Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (1856–1929)

Nicolas Nikolaïevitch de Russie (1856-1929)

Biography.

Family.

A very tall man (1.98m / 6' 6"), Nicholas, named after his paternal grandfather, the emperor, was born as the eldest son to Grand Duke Nicholas Nicolaevich of Russia (1831–1891) and Alexandra Petrovna of Oldenburg (1838–1900) on 18 November 1856. His father was the sixth child and third son born to Nicholas I of Russia and his Empress consort Alexandra Fedorovna of Prussia (1798–1860). Alexandra Fedorovna was a daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia and Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Nicholas's mother, his father's first cousin's daughter, was a daughter of Duke Konstantin Peter of Oldenburg (1812–1881) and Princess Therese of Nassau (1815–1871). His maternal grandfather was a son of Duke George of Oldenburg and Grand Duchess Catherine Pavlovna of Russia, daughter of Paul I of Russia and Maria Fedorovna of Württemberg. (Catherine was later remarried to William I of Württemberg.) His maternal grandmother was a daughter of Wilhelm, Duke of Nassau (1792–1839) and Princess Luise of Saxe-Hildburghausen. The Duke of Nassau was a son of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Nassau (1768–1816) and Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg. His paternal grandparents were Duke Karl Christian of Nassau-Weilburg (1735–1788) and Carolina of Orange-Nassau. Carolina was a daughter of William IV of Orange and Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange. Anne was the eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach.  Grand Duke Nicholas was the first cousin once removed of Tsar Nicholas II. To distinguish between them, the Grand Duke was often known within the Imperial family as "Nikolasha": the Grand Duke was also known as "Nicholas the Tall" while the Tsar was "Nicholas the Short".

Early military career.

Grand Duke Nicholas was educated at the school of military engineers and received his commission in 1873. During the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, he was on the staff of his father who was commander in chief. He distinguished himself on two occasions in this war. He worked his way up through all the ranks until he was appointed commander of the Guard Hussar Regiment in 1884.  He had a reputation as a tough commander, yet one respected by his troops. His experience was more as a trainer of soldiers than a leader in battle. Nicholas was a very religious man, praying in the morning and at night as well as before and after meals. He was happiest in the country, hunting or caring for his estates.  By 1895, he was inspector-general of the cavalry, a post he held for 10 years. His tenure has been judged a success with reforms in training, cavalry schools, cavalry reserves and the remount services. He was not given an active command during the Russo-Japanese War, perhaps because the Tsar did not wish to hazard the prestige of the Romanovs and because he wanted a loyal general in command at home in case of domestic disturbances. Thus, Nicholas did not have the opportunity to gain experience in battlefield command.  Grand Duke Nicholas played a crucial role during the Revolution of 1905. With anarchy spreading and the future of the dynasty at stake, the Tsar had a choice of instituting the reforms suggested by Count Sergei Witte or imposing a military dictatorship. The only man with the prestige to keep the allegiance of the army in such a coup was the Grand Duke. The Tsar asked him to assume the role of a military dictator. In an emotional scene at the palace, Nicholas refused, drew his pistol and threatened to shoot himself on the spot if the Tsar did not endorse Witte's plan. This act was decisive in forcing Nicholas II to agree to the reforms.  From 1905 to the outbreak of World War I, he was commander-in-chief of the St. Petersburg Military District. He had the reputation there of appointing men of humble origins to positions of authority. The lessons of the Russo-Japanese War were drilled into his men.

Marriage.

On 29 April 1907, Nicholas married Princess Anastasia of Montenegro (1869–1935), the daughter of King Nicholas I, and sister of Princess Milica, who had married Nicholas's brother, Grand Duke Peter. They had no children. She had previously been married to George Maximilianovich, 6th Duke of Leuchtenberg, by whom she had two children, until their divorce in 1906. Since the Montenegrins were a fiercely Slavic, anti-Turkish people from the Balkans, Anastasia reinforced the Pan-Slavic tendencies of Nicholas.

Hunting.

Nicholas was a hunter. Ownership of borzoi hounds was restricted to members of the highest nobility, and Nicholas's packs were well-known. As the Russian dogs perished in the Revolution of 1917–18, the borzoi of today are descended from gifts he made to European friends before World War I. In his lifetime, Nicholas and his dogs caught hundreds of wolves. A pair of borzoi were used, which caught the wolf, one on each side, while Nicholas dismounted and cut the wolf's throat with a knife. Hunting was his major recreation, and he traveled in his private train across Russia with his horses and dogs, hunting while on his rounds of inspection.

World War I.

Eastern Front.

The Grand Duke had no part in the planning and preparations for World War I, that being the responsibility of General Vladimir Sukhomlinov and the general staff. On the eve of the outbreak of World War I, his first cousin once removed, the Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, yielded to the entreaties of his ministers and appointed Grand Duke Nicholas to the supreme command. He was 57 years old and had never commanded armies in the field before, although he had spent almost all of his life on active service. His appointment was popular in the army. He was given responsibility for the largest army ever put into the field up to that date. He recalled that "... on receipt of the Imperial order, he spent much of his time crying because he did not know how to approach his new duties."  On 14 August 1914, he published the Manifesto to the Polish Nation.  Grand Duke Nicholas was responsible for all Russian forces fighting against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. He decided that their major effort must be in Poland, which thrust toward Germany like a salient, flanked by German East Prussia in the north, and Austro-Hungarian Galicia in the south. He planned to attend first to the flanks and when they were secure to invade German Silesia. In the north poor coordination of the two invading Russian armies resulted in the disaster of Tannenberg. In the south they conquered much of Galicia. Their subsequent move toward Silesia was blocked by the Battle of the Vistula River and Battle of Łódź. The Grand Duke picked and chose from the various plans offered by his generals. The Grand Duke begged for the artillery and ammunition they desperately lacked, so he could not embark on a coherent plan for victory. Nicholas came to power because of his royal status, and the tsar's belief that God was guiding his decision. He lacked the broad strategic sense and the ruthless drive to command all the Russian armies. His headquarters had a curiously calm atmosphere, despite the many defeats and the millions of casualties. He failed in terms of strategy and tactics, as well as logistics, selection of generals, maintaining morale, and gaining support from the government. On a personal level he was well liked by both officers and men. After the Great Retreat of the Russian army, the Chief of the General Staff Nikolai Yanushkevich, with the full support of the Grand Duke Nicholas, ordered the army to devastate the border territories and expel the "enemy" nations within. The Russian authorities launched pogroms against German populations in Russian cities, massacred Jews in their towns and villages and deported 500,000 Jews and 250,000 Germans into the Russian interior. On 11 June 1915, a pogrom began against Germans in Petrograd, with over 500 factories, stores and offices looted and mob violence unleashed against Germans. The Russian military leadership regarded Muslims, Germans and Poles as traitors and spies, while Jews were considered political unreliables.  As a result of his failure, the Tsar removed the Grand Duke as commander of the Russian armed forces on 21 August 1915 and took personal command.

The Caucasus.

Upon his dismissal, the Grand Duke was immediately appointed commander-in-chief and viceroy in the Caucasus (replacing Count Illarion Vorontsov-Dashkov). While the Grand Duke was officially in command, General Yudenich was the driving figure in the Russian Caucasus army, so the Grand Duke focused on the civil administration. Their opponent was the Ottoman Empire. While the Grand Duke was in command, the Russian army sent an expeditionary force through to Persia (now Iran) to link up with British troops. Also in 1916, the Russian army captured the fortress town of Erzerum, the port of Trebizond (now Trabzon) and the town of Erzincan. The Turks responded with an offensive of their own. Fighting around Lake Van swung back and forth, but ultimately proved inconclusive.  It is reported that, while visiting the garrison of Kostroma he met Said Nursi, a famous Muslim cleric who was a prisoner of war. Because of Nursi's disrespectful attitude, Grand Duke gave an order to execute him. But after seeing Nursi's submission and faith about the sake of science, he changed his mind. Nothing in the Grand Duke's record suggests that he would have even considered such a war crime. At the time he was urging the Tsar to set up colleges for training Muslim clerics so they would not have to study abroad.  Nicholas tried to have a railway built from Russian Georgia to the conquered territories with a view to bringing up more supplies for a new offensive in 1917. But, in March 1917, the Tsar was overthrown and the Russian army began slowly to fall apart.

