maha Chakkraphat to surrender in 1564. The royal family was taken to Pegu (Bago), with the king's second son Mahinthrathirat installed as the vassal king. In 1568, Mahinthrathirat revolted when his father managed to return from Pegu as a Buddhist monk. The ensuing third siege captured Ayutthaya in 1569 and Bayinnaung made Mahathammarachathirat his vassal king. In May 1584, less than three years after Bayinnaung's death, Uparaja Naresuan proclaimed Ayutthaya's independence. This proclamation resulted in repeated invasions of Ayutthaya by Burma which the Siamese fought off ultimately finishing in an elephant duel between King Naresuan and Burmese heir-apparent Mingyi Swa in 1593 during the fourth siege of Ayutthaya in which Naresuan famously slew Mingyi Swa. Today, this Siamese victory is observed annually on 18 January as Royal Thai Armed Forces

Second Burmese wars.

In the mid-18th century, Ayutthaya again became ensnared in wars with the Burmese. The Burmese–Siamese War (1759–1760) begun by the Konbaung Dynasty of Burma failed to take Ayutthaya but took northern Taninthayi. The Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767) resulted in the sack of the city of Ayutthaya and the debellation of the kingdom in April 1767.

Downfall.

After a bloody period of dynastic struggle, Ayutthaya entered into what has been called the golden age, a relatively peaceful episode in the second quarter of the 18th century when art, literature, and learning flourished. There were foreign wars. Ayutthaya fought with the Nguyễn Lords (Vietnamese rulers of south Vietnam) for control of Cambodia starting around 1715. But a greater threat came from Burma, where the new Konbaung dynasty had subdued the Shan states.  The last fifty years of the kingdom witnessed a bloody struggle among the princes. The throne was their prime target. Purges of court officials and able generals followed. The last monarch, Ekathat, originally known as Prince Anurakmontree, forced the king, who was his younger brother, to step down and took the throne himself.  According to a French source, Ayutthaya in the 18th century included these principal cities: Martaban, Ligor or Nakhon Sri Thammarat, Tenasserim, Junk Ceylon or Phuket Island, Singora or Songkhla. Her tributaries were Patani,

Government.

Kings.

The kings of Ayutthaya were absolute monarchs with semi-religious status. Their authority derived from the ideologies of Hinduism and Buddhism as well as from natural leadership. The king of Sukhothai was the inspiration of Inscription 1 found in Sukhothai, which stated that King Ramkhamhaeng would hear the petition of any subject who rang the bell at the palace gate. The king was thus considered as a father by his people. At Ayutthaya, however, the paternal aspects of kingship disappeared. The king was considered the "chakkraphat" (Sanskrit "chakravartin") who through his adherence to the law made all

Political development.

Social classes.

The reforms of King Borommatrailokkanat (r. 1448–1488) placed the king of Ayutthaya at the centre of a highly stratified social and political hierarchy that extended throughout the realm. Despite a lack of evidence, it is believed that in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, the basic unit of social organization was the village community composed of extended family households. Title to land resided with the headman, who held it

Ranking of social classes.

With ample reserves of land available for cultivation, the realm depended on the acquisition and control of adequate manpower for farm labor and defense. The dramatic rise of Ayutthaya had entailed constant warfare and, as none of the parties in the region possessed a technological advantage, the outcome of battles was usually determined by the size of the armies. After each victorious campaign, Ayutthaya carried a number of conquered people back to its own territory, where they were assimilated and added to the labour force. Ramathibodi II (r.1491–1529) established a corvée system under which every freeman had to be registered as a "phrai" (servant) with the local lords, "chao nai" (). When war broke out, male "phrai" were subject to impressment. Above the "phrai" was a "nai" (), who was responsible for military service, corvée labour on public works, and on the land of the official to whom he was assigned. "Phrai Suay" () met labour obligations by paying a tax. If he

Military.

Ayutthaya's military was the origin of the Royal Thai Army. The army was organized into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the "Phrai" system (including phrai

Culture and society.

Religion.

Ayutthaya's main religion was Theravada Buddhism. However, many of the elements of the political and social system were incorporated from Hindu scriptures and were conducted by Brahmin priests. Many areas of the kingdom also practiced Mahayana Buddhism, Islam and, influenced by French Missionaries who arrived through China in the 17th century, some small areas converted to Roman Catholicism. The influence of Mahayana and Tantric practices also entered Theravada Buddhism, producing a tradition called Tantric Theravada.  The natural world was also home to a number of spirits which

Arts and performances.

The myth and epic stories of Ramakien provide the Siamese with a rich source of dramatic materials. The royal court of Ayutthaya developed classical dramatic forms of expression called "khon" () and "lakhon" (). "Ramakien" played a role in shaping these dramatic arts. During the Ayutthaya period, "khon", or a dramatized version of Ramakien, was classified as "lakhon nai" or a theatrical performance reserved only for aristocratic audience. The Siamese drama and classical dance later spread throughout mainland Southeast Asia and influenced the development of high-culture art in most countries, including Burma, Cambodia, and Laos.  Historical evidence shows that the Thai art of stage plays must have already been highly evolved by the 17th century. Louis XIV, the Sun King of France, had a formal diplomatic relation with Ayutthaya's King Narai. In 1687, France sent the diplomat Simon de

Literature.

Ayutthaya was a kingdom rich in literary production. Even after the sack of Ayutthaya in 1767, many literary masterpieces in the Thai language survived. However, Ayutthayan literature (as well as Thai literature before the modern era) was dominated by verse composition (i.e., poetry), whereas prose works were reserved to legal matters, records of state affairs and historical chronicles. Thus, there are many works in the nature of epic poetry in the Thai language. The Thai poetical tradition was originally based on indigenous poetical forms such as "rai" (ร่าย), "khlong" (โคลง), "kap" (กาพย์) and "klon" (กลอน). Some of these poetical forms—notably "khlong"—have been shared between the speakers of tai languages since ancient time (before the emergence of Siam).

Indian influence on the Siamese language.

Through Buddhist and Hindu influence, a variety of "Chanda" prosodic meters were received via Ceylon. Since the Thai language is mono-syllabic, a huge number of loan words from Sanskrit and Pali are needed to compose these classical Sanskrit meters. According to B.J. Terwiel, this process occurred with an accelerated pace during the reign of King Boromma-trailokkanat (1448-1488) who reformed Siam's model of governance by turning the Siamese polity into an empire under the mandala feudal system. The new system demanded a new imperial language for the noble class. This literary influence changed the course of the Thai or Siamese language, setting it apart from other "tai" languages, by increasing the number of Sanskrit and Pali words drastically and imposing the

"Ramakien".

Most countries in Southeast Asia share an Indianised culture. Traditionally, therefore, Thai literature was heavily influenced by the Indian culture and Buddhist-Hindu ideology since the time it first appeared in the 13th century. Thailand's national epic is a version of the story of Rama-Pandita, as recounted by Gotama Buddha in the Dasharatha Jataka called the Ramakien, translated from Pali and rearranged into Siamese verses. The importance of the Ramayana epic in Thailand is due to the Thai's adoption of the Hindu religio-political ideology of kingship, as embodied by the Lord Rama. The Siamese capital, Ayutthaya, was named after the holy city of

Khun Chang Khun Phaen: the Siamese epic folk poem.

In the Ayutthaya period, folktales also flourished. One of the most famous folktales is the story of "Khun Chang Khun Phaen" (), referred to in Thailand simply as ""Khun Phaen"", which combines the elements of romantic comedy and heroic adventures, ending in high tragedy. The epic of "Khun Chang Khun Phaen" (KCKP) revolves around "Khun Phaen", a Siamese general with superhuman magical powers who served the King of Ayutthaya, and his love-triangle relationship between himself, Khun Chang, and a beautiful Siamese girl named Wan-Thong. The composition of KCKP, much like other orally-transmitted epics, evolved over time. It originated as a recitation or "sepha" within the Thai oral tradition from around the beginning of the 17th century (c. 1600). Siamese troubadours and minstrels added more subplots and embellished scenes to the original story line as time went on. By the late period of the Ayutthaya Kingdom, it had attained the current shape as a long work of epic poem with the length of about 20,000 lines, spanning 43 "samut thai" books. The version that exists today was composed with "klon" meter throughout and is referred to in Thailand as "nithan Kham Klon" () meaning a 'poetic tale'.

Architecture.

The Ayutthaya Buddhist temple falls into one of two broad categories: the "stupa"-style solid temple and the "prang"-style (). The prangs can also be found in various forms in Sukhothai, Lopburi, Bangkok (Wat Arun). Sizes may vary, but usually the

Daily life.

Clothing.

Three clothing styles were evident in the Ayutthaya period. Each style depended on social class.  1. Court clothing (worn by the king, queen, concubines, and senior government officials): 2. Nobles (rich citizens): 3. Villagers:

Economy.

The Thais never lacked a rich food supply. Peasants planted rice for their own consumption and to pay taxes. Whatever remained was used to support religious institutions. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, however, a transformation took place in Thai rice cultivation. In the highlands, where rainfall had to be supplemented by a system of irrigation to control water levels in flooded paddies, the Thais sowed the glutinous rice that is still the staple in the geographical regions of the north and northeast. But in the floodplain of the Chao Phraya, farmers turned to a different variety of rice—the so-called floating rice, a slender, non-glutinous grain introduced from Bengal—that would grow fast enough to keep pace with the rise of the water level in the lowland fields.  The new strain grew easily and abundantly, producing a surplus that could be sold cheaply abroad. Ayutthaya, at the southern extremity of the floodplain, thus became the hub of economic activity. Under royal patronage, corvée labour dug canals on which rice was brought from the fields to the king's ships for export to China. In the process, the Chao Phraya delta—mud flats between the sea and firm land hitherto considered unsuitable for habitation—was reclaimed and cultivated. Traditionally the king had a duty to perform a religious ceremony to bless the rice planting.  Although rice was abundant in Ayutthaya, rice exports were banned from time to time when famine occurred because of natural calamity or war. Rice was usually bartered for luxury goods and armaments from Westerners, but rice cultivation was mainly for the domestic market and rice export was evidently unreliable.

