History.

After World War II, the company was famous for many years for Lambretta scooters models such as LI125, LI150, TV175, TV200, SX125, SX150, SX200, GP125, GP150 and GP200.  From 1961 to 1976 Innocenti built under licence the BMC (later the British Leyland Motor Corporation / BLMC) Mini, with 848, 998 cc and 1,275 cc engines, followed by other models, including, from 1973, the Regent (Allegro), with engines up to 1,485 cc. The company of this era is commonly called Leyland Innocenti. The Innocenti Spyder (1961–70) was a rebodied version of the Austin-Healey MKII Sprite (styling by Ghia). The car was produced by OSI, near Milan. In 1972 BLMC took over control of the company.  In 1972 the company's land, buildings and equipment were purchased by British Leyland in a deal involving approximately £3 million. The British company had high hopes for its newly acquired subsidiary at a time when, they reported to the UK press, Italian Innocenti sales were second only to those of Fiat, and ahead of Volkswagen and Renault: there was talk of further increasing annual production from 56,452 in 1971 to 100,000. However, the peak production under BLMC was 62,834 in 1972, in spite of exports increasing from one car in 1971 to more than 17,000 in 1974. Demonstrating their ambitions, the British company installed as managing director one of their youngest UK based senior executives, the 32-year-old former financial controller Geoffrey Robinson. Three years later BLMC ran out of money and was nationalised by the UK government. In February 1976, the company passed to Alejandro de Tomaso and was reorganised by the De Tomaso Group under the name "Nuova Innocenti". Benelli had a share and British Leyland retained five percent, with De Tomaso owning forty-four percent with the aid of a rescue plan from (an Italian public agency intended to provide investment for troubled corporations). Management was entirely De Tomaso's responsibility, however, and later in 1976 GEPI and De Tomaso combined their 95% of Innocenti (and all of Maserati) into one new holding company.  However, with the loss of the original Mini, the Austin I5, and the (slow-selling) Regent, sales were in freefall. Production was nearly halved in 1975 and was down to about a fifth of the 1974 levels in 1976. After this crisis, however, the new Bertone-bodied Mini began selling more strongly and production climbed to a steady 40,000 per annum by the end of the 1970s. The first models had Bertone-designed five-seater bodywork and was available with Leyland's 998 cc and 1,275 cc engines.  Exports, which had been carried out mainly by British Leyland's local concessionaires, began drying up in the early eighties as BL did not want to see internal competition from the Innocenti Mini. Sales to France (Innocenti's biggest export market) ended in 1980, with German sales coming to a halt in 1982. Around the same time, the engine deal with Leyland ended, and production soon dropped into the low twenty thousands. Having lost their engine supply as well as their entire export dealer net, Innocenti found themselves without a product and the means of selling it.  However, Daihatsu of Japan were in need of a European partner. In addition to providing drivetrains, Daihatsu gave Innocenti access to their burgeoning sales network, entering France, Belgium, and Switzerland at first. Daihatsu gained access to the Italian market, and a means of entry into other European nations with steep barriers for Japanese-made cars. That Innocenti, like Daihatsu, was a small-car specialist only made the marriage even more suitable. And so it was that, from model year 1983 on, the Innocenti was completely reengineered, now using the Daihatsu Charade's 993 cc three-cylinder engine and an entirely new suspension. The appearance did not change in the least, in spite of it being, in essence, a new car. De Tomaso developed a turbocharged version of this engine for Daihatsu which found use in both Innocenti and Daihatsu cars.  In addition to building their own cars, De Tomaso also had Innocenti use their factory capacity in producing bodywork for and providing final assembly of the Maserati Biturbo, Quattroporte, and the Chrysler TC by Maserati. As production kept decreasing, and prices vis-à-vis competing Fiat products increased, Innocenti attempted to stay relevant by adding ever higher and more individual equipment. Innocenti kept building their own cars until early 1993. Beginning in 1990, when Fiat took over, Innocenti also sold Yugo's Koral and Brazilian-sourced versions of the Fiat Uno (Elba station wagon and Uno Mille) in the Italian market. The marque ended when sales of these rebadged models came to a halt in 1996.

2018 Relaunch.

The Lambretta scooter was relaunched once again at the EICMA Milan Motorcycle Expo in November 2017. After the purchase of the Lambretta branding by Innocenti SA, now a Swiss consortium, a new scooter model was designed and launched. This was the V-special, available in 50 to 125 to 200cc enigne sizes, and designed to meet Euro 4 standards. The scooter was designed in Austria by Austrian firm Kiska, but produced in Asia. It saw exports to Australia, Philippines, Europe, the US, and UK. The company plans to reintroduce classic models at a later date. Lambretta are developing production facilities in India, teaming up with Lohia Auto of Noida and the Bird Group of New Delhi. There are plans to launch an electric scooter in 2020.

Innocenti () was an Italian machinery works originally established by Ferdinando Innocenti in 1920. Over the years they produced Lambretta scooters as well as a range of automobiles, mainly of British Leyland origins. The brand was retired in 1996, six years after being acquired by Fiat.

La marque italienne Innocenti était, à l'origine, une société travaillant dans la métallurgie, avant de devenir constructeur des scooters Lambretta. <br> Mais c'est dans le domaine de l'automobile qu'elle se fit le plus connaître à l'étranger avec sa Mini, produite d'abord sous licence anglaise. La marque fut rachetée par Fiat en 1989.


Career.

Afeaki has played for the Wellington Lions in the National Provincial Championship, the Hurricanes in the international Super 14 competition, Secom and Ricoh in Japan before joining the Scarlets in Wales. He represented Grenoble in the French Pro D2. He signs for Saint Etienne in 2009. He captained Tonga at the 2003 Rugby World Cup.  In 1986-90, he attended St Bernard's College in Wellington, in 1991 and 1992 he played for the Wellington under 19 and 21 teams respectively. He played for Petone from 1992 through to 1999, and the Wellington Lions from 1993–96 and again from 1999-01. He made his Super 12 debut for the Hurricanes in 1996, in the first season, and played with them from 1999 to 2001, as he played in Japan from 1997-98. After returning to Wellington in 1999, he went back to Japan in 2002 and played their until 2005.

International career.

He made his debut for Tonga on May 26, 1995 in a match against France, coming on as a replacement in Pretoria during the 1995 Rugby World Cup. He also played in two other matches during the tournament, in the starting line-up, against Scotland and Côte d'Ivoire.  He next played for Tonga in November 2001 when he started against Scotland at Murrayfield Stadium. He captained them in their next match against Wales, in which he scored a try. He retained the captaincy for the following season and played four matches for Tonga in 2002. Following captaining them in a number of internationals in 2003, he then led Tonga at the 2003 Rugby World Cup in Australia. In 2004 he was the captain of the Pacific Islanders rugby union team that played a series of matches against southern nations.

Inoke Afeaki (born 12 July 1973 in Tofoa, Tongatapu) is a Tongan rugby union footballer. His usual position is at lock. He is currently the Technical Director at the Singapore Rugby Union.

Inoke Unga'anga Afeaki, est né le à Tofoa (Tonga). C’est un joueur de rugby à XV qui fut international tongien entre 1995 et 2007. Il évoluait aux postes de deuxième ligne ou troisième ligne. Il mesure ( pour ).


Early years.

Abizaid was born in Beirut, Lebanon, to an American mother and a Mexican/Lebanese father. She traveled the Middle East and Europe with her family before the age of ten, when she moved with her mother and brother to the United States. Along with her four sisters, she formed a band and developed a talent for harmonies. Her first exposure to music was Middle Eastern music combined with the late 1970s American influences of Alice Cooper, Elton John, Crosby, Stills and Nash, and The Beatles.  After moving to the US, she lived in Poughkeepsie, NY until moving to Great Falls, Virginia for high school. She later attended the Corcoran School of Art in Georgetown and then transferred to The Catholic University of America to study drama and music, while pursuing a career in hairstyling. She dropped out of college to work as a runway model with designers such as Jacques Fath, Nina Ricci, Oscar de la Renta, Alberta Ferretti, Badgley Mischka, Chloe and Bill Blass. She traveled to Paris and Germany and modeled for London designer Zandra Rhodes in the UK. Afterward, she returned to the US to live in Miami, Florida. In Miami, she met musician/songwriter Shane Soloski in the late 1990s and decided to move to Los Angeles to form a band with him.  Their first gig was an open mic at Molly Malone's where she met and played with Todd Sucherman (drummer for Styx). After several open mics around Los Angeles, she and Soloski formed a band called Blue which included musicians Eric Dover (guitarist for Alice Cooper), Ron Dziubla (guitarist/saxophonist for Ricky Martin), Brian Head (drummer for Foreigner), Mike Mennell (bassist for Tom Jones) and Taylor Mills (singer for Brian Wilson). They played a series of shows in Los Angeles at The Gig and The Mint and broke up in 2001 just before releasing their first album. She then recorded and performed as a backup vocalist for Jennifer Stills and as a backup vocalist for Kathleen Bird York (known for her Oscar-nominated song "In the Deep" from "Crash"). Abizaid began recording vocal sessions for several TV shows with writers Stephen Phillips and Tim P. from Bosshouse Music, as well as two songs for the film "Devious Beings" in 2002, starring Patrick van Horn and Kevin Connolly. She was also the voice for Ally Sheedy and Charisma Carpenter on the TV show "Strange Frequency" starring Roger Daltrey in 2001, singing a vocal recorded duet with Sebastian Bach from the band Skid Row. Due to the success of Paramount's "The 4400", "New York Post" author Adam Buckman wrote on August 28, 2005 "I'd like to thank two singers — one named Sia and the other named Amanda Abizaid — for making TV all the more memorable this summer."

Solo years.