Revolution.

The February Revolution found Nicholas in the Caucasus. He was appointed by the Emperor, in his last official act, as the supreme commander in chief, and was wildly received as he journeyed to headquarters in Mogilev; however, within 24 hours of his arrival, the new prime minister, Prince Georgy Lvov, cancelled his appointment. Nicholas spent the next two years in the Crimean Peninsula, sometimes under house arrest, taking little part in politics. There appears to have been some sentiment to have him head the White Army forces active in southern Russia at the time, but the leaders in charge, especially General Anton Denikin, were afraid that a strong monarchist figurehead would alienate the more left leaning constituents of the movement. He and his wife escaped just ahead of the Red Army in April 1919, aboard the British Royal Navy battleship HMS "Marlborough".  On 8 August 1922, Nicholas was proclaimed as the emperor of all the Russias by the Zemsky Sobor of the Amur krai /Priamursk region in the Far East by White Army general Mikhail Diterikhs. Nicholas was already living abroad and consequently was not present. Two months later the Priamursk region fell to the Bolsheviks.

In exile.

After a stay in Genoa as a guest of his brother-in-law, Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, Nicholas and his wife took up residence in a small chateau at Choigny, 20 miles outside of Paris. He was under the protection of the French secret police as well as by a small number of faithful Cossack retainers.  He became the symbolic figurehead of an anti-Soviet Russian monarchist movement, after assuming on 16 November 1924 the supreme command of all Russian forces in exile and thus of the Russian All-Military Union, which had been founded in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by Gen Pyotr Wrangel two months prior. The monarchists made plans to send agents into Russia. Conversely a top priority of the Soviet secret police was to penetrate this monarchist organization and to kidnap Nicholas. They were successful in the former, infiltrating the group with spies. (OGPU later lured the anti-Bolshevik British master spy Sidney Reilly back to the Soviet Union (1925) where he was killed.) They did not succeed however, in kidnapping Nicholas. As late as June 1927, the monarchists were able to set off a bomb at the Lubyanka Prison in Moscow.  Grand Duke Nicholas died on 5 January 1929 of natural causes on the French Riviera, where he had gone to escape the rigors of winter. He was originally buried in the church of St. Michael the Archangel Church in Cannes, France. In 2014 Nicholas Romanov, Prince of Russia (1922–2014) and Prince Dimitri Romanov (1926-2016) requested the transfer of his remains. The bodies of Nicholas Nikolaevich and his wife were re-buried in Moscow at the World War I memorial military cemetery in May 2015.

Honours and awards.

The Grand Duke received several Russian and foreign decorations:

In popular culture.

Grand Duke Nicholas was portrayed in the 1971 film "Nicholas and Alexandra" by Harry Andrews, and in the 1974 television drama "Fall of Eagles" by John Phillips.

Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia (Russian: Николай Николаевич Романов (младший – "the younger"); 18 November 1856 – 5 January 1929) was a Russian general in World War I (1914–1918). A grandson of Emperor Nicholas I of Russia, he was commander in chief of the Russian Imperial Army units on the main front in the first year of the war, during the reign of his nephew, Nicholas II. He proved incompetent in strategy, tactics, logistics and coordination with the government. After the Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive in 1915, Tsar Nicholas replaced the Grand Duke as commander-in-chief of the army. He later was a successful commander-in-chief in the Caucasus region. He was briefly recognized as Tsar, Emperor of Russia in 1922 in areas controlled by the White Armies movement in the Russian Far East.

Le grand-duc Nicolas Nikolaïevitch de Russie (en ) né le à Saint-Pétersbourg (Russie), mort le à Antibes (France), est un grand-duc de Russie, membre de la Maison de Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov, et un général russe. De 1914 à 1915, il est commandant suprême de l'armée impériale de Russie, puis, à partir de 1915, commandant de l'armée du Caucase.


"Sabata".

Lee Van Cleef stars as a mostly silent, loner gunman who foils a plan by some leaders of a small Texas town to rob their own bank and sell the town to the railroad. William Berger co-stars as Banjo, an opposing gunman.

"Adiós, Sabata".

With Yul Brynner cast in the lead role, this film was originally going to be entitled "Indio Black", but the title was changed after the first "Sabata" film proved successful and had inspired many imitators. Lee Van Cleef, star of the first "Sabata" film, had been offered the role, but had to decline because he was committed to "The Magnificent Seven Ride" in the role of Chris Adams, which Brynner had made famous in "The Magnificent Seven". "Adiós, Sabata" is set in Mexico under the rule of Emperor Maximilian I, and Sabata is hired to steal a wagonload of gold from the Austrian army.

"Return of Sabata".

Lee Van Cleef returns to the role of Sabata, who goes to a small Texas town and seeks revenge on a robber baron, determined to steal back some money that the man has stolen from the towns people.

DVD release.

The Sabata Trilogy was released on DVD by MGM/UA in October 2005.

Other "Sabata" films.

As was common with successful Spaghetti Western franchises, such as the "Dollars Trilogy", "Django" or "Sartana" series', several other "Sabata" imitators were released. None of these are considered part of the "official" series. They include:

The Sabata Trilogy is a series of Spaghetti Western films released between 1969 and 1971, directed by Gianfranco Parolini, and starring Lee Van Cleef in the first, "Sabata", Yul Brynner in the second, "Adiós, Sabata", and Van Cleef returning for the third, "Return of Sabata".

Sabata est une trilogie de westerns spaghetti italiens, tous réalisés par Gianfranco Parolini, sous le pseudonyme de Frank Kramer, et sortis entre 1969 et 1971. Cette trilogie est composée des films "Sabata", "Adios Sabata" et "Le Retour de Sabata".


History.

Early roots.

In 1890, Pasadena, California held its first Tournament of Roses Parade to showcase the city's mild weather compared to the harsh winters in northern cities. As one of the organizers said: "In New York, people are buried in snow. Here, our flowers are blooming and our oranges are about to bear. Let's hold a festival to tell the world about our paradise." In 1902, the annual festival was enhanced by adding an American football game.  In 1926, leaders in Miami, Florida, decided to do the same with a "Fiesta of the American Tropics" that was centered around a New Year's Day football game. Although a second "Fiesta" was never held, Miami leaders, including Earnest E. Seiler, later revived the idea with the "Palm Festival" (with the slogan "Have a Green Christmas in Miami").

Palm Festival Game.

In 1932, George E. Hussey, official greeter of Miami, organized the first Festival of Palms Bowl, a predecessor of the Orange Bowl. With Miami suffering from both the Great Depression and the preceding Florida land bust, Hussey and other Miamians sought to help its economy by organizing a game similar to Pasadena's Rose Bowl. Two games were played in this series at Moore Park in Miami, both pitting an invited opponent against a local team, the University of Miami. In the first game, played on January 2, 1933, Miami defeated Manhattan College 7–0. In the second game, played on New Year's Day 1934, Duquesne defeated Miami 33–7. Duquesne was coached by Elmer Layden, one of the Four Horsemen of Notre Dame.  These games are not recognized as bowl games by the NCAA because one team was guaranteed a berth regardless of record. However, following the success of these games, backers organized another game for New Year's Day 1935 under the Orange Bowl name. This game, unlike the Palm Festival Games, did not automatically grant a berth to one team, although the University of Miami was again a participant. For this reason, the 1935 Orange Bowl was later recognized by the NCAA as an official bowl game.

Modern game.