Currency.

Ayutthaya officially used cowrie shells, "prakab" (baked clay coins), and "pod duang" ()

Ayutthaya as international trading port.

Trade with Europeans was lively in the 17th century. In fact European merchants traded their goods, mainly modern arms such as rifles and cannons, for local products from the inland jungle such as "sapan" (lit. 'bridge') woods, deerskin, and rice. Tomé Pires, a Portuguese voyager, mentioned in the 16th century that Ayutthaya, or "Odia", was "rich in good merchandise". Most of the foreign merchants coming to Ayutthaya were European and Chinese, and were taxed by the authorities. The kingdom had an abundance of rice, salt, dried fish, arrack, and vegetables.  Trade with foreigners, mainly the Dutch, reached its peak in the 17th century. Ayutthaya became a main destination for merchants from China and Japan. It was apparent that foreigners began taking part in the kingdom's politics. Ayutthaya's kings employed foreign mercenaries who sometimes joined the wars with the kingdom's enemies. However, after the purge of the French in the late-17th century, the major traders with Ayutthaya were the Chinese. The Dutch from the Dutch East Indies Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC), were still active. Ayutthaya's economy declined rapidly in the 18th century, until the Burmese invasion caused the total collapse of Ayutthaya's economy in 1788.

Contacts with the West.

In 1511, immediately after having conquered Malacca, the Portuguese sent a diplomatic mission headed by Duarte Fernandes to the court of King Ramathibodi II of Ayutthaya. Having established amicable relations between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Siam, they returned with a Siamese envoy who carried gifts and letters to the King of Portugal. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit the country. Five years after that initial contact, Ayutthaya and Portugal concluded a treaty granting the Portuguese permission to trade in the kingdom. A similar treaty in 1592 gave the Dutch a privileged position in the rice trade.  Foreigners were cordially welcomed at the court of Narai (1657–1688), a ruler with a cosmopolitan outlook who was nonetheless wary of outside influence. Important commercial ties were forged with Japan. Dutch and English trading companies were allowed to establish factories, and Thai diplomatic missions were sent to Paris and The Hague. By maintaining these ties, the Thai court skillfully

Contacts with East Asia.

Between 1405 and 1433, the Chinese Ming dynasty sponsored a series of seven naval expeditions. Emperor Yongle designed them to establish a Chinese presence, impose imperial control over trade, and impress foreign peoples in the Indian Ocean basin. He also might have wanted to extend the tributary system. It is believed that the Chinese fleet under Admiral Zheng He travelled up the Chao Phraya River to Ayutthaya on three occasions.  Meanwhile a Japanese colony was established in Ayutthaya. The colony was active in trade, particularly in the export of deer hides and saphan wood to Japan in exchange for Japanese silver and Japanese handicrafts (swords,

Further reading.

"Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya".

There are 18 versions of "Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya" ("Phongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya") known to scholars. See )

Burmese accounts.

These are

The Ayutthaya Kingdom (;,, ; also spelled "Ayudhya" or "Ayodhya") was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 centered on the city of Ayutthaya. The Kingdom of Ayutthaya is considered to be the precursor of modern Thailand and its developments become the main part of History of Thailand.

Le royaume d'Ayutthaya est un ancien royaume thaï, fondé en 1351 et disparu en 1767. Il occupait approximativement le territoire de l'actuelle Thaïlande, moins une partie dans l'est et le royaume de Lanna dans le nord.


Early years to 1979.

When Imperial was founded in 1947, it concentrated on rhythm and blues (R&B) and country music: Fats Domino, Frankie Ford, Ricky Nelson, and Slim Whitman. In the UK Imperial was distributed by London Records.  During the 1950s and 1960s, Imperial released jazz albums by Sonny Criss, Charlie Mariano, Papa Celestin, Erskine Hawkins, and Harold Land.  Imperial bought Aladdin in 1960 and Minit Records in 1963, having distributed Minit since 1960. During the 1950s, Imperial was one of the primary labels issuing a vast quantity of R&B from New Orleans through their involvement with producer and writer Dave Bartholomew and in the 1960s with their distribution (and purchase, a few years later) of Minit.  In 1963, after Imperial lost Fats Domino and Ricky Nelson to rival record companies, Chudd sold the label to Liberty Records.  Under Liberty's management, the label enjoyed success with Irma Thomas, Johnny Rivers, Jackie DeShannon, Classics IV, and Cher. During the British Invasion, Liberty (whose recordings were distributed by EMI in the UK) licensed The Hollies, Billy J. Kramer, the Dakotas, and the Swinging Blue Jeans from EMI. Recordings by the Bonzo Dog Band and Kim Fowley were issued in the U.S. by Imperial.  By 1970, the label had become part of Liberty's merger with United Artists Records but was phased out shortly after, with its roster transferred to United Artists. EMI acquired the Imperial Records catalogue with its acquisition of UA Records in 1979.

1990s to present.

Throughout the 1990s, EMI released CD compilations of Imperial artists that featured the original Imperial labels.  In June 2006, EMI re-activated the Imperial Records imprint and announced that it would be the urban music division of Caroline Distribution, part of Virgin Records, spearheaded by the urban music veteran Neil Levine. The first signing to the imprint was Raptivism Records. Fat Joe signed with Virgin Records and Imperial Records. Imperial provided resources for developing urban artists with EMI's major labels, including Capitol Records and Virgin Records, which were merged into the Capitol Music Group in January 2007. Universal Music Group acquired the Capitol Music Group as part of its acquisition of EMI's recorded music operations in 2012. After a few releases, Imperial became dormant again.

Imperial Records is an American record company and label started in 1947 by Lew Chudd. The label was reactivated in 2006 by EMI, which owned the label and back catalogue at the time. Imperial is owned by Universal Music Group.

Imperial Records est le label indépendant d'une compagnie discographique de La Nouvelle-Orléans. Créée en 1947 à Los Angeles par Lew Chudd, la firme était tout d'abord spécialisée dans rhythm and blues et le rock 'n' roll. Chudd racheta Aladdin Records en 1960, puis Minit Records en 1963. La même année, il céda la société à Liberty Records.


Accident ferroviaire de la gare Montparnasse

Derailment.

On 22 October 1895, the Granville to Paris and Montparnasse express, operated by Chemins de fer de l'Ouest, was made up of steam locomotive No. 721 (a type 2-4-0, French notation 120) hauling three luggage vans, a post van, and six passenger coaches. The train had left Granville on time at 08:45, but was several minutes late as it approached its Paris Montparnasse terminus with 131 passengers on board. In an effort to make up lost time, the train entered the station too fast, at a speed of, and the Westinghouse air brake failed to stop it. Without sufficient braking, the momentum of the train carried it slowly into the buffers, and the locomotive crossed the almost wide station concourse, crashing through a thick wall, before falling onto the Place de Rennes below, where it stood on its nose. A woman in the street below was killed by falling masonry, and two passengers, the fireman, two guards and a passerby in the street sustained injuries.  The woman, Marie-Augustine Aguilard, had been standing in for her husband, a newspaper vendor, while he went to collect the evening newspapers.

Aftermath.

The locomotive driver was sentenced to two months in prison and fined 50 francs for approaching the station too fast. One of the guards was fined 25 francs as he had been preoccupied with paperwork and failed to apply the handbrake.  The railway company settled with the family of the deceased woman, and arranged for the education of her two young children, as well as proposing future employment for them.  The passenger carriages were undamaged and were easily removed. It took 48 hours before the legal process and investigation allowed the railway to start removing the locomotive and tender. An attempt was made to move the locomotive with 14 horses, but this failed. A 250 tonne winch, with 10 men, first lowered the locomotive to the ground and then lifted the tender back into the station. When the locomotive reached the railway workshops it was found to have suffered little damage.

Legacy.

The wreckage remained outside the station for several days and a number of photographs were taken, such as those attributed to Studio Lévy and Sons, L. Mercier, and Henri Roger-Viollet.  The Lévy and Sons photograph (at the top of the article) has become one of the most famous in transportation history. The photograph, which is now in the public domain, is used as the cover page in the book "An Introduction to Error Analysis" by John Taylor. The photograph is featured on the album covers for "Lean Into It" by American rock band Mr. Big, as well as "Scrabbling at the Lock" by Dutch rock band The Ex with Tom Cora, both first released in 1991, and, in 2019, for "Warranty Void If Removed" by French record producer Leon Inc.  A near-identical train crash in the same location appears as a dream in the novel "The Invention of Hugo Cabret" and its film adaptation, "Hugo", and is depicted in the comic book series "The Extraordinary Adventures of Adèle Blanc-Sec", namely the fourth album "Momies en folie".  An imitation of the Montparnasse derailment has been built outside the Mundo a Vapor ("Steam World") museum theme park in Canela, and another one at the Shopping Serra Verde in Caldas Novas, both in Brazil.  This accident was partly adapted into the Thomas and friends episode "A better view for Gordon"

The Montparnasse derailment occurred at 16:00 on 22 October 1895 when the Granville–Paris Express overran the buffer stop at its Gare Montparnasse terminus. With the train several minutes late and the driver trying to make up for lost time, it entered the station too fast and the train air brake failed to stop it. After running through the buffer stop, the train crossed the station concourse and crashed through the station wall; the locomotive fell onto the Place de Rennes below, where it stood on its nose. A woman in the street below was killed by falling masonry.

L'accident de la gare Montparnasse est un accident ferroviaire français survenu le à la gare de Paris-Montparnasse, lors de l'arrivée du train express desservant la ligne de Paris à Granville. Il provoque un décès et de nombreux dégâts matériels ; son caractère spectaculaire en fait l'un des accidents ferroviaires les plus connus de l'histoire des chemins de fer français.


Divisions.

The municipality has 16 divisions:

History.

Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the 10th century it passed to the counts of Scheyern and through them to Bavaria, being ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate at the close of a war in 1507. From 1557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality ruled by a cadet branch of the family of the elector palatine of the Rhine. This principality of Palatinate-Neuburg had an area of about and about 100,000 inhabitants. In 1742 it was united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed in 1777 to Bavaria.  In 1806 in became part of firstly Altmühlkreis (its center was Eichstätt) between 1806 and 1808, later Oberdonaukreis (its center was firstly Eichstätt between 1810 and 1817, later Augsburg between 1817 and 1837). It was a rural district center in Schwaben region in 29 November 1837. On 30 June 1972, Neuburg an der Donau became a "Grosse Kreisstadt" (similar to a county seat) and was passed to Upper Bavaria region.

Main sights.

Neuburg an der Donau has a defensive wall around the old town. The old town contains some well worth seeing institutions and happenings, such as the 'Birdland Jazz Club Neuburg', one of the best locations for jazz auditions in Germany.  The Renaissance Ducal Palace ("Pfalz-Neuburger Residenzschloss"), Neuburg Castle, which was built 1530-45 under Otto Henry, Elector Palatine and took on its present-day form during the reign of Philip William, Elector Palatine, today houses several museums including a Baroque gallery of the Bavarian State Picture Collection and the "Archäologie-Museum Schloss Neuburg an der Donau" (Neuburg an der Donau Castle Archaeology Museum), a branch of the Bavarian State Archaeological Collection.  Other main sights include the late Renaissance court church "Hofkirche" (1607/08 built by Josef Heintz), the Town Hall (1603/09), the rococo "Provinzialbibliothek" (Provincial Library, 1731/32) and the baroque churches of St. Peter (1641/46) and St. Ursula (1700/01). "Grünau" is a renaissance hunting lodge of Elector Otto Henry, which is situated 7 km further east (built from 1530 onwards).

International relations.

Neuburg an der Donau is twinned with:  Neuburg an der Donau is linked with:  Neuburg an der Donau was part of the 1998 summit of worldwide cities named "New Castle" with:

External links.

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Neuburg an der Donau, literally "Newcastle on the river Danube", is a town which is the capital of the Neuburg-Schrobenhausen district in the state of Bavaria in Germany.

Neubourg-sur-le-Danube (en ) est une ville d'Allemagne, située dans l'arrondissement de Neuburg-Schrobenhausen, en Bavière. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2014.


Name.

His full name was Mohamed Ben Lhaj Mohamed Ben Hado Ben Ahmed Ben Abdessalam Ben Saleh, the founder of the "zawiya" of Azghenghan. He was known as Cherif Sidi Mohamed (Mohand) Amezian. His family created the Zawiya Al Qadiria, which is also known by the Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed o Abdsalam in Zeghanghane and lies within the sphere of Ait Bouifrour, one of the fifth branches which constitutes the Qaliat tribe.

Early life.

Most references mention that he was born in 1859, others say 1860, these two years date back to the Tetouan war which witnessed the victory of Spain over Morocco. He took the Qur'an by heart in the Zawia which was led by his father in Zeghanghane, between 1887 and 1891 he joined Al-Qaraouiyin mosque in Fes to pursue his studies. After accomplishing his education he returned to his birthplace, Zeghanghane, where he didn’t confine himself in the Zawia waiting for gifts and charities, he rather practiced trade by transporting goods cows and beasts between the Rif and Algeria.

Confrontation with Jilali Zerhouni Bohmara.

Mohand Amezian was one of the first who paid attention to the conspiracy between Bou hmara and the foreigners against the interests of the Rif. He determined to unmask him and launched campaigns against him among Riffian tribes. Bou hmara tried to arrest him in the early 1907, but he managed to escape and took refuge in the Moroccan army whose base was near Melilla.  He fought with its soldiers when they attempted to outflank the rebellion of Bou hmara in the eastern region. However, the huge potentials under the disposal of Bou hmara and his team helped in defeating the weaker Makhzen in 1907, then the rest of the army including Cherif Mohamed Amezian took refuge in Melilla in the beginning of 1908.  During the domination of Bou hmara over the eastern Rif he authorized two companies, a Spanish and a French one, to exploit the iron and lead mines in Bouifror and build two railway lines between the mines and Melilia. But after the crushing defeat inflicted on Bou hmara by the Ait Waryaghel tribe he returned to the east bearing the bitterness of subjugation just to find out that the eastern Riffian tribes had anonymously chosen Cherif Mohamed Amezian as their leader in October 1908, they hindered railway projects and the exploitation of mines. Under these conditions Bou hmara withdraw from Selouane in the end of 1908.

Resistance against Spain.

Spain took advantage of Bou hmara’s rebellion in addition to the anarchy that prevailed in eastern region and the enemity which existed between the Riffian tribes. During February and March 1909 it managed to occupy Kariat Arekmane and Ras El Ma, then it resumed the building of the railway and the exploitation of the mines. It also benefited from the growing influence of its allies in the region, and poured money on them besides providing them with the newest artilleries, they used to support Spanish incursions openly and even tried to convince notables and tribes of the advantages of the Spanish incursions.  Whereas Amezian opposed ardently the Spanish invasion and refused all offers and lures given by general José Marina, the military governor of melilia. After meeting raffian tribes with whom he held meetings during which he was accompanied by Alfeqih Mohamed Hado Alazouzi and tackled the resistance issue. Then Cherif Mohamed Amezian had to wait until the end of the agricultural season when peasants gather their crops and seasonal immigrants return from Algeria so as to express his opposition militarily by attacking Sidi Mosa on 9 July 1909, thus, he put an end to the vibration of opinions and the hesitation which he began to perceive within the tribes.

Spanish losses.

Spain lost in this war a colonel, a lieutenant, two first lieutenant, a captain and more than 40 soldiers in addition to 234 wounded soldiers from different ranks. After that Spain reinforced its forces with troops exceeding 46 000 of the cream of its soldiers and officers strengthened by the newest artilleries under the leadership of the famous general Buentos who will be defeated later on 27 July 1909 in the battle of " Aghazar n Ouchen" 4 km away from Melilia where the general died along with more than 700 soldiers from different ranks.  This defeat didn't deter the Spanish army which attacked with more than 40,000 soldiers under the leadership of three generals (Alfaro, Tobar and Miralis), but they met another defeat on 20 September 1909 in Ijdyawen, the territory of ait chigar tribe, the Spanish troops couldn't stand in the way of the strong will and determination of Imjahden "warriors" under the leadership of Mohamed Amezian.

Riffian resistance.

The organization of the Riffian resistance in this period was marked by a great precession, each of the riffian tribes devoted a number of its men to stand by permanently in the stronghold of Imjahden. Each tribe was free to organize, substitute its men and provide munitions. The men in the stronghold used to light up fires at night once they perceive the omens of hostile attacks, whoever sees that sign lights up another fire so that all tribes will be aware of whats going on that night and rush into the battle to join imjahden’s front lines.

Change in Spanish military strategy.

Spain learned from its defeats in the autumn and summer of 1909, and waited until the end of the ploughing season to change its military strategy in which the focus was on peaceful penetration targeting weaker tribes nearby Melilia and pouring money and trade privileges on them. Thus, Spain moved to a dangerous step when it intensified the recruitments of the locals so as to benefit from their gun experiences and their accurate knowledge of the topography of the region.  They played the role of a human shields in the front lines of the Spanish troops. This led to the disheartening of many Ruffian imjahden from central Rif, especially the Ait waryaghels, who left their strongholds accusing the tribe of Aqqliat of treachery.  Moreover, the influence exerted by the agents of Spain within the tribes was detrimental to ruffian resistance, they used to play the role of spies providing Spanish intelligence with information and implementing its plans which aims to stir disagreements and clashes between imjahden and their families, and also between the recruited in the Spanish army.  Who ever stands in their way was exposing himself to death penalty. Many inhabitants were compelled to be recruited in the Spanish army which provided uniform and guns which stands for power and self-protection. As a result, Spain occupied Bouarek plain and the region between Azghenghen and Elhociema, in addition to Nador and Selouan. Nevertheless, Imjahden were able to inflict many defeats on the Spanish army (for example: Dahar Ambochanof between Selouan and Waxan).

Ameziane's retreat.

Under these conditions Mohamed Ameziane retreated to Aitbouifrour and establishes a new stronghold in Souq Aljouma (Friday market) in Amaworo. Confrontations abated since late 1909 to 1911, during these two years Mohamed Ameziane kept refusing all offers and lures given by Spain which was convinced that the way to colonize the Rif leads to the attraction of Mohammed Ameziane.  And after he refused huge sums of money in parallel with the beginning of negotiation concerning the protectorate, he was suggested to be the representative of Spain in front of the Moroccan Sultan. But he opposed.

Final battles and death.

Confrontations between riffian resistance and Spanish forces renewed when the resistance raided on a group of soldiers which escorted a Spanish topographic expedition. The most important battles took place in the surroundings of Kert river in which resistance inflicted huge human loss and material damages on the Spanish army.  After September 1911 general Ardonit was killed in the battles of Imarofen and Izhafen in Ait Bouifrour. Sporadic clashes continued until 14 May 1912 when Spain targeted the occupation of Azib Allal o Qador, in this operation spies watched the movement of Amezian and 700 Imjahden towards Bani Sidal tribe, they followed his steps until he stopped in Tawrirt Kdiya’s mosque, then Spanish forces were informed and rushed to besiege him.  When Mohamed Amezian was aware of that he prayed Alfajer and gave the choice to his companions; either to fight and die as martyrs or withdraw, then he started with the remaining companions shooting the enemy after the Recolaris forces within the Spanish troops refused the appeal to join imjahden. He was killed by a bullet in a place near Kdiyat Hamed on the road which takes to Faydd Ahmam which is also called Fedan Alhayyan.  The Spanish transported his corpse to Melilia then he was handed to his brothers to be buried in the cemetery of his grandfather Cherif Ahmed Ben Abdessalam in Azghenghen..

Mohammed Ameziane or Sherif Mohammed Ameziane or El Mizzian (Berber language: ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵓⵃⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏ "Amɣar Muḥand Ameẓyan") was a leader of the Moroccan Riffian resistance against the Spanish occupation of Northern Morocco in northeastern Morocco. His operations and wars took place in the Eastern Rif region especially in the current Nador province and the region of Seřwan.