Now an established artist in Los Angeles, Abizaid has performed as a solo artist releasing a single, two EPs and one LP working with musicians Eric Dover, Ron Dziubla, Mike Mennell, Tom Gimbel (keyboardist/saxophonist for Foreigner), Brian Head and Brian Tichy (drummer for Ozzy Osbourne). Abizaid has played shows around the Los Angeles area at The Gig, The Mint and The Rainbow, and other acoustic venues such as Genghis Cohen, Tangier and The Derby. She played at the Indiegrrl festival in the Blue Ridge Mountains in 2012 and remains an avid supporter of women in music. She was on a compilation CD last year of women around the world called "Females on Fire".  She has also written and sang songs for several independent feature films, "3 Below", "13th Alley", "Dark Ascension", and wrote the theme song and starred in the short film "Facing the Lion".

Discography.

Albums:  EPs/Singles:

Amanda Jo Abizaid (born December 28, 1974) is an American Lebanese singer/songwriter best known for her vocal performance on the theme song of the US TV series "The 4400".

Amanda Abizaid (en ) est une chanteuse et compositrice de Beyrouth, Liban. Elle a émigré aux États-Unis à l'âge de neuf ans.


Location and population.

Situated between Dease Strait and Queen Maud Gulf on the southeast coast of Victoria Island ("Kitlineq"), part of the Arctic Archipelago, Cambridge Bay is a transportation and administrative centre for the Kitikmeot Region. To the north of the community is Ferguson Lake (Inuinnaqtun: "Tahiryuaq" or "Tahikyoak") which flows into Wellington Bay via the Ekalluk River. The Ekalluk River is both an important commercial fishing and archaeological area, and of particular importance is the short section of the river known as "Iqaluktuuq".  About west of the community lie the Finlayson Islands which were surveyed by Sir Richard Collinson on board the "Enterprise" during his search for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin.  The area was a traditional hunting and fishing location and archaeological sites are often found. The barren-ground caribou, muskox, Arctic char, lake trout and ringed seal were the primary prey, and remain important food sources. Situated east of Cambridge Bay is Ovayok Territorial Park, which includes the large esker known as Ovayok (Mount Pelly).  As of the 2016 census the population was 1,766, an increase of 9.8% from the 2011 census. The median age of the population in 2011 was 27.4 and 71.5% of the people were over 15. Both of these figures are slightly higher than the numbers for Nunavut as a whole (24.1 and 67.3%). In 2006, 82.7% (Nunavut: 85.0%) of the population were listed as Aboriginal and 17.7% (Nunavut: 15%) as non-Aboriginal. Of the total population 78.9% (Nunavut: 84%) were Inuit, 1.7% (Nunavut: 0.4%) Métis and 1.4% (Nunavut: 0.3%) North American Indian.

History.

The first known people to occupy the area were the Pre-Dorset people, somewhere around 1800 BCE, about 4,000 years ago, and were seal and caribou hunters. The next group to enter the area were a Paleo-Eskimo peoples known as the Dorset, who arrived approximately 500 CE. They were the first known people to have fished for the Arctic char. The last of the Paleo-Eskimo people, who appeared here about 800 CE, were the "Tuniit", and evidence of their living quarters can be seen close to Cambridge Bay. The Tuniit, who were known to the Inuit as giants, were taller and stronger than the Inuit, but were easily scared off.  The next group to arrive were the Thule people, ancestors of the modern Inuit, who arrived in the area around 1250 CE from present day Alaska. The Thule people built food cache and stone houses in the area and were noted for their sophisticated tools. Although there is no positive evidence it is suspected that the Thule may have interacted with the Tuniit.  About 500 years ago, around 1500 CE, the modern Inuit made an appearance. Like the Thule they made use of caches, hunted caribou and fished for char. They also hunted seal from the ice in winter and returned to the land in spring. They were also known to make use of "inukhuk" and built "igluit". Although they had no collective name, the various groups of Inuit that made use of native copper for tools have since become known as Copper Inuit and are the same people that Vilhjalmur Stefansson called the Blond Eskimos. The main groups that lived or interacted in the Cambridge Bay area were the Ekalluktogmiut (Iqaluktuurmiutat or Ikaluktuurmiut), Ahiagmiut (Ahiarmiut), the Killinirmuit and the Umingmuktogmiut.  The first Europeans to reach Cambridge Bay were overland explorers led by Thomas Simpson in 1839; they were searching for a Northwest Passage and had crossed the sea ice on foot. Another overland expedition led by John Rae reached Cambridge Bay in 1851, and the first ship to reach the bay was under Richard Collinson who wintered there in 1852/53. Both Rae and Collinson were searching for Franklin's lost expedition. Collinson's ship came from the west, having entered the Canadian Arctic via the Bering Strait. This was the furthest east any large ship travelled from the Bering Strait until Henry Larsen in 1941. Cambridge Bay was the site of Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) outposts established during the 1920s. Although at this point most Inuit would have continued the traditional lifestyle and only visited the area rather than live there permanently. The HBC opened a post here in 1921, later than in most places, and built at the site now called the "old town". In 1925 the HBC purchased the "Maud", which they renamed the "Baymaud", from the creditors of Arctic explorer, Roald Amundsen. The ship sailed to the Arctic in 1926 but it became stuck in the winter ice at Cambridge Bay. The ship was later anchored near the shore and used for various purposes including the first ever radio weather reports from the Arctic coast. In 1930 the ship sank and, although some material was removed at the time, the ship is remained visible for 86 years. A Norwegian plan to salvage the ship and return it to Norway, though initially denied an export permit, was granted on appeal, and was to be carried out in 2014 but was delayed to 2015 due to ice conditions preventing the arrival of salvage equipment until late in the open water season. The planned salvage of 2015 was delayed, however during the summer of 2016 the Maud was raised and prepared for return to Norway during the summer of 2017, where she will be displayed at a museum in Vollen, Asker.  In 1947 following World War II the Cambridge Bay LORAN Tower was built near the previous location of Cambridge Bay. The construction of the LORAN tower involved hiring Inuit who, after the tower was complete, remained in the area. The tower was demolished 5 August 2014.  In 1954 construction was completed on the Roman Catholic Church. The church, Cambridge Bay's first, was constructed from local material using seal oil and sand as mortar, and was used for services until the 1960s. On 27 April 2006, a large portion of the church, which had been designated a heritage site by the Hamlet Council, was destroyed by a fire which the RCMP said was deliberate. A Distant Early Warning Line site was established in 1955 and about 200 Inuit were hired to help in the construction. The military presence and the services and economy this represented acted as a magnet for Inuit who had previously used the area as a temporary site for meeting, hunting, fishing and trade, and a permanent community was soon established across the bay in its current location. Unlike the majority of the DEW Line radar sites which were abandoned or automated, this site which changed in 1989, known as CAM-MAIN, remains a manned operation, with about 18 people, as part of the North Warning System.  Originally part of the Fort Smith Region, Northwest Territories, Cambridge Bay became the administrative centre for the Kitikmeot Region, Northwest Territories, and remained so for the new Kitikmeot Region after the 1999 division of the Northwest Territories. In 1982 a division plebiscite was held. Although about 80% of the population then living in what is now Nunavut voted in favour of division, Cambridge Bay was one of only two communities to vote against division. Kugluktuk, then called Coppermine, was the other.

Canadian High Arctic Research Station campus.

Cambridge Bay is the location of the Canadian High Arctic Research Station (CHARS) campus as announced by Prime Minister Stephen Harper on 24 August 2010. This multidisciplinary station is operated by Polar Knowledge Canada, a federal agency, and will operate year-round. It is a keystone of Canada's Northern Strategy. Its mandate is stated: Cambridge Bay was chosen after a feasibility study that also included Pond Inlet and Resolute as potential locations. Prime Minister Harper announced that, starting in 2012, the Government of Canada would spend $142.4 million over a six-year period to build, equip and provision the station. Additionally, again starting in 2012 and spread over six years, the government would provide $46.2 million for the CHARS Science and Technology Program. The prime minister stated that to provide for the continuing research and operations $26.5 million per year, beginning in 2018-19, would be made available. It is expected that the station will provide 35 to 50 jobs. These jobs, which will be full-time, part-time and seasonal, will start in 2017 and run the Science and Technology Program as well as provide the day-to-day operations of the station. In addition it is expected that 150 jobs will be created during construction for local and other people throughout the north. However, some of these jobs will require the hiring of specialised people from southern locales. Construction began in August 2014.

Education.

Several educational services are available, including daycare, preschool, Kullik Elementary School, Killinik High School, and a public library and museum located in the high school. The community is also the regional centre for the Kitikmeot Campus of Nunavut Arctic College who oversee the Cambridge Bay Community Learning Centre. Courses range from Adult Basic Education to the Nunavut Teacher Education Program (NTEP), which, in partnership with the University of Regina, is able to offer a Bachelor of Education.

Land claims.

The Kitikmeot Inuit Association, Nunavut Impact Review Board, and Nunavut Planning Commission have offices in Cambridge Bay, as well as the Lands and Resources Department of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated.

Religion.

There are three churches in Cambridge Bay: St. George's Anglican Church, which is part of the Diocese of Arctic, Our Lady of the Arctic Roman Catholic Church, which is part of the Diocese of Mackenzie-Fort Smith, and the Glad Tidings Pentecostal Church.

Economy and infrastructure.

There are several businesses in the community and these include a Northern Store which includes a Quick Stop, selling KFC and Pizza Hut products, the Ikaluktutiak Co-operative, part of the Arctic Co-operatives Limited, a branch of the Royal Bank of Canada and a Canada Post postal service. Other community businesses include Jago Services, plumbing and electrical, Kitnuna, construction, mechanics shop, heating fuel and Kitikmeot Supplies, a hardware store, Kalvik Enterprises and Nanook Woodworking, both construction companies and Inukshuk Enterprises, a general contractor, who also operate a service garage  There are three taxi services, one run by the Co-op, Go Cargo Taxi and Ziggy's Taxi. There is a modern health centre in the community that opened in 2005 and in 2010 the birthing centre was opened. There is a RCMP detachment in Cambridge Bay and the Kitikmeot Law Centre has its offices in the community. The hotels include the Umingmak Lodge Bed and Breakfast, the Arctic Islands Lodge, run by the Co-op and the Green Row operated by Inukshuk Enterprises.  Phone service is provided by Northwestel, a division of BCE Inc. and, with their companion Bell Mobility, also handle cell phone coverage. Buildings in Cambridge Bay, like in most Nunavut communities, have water and sewage tanks that require regular services by truck. These services along with garbage pick-up are done by the Hamlet.