The Orange Bowl was played at Miami Field (located where Miami Orange Bowl was later built) from 1935 to 1937, the Miami Orange Bowl from 1938 to 1996, and again in 1999, and was moved to its current site, Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, in December 1996. The game was played back at the namesake stadium in 1999 (which would be the final bowl game ever in the Miami Orange Bowl) because the game was played on the same day the Miami Dolphins hosted an NFL Wild Card Playoff game. Coincidentally, both of those games were aired on ABC.  On January 1, 1965, the Texas vs. Alabama Orange Bowl was the first college bowl game to be televised live in prime time.  From 1968, the game usually featured the champion of the former Big Eight Conference. When the Big Eight Conference absorbed four members of the defunct Southwest Conference in 1996, the newly formed Big 12 Conference moved its conference champion tie-in to the Fiesta Bowl. Since 1998, however, with the creation of the Bowl Championship Series system, team selection for the Orange Bowl is now tied into the other three BCS Bowls.  From 1998 to 2005, the game hosted the champion of either the ACC or Big East conferences, unless they were invited to the National Championship game, or if the Orange Bowl itself was hosting the national championship matchup.  Starting with the 2006 season, the Orange Bowl has been exclusively tied with the ACC and has used the brand "Home of the ACC Champion". As one of the Bowl Championship Series (BCS) bowl games, the site of the Orange Bowl also hosted the national championship game one week after the Orange Bowl game; it did so on a four-year rotating basis with the other three BCS games (the others being the Sugar, Fiesta, and Rose Bowls). The tie-in with the ACC continued with the inception of the College Football Playoff after the 2014 season. It hosts the ACC champion in the years that it is not a national semifinal, unless the ACC champion is selected for the College Football Playoff.

King Orange Jamboree Parade.

From 1936 to 2001 (except for the World War II years), the Orange Bowl Committee also sponsored a parade. In its heyday, the parade was a nighttime New Year's Eve tradition, televised nationally with lighted floats and displays going down part of Biscayne Boulevard in downtown Miami to crowds as high as 500,000 people in the 1970s. However ratings dropped and the national television contract was lost in 1997, causing the parade to quickly become a shell of its former self since there were no sponsors for the elaborate floats. Attendance dwindled as well; by the turn of the millennium, the parade was lucky to draw 20,000 people. As a result, the committee chose to bring this tradition to an end in early 2002.  The very first King Orange Jamboree Parade was held the day before the 1936 game with 30 floats at an expense of $40,000 ($653,933 in 2012 dollars). Babs Beckwith was chosen as the first Orange Bowl queen.

Conference tie-ins.

The Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) is locked into a 12-year deal (2014–2025) with the Orange Bowl, so if the ACC champion qualifies for the playoffs in a year when the Orange Bowl is not a semifinal host, the next-highest ranked ACC team will play in the Orange Bowl. For the secondary tie-ins, the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and the Big Ten Conference are guaranteed three appearances each, and the University of Notre Dame can play in a maximum of two games, but is not guaranteed any appearances. The ACC team's opponent in a given year will be the highest-ranked available team from the SEC, Big Ten, and Notre Dame, subject to several constraints: the SEC and Big Ten champions are always excluded, and when an SEC and/or Big Ten team qualifies for the College Football Playoff, the next available team would also be excluded from participating in the Orange Bowl due to contractual obligations with the Sugar Bowl and Rose Bowl, respectively. Also, should a highest-ranked team create a rematch with the ACC team, the Orange Bowl has the option of passing over that team for the next-highest ranked team among the Big Ten, SEC, and Notre Dame, again subject to the noted constraints. Rankings are based on the College Football Playoff committee's rankings. ESPN holds the television rights for 12 years as well.

Game results.

Rankings are based on the AP Poll prior to the game being played.

Future games.

denotes game is a College Football Playoff semifinal

MVPs.

The bowl first named an MVP in 1965. From 1970 through 1998, two MVPs were named for each game. Since 1999, only a single MVP is named, except when the game is part of the College Football Playoff (such as 2015 and 2018), in which case both an offensive and defensive MVP are named.

Most appearances.

"Only teams with at least three appearances are listed."

Appearances by conference.

Updated through the December 2019 edition (86 games, 172 total appearances).  Conferences that are defunct or not currently active in FBS appear in "italics".

Game records.

Source:

Sponsorship.

The game was previously officially known as the Discover Orange Bowl, since Discover Financial was announced as title sponsor on August 26, 2010 as part of a new four-year agreement. The game had been called the FedEx Orange Bowl from 1989 to 2010, as FedEx sponsored the event during that period. Starting with the 2010–11 season, ESPN carried the Orange Bowl, replacing Fox after four seasons. ABC aired the game from 1999 to 2006, with CBS (1995–1998) and NBC (1964–1994) previously carrying the game.  Discover stated that they would not renew their sponsorship of the game further on June 9, 2014; the game will be a part of the College Football Playoff in the future, and CFP rightsholder ESPN has asked for higher sponsorship fees, in return. On September 22, 2014, Capital One was announced as the new title sponsor of the Orange Bowl, transferring their bowl game sponsorship from the Citrus Bowl. Subsequently, the company's "Capital One Mascot Challenge" winner naming ceremony also moved to the Orange Bowl.

Broadcasting.

ESPN is the current rightsholder of the Orange Bowl, a relationship that began in 2011 as part of the contract to broadcast the Bowl Championship Series games. In anticipation of the transition to the College Football Playoff in the 2014–15 season, ESPN reached a new deal with the game's organizers in November 2012 to extend its rights through 2026, paying $55 million yearly. The game is also broadcast nationally by ESPN Radio.  Prior to that, Fox held the rights to the event (along with the other BCS bowls) since 2007, preceded by ABC (1999–2006 and 1962–64), CBS (1996–98 and 1953–61), and NBC (1965–95). This game, along with the Fiesta Bowl, is one of only two bowl games ever to air on all the "big 4" U.S. television networks. ESPN Deportes added a Spanish language telecast of the game in 2013.

The Orange Bowl is an annual American college football bowl game played in the Miami metropolitan area. It has been played annually since January 1, 1935, making it, along with the Sugar Bowl and the Sun Bowl, the second-oldest bowl game in the country, behind the Rose Bowl (first played 1902, played annually since 1916). The Orange Bowl is one of the New Year's Six, the top bowl games for the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision.

L'Orange Bowl est un match de football américain de niveau universitaire ayant lieu après la saison régulière. Il se déroule actuellement (et depuis 1996) au Hard Rock Stadium dans la ville de Miami Gardens en Floride.


Member schools.

Membership timeline.

Sports.

The Big Ten Conference sponsors championship competition in 14 men's and 14 women's NCAA sanctioned sports.

Men's sponsored sports by school.

Notes:  <nowiki>*</nowiki> Notre Dame joined the Big Ten in the 2017–18 school year as an affiliate member in men's ice hockey. It continues to field its other sports in the ACC except in football where it will continue to compete as an independent.  ° Johns Hopkins joined the Big Ten in 2014 as an affiliate member in men's lacrosse, with women's lacrosse following in 2016. It continues to field its other sports in the NCAA Division III Centennial Conference  Men's

Women's sponsored sports by school.

Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the

History.

Initiated and led by Purdue University President James Henry Smart, the presidents of the University of Chicago, University of Illinois, University of Minnesota, University of Wisconsin, Northwestern University, Purdue University and Lake Forest College met in Chicago on January 11, 1895 to discuss the regulation and control of intercollegiate athletics. The eligibility of student-athletes was one of the main topics of discussion. The Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives was founded at a second meeting on February 8, 1896. Lake Forest was not at the 1896 meeting that established the conference and was replaced by the University of Michigan. At the time, the organization was more commonly known as the Western Conference, consisting of Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Chicago, Purdue, and Northwestern.  The first reference to the conference as the Big Nine was in 1899 after Iowa and Indiana had joined. Nebraska first petitioned to join the league in 1900 and again in 1911, but was turned away both times. In April 1907, Michigan was voted out of the conference for failing to adhere to league rules. Ohio State was added to the conference in 1912. The first known references to the conference as the Big Ten were in December 1916, when Michigan sought to rejoin the conference after a nine-year absence.  The conference was again known as the Big Nine after the University of Chicago decided to de-emphasize varsity athletics just after World War II. Chicago discontinued its football program in 1939 and withdrew from the conference in 1946 after struggling to obtain victories in many conference matchups. It was believed that one of several schools, notably Iowa State, Marquette, Michigan State, Nebraska, Notre Dame, and Pittsburgh would replace Chicago at the time. On May 20, 1949, Michigan State ended the speculation by joining and the conference was again known as the Big Ten. The Big Ten's membership would remain unchanged for the next 40 years. The conference's official name throughout this period remained the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives. It did not formally adopt the name "Big Ten" until 1987, when it was incorporated as a not-for-profit corporation.

1990 expansion: Penn State.

