Biography.

Lanti's parents were peasant farmers. In his early life he worked as an agricultural labourer, carpenter, furniture maker and designer. He was self-educated, and studied in the evening. In 1914 he was mobilised in the First World War and served as an ambulance driver. He learnt Esperanto in 1914–15 at the Western Front, but in 1919 was almost persuaded to abandon Esperanto in favour of Ido. Following the war, he returned to Paris, became acquainted with Lucian Banmer and Ludoviko Glodeau, and he reaffirmed his support for Esperanto with his editorship of "Liberiga Stelo".  In the 1920s Lanti lived in Paris with Ellen Kate Limouzin, the aunt of George Orwell. Orwell visited the couple and suffered as a non-speaker of Esperanto, and developed a strong dislike for the language. It has been suggested that Orwell included elements of Esperanto in the "Newspeak" language he created in his anti-totalitarian novel, "Nineteen Eighty-Four".

Lanti's political career.

In his youth Lanti had been attracted to anarchism, but in 1920 he finally abandoned anarchism and became a founding member of the French Communist Party. In 1921 in Prague he was the initiator and "de facto" leader of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT), a broad-based Esperanto-speaking organisation (containing Communists, Social Democrats and anarchists) which does not organise along national lines.  In 1933 Lanti, wounded by personal attacks and criticisms of his leadership, left his position of president of the Central Committee of SAT, a position he had occupied since the foundation of the organization. He continued, however, to play a role in the organisation chiefly as a writer. In 1935 Lanti founded the independent magazine "Herezulo" in which he criticised the Soviet regime more forcefully than in Sennaciulo.

Lanti as lexicographer.

Lanti was self-taught both in his use of literary French and Esperanto. He worked with "Petit Larousse", and sought to create an Esperanto dictionary of the same type. He was centrally involved in the project run by SAT for the writing and design of the "Plena Vortaro" which later became today's "Plena Ilustrita Vortaro".

Later years.

After his retirement in 1937, to meet Esperantists, Lanti left France for good and travelled to Spain, Portugal, North Africa, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and South America. Suffering from an incurable illness, he hanged himself in his flat in Mexico on 17 January 1947.

Eugène Lanti was a pseudonym of Eugène Adam (19 July 1879 in Normandy, France – 17 January 1947 in Mexico). Lanti was an Esperantist, socialist and writer. He was a founder of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda, and a longtime editor of the internationalist socialist magazine "Sennaciulo". Lanti was a critic of Stalinism and the theoretician of a new doctrine, anationalism, which aimed to eliminate the very concept of the nation as a guiding idea of social organisation.

Eugène Lanti (pseudonyme d'Eugène Aristide Alfred Adam), né à Néhou (Manche), le, mort à Mexico le ), est un ouvrier puis enseignant, militant libertaire puis communiste, animateur du mouvement espérantiste et « anationaliste ».


Terminology.

In general, warm-bloodedness refers to three separate categories of thermoregulation.

The variety of thermoregulation types.

A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called "warm-blooded", like birds and mammals, fit all three of these categories (i.e., they are endothermic, homeothermic, "and" tachymetabolic). However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that do not fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or, in nocturnal species, for the day). For these creatures, the term heterothermy was coined.  Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be cold-blooded have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy, and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types. Some fish have warm-blooded characteristics, such as the opah. Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes above ambient temperatures and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey. Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed.

Heat generation.

Body heat is generated by metabolism. This refers to the chemical reactions cells use to break down glucose into water and carbon dioxide and, in so doing, generate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a high-energy compound used to power other cellular processes. Muscle contraction is a type of metabolic process that generates heat energy, and heat is also generated through friction when blood flows through the circulatory system.  All organisms metabolize food and other inputs, but some make better use of the output than others. Like all energy conversions, metabolism is rather inefficient, and around 60% of the available energy is converted to heat rather than to ATP. In most organisms, this heat is simply lost to the environment. However, endothermic homeotherms (the animals generally characterized as "warm-blooded") both produce more heat and have better ways to retain and regulate it than other animals. They have a higher basal metabolic rate, and also a greater capacity to increase their metabolic rate when engaged in strenuous activity. They usually have well-developed insulation in order to retain body heat, fur and blubber in the case of mammals and feathers in birds. When this insulation is insufficient to maintain body temperature, they may resort to shivering—rapid muscle contractions that quickly use up ATP, thus stimulating cellular metabolism to replace it and consequently produce more heat. In general, in hot environments, they use evaporative cooling to shed excess heat, either by sweating (some mammals) or by panting (many mammals and all birds)—in general, mechanisms not present in poikilotherms.

Defense against fungi.

It has been hypothesized that warm-bloodedness evolved in mammals and birds because it provided defense against fungal infections. Very few fungi can survive the body temperatures of warm-blooded animals. By comparison, insects, reptiles, and amphibians are plagued by fungal infections.

Warm-blooded are those animal species which can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment. In particular, homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes. The only known living homeotherms are birds and mammals, though ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and non-avian dinosaurs are believed to have been homeotherms. Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation.

Un organisme est homéotherme si son milieu interne conserve une température constante (dans certaines limites), indépendamment du milieu extérieur (homéostasie thermique). Il s'agit essentiellement d'animaux. Les organismes dont la température interne varie avec celle du milieu sont dits hétérothermes ou poïkilothermes.


Plant sources.

"Nardostachys jatamansi" is a flowering plant of the valerian family that grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. The plant grows to about 1 meter (3 ft) in height and has pink, bell-shaped flowers. It is found at an altitude of about. Rhizomes (underground stems) can be crushed and distilled into an intensely aromatic amber-colored essential oil with thick consistency. Nard oil is used as a perfume, an incense, and an herbal medicine.

Historical use.

The oil was known in ancient times and was part of the Ayurvedic herbal tradition of India. It was obtained as a luxury in ancient Egypt, the Near East. The Egyptians stored the oil in alabaster cases to preserve its fragrance.  The name "nard" is derived from Latin "nardus", from Greek. This word may ultimately derive either from Sanskrit "naladam" (Indian spikenard), or from Naarda, an ancient Assyrian city (possibly the modern town of Dohuk, Iraq). This is possibly related to the Hebrew (, head of nard bunch), which was part of the ketoret used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It was offered on the specialized incense altar when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples.  The ancient Greeks gave this name to a species of lavender native to coastal regions of the Mediterranean. Nard was used to perfume the body of Patroclus by Achilles in Book 18 of Homer's "Iliad". In ancient Rome, "nardus" was used to flavor wine, and occurs frequently in the recipes of Apicius. During the early Roman empire, "nardus" was the main ingredient of a perfume ("unguentum" "nardinum"), and Pliny's "Natural History" lists twelve "species" of "nardus", identifiable to varying degrees of assurance, including "Lavandula stoechas" and tuberous valerian as well as spikenard ("Nardostachys jatamansi").  An ingredient called "nard" or "narde" was used to season foods in Medieval European cuisine, especially as a part of the spice blend used to flavor hypocras, a sweetened and spiced wine drink. From the 17th century, it was one of the ingredients for a strong beer called stingo.

Religion.

In the Hispanic iconographic tradition of the Catholic Church, the spikenard is used to represent Saint Joseph. The Vatican has said that the coat of arms of Pope Francis includes the spikenard in reference to Saint Joseph.  Nard (Italian ) is also mentioned in the "Inferno" of Dante Alighieri's "Divine Comedy":

Spikenard, also called nard, nardin, and muskroot, is a class of aromatic amber-colored essential oil derived from "Nardostachys jatamansi", a flowering plant of the valerian family which grows in the Himalayas of Nepal, China, and India. The oil has been used over centuries as a perfume, a traditional medicine, or in religious ceremonies across a wide territory from India to Europe.

Le nard (en et "nered", en sanskrit : bhutajata ou jatamansi, en hindi : bal chad) est sans doute l'un des plus anciens parfums orientaux connus. Il s'agit, sous sa forme d'huile, d'un liquide de couleur ambrée.


History.

The decision to launch Alhurra was prompted by frustration among U.S. government officials over perceived anti-American bias among the leading Arab television networks and the effect these channels were having on Arab public opinion regarding the U.S. Alhurra was intended to serve as an alternative to these channels by presenting the news in a more "balanced and objective" manner in an effort to improve the image of the United States in the Arab world.  The driving force behind the launch of Alhurra was Norman Pattiz, a media executive and founder and chairman of broadcast industry giant Westwood One. While serving as a member of the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), currently the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), the U.S. federal agency that controls all foreign non-military radio and TV broadcasts, Pattiz advocated strongly for the creation of a U.S.-funded television network specifically directed at Arab audiences. Pattiz had also previously been responsible for the creation of Radio Sawa, a USAGM-administered Arabic-language radio network which broadcast a mix of music, entertainment, and news. The idea to launch Alhurra stemmed from the success that Radio Sawa had exhibited in reaching young audiences in the Middle East.  Pattiz believed that Arab audiences' views of the United States were being negatively influenced by existing Arab news networks' focus on coverage of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. He argued that by presenting a wider range of perspectives on these conflicts and other U.S. policies, as well as a coverage of a broader variety of regional and global issues of interest to Arab audiences, a U.S.-funded satellite TV channel could help improve America's image in the region.  In an appearance on CBS's "60 Minutes" in May 2004, Pattiz described a powerful promotional video he helped produce which led to the successful launch of Alhurra:  As a result of Pattiz's efforts, the Bush administration requested funding for the channel from Congress, and obtained $62 million in funding for its first year of operation (including start-up costs). In the fall of 2003, construction began to renovate an old TV channel building in Springfield, VA into a modern broadcast facility for the new channel. Construction was completed less than six months later, and Alhurra's first broadcast aired 14 February 2004.