Media.

Radio.

Cambridge Bay is served by two CBC Radio One rebroadcasters to allow residents to hear Inuvialuktun language programming, which is the language spoken in Cambridge Bay, that is aired in the afternoons by CHAK.  Cable television is available from the local Co-op and satellite television from either Shaw Direct or Bell TV.

Transportation.

Although Cambridge Bay lies on the Northwest Passage there are no passenger ships other than tourist cruises. Northern Transportation Company Limited and Nunavut Sealink and Supply, owned by Arctic Co-operatives Limited, provide annual sealift to the community.  The only passenger services are through the Cambridge Bay Airport from which daily air service to Yellowknife, and to the other Kitikmeot Region communities with Canadian North or First Air.  Charter and MEDIVAC (air ambulance) services are provided by Keewatin Air. Former MEDIVAC operator Adlair Aviation still operates charters in the region. In the summer floatplane charters are provided by DAL Aviation from the Cambridge Bay Water Aerodrome.  In 2012, the roads of Cambridge Bay were imaged for Google Street View by a tricycle fitted with a camera system. While Cambridge Bay has no cars (only snowmobiles, ATVs, SUVs and trucks), Google responded to a proposal by Cambridge Bay resident Chris Kalluk to include Arctic communities in Street View in order to educate the rest of the world. Through Google Street View, one can even enter the indoor swimming pool and have a look around.

Climate.

Cambridge Bay has a polar climate, no month having an average temperature of or higher, and is listed as "ET" on the Köppen climate classification. It has never recorded a temperature above freezing between 31 October and 19 April.  The sun is continuously below the horizon, polar night, from approximately 30 November to 11 January and above the horizon, midnight sun, 19 May to 22 July.

Cambridge Bay (Inuinnaqtun: "Iqaluktuuttiaq" Inuktitut: ᐃᖃᓗᒃᑑᑦᑎᐊᖅ; 2016 population 1,766; population centre 1,619) is a hamlet located on Victoria Island in the Kitikmeot Region of Nunavut, Canada. It is the largest settlement on Victoria Island. Cambridge Bay is named for Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge, while the traditional Inuinnaqtun name for the area is "Ikaluktutiak" (old orthography) or "Iqaluktuttiaq" (new orthography) meaning "good fishing place".

Ikaluktutiak ou Cambridge Bay est une communauté dans le territoire du Nunavut au Canada. Elle est située par 69°07' Nord et 105°02' Ouest. Ikaluktutiak signifie en inuktitut ""lieu où il fait bon pêcher"".


Club career.

Boca Juniors.

Burdisso is the product of Argentine club Boca Juniors's youth system. He began his professional career with them in 1999 at age 18. With Boca Juniors, he won two Argentine Championships (2000 Apertura and 2003 Apertura), three Copa Libertadores (2000, 2001, 2003), and two Intercontinental Cups (2000, 2003).

Internazionale.

In 2004, Burdisso moved to Internazionale of Serie A, signing a four-year contract. However, he missed almost all of the 2004–05 season after Inter allowed him to return in Argentina to support his daughter Angela who was fighting leukemia. He returned in action in October 2005 when he played as a second-half substitute in the 5–0 hammering of Livorno. On 31 August 2006, he extended his contract until 2009. On 8 September 2006, four days after Giacinto Facchetti died, Burdisso was given the number 16 jersey for the retirement of Facchetti's beloved number 3 jersey.  Burdisso enjoyed his most prolific campaign during the 2006–07, when he was named the Coppa Italia top scorer with 4 goals jointly with four other players. This also included his first career brace on 29 November 2006 in the 4–0 victory against Messina. He again scored twice on 24 January 2007, in the 3–0 victory against Sampdoria. Inter eventually made their way to the final, where they faced Roma; Burdisso played in the second leg which Inter won 2–1, but they lost the trophy 7–4 on aggregate. In addition to that, he also scored two goals in championship which ended in conquest.  During the Champions League tie between Valencia and Inter on 5 March 2007, a fracas broke out between players of the two teams. Burdisso suffered a broken nose from a punch in the face from Valencia defender David Navarro. As punishment for his part in the brawl, Burdisso was handed a six-match ban from all European club competitions with an additional two match suspension. Navarro was sentenced to a seven-month ban from domestic, European and international matches. The match at Mestalla Stadium ended in a goalless draw which sent Inter out of competition on away goal rule.  Burdisso eventually returned to duty on 12 March 2008 in the second leg of the Champions League match against Liverpool, but was sent off in the 60th minute after receiving his second yellow card of the game. With Inter, he played left and right back and central defender as a key member of the squad in three different competitions.  Burdisso left the club in August 2009 after playing 139 matches and scoring 8 goals in all competitions, winning 9 trophies in the process.

Roma.

On 22 August 2009, Burdisso was signed by Roma on loan, which offered him €3.04 million (gross) salary per year. He played the opening match of the league on 23 August. He scored his first goal for Roma on 20 December 2009, opening the scoring in a 2–0 win over Parma.  Burdisso was then signed by Roma permanently on 28 August 2010 for a €8 million transfer fee. He signed a four-year contract, in which he would earn €3.8 million (pre-tax) his first year, increasing to €4.5 million pre-tax in the next three years.  He scored his fifth goal—first in the 2011–12 Serie A—for Roma against Milan on 29 October. Roma lost that game 3–2. On 15 November 2011, he suffered a serious injury to his left knee which will force him out of action for six months.  In 2007, Burdisso expressed his desire to finish his career at Boca Juniors.  In 2012–13 season under Zdeněk Zeman, Burdisso was relegated to the bench. He played only eight matches in the first part of the season, scoring the opener in a 4–2 win over Milan. Prospects in the starting XI remained dismal after the arrival of new manager Rudi Garcia, typically serving as third-choice centre-back behind starters Mehdi Benatia and Leandro Castán.

Genoa.

On 23 January 2014, he signed with Genoa. He played for Genoa for four seasons, making 113 appearances.

Torino.

On 31 August 2017, Burdisso was signed by Torino on a free transfer on an annual contract. He concluded the season with 25 appearances for Torino.  He announced his retirement on 10 October 2018.

International career.

Burdisso starred in the Argentina under-20 team along with Javier Saviola and Maxi Rodríguez. All three won the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship together.  On 15 May 2006, Burdisso was named as a squad member for the 2006 FIFA World Cup by his former U-20 coach José Pekerman, going on to play in all three group matches. He also played for Argentina in the Copa América 2007, where the team went on to reach the final.  On 4 June 2008, Burdisso scored his second goal for Argentina during a friendly against Mexico in San Diego, California. Burdisso was selected to the Argentina squad for the 2010 World Cup by manager Diego Maradona and for the Copa América 2011 by manager Sergio Batista.  On 15 November 2011, Burdisso injured his left knee during a World Cup qualifying match against Colombia. During a disputed ball with James Rodríguez, Burdisso partially tore his left knee ligaments, with initial assessments predicting a recovery period of six-to-eight months.

Personal life.

Burdisso has a younger brother, Guillermo Burdisso, who is currently playing for Club Atlético Independiente, had previously played for Roma as well. The Burdisso brothers hold Italian passports due to their family origins in Collegno (Turin) and Revello (Cuneo), their grandparents' birthplaces in the Italian region of Piedmont.

Career statistics.

International goals.

"Scores and results list Argentinas's goal tally first."

Nicolás Andrés Burdisso (born 12 April 1981) is an Argentine football manager and former professional footballer who played as a centre back. He is currently the sporting director of Argentine Primera División club Boca Juniors.

Nicolás Andrés Burdisso, né le à Altos de Chipión, est un footballeur international argentin, désormais retraité. Il évoluait au poste de défenseur central.


Early life and discovery.

Nicolas Ferry was born on 14 October 1741 in Plaine, Bas-Rhin, France, the son of a farmer and his wife. He was unusually small at birth and continued to grow slowly, although all contemporary sources and surviving portraits agree that his limbs and features were in proportion to his height ("proportionate dwarfism"). His fame spread, and in 1746 he was visited by ladies from the court of Stanisław, who was also the Duke of Lorraine and maintained a court at Lunéville, although he was no longer King of Poland. Stanisław sent his physician to examine the child, who was now five years old and approximately 24 inches (60 cm) tall, and subsequently sent for him. He offered Ferry's parents money in return for their son, who was to be maintained and educated in the Leszczyński household as the court dwarf.

Life at court.

At court Ferry quickly acquired the nickname Bébé ("Baby"). He was given to the queen as a birthday present in 1747, and, after her death in 1748, he became the property of her cousin, the Princesse de Talmont. He had tutors, but proved to be of relatively low intelligence and is reported never to have learned to read or write. A small wooden house was built for him in one of the halls of the Chateau de Lunéville, and he was spoiled and indulged by his master and the entire court. He played practical jokes on visitors and often behaved very badly, but he was the king's favourite and a great attraction. Those entertained by his antics included the Duc du Richelieu and Voltaire.  In 1759 the Polish dwarf Józef Boruwłaski visited the court. He was a witty, urbane young man of 20, shorter than Ferry and well versed in court manners. Unflattering comparisons were drawn, and Ferry became so angry that he attacked Boruwłaski and tried to throw him onto the fire. The indulgent Stanisław ordered Ferry beaten for this outrage, reportedly to his severe shock and mortification.  Ferry was also compared unfavourably with Boruwłaski by the aristocratic writer, scientist and physician Louis-Élisabeth de La Vergne de Tressan, who visited the Lunéville court to receive an honour from Stanisław. De Tressan later delivered a paper to the French Academy of Sciences likening Ferry to an animal in comparison with the intelligent, well-educated Polish dwarf.  Ferry remained at Stanisław's court throughout his life, eventually growing to a height of 34 inches (86 cm).