In 1990, the Big Ten universities voted to expand the conference to 11 teams and extended an invitation to Atlantic 10 member and football independent Pennsylvania State University, which accepted it. When Penn State joined in 1990, it was decided the conference would continue to be called the Big Ten, but its logo was modified to reflect the change; the number 11 was disguised in the negative space of the traditionally blue "Big Ten" lettering.  Missouri showed interest in Big Ten membership after Penn State joined. Around 1993, the league explored adding Kansas, Missouri and Rutgers or other potential schools, to create a 14-team league with two football divisions. These talks died when the Big Eight Conference merged with

2010–2014 expansion: Nebraska, Maryland, Rutgers.

In December 2009, Big Ten Conference commissioner Jim Delany announced that the league was looking to expand in what would later be part of a nationwide trend as part of the 2010–2014 NCAA conference realignment. On June 11, 2010, the University of Nebraska applied for membership in the Big Ten and was unanimously approved as the conference's 12th school, which became effective July 1, 2011. The conference retained the name "Big Ten." This briefly led to the interesting and ironic result of the Big Ten consisting of twelve teams, and the Big 12 consisting of ten teams (with fellow former Big 12 member Colorado's move to the Pac-12 Conference).

Legends and Leaders divisions.

On September 1, 2010, Delany revealed the conference's football divisional split, but noted that the division names would be announced later. Those division names, as well as the conference's new logo, were made public on December 13, 2010. For their new logo, the conference replaced the "hidden 11" logo with one that uses the "B1G" character combination in its branding. Delany did not comment on the logo that day, but it was immediately evident that the new logo would "allow fans to see 'BIG' and '10' in a single word."  For the new football division names, the Big Ten was unable to

West and East divisions.

On November 19, 2012, the University of Maryland's Board of Regents voted to withdraw from the ACC and join the Big Ten as its 13th member effective on July 1, 2014. The Big Ten's Council of Presidents approved the move later that day. One day later, Rutgers University of the Big East also accepted an offer for membership from the Big Ten as its 14th member school.  On April 28, 2013, the Big Ten presidents and chancellors unanimously approved a football divisional realignment that went into effect when Maryland and Rutgers joined in 2014. Under the new plan, the Legends and Leaders divisions were replaced with geographic divisions. The West Division includes Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Northwestern, Purdue and Wisconsin (of which all but Purdue are in the Central Time Zone), while the East Division includes Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Michigan State, Ohio State, Penn State and Rutgers. The final issue in determining the new divisions was which of the two Indiana schools would be sent to the West; Purdue was chosen because its West Lafayette campus is geographically west of Indiana's home city of Bloomington. In the current divisional alignment, the only permanently protected cross-divisional rivalry game in football is Indiana–Purdue. As before, the two

Commissioners.

The office of the commissioner of athletics was created in 1922 "to study athletic problems of the various member universities and assist in enforcing the eligibility rules which govern Big Ten athletics."  With the exception of Nebraska, each Big Ten institution is a member of the American Association of Universities and is ranked in the "US News & World Report" top 100 and the "Times Higher Education" top 200. Nebraska joined the AAU in 1909 but was removed in April 2011 when the AAU disallowed University of Nebraska Medical Center data points to be included in the AAU formula and began to decrease the weight given to agricultural research.

Schools ranked by revenue.

The schools below are listed by conference rank of total revenue. Total revenue includes ticket sales, contributions and donations, rights/licensing, student fees, school funds and all other sources including TV income, camp income, food and novelties.

Awards and honors.

Big Ten Athlete of the Year.

The Big Ten Athlete of the Year award is given annually

Big Ten Medal of Honor.

Big Ten Medal of Honor (annual;

NACDA Learfield Sports Directors' Cup Rankings.

The NACDA Learfield Sports Directors' Cup is an annual award given by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics

2017–18 Capital One Cup Standings.

The Capital One Cup is an award given annually to the best men's and women's Division I

NCAA national titles.

Through June 24, 2019, per published NCAA summary, with updates for the subsequent sports year.  Excluded from this list are all national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including

Current Champions.

‡ Denotes

Football.

When Maryland and Rutgers joined the Big Ten in 2014, the division names were changed to "East" and "West", with Purdue and the six schools in the Central Time Zone in the West and Indiana joining the remaining six Eastern Time Zone schools in the East. The only protected cross-division game is Indiana–Purdue. Beginning in 2016, the Big Ten adopted a nine-game conference schedule. All teams have one cross-division opponent they play annually that changes every six years except for Indiana and Purdue, whose crossover is permanent. The other six opponents are played every three years during that cycle. For 2016-2021, the pairings are Maryland-Minnesota, Michigan-Wisconsin, Michigan State-Northwestern, Ohio State-Nebraska, Penn State-Iowa, and Rutgers-Illinois, and for 2022-2027 the pairings are Maryland-Northwestern, Michigan-Nebraska, Michigan State-Minnesota, Ohio State-Wisconsin, Penn State-Illinois, and Rutgers-Iowa. In 2016, the Big Ten no longer allowed its members to play Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) teams and also requires at least one non-conference game against a school in the Power Five conferences (ACC, Big 12, Pac-12, SEC). Contracts for future games already scheduled against FCS teams would be honored. However, in 2017, the Big Ten started to allow teams to schedule an FCS opponent during years in which they only have four conference home games (odd-numbered years for East division teams, even-numbered years for West division teams). At the time this policy was first announced, games against FBS independents Notre Dame and BYU would automatically count toward the Power Five requirement. ESPN, citing a Big Ten executive, reported in 2015 that the Big Ten would allow exceptions to the Power Five rule on a case-by-case basis, and also that the other FBS independent at that time, Army, had been added to the list of non-Power Five schools that would automatically be counted as Power Five opponents.

All-time school records.

This list goes through the 2019 season.  † Numbers of division and conference championships shown reflect Big Ten history only and do not include division and conference championships in former

Bowl games.

Since 1946, the Big Ten champion has had a tie-in with the Rose Bowl game. Michigan appeared in the first bowl game, the 1902 Rose Bowl. After that, the Big Ten did not allow their schools to participate in bowl games, until the agreement struck with the Pacific Coast Conference for the 1947 Rose Bowl. From 1946 through 1971, the Big Ten did not allow the same team to represent the conference in consecutive years in the Rose Bowl with an exception made after the 1961 season in which Minnesota played in the 1962 Rose Bowl after playing in the 1961 Rose Bowl due to Ohio State declining the bid because of Ohio State faculty concerns about academics.  It was not until the 1975 season that the Big Ten allowed teams to play in bowl games other than the Rose Bowl. Michigan, which had been shut out of the

Bowl selection procedures.

Although the pick order usually corresponds to the conference standings, the bowls are not required to make their choices strictly according to the win-loss records; many factors influence bowl selections, especially the likely turnout of the team's fans. Picks are made after CFP selections; the bowl with the #2 pick will have the first pick of the remaining teams in the conference.  For all non-College Football Playoff partners, the bowl partner will request a Big Ten team. The Big Ten will approve or assign another team based on internal selection parameters.  When not hosting a semifinal, the Orange Bowl will select

Head coach compensation.

The total pay of head coaches includes university and non-university compensation. This includes base salary, income from contracts, foundation supplements, bonuses and media and radio pay.  Two

Marching bands.

All Big Ten member schools have marching bands which perform regularly during the football season. Ten of fourteen member schools have won the Sudler Trophy, generally considered the

Conference individual honors.

Coaches and media of the Big Ten

Men's basketball.

The Big Ten has participated in basketball since 1904, and has led the nation in attendance every season since 1978. It has been a national powerhouse in men's basketball, having multiple championship winners and often sending four or more teams to the NCAA Men's Basketball Tournament. Previous NCAA champions include Indiana with five titles, Michigan State with two, and Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio State with one each. Maryland, which joined the Big Ten in 2014, won one NCAA championship as a member of the ACC. Ohio State played in the first NCAA tournament national championship game in 1939, losing to Oregon. Despite this, Jimmy Hull of Ohio State was the first NCAA tournament MVP. The first three tournament MVPs came from the Big Ten (Marv Huffman of Indiana in 1940 and John Katz of Wisconsin in 1941).  Big Ten teams have also experienced success in the postseason NIT. Since 1974, 13 Big Ten teams have made it to the championship game, winning nine championships. Michigan, Ohio State, Penn State, and Minnesota have won two NIT championships, while Indiana and Purdue have won one each. Two other current members, Maryland and Nebraska, won NIT titles before they joined the Big Ten. In addition, the Helms Athletic Foundation recognizes Illinois as the 1915 National Champions, Minnesota as the 1902 and 1919 National Champions, Northwestern as the 1931 National Champion, Purdue as the 1932 National Champions, and Wisconsin as 1912, 1914 and 1916 National Champions. Former member Chicago won a post-season national championship series in 1908.  Since 1999, the Big Ten has taken part in the ACC–Big Ten Challenge with the Atlantic Coast Conference. The ACC holds an 11–5–2 record against the Big Ten; Minnesota, Nebraska, Penn State, Purdue, and Wisconsin are the only Big Ten schools without losing records in the challenge.

