Early life and education.

Borkh was born Ingeborg Simon in Mannheim, in 1921. Some sources, including Oxford Music Online, give her year of birth as 1917. Her father, a diplomat, was Jewish. The family left Germany in 1933 and moved to Austria. She trained to be an actress at the Max Reinhardt Seminar in Vienna and also had some training in dance, both of which served her well in opera, as she became known both for her voice and for her dramatic intensity. She appeared at the Burgtheater in Vienna while still studying. Borkh worked as an actress, first at the Landestheater Linz in Austria from 1937. The family moved to Switzerland in 1938, where she was engaged by the Theater Basel.

Career.

Borkh studied voice in Milan, Italy, with Vittorio Moratti and later at the Salzburg Mozarteum, and made her operatic debut in 1940, in Lucerne as Czipra in the operetta "Der Zigeunerbaron" by Johann Strauss, now under her stage name Inge Borkh. She then appeared as Agathe in Weber's "Der Freischütz". She remained in Switzerland throughout World War II, performing in Basel, Lucerne and Zürich. In 1951 she sang the role of Magda in the first German-language performance of Menotti's "The Consul" in Basel, leading to international recognition. From 1952 she was a member of the Deutsche Oper Berlin and the Bavarian State Opera in Munich, having appeared at both houses as a guest from 1950. Also in 1952, she appeared at the Bayreuth Festival, as Freia in Wagner's "Das Rheingold" and as Sieglinde in his "Die Walküre". In the same year she performed at the Edinburgh Festival in the Hamburg State Opera's production of Beethoven's "Fidelio", as Leonore, with Lisa della Casa as Marzelline. The music critic of "The Times" wrote, "Mme. Inge Borkh is splendid: in figure and dress she has more verisimilitude than most sopranos can command... she sings with freedom and ardour; she is Beethoven's idea incarnate". After this Borkh performed at major opera houses in Europe, in Hamburg, Stuttgart, Barcelona, Lisbon, London, Milan and Naples, among others. She made her U.S. debut with the San Francisco Opera on 25 September 1953 in the title role of "Elektra" by Richard Strauss at the War Memorial Opera House, conducted by Georg Solti, who was also making his American debut. Her association with San Francisco gave her particular pleasure: "I sang almost everything there that I could do. Even Lady Macbeth and Turandot. I wasn't typecast, as I was in other places. Here I even committed the crime of portraying the gentle Elsa in "Lohengrin". I went home with my husband afterwards and wept. It was grisly. It was awful. I sang terribly. Yet a critic wrote that it was fabulous, that a new Flagstad had been found. I never attempted that again."  In 1954, Borkh appeared in Rio de Janeiro; in the same year she performed at the Florence Maggio Musicale as Eglantine in Weber's "Euryanthe", conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini, and in 1955 at the Salzburg Festival, as Cathleen in the premiere of Egk's "Irische Legende". She was Elektra there in 1957, conducted by Dimitri Mitropoulos, and appeared as Klytaemnestra in Gluck's "Iphigenie in Aulis" in 1962 and 1963. In 1956 she played the role of Queen Elizabeth in the American premiere of Britten's "Gloriana", conducted by Josef Krips, who along with Fritz Reiner was one of her favourite conductors.  Borkh's debut at the Metropolitan Opera, New York, was in 1958. It would have been earlier, but the manager of the house, Rudolf Bing, wanted her to play the title role in "Salome", which she repeatedly declined to do. She felt as though in that house the role belonged to her contemporary, Ljuba Welitsch. Borkh finally accepted Bing's invitation, and played Salome, with Mitropoulos conducting. In the same season she played Sieglinde, and in 1971 she alternated with Christa Ludwig as the Dyer's Wife in "Die Frau ohne Schatten". She made a total of 22 appearances with the company. Her Covent Garden debut was in 1959 in "Salome", conducted by Rudolf Kempe; her only other appearances there were in 1967 as the Dyer's Wife, conducted by Solti. New roles in 1962 included appearances in Louise Talma's "The Alcestiad" at the Frankfurt Opera and in the premiere of Josef Tal's "Ashmedai" at the Hamburgische Staatsoper in 1971, conducted by Gary Bertini.  In a retrospective study of her career published in "Opera News" in 2001, the critic Martin Bernheimer wrote:  Borkh retired from opera in 1973 after seven performances of "Elektra" in Italy. She was awarded the Hans-Reinhart-Ring, the highest Swiss honour for theatre professionals. She briefly returned to the theatre as an actress and for a while turned chanteuse in a cabaret act.

Recordings.