Decline and death.

Ferry's health declined in his late teens. He developed a hunchback and had difficulty walking, and he suffered wasting of the soft tissues and signs of premature aging. Eventually he became incontinent and a chronic invalid, and died on 8 June 1764 aged 22. His skeleton was prepared and mounted for study, and is currently kept at the Musée de l'Homme in Paris. The rest of his remains were buried in the church at Lunéville; when the church was destroyed during the French Revolution, Ferry's inscribed mausoleum was preserved and is now at the Chateau de Lunéville. Some of Ferry's outfits are preserved in the historical museum at Nancy and there are a number of wax statues of him still in existence. A unique Luneville Faience statue of Ferry, 22 inches (56 cm) tall, modelled from life, was kept at the Chateau de Lunéville, but was destroyed in a fire in 2003.  In 2006 and 2008, French researchers published detailed studies of Ferry's skeletal remains, with particular attention to his jaws and facial bones. They concluded that Ferry suffered from a rare genetic form of primordial dwarfism characterised by small, abnormal teeth without roots, and dubbed the condition "NMOSR".

Nicolas Ferry (known as Bébé) (1741–1764) was a French dwarf who became renowned throughout Europe as the court dwarf of King Stanisław Leszczyński.

Nicolas Ferry, dit Bébé, né à Plaine (actuellement dans le Bas-Rhin) dans la principauté de Salm-en-Vosges le et mort le, est un nain qui fut élevé à la cour de Stanislas, duc de Lorraine, et dont la renommée se répandit dans toute l'Europe.


South African origins.

Catt was born on 17 September 1971 in Port Elizabeth, South Africa. He attended Grey High School in Port Elizabeth until 1989 and represented Eastern Province at rugby union. His mother Anne was English, through whom he qualified to play for England later on, and as a student he toured England. At the time, South Africa was banned from international competition because of the country's apartheid policy. He moved to England after leaving school.

Club career.

Catt joined Bath in 1992 as understudy to Stuart Barnes and made his debut as a 21-year-old against Nottingham R.F.C. later the same year. He started for Bath in the victorious 1998 Heineken Cup Final as they defeated Brive. He had a testimonial year with Bath in 2004, but at the end of the 2003–04 season, Bath decided not to renew his contract and he moved to London Irish. At the start of the 2007–08 season, he announced he was going to be backs coach for London Irish as well as a player. Whilst with the Exiles, he enjoyed a fruitful twilight of his career and in May 2006 was named Guinness Premiership Player of the Season. He is the oldest ever player to play in an English Premiership final (May 2009), aged 37, when he was a player / coach at London Irish.  On 8 May 2010 he played the final competitive club match of his career. Already a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE), he was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2011 New Year Honours for services to rugby.

International career.

A utility back, Catt played for England at fullback, fly-half, inside centre and even wing, and was part of the England side that won the 2003 Rugby World Cup.  His international debut came against Wales as a replacement for Rob Andrew. His breakthrough performance, however, came in England's following match against Canada at Twickenham Stadium, where he came on as an injury-replacement for the incumbent England fullback Paul Hull. England's emphatic victory, Hull's untimely injury, and Catt's impact in the late stages of the game cemented Catt as the new darling of English rugby that season.  Playing at full back, Catt was part of England's 1995 Grand Slam winning side, and played in the 1995 Rugby World Cup. In that event, he was memorably "posterised" by a young Jonah Lomu, who ran over him on the way to one of his four tries for the All Blacks in their semifinal win over England.  Catt was called up as an injury replacement in the 1997 British Lions tour to South Africa and played in the final test. At the time the England squad (excluding the substantial number who were with the Lions) were touring Argentina, where Catt was showing excellent form.  For some of his international career, his inclusion was questioned in some quarters. He was booed when he missed a penalty against Australia in 1998 at Twickenham that could have won the match; Australia won by 1 point. Ultimately though his natural ability as a rugby player has provided more positive career notes than negatives.  In 2000, with the retirement of centres after the 1999 World Cup, his career was revived when he stepped into midfield. Acting as an inside centre, with Jonny Wilkinson his kicking and distribution was responsible for the high try counts of that year.  Catt was selected for the 2001 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia but was injured and replaced by Scott Gibbs.  Catt was selected in the squad that won the 2003 World Cup; a move some saw as the one surprise selection in Clive Woodward's squad. After featuring in pool games against Samoa and Uruguay, Catt was brought on as a half time substitute in England's quarter-final against Wales, with England trailing 10-3. As a tactical substitution to improve England's kicking options and reduce the pressure on Jonny Wilkinson, Catt's performance was seen by many as key to England's improved second half showing and eventual 28-17 victory. In the semi-final against France, Catt was selected to start at inside centre as a tactical move, and due to his performance against Wales. He played in the extra-time period in the final as a replacement for Mike Tindall, alongside Wilkinson and Will Greenwood in England's midfield. Catt made several breaks in the extra-time period, and kicked the ball into touch to bring about the final whistle, ending the game and confirming England as world champions.  In 2006 he received an England recall, making his first Test appearances for two years on the summer tour to Australia, cementing his place in England's top ten most capped players. He had been in international exile until he was called up to captain England in the 2007 Six Nations game against France at Twickenham. England, with regular captain Phil Vickery and fly-half Jonny Wilkinson out to injury, won the match 26–18. He also captained England in the Six Nations defeat to Wales at the Millennium Stadium and again in England's pre-World Cup defeat to France at Twickenham in August 2007.  Catt was included in Brian Ashton's England squad for the 2007 Rugby World Cup, where he helped England reach a second successive final. Catt brought out his own autobiography after the World Cup "Landing on My Feet: My Story".  Catt confirmed his retirement from international rugby on 27 October 2007, the week after England lost to South Africa in that year's World Cup.

Coaching career.

Catt's coaching career began in 2008, where he replaced Brian Smith as attack coach at London Irish; he acted as a player-coach for the 2008-10 season. When he fully retired from playing at the end of the 2009-10 season, he remained with the London Irish set-up until Smith returned to the club in 2012.  In 2012, Catt joined the England national set-up as backs/attack coach for their 2012 tour to South Africa. On 15 December 2015, following the resignation of head coach Stuart Lancaster on 11 November 2015, newly appointed head coach Eddie Jones sacked the whole coaching team.  On 25 March 2016, Catt was announced as part of the newly appointed Italy coaching staff, sharing duties with Conor O'Shea and Stephen Aboud.  On 24 June 2019, it was confirmed after the 2019 Rugby World Cup, Catt will be joining former England player and coach Andy Farrell's coaching team at Ireland; after Joe Schmidt, the current Head Coach, steps down. Catt said: “I am looking forward to RWC in Japan and seeing the group of players we have here in Italy fulfil their potential and achieve the objectives we have set for ourselves. Obviously it is an honour to be given this future opportunity with Ireland but I will focus on that challenge only after I have given my all for Italy and this group of players.”  England’s coaching group during the 2015 Rugby World Cup will now all be employed in Ireland – Andy Farrell (current Ireland defence coach and future head coach), Stuart Lancaster (Leinster Rugby senior coach), Graham Rowntree (Munster Rugby forwards coach) and Mike Catt (Ireland attack coach).

Michael John Catt OBE (born 17 September 1971) is a South African-born former rugby union player who played for the England national rugby union team. He played professionally for the clubs London Irish and Bath. He earned 75 international caps for England and played in two World Cup Finals, in 2003 (when England won) and 2007. With his appearance in the October 2007 final, at age 36 years 1 month, he became the oldest ever player to play in a Rugby World Cup final. Since 2008, Catt has coached various rugby teams, and is currently an assistant coach for the Ireland national rugby team.

Michael John Catt dit « Mike Catt », né le à Port Elizabeth (Afrique du Sud), est un joueur et entraîneur international anglais de rugby à XV qui évoluait aux postes de demi d'ouverture, centre, arrière ou ailier (1,77 m pour 86 kg).


Etymology.

The term "Beguine" (; ) is of uncertain origin and may have been pejorative. Scholars no longer credit the theory expounded in the "Encyclopædia Britannica" Eleventh Edition (1911) that the name derived from Lambert le Bègue, a priest of Liège. Other theories, such as derivation from the name of St. Begga and from a purported, reconstructed Old Saxon word "*beggen", "to beg" or "to pray", have also been discredited. The origin of the movement's name will continue to be as uncertain as dates for the beginning of the movement itself.  There is likewise no evidence that Beguines ever formed part of the Cathar heretical groups. Encyclopedias, when they mention this latter explanation at all, tend to dismiss it.

Beguines (laywomen).

Among Beguines who have become well-known representatives of the movement in contemporary literature are: Begijnhof (Amsterdam), Begijnhof (Breda), Begijnhof (Utrecht), Christina von Stommeln, Douceline of Digne, Hadewijch, Marguerite Porete, Marie d'Oignies, and Mechthild of Magdeburg. Modern Beguines include Marcella Pattyn, and perhaps Dorothy Day.

Communities and status.