All-time school records.

This list goes through the 2017–18 season listed by most victories in NCAA Division I

National championships, Final Fours, and NCAA tournament appearances.

Current Big Ten Conference basketball programs have combined to win 11 NCAA men's basketball championships. Indiana has won five, Michigan State has won two, while Maryland, Michigan, Ohio State and Wisconsin have won one national championship each. 11 of the 14 current

NCAA tournament champions, runners-up and locations.

"† denotes overtime games.

Women's basketball.

Women's basketball teams have played a total of ten times in the NCAA Division I Women's Basketball Tournament (since 1982) and Women's National Invitation Tournament Championship (since 1998). Purdue is the only current Big Ten member to have won the NCAA women's basketball national title while a member of the conference. Both schools that joined in 2014, Maryland and Rutgers, won national titles before joining the Big Ten—Rutgers won the final AIAW championship in 1982, when it was a member of the Eastern 8, and Maryland won the NCAA title in 2006 as a member of the ACC. Big Ten women's basketball led conference attendance from 1993 to 1999.  Like the men's teams, the women's basketball teams in the Big Ten participate in the Big Ten–ACC Women's Challenge, which was founded in 2007.

Seasons are listed by the calendar years in which

Field hockey.

Big Ten field hockey programs have won 10 NCAA Championships, although only two of these titles were won by schools as Big Ten members. Maryland

Men's gymnastics.

The Big Ten fields seven of the remaining fifteen Division I men's gymnastics teams. In 2014, Michigan edged out Oklahoma for their 6th NCAA Men's Gymnastics championship, the school's third in five years.

NCAA Championships and Runners-up.

†–Chicago left the Big Ten in 1946.  ††–Finishes prior to

Men's ice hockey.

The Big Ten began sponsoring men's ice hockey in the 2013–14 season, the only Power Five conference to do so. The inaugural season included 6 schools: Michigan, Michigan State and Ohio State joined from the disbanded CCHA; Minnesota and Wisconsin joined from the WCHA; and Penn State joined after playing its first NCAA Division I season (2012–2013) as an independent. Notre Dame joined the league as an associate member beginning with the 2017–2018 season.

All-time school records.

This list goes through the 2016–17 season. Totals for conference

Conference records.

Team's records

Awards.

At the conclusion of each regular season schedule the coaches of each Big Ten team, as well as a media panel, vote which players they choose to be on the three All-Conference Teams: first team, second team and rookie team. Additionally they

Men's lacrosse.

The Big Ten began sponsoring men's lacrosse in the 2015 season. The Big Ten lacrosse league includes Maryland, Michigan, Ohio State, Penn State, Rutgers, and Johns Hopkins, which joined the Big Ten conference as an affiliate member in 2014. The teams that compete in Big Ten men's lacrosse have combined to win 12 NCAA national championships.  With the addition of Johns Hopkins and Maryland to the league, Big Ten men's lacrosse boasts two of the top programs and most heated rivals in the history of the sport. Johns Hopkins (29) and Maryland (26) combine for 55 NCAA Men's Lacrosse Final Four appearances. The media and both schools have called Johns Hopkins–Maryland rivalry the greatest and most historic rivalry in men's lacrosse. Since 1895, the two teams have matched up more than 100 times.

All-time school records.

This list goes

Women's lacrosse.

Women's lacrosse became a Big Ten-sponsored sport in the 2015 season. The Big Ten women's lacrosse league includes Johns Hopkins, Maryland, Michigan, Northwestern, Ohio State, Penn State, and Rutgers. Big Ten women's lacrosse programs have 22 of the 36 all-time NCAA championships, including 11 of the last 13. Maryland has earned one pre-NCAA national title and has won 13 NCAA national championships, including seven straight from 1995 to 2001 and most recently in 2017. Northwestern has claimed seven NCAA titles, including five straight from 2005 to 2009. Penn State has earned three pre-NCAA national titles and two NCAA titles in 1987 and 1989. Johns Hopkins became the seventh women's lacrosse program in the Big Ten as of July 1, 2016.

All-time school records.

This list goes

Men's soccer.

The Big Ten men's soccer league includes Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Michigan State, Northwestern, Ohio State, Penn State, Rutgers, and Wisconsin. Big Ten men's soccer programs have combined to win 15 NCAA national championships.

All-time school records.

This list goes

Rivalries.

Intra-Conference football rivalries.

The members of the Big Ten have longstanding rivalries with each other, especially on the football field. Each school, except Maryland and

Extra-Conference football rivalries.

From 1993 through 2010, the Big Ten football schedule was set up with each team having two permanent matches within the conference, with the other eight teams in the conference rotating out of the schedule in pairs for two-year stints. Permanent matches were as follows:  This system was discontinued after the 2010 season, as teams became grouped into two divisions, and would play all teams in their division once, with one protected cross-over game, and two games rotating against the other five opponents from the opposing division.  Most of the above permanent rivalries were maintained. By virtue of the new alignment, a handful of new permanent divisional opponents were created, as all pairs of teams within the same division would face off each season. Furthermore, three new permanent inter-divisional matches resulted from the realignment: Purdue–Iowa, Michigan State–Indiana, and Penn State–Nebraska. The following past permanent matches were maintained

Extra-conference rivalries.

Three Big Ten teams—Purdue, Michigan State and Michigan—had rivalries in football with Notre Dame. After the University of Southern California with 35 wins (including a vacated 2005 win), the Michigan State Spartans have the most wins against the Irish, with 28. The Purdue Boilermakers follow with 26, and Michigan ranks fourth all-time with 24.  Penn State has a longstanding rivalry with Pittsburgh of the ACC, but the two schools did not meet from 2000 until renewing the rivalry with an alternating home-and-home series from 2016 to 2019. Penn State also has long histories with independent Notre Dame; Temple of The American; Syracuse, and Boston College of the ACC; and

Facilities.

Three Big Ten football stadiums seat over 100,000 spectators: Michigan Stadium (Michigan), Beaver Stadium (Penn State), and Ohio Stadium (Ohio State). Only five other college football stadiums have a capacity over 100,000 (four in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) and one in the Big 12 Conference). Michigan Stadium and Beaver Stadium, respectively, are the two largest American football stadiums by capacity in the

Media.

As of 2017, the Big Ten has carriage agreements with the following broadcast and cable networks.

The Big Ten Conference (stylized B1G, formerly the Western Conference and the Big Nine Conference) is the oldest Division I collegiate athletic conference in the United States. It is based in Rosemont, Illinois. For decades the conference consisted of 10 universities, while the present conference has 14 member institutions. They compete in the NCAA Division I; its football teams compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), formerly known as Division I-A, the highest level of NCAA competition in that sport. The conference includes the flagship public university in each of 11 states stretching from New Jersey to Nebraska, as well as two additional public land-grant schools and a private university.

La Big Ten Conference est un groupement de quatorze universités gérant les compétitions dans quatorze sports masculins et quatorze sports féminins dans le Midwest des États-Unis. Fondée en 1896, elle est la plus ancienne conférence de la NCAA. Elle concourt au sein de la Division I et son équipe de football américain évolue au sein de la Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) (anciennement dénommée Division I-A), le plus haut niveau de compétition universitaire dans ce sport.


Russian prince.

