History.

Origins.

Depictions of two-banked ships (biremes), with or without the "parexeiresia" (the outriggers, see below), are common in 8th century BC and later vases and pottery fragments, and it is at the end of that century that the first references to three-banked ships are found. Fragments from an 8th-century relief at the Assyrian capital of Nineveh depicting the fleets of Tyre and Sidon show ships with rams, and fitted with oars pivoted at two levels. They have been

Early use and development.

Herodotus mentions that the Egyptian pharaoh Necho II (610–595 BC) built triremes on the Nile, for service in the Mediterranean, and in the Red Sea, but this reference is disputed by modern historians, and attributed to a confusion, since "triērēs" was by the 5th century used in the generic sense of "warship", regardless its type. The first definite reference to the use of triremes in naval combat dates to ca. 525 BC, when, according to Herodotus, the tyrant Polycrates of Samos was able

The Persian Wars.

Athens was at that time embroiled in a conflict with the neighbouring island of Aegina, which possessed a formidable navy. In order to counter this, and possibly with an eye already at the mounting Persian preparations, in 483/2 BC the Athenian statesman Themistocles used his political skills and influence to persuade the Athenian assembly to start the construction of 200 triremes, using the income of the newly discovered silver mines at Laurion. The first clash with the Persian navy was at the Battle of Artemisium, where both sides suffered great casualties. However, the decisive naval clash occurred at Salamis, where Xerxes' invasion fleet was decisively defeated.  After Salamis and another Greek victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale, the Ionian cities were

Design.

Based on all archeological evidence, the design of the trireme most likely pushed the technological limits of the ancient world. After gathering the proper timbers and materials it was time to consider the fundamentals of the trireme design. These fundamentals included accommodations, propulsion, weight and waterline, center of gravity and stability, strength, and feasibility. All of these variables are dependent on one another; however a certain area may be more important than another depending on the purpose of the ship.  The arrangement and number of oarsmen is the first deciding factor in the size of the ship. For a ship to travel at high speeds would require a high oar-gearing, which is the ratio between the outboard length of an oar and the inboard length; it is this arrangement of the oars which is unique and highly effective for the trireme. The ports would house the oarsmen with a minimal waste of space. There would be three files of oarsmen on each side tightly but workably packed by placing each man outboard of, and in height overlapping, the one below, provided that thalamian tholes were set inboard and their ports enlarged to allow oar movement. Thalamian, zygian, and thranite are the English terms for "thalamios" (θαλάμιος), "zygios" (ζύγιος), and "thranites" (θρανίτης), the Greek words for the oarsmen in, respectively the lowest, middle, and uppermost files of the triereis. Tholes were pins that acted as fulcrums to the oars that allowed them to move. The center of gravity of the ship is low because of the overlapping formation of the files that allow the ports to remain closer to the ships walls. A lower center of gravity would provide adequate stability.  The trireme was constructed to maximize all traits of the ship to the point where if any changes were made the design would be compromised. Speed was maximized to the point where any less weight would have resulted in considerable losses to the ship's integrity. The center of gravity was placed at the lowest possible position where the Thalamian tholes were just above the waterline which retained the ship's resistance to waves and the possible rollover. If the center of gravity were placed any higher, the additional beams needed to restore stability would have resulted in the exclusion of the Thalamian tholes due to the reduced hull space. The purpose of the area just below the center of gravity and the waterline known as the "hypozomata" (ὑποζώματα) was to allow bending of the hull when faced with up to 90 kN of force. The calculations of forces that could have been absorbed by the ship are arguable because there is not enough evidence to confirm the exact process of jointing used in ancient times. In a modern reconstruction of the ship, a polysulphide sealant was used to compare to the caulking that evidence suggests was used; however this is also argued because there is simply not enough evidence to authentically reproduce the triereis seams.  Triremes required a great deal of upkeep in order to stay afloat, as references to the replacement of ropes, sails, rudders, oars and masts in the middle of campaigns suggest. They also would become waterlogged if left in the sea for too long. In order to prevent this from happening, ships would have to be pulled from the water during the night. The use of lightwoods meant that the ship could be carried ashore by as few as 140 men. Beaching the ships at night, however, would leave the troops vulnerable to surprise attacks. While well-maintained triremes would last up to 25 years, during the Peloponnesian War, Athens had to build nearly 20 triremes a year to maintain their fleet of 300.  The Athenian trireme had two great cables of about 47 mm in diameter and twice the ship's length called "hypozomata" (undergirding), and carried two spares. They were possibly rigged fore and aft from end to end along the middle line of the hull just under the main beams and tensioned to 13.5 tonnes force. The "hypozomata" were considered important and secret: their export from Athens was a capital offense. This cable would act as a stretched tendon straight down the middle of the hull, and would have prevented hogging. Additionally, hull plank butts would remain in compression in all but the most severe sea conditions, reducing working of joints and consequent leakage. The "hypozomata" would also have significantly braced the structure of the trireme against the stresses of ramming, giving it an important advantage in combat. According to material scientist J.E. Gordon: "The "hupozoma" was therefore an essential part of the hulls of these ships; they were unable to fight, or even to go to sea at all, without it. Just as it used to be the practice to disarm modern warships by removing the breech-blocks from the guns, so, in classical times, disarmament commissioners used to disarm triremes by removing the "hupozomata"."

Crew.

The total complement ("plērōma") of the ship was about 200. These were divided into the 170 rowers ("eretai"), who provided the ship's motive power, the deck crew headed by the trierarch, and a marine detachment. For the crew of Athenian triremes, the ships were an extension of their democratic beliefs. Rich and poor rowed alongside each other. Victor Davis Hanson argues that this "served the larger civic interest of acculturating thousands as they worked together in cramped conditions and under dire circumstances."  During the Peloponnesian War, there were a few variations to the typical crew layout of a trireme. One was a drastically reduced number of oarsmen, so as to use the ship as a troop transport. The thranites would row from the top benches while the rest of the space, below, would be filled with hoplites. In another variation, the Athenians used 10 or so trireme for transporting horses. Such triremes had 60 oarsmen, and rest of the ship was for horses.  The trireme was designed for day-long journeys, with no capacity to stay at sea overnight, or to carry the provisions needed to sustain its crew overnight. Each crewman required 2 gallons (7.6 L) of fresh drinking water to stay hydrated each day, but it is unknown quite how this was stored and distributed. This meant that all those aboard were dependent upon the land and peoples of wherever they landed each night for supplies. Sometimes this would entail traveling up to eighty kilometres in order to procure provisions. In the Peloponnesian War, the beached Athenian fleet was caught unawares on more than one occasion, while out looking for food (Battle of Syracuse and Battle of Aegospotami). Cities visited, which suddenly found themselves needing to provide for large numbers of sailors, usually did not mind the extra business - though those in charge of the fleet had to be careful not to deplete them of resources.

Trierarch.

In Athens, the ship's captain was known as the trierarch ("triērarchos"). He was a wealthy Athenian citizen (usually from the class of the "pentakosiomedimoi"), responsible for manning, fitting out and maintaining the ship for his liturgical

Deck crew.

The deck and command crew ("hypēresia") was headed by the helmsman, the "kybernētēs", who was always an experienced seaman and was often the commander of the vessel. These experienced sailors were to be found on the upper levels of the triremes. Other officers were the bow lookout ("prōreus" or "prōratēs"), the boatswain

Rowers.

In the ancient navies, crews were composed not of galley slaves but of free men. In the Athenian case in particular, service in ships was the integral part of the military service provided by the lower classes, the "thētai", although metics and hired foreigners were also accepted. Although it has been argued that slaves formed part of the rowing crew in the Sicilian Expedition, a typical Athenian trireme crew during the Peloponnesian War consisted of 80 citizens, 60 metics and 60 foreign hands. Indeed, in the few emergency cases where slaves were used to crew ships, these were deliberately set free, usually before being employed. For instance, the tyrant Dionysius I of Syracuse once set all slaves of Syracuse free to man his galleys, employing thus freedmen, but otherwise relied

Marines.

A varying number of marines ("epibatai"), usually 10–20, were carried aboard for boarding actions. At the Battle of Salamis, each Athenian ship was recorded to have 14 hoplites and 4 archers (usually Scythian mercenaries) on board, but Herodotus narrates that the Chiots had 40 hoplites on board at Lade and that the Persian ships carried a similar number. This reflects the different practices between the Athenians and other, less professional navies. Whereas the Athenians relied on speed and maneuverability, where

Tactics.

In the ancient world, naval combat relied on two methods: boarding and ramming. Artillery in the form of ballistas and catapults was widespread, especially in later centuries, but its inherent technical limitations meant that it could not play a decisive role in combat. The method for boarding was to brush alongside the enemy ship, with oars drawn in, in order to break the enemy's oars and render the ship immobile, to be finished off as convenient.  Rams ("embolon") were fitted to the prows of warships, and were used to rupture the hull of the enemy ship. The preferred method of attack was to come in from astern, with the aim not of creating a single hole, but of rupturing as big a length of the enemy vessel as possible. The speed necessary for a successful impact depended on the angle of attack; the greater the angle, the lesser the speed required. At 60 degrees, 4 knots was enough to penetrate the hull, while it increased to 8 knots at 30 degrees. If the target for some reason was in motion in the direction of the attacker, even less speed was required, and especially if the hit came amidships. The Athenians especially became masters in the art of ramming, using light, un-decked ("aphraktai") triremes.  In either case, the masts and railings of the ship were taken down prior to engagement to reduce the opportunities for opponents' grappling hooks.