Mohamed Améziane ou Mohand Améziane (en amazigh : "Muḥand Ameẓyan," hispanisé en "Al Mizzian" par les Espagnols) est un résistant berbère rifain, "amghar" (chef berbère) et Cadi de la tribu des Aït Bou Ifrour dans la région de Nador. Il serait né en 1859 dans le Rif, à Zeghanghan. Il lutta contre le colonialisme espagnol dès la fin du siècle et est considéré comme étant le précurseur de la guerre du Rif, son action commençant avant celle d'Abdelkrim El Khattabi. Il est encore aujourd'hui considéré comme une figure importante de la résistance anti-colonialiste chez les Rifains et bien que son personnage soit mystique et peu connu, sa figure fait partie intégrante de l'histoire du Rif, de nombreux poèmes furent chantés à sa gloire.


Early life.

Nikolai Vladimirovich Ruzsky was born in the Russian Empire on March 6, 1854, into a noble family. His family was of nobility from the Kaluga Governorate, the Ruzsky family's origin traced back to the mayor of the town of Ruza near Moscow during the late 1700s, Aleksei Mikhailovich Lermontov (the Ruzsky family was of the Ostrozhnikovskaya line of the Lermontov family). His family, Vladimir Dmitriyevich, was an official in the 12th Grade. His father died when Ruzsky was a year old and he was put under auspices by the Moscow Custodian Council.

Early career.

In 1870, Ruzsky graduated from the Cadet Corps at first class. In 1872, he graduated from the Konstantinovsky Artillery School at first class. In 1877, he participated in the Russo-Turkish War, and was wounded when taking a fortress in Gorni Dubnik. For courage, he was awarded the Order of St. Anna of the 4th degree with the inscription "For bravery". In July 1878, he attended a reserve battalion in preparation of attending the Nikolayev Academy of General Staff. Ruzsky graduated in 1881, in the first category. During his training in the academy, his teachers were all future ministers of war of future General Aleksey Kuropatkin, Vladimir Sukhomlinov and Aleksandr Roediger, all under the leadership of the prominent general, Mikhail Dragomirov. In December 1881, he was appointed the assistant to the senior adjutant of the Kazan Military District.  In 1884, he married a daughter of a retired officer, Zinovia Aleksandrovna Borezovsky, and they together had three children.  From March 1882 to November 1887, Ruzsky became the senior adjutant of the headquarter of the Kiev Military District. From 1882 to 1896, he became chief-of-staff to numerous divisions, including the 11th Cavalry Division, the 32nd Infantry Division and the 151st Infantry Pyatigorsk Regiment. In 1896, he became the district quartermaster of the Kiev Military District headquarter. On April 1904, he was appointed the chief-of-staff of the Vilno Military District. During his service in the military district, he enjoyed great reputation and respects from his fellow officers.

Russo-Japanese War.

In the following years, he participated in Russo-Japanese War, in which he commanded the 2nd Manchurian Army. He participated in the battles at Sandepu and Mukden. In the war, he was noticed by fellow officers as one of the best generals and valuable workers in the army. While retreating from Mukden, General Ruzsky was in the rear of the army and was injured from falling off a horse, but he remained in the army.  After the war in 1906, he participated in the development of the "Regulations on-field command and control of troops in wartime" organisation. From May 1907 on, he was a member in the Supreme Military Criminal Court. He investigated the case of the surrender in Port Arthur. In 1909, he was appointed the commander of the 21st Army Corps, but soon was deducted due to poor health. In December 1909, General Ruzsky became a member of the Ministry of War, and was involved in the development of charters and manuals, and was one the authors of the Field Regulations of 1912. In February 1912, General Ruzsky was again appointed to the Kiev Military District, this time as the assistant commander of the troops in the district. According to the plans of war with Germany and Austria-Hungary, commander of the troops of the Kiev Military District, General Nikolai Ivanov was to be the appointed the commander-in-chief of the army in the Southwestern Front, and General Ruzsky, the commander of army, would be ordered to form the basis of the Kiev Military District.

World War 1.

From mid-July to early September, General Ruzsky was in command of the Third Army. In the beginning, despite receiving information about an Austro-Hungarian offensive in Lublin and Holm, he still preserved the offensive against Lemberg. For the battles against the Austrians, and above all, his participation at Lemberg, he was awarded the Order of St. George both the 4th and the 3rd degree (VP in August 1914). And the for his participation in the Invasion of Galicia, he was again awarded the Order of St. George, this time the 2nd degree (VP in October 1914), becoming one of the top three generals (other being General Nikolai Ivanov and Nikolai Yudenich). General Ruzsky gained the name, the “Conqueror of Galicia”, and he also gained great public reputation back in Russia, even his opposition circles.  From early September 1914 to mid-March 1915, General Ruzsky was the commander-in-chief of the entire Northwestern Front. Under his command, the forces of the front fought at the Vistula River and Łódź, but despite huge success of the 1st and 10th Armies, he was ordered to retreat, due to a group of German troops commanded by General Reinhard von Scheffer-Boyadel was able to snuck out from the encircling movement. He and his troops also participated in the disastrous battle at the Masurian Lakes. In the latter, General Ruzsky was the one who caused the catastrophe of the 10th Army.  As a military leader, he was accustomed in blaming his subordinates for his failures, and particularly, he successfully removed General Paul von Rennenkampf and Sergei Scheidemann from command, at the Sedlets meeting of the Supreme Headquarters, thereby justifying his order to curtail the offensive of his troops from the frontline. However, the activities of these generals weren't expressed groundlessly by the high military commands of the Supreme Command and the Ministry of War. In mid-March 1915, due to poor health, General Ruzsky left the front and handed over the command to the Army Chief of Staff, General Mikhail Alekseyev.  In the same year, General Ruzsky was appointed to the State Council. And in May, he was appointed to the Military Council. Sometimes later, he returned to the highest command thanks to a personal decision by Tsar Nicholas II despite General Ruzsky revealed his shortcomings as a military leader to the tsar.  In late June, General Ruzsky was appointed the commander of 6th Army. And in mid-August, he was appointed to command the whole Northern Front, but on December 1915, he fell ill while commanding the front and left. Then in early August 1916, he recovered from his illness and returned to the front as commander-in-chief, replacing General Kuropatkin. During his time as the commander-in-chief at the Northern Front, his troops were cautious and avoided decisive actions against large-scale enemies.

Russian Revolutions.

One of the most active military conspiracy participants was the President of the Imperial Duma, Mikhail Rodzianko, who played an important role in the abdication of Nicholas II. According to the memoirs of the Minister of the Imperial Court Cont Baron Frederiks, who was present at the abdication of the tsar. General Ruzsky brutally and violently forced the wavering tsar the sign the prepared manifesto on abdication. Ruzsky held the tsar by one hand, with the other hand holding the manifesto, and repeatedly said:  Nicholas at this point was embarrassed and dejected. A lawyer named N.P. Karabchevsky left his memories about the words by Prince John Konstantinovich's wife, Helena Petrovna. Which when she was being imprisoned in Yekaterinburg, she was visited by the doctor of the Tsesarevich, Vladimir Derevenko, who told the princess about the recall of Nicholas about General Ruzsky. He said:  During a conversation with General S. N. Vilchkovsky, General Ruzsky detailed the tsar's resistance to the pressure exerted on the introduction of the new so-called "Responsible Ministry" (According to the opposition, this ministry was to be submitted not to the Emperor, but the head of the Cabinet, in turn, responsible to the Duma, that is, the conspirators aspired to introduce a parliamentary system in Russia, which was contrary to the existing legislation of the Empire). He argued heatedly about the need of the immediate imposition of the Responsible Ministry.  He informed the tsar that his thoughts were wrong, he told Nicholas that it was necessary to adopt the policy: "the sovereign reigns, and the government rules." The tsar argued that this policy was too incomprehensible for him, he said that what was necessary was that the people should be educated, or in other words, should be reborn. He disagreed and then argued with the tsar. And about an hour later, Nicholas finally agreed to the Responsible Ministry. It was not understood that why the fact that Nicholas would just all the sudden, he just abandoned his conviction and agreed with Ruzsky. Analysis of the documents leads to the conclusion that, this decision, was made on behalf of the Sovereign, but not by the Emperor himself.  After the Revolution, General Ruzsky advocated in maintaining the discipline of the army, which led him into disagreements with the Minister of War, Alexander Guchkov, and army chief of staff General Alekseyev. He was then relieved from command. After which he went South to Kislovodsk.

Demise.

In early September 1918, General Ruzsky was arrested in Essentuki by the Reds, and then the Reds offered the general a commander in the army, he rejected it. He referred to the fact that he rejected the war of “Russians against Russians”. As a result of Ivan Sorokin’s death on November 1, he was taken by the Reds to the Pyatigorsk Cemetery as a hostage group composed of about 100 tsarist officers, he was then murdered by Georgi Atarbekov.

Legacy.

Shortly before his terror demise, General Ruzsky sought to justify himself before his descendants, sharing his memories after the overthrow of the monarchy and the Bolshevik coup d'état. He understood that such a sudden change in the tsar's opinion in favor of the Responsible Ministry, would, in fact, look suspicious. Therefore, General Ruzsky tried to assure that before the tsar gave his consent, he would remark that there had been "some kind of change in the sovereign". The tsar "manifested something like indifference". For General Ruzsky, it was important that memory of his descendants would form the belief that everything happened with the tsar's full consent. Ruzsky didn't want to look like a conspirator, but a loyal subject, acting in harmony with his Sovereign.

Nikolai Vladimirovich Ruzsky (; – October 18, 1918) was a Russian general, member of the state and military councils. Best known for his role in WW1 and the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II.

Nikolaï Vladimirovitch Rouzski (en ; né le et mort le à Piatigorsk), général de l'armée russe, est considéré comme l'homme qui, le premier, a convaincu le tsar Nicolas II d'abdiquer, lors des premiers jours de la Révolution russe.


Plot summary.