Prince Feodor Alexandrovich Romanov was born at the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Russian Empire on 23 December 1898. He was the second son and third child among seven siblings. Although a grandson of Emperor Alexander III through his mother, he was not entitled to the title Grand Duke of Russia because he was only a great-grandson of Emperor Nicholas I in the male line through his father. He spent his early years in Imperial Russia. Following family tradition, he began a military career. During World War I he entered the Corps of Pages.  At the fall of the Russian monarchy, he looked for refuge with his family in his father's property in Crimea. They lived there undisturbed until the rise to power of the Bolsheviks with the October Revolution in 1917. For some time, Prince Feodor was under house arrest in Ai-Todor and later at Dulber imprisoned with his parents, siblings, grandmother the Dowager Empress and many more Romanov relatives.  Prince Feodor, and his relatives in the Crimea, escaped the fate of a number of his Romanov cousins who were murdered by the Bolsheviks when they were freed by German troops in 1918. He left Russia on 11 April 1919 abroad the Royal Navy ship HMS Marlborough and moved to England and later to France.

Life in exile.

During his first years in exile, Prince Feodor lived in Paris in the apartment of his sister Princess Irina Alexandrovna of Russia and her husband Prince Felix Yusupov. He worked as a taxi driver, and later as an architect.  Prince Feodor married on 21 May 1923 in St. Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Paris, Princess Irina Paley (1903–1990), his first cousin once removed. She was a daughter of Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia and his morganatic wife Princess Olga Paley. The couple had one son:  Prince Feodor and his wife lived separated in 1930. Princess Irina began a relationship with Count Hubert de Monbrison (15 August 1892 – 14 April 1981) and had a daughter with him while still married to Prince Feodor, who recognized the child as his.  Prince Feodor Alexandrovich and Princess Irina divorced on 22 July 1936. He did not remarry and spent World War II in England at the home of his mother. By 1941 he was seriously ill with tuberculosis and had to stay for long periods in sanatoriums to recuperate. During the war years, he had sporadic contact with his son who remained in the south of France with Feodor's ex-wife. After the war ended, to improve his health and to stay closer to his son, Prince Feodor settled in the south of France at the villa of his sister Princess Irina Alexandrovna. He lived there for the rest of his life. With very limited income of his own and too ill to work, his ex-wife and his sister helped with the medical bills. Prince Feodor Alexandrovich died on 30 November 1968 in Ascain, France.

Prince Feodor Alexandrovich of Russia (23 December [O.S. 11 December] 1898 – 30 November 1968) was the second son and third child of Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia and Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia. He was also a nephew of Nicholas II of Russia, the last Tsar.

Fiodor Alexandrovitch Romanov (en russe : Фёдор Александрович Романов), né le 23 décembre 1898 à Saint-Pétersbourg, décédé le 30 novembre 1968 à Ascain (France), est un prince de Russie, neveu du tsar Nicolas II, membre du corps des pages à la Cour impériale de Russie, connu dans sa famille pour sa grande beauté, mais aussi par son esprit simple.


Recording.

The song's slow tempo and mellow acoustic sound bear similarities to some of the other tracks on the first side of the album. Roger Waters performed the acoustic guitar parts using an open tuning in G major, taught to Waters by former member Syd Barrett.  Near the beginning and at the end of the song, a field recording of fans in Liverpool's Kop singing "You'll Never Walk Alone" is superimposed over the music. This Rodgers and Hammerstein song became the anthem of Liverpool F.C. after Gerry & the Pacemakers had a number one hit with their recording.

B-side status.

Although it was not released as a single in the UK and never played live, it was released as the "B-side" of the single "One of These Days" in 1971. Roger Waters briefly resurrected the song for a small number of shows in 2016, and the song was played by Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets on its tours in 2018 and 2019.

Reception.

In a review for the "Meddle" album, Jean-Charles Costa of "Rolling Stone" described "Fearless" as "a clever spoof" that "leads up to a classic crowd rendition of Rodgers & Hammerstein's "You'll Never Walk Alone." "Classic Rock Review" described "Fearless" as "the best overall song on the album and talks about meeting challenges in the face of adversity." They went on saying "Fearless" is "highlighted by Gilmour’s calm yet strong guitar strumming and the odd beat from drummer Nick Mason."

Personnel.

with:

"Fearless" is the third track on the 1971 album "Meddle" by Pink Floyd. This song was one of several to be considered for the band's "best of" album, "".

Cette chanson de Rodgers et Hammerstein est devenue l'hymne de l'équipe de Liverpool après Gerry and the Pacemakers et son célèbre "You'll Never Walk Alone". Leur chant réverbère à travers le champ stéréo d'une façon de hantise, qui produit un effet quelque peu psychédélique. La chanson est presque considérée comme un hit underground, parce que bien qu'il ne soit jamais sorti en single ou joué en concert par le groupe, il reste très apprécié par les fans inconditionnels de Pink Floyd.


Major regions.

Spain produces Albariño to a significant degree in the Rías Baixas DO, especially in the town of Cambados, Condado do Tea and in Barbanza e Iria. It is also common in the Vinho Verde region of Portugal, but it is only authorized to be grown in Monção and Melgaço. In other locations such as Ribeiro, Lima, Braga or Valdeorras it is often mixed with other grapes such as Loureiro, Godello, Caiño, Arinto or Treixadura to produce blended wines. Such blends were common throughout Galicia too until about 1985; when the Rías Baixas DO was established on an experimental basis in 1986, Albariño began to emerge as a variety, both locally and internationally. Its recent emergence as a variety led the wines to be "crafted for the palates of Europe, America and beyond and for wine drinkers who wanted clean flavors and rich, ripe fruit" and led to wines completely different from those produced across the river in Portugal.  Albariño is now produced in several California regions including the Santa Ynez Valley, Clarksburg, Napa, Edna Valley and Los Carneros AVAs. Albariño is also produced in Oregon, first by Abacela Winery in the Umpqua Valley AVA, and in Washington state.  In recent years Albariño attracted the attention of Australian winemakers, several of whom are now producing varietal wines. However, it has recently been discovered that grape growers and wine makers in Australia have been supplying and selling wrongly labelled Albarino for over a decade. They thought they were pouring money into the market for the Spanish grape, only to discover they were incorrectly sold cuttings of the French Savagnin grape instead.  A French expert visiting Australia raised questions in 2008, and DNA testing confirmed that the grapes are in fact French Savagnin. Almost all wine in Australia labelled as Albarino is Savagnin.

Wine characteristics.

The grape is noted for its distinctive botanical aroma with a citrous undertone, very similar to that of Viognier, Gewurztraminer, and Petit Manseng, suggesting apricot and peach. The wine produced is unusually light, and generally high in acidity with alcohol levels of 11.5–12.5%. Its thick skins and large number of pips can cause residual bitterness.

Viticulture.

For hundreds of years, Albariño vines could be found growing around the trunks of poplar trees and in bushes along the outside margins of a field. A practice which some growers still use in Portugal's Vinho Verde region. However, in the middle of the century, the growers made big investments and became professional grape growers. In Vinho Verde, the vines are typically trained on high pergolas, which encourages over-cropping, often leading to grapes that are unable to exceed more than 8.5% potential alcohol. When grown in a vineyard, the vines need to be wire trained with large canopies to accommodate the 30 to 40 buds per vine that is typical. The grape responds well to the heat and humidity though the high yields and bunching of clusters usually keeps the grapes within the margins of ripeness.

Synonyms.

Albariño is also known under the synonyms Albarina, Alvarin Blanco, Alvarinha, Alvarinho, Azal Blanco, Galego and Galeguinho.

Albariño () or Alvarinho () is a variety of white wine grape grown in Galicia (northwest Spain), Monção and Melgaço (northwest Portugal), where it is used to make varietal white wines. Albariño is the Galician name for the grape; in Portugal it is known as Alvarinho, and sometimes as Cainho Branco.

L'Alvarinho, en portugais, ou Albariño, en galicien, est une variété de cépage blanc de Galice (nord-ouest de l'Espagne, région Rias Baixas) et du nord du Portugal (région du "Vinho verde") qui est utilisée pour faire du vin blanc.


Early life.