At the start of the 12th century, some women in the Low Countries lived alone and devoted themselves to prayer and good works without taking vows. At first there were only a few, but in the course of the century, their numbers increased. Due to the structure of urban demographics and marriage patterns in the Low Countries, in the Middle Ages there were more women than men. These women lived in towns, where they attended to the poor. During the 13th century, some of them bought homes that neighbored each other. These small communities of women soon attracted the attention of secular and clerical authorities. Moved or inspired by the women's commitment to prayer, the sacraments, and charitable service in the world, local clergy sought to channel and deploy the women's spiritual fame in response to contemporary problems, especially the institutional church's war on heresy. Several clerics sought to promote these mulieres religiosae (or religious women) as saints after their deaths. Probably the most famous instance of this was the relationship between James of Vitry and Marie d'Oignies, who is sometimes referred to as the prototypical Beguine. Marie d'Oignies inspired James. She encouraged and improved his preaching and many of her miracles served to promote the sacramental program of Lateran IV. After Marie's death, James traveled to Rome on behalf of the "religious women" in the diocese of Liège, seeking papal permission for the women to live in common and incite one another to live good Christian lives.  Beguines were not nuns, but they are sometimes conflated with nuns. Beguines took personal, informal vows of chastity. Animated by the ideals of the vita apostolica—the same ideals that led to the formation of the mendicant orders—Beguines pursued a life of contemplative prayer and active service in the world. As women, Beguines were forbidden to preach and teach, yet they actively exhorted their fellow Christians to live lives of penance, service, and prayer.  Beguines were never recognized as an official, papally approved religious order. They did not follow an approved rule, they did not live in convents, and they did not give up their personal property. In fact, Beguines were free to abandon their religious vocation at any time since it was not enforced by any binding monastic vow. In many cases, the term "Beguine" referred to a woman who wore humble garb and stood apart as living a religious life above and beyond the practice of ordinary laypeople.  In cities such as Cambrai, Valenciennes, and Liege, local officials established formal communities for these women that became known as beguinages. Beguinages tended to be located near or within town centers and were often close to the rivers that provided water for their work in the cloth industry.  While some women joined communities of like-minded lay religious women, adopting the label "Beguine" by virtue of entering a beguinage, many women lived alone or with one or two other like-minded women. Beguines engaged in a range of occupations to support themselves. Women in the Low Countries tended to work in the cities' lucrative wool industry. Parisian Beguines were important contributors to the city's burgeoning silk industry.  Beguinages were not convents. There was no overarching structure such as a mother-house. Each beguinage adopted its own rule. The Bishop of Liège created a rule for Beguines in his diocese. However, every community was complete in itself and fixed its own order of living. Later, many adopted the rule of the Third Order of Saint Francis.  Beguine communities varied in terms of the social status of their members; some of them only admitted ladies of high degree; others were reserved exclusively for persons in humble circumstances; others still welcomed women of every condition, and these were the most popular. Several, like the great beguinage of Ghent, had thousands of inhabitants. The Beguinage of Paris, founded before 1264, housed as many as 400 women. Douceline of Digne (c. 1215-1274) founded the Beguine movement in Marseille; her hagiography, which was composed by a member of her community, sheds light on the movement in general.  This semi-monastic institution was adapted to its age and spread rapidly throughout the land. Some Beguines became known as "holy women" ("mulieres sanctae"), and their devotions influenced religious life within the region. Beguine religious life was part of the mysticism of that age. There was a beguinage at Mechelen as early as 1207, at Brussels in 1245, at Leuven before 1232, at Antwerp in 1234, and at Bruges in 1244. By the close of the century, most communes in the Low Countries had a beguinage; several of the great cities had two or more.

Criticism and social response.

As the 13th century progressed, some Beguines came under criticism as a result of their ambiguous social and legal status. As a conscious choice to live in the world but in a way that effectively surpassed (at least in piety) or stood out from most laypeople, Beguines attracted disapprobation as much as admiration. In some regions, the term Beguine itself denoted an ostentatiously, even obnoxiously religious woman; an image that quickly led to accusations of hypocrisy (consider the Beguine known as “Constrained Abstinence” in the "Roman de la Rose"). Some professed religious were offended by the assuming of "religious" status without the commitment to a rule, while the laity resented the implicit disapproval of marriage and other markers of secular life. The women's legal standing in relation to ecclesiastical and lay authorities was unclear. Beguines seemed to enjoy the best of both worlds: holding on to their property and living in the world as laypeople while claiming the privileges and protections of the professed religious.  On the other hand, admirers such as the secular cleric Robert de Sorbon (d. 1274) noted that Beguines exhibited far more devotion to God than even the cloistered, since they voluntarily pursued a religious life without vows and walls, surrounded by the world's temptations.  The power of the Beguine label is evident in the "watershed" moments of Beguine history, from its first appearance in the sermons of James of Vitry (the Beguine movement's earliest and perhaps most famous promoter), to its reference in the trial of the doomed mystic Marguerite Porete (who was burned at the stake in Paris on charges of heresy in 1310), to its centrality in the condemnation of lay religious women at the Council of Vienne in 1311–1312.

Marguerite Porete.

Sometime during the early to mid-1290s, Marguerite Porete wrote a mystical book known as "The Mirror of Simple Souls". Written in Old French, the book describes the annihilation of the soul, specifically its descent into a state of nothingness—of union with God without distinction. While clearly popular throughout the Middle Ages and beyond (perhaps dozens of copies circulated throughout late-medieval western Europe) the book provoked some controversy, likely because of statements such as "a soul annihilated in the love of the creator could, and should, grant to nature all that it desires," which some took to mean that a soul can become one with God and that when in this state it can ignore moral law, as it had no need for the Church and its sacraments, or its code of virtues. This was not what Porete taught, since she explained that souls in such a state desired only good and would not be able to sin. Nevertheless, the book's teachings, for some, were too easily misconstrued, particularly by the unlearned.  At issue too was the way Porete disseminated her teachings, which was evocative of actions and behaviors some clerics were—at the time—finding increasingly problematic among lay religious women. Indeed, Porete was eventually tried by the Dominican inquisitor of France and burned at the stake as a relapsed heretic in 1310. In 1311—the year after Porete's death—ecclesiastical officials made several specific connections between Porete's ideas and deeds and the Beguine status in general at the Council of Vienne. One of the council's decrees, "Cum de Quibusdam", claimed that Beguines "dispute and preach about the highest Trinity and the divine essence and introduce opinions contrary to the catholic faith concerning the articles of the faith and the sacraments of the church."

After Council and decline.

After the Council of Vienne in 1312, the Beguines declined. By the 14th century, some communities were absorbed by monastic and mendicant orders. Many, however, survived the aftermath of the Vienne decrees.  Most of these institutions were suppressed during the Reformation of the 16th century or during the stormy years of revolutions and social unrest of the French Revolution. A few béguinages persisted until the early 20th century in parts of Belgium, including those of Bruges, Lier, Mechelen, Leuven and Ghent, which last numbered nearly a thousand members in 1905.

Surviving Beguines.

The community of Begijnhof, Amsterdam, credited with having considerably influenced the development of what was the city's southern edge in the late Middle Ages, survived the Protestant Reformation staunchly Catholic. Their parish church was confiscated and given over to exiled English Puritans. The last Amsterdam Beguine died in 1971, but the Begijnhof remains one of the city's best-known landmarks.  Marcella Pattyn, the last traditional Beguine, died on 14 April 2013 in Kortrijk at the age of 92. Born in the Belgian Congo in 1920, she was accepted into the Holy Corner of Elizabeth of Hungary at Sint-Amandsberg, Ghent, in 1941 and moved to the Béguinage of St Elisabeth at Kortrijk in 1960, where she became one of a community of nine.

Second and third waves.

Writer Jean Hughes Raber, a student of medieval women's movements, posited a second wave of the Beguine movement, which occurred in the 17th century, when it was supported by Archbishop Mathias Hovius. His involvement included helping improve the Great Beguines at Mechelen. Raber says there was no clear end to the Second Movement. She suggests that Catholic lay movements, such as those of Dorothy Day in the United States, the Company of St. Ursula and communities of women initiated by Francisca Hernandez, can be seen as extensions of the Beguines into the 20th century.  Raber suggests the Beguines' response to social and economic forces in the 12th century offer a model that can meet current conditions: economic uncertainty or worse, single women comprising a larger section of the population, and loss of wealth in the form of deflated values of housing. She cites a California-based group, the American Beguines, as an example of the revival of the Beguine Movement, with notable but not necessarily problematic differences. In recent decades, a new Beguine movement has arisen in Germany.  Recently, the Beguines of Mercy were founded in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. It is a contemplative third order of educated Catholic women whose roots are in spiritual community. Their affiliations are good works, quiet contemplation, and living out their spiritual values.

Beghards (laymen).

A widespread religious revival inspired several societies for men which were kindred to the Beguines. Of these, the Beghards were the most numerous and the most important.

Membership.

The Beghards were all laymen and, like the Beguines, they were not bound by vows, the rule of life which they observed was not uniform, and the members of each community were subject only to their own local superiors. They held no private property; the brethren of each cloister had a common purse, dwelt together under one roof and ate at the same board. They were for the most part men of humble origin—like weavers, dyers, and fullers—who were closely connected with the city craft-guilds. For example, no man could be admitted to the Beghards' community at Brussels unless he were a member of the Weavers' Company. The Beghards were often men to whom fortune had not been kind—men who had outlived their friends, or whose family ties had been broken by some untoward event and who, by reason of failing health or advancing years, or perhaps on account of some accident, were unable to stand alone. If "the medieval towns of the Netherlands found in the Beguinage a solution of their feminine question", the growth of the Beghard communities provided a place for the worn-out working man.  The men had banded together in the first place to build up the inner man. While working out their own salvation, they remained mindful of their neighbors and, thanks to their connection with the craft-guilds, they influenced the religious life. They are credited with shaping the religious opinion of the cities and towns of the Netherlands for more than 200 years, especially for the peasant.

Relation to the Church.