Organization and funding.

The MBN is a non-profit organization financed through a grant from the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), formally the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), an independent federal agency funded by the U.S. Congress. The U.S. Agency for Global Media oversees all U.S. public broadcasting outlets and is intended to act as a firewall to protect the editorial independence and professional integrity of the broadcasters.  Alhurra's headquarters are in Springfield, Virginia. The network also maintains bureaus in Baghdad and Dubai, production centers in Beirut, Jerusalem, Cairo, Rabat, Erbil and Washington, D.C., as well as correspondents throughout the Middle East, North Africa, the United States and Europe.

Awards.

In 2019, Alhurra's report "Power of Forgiveness" won the People's Voice Award in the category of Best Documentary.  In 2016, Alhurra Television's documentary series "Delusional Paradise" won the Silver Award at the Cannes Corporate Media & TV Awards. And the promotional video for the "Delusional Paradise" won a Bronze medal at the New York Festivals International Television & Film Awards.  In 2014, three Alhurra shows won the Special Jury Award at the "CINE" Golden Eagle Awards. "Street Pulse" (), "Where are We Going" () and a promotional clip for the project "Syrian Stories", have won prizes in 2014.  "Street Pulse" won the prize of the best documentary in the Middle East for the year 2013, especially for the episode "the Tragedy of Quarry Workers in Minya" ().

Programming.

Alhurra broadcasts 24 hours a day and, like other USAGM-run broadcasters, is commercial-free. In addition to reporting regional and international news, the channel provides information on a variety of subjects, including the rights of women, human rights, religious freedom, freedom of expression, health, entertainment news, sports, and science and technology. The network supplements its original programming with broadcasts of Arabic-subtitled versions of English-language programs familiar to U.S. (and global) audiences, such as PBS's "Frontline" and "NOVA", A&E's "Biography" and "Modern Marvels". In addition, the network reversions and repackages prominent American news and news magazine series, such as the PBS "Newshour" and CBS’ "60 Minutes" into its own Arabic-language feature news programs. Alhurra has over the years hosted a number of prominent politicians, journalists and intellectuals in one-on-one long format interviews. Guests have included many heads of state, Supreme Court justices, foreign ministers, national security advisers, secretaries of state, education, commerce and many White House Officials from both parties. Many journalists have appeared on Alhurra including Tom Friedman, David Brooks, and other prominent politicos such as Mary Matalin, Jalal Talabani, Paul Volcker, John Bolton, Terry McAuliffe, Joe Lieberman, Susan Turnbull, Robert Zimmerman, Steve Murphy, David Corn, Peter Fenn, Michael Steele, Tony Coehlo, Alon Ben-Meir, and Eleanor Clift.

Viewership.

Alhurra competes with more than 550 Arabic-language satellite TV channels for its audience in the Middle East, and as a result Alhurra initially struggled after its launch in 2004 to attract viewers in the already-crowded Arab media market. Annual surveys commissioned by the USAGM showed that Alhurra's weekly audience grew by 28% between 2004 and 2008, surpassing 25 million. Recent surveys by international research organizations including ACNielsen show that Alhurra has consistently averaged approximately 26 million weekly viewers in its broadcast region from 2009–2011. While this number is dwarfed by the overall viewership of Qatar-funded channel Al-Jazeera and Saudi Arabia-funded Al-Arabiya, it is nevertheless greater than the viewership of all other non-indigenous Arabic-language news networks (including CNN Arabic, BBC Arabic and France24's Arabic-language channel) combined. A USAGM-commissioned poll in February 2011 found that 25% of Egyptians living in Cairo and Alexandria tuned into Alhurra during the protests in that country in January 2011, surpassing al-Jazeera's 22% viewership during the same period.  Although not a traditional viewership survey, University of Maryland/Zogby polls of several Arab nations (Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE) asked which channels viewers tuned into most often. Just 2% overall stated that Alhurra was the channel they turned to most often in 2008, and that number dropped to 1% in 2009 (this poll added Egyptian respondents).  However, the channel's popularity has shown some signs of improvement in recent years, particularly in Iraq, which has proven to be Alhurra's most successful market in the Arab world. A 2005 Ipsos poll found that just 14% of Iraqi respondents tuned into Alhurra (ranking 11th place). However, a 2008 Ipsos poll of Iraqi viewers found the network's popularity had increased to 18%, overtaking Al Jazeera (15%). This improvement could be due to Alhurra's launch of Alhurra-Iraq, an Iraq-focused channel with programming tailored especially to the Iraqi audience. In its FY2010 budget submission, the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), formally Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG) noted that the channel's viewership had improved to 5th place in the Iraqi market.

Threats to journalists.

Alhurra journalists and correspondents have frequently faced threats, intimidation, and violence from both government and non-state actors opposed to their coverage.  Some notable incidents include:

Historical controversies.

Allegations of pro-American bias.

The fact that Alhurra is funded by the U.S. Congress through the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), formally the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG) has led some critics to claim that the channel is "state propaganda" and presents its news with a pro-American bias. Alhurra has openly tried to distinguish itself from the perceived anti-American tone of its competition. Executives in the channel's early days instructed broadcasters to avoid the use of "loaded" terms (such as "martyr," "resistance fighters," or "occupation forces") used frequently on networks such as al-Jazeera in reporting about the U.S. military operation in Iraq, opting for terms like "armed groups" and "U.S. and coalition forces."  Alhurra is observed by Arab journalists as complying too scrupulously with embargoes on military information when Western media outlets frequently disregard these same requests. Steve Tatham, a British Royal Navy officer, recorded an instance in which a British officer briefed Arab and Western media that a humanitarian aid ship was being held back pending operations against Iraqi insurgents in the area. According to Tatham's account, when the officer asked the media to delay reporting this information for security reasons, Fox News disregarded the request whereas Alhurra complied.  Mouafac Harb, Alhurra's first news director who resigned from the organization in 2006, claimed that he left in part because he "sensed the U.S. Agency for Global Media (USAGM), formally the Broadcasting Board of Governors wanted Alhurra to promote U.S. foreign policy instead of just reporting the news." Harb claimed that at Alhurra there had been a "tendency to please Washington and not the [Arab] audience."

Allegations of anti-American bias.

Alhurra has also faced criticism from American conservative pundits who claimed that the organization had been broadcasting "anti-American" content. In 2007, conservative columnist Joel Mowbray wrote a series of harshly critical op-eds in "The Wall Street Journal", claiming that Alhurra had become a "platform for terrorists." Mowbray noted that Alhurra had broadcast live, unedited speeches by Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah and Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh, an interview with an alleged al-Qaeda operative who expressed joy at the 9/11 attacks, and a panel whose members offered conspiracy theories about alleged Israeli plans to destroy the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.  Mowbray also cited unnamed Alhurra staffers who accused news director Larry Register of "trying to pander to Arab sympathies" to make the channel more like Al Jazeera. Register – a veteran CNN producer who had been appointed as Mouafac Harb's successor with a charge to overhaul the channel's operations and increase viewership – was forced to resign as a result of the public uproar created by Mowbray's articles.  A 2008 U.S. Inspector General's office report noted that Alhurra has taken significant steps to tighten its procedures and policies in order to protect the credibility that is critical to fulfilling its mission.

Criticism of administration and oversight.

A critical "60 Minutes" and "ProPublica" report in 2008 stated that "there appeared to be little oversight of the daily operations" of Alhurra. The report criticized Alhurra's top executives and directors for either lacking Arabic-language proficiency or possessing a media background to ensure that the broadcasts met basic journalistic standards.  A 2010 report from the U.S. Inspector General's office noted that inspectors "heard consistent reports of poor communication in the news operation." The inspector's main criticism was of the channel's news director Daniel Nassif, who was highlighted in reports of "newsroom management issues that were reported to the inspectors to have arisen during his tenure or remain unsettled from an earlier time." The hiring of several employee's relatives also led to accusations of nepotism. However, the same report also determined that MBN exercised tighter editorial controls over its programming and maintained the editorial principles for balance and comprehensiveness found in the International Broadcasting Act of 1994.

Alhurra ( "", "the Free One", etymologically: 'Free Woman') is a United States-based public Arabic-language satellite TV channel that broadcasts news and current affairs programming to audiences in the Middle East and North Africa. Alhurra is operated by the Middle East Broadcasting Networks (MBN), which also operates Radio Sawa. Since July 2017, the president of MBN has been former US ambassador Alberto Fernandez.

Al-Hurra ("la libre" en arabe) est une chaîne de télévision en arabe financée par les États-Unis qui a été créée pour réduire l'influence des chaînes Al Jazeera et Al-Arabiya dans les pays arabes, et d'étendre son influence.


History.

Creation.