On-board forces.

Unlike the naval warfare of other eras, boarding an enemy ship was not the primary offensive action of triremes. Triremes' small size allowed for a limited number of marines to be carried aboard. During the 5th and 4th centuries, the trireme's strength was in its maneuverability and speed, not its armor or boarding force. That said, fleets less confident in their ability to ram were prone to load more marines onto

Naval strategy in the Peloponnesian War.

Squadrons of triremes employed a variety of tactics. The "periplous" (Gk., "sailing around") involved outflanking or encircling the enemy so as to attack them in the vulnerable rear; the "diekplous" (Gk., "Sailing out through") involved a concentrated charge so as to break a hole in the enemy line, allowing galleys to break through and then wheel to attack the enemy line from behind; and the "kyklos" (Gk., "circle") and the "mēnoeidēs kyklos" (Gk. "half-circle"; literally, "moon-shaped (i.e. crescent-shaped) circle"), were defensive tactics to be employed against these manoeuvres. In all of these manoeuvres, the ability to accelerate faster, row faster, and turn more sharply than one's enemy was very important.  Athens' strength in the Peloponnesian War came from its navy, whereas Sparta's came from its land-based Hoplite army. As the war progressed however the Spartans came to realize that if they were to undermine Pericles' strategy of outlasting the Peloponnesians by remaining within

Casualties.

Once a naval battle was underway, for the men involved, there were numerous ways for them to meet their end. Drowning was perhaps the most common way for a crew member to perish. Once a trireme had been rammed, the ensuing panic that engulfed the men trapped below deck no doubt extended the amount of time it took the men to escape. Inclement weather would greatly decrease the crew's odds of survival, leading to a situation like that off Cape Athos in 411 (12 of 10,000 men were saved). An estimated 40,000 Persians died in the Battle of Salamis. In the Peloponnesian War, after the Battle of Arginusae, six Athenian generals were executed for failing to rescue several hundred of their men clinging to wreckage in the water.  If the men did not drown, they might be taken prisoner by the enemy. In the Peloponnesian War, "Sometimes captured crews were brought ashore and either cut down

Changes of engagement and construction.

During the Hellenistic period, the light trireme was supplanted by larger warships in dominant navies, especially the pentere/quinquereme. The maximum practical number of oar banks a ship could have was three. So the number in the type name did not refer to the banks of oars any more (as for biremes and triremes), but to the number of rowers per vertical section, with several men on each oar. The reason for this development was the increasing use of armour on the bows of warships against ramming attacks, which again required heavier ships for a successful attack. This increased the number of rowers per ship, and also made it possible to use less well-trained personnel for moving these new ships. This change was accompanied by an increased reliance on tactics like boarding, missile skirmishes and using warships

Reconstruction.

In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, financed by Frank Welsh (an author, Suffolk banker, writer and trireme enthusiast), advised by historian J. S. Morrison and naval architect John F. Coates (who with Welsh founded the Trireme Trust that initiated and managed the project), and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built an Athenian-style trireme, "Olympias".  Crewed by 170 volunteer oarsmen, "Olympias" in 1988 achieved 9 knots (17 km/h or 10.5 mph). These results, achieved with inexperienced crew, suggest that the ancient writers were not exaggerating about straight-line performance. In addition, "Olympias" was able to execute a 180 degree turn in one minute and in an arc no wider than two and one half (2.5) ship-lengths. Additional sea trials took place in 1987, 1990, 1992 and 1994. In 2004 "Olympias" was used ceremonially to transport the Olympic Flame from the port of Keratsini to the main port of Piraeus as the 2004 Olympic Torch Relay entered its final stages in the run-up to the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony.  The builders of the reconstruction project concluded that it effectively proved what had previously been in doubt, i.e., that Athenian triremes were arranged with the crew positioned in a staggered arrangement on three levels with one person per oar. This architecture would have made optimum use of the available internal dimensions. However, since modern humans are on average approximately 6 cm (2 inches) taller than Ancient Greeks (and the same relative dimensions can be presumed for oarsmen and other athletes), the construction of a craft which followed the precise dimensions of the ancient vessel led to cramped rowing conditions and consequent restrictions on the modern crew's ability to propel the vessel with full efficiency, which perhaps explains why the ancient speed records stand unbroken.

A trireme (; derived from Latin: "trirēmis" "with three banks of oars"; "triērēs", literally "three-rower") was an ancient vessel and a type of galley that was used by the ancient maritime civilizations of the Mediterranean, especially the Phoenicians, ancient Greeks and Romans.

Une trière (du grec ancien / ), ou trirème, ce dernier terme étant l'appellation latine, est une galère de combat antique, développée à partir du pentécontère. Navire plus court que son prédécesseur, il reçoit étagés sur trois rangs, d'où son nom. Léger et agile, il permet le développement de la manœuvre d'éperonnage grâce au rostre de bronze monté sur sa proue, technique qui donne lieu aux premières batailles à caractère réellement naval.


Taxonomy.

The turkey vulture received its common name from the resemblance of the adult's bald red head and its dark plumage to that of the male wild turkey, while the name "vulture" is derived from the Latin word "vulturus", meaning "tearer", and is a reference to its feeding habits. The word "buzzard" is used by North Americans to refer to this bird, yet in the Old World that term refers to members of the genus "Buteo". The generic term "Cathartes" means "purifier" and is the Latinized form from the Greek "kathartēs"/καθαρτης. The turkey vulture was first formally described by Linnaeus as "Vultur aura" in his "Systema Naturae" in 1758, and characterised as "V. fuscogriseus, remigibus nigris, rostro albo" ("brown-gray vulture, with black wings and a white beak"). It is a member of the family Cathartidae, along with the other six species of New World vultures, and included in the genus "Cathartes", along with the greater yellow-headed vulture and the lesser yellow-headed vulture. Like other New World vultures, the turkey vulture has a diploid chromosome number of 80.  The taxonomic placement of the turkey vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures has been in flux. Though both are similar in appearance and have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the world. Some earlier authorities suggested that the New World vultures were more closely related to storks. More recent authorities maintained their overall position in the order Falconiformes along with the Old World vultures or place them in their own order, Cathartiformes.  However, recent genetic studies indicate that neither New World nor Old World vultures are close to falcons, nor are New World vultures close to storks. Both are basal members of the clade Afroaves, with Old World vultures comprising several groups within the family Accipitridae, also containing eagles, kites, and hawks, while New World vultures in Cathartiformes are a sister group to Accipitriformes (containing the osprey and secretarybird along with Accipitridae).  There are five subspecies of turkey vulture:

Description.

A large bird, it has a wingspan of, a length of, and weight of. Birds in the northern limit of the species' range average larger in size than the vulture from the neotropics. 124 birds from Florida averaged while 65 and 130 birds from Venezuela were found to average, respectively. It displays minimal sexual dimorphism; sexes are identical in plumage and in coloration, and are similar in size. The body feathers are mostly brownish-black, but the flight feathers on the wings appear to be silvery-gray beneath, contrasting with the darker wing linings. The adult's head is small in proportion to its body and is red in color with few to no feathers. It also has a relatively short, hooked, ivory-colored beak. The irises of the eyes are gray-brown; legs and feet are pink-skinned, although typically stained white. The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid.  The two front toes of the foot are long and have small webs at their bases. Tracks are large, between in length and in width, both measurements including claw marks. Toes are arranged in the classic, anisodactyl pattern. The feet are flat, relatively weak, and poorly adapted to grasping; the talons are also not designed for grasping, as they are relatively blunt. In flight, the tail is long and slim. The black vulture is relatively shorter-tailed and shorter-winged, which makes it appear rather smaller in flight than the turkey vulture, although the body masses of the two species are roughly the same. The nostrils are not divided by a septum, but rather are perforate; from the side one can see through the beak. It undergoes a molt in late winter to early spring. It is a gradual molt, which lasts until early autumn. The immature bird has a gray head with a black beak tip; the colors change to those of the adult as the bird matures. Captive longevity is not well known. there are two captive birds over 45 years old: the Gabbert Raptor Center on the University of Minnesota campus is home to a turkey vulture named Nero with a confirmed hatch year of 1974, and another male bird, named Lord Richard, lives at the Lindsay Wildlife Experience in Walnut Creek, CA. Lord Richard hatched in 1974 and arrived at the museum later that year. The oldest wild captured banded bird was 16 years old.  Leucistic (sometimes mistakenly called "albino") turkey vultures are sometimes seen.  The turkey vulture, like most other vultures, has very few vocalization capabilities. Because it lacks a syrinx, it can only utter hisses and grunts. It usually hisses when it feels threatened, or when fighting with other vultures over a carcass. Grunts are commonly heard from hungry young and from adults in their courtship display.