Religious authorities believed the Beguines had heretical tendencies and sometimes tried to bring disciplinary measures against them. The Synods of Fritzlar (1259), Mainz (1261), and Eichstätt (1282) brought measures against them and they were forbidden as "having no approbation" by the Synod of Béziers (1299). They were condemned by the Council of Vienne (1312), but this sentence was mitigated by Pope John XXII (1321), who permitted the Beguines to resume their mode of life after reform.  The Beghards were more obstinate; during the 14th century, they were repeatedly condemned by the Holy See, the bishops (notably in Germany) and the Inquisition. The "Catholic Encyclopedia" acknowledges that men of faith and piety were found among the Beghards. In their behalf, Pope Gregory XI (1374–77) and Pope Boniface IX (1394) addressed Bulls to the bishops of Germany and the Netherlands. The doctrine of Quietism is believed to resemble the stance of these community members.

Modern decline.

Before the close of the Middle Ages, Beghard communities were in decline. Their numbers diminished with the waning of the textile trade and, when that industry died, gradually dwindled away. The highest number of such medieval foundations in Flanders and Wallonia was 94, but in 1734 they had been reduced to just 34 and in 1856 to 20.

The Beguines and the Beghards were Christian lay religious orders that were active in Northern Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, in the 13th–16th centuries. Their members lived in semi-monastic communities but did not take formal religious vows. That is, although they promised not to marry "as long as they lived as Beguines," to quote one of the early Rules, they were free to leave at any time. Beguines were part of a larger spiritual revival movement of the 13th century that stressed imitation of Christ's life through voluntary poverty, care of the poor and sick, and religious devotion.

Une béguine est une femme, le plus souvent célibataire ou veuve, appartenant à une communauté religieuse laïque sous une règle monastique, mais sans former de vœux perpétuels.


Biography.

Behaim was born in Nuremberg on 6 October 1459, the oldest son of Martin Behaim and Agnes Schopper. The elder Martin was a merchant involved in long-distance trade within Europe, including Venice; in 1461 he was elected a senator of Nuremberg. Their son, as a member of a prominent and prosperous family, likely received a good education at one of the best grammar schools in the city. Contrary to later assertions, it is unlikely that he was ever a student of the famous Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, Regiomontanus.  When his father died in 1474, Martin's uncle Leonhard sent him at the age of 15 to Mechelen, Flanders to gain experience as a textile merchant. There he joined the business of Jorius van Dorpp, a vendor of clothing. In 1477 they visited Antwerp where van Dorpp sold his wares to a German merchant; later that same year Behaim attended the Frankfurt fair with Bartels von Eyb, a friend of the family. Writing to his uncle in 1478, Behaim expressed a desire to improve his business prospects by moving to Antwerp, a leading center of the cloth trade. The following year he moved to Antwerp and joined the cloth-dye-house of Fritz Heberlein, a native of Nuremberg.  In 1484 Behaim moved to Portugal and set up residence in Lisbon. The circumstances behind this move are unclear but Lisbon was the hub of a wide-ranging trade network that included spices, slaves, and gold from Africa and it is likely that Behaim was looking for trading opportunities. He quickly found favor as a couselor in the court of King Joao II where he supposedly provided advice on navigation and astronomy. However, despite assertions by his early biographers, there is no evidence that Behaim made any significant contributions in these areas. Claims that he taught celestial navigation or introduced the Portuguese to new navigational instruments are belied by the fact that these technologies were already known and used by Portuguese mariners. He may have acted as an importer of scientific instruments, the finest of which were produced at that time in his native town of Nuremberg.  On 18 February 1485 Behaim was knighted by Joao II, presumably for his contributions as adviser on navigation and astronomy but there is no record of the exact reasons for his honor.  It appears that Behaim participated in a voyage to West Africa around 1485; however it is unlikely that he accompanied Diogo Cão on his second expedition as is sometimes claimed. It is more likely that he participated in a trading voyage to Guinea led by João Afonso de Aveiro.  Following his marriage to Joana de Macedo in 1486, he resided on the Portuguese island of Faial in the Azores, where his father-in-law, Josse van Huerter, was Captain-donatário and leader of the Flemish community. In 1490, Behaim returned to Nuremberg to settle a will case, and remained in the city for three years. He managed to convince leading members of the city council to finance the construction of his famous terrestrial globe under his direction. He returned to Faial in 1493 by way of Flanders and Lisbon, and he remained there until 1506.  Behaim died in the hospice of Saint Bartholomew on 29 July 1507 while visiting Lisbon for business.

Unsubstantiated claims.

Numerous assertions have been made regarding Behaim's accomplishments, some made by himself and others by his early biographers. Since the twentieth century, historians have taken a more critical look at these claims and have concluded that many of them are unsubstantiated by any documentary evidence, and in some cases flatly contradicted by existing documentation.  Historian Johann Christoph Wagenseil claimed in 1682 that Behaim had discovered America before Columbus. Other authors say that Behaim at least gave Columbus the idea of sailing west. There is no evidence that Behaim ever sailed west on a voyage of discovery and although it is possible that Behaim and Columbus met in Lisbon, neither Behaim or Columbus ever referenced such a meeting.  Behaim has been hailed as a great mathematician and astronomer but there is no evidence of a scientific education nor are there any extant scientific writings by him. Behaim claimed to be a disciple of the Renaissance mathematician and astronomer, Regiomontanus. Regiomontanus was a neighbor in Nuremberg when Behaim was a boy, but there is no evidence that they ever studied together.  Biographers have claimed that Behaim accompanied Diogo Cão on his second voyage of discovery. Behaim may have contributed to the misunderstanding by leaving a confused account of an African voyage he made in 1485. The fact is that Behaim's dates do not match the dates of this voyage and there is no independent evidence that Behaim sailed with Cão.  Antonio Pigafetta, an Italian writer who accompanied Ferdinand Magellan alleges that Magellan had prior knowledge of a passage to the "Southern Sea" derived from a map made by Behaim. Historians now doubt that Behaim had any direct knowledge of such a passage but he may have depicted mysterious passages in an unknown land which Magellan interpreted as the strait he eventually discovered.

Behaim globe.

After Behaim returned to Nuremberg in 1490, leading members of the city council financed the construction of a terrestrial globe. Under the direction of Behaim, a team of artisans and craftsmen constructed what has become the oldest extant globe. Georg Glockendon was the artist who created the actual map drawings following Behaim's specifications.  The globe is about 21 inches (51 cm) in diameter and was fashioned from a type of papier-mache and coated with gypsum. The ball was supported on a wooden tripod and secured by a pair of iron hoops. Glockendon's map drawings were painted onto parchment strips and pasted into position around the sphere. The globe contains more than 2,000 place names, 100 pictorial illustrations (plus 48 banners and 15 coats of arms), and more than 50 long legends. Many of the notations deal with fabulous monsters of foreign countries and their inhabitants, plants and animals. Many notes also deal with trade, explorations, and famous travelers like Marco Polo.  The world map depicted on the Behaim globe is based primarily on the geography of the second-century geographer Ptolemy. It also combines geographical information from other sources, including Marco Polo, John Mandeville, and Portuguese explorer Diogo Gomes. It is notable for lacking more current Portuguese geographic data which should have been available to Behaim and it contains numerous errors that did not reflect contemporary geographical understanding.  The completed globe, which came to be called "Erdapfel" (earth apple) by the townspeople, was originally housed in Nuremberg's city hall. In the 17th century the Behaim family took possession of the globe. It was inexpertly restored in 1823 and again in 1847, resulting in the corruption of many place-names and labels. The German National Museum in Nuremberg later took possession of the globe, which is commonly known as the Nuremberg Terrestrial Globe.  The antiquity of this globe and the year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of the Americas, makes it not just the oldest globe but also represents an encyclopedia of Europe's knowledge of the known world in 1492.

Martin Behaim (6 October 1459 – 29 July 1507), also known as and by various forms of, was a German textile merchant and cartographer. He served Joao II of Portugal as an adviser in matters of navigation and participated in a voyage to West Africa. He is now best known for his Erdapfel, the world's oldest surviving globe, which he produced for the Imperial City of Nuremberg in 1492.

Martin Behaim (né le et décédé le ), aussi connu sous le nom de Martin von Behaim et par les formulations diverses de Martin de Bohême (latin : Martinus Bohemus) était un marin allemand, mais aussi un artiste, un cosmographe, un astronome, un philosophe, un géographe et un explorateur au service du Roi Jean II du Portugal. Ses cartes auraient influencé les explorateurs à l’ère des grandes découvertes mais il est maintenant davantage reconnu pour son Erdapfel, le plus vieux globe du monde encore existant, qu'il a conçu pour la ville Impériale de Nuremberg.


Definition.

The three coordinates (,, ) of a point are defined as:

Unique cylindrical coordinates.

As in polar coordinates, the same point with cylindrical coordinates has infinitely many equivalent coordinates, namely and where is any integer. Moreover, if the radius is zero, the azimuth is arbitrary.  In situations where someone wants a unique set of coordinates for each point, one may restrict the radius to be non-negative () and the azimuth to lie in a specific interval spanning 360°, such as or.

Conventions.

The notation for cylindrical coordinates is not uniform. The ISO standard 31-11 recommends, where is the radial coordinate, the azimuth, and the height. However, the radius is also often denoted or, the azimuth by or, and the third coordinate by or (if the cylindrical axis is considered horizontal), or any context-specific letter.  In concrete situations, and in many mathematical illustrations, a positive angular coordinate is measured counterclockwise as seen from any point with positive height.

Coordinate system conversions.

The cylindrical coordinate system is one of many three-dimensional coordinate systems. The following formulae may be used to convert between them.

Cartesian coordinates.

For the conversion between cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates, it is convenient to assume that the reference plane of the former is the Cartesian -plane (with equation ), and the cylindrical axis is the Cartesian -axis. Then the -coordinate is the same in both systems, and the correspondence between cylindrical and Cartesian are the same as for polar coordinates, namely in one direction, and in the other. The arcsin function is the inverse of the sine function, and is assumed to return an angle in the range =. These formulas yield an azimuth in the range. For other formulas, see the polar coordinate article.  Many modern programming languages provide a function that will compute the correct azimuth, in the range, given "x" and "y", without the need to perform a case analysis as above. For example, this function is called by atan2("y","x") in the C programming language, and atan("y","x") in Common Lisp.