Paris–Nice was created in 1933 by Parisian media mogul Albert Lejeune, in order to promote his Paris-based newspaper "Le Petit Journal" and Nice-based paper "Le Petit Nice". The race linked the French capital with the fashionable seaside city of Nice on France's Mediterranean coast. It was held in March, at the end of winter, as one of the earliest French bike races on the calendar, immediately following the Six-day racing season on the track.  The first Paris–Nice comprised six stages and was promoted as "Les Six Jours de la Route" (). The first stage ran from Paris to Dijon and, with a distance of 312 km, remained the longest stage in the history of Paris–Nice. As most mountain roads were still impassable because of its early calendar date, the route avoided the Alps and primarily followed the lower Rhône Valley, with the only significant climbs on the last day on the outskirts of Nice. The inaugural edition was won by Belgian Alphonse Schepers, who wore the leader's jersey from the first until the last day.  The race was a success and was continued annually until 1939. Other newspapers from Southern France, "Lyon Républicain" and "Marseille-Matin", partnered with Lejeune's titles to sponsor the race. In 1939, "Ce Soir" and "Le Petit Nice" were joined by "L'Auto". Maurice Archambaud became the first two-fold winner. In 1940, the race was cancelled for the duration of World War II. Race founder Lejeune was sentenced to death and executed after the liberation of France in 1945.  In 1946 "Ce Soir" again organized the first post-war race, but although the event was a commercial success, the newspaper dropped its sponsorship and the race was discontinued between 1947 and 1950.

The Race to the Sun.

In 1951 the race was revived as "Paris-Côte d'Azur" by Jean Medecin, the mayor of Nice, who wanted to promote tourism to his fast-growing city and the entire Côte d'Azur. It was organized by weekly magazine "Route et Piste". The name "Paris–Nice" was restored in 1954. The event's status grew in the 1950s from an early-season preparation and training race to an event in its own right, spawning illustrious winners as Louison Bobet and Jacques Anquetil. In 1957 journalist Jean Leulliot, race director since 1951, bought the event with his company "Monde Six" and became Paris–Nice's new organizer. In 1959 the race was run as "Paris–Nice–Rome", with a separate classification from Paris to Nice, a second from Nice to Rome in Italy and a third overall. The excessive length of the race — in 11 days — was criticized, and the formula was not repeated. In 1966 Paris–Nice was the scene of a rivalry between French cycling icons Jacques Anquetil and Raymond Poulidor, whose legendary emulation divided French cycling fans for a decade. Anquetil won his fifth and final Paris–Nice, surpassing Poulidor on the final stage to Nice.  In 1969, the final stage was moved from the seaside promenade in Nice to the top of the Col d'Èze hill overlooking the city. Young Eddy Merckx won the final time trial and won his first of three consecutive Paris–Nices. Raymond Poulidor was once again runner-up; Jacques Anquetil completed the stellar podium in his last showdown. In 1972 "eternal second" Poulidor ended the "Cannibal's" streak by winning the final time trial and narrowly finishing ahead of Merckx. The next year, he repeated this feat at the age of 37.  In the 1980s Ireland's all-round specialist Sean Kelly won the race seven consecutive times; the winning record to date. The "Race to the Sun" produced several other foremost winners in the 1990s, notably Spanish Grand Tour specialist Miguel Indurain and Swiss Tony Rominger. French allrounder Laurent Jalabert won the race three consecutive times, the last time in 1997, and is still the last French winner to date. In 2000, former cyclist Laurent Fignon took over the organisation of the race from the Leulliot family. In 2002, he sold Paris–Nice to ASO.

World Tour Race.

The 2003 race was marred by the death of Kazakh rider Andrei Kivilev after a crash on the second stage. Kivilev did not wear a helmet and died that night as a result of brain trauma. The following day the peloton, led by Kivilev's Cofidis team, neutralized the third stage. Racing resumed the next day, and in the fifth stage to the Mont Faron, Kivilev's friend and compatriot Alexander Vinokourov produced a solo victory and crossed the line holding a picture of his late friend.  In 2005 Paris–Nice was included in the inaugural UCI Pro Tour, but was at the center of a dispute between UCI and ASO just before the 2008 edition. On 7 March 2008, two days before the start, UCI president Pat McQuaid announced that all teams starting the race would be suspended by the UCI. That day, the teams' association (AIGCP) decided by a majority-against-minority vote to participate in the race. The issue was eventually resolved and since 2011 Paris–Nice serves as the European opening race of the UCI World Tour.  In 2012 England's Bradley Wiggins won the race, as part of his build-up to the Tour de France. Wiggins was the ninth rider who won the "Race to the Sun" prior to winning the Tour de France. In the last ten years, Spaniard Alberto Contador and Australian Richie Porte have won the race twice.  The 2020 Paris–Nice was the last international cycling event, as well as the last sporting event in France, before mass gatherings came to a halt due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The race was held with buffer zones to restrict public access and was reduced to seven stages as a response to the worsened situation in the early weeks of March. German Max Schachmann won the overall classification after leading the race since the first stage.

Route.

For many decades, the route of Paris–Nice has developed a traditional and recognizable format. The race starts on Sunday, most often with a prologue time trial near Paris, followed by a series of road stages southwards across France. Due to France's geography, the early stages are usually flat and suited for sprinters, before moving further south towards the Provence region. The latter, southern part of Paris–Nice normally contains several hilly to mountainous stages, which are the decisive portions of the race. The final stage on Sunday is either a road stage finishing on Nice's Promenade des Anglais or an uphill time trial on the Col d'Èze just outside Nice. Known as "The Race to the Sun", Paris–Nice is often considered a mini-Tour de France, where riders need to be both competent time-trialists and capable of climbing mountains.  Despite this format, some editions occasionally had more unorthodox courses. The 2014 edition was an unusual race with no time trials or summit finishes. In 2015 organizers returned to the traditional format, starting in Yvelines, west of Paris, before moving south. The key stages were the summit finish to the Col de la Croix de Chaubouret in France's Massif Central on stage 4 and the concluding time trial on Col d'Eze. The 2016 edition included dirt road sectors in the first stage of the race and a passage on the lower slopes of Mont Ventoux in the fifth stage.

Starts.

Until 1962, the race began in the city of Paris. Since 1963, organizers have usually preferred to start in smaller towns and suburbs on the outskirts of Paris or even well outside the French capital. Most editions started in the Paris region of Île-de-France, including nine from Issy-les-Moulineaux and six from Fontenay-sous-Bois. In 1982, the race started with a prologue in Luingne, Belgium; the event's only foreign start. Four other municipalities outside the Île-de-France have hosted the start: Villefranche-sur-Saône in 1988, Châteauroux in 1996, Nevers in 2001 and Amilly in 2008. The last time Paris–Nice started in Paris was in 2000, with a prologue in the Bois de Vincennes.

Finishes.

Paris–Nice has always finished in Nice and has only had three different finish locations on its territory. The seven pre-war editions finished on the "Quai des États-Unis" (Quay of the United States), before moving to the illustrious Promenade des Anglais (Promenade of the English) in 1946. From 1969 to 1995 the race finished with a time trial up the Col d'Èze, except in 1977 when landslides had blocked the road. The Col d'Èze is a 9 km climb, starting from Nice and climbing to 507 m altitude. It is named after the village of Èze, part of the municipality of Nice. Sean Kelly won the Col d'Èze time trial five times in his seven-year dominance.  In 1996, the finish was moved back to the Promenade des Anglais because of the low number of spectators on Col d'Èze and to take advantage of funding from the city of Nice. In 1996 and 1997 the final stage was a flat time trial in the streets of Nice, won by Chris Boardman and Viatcheslav Ekimov respectively. From 1998 to 2011, the final stage was a road race – usually on a hilly terrain with the climbs of the Col d'Èze and La Turbie - starting and ending in Nice. In recent years the race often returns to a final Col d'Èze time trial stage. Bradley Wiggins set a new climbing record in 2012 of 19' 12" on his way to overall victory.

Jersey colours.

Since 2008, the overall leader has worn a yellow jersey. At the creation of the race in 1933, the leader's jersey was blue and gold, evoking the Mediterranean sunny sky. In 1946, the leader's jersey was green. In 1951, the organization opted for a yellow jersey with orange piping; before changing to all-white from 1955 to 2001. In 2002, after the race was obtained by ASO, the leader's jersey was yellow and white, before changing it to yellow in 2008, reflecting the Tour de France leader's jersey.  The points classification leader's jersey has been green since 2008. It was green from 1954 to 1984, and there was no points classification from 1985 to 1996. The points jersey was pink and purple in 2000 and 2001, and green and white from 2002 to 2007.  The King of the Mountains jersey has white with red polka dots, as in the Tour de France, since the race's takeover by ASO. The classification was introduced in 1952 and the jersey colour changed several times. In the 1970s it was yellow and red; later, it was white and purple. In 1984 the jersey became yellow and blue (the colors of sponsor Crédit Lyonnais); the following year, it was blue. Agrigel became its sponsor in 1990, and changed the colors to yellow and blue.  The best young rider's jersey was introduced in 2002, when it was blue and white. It has been white since 2007.

Winners.

Multiple winners.

"Riders in italics are active."