Distribution and habitat.

The turkey vulture has a large range, with an estimated global occurrence of. It is the most abundant vulture in the Americas. Its global population is estimated to be 4,500,000 individuals. It is found in open and semi-open areas throughout the Americas from southern Canada to Cape Horn. It is a permanent resident in the southern United States, though northern birds may migrate as far south as South America. The turkey vulture is widespread over open country, subtropical forests, shrublands, deserts, and foothills. It is also found in pastures, grasslands, and wetlands. It is most commonly found in relatively open areas which provide nearby woods for nesting and it generally avoids heavily forested areas.  This bird with its crow-like aspect gave foot to the naming of the Quebrada de los Cuervos (Crows Ravine) in Uruguay, where they dwell together with the lesser yellow-headed vulture and the black vulture.

Ecology and behavior.

The turkey vulture is gregarious and roosts in large community groups, breaking away to forage independently during the day. Several hundred vultures may roost communally in groups, which sometimes even include black vultures. It roosts on dead, leafless trees, and will also roost on man-made structures such as water or microwave towers. Though it nests in caves, it does not enter them except during the breeding season. The turkey vulture lowers its night-time body temperature by about 6 degrees Celsius to, becoming slightly hypothermic.  This vulture is often seen standing in a spread-winged stance. The stance is believed to serve multiple functions: drying the wings, warming the body, and baking off bacteria. It is practiced more often following damp or rainy nights. This same behavior is displayed by other New World vultures, by Old World vultures, and by storks. Like storks, the turkey vulture often defecates on its own legs, using the evaporation of the water in the feces and/or urine to cool itself, a process known as urohidrosis. It cools the blood vessels in the unfeathered tarsi and feet, and causes white uric acid to streak the legs. The turkey vulture has few natural predators. Adult, immature and fledging vultures may fall prey to great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, golden eagles and bald eagles, while eggs and nestlings may be preyed on by mammals such as raccoons and opossums. Foxes can occasionally ambush an adult but species that can climb are more likely to breach and predate nests than adults. Its primary form of defense is regurgitating semi-digested meat, a foul-smelling substance, which deters most creatures intent on raiding a vulture nest. It will also sting if the predator is close enough to get the vomit in its face or eyes. In some cases, the vulture must rid its crop of a heavy, undigested meal to take flight to flee from a potential predator. Its life expectancy in the wild ranges upward of 16 years, with a captive life span of over 45 years being possible.  The turkey vulture is awkward on the ground with an ungainly, hopping walk. It requires a great deal of effort to take flight, flapping its wings while pushing off the ground and hopping with its feet. While soaring, the turkey vulture holds its wings in a shallow V-shape and often tips from side to side, frequently causing the gray flight feathers to appear silvery as they catch the light. The flight of the turkey vulture is an example of static soaring flight, in which it flaps its wings very infrequently, and takes advantage of rising thermals to stay soaring.

Breeding.

The breeding season of the turkey vulture varies according to latitude. In the southern United States, it commences in March, peaks in April to May, and continues into June. In more northerly latitudes, the season starts later and extends into August. Courtship rituals of the turkey vulture involve several individuals gathering in a circle, where they perform hopping movements around the perimeter of the circle with wings partially spread. In the air, one bird closely follows another while flapping and diving. Eggs are generally laid in the nesting site in a protected location such as a cliff, a cave, a rock crevice, a burrow, inside a hollow tree, or in a thicket. There is little or no construction of a nest; eggs are laid on a bare surface. Females generally lay two eggs, but sometimes one and rarely three. The eggs are cream-colored, with brown or lavender spots around their larger end. Both parents incubate, and the young hatch after 30 to 40 days. Chicks are altricial, or helpless at birth. Both adults feed the chicks by regurgitating food for them, and care for them for 10 to 11 weeks. When adults are threatened while nesting, they may flee, or they may regurgitate on the intruder or feign death. If the chicks are threatened in the nest, they defend themselves by hissing and regurgitating. The young fledge at about nine to ten weeks. Family groups remain together until fall.

Feeding.

The turkey vulture feeds primarily on a wide variety of carrion, from small mammals to large grazers, preferring those recently dead, and avoiding carcasses that have reached the point of putrefaction. They may rarely feed on plant matter, shoreline vegetation, pumpkin, coconut and other crops, live insects and other invertebrates. In South America, turkey vultures have been photographed feeding on the fruits of the introduced oil palm. They rarely, if ever, kill prey themselves. The turkey vulture can often be seen along roadsides feeding on roadkill, or near bodies of water, feeding on washed-up fish. They also will feed on fish or insects that have become stranded in shallow water. Like other vultures, it plays an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion, which would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease. The turkey vulture forages by smell, an ability that is uncommon in the avian world, often flying low to the ground to pick up the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals. The olfactory lobe of its brain, responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals. This heightened ability to detect odors allows it to search for carrion below the forest canopy. King vultures, black vultures, and condors, which lack the ability to smell carrion, follow the turkey vulture to carcasses. The turkey vulture arrives first at the carcass, or with greater yellow-headed vultures or lesser yellow-headed vultures, which also share the ability to smell carrion. It displaces the yellow-headed vultures from carcasses due to its larger size, but is displaced in turn by the king vulture and both types of condor, which make the first cut into the skin of the dead animal. This allows the smaller, weaker-billed turkey vulture access to food, because it cannot tear the tough hides of larger animals on its own. This is an example of mutual dependence between species.

Relationship with humans.

The turkey vulture is sometimes accused of carrying anthrax or hog cholera, both livestock diseases, on its feet or bill by cattle ranchers and is therefore occasionally perceived as a threat. However, the virus that causes hog cholera is destroyed when it passes through the turkey vulture's digestive tract. This species also may be perceived as a threat by farmers due to the similar black vulture's tendency to attack and kill newborn cattle. The turkey vulture does not kill live animals but will mix with flocks of black vultures and will scavenge what they leave behind. Nonetheless, its appearance at a location where a calf has been killed gives the incorrect impression that the turkey vulture represents a danger to calves. The droppings produced by turkey vultures and other vultures can harm or kill trees and other vegetation. The turkey vulture can be held in captivity, though the Migratory Bird Treaty Act prevents this in the case of uninjured animals or animals capable of returning to the wild. In captivity, it can be fed fresh meat, and younger birds will gorge themselves if given the opportunity.  The turkey vulture species receives special legal protections under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 in the United States, by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds in Canada, and by the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Game Mammals in Mexico. In the US it is illegal to take, kill, or possess turkey vultures, their eggs, and any body parts including but not limited to their feathers; violation of the law is punishable by a fine of up to $100,000 for individuals or $200,000 for organizations, and/or a prison term of 1 year. It is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. Populations appear to remain stable, and it has not reached the threshold of inclusion as a threatened species, which requires a decline of more than 30 percent in 10 years or three generations.

The turkey vulture ("Cathartes aura"), also known in some North American regions as the turkey buzzard (or just buzzard), and in some areas of the Caribbean as the John crow or carrion crow, is the most widespread of the New World vultures. One of three species in the genus "Cathartes" of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.

L'Urubu à tête rouge (Cathartes aura), aussi appelé vautour aura, est l'une des trois espèces d'oiseaux de proies du genre "Cathartes", de la famille des Cathartidae. Il possède la plus vaste aire de répartition des vautours du Nouveau Monde : il est présent du sud du Canada jusqu'au sud de l'Amérique du Sud. Cette aire de distribution s'étend d'ailleurs actuellement vers le nord du Canada. Il se rencontre dans une grande variété d'habitats ouverts et semi-ouverts dont les forêts subtropicales, les terrains buissonneux, les prairies et les déserts.


Biblical narrative.

Abner is initially mentioned incidentally in Saul's history (,, ), first appearing as the son of Ner, Saul's uncle, and the commander of Saul's army. He then comes to the story again as the commander who introduced David to Saul following David's killing of Goliath. He is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, Ish-bosheth, also called Eshbaal, Abner set him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was meanwhile reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried on between the two parties.  The only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (). In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have been "light of foot as a wild roe" (). As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood. However, according to Josephus, in Antiquities, Book 7, Chapter 1, Joab had forgiven Abner for the death of his brother, Asahel, the reason being that Abner had slain Asahel honorably in combat after he had first warned Asahel and had no other choice but to kill him out of self-defense. This battle was part of a civil war between David and Ish-bosheth, the son of Saul. After this battle Abner switched to the side of David and granted him control over the tribe of Benjamin. This act put Abner in David's favor.  For some time afterward the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length, Ish-bosheth lost the main prop of his tottering cause by accusing Abner of sleeping with Rizpah (cf. ), one of Saul's concubines, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, would imply pretensions to the throne (cf. ff.).  Abner was indignant at the rebuke, and immediately opened negotiations with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time (although Abner should have been safe from such a revenge killing in Hebron, which was a City of Refuge). The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators (; cf. ff.).  David had Abner buried in Hebron, as it states in, "And David said to all the people who were with him, 'Rend your clothes and gird yourselves with sackcloth, and wail before Abner.' And King David went after the bier. And they buried Abner in Hebron, and the king raised his voice and wept on Abner's grave, and all the people wept."  Shortly after Abner's death, Ish-bosheth was assassinated as he slept (), and David became king of the reunited kingdoms ().