Previous novels referred to the Cetagandan Empire because of its occupation of Barrayar decades before the events of the first novel, "Shards of Honor". Cetagandan soldiers of the "ghem" military class appear in "The Warrior's Apprentice", "Ethan of Athos" and "Brothers in Arms", which describe their use of facial paint. This novel introduces the "haut" ruling class of the Empire, who are not at all militaristic, but seem to have a way of controlling their military classes to keep the Empire stable.  Miles and Ivan are sent to the home world of the Cetagandan Empire to represent Barrayar at the state funeral of the dowager Empress Lisbet, mother of the current Emperor, the "haut" Fletchir Giaja. They quickly become entangled in an internal Cetagandan plot when they arrive at a nearly deserted docking bay, much to their puzzlement. A ba (a sexless servant of the Cetagandan rulers) unexpectedly rushes into their spaceship. A struggle ensues, in which the ba drops a weapon and some sort of artifact before fleeing. Miles takes it upon himself to investigate — without informing his superiors — and eventually discovers that the artifact is a fake copy of the priceless Great Key, which has been stolen. The ba is later found dead.  Realizing that an unknown enemy is trying to frame him and Barrayar, Miles forms an unusual alliance with the "haut" Rian Degtiar, the "Handmaiden of the Star Crèche", who is charged with the duties of Empress until the new one is chosen. The Star Crèche is the heart of the genetic engineering project that is, or appears to be, elevating the "haut" class beyond being merely human.  Miles solves the complex mystery and stops a plot to fragment the Cetagandan Empire into eight dangerously expansionist-minded parts, a plot which itself is hijacked by one of the "haut" governors for personal gain, abetted by a renegade "haut" lady and his top "ghem" General. Then, much to his chagrin, he is publicly awarded the Order of Merit, one of the very highest Cetagandan honors, by the Emperor himself. He also picks up clues to a Cetagandan genetic experiment, which becomes the object of much skulduggery in "Ethan of Athos".

Reception.

"Cetaganda" was nominated for the Locus Award in 1997, the same year as "Memory", the following book in the series. It received mixed reviews, with "The SF Site" stating that it has "a good and delicious mystery at its core", while a "Tor.com" review stated "I don’t find the Cetagandan political set-up very plausible, and worse, I don’t find it very interesting." "SFF.net" stated that "All in all, this is certainly an enjoyable book, though not (Bujold's) best.

Cetaganda is a science fiction novel by Lois McMaster Bujold, first published in four parts from October to December 1995 in "Analog Science Fiction and Fact", and published in book form by Baen Books in January 1996. It is a part of the Vorkosigan Saga, and was included in the 2001 omnibus "Miles, Mystery and Mayhem".

Cetaganda (titre original : "Cetaganda") est un roman de science-fiction de l'écrivain américain Lois McMaster Bujold, paru en 1996. Il fait partie de la "Saga Vorkosigan" dont il constitue le septième volet suivant l'ordre chronologique de l'univers de la "Saga Vorkosigan".


Network.

The network consists of a central section that splits into three radial lines at each end, reaching the outer suburbs and neighbouring towns. The northern radials are: The southern radials are: The six radials are additionally connected by  See articles about each of the seven components for station lists and service patterns.

Services.

The December 2014 timetable has seven lines, each with a letter designation. Most run from about 0500 to about 0100 each day, with a train every 10 minutes in daylight hours and one every 20 minutes in the early morning and evening/night. The 10-minute interval begins later and ends earlier on weekends. Exceptions are service F, which runs once every 5 minutes (every 10 minutes on weekends); H, every 20 minutes in daytime to Østerport; and Bx, as an extra line on the Vestbanen and Hareskovbanen in the morning and afternoon(rush hours).  E, H and Bx skip certain stops to provide faster travel time, but no trains skip stops inside the ring line.  The network is slightly different on weekdays, weekends and nights.  As of January 2019, the line layout was changed on the northern branches as follows:

Weekday services.

Before 2007, each line would run on a strict 20-minute schedule. In periods where more than three trains an hour were needed, the extra trains had separate service designations; for example service B+ ran on the same route as B, but only in the daytime and with its departure times offset 10 minutes from B.  Earlier timetables also had express services that skipped stops inside the ring line.

Weekend services.

In the weekends, only lines A, B, C and F run, operating six times an hour between 1000 and 1800 and every 20 minutes outside this timespan. The weekend services are:

Night services.

Starting November 2009, the network has had distinct night services that depart twice every hour on Friday and Saturday night. The night services are:  There is one service for each of the radials at night, stopping at every station.

Future.

Two new stations are scheduled to be built: "Favrholm" (expected 2022, close to Hillerød) and "Vinge" (expected 2020), close to Frederikssund.  Since 30 trains per hour per direction now run between Dybbølsbro and Svanemøllen, building a new tunnel, running north–south in densely populated areas, has been discussed.  The Vestbane line may easily be extended from Høje Taastrup to "Roskilde", since tracks already exist. This has been discussed on several occasions, and is currently being investigated. Extension from Klampenborg to Elsinore (converting the Kystbane railway to S-train standard) would prove more difficult, but the issue has been mentioned. A problem is the lack of more capacity in the central tunnel.  Connecting Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, to the network has been proposed, although it is already served by both regional trains and the Copenhagen Metro.  The Danish Transport Authority (Trafikstyrelsen) has suggested converting the F-line of the S-train network to metro standard as an M5 line, The only current interchange between the F line and the metro network are Flintholm Station and Nørrebro Station.  The F line is planned be driverless and 24/7 in 2024/2026.  The line Jægersborg–Hillerød has been upgraded from the proprietary HKT train control system to CBTC.

Technical overview.

S-trains run on standard-gauge tracks and are powered via overhead wires. The voltage is 1,500 or 1,650 volts DC (negative overhead wire), indicating that it varies considerably with the loading and distance from a feeder station. Power is drawn from the national grid through 38 feeder stations. They have to be relatively close to each other because the large currents in the overhead wires (caused by the relatively low voltage) would lead to unacceptably large transmission losses otherwise.  The primary signalling system is a fixed-block cab signalling system called "HKT" which transmits data to the trains through low-bandwidth audio frequency induction loops between the rails. Different frequency combinations encode different target speeds; when a train enters a block with a lower target speed than its current speed it will initiate service braking until the two match. This allows blocks to be much shorter than the full-speed braking distance, but as the braking profile is encoded in the transmitted target speed it only works where all trains have similar braking characteristics.  Lineside light signals are also provided in case of HKT failures or the occasional visit of a non-S-train, but the lineside blocks are longer so capacity in this mode is reduced. Precise train positions are visible on all lines in "Byens puls" (see links below).

Rolling stock.

The S-train has seen four types of rolling stock. Currently, only fourth-generation trains operate, after the retirement of the second and third generation trains in 2007 and 2006 respectively.

First generation (1934-1978).

The first generation (DSB class MM-FM-MM) was introduced in 1934 at the opening of the network, and consisted of three carriages per train set (2 motor cars and 1 trailer car), manufactured from 1934 to 1962. supplied the electric components while Scandia (now Bombardier Transportation Denmark) supplied the car bodies and non-electric components. They were retired in 1978, and one was used as a heritage train until 2003, when DSB decided to discontinue its use. They are the longest serving S-train rolling stock to date, in continuous service for 44 years.

Second generation (1967-2007).

The second generation (DSB class MM-FU-MU-FS) was built from 1967 to 1978 by Frichs A/S (motored cars) and Scandia (trailer cars). They saw the introduction of the signature red colour that was to characterize subsequent generations of rolling stock.  There have been three different formations: the first (2-car), had a motor car with first-class seating (could be converted to second class) and a second-class trailer; the second (2-car), had second-class seating only; and the third (4-car), a motor car with driver's cab, a trailer, a motored trailer and a driving trailer without motor.  They ran until January 7, 2007. All have been scrapped except for a few set aside for museum use. An official ceremony was held on February 3, 2007 with the last trip. One train is set to be restored by DJK (Danish Railroad Club), who are now the owners of the train, so it can eventually make its way back to the tracks on special occasions such as anniversaries.

Third generation (1986-2006).

The third generation (DSB class FC-MC-MC-FC) were built by the Swedish industrial firm ASEA from 1985 to 1986. Despite possessing a much improved level of passenger comfort as compared to the previous two generations of rolling stock, it suffered a much higher rate of failure as compared to its predecessors. Twelve trains in 4-car formation (48 cars) were built (a further 32 4-car trains were not realised), and it first entered service in 1986 on the Vestbane and the Nordbane (B service) between Holte and Høje Taastrup. They were the first S-train rolling stock to feature electronic chopper control. In 1995, 4 trains (16 cars) were scrapped and the remaining 8 trains (32 cars) were refurbished and reassigned to the Ringbane (F service), where they remained in service until an incident where a child was trapped between the doors forced their early retirement in June 2006. When attempts to sell them failed, they were transported to Holbæk harbour on August 23, 2007 in order to be scrapped.

Fourth generation (1996-present).

The fourth generation, in service since 1996, are distinguished by their plump appearance due to their curved sides.  They are usually 8-car articulated units (DSB class SA-SB-SC-SD-SD-SC-SB-SA, also known as Litra SA) supplied by Alstom-LHB and Siemens with prefabricated friction stir welded aluminium roof panels made by Marine Aluminium from Sapa extrusions, and were manufactured from 1996 to 2007. The cars are shorter than conventional railway cars; each has a single axle under one end, the other end being supported by the neighbouring car. (The end cars have two axles each). They have automatic Scharfenberg couplers at the ends; in peak hours most trains consist of two coupled units, giving a total train length of 168 meters. They have video surveillance to ensure passenger and staff security and to prevent acts of vandalism. These trains introduced air conditioning in the interior and regenerative braking to the network, increasing energy efficiency. At present, there are 105 8-car trains (840 cars).  An accident involving an 8-car fourth-generation train in 2002 caused it to be scrapped, necessitated the construction of 4-car sets to relieve the shortage of trains. These 4-car units (DSB class SE-SH, also known as Litra SE) can run solo in low-traffic intervals. At present, there are 31 4-car trains (124 cars) serving the S-train network.  The top speed of fourth-generation trains is, although on many parts of the network their speed is limited to - due to the limitations of the signalling system, and on the Ringbane they travel at.