Paris–Nice is a professional cycling stage race in France, held annually since 1933. Raced over eight days, the race usually starts with a prologue in the Paris region and ends with a final stage either in Nice or on the Col d'Èze overlooking the city. The event is nicknamed "The Race to the Sun", as it runs in the first half of March, typically starting in cold and wintry conditions in the French capital before reaching the spring sunshine on the Côte d’Azur. The hilly course in the last days of the race favours stage racers who often battle for victory. Its most recent winner is Colombian Egan Bernal.

Paris-Nice est une course cycliste à étapes professionnelle française. Créée en 1933, elle est organisée par Amaury Sport Organisation. Elle a lieu au mois de mars pendant huit jours, ce qui en fait la première course par étapes majeure de l'année en Europe. La course commence généralement par un prologue dans la région parisienne et se termine avec une dernière étape à Nice ou sur le Col d'Èze qui surplombe la ville. La compétition est surnommée la « Course au soleil », car elle a lieu dans la première moitié de mars, commençant généralement dans des conditions froides et hivernales dans la capitale française avant d'atteindre le soleil de printemps sur la Côte d'Azur. Le parcours vallonné dans les derniers jours de course favorise les puncheurs-grimpeurs. L'épreuve se déroule en partie en même temps que Tirreno-Adriatico.


Early life.

Jackson was born on 31 October 1961 in Wellington  and was raised at the nearby coastal town of Pukerua Bay. His parents—Joan (née Ruck), a factory worker and housewife, and William "Bill" Jackson, a wages clerk—were emigrants from England.  As a child, Jackson was a keen film fan, growing up on Ray Harryhausen films, as well as finding inspiration in the television series "Thunderbirds" and "Monty Python's Flying Circus". After a family friend gave the Jacksons a Super 8 cine-camera with Peter in mind, he began making short films with his friends. Jackson has long cited "King Kong" as his favourite film, and around the age of nine he attempted to remake it using his own stop-motion models. Also, as a child Jackson made a World War II epic called "The Dwarf Patrol" seen on the Bad Taste bonus disc which featured his first special effect of poking pinholes in the film for gun shots, and a James Bond spoof named "Coldfinger". Most notable though was a 20-minute short called "The Valley", which won him a special prize because of the shots he used.  In school, Jackson expressed no interest in sports. His classmates also remember him wearing a duffle coat with "an obsession verging on religious". He had no formal training in film-making, but learned about editing, special effects and make-up largely through his own trial and error. As a young adult, Jackson discovered the work of author J. R. R. Tolkien after watching "The Lord of the Rings" (1978), an animated film by Ralph Bakshi that was a part-adaptation of Tolkien's fantasy trilogy. When he was 16 years old, Jackson left school and began working full-time as a photo-engraver for a Wellington newspaper, "The Evening Post". For the seven years he worked there, Jackson lived at home with his parents so he could save as much money as possible to spend on film equipment. After two years of work Jackson bought a 16 mm camera, and began shooting a film that later became "Bad Taste".

Influences and inspirations.

Jackson has long cited several films as influences. It is well known that Jackson has a passion for "King Kong", often citing it as his favourite film and as the film that inspired him early in his life. Jackson recalls attempting to remake "King Kong" when he was nine. At the 2009 San Diego Comic-Con International, while being interviewed alongside "Avatar" and "Titanic" director James Cameron, Jackson said certain films gave him a "kick". He mentioned Martin Scorsese's crime films "Goodfellas" and "Casino", remarking on "something about those particular movies and the way Martin Scorsese just fearlessly rockets his camera around and has shot those films that I can watch those movies and feel inspired." Jackson said the 1970 film "Waterloo" inspired him in his youth. Other influences include George Romero, Sam Raimi and the special effects by Ray Harryhausen.

Career.

Splatter phase.

Jackson's first feature was "Bad Taste", a haphazard fashion splatter comedy which took years to make, it included many of Jackson's friends acting and working on it for free. Shooting was normally done in the weekends since Jackson was then working full-time. "Bad Taste" is about aliens that come to earth with the intention of turning humans into food. Jackson had two acting roles including a famous scene in which he fights himself on top of a cliff. The film was finally completed thanks to a late injection of finance from the New Zealand Film Commission, after Jim Booth, the body's executive director, became convinced of Jackson's talent (Booth later left the Commission to become Jackson's producer). In May 1987, "Bad Taste" was unveiled at the Cannes Film Festival, where rights to the film quickly sold to twelve countries.  Around this time, Jackson began working on writing a number of film scripts, in varied collaborative groupings with playwright Stephen Sinclair, writer Fran Walsh and writer/actor Danny Mulheron. Walsh would later become his life partner. Some of the scripts from this period, including a sequel to "A Nightmare on Elm Street", have never been made into movies; the proposed zombie film "Braindead" underwent extensive rewrites.  Jackson's next film to see release was "Meet the Feebles" (1989), co-written with Sinclair, Walsh and Mulheron. An ensemble musical comedy starring Muppet-style puppets, "Meet the Feebles" originally began as a short film intended for television, but was rapidly expanded into a full-length film after unanticipated enthusiasm from Japanese investors, and the collapse of "Braindead", six weeks before filming. Begun on a very low budget, "Meet the Feebles" went weeks over schedule. Jackson stated of his second feature-length film, "It's got a quality of humour that alienates a lot of people.. It's very black, very satirical, very savage." "Feebles" marked Jackson's first collaboration with special effects team Richard Taylor and Tania Rodger, who would later work on all Jackson's movies. Jackson's next release was the horror comedy "Braindead" (1992) (released in North America as "Dead Alive").

"Heavenly Creatures" and "Forgotten Silver".

Released in 1994 after Jackson won a race to bring the story to the screen, "Heavenly Creatures" marked a major change for Jackson in terms of both style and tone. The film is based on the real Parker–Hulme murder case in which two teenage girls in 1950s Christchurch became close friends and later murdered the mother of one of the girls. It was Fran Walsh that persuaded him that these events had the makings of a movie; Jackson has been quoted saying that the film "only got made" because of her enthusiasm for the subject matter. The film's fame coincided with the New Zealand media tracking down the real-life Juliet Hulme, who now writes books under the name Anne Perry. Jackson hired actresses Melanie Lynskey and Kate Winslet in the roles of Parker and Hulme. "Heavenly Creatures" received considerable critical acclaim, including an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay and making top ten of the year lists in "Time", "The Guardian", "The Sydney Morning Herald", and "The New Zealand Herald". The success of "Heavenly Creatures" won Jackson attention from US company Miramax, who promoted the film vigorously in America and signed the director to a first-look deal.  The following year, in collaboration with Wellington film-maker Costa Botes, Jackson co-directed the mockumentary "Forgotten Silver" (1995). This ambitious made-for-television piece told the story of New Zealand film pioneer Colin McKenzie, who had supposedly invented colour film and 'talkies', and attempted an epic film of "Salome" before being forgotten by the world. Though the programme played in a slot normally reserved for drama, no other warning was given that it was fictionalised and many viewers were outraged at discovering Colin McKenzie had never existed. The number of people who believed the increasingly improbable story provides testimony to Jackson and Botes' skill at playing on New Zealand's national myth of a nation of innovators and forgotten trail-blazers.

Hollywood, Weta, and the Film Commission.

The success of "Heavenly Creatures" helped pave the way for Jackson's first big budget Hollywood film, "The Frighteners" starring Michael J. Fox, in 1996. Jackson was given permission to make this comedy/horror film entirely in New Zealand despite being set in a North American town. This period was a key one of change for both Jackson and Weta Workshop, the special effects company—born from the one-man contributions of George Port to "Heavenly Creatures"—with which Jackson is often associated. Weta, initiated by Jackson and key collaborators, grew rapidly during this period to incorporate both digital and physical effects, make-up and costumes, the first two areas normally commanded by Jackson collaborator Richard Taylor.  "The Frighteners" was regarded as a box office failure. Film critic Roger Ebert expressed disappointment stating that "incredible effort has resulted in a film that looks more like a demo reel than a movie". In February 1997, Jackson launched legal proceedings against the "New Zealand Listener" magazine for defamation, over a review of "The Frighteners" which claimed that the film was "built from the rubble of other people's movies". In the end, the case was not pursued further. Around this time Jackson's remake of "King Kong" was shelved by Universal Studios, partly because of "Mighty Joe Young" and "Godzilla", both giant monster movies, that had already gone into production. Universal feared it would be thrown aside by the two higher budget movies.  This period of transition seems not to have been entirely a happy one; it also marked one of the high points of tension between Jackson and the New Zealand Film Commission since "Meet the Feebles" had gone over-budget earlier in his career. Jackson has claimed the Commission considered firing him from "Feebles", though the NZFC went on to help fund his next three films. In 1997, the director submitted a lengthy criticism of the Commission for a magazine supplement meant to celebrate the body's 20th anniversary, criticising what he called inconsistent decision-making by inexperienced board members. The magazine felt that the material was too long and potentially defamatory to publish in that form; a shortened version of the material went on to appear in "Metro" magazine. In the "Metro" article Jackson criticized the Commission over funding decisions concerning a film he was hoping to executive produce, but refused to drop a client-confidentiality clause that allowed them to publicly reply to his criticisms.

"The Lord of the Rings".