Only one of Borkh's performances was recorded on film, the Dyer's Wife in Munich, but there are audio recordings of some of her performances. Both complete works as well as excerpts from a wide array of performances were made available on CD. The complete works include Egk's "Irische Legende", Gluck's "Iphigénie", and "Salome" and "Elektra", both conducted by Mitropoulos. She also recorded "Elektra" in 1960 with the Staatskapelle Dresden chorus and orchestra, conducted by Karl Böhm (Deutsche Grammophon 445 329-2). She appeared in further complete recordings of Orff's "Antigonae", conducted by Ferdinand Leitner, Cherubini's "Médée" conducted by Vittorio Gui, "Die Frau ohne Schatten" in 1963, conducted by Joseph Keilberth, and the 1952 performances from the Bayreuth Festival, "Das Rheingold" and "Die Walküre", also conducted by Keilberth. The complete "Turandot" was recorded for Decca, conducted by Alberto Erede, alongside Mario del Monaco, Renata Tebaldi and Nicola Zaccaria.  Borkh can be heard on CD performing "Scenes from Elektra and Salome", conducted by Reiner in the 1950s (RCA Victor 09026 68636-2). For Decca she recorded an "Operatic Recital" in which she sang mostly arias from Italian operas. She took part in a 1961 recording of Beethoven's symphonies with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by René Leibowitz, performing the soprano solo in the Ninth alongside Ruth Siewert, Richard Lewis and Ludwig Weber. In 1965 she recorded the role of Tove in Schoenberg's "Gurre-Lieder", conducted by Rafael Kubelik, for Deutsche Grammophon.

Personal life.

Borkh was married twice; her second husband was the baritone (1906–1991).  Inge Borkh died in Stuttgart on 26 August 2018.

Inge Borkh (born Ingeborg Simon, 26 May 1921 – 26 August 2018) was a German operatic dramatic soprano. She was first based in Switzerland, where she received international attention when she appeared in the first performance in German of Menotti's "The Consul", in Basel, in 1951. In 1952, Borkh became a member of the Deutsche Oper Berlin and the Bavarian State Opera in Munich. She appeared at leading opera houses in Europe and the Americas, and at festivals such as Bayreuth and Salzburg. Trained first as an actress, she was admired for both singing and stage presence, especially in the Richard Strauss roles Salome and Elektra. She also performed in contemporary opera, such as the premiere of Josef Tal's "Ashmedai" in Hamburg in 1971. Her recordings include complete operas and recitals. Borkh was awarded the Hans-Reinhart-Ring, the highest honour for theatre professionals in Switzerland.

Inge Borkh, née Ingeborg Simon le à Mannheim et morte le à Stuttgart, est une soprano allemande vivant en Suisse. Elle est célèbre à la fois pour sa voix et pour l'intensité dramatique de son jeu, en particulier dans ses interprétations des héroïnes d'"Elektra" et de "Salomé" de Richard Strauss.


Background.

In 1568, William I of Orange, stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland and Utrecht, and other noblemen dissatisfied with the Spanish rule in the Netherlands, the Geuzen, were determined to expel Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, and his Spanish troops from the country. William, based in Dillenburg, designed a triple attack upon the Netherlands by his rebel followers and foreign mercenary forces. An army of Huguenots and Netherlander refugees would attack Artois across the French border; another, under William's brother Louis, would try to raise the province of Friesland in arms against the Spanish; and a third one, under Antoine II de Lalaing, Count of Hoogstraten, would operate in the Meuse-Rhin area.  The first force to be put in arms was that of Hoogstraten, though he had to be replaced by Jean de Montigny, Lord of Villers, who crossed the frontier of the Jülich-Cleves County on April 20 accompanied by William II de La Marck, Lord of Lumey, and in charge of about 3,000 men, both cavalry and infantry, amongst them French Huguenots and German cavalry recently dismissed from Spanish service. Villers was expected to raise the country and to take an important city to serve as a base for a large offensive. The city selected was Roermond, a fortified town of considerable size situated at the confluence of the Meuse and Rur rivers.

Prelude.

As soon as he received news of the invasion, Alba organized an improvised army to secure Maastricht and prevent the junction of the Dutch rebels with his French fellows. He ordered the maestre de campo don Sancho de Londoño to move his tercio from the village of Lier up to Maastricht and its neighborhood. To blockade the route linking northern France with the valley of the Meuse, the Duke mobilized most of the cavalry under his illegitimate son, Fernando de Toledo, Grand Prior of Castile, who sent his men from Tournai up to the neutral Bishopric of Liège under the command of his lieutenant, don Lope de Acuña.  Alba ordered the captain of his guard, don Sancho Dávila y Daza, to go after the rebel army with his own company of Spanish lances and those of Albanese lances under captain Nicolò Basta, and of horse arquebusiers under Pedro Montañés. 300 horse in all, which were later reinforced with the tercio of Londoño, Lope's cavalry, and four companies of German pikemen, numbering 300 men, from Colonel's Count of Eberstein regiment, from the Maastricht garrison. In all the small Spanish army numbered about 1,600 men.  While being searched by the Spanish, Villers and his army passed through Eijsden and advanced upon Roermond. There, they tried to enter the town pretending to be soldiers of the King of Spain, but the town's inhabitants were not fooled. Then the rebels resorted to their weapons and attempted to seize the town's gates, only to be driven off. Fearing that they would be caught by the Spanish, Villers decided to withdraw, taking the road to the Guelders exclave of Erkelenz. There were some doubts on the Spanish side about what to do then. Londoño advised caution, but Dávila decided to pursue the rebels, seeking to gain a victory that would serve as a warning for them.