Origin of the name.

The letter S in "S-train" does not abbreviate any particular word. It originates in hexagonal illuminated "S" signs that were put up at stations before the opening in 1934. These signs may have been inspired by similar signs at the S-Bahn systems in Berlin and Hamburg, but their official purpose appears to have been to mark the location of a Station.  In February–March 1934, the newspaper Politiken asked its readers to coin a name for the new network. "S-train" was the winning proposal, made independently by several readers. The judges' panel (headed by the director-general of the DSB) cited a long list of possible explanations, including choices such as "state railways", "city railway", "Greater Copenhagen", "sun", "lake", "forest", "beach", "snow", "skiing", "skating", "sleigh", all of which start with an S in Danish. This demonstrates that the initial marketing of the S-trains emphasized recreational day trips "from" the city "to" the countryside.

The Copenhagen S-train () is the S-train of Copenhagen, Denmark. It is a hybrid urban-suburban rail serving the Copenhagen urban area, with the notable exception of Amager. The average distance between stations is 2.0 km, shorter in the city core and inner boroughs, longer at the end of lines that serve suburbs. Of the 86 stations, 32 are located within the central ticket fare zones, 1 and 2. The "S-tog" is analogous to S-Bahn systems in Germany, and is a separate system from the Copenhagen Metro, which operates in the city centre, Frederiksberg, and Amager.

Le S-tog ("S-train") constitue le Réseau express régional (RER) de la Métropole de Copenhague, reliant le centre-ville aux banlieues, il est entièrement détenu et géré par la Danske StatsBaner (DSB).


Early life and modeling career.

Kebbel was born on February 19, 1985, in Winter Park, Florida. Her mother, Sheri, is a talent manager and owns a production company. Kebbel graduated from Crenshaw School in Winter Garden. She was a contestant at the 2002 Miss Florida Teen USA beauty pageant. Before pursuing a career in acting, Kebbel was a full-time model. She has since appeared in publications such as "Maxim", "H", "Lucky", "Men's Health", "Stuff" and "FHM".

Acting career.

Within the first week of moving to Los Angeles, California, Kebbel successfully auditioned for her first major role portraying Lindsay Lister on The CW's "Gilmore Girls". She went on to become a recurring role throughout the third, fourth, and fifth seasons. She has since appeared in television shows such as "Entourage", "Grounded for Life", "" and "The Vampire Diaries". She has been cast in two pilots, "Football Wives" and "No Heroics", both developed for ABC which have not been picked up. In 2004, Kebbel made her film debut portraying a major supporting role alongside Kevin Hart, Tom Arnold and Snoop Dogg in the hip-hop comedy film "Soul Plane". She has also had numerous notable roles in films such as "Be Cool", "The Kid & I", "" and "Reeker". Kebbel played the role of Carrie Schaeffer in 20th Century Fox's romantic comedy film "John Tucker Must Die" (2006). It was released in North America on July 28, 2006 and made $68 million at the worldwide box office. Kebbel signed on for another 20th Century Fox film titled "Aquamarine" (2006) starring Sara Paxton, Emma Roberts and JoJo. Kebbel portrayed the role of the film's villain, Cecilia Banks. The film was released in March 2006, and had some box office success, with earnings of $23 million worldwide.  In February 2006, Kebbel was confirmed to be starring alongside Sarah Michelle Gellar and Teresa Palmer in "The Grudge 2". The film is a sequel to the 2004 Horror film, "The Grudge" which was a remake of the original Japanese film. Kebbel described her role of schoolgirl Allison Flemming as "The girl you see in the background of all the pictures that wants to be a part of everything but never really is". Filming took place in Tokyo, Japan, in April that same year. The film was released on October 13, 2006. The film was a box office success, grossing over $70 million worldwide.  She portrayed Emily Owens in the sports drama film "Forever Strong" (2008) alongside Penn Badgley, Sean Faris and Neal McDonough. Filming took place in August 2006 in Salt Lake City. This is Badgley and Kebbel's second film together, having appeared alongside each other in "John Tucker Must Die". The film was released straight-to-DVD on September 26, 2008.  In February 2008, Kebbel was announced to star as the central character Katherine in the horror film "Freakdog" alongside Sarah Carter. The film received a limited cinema release on August 22, 2008, and was quickly released to DVD in February 2009. Critical reception was universally negative.  In March 2008 Paramount Pictures announced Kebbel was portraying the role of Alex Ivers in the American remake of the 2003 South Korean Horror film "A Tale of Two Sisters". Emily Browning and Elizabeth Banks were confirmed to be co-starring. Filming took place in late 2008 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Despite performances of the cast being well received, critical reception was mixed to negative. The film managed to have a mixed response from the box office and earned $40 million worldwide. Kebbel also starred in the comedy "The Brooklyn Brothers Beat the Best", which premiered on September 9, 2011, at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival. The film, slated for a wider release in 2012, is the directorial debut for writer/director/star Ryan O'Nan, and also features Michael Weston, Andrew McCarthy, and Jason Ritter.  In early December 2011, Kebbel landed a recurring role in season four of "90210" portraying Vanessa. In October 2012, Kebbel appeared on "Hawaii Five-0", in a guest-starring role in the season three episode "Popilikia".

Personal life.

She is good friends with actress Torrey DeVitto, who was also raised in Winter Park, Florida.

Arielle Caroline Kebbel (born February 19, 1985) is an American actress and model. She has appeared in various television series, including "Gilmore Girls" (2003-2004), "The Vampire Diaries" (2009-2017), "Life Unexpected" (2010), "90210" (2011-2013), "Ballers" (2015-2016, 2019), "Midnight Texas" (2017-2018), and "" (2019-2020). Kebbel has also appeared in films such as "" (2005), "John Tucker Must Die" (2006), "The Grudge 2" (2006), "Forever Strong" (2008), "The Uninvited" (2009), and "Think Like A Man" (2012).

Arielle Caroline Kebbel, née le à Winter Park en Floride, est une actrice américaine. Elle commence sa carrière à la télévision et y enchaîne les apparitions avant de se faire remarquer par deux rôles récurrents : celui de Lexi Branson dans la série télévisée fantastique "The Vampire Diaries" (2009-2017) et celui de Vanessa Show dans "" (2011-2013), la série dérivée de la série culte "Beverly Hills 90210".


Origin.

Romania is a country of the former Eastern Soviet bloc where a very large number of properties (factories, enterprises, houses, apartments, buildings, churches and lands) have been nationalised by the communist government. The state would appropriate by decrees, the most important being decree nr 92 of 1950, more than 400,000 buildings, around 150,000 of them having been demolished during the following 40 years. In 1995, under the presidency of Ion Iliescu, a law allowed tenants to buy from the Romanian State, at very low cost, real estates built before 1945 that had been nationalised, thus preventing previous owners from recovering those properties. The complex legal situation that has resulted has led to an attempt to compensate the former owners, to whom the state was unable to restore previous property, through the foundation of the "Proprietatea" fund. Figures between 150,000 and 250,000 concerned property owners - only for real estate - are frequently used by associations or newspapers but no verifiable official statistic is available.  Created on November 24, 2005 by law 247/2005 in Romania, Fondul Proprietatea or Property fund is a fund that collects a part of the debts that other countries owe to Romania. It also contains shares of certain state companies.  The distributed shares constitute reparations to the owners (or descendants) whose properties had been nationalised between 1945 and 1989 and were unable to recover their properties after 1989 due to various causes.  According to the website site of the fund, Romania would be the only eastern country trying to compensate at a fair value the people who have been dispossessed by the communist regime.

Company, capital and corporate purpose.

S.C. Fondul “Proprietatea ” S.A. was established to assure the financial resources necessary to compensate the persons abusively expropriated. The compensation is made in shares, representing the actual value of the real estates which are not given back in kind. Following the fulfillment of some strictly law determined stages, the titleholders of the rights of compensation will become shareholders of "Fondul Proprietatea".

Management.

Until the appointment of a selected administration, the fund has been managed provisionally by the Ministry of Public Finance through the Board of Supervisors. After selecting through an international public tender, a management company will take over the powers of the administrator of the Fund property. Following a tender selection process, a Selection Commission has recently designed "on June 9, 2009 "Franklin Templeton Investment Management Ltd" as the manager of the fund."

Portfolio structure.

By the end of December 2008, the portfolio total value was evaluated around 16,498,879,195 RON (5,497,793,800 USD or 3,911,350,421 €). In June 2009, the available information regarding 90% of the portfolio value is as follows:

Effectiveness of the fund and challenges.

Romania is the only country in the former Eastern bloc to join the European union where such a problem concerning the situation of property in connection with the collapse of communist regimes remains unresolved. None of the other ex-Soviet bloc countries have raised a real estate issue with such a magnitude at European level.  Given the seriousness of the situation and the inertia of the Romanian state, despite hundreds of convictions of the European Court of Human Rights, the latter launched on 25 February 2010 a pilot-judgment procedure. The hearing was held 6 September 2010. The ruling is expected in September 2010. It could be accompanied by sanctions against Romania such as the obligation to amend its legislation, or the exclusion of the Court.

Fondul Proprietatea is a joint-stock company established by the Romanian state, and is intended to become entirely private and independent from the state. Its specificity lies in the fact that its purpose and its operations are governed by special legislation. Shareholders are limited to those dispossessed owners of their property by the Romanian state during the Communist regime.

Fondul Proprietatea est une société par actions créée par l'État roumain mais qui a vocation à devenir entièrement privée et indépendante de l'État. Sa spécificité réside dans le fait que son objet social et son fonctionnement sont encadrés par une législation particulière. Les actionnaires éligibles doivent être, à terme, uniquement des propriétaires dépossédés par l'État roumain pendant la période de la Roumanie communiste.


History.

Early history.

Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians occupied the Delta region prior to the arrival of European settlers. Clarksdale was developed at the former intersection of two Indian routes: the Lower Creek Trade Path, which extended westward from Augusta, Georgia, to New Mexico; and the Chakchiuma Trade Trail, which ran northeastward to the former village at present-day Pontotoc, Mississippi.  The first removal treaty carried out under the Indian Removal Act was the 1830 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, by which the Choctaw people were robbed of 15 million acres in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). A similar forced removal of the Chickasaw Nation began in 1837; once in Indian Territory, the Choctaw were forced out of the westernmost part of their land.  Following the removal of the Indians, European-American settlers migrated to the Delta region, where the fertile soil was excellent for growing cotton. They brought or purchased African-American slaves to work the several cotton plantations developed in the county, always locating these on the riverfront for transportation access. John Clark founded the town in 1848 when he bought land in the area and started a timber business. Clark married the sister of James Lusk Alcorn, a major planter who owned a nearby plantation. Alcorn became a politician, elected by the state legislature as US Senator and later elected as governor of the state. Thriving from the cotton trade and associated business, Clarksdale soon earned the title "The Golden Buckle on the Cotton Belt".  African-American slaves made the plantations work and built the wealth of King Cotton in the state. U.S. Census data shows Coahoma County, Mississippi's 1860 population was 1,521 whites and 5,085 slaves. James Alcorn was a major planter, owning 77 slaves.  When slavery was abolished, many black families labored as sharecroppers. They gained some independence but were often at a disadvantage in negotiations with white planters. Historian Nicholas Lemann writes "segregation strengthened the grip of the sharecropper system by ensuring that most blacks would have no arena of opportunity in life except for the cotton fields" (p. 6).  During the Reconstruction Era following the Civil War, Mississippi's blacks and poor whites both benefited from the State's new constitution of 1868, which adopted universal suffrage; did away with property qualifications for suffrage or for office; provided for the state's first public school system; forbade race distinctions in the possession and inheritance of property; and prohibited limiting civil rights in travel.  Those gains were short-lived, as insurgent white paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts worked to suppress black voting from 1868 on. By 1875 white Democrats took control of the state legislature in Mississippi. They later passed Jim Crow laws, including legal segregation of public facilities.  A freedman named Bill Peace, who had served in the Union Army and returned to Clarksdale after the war, persuaded his former owner to allow him to form a security force to prevent theft from the plantation. On October 9, 1875, whites in Clarksdale began hearing rumors that "General Peace" was preparing his troops to plunder the town; rumors spread that he was planning to murder the whites. A white militia was formed, and they suppressed Peace's "revolt". Across Mississippi, white militias frequently formed in response to similar fears of armed black revolt.  Twentieth-century historian Nicholas Lemann writes:  Like the establishment of sharecropping, the restoration to power of the all-white Democratic Party in the South was a development of such magnitude to whites that it became encrusted in legend; many towns have their own mythic stories of the redemption of the white South. In Clarksdale it is the story of the "race riot" of October 9, 1875.  After the Reconstruction era and construction in 1879 of the Louisville, New Orleans and Texas Railway through the town, Clarksdale was incorporated in 1882. In 1886, the town's streets were laid out; it was not until 1913 that any were paved.  African-Americans composed most of the farm labor in the county into the 1940s, when increasing mechanization reduced the need for field workers and thousands of blacks had left Mississippi in the Great Migration to Chicago and later, West Coast cities. They developed a rich musical tradition drawing from many strands of music, and influencing jazz and the blues in Chicago.

The Great Migration.

The movement of large numbers of people both to and from Clarksdale is prominent in the city's history. Prior to 1920, Delta plantations were in constant need of laborers, and many black families moved to the area to work as sharecroppers. After World War I, plantation owners even encouraged blacks to move from the other parts of Mississippi to the Delta region for work. By this time, Clarksdale had also become home to a multi-cultural mixture of Lebanese, Italian, Chinese and Jewish immigrant merchants.  By 1920, the price of cotton had fallen, and many blacks living in the Delta began to leave. The Illinois Central Railroad operated a large depot in Clarksdale and provided a Chicago-bound route for those seeking greater economic opportunities in the north; it soon became the primary departure point for many.  During the 1940s, three events occurred which increased the exodus of African-Americans from Clarksdale. First, it became possible to commercially produce a cotton crop entirely by machine, which lessened the need for a large, low-paid workforce. (Coincidentally, it was on 28 acres of the nearby Hopson Plantation where the International Harvester Company perfected the single-row mechanical cotton picking machine in 1946; soil was prepared, seeded, picked and bailed entirely by machines, while weeds were eradicated by flame.)  Second, many African-American GIs (soldiers) returned from World War II to find slim opportunities for employment in the Delta region. Finally, there appeared an accelerated climate of racial hatred, as evidenced by the violence against such figures as NAACP representative Aaron Henry.  "The Great Migration" north became the largest movement of Americans in U.S. history, and was recounted with Clarksdale triangulated with Chicago and Washington D.C. in Nicholas Lemann's award-winning book "The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How it Changed America". The History Channel later produced a documentary based on the book, narrated by actor Morgan Freeman, who is also a co-owner of Ground Zero Blues Club.

Civil rights in Clarksdale.

On September 10, 1919, Black veteran L.B. Reed was lynched as part of the Red Summer of 1919.  Clarksdale played a very important role in the civil rights movement in Mississippi. The starting point for a civil rights movement in Clarksdale was the rape at gunpoint of two African-American women, Leola Tates and Erline Mills, in August 1951. The two white teenagers they said assaulted them, who admitted the event but said it was consensual, were arrested, but "despite the overwhelming evidence against them, the justice of peace court judge freed the accused perpetrators".  This was followed by the nearby () lynching of Emmett Till in 1955.

Recent history.

Clarksdale's citizens are famous for their civil rights activism and Clarksdale's police department is equally famous for its efforts to limit these rights. On May 29, 1958, Martin Luther King visited Clarksdale for the first major meeting of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). In 1960, Aaron Henry, a local pharmacist, was named state president of the NAACP, and went on to organize a two-year-long boycott of Clarksdale businesses. In 1962, King again visited Clarksdale on the first stop on a region-wide tour, where he urged a crowd of 1,000 to "stand in, sit in, and walk by the thousands".  National headlines in February 2013 covered the discovery of mayoral candidate Marco McMillian, who was found murdered near the town of Sherard, to the west of his home town of Clarksdale. Because McMillian was openly gay and was badly beaten before his death, there was speculation that his murder qualified to be classified as a hate crime. Lawrence Reed, an acquaintance of McMillian, was charged, tried, and found guilty of the murder in April 2015.

Music history.

Clarksdale has been historically significant in the history of the blues. The Mississippi Blues Trail places interpretative markers for historic sites such as Clarksdale's Riverside Hotel, where Bessie Smith died following an auto accident on Highway 61. The Riverside Hotel is just one of many historical blues sites in Clarksdale. Early supporters of the effort to preserve Clarksdale's musical legacy included the award-winning photographer and journalist Panny Mayfield, Living Blues magazine founder Jim O'Neal, and attorney Walter Thompson, father of sports journalist Wright Thompson. In 1995, Mt. Zion Memorial Fund founder Skip Henderson, a vintage guitar dealer from New Brunswick, New Jersey and friend of Delta Blues Museum founder Sid Graves, purchased the Illinois Central Railroad passenger depot to save it from planned demolition. With the help of local businessman Jon Levingston, as well as the Delta Council, Henderson received a US$1.279 million grant from the federal government to restore the passenger depot. These redevelopment funds were then transferred on the advice of Clarksdale's City attorney, Hunter Twiford, to Coahoma County, in order to establish a tourism locale termed "Blues Alley", after a phrase coined by then Mayor, Henry Espy. The popularity of the Delta Blues Museum and the growth of the Sunflower River Blues & Gospel Festival and Juke Joint Festivals have provided an economic boost to the city.

Geography.

Clarksdale is located on the banks of the Sunflower River in the Mississippi Delta.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and 0.07% is water.  U.S. Routes 49, 61, and 278 go through Clarksdale.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States Census, There were 17,962 people living in the city. 79.0% were African American, 19.5% White, 0.6% Asian, 0.6% Native American, 0.4% of some other race, and 0.5% from two or more races. 0.9% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  As of the census of 2000, there were 20,645 people, 7,233 households, and 5,070 families living in the city. The population density was 1,491.8 people per square mile (575.9/km2). There were 7,757 housing units at an average density of 560.5 per square mile (216.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 68.52% African American, 29.95% White, 0.58% Asian, 0.11% Native American, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.65% of the population.  There were 7,233 households out of which 36.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.7% were married couples living together, 30.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% were non-families. 27.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.38.  In the city, the population was spread out with 32.9% under the age of 18, 14.6% from 18 to 24, 25.2% from 25 to 44, 16.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.1 males.  The median income for a household in the city was US$20,188, and the median income for a family was US$22,592. Males had a median income of US$23,881 versus US$18,918 for females. The per capita income for the city was US$11,611. About 32.7% of families and 39.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 46.1% of those under age 18 and 31.4% of those age 65 or over.

Arts and culture.

Delta Blues Museum.

In late 1979 Carnegie Public Library Director Sid Graves began a nascent display series which later became the nucleus of the Delta Blues Museum. Graves single-handedly nurtured the beginnings of the museum in the face of an indifferent community and an often recalcitrant Library Board, at times resorting to storing displays in the trunk of his car when denied space in the library. When the fledgling museum was accidentally discovered by Billy Gibbons of the rock band ZZ Top through contact with Howard Stovall Jr., the Delta Blues Museum became the subject of national attention as a pet project of the band, and the Museum began to enjoy national recognition.  In 1995 the museum, at that time Clarksdale's only attraction, grew to include a large section of the newly renovated library building, but remained under the tight control of the Carnegie Library Board, who subsequently fired Sid Graves, at the time seriously ill. Graves died in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in January 2005. In an interim move from the renovated Library building, the Museum spent most of 1996 in a converted retail storefront on Delta Avenue under the direction of a politically connected former Wisconsin native, the late Ron Gorsegner. In 1997–1998 Coahoma County would finally provide funds to form a separate Museum Board of Directors composed mainly of socially prominent, local white blues fans, and to renovate the adjoining Illinois Central Railroad freight depot, providing a permanent home for the Delta Blues Museum.