Jackson won the rights to film Tolkien's epic in 1997 after meeting with producer Saul Zaentz. Originally working with Miramax Films towards a two-film production, Jackson was later pressured to render the story as a single film, and finally overcame a tight deadline by making a last-minute deal with New Line, who were keen on a trilogy.  Principal photography stretched from 11 October 1999 to 22 December 2000 with extensive location filming across New Zealand. With the benefit of extended post-production and extra periods of shooting before each film's release, the series met with huge success and sent Jackson's popularity soaring. "" itself met with huge critical acclaim, winning all eleven Oscars it was nominated for, including Best Picture and Best Director. The film was the first of the fantasy film genre to win the award for Best Picture and was the second sequel to win Best Picture (the first being "The Godfather Part II"). Jackson's mother, Joan, died three days before the release of the first movie in the trilogy, "". There was a special showing of the film after her funeral.  Following "The Return of the King", Jackson lost a large amount of weight, over. In "The Daily Telegraph", he attributed his weight loss to his diet. He said, "I just got tired of being overweight and unfit, so I changed my diet from hamburgers to yogurt and muesli and it seems to work."

"King Kong".

Universal Studios signed Jackson for a second time to remake the 1933 classic "King Kong"—the film that inspired him to become a film director as a child. He was reportedly paid a fee of US$20 million upfront, the highest salary ever paid to date to a film director in advance of production, against a 20 percent take of the box-office rentals (the portion of the price of the ticket that goes to the film distributor, in this case Universal). The film was released on 14 December 2005, and grossed around US$550 million worldwide. He also collaborated with game designer Michel Ancel from Ubisoft to make a video game adaptation of the film, which released 21 November 2005 and received critical acclaim and was a commercial success.

"Crossing the Line".

In 2007, Jackson directed a short film entitled "Crossing the Line", to test a new model of digital cinema camera, the Red One. The film takes place during World War I, and was shot in two days. "Crossing the Line" was shown at NAB 2007 (the USA National Association of Broadcasters). Clips of the film can be found at Reduser.net.

"The Lovely Bones".

Jackson completed an adaptation of Alice Sebold's bestseller, "The Lovely Bones", which was released in the United States on 11 December 2009. Jackson has said the film was a welcome relief from his larger-scale epics. The storyline's combination of fantasy aspects and themes of murder bears some similarities to "Heavenly Creatures". The film ended up receiving generally mixed reviews and middling box office returns.

"The Hobbit".

Jackson's involvement in the making of a film version of "The Hobbit" has a long and chequered history. In November 2006, a letter from Peter Jackson and Fran Walsh stated that due to an ongoing legal dispute between Wingnut Films (Jackson's production company) and New Line Cinema, Jackson would not be directing the film. New Line Cinema's head Robert Shaye commented that Jackson "...will never make any movie with New Line Cinema again while I'm still working at the company...". This prompted an online call for a boycott of New Line Cinema, and by August 2007 Shaye was trying to repair his working relationship. On 18 December 2007, it was announced that Jackson and New Line Cinema had reached agreement to make two prequels, both based on "The Hobbit", and to be released in 2012 and 2013 with Jackson as a writer and executive producer and Guillermo del Toro directing.  In early 2010, del Toro dropped out due to production delays and a month later Jackson was back in negotiations to direct "The Hobbit"; and on 15 October he was finalised as the director—with New Zealand confirmed as the location a couple of weeks later.  The film started production on 20 March 2011. On 30 July 2012, Jackson announced on his Facebook page that the two planned Hobbit movies would be expanded into a trilogy. He wrote that the third film would not act as a bridge between "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings" films, but would continue to expand "The Hobbit" story by using material found in the "Lord of the Rings Appendices".

"They Shall Not Grow Old".

On 16 October 2018 Jackson's documentary film about the soldiers of the First World War, "They Shall Not Grow Old", was premiered as the Special Presentation at the BFI London Film Festival, attended by Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. The film was simultaneously screened in 2D and 3D at cinemas, schools and special venues across the United Kingdom. Attended by Jackson, the simulcast included a special post-screening Q&A with Jackson, hosted by film critic Mark Kermode. The film was created using original footage from Imperial War Museums' extensive archive, much of it previously unseen, alongside BBC and IWM interviews with servicemen who fought in the conflict. The majority of the footage (save for the start and end sections) has been colourised, converted to 3D and transformed with modern production techniques to present detail never seen before.  The film was co-commissioned by 14-18 NOW and Imperial War Museums in association with the BBC. Produced by WingNut Films and executive produced by House Productions, it was supported by the UK's National Lottery through the Heritage Lottery Fund and the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. Jackson himself, whose own grandfather fought in the war and to whom the film is co-dedicated, said before the screening: "This is not a story of the First World War, it is not a historical story, it may not even be entirely accurate but it's the memories of the men who fought – they're just giving their impressions of what it was like to be a soldier."  Reviewing the film for "The Guardian", critic Peter Bradshaw said:  The film was broadcast on BBC Two on 11 November 2018.

"Mortal Engines".

In late December 2009, Jackson announced his interest in a film adaptation of the novel "Mortal Engines". In October 2016, Jackson stated that the film would be his next project, as producer and co-writer, once again alongside Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens. The film was directed by his long-time collaborator Christian Rivers. It stars Robert Sheehan, Hera Hilmar, Hugo Weaving, Jihae, Leila George, Ronan Raftery, and Stephen Lang. It premiered on 27 November 2018 in London, received negative reviews and was a box-office bomb.

Current and future projects.

"The Dam Busters".

Jackson was set to produce a remake of the 1955 film "The Dam Busters", to be directed by longtime Weta designer Christian Rivers. Stephen Fry has written a screenplay. Originally scheduled for filming by 2009, the project has been postponed. However, Jackson still holds movie rights as of October 2017.

"Halo".

Jackson and his newly formed studio Wingnut Interactive have worked on a project being developed by Microsoft Game Studios in collaboration with Bungie; the project is officially titled "" but little else is known about its nature.  Jackson was set to produce a $128 million movie version of the science fiction video game series "Halo" to be developed and released by Universal Studios and 20th Century Fox. In October 2006, the film was postponed indefinitely when financial backers withdrew their support, although it was never officially cancelled. In June 2008, Jackson commented that, "With upcoming developments (""), I wouldn't know when to expect a movie, and I'm the producer." Instead, Jackson worked with "Halo"'s planned director Neill Blomkamp on science fiction project "District 9", which proved a box office hit and was nominated for an Oscar for Best Picture.

"Temeraire".

In 2006, Jackson also won the rights to a film adaptation of the fantasy novel series "Temeraire", a novel written by Naomi Novik about dragons being used in combat in the Napoleonic Wars. However, as of 24 February 2016, Novik confirmed during a Reddit AMA that the rights reverted to her, and that there are no current plans for any adaptations.

"Tintin" franchise.

Jackson was one of three producers on "The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn", directed by Steven Spielberg and released in 2011. He is officially credited as producer but before he began working on "", helped Spielberg direct the film. Jamie Bell and Andy Serkis were cast due to their collaboration with Peter Jackson on "King Kong" and "The Lord of the Rings". Spielberg also chose to work with Peter Jackson due to the impressive digital work on the "Lord of the Rings" films, and knew Peter Jackson's company Weta Digital would make his vision a reality. It received positive reviews and grossed $374 million at the box office.  In December 2011, Spielberg said that a sequel would be made. Spielberg said that the Thompson detectives would "have a much bigger role". The sequel would be produced by Spielberg and directed by Jackson. Kathleen Kennedy said the script might be done by February or March 2012 and motion-captured in summer 2012, so that the movie would be on track to be released by Christmas 2014 or mid-2015. In February 2012, Spielberg said that a story outline for the sequel had been completed. In December 2012, Jackson said that the Tintin schedule was to shoot performance-capture in 2013, aiming for a release in 2015. On 12 March 2013, Spielberg said, "Don't hold me to it, but we're hoping the film will come out around Christmas-time in 2015. We know which books we're making, we can't share that now but we're combining two books which were always intended to be combined by Herge."  In December 2014, Peter Jackson said that the "Tintin" sequel would be made "at some point soon", although he intended to focus on directing two New Zealand films before that. The following year, Anthony Horowitz, who was hired as the sequel's screenwriter even before the release of the first film, stated that he was no longer working on the sequel, and was unsure if it was still being made. In June 2016, Spielberg confirmed that the sequel was still in development, but Jackson is working on a secret project in the meantime.

"The Beatles: Get Back".

On 30 January 2019, the fiftieth anniversary of The Beatles' rooftop concert, which was the band's final performance, Jackson announced that his next directorial work would be a documentary film about the making of their final album "Let It Be". In a process similar to his previous film "They Shall Not Grow Old", the film is created around "55 hours of never-before-seen footage and 140 hours of audio made available to [Jackson's team]", which are "the only footage of any note that documents them at work in the studio". The film will use the techniques developed for "They Shall Not Grow Old" to transform the footage with modern production techniques, and seeks to display a new side of a period in the Beatles' history usually remembered as highly conflictual. Most of the used footage was originally recorded for the 1970 "Let It Be" documentary.  Clare Olssen and Jabez Olssen, respectively producer and editor of "They Shall Not Grow Old", are returning for this new project, with Ken Kamins, Jeff Jones and Jonathan Clyde as executive producers. The film is also being made with "the full co-operation" of Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr, the last two living Beatles, as well as John Lennon and George Harrison's widows Yoko Ono and Olivia Harrison.  In March 2020, Walt Disney Studios announced they had acquired the worldwide distribution rights to Jackson's documentary, now titled "The Beatles: Get Back". It is set to be released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures on September 4, 2020 in the US and Canada with a global release to follow. The film will include the full 42-minute rooftop concert.