Loustallot was a member of a Protestant family native to Guyenne, France. He was born into a wealthy bourgeois family, as the son of d'Elisee Loustallot, a lawyer in Saint-Jean-d'Angely, and Marie-Marguerite-Louise Caffin. The family traces it origins in Saint Jean d'Angely for nearly two centuries, where a number of Loustallot's ancestors served as prosecutors or lawyers in the Seneschal.  Loustallot studied the humanities in a college run by the Benedictines. In 1778, he studied philosophy and physics at Poitiers, where he defended a thesis in philosophy. In 1780, he attended law school for three years in Bordeaux. He graduated on February 5, 1783, becoming a lawyer in Saint Jean d'Angely, like his father. However, he left a year later for Bordeaux, settling into the city on January 22, 1784. Having attacked the Seneschal of his hometown, Loustallot was suspended for six months by the Parliament of Bordeaux. In early 1787, he moved to Paris, where he wrote anonymous pamphlets and translations.

"Revolutions of Paris".

Loustallot left Bourdeaux and arrived in Paris in 1787. The year 1788 marked the largest crop failure in France in the 18th century, exacerbating pre-existing tensions. During this time, Loustallot worked in the authorship and translation of pamphlets. On June 17, 1789, the Third Estate voted in the Hotel des Menus Plaisirs 490-90 to form the National Constituent Assembly. This act is taken to mark the political birth of the French Revolution. Shortly thereafter, J. L. Prudhomme founded and financed the "Revolutions of Paris", where Loustallot joined as the founding editor and a major author. Loustallot's "Revolutions of Paris" printed its inaugural issue on July 17, 1789, three days after the sans-culotte rebels succeeded in storming the Bastille. In its first fourteen months of publication, he personally wrote the first sixty issues of the newspaper. In 1790, with the recent lax in censorship laws and the tide of revolutionary sensationalism, Paris had 133 journals being published. The "Revolutions of Paris" was considered to be among the most distinguished and impartial of the lot.

Death and legacy.

Loustallot became seriously ill and frail in 1790. However, he still managed to publish his last issue of the "Revolutions of Paris" on September 4, 1790, two weeks before his death. His final work was a commentary on the Nancy mutiny. He died on September 19, 1790 at the age of 28. After learning of his death, the Jacobins sent Maximilien Robespierre and Louis Sébastien Mercier as representatives to his funeral. The Jacobin and Cordelier clubs mourned his death for three days.  Loustallot was the main contributor of the "Revolutions of Paris" up until his death. Prudhomme continued publishing the paper, with later writers Chaumette, Sylvain Maréchal, Fabre d'Eglantine, and Saintonax continuing on the journalistic standards of Loustallot. He is remembered as being a moderating voice against bloodshed, while passionately prescribing to republicanism in the early stages of Revolutionary France.

Elysée Loustallot (December 25, 1761 – September 19, 1790) was a French lawyer, journalist, and editor of the "Revolutions of Paris" during the French Revolution. He is remembered as one of the major Parisian opinion journalists during the era of the National Assembly and subsequent National Constituent Assembly. A fervent republican, his journalistic writings were anti-royalist in tone and bourgeois in sympathy. As a student trained in philosophy and the French Enlightenment, Loustallot is generally considered by historians to have been a principal proponent of revolution, while cautioning its readership against violence and ideological extremism. This is notably in contrast to the opinion journalism of Jean-Paul Marat's proletariat appeal to the sans-culottes. On the one hand, Loustallot writing articulates the need to reconcile the legitimacy of the Third Estate's call for less taxation and more civil rights, with the necessity of keeping in check the superstition, ignorance, and error of the Parisian masses underpinning the revolutionary fervor of the Third Estate. In particular, Loustallot wrote extensively on issues of social and economic justice, including the price of bread and the unaffordability of foodstuffs and basic staples. He died from illness at the age of 28.

Élisée Loustalot, qu'on orthographie également Élysée Loustallot, né le, ou plus vraisemblablement le, à Saint-Jean-d'Angély, mort à Paris le, est un journaliste français, rédacteur des "Révolutions de Paris".


Gameplay.

"Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" is the second installment in the "Marvel vs. Capcom" series of 2D fighting games. It utilizes the same one-on-one tag team format previously employed in "X-Men vs. Street Fighter". The player chooses a team of two fighters, each sporting their own life gauge; at the start of the match, the first selected character is controlled by the player, while the second character remains off-screen and acts as support. Using a combination of joystick movements and button presses, the player must execute various moves to deplete the opposing team's life gauges. The first player to completely drain the opponent's health is declared the winner. If the timer reaches zero, the player that possesses the most health wins.  The most notable gameplay change in "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" is the addition of the "Variable Assist". With the Variable Assist, the player can summon their off-screen character to perform a special move without changing their currently-controlled character, opening new possibilities for combos during battle and greatly expanding the role of the secondary character. The ability to use assists would later become a signature gameplay element used in several future installments of the "Marvel vs. Capcom" series.

Modes.

The arcade, Sega Saturn, and PlayStation versions of "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" share Arcade Mode and Versus Mode. In Arcade Mode, the player fights waves of artificial intelligence-controlled teams, culminating in a penultimate battle against the boss character, Apocalypse, who previously appeared in "X-Men vs. Street Fighter". Upon defeating Apocalypse, the player must win against the final boss character, Cyber-Akuma. The PlayStation version includes three exclusive game modes: Training, Hero Battle, and Cross Over. Hero Battle is an endurance mode which pits the player against the characters that they did not select. In Cross Over, the player and the computer opponent fight with the same team of characters; if the player is victorious, then the computer swaps one character from both teams. The PlayStation port also features a Gallery Mode containing promotional and character artwork, which are unlocked by completing various goals.

Playable characters.

"Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" features a roster of 17 playable fighters, with nine characters from the "Street Fighter" universe and eight heroes from the Marvel Universe. All of the "X-Men" characters featured in "X-Men vs. Street Fighter", with the exception of Cyclops and Wolverine, are replaced with characters from other Marvel Comics properties, such as Captain America, Spider-Man, and the Hulk. Most of the "Street Fighter" characters from the previous game return, with the exception of Cammy and Charlie (although Charlie is actually still in the game as a palette swapped secret character named "Shadow"), who are replaced by Dan and Sakura. The Japanese arcade and console versions of "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" include an exclusive character named Norimaro (). Norimaro is an original character created and owned by Japanese comedian Noritake Kinashi, who represents neither Marvel nor Capcom. Due to licensing issues involving the character, Norimaro is not available in international releases of the game. In addition to the 17 immediately playable characters, the roster also contains six secret characters. The secret characters are palette swaps of existing fighters with different moveset properties, such as "Dark Sakura" and "Mecha Zangief"; Captain America's and Blackheart's palette swaps are renamed "U.S. Agent" and "Mephisto", respectively.

Development and release.

As with "X-Men vs. Street Fighter", "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" was initially developed for the CP System II arcade system board. The game debuted in Japanese and North American arcades in 1997. The game received a port to the Sega Saturn, exclusive to Japan, on October 22, 1998. The Sega Saturn port supported the 4MB RAM expansion peripheral, allowing the developers to create a conversion which retained the original frame rates and tag team system. The game was then ported to the PlayStation in February 1999. Due to the console's limited RAM capacity, the tag team format was switched to the more traditional round format used in other fighting game series, such as "Street Fighter". To compensate for the removal of tag team gameplay, several new game modes, such as Hero Battle and Cross Over, were implemented.  According to former Capcom USA community manager and fighting game advisor Seth Killian, one of the primary goals for "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" was to "tone down the insanity" that occurred onscreen when compared to "X-Men vs. Street Fighter". The developers also sought to achieve balance within the character roster; the previous title had gained a reputation for being "broken", with characters having access to one or more infinite combos. These changes, however, were met with negative reception from fans, who criticized the game for offering less freedom. This ultimately led to Capcom recognizing the theme of insanity as the hallmark of the series and using it as a focus for future "Marvel vs. Capcom" installments.  In June 2020, it was announced that "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" would be included in a home arcade cabinet from Arcade1Up alongside other games like "X-Men vs. Street Fighter" and "".

Reception.

The Sega Saturn version of "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" received "favorable" reviews, while the PlayStation version received "average" reviews, according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot praised the Sega Saturn port for its gameplay, character roster, graphics, sprite animations, and additional RAM support, labeling it an "arcade-perfect conversion". However, Gerstmann faulted the game for being a "near-carbon copy" of "X-Men vs. Street Fighter". While the PlayStation port also received praise for its gameplay and character roster, it attracted numerous criticisms, many of which stemmed from issues related to the console's memory restrictions. GameSpot, IGN, and Game Revolution all reprimanded the game for removing the original version's tag team-based gameplay. Randy Nelson of IGN stated that the lack of tag team fights negated one of the major elements that made Capcom's "Vs." series stand apart, resulting in a game that was "nothing truly special or different". Ryan MacDonald of GameSpot expressed disappointment over the port's lower graphical quality and cut animation frames. "Game Informer" also complained about experiencing instances of slowdown. However, despite the criticisms, reviewers claimed the game as an improvement over the critically panned PlayStation port of "X-Men vs. Street Fighter".