Tomb of Abner.

The site known as the Tomb of Abner is located not far from the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron and receives visitors throughout the year. Many travelers have recorded visiting the tomb over the centuries.  Benjamin of Tudela, who began his journeys in 1165, wrote in the journal, "The valley of Eshkhol is north of the mountain upon which Hebron stood, and the cave of Makhpela is east thereof. A bow-shot west of the cave is the sepulchre of Abner the son of Ner."  A rabbi in the 12th century records visiting the tomb as reprinted in Elkan Nathan Adler's book "Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages: 19 Firsthand Accounts". The account states, "I, Jacob, the son of R. Nathaniel ha Cohen, journeyed with much difficulty, but God helped me to enter the Holy Land, and I saw the graves of our righteous Patriarchs in Hebron and the grave of Abner the son of Ner." Adler postulates that the visit must have occurred prior to Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187.  Rabbi Moses Basola records visiting the tomb in 1522. He states, "Abner's grave is in the middle of Hebron; the Muslims built a mosque over it." Another visitor in the 1500s states that "at the entrance to the market in Hebron, at the top of the hill against the wall, Abner ben Ner is buried, in a church, in a cave." This visit was recorded in Sefer Yihus ha-Tzaddiqim (Book of Genealogy of the Righteous), a collection of travelogues from 1561. Abraham Moshe Lunz reprinted the book in 1896.  Menahem Mendel of Kamenitz, considered the first hotelier in the Land of Israel, wrote about the Tomb of Abner is his 1839 book "Korot Ha-Itim", which was translated into English as "The Book of the Occurrences of the Times to Jeshurun in the Land of Israel." He states", ""Here I write of the graves of the righteous to which I paid my respects. Hebron – Described above is the character and order of behavior of those coming to pray at the Cave of ha-Machpelah. I went there, between the stores, over the grave of Avner ben Ner and was required to pay a Yishmaeli – the grave was in his courtyard – to allow me to enter."  The author and traveler J. J. Benjamin mentioned visiting the tomb in his book "Eight Years in Asia and Africa" (1859, Hanover). He states, "On leaving the Sepulchre of the Patriarchs, and proceeding on the road leading to the Jewish quarter, to the left of the courtyard, is seen a Turkish dwelling house, by the side of which is a small grotto, to which there is a descent of several steps. This is the tomb of Abner, captain of King Saul. It is held in much esteem by the Arabs, and the proprietor of it takes care that it is always kept in the best order. He requires from those who visit it a small gratuity."  The British scholar Israel Abrahams wrote in his 1912 book "The Book of Delight and Other Papers", "Hebron was the seat of David’s rule over Judea. Abner was slain here by Joab, and was buried here – they still show Abner’s tomb in the garden of a large house within the city. By the pool at Hebron were slain the murderers of Ishbosheth..."  Over the years the tomb fell into disrepair and neglect. It was closed to the public in 1994. In 1996, a group of 12 Israeli women filed a petition with the Supreme Court requesting the government to reopen the Tomb of Abner. More requests were made over the years and eventually arrangements were made to have the site open to the general public on ten days throughout the year corresponding to the ten days that the Isaac Hall of the Cave of the Patriarchs is open. In early 2007 new mezuzot were affixed to the entrance of the site.

In the Hebrew Bible, Abner ( "’Avner") was the cousin of King Saul and the commander-in-chief of his army (, ). His name also appears as "Abiner son of Ner", where the longer form Abiner means "my father is Ner".

Avner ben Ner (, « père de la lumière ») est un personnage des "premier" et "deuxième livre de Samuel", qui font partie de l'Ancien Testament. Il est chef de l'armée du roi d'Israël Saül dont l'effectif peut atteindre jusqu'à deux cent mille hommes.


History.

Concept and creation.

The present-day site of Disney California Adventure was acquired by Walt Disney in the 1950s and functioned as the parking lot of Disneyland for over 40 years. After succeeding with the multi-park business model at Walt Disney World in Florida, the Disney company decided to turn Walt Disney's original theme park into a multi-park resort complex as well. In 1991, Disney announced plans to build WestCOT, a west coast version of what was then known as EPCOT Center, on the site of Disneyland's parking lot. The high price tag of the proposed park as well as the company's financial and public relations problems with the newly opened Euro Disneyland (now Disneyland Paris) led Disney to cancel WestCOT in 1995.  In the summer of 1995, Michael Eisner, Disney's CEO at the time, gathered company executives in Aspen, Colorado, to think of another idea for a second theme park in California. From those meetings, Disney decided it would instead build a park themed to the history and culture of the state of California. Disney's executives aimed to make California a theme park, so as to keep guests at the resort instead of going off site. Then Disneyland president Paul Pressler relied on merchandising and retail staff instead of Imagineers to design the park. As an adult-oriented park like Epcot, dining and shopping was the design focus. Construction of the park began on January 22, 1998. On Main Street, U.S.A., a DCA Preview Center opened in October 1998. The park's construction was accompanied by Downtown Disney and Disney's Grand Californian Hotel, in addition to renovations of the Disneyland Hotel and Disneyland Pacific Hotel.

Opening and initial criticism.

The park was expected to draw large crowds when it opened on February 8, 2001. There were four districts with 22 shows and attractions and 15 restaurants.  On January 14, a "Los Angeles Times" article titled "The most Jam-Packed Theme Park on Earth?" stated, "Senior Disney officials acknowledge that there will be days when California Adventure will have to turn patrons away, particularly in the first weeks after the park opens, during spring break and again in the summer." However, the actual attendance that year was substantially less than expected. This is suggested to have happened as a result of negative reviews from early visitors, including the lack of focus in the Hollywood Pictures Backlot, the lack of attractions for children, a large number of off-the-shelf attractions, a high number of stores and restaurants relative to the number of attractions, and having a theme that was considered to be redundant, given that the park is located in California. The park also lacks a perimeter berm to separate it from surrounding neighborhoods. The berm in Disneyland Park uses trees and earthen mounds to establish a physical barrier around the park so that structures external to the park cannot be seen, with the aim of more fully immersing guests in the park setting. At Disney California Adventure Park, nearby hotels, power lines, radio towers, and the Anaheim Convention Center are all visible, reducing the sense of immersion. Furthermore, Disney had originally planned the park to be aimed at adults, rather than children, which became the basis of significant criticism.  The park opened to only 5 million visitors in 2001 while its sister park Disneyland saw 12.3 million visitors during the same time frame. Low attendance caused Disney to lower ticket prices for California Adventure, slashing as much as $10 off the park's ticket prices. In its first year, the park only averaged 5,000 to 9,000 visitors on weekdays and 10,000 to 15,000 on the weekends, despite having a capacity of 33,000. Visitor surveys reported that only 20% of visitors to the park in its first year were satisfied with their experience. By October 2001, both Wolfgang Puck and Robert Mondavi had closed their high-profile restaurants in the park, citing low crowds, though Mondavi remained as a sponsor.

Early changes and expansions.

Two major criticisms of the park in its first year were the lack of attractions appealing to children and the lack of a nighttime show or parade to keep visitors from leaving at nightfall. Within the first year of operation, Disney's Electrical Parade and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire – Play It! were brought to the park, and several of its original rides and attractions were closed, including Superstar Limo and the stage show "Disney's Steps in Time". During the 2001 holiday season, "Disney's LuminAria" was presented on Paradise Bay. In October 2002, the Flik's Fun Fair area opened, which added attractions for children, and in May 2004, The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror opened as another E ticket. The park regularly featured seasonal promotions such as concert series, food festivals, and promotions for other Walt Disney Company franchises including the X Games and ABC soap operas. Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue! opened in the former Superstar Limo building in January 2006.

Major redesign and expansion.