Games.

Jackson was set to make games with Microsoft Game Studios, a partnership announced on 27 September 2006, at X06. Specifically, Jackson and Microsoft were teaming together to form a new studio called Wingnut Interactive. In collaboration with Bungie, he was to co-write, co-design and co-produce a new game taking place in the Halo universe – tentatively called "". On 27 July 2009, in an interview about his new movie (as producer) "District 9", he announced that "" had been cancelled, while Microsoft confirmed that the game is "on hold". Jackson's game studio Wingnut Interactive is now at work on original intellectual property. As of June 2020, there's no games released nor developed by Wingnut Interactive.

Charitable activities.

Jackson has given NZ$500,000 to stem cell research. He purchased a church in the Wellington suburb of Seatoun for about $10 million, saving it from demolition. He also contributes his expertise to 48HOURS, a New Zealand film-making competition, through annually selecting 3 "Wildcards" for the National Final.  Jackson, a World War I aviation enthusiast, is chair of the 14–18 Aviation Heritage Trust. He donated his services and provided replica aircraft to create a 10-minute multimedia display called "Over the Front" for the Australian War Memorial in 2008. He contributed to the defense fund for the West Memphis Three. In 2011, Jackson and Walsh purchased 1 Kent Terrace, the home of BATS Theatre in Wellington, effectively securing the theatre's future.  In 2012 Jackson supported the American Red Cross "Zombie Blood Drive" together with other famous artists such as The Black Keys band members and the cast of the show "The Walking Dead".

Other activities.

Jackson spent $5 million on the purchase of 20 hectares of land in Wairarapa, a property containing a mansion, private lake, Lord of the Rings style castle, tunnel and the interior of Bag End from "The Lord of the Rings".  In 2009, he purchased a Gulfstream G550 jet; his total net worth is estimated by "National Business Review" at NZ$450 million. Jackson owns an aircraft restoration and manufacturing company, The Vintage Aviator (based in Kilbirnie, Wellington, and at the Hood Aerodrome, Masterton), which is dedicated to World War I and World War II fighter planes among other planes from the 1920s and 1930s. He is chairman of the Omaka Aviation Heritage Trust, which hosts a biennial air show.  He owns a scale modeling company Wingnut Wings that specializes in World War I subjects.

Style.

Jackson is known for his attention to detail, a habit of shooting scenes from many angles, a macabre sense of humour, and a general playfulness—the latter to a point that "The Lord of the Rings" conceptual designer Alan Lee jokingly remarked, "the film is almost incidental really".  Jackson was a noted perfectionist on the "Lord of the Rings" shoot, where he demanded numerous takes of scenes, requesting additional takes by repeatedly saying, "one more for luck". Jackson is also renowned within the New Zealand film industry for his insistence on "coverage"—shooting a scene from as many angles as possible, giving him more options during editing. Jackson has been known to spend days shooting a single scene. This is evident in his work where even scenes featuring simple conversations often feature a wide array of multiple camera angles and shot-sizes as well as zooming closeups on characters' faces. One of his most common visual trademarks is shooting close-ups of actors with wide-angle lenses. He was an early user of computer enhancement technology and provided digital special effects to a number of Hollywood films.

Cameo roles.

Jackson is one of the lead actors in two of his films: in "Bad Taste", he plays two characters named Derek and Robert, even engaging them both in a fight. In the mockumentary "Forgotten Silver", he plays his own role.  However, he appears in most films he directs, mostly in cameos, just as director Alfred Hitchcock had done:  He has also made cameos in several films not directed by him. In the opening sequence of "Hot Fuzz" (2007), he played a demented man dressed as Father Christmas, who stabs Nicholas Angel (played by Simon Pegg) in the hand.  Jackson's eldest son, Billy (born 1995), has made cameo appearances in almost every one of his father's films since his birth, namely "The Frighteners", "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, "King Kong", "The Lovely Bones", and the third film of "The Hobbit" trilogy. His daughter, Katie (born 1996), appears in all the above films except "The Frighteners". And partner Fran Walsh makes a short cameo in "The Frighteners" as a woman walking next to Cyrus and Stuar just prior the scene featuring their son Billy.

Other appearances.

Jackson had a cameo on the HBO show "Entourage" in 5 August 2007 episode, "Gary's Desk", in which he offers a business proposal to Eric Murphy, manager to the lead character, Vincent Chase.  Jackson appears as himself in the 2013 "Doctor Who" 50th anniversary spoof "The Five(ish) Doctors Reboot", alongside Sir Ian McKellen.  Jackson appears as himself in the 2019 Discovery show Savage Builds, Episode 7, Dogfight Derby.

Personal life.

Jackson and his partner Fran Walsh, a New Zealand screenwriter, film producer and lyricist, have two children, Billy (born 1995) and Katie (born 1996). Walsh has contributed to all of Jackson's films since 1989, as co-writer since "Meet the Feebles", and as producer since "". She won three Academy Awards in 2003, for Best Picture, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Original Song, all for "". She has received seven Oscar nominations.  Jackson is an avid aviation enthusiast and owns a collection of over 40 airworthy World War I-era warbirds housed at Hood Aerodrome near Masterton, and a Gulfstream G650 in Wellington. He is also interested in building scale models and owns a company that makes models of World War I aircraft.  As well as this, Omaka Aviation Heritage Centre presents the Knights of the Sky exhibition, featuring Jackson's own collection of WW1 aircraft and artifacts. This story of aviation in the Great War is brought to life in sets created by the internationally acclaimed talent of WingNut Films and Weta Workshop.

Awards and honours.

Honours.

In the 2002 New Year Honours, Jackson was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to film. In the 2010 New Year Honours, he was promoted to Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, also for services to film. The investiture ceremony took place at Premier House in Wellington on 28 April 2010.  In 2006, Jackson received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.  In the 2012 Queen's Birthday and Diamond Jubilee Honours, Jackson was appointed a Member of the Order of New Zealand, New Zealand's highest civilian honour.

Filmography.

As director.

Since 1994's "Heavenly Creatures" Peter Jackson's films have enjoyed success in the annual awards season, earning many nominations and winning several awards; "The Frighteners" being his only fictional directed effort since 1994 not to be nominated for an Academy Award. The "Lord of the Rings" trilogy is one of the most successful trilogies of all time in terms of awards, winning more Academy Awards than the Francis Ford Coppola directed "Godfather Trilogy", with 2003's "The Return of the King" winning in all 11 categories for which it was nominated including Best Picture, Director and Adapted Screenplay. Jackson's films have fared extremely well in the technical categories as well as the major categories; all three "Lord of the Rings" pictures as well as "King Kong" won the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects in their respective years. In total Jackson's directed efforts have been the most awarded films at three separate Academy Award ceremonies, the 74th, 76th and 78th.

Sir Peter Robert Jackson (born 31 October 1961) is a New Zealand film director, screenwriter, occasional actor and film producer. He is best known as the director, writer, and producer of the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy (2001–03) and the "Hobbit" trilogy (2012–14), both of which are adapted from the novels of the same name by J. R. R. Tolkien. He is the third-highest-grossing film director of all-time, his films having made over $6.5 billion worldwide.

Peter Jackson est un réalisateur, scénariste et producteur néo-zélandais, né le à Pukerua Bay. Il est surtout connu pour avoir réalisé la trilogie du "Seigneur des anneaux", d'après l'œuvre de, et un remake de "King Kong". Il réalise ensuite "Le Hobbit", l'adaptation cinématographique en trois volets du roman de Tolkien.


Taxonomic systems.

In 1973, astronomers Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner developed a simple taxonomic system for asteroids based on color, albedo, and spectral shape. The three categories were labelled "C" for dark carbonaceous objects, "S" for stony (silicaceous) objects, and "U" for those that did not fit into either C or S. This basic division of asteroid spectra has since been expanded and clarified. A number of classification schemes are currently in existence, and while they strive to retain some mutual consistency, quite a few asteroids are sorted into different classes depending on the particular scheme. This is due to the use of different criteria for each approach. The two most widely used classifications are described below:

S3OS2 classification.

The Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (SOS "or" S3OS2, also known as the Lazzaro classification) observed 820 asteroids, using the former ESO 1.52-metre telescope at La Silla Observatory during 1996–2001. This survey applied both the Tholen and Bus–Binzel (SMASS) taxonomy to the observed objects, many of which had previously not been classified. For the Tholen-like classification, the survey introduced a new "Caa-type", which shows a broad absorption band associated indicating an aqueous alteration of the body's surface. The Caa class corresponds to Tholen's C-type and to the SMASS hydrated Ch-type (including some Cgh-, Cg-, and C-types), and was assigned to 106 bodies or 13% of the surveyed objects. In addition, S3OS2 uses the K-class for both classification schemes, a type which does not exist in the original Tholen taxonomy.