Spherical coordinates.

Spherical coordinates (radius, elevation or inclination, azimuth ), may be converted into cylindrical coordinates by: Cylindrical coordinates may be converted into spherical coordinates by:

Line and volume elements.

In many problems involving cylindrical polar coordinates, it is useful to know the line and volume elements; these are used in integration to solve problems involving paths and volumes.  The line element is  The volume element is  The surface element in a surface of constant radius (a vertical cylinder) is  The surface element in a surface of constant azimuth (a vertical half-plane) is  The surface element in a surface of constant height (a horizontal plane) is  The del operator in this system leads to the following expressions for gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian:

Cylindrical harmonics.

The solutions to the Laplace equation in a system with cylindrical symmetry are called cylindrical harmonics.

A cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional coordinate system that specifies point positions by the distance from a chosen reference axis, the direction from the axis relative to a chosen reference direction, and the distance from a chosen reference plane perpendicular to the axis. The latter distance is given as a positive or negative number depending on which side of the reference plane faces the point.

Un système de est un système de coordonnées curvilignes orthogonales qui généralise à l'espace celui des coordonnées polaires du plan formula_1 en y ajoutant une troisième coordonnée, généralement notée, qui mesure la hauteur d'un point par rapport au plan repéré par les coordonnées polaires (de la même manière que l'on étend le système de coordonnées cartésiennes de deux à trois dimensions).


Biography.

Belloy was born in the small village of Morangles, near Senlis, on 9 October 1709. He had two brothers, Jacques-Tranquille, who became a Premonstratensian Canon, and was appointed Abbot of Corneux (diocese of Besançon) by King Louis XV in 1756; the other, also a monk, became Prior of Bellozane and then of Abbecourt (diocese of Chartres).  Although of an ancient family of military fame, young Belloy preferred an ecclesiastical career, made his classical and theological studies at Paris, where he was ordained a priest and received the degree of Doctor of Theology in 1737. In the ministry he shone more by his virtue than by his learning. In 1749, he was named Abbot Commendatory of Saint-André de Villeneuve (Avignon).  The Bishop of Bourges, Léon Potier de Gesvres, appointed him Vicar General of the diocese and Archdeacon, Canon, and Prebendary of his cathedral.

Bishop.

On 20 December 1751 he was appointed Bishop of Glandèves. He was consecrated a bishop in Paris, at the seminary of Saint-Sulpice, on 30 January 1752, by Bishop Potier de Gesvres. He took his oath of allegiance to King Louis XV on 5 February 1752.  Belloy participated as a delegate from the ecclesiastical Province of Embrun in the famous Assembly of the French Clergy of 1755, which began on 25 May and concluded on 4 November. On 10 June the news reached the Assembly that the Bishop of Marseille had died, and on 22 June the King nominated Belloy the new bishop. The purpose of the assembly was traditionally to bring the clergy to offer the King a subsidy of their own free will to meet the expenses of the royal government. Louis XV now proposed to turn the free grant into an annual tax of 5%, and to make that possible, he demanded a general survey of the value of all ecclesiastical benefices in France. Many delegates were intransigent defenders of their traditional practices, and their own pocketbooks, and fought against the King's proposals. Others wished to be more accommodating to the royal will. Most of the time of the Assembly, however, was spent on spiritual and doctrinal matters, arising out of the Jansenist controversy and the papal Bull "Unigenitus". Belloy took sides with the moderate party (Feuillants), led by Cardinal Frédéric-Jérôme de la Rochefoucauld, the President of the Assemblée du Clergé, and contributed to the restoration of tranquility in the Church of France.  Dissensions occasioned by the papal bull "Unigenitus" (8 September 1713) had become so great in the Diocese of Marseilles that, upon the death of its bishop, Henri François Xavier de Belsunce de Castelmoron, there was imminent danger of schism. Belloy was transferred to Marseille by Pope Benedict XIV on 4 August 1755; he gained the confidence of both parties, as well as the competing factions of Jesuits and Dominicans, and restored peace.  On 13 October 1762, on petition of his Promoter-General, Canon Long, Bishop Belloy issued a decree reminding his clergy, both secular and religious, of the Statute of the diocese of Marseille against the attendance of the clergy at the circus or coliseum.  On 5 November 1766, Belloy resigned his Abbey of Saint-André de Villeneuve, and was named Abbot Commendatory of the Abbey of Cormeilles (diocese of Lisieux). This was an exchange of benefices, a lesser for a richer.

Revolution.

In July 1790, the National Assembly decreed the suppression of the Diocese of Marseilles. Belloy sent to the assembly a letter of protest against the suppression of one of the oldest episcopal sees of France. He celebrated Mass for the last time in the Cathedral on 31 August 1790, and then retired to Chambly, a little town near his birthplace, where he remained during the most critical period of the Revolution. When Pope Pius VII decided that the French bishops should tender their resignation in order to facilitate the conclusion of the Concordat of 1801, he was the first to comply, on 21 September 1801, setting the example which exercised great influence over the other bishops, since he was the senior bishop in the French hierarchy.

Archbishop and cardinal.

Napoleon, highly pleased with this act of devotion to church and state, appointed the nonagenarian bishop to the See of Paris. He was immediately given canonical institution by the papal legate, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Caprara, and he officially took possession of the diocese on 12 April 1802. Notwithstanding his extreme age, he governed his new diocese with astonishing vigour and intelligence. His first task was to reconstruct the chapter of the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, which he did by an edict of 7 May 1802. Only three of his new canons and one vicar general had taken the oath. On the same day he began the reorganization of the parishes of the diocese inside the city limits, and on the 17th of May those outside Paris. Of the twelve parish priests inside Paris, three had taken the oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790. Of the 68 priests of parishes outside Paris, 55 had taken the oath. Belloy announced his belief that his priests had ceased functioning and were inactive during the decade of the constitutional church, and they were therefore reinstated. He had little choice. He then began a systematic canonical visitation of each parish in the diocese, to inspect its current spiritual and physical condition.  On 16 August 1802, Belloy was nominated a member of the General Council for the Administration of Hospitals and Shelters of Paris by the emperor. On 14 September 1802 he was appointed a senator of the French Republic.  At the specific request of Napoleon I, Belloy was promoted to the rank of cardinal of the Holy Roman Church by Pope Pius VII in the consistory of 17 January 1803. The emperor personally presented him with the red biretta at the Tuileries on 27 March 1803. Pius VII personally placed the cardinal's galero on his head at a consistory held in the Grand Salon of the Archbishop's Palace in Paris on 1st February 1805. He was assigned the titular church of San Giovanni a Porta Latina in Rome. On 2 October 1803, Belloy have been named a Member of the Legion of Honor, then Grand-Officer (1804), and then Grand-Eagle (1805)  He restored the Crown of Thorns (10 August 1806) to its place of honour in the Sainte Chapelle.  On 27 January 1807 the cardinal issued an order, fixing the number of canons at Notre Dame at nineteen members, including the three vicars general. He also appointed an archpriest, who was to be a canon as well. On 20 May he established the archives for parishes, to which the priests were to make annual statistical reports.  On 1 March 1808, Belloy was named a count of the French Empire.  Belloy died in Paris at the Archiepiscopal Palace on Friday, 10 June 1808, at the age of ninety-eight years and eight months.  Belloy was buried on 25 June in the Chapelle Saint-Marcel in Notre Dame, where the monument erected by Napoleon in his honour, the work of Pierre Deseine, is one of the finest in the cathedral.

Jean-Baptiste Count de Belloy (9 October 1709, Morangles, Diocese of Beauvais – 10 June 1808, Paris) was an Archbishop of Paris and cardinal of the Catholic Church.

Jean Baptiste de Belloy (ou J.B. de Belloi), né à Morangles dans le diocèse de Beauvais le et mort à Paris le, fut évêque de Marseille après Belsunce en 1756, archevêque de Paris en 1801 et cardinal.


Plot summary.

"The Scar" opens with the journey of a small ship which has set out from the city New Crobuzon (the setting of "Perdido Street Station"). It is heading to the city's new colony, Nova Esperium, which lies across the Swollen Ocean of Bas-Lag. On board the ship are:  Before the ship reaches Nova Esperium, it is captured by pirates, and the passengers, crew and prisoners are all press-ganged into being citizens of Armada, a floating city made of thousands of ships. Tanner uses his newfound freedom to embrace his remaking. He has his body further remade and the earlier, rough work perfected, becoming an amphibious sea-creature. Treated now as an equal citizen rather than a prisoner or slave, Tanner's loyalties fiercely lie in Armada.  Bellis meanwhile despises her new life as a librarian for the city's vast collection of stolen books, and yearns for home. She gains the attention of the powerful Uther Doul, who is a bodyguard to the mysterious, scarred leaders of Armada known as the Lovers. Doul, for his own reasons, involves Bellis much more closely in the city's matters. She soon becomes privy to a plan formulated by the Lovers to raise a mythical sea creature known as the avanc. Simultaneously, she becomes involved with a New Crobuzonian spy named Silas Fennec, who reveals that the grindylow of the Cold Claw Sea are planning war on New Crobuzon. Silas was on his way home to warn his leaders of this war (thus saving the millions of innocents who might be slaughtered by the grindylow) when he was captured by Armada. Bellis and Silas find physical release in each other, and commiserate that they are powerless to save their home city.  Shekel, who is learning to read with Bellis's help, finds a strange book in the Armada's library. He brings it to Bellis, and she realizes that it is the book the Lovers need to raise the avanc. Knowing that she must get a message home, Bellis destroys a large part of the Appendix which shows the equations and methods to raise the avanc.  With the book destroyed, the Lovers seek the book's writer, Krüach Aum, the only person who knows how to summon the mythical creature. Armada mounts an expedition to his unnamed island home, which is the island of the dreaded Anophelii (a horrific and deadly race of mosquito-people). The Lovers find Aum and the information they need, while Bellis uses their time on the island, away from Armada, to get a message home warning of the impending grindylow invasion. Armada then successfully raises the avanc and captures it – no mean feat, as the avanc is an immense creature, several miles long. The Lovers' true plan is finally revealed: to use the great speed and pulling power of the avanc to find the fabled Scar, a place in the world where reality breaks down and anything is possible. The Lovers see this as a source of ultimate power.  On the journey far into unmapped waters, numerous matters threaten the city. Silas Fennec's actions, which have been far from honest, single-handedly bring down the fury of the New Crobuzon navy and the inhuman wrath of the grindylows. Following this, a civil war breaks out within the city. Terribly damaged, Armada finally nears the Scar, and faces the unsettling horrors that accompany the breakdown of possibility. They pick up a shipwrecked friend from a different train of possibilities, chances and choices, who warns them of The Scar and that he saw the city fall into the wound of the world and everybody was killed. Mutiny follows and the people of Armada finally force the city to turn around and head back to the Swollen Ocean, the life of quiet and piracy, that they all want.  The last chapter of the book is another excerpt of Bellis's letter home, in which she realizes how much she was being used by Doul. The reader is left to question how much Uther Doul actually was in control of the events in the book, which events were simply chance and which were 'planned' possibility.