By 2007, Disney began making plans for major updates to the park. CEO Bob Iger said, "Any time you do something mediocre with your brand, that's a withdrawal. California Adventure was a brand withdrawal." Iger briefly considered combining California Adventure and Disneyland Park into one large park, but the price would have cost as much as completely remodeling California Adventure. On October 17, 2007, The Walt Disney Company announced a multi-year, $1.1 billion redesign and expansion plan for Disney's California Adventure Park (against its initial $600 million price to build). Each district was reimagined to transform the park from a spoof of modern California culture to a romanticized, idealized version of the state, exploring specific time periods and historic settings. The project began in December 2007 and was completed in stages. Toy Story Midway Mania! opened on Paradise Pier in June 2008, in space formerly occupied by a store and restaurants. "World of Color", a nighttime water and lights show on Paradise Bay, opened in June 2010. opened on the site formerly occupied by the "Golden Dreams" theater in June 2011. The most drastic changes to the park included a complete overhaul of the main entrance, Sunshine Plaza, and Paradise Pier, as well as an expansion into the last of the parking area originally designated as future growth space for the park. The main entrance and Sunshine Plaza were turned from a "giant postcard" spoof of California into Buena Vista Street, a representation of Los Angeles as it appeared when Walt Disney moved there in the 1920s. The "CALIFORNIA" sign in front was removed and donated to Cal Expo in Sacramento. Paradise Pier was turned from a contemporary representation of California boardwalks into a representation of Victorian seaside amusement parks of the 1920s, and some of the area's off-the-shelf rides were either removed outright (Maliboomer) or re-themed to have more of a focus on Disney characters (Mickey's Fun Wheel, Goofy's Sky School, Silly Symphony Swings). Cars Land, an area that simulates Radiator Springs from Disney·Pixar's "Cars" film franchise, was added to the southeast portion of the park and features three rides, including the E ticket Radiator Springs Racers. Construction was completed in 2012 and the park was then re-dedicated on June 15, 2012. The park received a modified name, Disney California Adventure, and a new logo first put into use in June 2010.  The redesign and expansion of the park saw attendance rates increase dramatically. In 2012, Disney California Adventure reached a record high for the park of over 7 million visitors (a 23% increase from the year before), a number Disney had hoped the park would attain in its first year. The day of the park's rededication saw the park draw a record number of 43,000 visitors in one day. The night before the rededication, over 500 people camped outside of the park in order to be the first admitted in. Two days later, the park hit a new record of 45,000 visitors. Speaking on the attendance increase at Disney California Adventure, Jay Rasulo, Disney's chief financial officer, said: "We had a very uneven distribution where most people spent most of their time at Disneyland and Disney's California Adventure was empty. Now, half of the folks go to one, half of the folks go to the other. It's almost a dream come true."  In 2019, a Disney+ episode of "The Imagineering Story" covered the negative reaction that the park received in its early days. Disney Legend John Hench was quoted as saying "I liked it better as a parking lot."  Disney California Adventure, along with Disneyland, was closed indefinitely starting on March 14, 2020 in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The park is scheduled to reopen alongside Disneyland on July 17.

Areas.

Disney California Adventure is divided into eight themed lands.

Buena Vista Street.

The first area seen upon entering the park. It is set in a modern-day California city. Similar to Main Street, U.S.A. in Disneyland Park, it has shops, restaurants, and a system of transportation. It also has a central hub to other areas at the end of it. This hub has entrances to Hollywood Land, Grizzly Peak, Public Wharf, and Paradise Gardens Park. Guests can ride from Buena Vista Street to the end of Hollywood Land on the Red Car Trolley. Its station is located near the main entrance by the flagpole. The trolley will eventually run through Avenger Campus and create a full loop around the park. Some restaurants along the street include Mortimer's Market, Trolley Treats, and Clarabelle's Hand Scooped Ice Cream. Shops include Oswald's, Big Top Toys, and Elias & Company.

Pixar Pier.

Pixar Pier is themed after Pixar films, namely the Toy Story characters, Inside Out, and The Incredibles films. The area is styled after a 1950's amusement park with a ferris wheel, old style roller coaster, carousel, and even a hot dog cart. The Mickey Mouse head on the ferris wheel serves as the park's emblem. The "Pixar Pier" sign with the signature ball is also presented on the Incredicoaster which can be seen from outside the park. Pixar Pier is also one of the areas to watch the World of Color water show. To the side of it is Paradise Gardens Park but the main entrance is a bridge connecting to Public Wharf.

Paradise Gardens Park.

Paradise Gardens Park is the largest area of the park. It is located at the center of the park and has direct entrances to all but one of the areas (Pixar Pier, Public Wharf, Buena Vista Street, Cars Land, and Grizzly Peak). It also has a pathway to, specifically, World of Disney and Downtown Disney. It is the prominent place to watch the World Of Color water show which is themed after The Wonderful World of Disney. It includes rides such as, Walt Disney Imagineering Blue Sky Cellar, and a collection of Mickey Mouse themed attractions.

Grizzly Peak.

Grizzly Peak is themed around California's wilderness and national parks, with particular references to Yosemite and Redwood national parks. Its main attraction is Grizzly River Run, a Gold Rush-esque river rapids ride around the summit of Grizzly Peak. Nearby is the Redwood Creek Challenge Trail; a playground area that includes elements from Disney's "Brother Bear" and Disney·Pixar's "Up". An entrance exclusively accessible to guests of Disney's Grand Californian Hotel & Spa is located in this area.  Grizzly Peak Airfield is a sub-land within the Grizzly Peak area of California Adventure Park. It is themed to an airfield in California's High Sierras in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The featured attraction is "Soarin' Around the World", a ride that simulates a hang glider tour of locations, landscapes, and landmarks across six continents of the world. The district also contains the Smokejumpers Grill counter service restaurant, a shop, and a decorative fire lookout tower.

Hollywood Land.

Hollywood Land is inspired by the Golden Age of Hollywood in the 1930s. It includes attractions based on film, television, theater and a subsection called "Hollywood Studios", which is designed to appear as an active studio backlot. Found within that subsection is the 3D film "Mickey's PhilharMagic" and the Monsters, Inc. Mike & Sulley to the Rescue! attraction, a dark ride based on the characters from Disney·Pixar's "Monsters, Inc." The 2000-seat Hyperion Theater located in the center of Hollywood Land presents "Frozen – Live at the Hyperion". At the far end of this area is, which opened on May 27, 2017, based on Marvel's "Guardians of the Galaxy" film series.  Disney Junior – Live on Stage! opened on March 25, 2011, and has featured stage productions such as "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse", "Sofia the First", "Doc McStuffins", and "Jake and the Never Land Pirates". Its final day of performance was April 9, 2017. It was replaced by Disney Junior Dance Party, which opened on May 26, 2017, and most recently features "Mickey and the Roadster Racers", "Doc McStuffins", "Vampirina", and "The Lion Guard".  The restroom facilities in the district are designed in the style of Frank Lloyd Wright's Storer House, located in the Hollywood Hills area of Los Angeles. The stamped concrete structure is typical of Wright's pioneering design.

Cars Land.

Cars Land spans and contains three attractions. The largest attraction, Radiator Springs Racers, is a dark ride that utilizes the technology of Epcot's Test Track. Based on Pixar's "Cars" films, the ride begins with a scenic drive through the mountains, then enters a show building, where the vehicle finds its way into the town of Radiator Springs and gets a race briefing from Doc Hudson; the ride ends with an outdoor, side-by-side dueling race to the Comfy Caverns Motor Court. With a budget of an estimated US$200 million, it is the most expensive theme park ride ever built.  The other attractions at Cars Land are family attractions with smaller height requirements: Mater's Junkyard Jamboree and Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters. Mater's Junkyard Jamboree opened with Cars Land in 2012. Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters opened on March 7, 2016, and replaced Luigi's Flying Tires.  Cars Land is designed as a life-size model and near-exact replica of the town of Radiator Springs from the "Cars" films. The land includes several dining and shopping venues. The district serves as a connection between Pacific Wharf, Hollywood Land, and A Bug's Land. Construction began in July 2009 and opened to the public on June 15, 2012.  In September 2017, Cars Land received Halloween decorations during Halloween Time at the Disneyland Resort. Two Cars Land attractions, Luigi's Rollickin' Roadsters and Mater's Junkyard Jamboree, became Luigi's Honkin' Haul-O-Ween and Mater's Graveyard JamBOOree.

Future expansion.

On March 20, 2018, the addition of a Marvel-themed land was announced, scheduled to open on July 18, 2020. The land will be based around the preexisting attraction and will be built on the former site of A Bug's Land. During the D23 Expo in August 2019, Disney announced that the Marvel-themed lands at Disneyland Resort and Disneyland Paris will be called "Avengers Campus".

Former areas.

A Bug's Land.

A Bug's Land (stylized "a bug's land") was seen from the point of view of Flik, the inventor ant from the Disney·Pixar film "A Bug's Life", where oversized human items were scattered throughout. It featured Flik's Fun Fair (a collection of themed, family and child-friendly attractions such as Flik's Flyers, Francis' Ladybug Boogie, Tuck & Roll's Drive 'em Buggies, Heimlich's Chew Chew Train, and Dot's Puddle Park). It opened as the park's first expansion in 2002 to expand the park's family-friendly attractions. The land was built around the existing attraction "It's Tough to Be a Bug!", a 3D film based on "A Bug's Life", which opened with the park in 2001.  "It's Tough to Be a Bug!" closed on March 19, 2018. A Bug's Land closed on September 5, 2018 to make way for the Avengers Campus, set to open in 2020.

Alcohol policy.

Unlike Disneyland Park (with the exception of Club 33 in New Orleans Square and Oga's Cantina in ), Disney California Adventure serves beer, wine and cocktails throughout its restaurants, stands and food kiosks. The park also hosts the Disney California Adventure Food & Wine Festival, an annual event featuring a number of themed kiosks, each featuring food and beverages from a particular aspect of California cuisine.