Mississippi Blues Trail markers.

Several Mississippi Blues Trail markers are located in Clarksdale.  One is located on Stovall Road at a cabin believed to have been lived in by famed bluesman McKinley Morganfield, also known as Muddy Waters. Morganfield supposedly lived there from 1915 until 1943 while he worked on the large Stovall cotton plantation before moving to Chicago after mistreatment at the hands of a Stovall overseer.  Another Blues Trail marker is located at the Riverside Hotel, which provided lodging to blues entertainers passing through the delta.  In 2009, a marker devoted to Clarksdale native Sam Cooke was unveiled in front of the New Roxy Theater.

Clarksdale Walk of Fame.

Established in 2008, the Clarksdale Walk of Fame are plaques located in downtown which honor notable people from Clarksdale. Honorees include John Lee Hooker, Ike Turner, Muddy Waters, and Sam Cooke.

Education.

Community colleges.

Coahoma Community College, a historically black college, is located in unincorporated Coahoma County, north of Clarksdale.

Public schools.

The city of Clarksdale is served by the Clarksdale Municipal School District. The district has nine schools, including Clarksdale High School, with a total enrollment of 3,600 students. During the 1960s, the Clarksdale gained notoriety for being the first school district in the state of Mississippi to achieve SACS accreditation for both black and white schools, beginning the desegregation process in its schools.  Coahoma Early College High School, a non-district public high school in unincorporated Coahoma County, is located on the campus of Coahoma Community College, approximately north of Clarksdale.  Coahoma County Junior-Senior High School of the Coahoma County School District is in the city limits of Clarksdale, but does not serve the city.

Private schools.

The city is home to three private schools

In popular culture.

Jimmy Page and Robert Plant named their 1998 album "Walking Into Clarksdale" as a tribute to the significance that Clarksdale made in the history of the Delta Blues.

Clarksdale is a city in Coahoma County, Mississippi, United States, and the county seat. The western boundary of the county is formed by the Mississippi River. Located in the Mississippi Delta region, Clarksdale is an agricultural and trading center. It has been home to many blues musicians. Clarksdale is named after John Clark, who founded the city in the mid-19th century.

La ville américaine de est le siège du comté de Coahoma, dans l'État du Mississippi. Clarksdale est traversée par la rivière Sunflower, et coupée en deux par une voie de chemin de fer. Elle se trouve à la croisée des routes 49 et 61.


History.

The first settlement in the region of modern Nowa Sól dates to the 14th century, when the territory was under Bohemian sovereignty. In order to break Silesia's dependency on salt from Poland, Emperor Ferdinand I founded the demesne land "Zum Neuen Saltze" in 1563. The sea salt, originally from La Rochelle and the Iberian coast, was transported from Hamburg and Stettin (Szczecin) along the navigable Oder. A flood in 1573 led to the relocation of the salt refinery to the nearby village of Modritz (Modrzyca); the office of the administrator is now the town hall. The settlement was documented as "Neusalzburg" ("New Salzburg") in 1585 and later as "Neusalz" ("New Salt"). A trading harbor was built on the Oder in 1592. The Protestant Church of St. Michael, built from 1591–97, was converted to Roman Catholicism in 1654.  The entrance of Dutch and English merchants in the Baltic Sea at the end of the 16th century led to difficulties in the supply of unrefined salt. The unprofitable enterprise was also hampered by tolls on the Oder imposed by the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Salt refining in Neusalz nearly collapsed during the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), while recovery was hampered by the salt trade of Brandenburg and Poland afterwards. As the rulers of Swedish Pomerania, Sweden prevented salt from reaching the town from Stettin in 1710. Three years later Neusalz became an outpost for salt from Magdeburg and Halle.  Neusalz developed into one of the largest ports on the Silesian Oder and handled the majority of salt traffic on the river. It was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 according to the Treaty of Breslau. When King Frederick II of Prussia granted Neusalz town rights on 9 October 1743 and initiated plans to expand the town, it had 97 houses. A colony of the Moravian Church was also founded in the same year. After the Battle of Kunersdorf, Neusalz was plundered on 24 September 1759. Forty houses were burnt down, as was the Moravian community, which was restored in 1763.  Neusalz was administered within Landkreis Freystadt i. Niederschles. in Prussian Silesia after the Napoleonic Wars. The modern industrial development began in the 19th century when new factories, especially linen factories and steelworks, were opened. Neusalz was first connected to the Silesian railway in 1871, the same year the town became part of the German Empire during the unification of Germany. Expansion and modernization of the harbor began on 11 October 1897. Neusalz became part of the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia in 1919. A wooden bridge across the Oder, originally built in 1870, was rebuilt using reinforced concrete in 1932.  During World War II Neusalz was the site of a labor camp belonging to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. German troops destroyed the concrete bridge on 9 February 1945, but the Soviet Red Army entered Neusalz on 13/14 February 1945. A number of buildings burnt down, including the Catholic Church. The town was placed under Polish administration according to the post-war Potsdam Conference and renamed "Nowa Sól" – a calque of its original German name. Germans remaining in the town were expelled and replaced with Poles.  Nowa Sól was rebuilt as an industrial and administrative center, superseding nearby Kożuchów. In 1975–98 it was in the Zielona Gora Voivodeship, after which it became part of the Lubusz Voivodeship. The town is featured in the documentary "5000 Miles", about a family from Wisconsin in the United States wishing to adopt a Polish child.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Nowa Sól is twinned with:

Nowa Sól (, ) is a town on the Oder River in Lubusz Voivodeship, western Poland. It is the capital of Nowa Sól County and had a population of 38,763 (2019).

Nowa Sól (prononciation polonaise: [ˈnɔva ˈsul]) est une ville de la powiat de Nowa Sól dans la voïvodie de Lubusz, dans le centre de la Pologne, située le long de l'Oder (Polonais : "Odra")


Medical uses.

The theoretical efficacy is similar to that of the combined oral contraceptive pill (COCP). However, this pill is taken continuously without any breaks between packets, and traditional progestogen-only pills must be taken to a much stricter time every day (within 3 hours vs. a COCP's 12 hours). However, in some countries, the POP desogestrel (Cerazette) has an approved window of 12 hours. The effectiveness is, therefore, dependent upon compliance.  Lacking the estrogen of combined pills, they are not associated with increased risks of deep vein thrombosis or heart disease. With the decreased clotting risk, they are not contraindicated in the setting of sickle-cell disease. The progestin-only pill is recommended over regular birth control pills for women who are breastfeeding because the mini-pill does not affect milk production (estrogen reduces the amount of breast milk). Like combined pills, the minipill decreases the likelihood of pelvic inflammatory disease.  It is unclear whether POPs provide protection against ovarian cancer to the extent that COCPs do.  There are fewer serious complications than with COCPs.

Available forms.

Commercially available progestogen-only pills include the following common or widely used formulations:  And the following rare or mostly discontinued formulations:  As well as the following completely discontinued formulations:  In the United States, the only progestogen-only pill that remains available is the 350-μg norethisterone formulation.

Side effects.

Breast cancer risk.

Epidemiological evidence on POPs and breast cancer risk is based on much smaller populations of users and so is less conclusive than that for COCPs.  In the largest (1996) reanalysis of previous studies of hormonal contraceptives and breast cancer risk, less than 1% were POP users. Current or recent POP users had a slightly increased relative risk (RR 1.17) of breast cancer diagnosis that just missed being statistically significant. The relative risk was similar to that found for current or recent COCP users (RR 1.16), and, as with COCPs, the increased relative risk decreased over time after stopping, vanished after 10 years, and was consistent with being due to earlier diagnosis or promoting the growth of a preexisting cancer.  The most recent (1999) IARC evaluation of progestogen-only hormonal contraceptives reviewed the 1996 reanalysis as well as 4 case-control studies of POP users included in the reanalysis. They concluded that: "Overall, there was no evidence of an increased risk of breast cancer".  Recent anxieties about the contribution of progestogens to the increased risk of breast cancer associated with HRT in postmenopausal women such as found in the WHI trials have not spread to progestogen-only contraceptive use in premenopausal women.

Depression.

There is a growing body of research investigating the links between hormonal contraception, such as the progestogen-only pill, and potential adverse effects on women’s psychological health. The findings from a large Danish study of one million women (followed-up from January 2000 to December 2013) were published in 2016, and reported that the use of hormonal contraception, particularly amongst adolescents, was associated with a statistically significant increased risk of subsequent depression. The authors found that women on the progestogen-only pill in particular, were 34% more likely to subsequently take anti-depressants or be given a diagnosis of depression, in comparison with those not on hormonal contraception. In 2018, a similarly large nationwide cohort study in Sweden amongst women aged 12–30 (n=815,662) found an association, particularly amongst young adolescents (aged 12–19), between hormonal contraception and subsequent use of psychotropic drugs. Such studies highlight the need for further research into the influence of hormonal contraception, including the progestogen-only pill on women’s psychological health.

Weight gain.

There is some evidence that progestin-only contraceptives may lead to slight weight gain (on average less than 2 kg in the first year) compared to women not using any hormonal contraception.

Mechanism of action.

The mechanism of action of progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose.  In anovulatory cycles using progestogen-only contraceptives, the endometrium is thin and atrophic. If the endometrium were also thin and atrophic during an ovulatory cycle, this could, in theory, interfere with implantation of a blastocyst (embryo).

History.

The first POP to be introduced contained 0.5 mg chlormadinone acetate and was marketed in Mexico and France in 1968. However, it was withdrawn in 1970 due to safety concerns pertaining to long-term animal toxicity studies. Subsequently, levonorgestrel 30 μg (brand name Microval) was marketed in Germany in 1971.

Progestogen-only pills or progestin-only pills (POP) are contraceptive pills that contain only synthetic progestogens (progestins) and do not contain estrogen. They are colloquially known as mini pills.

La pilule progestative est une pilule contraceptive qui contient uniquement un progestatif de synthèse, sans œstrogène. La pilule progestative est aussi souvent dénommée à tort « micro-pilule ».