Battle.

Sancho Dávila went ahead with his cavalry and was informed by his scouts that the rebels were close to the village of Erkelenz. There Villers found his path cut off because a nearby bridge over the Rur river had been demolished. He decided to take the road to Dahlen, a small walled town in the Bishopric of Liège, while Dávila followed him and soon discovered the rebel army on the road between the two towns.  Villers deployed his troops for the battle on a plain with some groves behind and a hollow way covering one of his flanks, and dispatched his baggage towards Dahlen as soon as he learned of Dávila's presence nearby. To distract the Spanish general, he sent some of his cavalry against him, but Dávila dispersed it and made his way through the hollow way.  After a brief reconnaissance, Dávila, together with the Count of Eberstein and the cavalry companies under captains don Alonso de Vargas and Nicolò Basta, charged across the plain and frontally lunged over the rebel squadrons, which they broke. Villers then lost most of his cavalry and two flags. He and some 1,300 men retreated in some order with part of the baggage and managed to reach Dahlen, under whose walls they entrenched in order to withstand a second attack.  Villers covered his men behind a ravelin of the wall, which had also a moat, and reinforced his weak flank with some baggage wagons. Sancho Dávila was unable to reach such positions with his cavalry due to the rough groves, so he called Sancho de Londoño to come rapidly with the infantry. By early afternoon, the 300 German pikemen were detached behind the ravelin to prevent any attempt to flee, while 600 Spaniards, organized in five flags and under the personal leadership of Londoño, were ready to make a frontal attack over the fort, which they did shortly thereafter.  The fight lasted half an hour, after which the Spaniards took the ravelin. Just a few rebels succeeded in escaping and sought refuge in Dahlen, climbing through scales; the others were butchered.

Aftermath.

Villers was amongst those who escaped inside Dahlen, but was afterwards handed to the Spanish. The Lord of Lumey, on the other hand, evaded capture. All the baggage, seven flags, a large number corslets, pikes, harquebuses, other weapons and munitions were seized by the victors. Some 2,000 rebels, most of whom were French, were killed, as opposed to light Spanish casualties. Shortly thereafter, the Spanish army was split up. Dávila went to Brussels with the foremost captives to execute them, the Count of Eberstein returned to Maastricht with his German pikemen, and Sancho de Londoño lodged his men at Roermond, where he ordered several prisoners – natives of the place – to be hanged.  A month later, Louis of Nassau scored an important victory over the Spanish at Heiligerlee. Shortly afterwards, however, the planned rebel invasion of Artois was defeated in the bailiwick of Hesdin. The local Spanish forces under the Count of Roleux drove the rebels across the French frontier. There, in Picardy, at Saint-Valery, the French royal army destroyed what remained of the Netherlander force. On July 21, Alba decisively defeated Nassau at Jemmingen, which put end to the Dutch rebel campaign in Friesland.  It would be many decades before the Dutch rebels finally capture Roermond, which came under the Dutch Republic's rule only in the final phase of the Eighty Years' War.

The Battle of Dahlen was fought on April 23, 1568, between a Dutch rebel army led by Jean de Montigny, Lord of Villers, and a Spanish army commanded by Sancho Dávila y Daza. As a part of William of Orange's planned invasion, the Dutch rebels were trying to conquer the town of Roermond when the arrival of the Spanish force compelled them to withdraw. Dávila pursued the retreating force and inflicted a defeat upon Villers near the small town of Dahlen (today known as Rheindahlen). The survivors of this encounter sought refuge under the walls of Dahlen, where the Spanish infantry finally defeated them. This battle is sometimes considered the official start of the Eighty Years' War.

La bataille de Rheindalen ou bataille de Dalen fut livrée le au début de la guerre de Quatre-Vingts Ans. Lors de cet affrontement militaire les forces rebelles hollandaises dirigées par Joost de Soete furent vaincues par les tercios espagnols alors sous le commandement de Sancho d'Avila et de.


The standing martingale.