Live entertainment.

Disney's California Adventure offers an array of entertainment options, including live performances and opportunities for guests to meet characters.  Live performances:  Character experiences:

Disney California Adventure Park, commonly referred to as Disney California Adventure, California Adventure, or DCA, is a theme park located in Anaheim, California. It is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, Experiences and Products division. The park is themed after the history and culture of California, which celebrates the fun and adventure of the state through the use of various Disney, Pixar and Marvel properties. The park opened on February 8, 2001 as Disney's California Adventure Park or Disney's California Adventure, and it is the second of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort complex, after Disneyland Park.

Disney California Adventure (DCA) est le second parc à thèmes du complexe Disneyland Resort à Anaheim, en Californie. Ouvert le sous le nom de Disney's California Adventure Park, il est séparé de Disneyland par une esplanade piétonne dont les guichets permettent d'acheter les billets pour les deux parcs.


Life and career.

Born in Eugene, Oregon, Krohn was raised in Columbus, Ohio. He began making music in 1993.  In 2002, RJD2 signed to El-P's record label Definitive Jux and released his solo debut album, "Deadringer", to much acclaim. RJD2 later collaborated with rapper Blueprint under the name Soul Position, releasing "8 Million Stories" on Rhymesayers Entertainment in 2003.  He released his second solo album, "Since We Last Spoke", on Definitive Jux in 2004. Soul Position's second album, "Things Go Better with RJ and AL", was released in 2006 under Rhymesayers Entertainment. 2006 also saw the release of "Magnificent City", his collaborative album with rapper Aceyalone. "Magnificent City" includes "A Beautiful Mine", which has been used in the titles of "Mad Men".  In 2007, RJD2 released the solo album, "The Third Hand", on XL Recordings. In 2010, he released his fourth solo album, "The Colossus", on his own label RJ's Electrical Connections. In 2011, he released the album, "We Are the Doorways", under the pseudonym The Insane Warrior.  RJD2 formed Icebird with Aaron Livingston, vocalist of a Philadelphia-based band called The Mean. The duo's debut album, "The Abandoned Lullaby", was released in 2011. In 2013, RJD2 released his fifth solo album, "More Is Than Isn't", on RJ's Electrical Connections.  In 2015, RJD2 released a collaborative album with rapper STS, titled "STS x RJD2". His sixth solo album, "Dame Fortune", was released in 2016.  RJD2 released his seventh solo studio album "The Fun Ones" on April 17, 2020 on RJ's Electrical Connections and distributed by The Orchard. It features guest appearances from Aceyalone, Homeboy Sandman, Jordan Brown, Khari Mateen and STS.

Ramble Jon Krohn (born May 27, 1976), better known by his stage name RJD2, is an American musician based in Columbus, Ohio. He is the owner of record label RJ's Electrical Connections. He has been a member of groups such as Soul Position, MHz Legacy, and Icebird. According to "Wired", his stage name derives from "a "Star Wars" droid," R2-D2.

RJD2, de son vrai nom Ramble John Krohn, né le à Eugene, dans l'Oregon, est un producteur, disc jockey, et compositeur de hip-hop américain. Il est directeur du label discographique RJ's Electrical Connections, et membre de groupes tels que Soul Position, MHz Legacy et Icebird.


Biography.

Brahic was born in 1942 in Paris. His family originated from the coal mining village of Petit-Brahic in the Banne commune of southern France. Brahic had stated that many of his ancestors died of silicosis, but his father quit the mines to work for the railway industry.  Brahic was first introduced into the field of astrophysics by Evry Schatzman, one of the foremost astrophysicist in France at the time.  In the 1980s, Brahic became a specialist in exploring the Solar System NASA Voyager program and the Cassini spacecraft.  Brahic was a member of the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission and a professor at the University of Paris. He was also on the imaging team for the "Cassini–Huygens" spacecraft.  Brahic wrote several books, explaining astrophysics to the general audience. His last book "Worlds Elsewhere; Are We Alone" was published in 2015.  Brahic died of cancer in Paris on 15 May 2016. He was 73.

Discovery of the Rings of Neptune.

The rings of Neptune consist primarily of five principal rings and were first discovered (as "arcs") in 1984 in Chile by Patrice Bouchet, Reinhold Häfner and Jean Manfroid at La Silla Observatory (ESO) during an observing program proposed by André Brahic and Bruno Sicardy from Paris Observatory, and at Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory by F. Vilas and L.-R. Elicer for a program led by U.S. Astronomer William Hubbard. Brahic named the arcs, known today as parts of the Adams ring - Liberté, Égalité, and Fraternité (Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity), after the national motto of France.

Awards and honors.

In 1990, the asteroid 3488 Brahic was named in his honor.  In 2001, he was given the Carl Sagan Medal.

André Fernand Brahic (30 November 1942 – 15 May 2016) was a French astrophysicist. He is known for his discovery (1984) of the rings of Neptune.

André Brahic est un astrophysicien français né le à Paris et mort le dans la même ville. Il est connu du grand public pour avoir découvert les anneaux de Neptune et trois des quatre arcs composant le dernier, l'anneau Adams, qu'il a nommés respectivement Liberté, Égalité et Fraternité, ainsi que pour ses activités de vulgarisation scientifique.


Background.

Mantua is the ancestral city where the male line of the Gonzaga dynasty ruled, first as marquesses, then after 1540 as dukes, in vassalage to the Holy Roman Empire.  Monferrato was a duchy since 1574 on the eastern side of Piedmont, and an Imperial fief since the eleventh or twelfth century. The Gonzagas had enlarged their realm with Monferrato after receiving it in dowry from the wife of duke Frederick II Gonzaga.  On 22 September 1612, Francis IV, Duke of Mantua and Monferrato died at the age of 26. His death occurred only a couple of months after the death of his father Vincent I, Duke of Mantua. He left only a three-year-old daughter, Maria of Mantua. Francis IV also had two younger brothers who, both being cardinals, could not marry and were thus ineligible to succeed to Mantua's throne. Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, the father of Francis' wife Margaret of Savoy, claimed Montferrat for his house, triggering the War of the Montferrat Succession (1613–1617), which eventually confirmed Ferdinando I (1587–1626) as the rightful successor.  When Ferdinando died in 1626, his brother Vincenzo II (1594–1627) succeeded him as Duke of Mantua and Montferrato. Despite marrying, following the resignation of Ferdinando and the expulsion of Vincenzo from the Sacred College of Cardinals, neither produced any legitimate children. A crisis erupted when Vincenzo II died on 26 December 1627 at the age of 33, the same day that his niece Maria Gonzaga's marriage with Charles de Nevers was celebrated. Nevers was the eldest son and heir of Charles, Duke of Nevers, Rethel and Mayenne. Moreover, he was the head of the cadet branch of the House of Gonzaga, and after Vincenzo II, heir male of the Duchy of Mantua.  Northern Italy was a strategic battlefield for France and the Habsburgs for centuries, ending only when Austria was expelled from Lombardy after the 1859 Second Italian War of Independence. Control of this area allowed the Habsburgs to threaten France's restive southern provinces of Languedoc and the Dauphiné, as well as protecting the supply route known as the Spanish Road; this meant a succession dispute in Mantua inevitably involved outside parties.

Claimants and their supporters.

The Duke of Nevers was a son of Louis, younger brother of Vincenzo II's grandfather (see family tree). Louis had been naturalized French about 1550, and married the heiress of the duchies of Nevers and Rethel in 1566. For the French Crown Nevers, a French peer, would naturally be preferable as ruler in Mantua. Nevers arrived there in January 1628 and was proclaimed its sovereign.  There were two rival claimants. One was Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, whose daughter Margaret was the widow of Francis IV. Although their son had died an infant in 1612, it was their elder daughter Maria (1612–1660) who had married Charles de Nevers in 1627. Charles Emmanuel based his right to Mantua on his daughter's claim to a substantial portion of the Gonzaga realm, the duchy of Montferrat, which was demonstrably heritable by females since the Gonzagas had acquired it through marriage to Margherita Paleologa in 1540.  The other claimant was Ferrante II, Duke of Guastalla, a distant Gonzaga cousin who voiced his claim but did not immediately place troops in the field. He was, however, supported by Emperor Ferdinand II, whose wife at the time, Eleanor of Mantua the elder (1598–1655), had been the sister of the last three Dukes of Mantua. He sought to re-attach the Duchy of Mantua to the Holy Roman Empire; Ferrante being in the Imperial-Spanish camp, was a useful tool to that purpose.  But as the Thirty Years' War wore on, it affected dynastic alliances. Charles Emmanuel obtained support from the Habsburgs, who controlled Milan. The resulting French-Habsburg war over the succession was just one of the many theatres of the Thirty Years' War, fought all over Europe.

Conflict.