Reception.

Steven Poole reviewed the book for "The Guardian" and struggled with the writing style at the beginning of the book, "All through the first 40 pages or so you can hear the grunts of a writer straining too hard for effect", but "[o]nce the novel settles down after its ill-judged beginning, Miéville begins to construct an intriguing plot of espionage and deceit". He concludes that ""The Scar" eventually demonstrates enough invention and brutal energy, firmly ruled by a calm architectonic intelligence, to show that Miéville is one of the most imaginative young writers around in any kind of fiction."

The Scar is a weird fantasy novel by British writer China Miéville, the second set in his Bas-Lag universe. "The Scar" won the 2003 British Fantasy Award and was shortlisted for the 2003 Arthur C. Clarke Award. "The Scar" was additionally nominated for the Philip K. Dick Award in 2002 and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 2003.

Les Scarifiés (titre original : "") est un roman de l'écrivain britannique China Miéville publié en 2002, et le second après "Perdido Street Station" d'une série se situant dans le monde fictif de Bas-Lag, un monde où la magie (nommée « thaumaturgie ») et la technologie steampunk coexistent.


Synopsis.

God is dead, and now God's two-mile-long cadaver is floating in the Atlantic Ocean, just off the coast of Africa. As a result, the archangel Raphael hires supertanker captain Anthony Van Horne to tow the cadaver into the Arctic, with the intention of having it be preserved by the cold.

Reception.

"Towing Jehovah" won the 1995 World Fantasy Award for best novel, and was nominated for the 1995 Hugo Award for Best Novel and the 1995 Nebula Award for Best Novel, shortlisted for the 1995 Arthur C. Clarke Award, and ranked second for the 1995 Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel. As well, the French translation, "Remorquant Jehovah", won the 1996 Grand Prix de l'Imaginaire for best foreign-language novel.  Jo Walton has described it as "brilliant but weird", and "terrific", while Steven H Silver has called it "interesting" and "intriguing", and commended Morrow's skill as a religious satirist, but criticized him for the quality of his satires of non-religious topics, saying that "[w]hen he turns his attention to satirizing other aspects of society, [Morrow] tends to fling his darts at random."  The "Chicago Tribune" praised Morrow for his "light-handed sense of satire", and said that "("Towing Jehovah"s) title alone is enough to send your imagination racing off into the cosmos." The "Los Angeles Times" compared it to the works of Kurt Vonnegut, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, William Shakespeare, and Cecil B. DeMille, but stated that the novel was "buoyant" for the same reason that it is "ultimately, a little disappointing": namely, "Morrow doesn't care as much [as Vonnegut]".

Sequels.

A sequel, "Blameless in Abaddon", was published in 1996, and a second sequel, "The Eternal Footman", was published in 1999.

Towing Jehovah is a 1994 fantasy novel by American writer James K. Morrow, published by Harcourt Brace. The book is about the death of God and the subsequent towing of his body across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1995 it received the World Fantasy Award for best novel, with two additional best novel awards. It was followed by two sequels in 1996 and 1999.

En remorquant Jéhovah (titre original : "Towing Jehovah") est un roman de James Morrow publié en 1994. Il a obtenu le Prix World Fantasy du meilleur roman en 1995.


History.

Animator Chuck Jones introduced Gossamer in the 1946 cartoon "Hair-Raising Hare". In it, Bugs Bunny is lured to the lair of a mad scientist (a caricature of actor Peter Lorre) as food for Gossamer. The monster (Gossamer) serves as the scientist's henchman.  Part of this plot was repeated in the 1952 Jones cartoon "Water, Water Every Hare" in which the monster's character is referred to as "Rudolph" or simply "Monster". The mad scientist, in need of a live brain for his giant robot, releases Monster from his chamber on a mission to capture Bugs Bunny; the Monster shows a sudden burst of joyousness and quickly sets out when the mad scientist promises the reward of "spider goulash" for capturing the rabbit. The monster next appears in "Duck Dodgers and the Return of the 241⁄2th Century" in 1980. This is the first cartoon where the character is called "Gossamer", and is so named by Marvin the Martian. Jones gave the monster this name "because he's the opposite looking of gossamer. He's a big, hairy thing."  Gossamer also has appeared in various recent Warner Bros. productions, including cameos in the 1996 film "Space Jam" and as a playable character in the video games "", "Looney Tunes: World of Mayhem" and "". Gossamer appeared in the "Aaahh!!! Real Monsters" episode "Monsters Are Real" where he was shown as one of the best monsters to scare people and animals. Gossamer appeared in the television series "Beetlejuice" as a redesign named "The Monster Across the Street".  Gossamer was going to have a cameo in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", but the rights to him could not be obtained in time.  Gossamer appears in "The Looney Tunes Show" voiced by Kwesi Boakye. Gossamer here is the opposite of previous portrayals, being a timid and kind child. He has a bond with Daffy Duck, who serves as a sort of mentor and father figure to him despite Daffy’s rivalry with Gossamer’s mother Witch Hazel.  In the most recent series, "Looney Tunes Cartoons", he is back to his classic role as a monster who hunts Bugs Bunny down.

Gossamer is an animated character in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. He is a large, hairy, orange monster. His body is perched on two giant tennis shoes, and his heart-shaped face is composed of only two oval eyes and a wide mouth, with two hulking arms ending in dirty, clawed fingers. The monster's main trait is his uncombed, orange hair. He originally was voiced by Mel Blanc and has been voiced by Frank Welker, Maurice LaMarche, Joe Alaskey, Jim Cummings, Kwesi Boakye, and currently Fred Tatasciore.

Gossamer est un monstre de cartoon créé par Chuck Jones en 1946 dans le film de Warner Bros "Dîner de monstres", mettant en scène le lapin Bugs Bunny.


1659–1660.

Those who disagreed with expedient political compromises made during the period of the Protectorate, went back to the Army's own declarations during the wars: to republican pamphlets like those produced by John Lilburne, Marchamont Nedham and John Milton. With their discontent, they imagined that there had been a moment of revolutionary purity when all these writers had agreed on something intrinsically republican and good, this entity - shifting depending upon the writer - was often labelled the "Good Old Cause".  After the death of Oliver Cromwell the phrase came into use gradually, passing to and fro in documents and speeches. By April 1659 and for months afterwards it was frequently heard in general discourse and every second or third pamphlet in the booksellers' shops had "The Good Old Cause" on its title-page or running through its text.  The phrase was open to interpretation, but in 1659 to its exponents it meant the pure Republican constitution which had been founded on the Regicide and which lasted until Cromwell's dissolution of the Rump Parliament on 20 April 1653. It proclaimed that Cromwell's interim dictatorship and Protectorate had been an interruption of the natural course of things, dexterously leaving it an open question whether that interruption had been necessary or justifiable, but calling on all men, now that Cromwell was dead and his effectiveness gone with him, to regard his rule as exceptional and extraordinary, and to revert to the old Commonwealth.  In April 1660 General John Lambert tried to raise an army against the restoration of The Crown in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the "Good Old Cause" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill, but he was arrested before arriving at the old battlefield and gathering enough forces to threaten General George Monck, the power behind the restoration movement. In October the same year Daniel Axtell, the officer who had commanded the guard during the Trial of Charles I, went to his execution unrepentant declaring that "If I had a thousand lives, I could lay them all down for the [Good Old] Cause". Similarly, Algernon Sidney, before his execution for allegedly being involved in the Rye House Plot in 1683, thanked God for allowing him to die "for that [Good] Old Cause in which I was from my youth engaged".

Later influence.

The "Good Old Cause" became, in the hands of radicals in the 18th and 19th centuries, one of the main supports to agitation within England by linking their cause to the cause of the English Civil War radicals. This memory was sustained by the publication of various tracts about the civil war across the 18th Century — Edmund Ludlow's "Memoirs" in 1701 by John Toland for instance that sought to radicalise the memory of the English Civil War.  Work on the republican imagination includes Jonathan Scott on Algernon Sydney and seventeenth-century republicanism, Nigel Smith on the radical John Streater, and Blair Worden on the memory of the Civil Wars.

References.

Attribution:

The Good Old Cause was the name given, retrospectively, by the soldiers of the New Model Army, to the complex of reasons that motivated their fight on behalf of the Parliament of England.

La Good Old Cause (expression anglaise signifiant « bonne vieille cause ») est le nom donné par les soldats de la "New Model Army" à leur raison de se battre pour le Parlement britannique et contre le roi Charles et les "Royalists" durant la Première Révolution anglaise. Ce soutien s'applique aussi à la république formée durant l'Interrègne anglais, en particulier au gouvernement du Commonwealth de l'Angleterre, de 1649 à 1660.