Bus–DeMeo classification.

The Bus-DeMeo classification is an asteroid taxonomic system designed by Francesca DeMeo, Schelte Bus and Stephen Slivan in 2009. It is based on reflectance spectrum characteristics for 371 asteroids measured over the wavelength 0.45–2.45 micrometers. This system of 24 classes introduces a new "Sv"-type and is based upon a principal component analysis, in accordance with the SMASS taxonomy, which itself is based upon the Tholen classification.

Tholen classification.

The most widely used taxonomy for over a decade has been that of David J. Tholen, first proposed in 1984. This classification was developed from broad band spectra (between 0.31 μm and 1.06 μm) obtained during the Eight-Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS) in the 1980s, in combination with albedo measurements. The original formulation was based on 978 asteroids. The Tholen scheme includes 14 types with the majority of asteroids falling into one of three broad categories, and several smaller types "(also see above)". The types are, with their largest exemplars in parenthesis:

Taxonomic features.

The Tholen taxonomy may encompass up to four letters (e.g. "SCTU"). The classification scheme uses the letter "I" for "inconsistent" spectral data, and should not be confused with a spectral type. An example is the Themistian asteroid 515 Athalia, which, at the time of classification was inconsistent, as the body's spectrum and albedo was that of a stony and carbonaceous asteroid, respectively. When the underlying numerical color analysis was ambiguous, objects were assigned two or three types rather than just one (e.g. "CG" or "SCT"), whereby the sequence of types reflects the order of increasing numerical standard deviation, with the best fitting spectral type mentioned first. The Tholen taxonomy also has additional notations, appended to the spectral type. The letter "U" is a qualifying flag, used for asteroids with an "unusual" spectrum, that falls far from the determined cluster center in the numerical analysis. The notation ":" (single colon) and "::" (two colons) are appended when the spectral data is "noisy" or "very noisy", respectively. For example, the Mars-crosser 1747 Wright has an "AU:" class, which means that it is an A-type asteroid, though with an unusual and noisy spectrum.

SMASS classification.

This is a more recent taxonomy introduced by American astronomers Schelte Bus and Richard Binzel in 2002, based on the Small Main-Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey (SMASS) of 1,447 asteroids. This survey produced spectra of a far higher resolution than ECAS "(see Tholen classification above)", and was able to resolve a variety of narrow spectral features. However, a somewhat smaller range of wavelengths (0.44 μm to 0.92 μm) was observed. Also, albedos were not considered. Attempting to keep to the Tholen taxonomy as much as possible given the differing data, asteroids were sorted into the 26 types given below. As for the Tholen taxonomy, the majority of bodies fall into the three broad C, S, and X categories, with a few unusual bodies categorized into several smaller types "(also see above)":  A significant number of small asteroids were found to fall in the Q, R, and V types, which were represented by only a single body in the Tholen scheme. In the Bus and Binzel SMASS scheme only a single type was assigned to any particular asteroid.

Color indices.

The characterization of an asteroid includes the measurement of its color indices derived from a photometric system. This is done by measuring the object's brightness through a set of different, wavelength-specific filters, so-called passbands. In the UBV photometric system, which is also used to characterize distant objects in addition to classical asteroids, the three basic filters are:  In an observation, the brightness of an object is measured twice through a different filter. The resulting difference in magnitude is called the color index. For asteroids, the U–B or B–V color indices are the most common ones. In addition, the V–R, V–I and R–I indices, where the photometric letters stand for visible (V), red (R) and infrared (I), are also used. A photometric sequence such as V–R–B–I can be obtained from observations within a few minutes.

Appraisal.

These classification schemes are expected to be refined and/or replaced as further research progresses. However, for now the spectral classification based on the two above coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys from the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful).  Some groupings of asteroids have been correlated with meteorite types:

An asteroid spectral type is assigned to asteroids based on their emission spectrum, color, and sometimes albedo. These types are thought to correspond to an asteroid's surface composition. For small bodies that are not internally differentiated, the surface and internal compositions are presumably similar, while large bodies such as Ceres and Vesta are known to have internal structure. Over the years, there has been a number of surveys that resulted in a set of different taxonomic systems such as the Tholen, SMASS and Bus–DeMeo classification.

La composition des astéroïdes est évaluée d’après leur spectre optique mesurant la lumière réfléchie, qui correspond à la composition de leur surface. Celle des météorites est connue avec l'analyse des fragments retrouvés sur Terre.


Purim narrative.

The Book of Esther begins with a six-month (180-day) drinking feast given by King Ahasuerus for the army of Persia and Media and the satraps and princes of the 127 provinces of his kingdom, concluding with a seven-day drinking feast for the inhabitants of Shushan (Susa), rich and poor, and a separate drinking feast for the women organized by Queen Vashti in the pavilion of the royal courtyard.  At this feast Ahasuerus gets thoroughly drunk, and at the prompting of his courtiers, orders his wife Vashti to display her beauty before the nobles and populace, wearing her royal crown (the Rabbis of the Oral Torah understand this that he wanted her to only be wearing her royal crown, meaning she would be naked, something she would have wanted to do, but due to a skin condition she refuses to do). Her refusal prompts Ahasuerus to have her removed from her post. Ahasuerus then orders all young women to be presented to him, so he can choose a new queen to replace Vashti. One of these is Esther, who was orphaned at a young age and was being fostered by her first cousin Mordecai. Some rabbinic commentators state that she was actually Mordecai's wife, since the Torah permits an uncle to marry his niece. She finds favor in the king's eyes, and is made his new wife. Esther does not reveal her origins and that she is Jewish.  Shortly afterwards, Mordecai discovers a plot by two palace guards Bigthan and Teresh to kill Ahasuerus. They are apprehended and hanged, and Mordecai's service to the king is recorded in the daily record of the court.  Ahasuerus appoints Haman as his viceroy. Mordecai, who sits at the palace gates, falls into Haman's disfavor as he refuses to bow down to him. Having found out that Mordecai is Jewish, Haman plans to kill not just Mordecai but the entire Jewish minority in the empire. Obtaining Ahasuerus' permission and funds to execute this plan, he casts lots ("purim") to choose the date on which to do this—the thirteenth of the month of Adar. When Mordecai finds out about the plans, he puts on sackcloth and ashes, a sign

Scriptural and rabbinical sources.

The primary source relating to the origin of Purim is the Book of Esther, which became the last of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible to be canonized by the Sages of the Great Assembly. It is dated to the fourth century BCE and according to the Talmud was a redaction by the Great Assembly of an original text by Mordechai.  The Tractate "Megillah" in the Mishnah (redacted c. 200 CE) records the laws relating to Purim. The accompanying Tosefta (redacted in the same period) and Gemara (in the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud redacted c. 400 CE and c. 600 CE respectively)

Historical views.

Traditional historians.

Berossus (early third century BCE) provides context for the account in that he records the introduction of idols of Anahita under Artaxerxes II Mnemon throughout the Persian Empire.  The first-century CE historian Josephus recounts the origins of Purim in Book 11 of his "Antiquities of the Jews". He follows the Hebrew Book of Esther but shows awareness of some of the additional material found in the Greek version (the Septuagint) in that he too identifies Ahasuerus as Artaxerxes and provides the text of the king's letter. He also provides additional information on the dating of events relative to Ezra and Nehemiah. Josephus also records the Persian persecution of Jews and mentions Jews being forced to worship at Persian erected shrines.  The Josippon, a tenth-century CE compilation of Jewish history, includes an account of the origins of Purim in its chapter 4. It too follows the original biblical account and includes additional traditions matching those

Modern scholarship views.

Some historians of the Near East and Persia argue that Purim does not actually have a historical basis. Amnon Netzer and Shaul Shaked argue that the names "Mordecai" and "Esther" are similar to those of the Babylonian gods Marduk and Ishtar. Scholars W.S. McCullough, Muhammad Dandamayev and Shaul Shaked say that the Book of Esther (despite its accurate details of the Achaemenid court) is historical fiction. Amélie Kuhrt says the Book of Esther

Observances.

Purim has more of a national than a religious character, and its status as a holiday is on a different level than those days ordained holy by the Torah. Hallel is not recited. As such, according to some authorities, business transactions and even manual labor are allowed on Purim under certain circumstances. A special prayer (""Al ha-Nissim"" – "For the Miracles") is inserted into the Amidah prayers during evening, morning and afternoon prayer services, and is also included in the "Birkat Hamazon" ("Grace after Meals.")  The four main mitzvot (obligations) of the day are:  The three latter obligations only apply during the daytime hours of Purim.

Reading of the Megillah.

The first religious ceremony which is ordained for the celebration of Purim is the reading of the Book of Esther (the "Megillah") in the synagogue, a regulation which is ascribed in the Talmud (Megillah 2a) to the Sages of the Great Assembly, of which Mordecai is reported to have been a member. Originally this regulation was only supposed to be observed on the 14th of Adar; later, however, Rabbi Joshua ben Levi (3rd century CE) prescribed that the Megillah should also be read on the eve of Purim. Further, he obliged women to attend the reading of the Megillah, because women were also part of the miracle. The commentaries offer two reasons as to why women played a major role in the miracle. The first reason is that it was through a lady, Queen Esther, that the miraculous deliverance of the Jews was accomplished (Rashbam). The second reason is that women were also threatened by the genocidal decree and were therefore equal beneficiaries of the miracle (Tosafot).  In the Mishnah, the recitation of a benediction on the reading of the Megillah is not yet a universally recognized obligation. However,

Food gifts and charity.