The initial attempt of Don Gonzalo Fernandez de Córdoba, Spanish governor of Milan, and Charles-Emmanuel was to partition the Mantuan-Montferrat patrimony, which lay to east and to west of Milan. The Spanish minister supported the Guastalla claimant in Mantua, as the weaker of two neighbors, and the Savoy claimant in Montferrat, the lesser of the territories. Friction between the confederates ensued, when Charles-Emmanuel moved his troops into more territory than had been agreed upon, laying siege to the town of Casale, capital of Montferrat.  While Louis XIII of France and Cardinal Richelieu were concerned by new Huguenot uprisings in Languedoc, the capture of La Rochelle in 1628 allowed them to send forces to the relief of Casale, then besieged by a Habsburg army from Milan. In March 1629, the French stormed barricades blocking the Pas de Suse and by the end of the month they had lifted the siege of Casale and taken the strategic fortress of Pinerolo.  In April, France and Savoy agreed the Treaty of Susa and the French army returned to France, leaving a garrison at Pinerolo. The papal envoy in negotiations at Casale was Jules Mazarin. Emperor Ferdinand II's forces under Ramboldo, Count of Collalto invaded the Grisons and Valtelline. The governor was recalled from Milan, followed by the insults of the citizens, for bread had been scarce for months. The following winter, Milan was devastated by the bubonic plague introduced by the armies, which has been vividly described by Manzoni.  Later in 1629, Emperor Ferdinand II sent a Landsknecht army to besiege Mantua. Charles left without the promised support from Louis XIII of France. The siege lasted until July 1630, when the city, already struck by a plague, was brutally put to the sack for three days and three nights by troops led by Count Aldringen and Gallas. But the Emperor did not succeed in Mantua. Due to developments in Germany, where the Swedes were warring, he was forced to return his attention to the principal theatre of the big war.

Peace of Regensburg (1630).

The French first agreed to the Peace of Regensburg (or the Treaty of Ratisbonne), which was negotiated by French representatives Father Joseph and Nicolas Brûlart de Sillery. The accord was signed on 13 October 1630, which provided favorable terms to French interests in Italy despite their military setbacks. Specifically, the French were allowed to maintain their garrison in Grisons. The accord also confirmed Charles Gonzaga-Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Marquess of Montferrat in exchange for minor concessions to Charles Emmanuel of Savoy and Ferrante of Guastalla. The Habsburgs would on their side reduce their number of troops in the region. The treaty was seen as so unfavorable to the Spanish that the Spanish prime minister, Olivares, considered it no different than a surrender.  The treaty, moreover, contained a troublesome clause. It included an agreement whereby the French were not permitted to establish alliances in Germany against a reigning Holy Roman Emperor. This should have sidelined France in the ongoing conflict. Louis XIII of France refused to accept this, and the Austrians found themselves still at war, yet with diminished forces in the area. The new forces sent south of the Alps were to be sorely missed when Swedish forces under Gustavus II Adolphus invaded from the north.

Treaty of Cherasco (1631).

The Italian peace was eventually made with the Treaty of Cherasco, signed in a city in Piedmont on 19 June 1631. France, which in 1629 had taken Savoy, then captured Pinerolo in Piedmont the following year, renounced its conquests in Italy. Charles Gonzaga-Nevers was confirmed as ruler in Mantua and Montferrat, with concessions to the other claimants: Vittorio Amedeo I, who succeeded in Savoy after the sudden death of his father, Duke Charles Emmanuel, gained Trino and Alba in Montferrat; while Cesare II of Guastalla, Ferrante's son, was given Luzzara and Reggiolo. Later it was discovered that by a secret treaty with Vittorio Amedeo, Pinerolo was surrendered to France.

The War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–31) was a peripheral part of the Thirty Years' War. Its "casus belli" was the extinction of the direct male line of the House of Gonzaga in December 1627. Brothers Francesco IV (1612), Ferdinando (1612–26) and Vincenzo II (1626–27), the last three dukes of Mantua from the direct line, had all died leaving no legitimate heirs. The war, fought among the backers of rival claimants, pitted France against the Habsburgs in a contest for control of northern Italy.

La guerre de Succession de Mantoue est un conflit périphérique qui se déroula dans le cadre plus large de la guerre de Trente Ans, de 1628 à 1631. Elle opposa la France aux Habsbourg à la suite de l’extinction de la branche aînée des Gonzague en 1627.


Early life.

Ibañez was born in Saugnac-et-Cambran, Landes. He began his playing career in his home town of Dax before moving to Perpignan and Castres.

Club career.

After his first international retirement following the 2003 World Cup, he moved to Saracens. In 2005 he moved to Wasps on a two-year deal. In the first match of the following season, he was made captain as replacement for the injured Lawrence Dallaglio.  He was also heavily responsible for London Wasps' win in the 2007 Heineken Cup final, playing in the same side as fellow Six Nations captain Phil Vickery. Wasps beat long-time rivals Leicester at Twickenham in former England captain Lawrence Dallaglio's last match, and Ibanez scored one of Wasps's tries. The following season he also started as Wasps won the 2007–08 Premiership Final.  Ibañez continued to play for Wasps until suffering a series of what ultimately proved to be career-ending head injuries in late 2008. On 28 February 2008, Wasps announced that Ibañez and the club had agreed on a contract extension that would see him serve as a specialist forwards coach in the London Wasps Academy, as well as play for the senior side, during the 2008–09 season. On 5 August 2008 Ibanez was named as successor to Lawrence Dallaglio to take over the captaincy at London Wasps  On his 36th birthday, 17 February 2009, Ibanez announced his retirement from all rugby as a player. He suffered a concussion in a match against Worcester Warriors in September 2008, and suffered further head injuries in two later games. Whilst completing a two-month rest period, he continued to suffer symptoms from his injuries during training sessions, and ended his playing career on medical advice.

International career.

He made his debut against Wales in 1996 and went on to win 72 caps for his country, including 27 as captain, before his first retirement from international rugby in 2003. He won successive Grand Slams with France in 1997 and 1998 and led them to the World Cup Final in 1999.  Ibañez retired from international rugby after the 2003 World Cup, but French coach Bernard Laporte made it one of his priorities to bring him back into the fold, especially after fellow hooker William Servat was ruled out of the autumn schedule with a neck injury. He added 26 more France Test caps, 15 of them as captain, before announcing his second and final international retirement in 2008.  Ibañez served as France captain for the 2007 Six Nations, taking over from the injured Fabien Pelous for France's first two matches, and then being named captain for the remainder of the competition after Pelous' injury ruled him out of France's remaining three fixtures. Also in the 2007 Six Nations Ibañez became the first player to score a try in the 82,300 capacity Croke Park after the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) modified their Rule 42 in 2005 which banned foreign sports from being played in Croke Park. Under the modified rule both the Ireland national rugby union team and Republic of Ireland national football team were allowed to play their home games in Croke Park while renovations were carried out on Lansdowne Road (reopened as the Aviva Stadium).  After Pelous' injury troubles continued, Ibañez was named as France captain for the 2007 World Cup, with Pelous as his unofficial vice-captain. France went on to finish fourth in the 2007 World Cup.  Ibañez announced his second retirement from Test rugby on 10 January 2008.

Media work.

Ibanez has published two books and is also a regular guest in the BBC 6 nations studio. He also comments the Six Nations for the French channel France 2.

Personal life.

In his spare time he enjoys fly-fishing and extreme sports like rock climbing and kayaking.

Raphaël Ibañez (born 17 February 1973) is a retired French rugby union footballer. A hooker, he was also a former captain of the France national team.

Raphaël Ibañez, né le à Dax, est un joueur de rugby à XV international français évoluant au poste de talonneur. Il commence sa carrière à l'US Dax qu'il quitte en 1998, joue dans deux autres clubs français, l'USA Perpignan et le Castres olympique. Puis il rejoint le club anglais des Saracens avant de terminer son parcours en club aux London Wasps.


Early life.

Delta was born in Alexandria, in the Khedivate of Egypt, to Virginia (née Choremi) and the wealthy cotton merchant Emmanuel Benakis. She was the third of six children, her two older siblings being Alexandra and Antonis Benakis, whose Tom Sawyer-like mischiefs she immortalized in her book "Trellantonis"; her younger siblings were Constantine, who died at the age of two, Alexander, and Argine.

Marriage.

The Benaki family temporarily moved to Athens in 1882, where she later married a wealthy Phanariote entrepreneur, Stephanos Deltas, with whom she had three daughters, Sophia Mavrogordatou, Virginia Zanna, and Alexandra Papadopoulou. Stephanos Deltas was a nephew of mathematician Constantin Carathéodory. They returned to Alexandria in 1905, where she met Ion Dragoumi, then the Vice-Consul of Greece in Alexandria. Dragoumi, like Penelope Delta, also wrote about the Macedonian Struggle and his personal recollections of it in his books. Penelope Delta formed a romantic relationship with him for some time. Out of respect for Delta and her children, Delta and Dragoumi decided to separate, but continued to correspond passionately until 1912, when Dragoumi started a relationship with the famous stage actress Marika Kotopouli. In the meantime Penelope had twice attempted suicide.

Writing career.