Sequel.

A sequel to "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter", titled "Marvel vs. Capcom: Clash of Super Heroes", was released for arcades in Japan and North America in 1998. The game expands its character roster beyond the "Street Fighter" series to include other Capcom video game franchises, such as "Darkstalkers" and "Mega Man". While its gameplay remains similar, "Clash of Super Heroes" removes the "Variable Assist" feature in favor of a new system. It was ported to the Dreamcast and PlayStation in 1999 and 2000 respectively. A high-definition version of the game was also released in 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 as part of the "Marvel vs. Capcom Origins" compilation.

The gameplay and aesthetics of "Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter" remain similar to "X-Men vs. Street Fighter". Each player selects two characters to compete in a one-on-one tag team fight, attempting to defeat the opposing team. The game replaces most of the "X-Men" cast from the previous installment with characters from other Marvel properties. In addition, it introduces a new gameplay mechanic known as the "Variable Assist", which would be used in future "Marvel vs. Capcom" titles.

Le gameplay et l'esthétique de "Marvel Super Heroes vs Street Fighter" restent similaires à "X-Men vs Street Fighter". Chaque joueur sélectionne deux personnages pour participer à un combat individuel en équipe, en essayant de vaincre l'équipe adverse. Le jeu remplace la plupart des personnages "X-Men" de l'épisode précédent par des personnages d'autres propriétés de Marvel. Ce deuxième opus intègre un nouveau mécanisme de jeu connu sous le nom de « Variable Assist », qui sera utilisé dans les futurs titres "Marvel vs. Capcom".


Chemistry.

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, though niobium curiously does not follow the trend:  Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group, the chemistry of dubnium is not very established and therefore the rest of the section deals only with vanadium, niobium, and tantalum. All the elements of the group are reactive metals with a high melting points (1910 °C, 2477 °C, 3017 °C). The reactivity is not always obvious due to the rapid formation of a stable oxide layer, which prevents further reactions, similarly to trends in Group 3 or Group 4. The metals form different oxides: vanadium forms vanadium(II) oxide, vanadium(III) oxide, vanadium(IV) oxide and vanadium(V) oxide, niobium forms niobium(II) oxide, niobium(IV) oxide and niobium(V) oxide, but out of tantalum oxides only tantalum(V) oxide is characterized. Metal(V) oxides are generally nonreactive and act like acids rather than bases, but the lower oxides are less stable. They, however, have some unusual properties for oxides, such as high electric conductivity.  All three elements form various inorganic compounds, generally in the oxidation state of +5. Lower oxidation states are also known, but they are less stable, decreasing in stability with atomic mass increase.

History.

Vanadium was discovered by Andrés Manuel del Río, a Spanish-born Mexican mineralogist, in 1801 in the mineral vanadinite. After other chemists rejected his discovery of "erythronium" he retracted his claim.  Niobium was discovered by the English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801.  Tantalum was first discovered in 1802 by Anders Gustav Ekeberg. However, it was thought to be identical to niobium until 1846, when Heinrich Rose proved that the two elements were different. Pure tantalum was not produced until 1903.  Dubnium was first produced in 1968 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research by bombarding americium-243 with neon-22 and was again produced at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in 1970. The names "neilsbohrium" and "joliotium" were proposed for the element, but in 1997, the IUPAC decided to name the element dubnium.

Etymologies.

Vanadium is named for Vanadis, the Scandinavian goddess of love. Niobium is named for Niobe, a figure from Greek mythology. Tantalum is named for Tantalus, a figure from Greek mythology. Dubnium is named for Dubna, Russia, where it was discovered.

Occurrence.

There are 160 parts per million of vanadium in the earth's crust, making it the 19th most abundant element there. Soil contains on average 100 parts per million of vanadium, and seawater contains 1.5 parts per billion of vanadium. A typical human contains 285 parts per billion of vanadium. Over 60 vanadium ores are known, including vanadinite, patronite, and carnotite.  There are 20 parts per million of niobium in the earth's crust, making it the 33rd most abundant element there. Soil contains on average 24 parts per million of niobium, and seawater contains 900 parts per quadrillion of niobium. A typical human contains 21 parts per billion of niobium. Niobium is in the minerals columbite and pyrochlore.  There are 2 parts per million of tantalum in the earth's crust, making it the 51st most abundant element there. Soil contains on average 1 to 2 parts per billion of tantalum, and seawater contains 2 parts per trillion of tantalum. A typical human contains 2.9 parts per billion of tantalum. Tantalum is found in the minerals tantalite and pyrochlore.

Production.

Approximately 70000 tonnes of vanadium ore are produced yearly, with 25000 t of vanadium ore being produced in Russia, 24000 in South Africa, 19000 in China, and 1000 in Kazakhstan. 7000 t of vanadium metal are produced each year. It is impossible to obtain vanadium by heating its ore with carbon. Instead, vanadium is produced by heating vanadium oxide with calcium in a pressure vessel. Very high-purity vanadium is produced from a reaction of vanadium trichloride with magnesium.  230,000 t of niobium ore are produced yearly, with Brazil producing 210,000 t, Canada producing 10000 t, and Australia producing 1000 t. 60000 t of pure niobium are produced each year.  70000 t of tantalum ore are produced yearly. Brazil produces 90% of tantalum ore, with Canada, Australia, China, and Rwanda also producing the element. The demand for tantalum is around 1200 t per year.  Dubnium is produced synthetically by bombarding actinides with lighter elements.

Applications.

Vanadium's main application is in alloys, such as vanadium steel. Vanadium alloys are used in springs, tools, jet engines, armor plating, and nuclear reactors. Vanadium oxide gives ceramics a golden color, and other vanadium compounds are used as catalysts to produce polymers.  Small amounts of niobium are added to stainless steel to improve its quality. Niobium alloys are also used in rocket nozzles because of niobium's high corrosion resistance.  Tantalum has four main types of applications. Tantalum is added into objects exposed to high temperatures, in electronic devices, in surgical implants, and for handling corrosive substances.

Toxicity.

Pure vanadium is not known to be toxic. However, vanadium pentoxide causes severe irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat.  Niobium and its compounds are thought to be slightly toxic, but niobium poisoning is not known to have occurred. Niobium dust can irritate the eyes and skin.  Tantalum and its compounds rarely cause injury, and when they do, the injuries are normally rashes.

Biological occurrences.

Out of the group 5 elements, only vanadium has been identified as playing a role in the biological chemistry of living systems, but even it plays a very limited role in biology, and is more important in ocean environments than on land.  Vanadium, essential to ascidians and tunicates as vanabins, has been known in the blood cells of Ascidiacea (sea squirts) since 1911, in concentrations of vanadium in their blood more than 100 times higher than the concentration of vanadium in the seawater around them. Several species of macrofungi accumulate vanadium (up to 500 mg/kg in dry weight). Vanadium-dependent bromoperoxidase generates organobromine compounds in a number of species of marine algae.  Rats and chickens are also known to require vanadium in very small amounts and deficiencies result in reduced growth and impaired reproduction. Vanadium is a relatively controversial dietary supplement, primarily for increasing insulin sensitivity and body-building. Vanadyl sulfate may improve glucose control in people with type 2 diabetes. In addition, decavanadate and oxovanadates are species that potentially have many biological activities and that have been successfully used as tools in the comprehension of several biochemical processes.

Group 5 (by IUPAC style) is a group of elements in the periodic table. Group 5 contains vanadium (V), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and dubnium (Db). This group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the broader grouping of the transition metals.

Le groupe 5 du tableau périodique, autrefois appelé groupe A dans l'ancien système IUPAC utilisé en Europe et groupe B dans le système CAS nord-américain, contient les éléments chimiques de la, ou "groupe", du tableau périodique des éléments<ref name="10.1351/pac198860030431"> :