The Book of Esther prescribes "the sending of portions one man to another, and gifts to the poor". According to halakha, each adult must give at least two different foods to one person, and at least two charitable donations to two poor people. The food parcels are called "mishloach manot" ("sending of portions"), and in some circles the custom has evolved into a major gift-giving event.  To fulfill

Purim meal "(se'udah)" and festive drinking.

On Purim day, a festive meal called the "Se`udat Purim" is held. Fasting for non-medical reasons is prohibited on Purim.  There is a longstanding custom of drinking wine at the feast. The custom stems from a statement in the Talmud attributed to a rabbi named Rava that says one should drink on Purim until he can "no longer distinguish between "arur Haman" ('Cursed is Haman') and "baruch Mordechai" ('Blessed is Mordecai')." The drinking of wine features prominently in keeping with the jovial nature

Fasts.

The Fast of Esther, observed before Purim, on the 13th of Adar, is an original part of the Purim celebration, referred to in Esther 9:31–32. The first who mentions the Fast of Esther is Rabbi Achai Gaon (Acha of Shabcha) (8th century CE) in She'iltot 4; the reason there given for its institution is based on an interpretation of, Esther 9:31 and Talmud

Customs.

Greetings.

It is common to greet one another on Purim in Hebrew "Chag Purim Sameach," "Freilichin Purim"

Masquerading.

The custom of masquerading in costumes and the wearing of masks probably originated among the Italian Jews at the end of the 15th century. The concept was possibly influenced by the Roman carnival and spread across Europe. The practice was only introduced into Middle Eastern countries during the 19th century. The first Jewish codifier to mention the custom was "Mahari Minz" (d. 1508 at Venice). While most authorities are concerned about the possible infringement of biblical law if men don women's apparel, others permit all

Burning of Haman's effigy.

As early as the fifth century, there was a custom to burn an effigy of Haman on Purim. The spectacle aroused the wrath of the early Christians who interpreted the mocking and "execution" of the Haman effigy as a disguised attempt to re-enact the death of Jesus and ridicule the Christian faith. Prohibitions were issued against such displays under the reign of

Purim spiel.

A Purim spiel was historically a comic dramatization that attempted to convey the saga of the Purim story. By the 18th century, in some parts of Eastern Europe, the Purim plays had evolved into broad-ranging satires

Carnival.

The most impressive part of the holiday is the carnival. Thousands of people take to the streets, showing off their costumes that

Songs.

Songs associated with Purim are based on sources that are Talmudic, liturgical and cultural. Traditional Purim songs include "Mishenichnas Adar marbim be-simcha" ("When [the Hebrew month of] Adar enters, we have a lot of joy"—Mishnah Taanith 4:1) and "LaYehudim haitah orah ve-simchah ve-sasson ve-yakar" ("The Jews

Traditional foods.

On Purim, Ashkenazi Jews and Israeli Jews (of both Ashkenazi and Sephardic descent) eat triangular pastries called hamantaschen ("Haman's pockets") or "oznei Haman" ("Haman's ears"). A sweet pastry dough is rolled out, cut into circles, and traditionally filled with a poppy seed filling; this is then wrapped up into a triangular shape with the filling either hidden or showing. More recently, prunes, dates, apricots, apples, and chocolate fillings have been introduced. Among Sephardi Jews, a fried pastry called fazuelos is eaten, as well as a range of baked or fried pastries called Orejas de Haman (Haman's Ears) or Hojuelas de Haman. These pastries are also known as "Oznei Haman".  Seeds and nuts are customarily eaten on Purim, as the Talmud relates that Queen Esther ate only these foodstuffs in the palace of Ahasuerus,

Torah learning.

There is a widespread tradition to study the Jewish Torah in a synagogue on Purim morning, during an event called "Yeshivas Mordechai Hatzadik" to commemorate all

Iranian Jews.

Iranian Jews and Mountain Jews consider themselves descendants of Esther. On Purim, Iranian Jews

In Jerusalem.

Shushan Purim.

Shushan Purim falls on Adar 15 and is the day on which Jews in Jerusalem celebrate Purim. The day is also universally observed by omitting the Tachanun prayer and having a more elaborate meal than on ordinary days.  Purim is celebrated on Adar 14 because the Jews in unwalled cities fought their enemies on Adar 13 and rested the following day. However, in Shushan, the capital city of the Persian Empire, the Jews were involved in defeating their enemies on Adar 13–14 and rested on the 15th (Esther 9:20–22). In commemoration of this, it was decided that while the victory would be celebrated universally on Adar 14, for Jews living in Shushan, the holiday would be held on Adar 15. Later, in deference to Jerusalem, the Sages determined that Purim would be celebrated on Adar 15 in all cities which had been enclosed by a wall at the time of Joshua's conquest of

Purim Meshulash.

Purim Meshulash, or the three-fold Purim, is a somewhat rare calendric occurrence that affects how Purim is observed in Jerusalem (and, in theory at least, in other cities that were surrounded by a wall in ancient times).  When Shushan Purim (Adar 15) falls on Sabbath, the holiday is celebrated over a period of three days. The "megilla" reading and distribution of charity takes place on the Friday (Adar 14), which day is called Purim dePrazos. The "Al ha-Nissim" prayer is only recited on Sabbath (Adar 15), which is Purim

Other Purims.

Purim Katan.

During leap years on the Hebrew calendar, Purim is celebrated in the second month of Adar. (The Karaites, however, celebrate it in the first month of Adar.) The 14th of the first Adar is then called "Purim Katan" ("Little Purim" in Hebrew) and the 15th is "Shushan Purim Katan", for which there are no

Communal and familial Purims.

Historically, many Jewish communities around the world established local "Purims" to commemorate their deliverance from catastrophe or an antisemitic ruler or edict. One of the best known is "Purim Vinz", traditionally celebrated in Frankfurt one week after the regular Purim. Purim Vinz commemorates the Fettmilch uprising (1616–1620), in which one Vincenz Fettmilch attempted to exterminate the Jewish community. According to some sources, the influential Rabbi Moses Sofer (the "Chasam Sofer"), who was born in Frankfurt, celebrated Purim Vintz every year, even when he served as a rabbi in Pressburg.  Rabbi Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller (1579–1654) of Kraków, Poland, asked that his family henceforth celebrate a

In recent history.

Adolf Hitler banned and forbade the observance of Purim. In a speech made on November 10, 1938 (the day after Kristallnacht), Julius Streicher surmised that just as "the Jew butchered 75,000 Persians" in one night, the same fate would have befallen the German people had the Jews succeeded in inciting a war against Germany; the "Jews would have instituted a new Purim festival in Germany".  Nazi attacks against Jews were often coordinated with Jewish festivals. On Purim 1942, ten Jews were hanged in Zduńska Wola to "avenge" the hanging of Haman's ten sons. In a similar incident in 1943, the Nazis shot ten Jews from the Piotrków ghetto. On Purim eve that same year, over 100 Jewish doctors and their families were shot by the Nazis in Częstochowa. The following day, Jewish doctors were taken from Radom and shot nearby in Szydłowiec. In 1942, on Purim, the Nazis murdered over 5000 Jews, mostly children, in the Minsk Ghetto. All of the victims were shot and buried alive by the Nazis.  In an apparent connection made by Hitler between his Nazi regime and the role of Haman, Hitler stated in a speech made on January 30, 1944, that

In the media.

The 1960 20th Century-Fox film "Esther and the King" stars Joan Collins as Esther and Richard Egan as Ahasuerus. It was filmed in Italy by director Raoul Walsh. The 2006 movie "One Night with the King" chronicles the life of the young Jewish girl, Hadassah, who goes on to become the Biblical Esther, the Queen of Persia, and saves the Jewish nation from annihilation at the hands of its arch enemy while winning the heart of the fiercely handsome King Xerxes.  The 2006 comedy film "For Your Consideration" employs a film-within-a-film device in which the fictitious film being produced is titled "Home for Purim", and is about a Southern Jewish family's Purim celebration. However, once the film receives Oscar buzz, studio executives feel it is "too Jewish" and force the film to be renamed "Home for Thanksgiving."

Purim (; Hebrew: "Pûrîm" "lots", from the word "pur", translated as 'lot' in the Esther, perhaps related to Akkadian "pūru"'stone, urn'; also called the Festival of Lots) is a Jewish holiday which commemorates the saving of the Jewish people from Haman, an Achaemenid Persian Empire official who was planning to kill all the Jews, as recounted in the Book of Esther ( "Megillat Ester" in Hebrew; usually dated to the 5th century BC).

Pourim est une fête juive d’origine biblique et d’institution rabbinique, qui commémore les événements relatés dans le Livre d’Esther : la délivrance miraculeuse d’un massacre de grande ampleur, planifié à leur encontre par Haman l’Agaggite dans l’Empire perse sous le règne d’Assuérus ().