Delta moved to Frankfurt, Germany in 1906, when her husband went to run the offices of the Khoremis-Benakis cotton business there, and her first novel "Gia tin Patrida" ("For the Sake of the Fatherland") was published in 1909. The novel is set in Byzantine times, and Delta started corresponding with the historian Gustave Schlumberger, a renowned specialist on the Byzantine Empire. Their continued interaction provided the material for her second novel, "Ton Kairo tou Voulgaroktonou" ("In the Years of the Bulgar-Slayer"), set during the reign of the Emperor Basil II. The Goudi Pronunciamento in 1909 inspired her third novel, "Paramythi Horis Onoma" ("A Tale with No Name"), published in 1911.  In 1913 the Deltas returned to Alexandria yet again, and then in 1916 she settled permanently in Athens, where her father, Emmanuel Benakis, had been elected Mayor. While there, they became close friends with Eleftherios Venizelos, whom they entertained regularly at their opulent mansion in the northern suburb of Kifisia. Penelope's father had been a political associate of Venizelos since his move to Athens in 1910, and had served as Finance Minister in the first Venizelos administration.  Her long correspondence with Bishop Chrysanthos, Metropolitan of Trebizond, provided the material for her 1925 book, "The Life of Christ". In 1925, she was diagnosed with polio. In 1927, she started writing the trilogy "Romiopoules" ("Young Greek Girls"), a thinly-veiled autobiography, which she did not finish until 1939. Set in Athens, the first part, "To Xypnima" ("The Awakening") covers the events from 1895 to 1907, the second part "H Lavra" ("The Heat") covers 1907 to 1909, and the final part, "To Souroupo" ("The Dusk"), covers 1914 to 1920. The political events of this tumultuous era are given first-hand treatment in this book, as she experienced them in the most personal level: her father was almost executed for treason by the Royalist Party, whereas Ion Dragoumis was actually assassinated by the Venizelos factions in 1920. Delta wore nothing but black after that.  In the meantime she published her three major novels: "Trellantonis" ("Crazy Anthony"; 1932), which detailed her mischievous elder brother's Antonis Benakis childhood adventures in late 19th century Alexandria, "Mangas" (1935), which was about the not dissimilar adventures of the family's fox terrier dog, and "Ta Mystika tou Valtou" ("The Secrets of the Swamp"; 1937), which was set around Giannitsa Lake in the early 20th century, when the Greek struggle for Macedonia was unfolding.  While Penelope Delta got the credit for transcribing the memories of that war, the actual narratives were collected in 1932–1935 by her secretary Antigone Bellou Threpsiadi who was herself a daughter of a Macedonian fighter.  She would famously forbid her grandchildren from visiting her during the day, when she was writing, but would then spend the entire evening with them, reading to them what she had written that day, in lieu of bedtime stories.

Later life.

During the last year of her life, and as her paralysis was advancing, she received the diaries and archives of her lost love, Ion Dragoumis, entrusted to her by his brother Philip. She managed to dictate 1000 pages of manuscripted comment on Dragoumis' work, before deciding to take her own life. She committed suicide by taking poison on 27 April 1941, the very day Wehrmacht troops entered Athens. She died on 2 May 1941. At her request she was interred in the garden of the stately Delta mansion in Kifissia. Chrysanthos,the then Archbishop of Athens, officiated at the funeral. On her grave, in the garden of her house, the word σιωπή, "siōpē" ("silence") was engraved.

Descendants.

The Delta mansion was inherited by her three daughters, Sophia, Virginia, and Alexandra, who added a guesthouse they named ""Sovirale"", after the initial letters of their first names. Virginia married politician Alexander Zannas, and their daughter Lena was the mother of contemporary politician Antonis Samaras; their son, Pavlos (Paul) Zannas (1929–1989) was a prominent art critic and the translator in Greek of Marcel Proust's ""À la recherche du temps perdu"". In 1989 Alexandra, then the last living Delta daughter, bequeathed the mansion to the Benaki Museum. It now houses the History Archive of the museum.

Penelope Delta (; 1874, Alexandria, Khedivate of Egypt – 2 May 1941, Athens) was a Greek author of teenage literature. Practically the first Greek writer of books for children, her historical novels have been widely read and influenced Greek popular perceptions on national identity and history. Through her long-time association with Ion Dragoumis, Delta was thrust in the middle of the turbulent early 20th-century Greek politics, from the Macedonian Struggle to the National Schism. She committed suicide on the day German troops entered Athens in World War II.

Pinelópi Délta (en grec : ), à l’étranger plutôt Penelope Delta (1874–), est une femme, écrivain grec de livres pour jeunes.


Features.

Bersirc features connections to multiple servers, a finger client, DCC File Transfers and Chat, Smart Paste, Object Pascal Scripting, Internet Time Support (Swatch Netbeats), Channel Lists, Favorite Channels list, Ident Server, AutoJoin on Invite, AutoRejoin on Kick, configurable date formats, an ICQ-like notify list, advanced filtering, a configurable user interface, and a built in IRC user guide.

License.

Bersirc was licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License and there are no plans to change this. Bersirc 2.1 was to be released under the Qt Public License, but the Qt toolkit and license were abandoned.

History.

Originally bersIRC was created as a TCL/TK script unrelated to the currently used Bersirc; it was created by the irc-user: SeLf-AdHeSiVe, it was last modified in 1998, and is freely downloadable at defiled.8m.com and has been for years.  Bersirc was originally written in Delphi by Jamie Frater in 1999 as a Windows-only IRC client, comparable to HydraIRC and Klient. But development stagnated due to his growing responsibilities in real life.  On 10 February 2004 Nicholas Copeland bought the source code from Frater and released it as open-source. The older Delphi client, Bersirc 1.4, was supposed to be maintained under the name Bersirc 1.5. The original site was also archived by the new owner, including all the old plugins and extensions, but there has been almost no information about the future of the legacy clients since.  Developers stated that development of the 1.4 client stalled because the original source code extensively used proprietary software components. The 1.4 client relies on many parts of old versions of the Raize Components package.  The primary developer, Theo Julienne, announced plans to develop the 2.1 branch in C++ using the Qt toolkit, but with the release of the 2.2 branch this was changed to C using Claro Graphics.

Reception.

In 2001, New Zealand gaming website GamePlanet recommended Bersirc for users to connect to its IRC services.  Bersirc has received positive reviews. The German website Winfuture referred to version 2.2.13 as a "great free alternative to the popular shareware IRC client mIRC. The program contains only what is necessary for chatting on IRC...". Snapfiles gave the program 3.5/5 stars, referring to it as "feature rich and nicely designed".

Bersirc is a discontinued open-source Internet Relay Chat client for the Microsoft Windows operating system. Linux and Mac OS X versions were "in development". Bersirc uses the Claro toolkit, which aims to provide an interface to native windowing systems and widgets on all operating systems. Microsoft.NET and Qt toolkit ports were also planned. The final version of Bersirc was 2.2.14.

Bersirc est un client IRC graphique pour les systèmes d'exploitation Windows, GNU/Linux et Mac OS X, distribué selon les termes de la licence GNU LGPL. Il utilise la bibliothèque Claro pour réaliser une interface compatible avec les systèmes de fenêtrage natifs de tous les systèmes d'exploitation. Des portages avec les bibliothèques.NET et Qt sont également prévus.


History.

Toulouse 1 University Capitole is one of the several so-called'successor' institutions of the University of Toulouse, which was the second university created in France in 1229 after the Sorbonne was founded (around the year 1200). The university originally included four faculties: theology, canon law, civil law and Arts (grammar). The medical school was created in 1257. The University was closed in 1793 as the French Revolution abolished royal universities.  At the end of the Second Empire, the first four faculties co-existed, but the most important was the law school, which contains three-quarters of the students and the most renowned teachers. However, the University of Toulouse suffered due to underfunding of French higher education in province. In the 1880s Luis Liard and Ernest Lavisse gave enough autonomy to the faculties so the municipality could help those institutions. Yet the Edgar Faure laws halted the development of provincial faculties by dividing the university in three:  Only the Toulouse 1 University remains on the historical site of the town center. In September 2009, the Toulouse 1 University of Social Sciences became the Toulouse 1 university Capitole.

Location.

UT1 contains three locations:  University buildings cover an area of 78,000 m2 and are available to 17,000 students. On the two sites of the "Arsenal" and the "Anciennes Facultés", a 2 minutes' walk from Place du Capitole, are located most lecture halls and classrooms as well as the main library on the Toulouse campus.  The "Manufacture des Tabacs", between the Garonne river and the Brienne canal is where most research and library centres are to be found.  UT1 also provides courses in Montauban and Rodez.

Studies.

The different academic disciplines of UT1 are:

Toulouse 1 University Capitole ("Université Toulouse 1 Capitole", also called UT1) is a French university established in 1968. It is located in the heart of the city of Toulouse, in southwestern France.

L'université Toulouse-I-Capitole est l'une des trois universités de la ville de Toulouse. Cette université est axée sur les sciences sociales (droit, science politique, économie, administration, etc.).