The standing martingale, also known as a "tiedown" or a "head check", has a single strap which is attached to the girth, passes between the horse's front legs and is fixed to the back of the noseband. To prevent it from catching on other objects, it also has a neck strap. A variation is attached to a breastplate in lieu of a neck strap. When correctly fitted for English riding, it should be possible to push the martingale strap up to touch the horse's throatlatch.  A variation of the standing martingale, called a "tiedown", is seen almost exclusively in the western riding disciplines. A tiedown is adjusted much shorter than a standing martingale and is intended primarily to prevent the horse from flipping its head up when asked to abruptly stop or turn in speed events. Users also claim that it gives the horse something to brace against for balance. It consists of an adjustable strap, one end which attaches to the horse's breastplate and the other which attaches to a noseband on the bridle. The noseband can be of leather, but may also be of lariat rope, or even plastic-covered cable, which can make the western tiedown considerably harsher than the English-style standing martingale. It is properly adjusted when it puts no pressure on the horse's nose when held at a normal position, but will immediately act if the horse raises its nose more than a few inches.  With both pieces of equipment, the slack is taken up out of the strap when the horse raises its head above the desired point, and pressure is placed on the horse's nose.  The standing martingale is competition legal for show hunter and hunt seat equitation riders over fences in the US, show jumping competitions in the UK, and is permissible and in common use in fox hunting, polocrosse, horseball, and polo. It is also seen on some military and police horses, partly for style and tradition, but also in the event of an emergency that may require the rider to handle the horse in an abrupt manner. It is not legal for flat classes. The tiedown is commonly seen in rodeo and speed events such as gymkhana games, but is not show legal in any other western-style horse show competition.

Safety and risks.

The standing martingale is more restrictive than the running martingale because it cannot be loosened in an emergency. A horse that trips in a standing martingale could potentially fall more easily because its range of motion is restricted. If a horse falls wearing an incorrectly fitted standing martingale, the animal cannot extend its neck fully, plus will have a more difficult time getting back up.  Due to the risk of injury to the cartilage of the nose, the martingale strap is never attached to a drop noseband. Because of the risk of both nose and jaw injuries, it also should not be attached to any type of "figure 8" or "grackle" noseband. A standing martingale can be attached to the cavesson (the upper, heavier strap) of a flash noseband, but not to the lower, "flash" or "drop" strap.  Any martingale may cause pain to the horse if misused in combination with certain other equipment. If used in conjunction with a gag bit, a standing martingale can trap the head of the horse, simultaneously asking the horse to raise and lower its head and providing no source of relief in either direction. This combination is sometimes seen in polo, in some rodeo events, and occasionally in the lower levels of jumping.  Overuse or misuse of a martingale or tiedown, particularly as a means to prevent a horse from head-tossing, can lead to the overdevelopment of the muscles on the underside of the neck, creating an undesirable "upside down" neck that makes it more difficult for the horse work properly under saddle. It may also lead to the horse tensing the back muscles and moving incorrectly, especially over fences. This may put excessive pressure on the horse's spine, reduce the shock-absorbing capacity of the leg anatomy, and can over time lead to lameness. There is also a risk of accidents: If a horse is sufficiently "trapped" by a combination of a too-short martingale and too-harsh bit, the horse may attempt to rear and, inhibited by the action of the martingale, fall, potentially injuring both horse and rider.

The running martingale and German martingale.

The "running martingale" consists of a strap which is attached to the girth and passes between the horse's front legs before dividing into two pieces. At the end of each of these straps is a small metal ring through which the reins pass. It is held in the correct position by a neck strap or breastplate.  A running martingale is adjusted so that each of the "forks" has about an inch of slack when the horse holds its head in the normal position. When correctly adjusted, the reins make a straight line from the rider's hand to the bit ring when the horse's head in at the correct height and the running martingale is not in effect.  When the horse raises its head above the desired point, the running martingale adds leverage through the reins to the bit on the bars of the horse's mouth. The leverage created by this pressure encourages the horse to lower its head. A running martingale provides more freedom for the horse than a standing martingale, as the rider can release pressure as soon as the desired result is achieved. Additionally, if a horse happens to trip on landing after a fence, the rider can loosen the reins and the horse will have full use of its head and neck.  Because of this safety factor, the running martingale is the only style of martingale permitted for use in eventing competitions and horse racing. Some show jumpers also prefer the running martingale due to the extra freedom it provides. Running martingales are also used outside of the competition arena on young horses being trained in the Saddle seat, western riding, and many other disciplines.  The German martingale, also called a Market Harborough, consists of a split fork that comes up from the chest, runs through the rings of the bit and attaches to rings on the reins of the bridle between the bit and the rider's hand. It acts in a manner similar to a running martingale, but with additional leverage. It is not show legal and is used primarily as a training aid.

Safety and risks.

A running martingale is generally used with rein stops, which are rubber or leather stops slipped onto the rein between the bit and the ring of the martingale. Rein stops are compulsory at Pony Club and British Eventing Events. They are an important safety feature that stops the martingale from sliding too far forward and getting caught on the bit ring or on the buckles or studs that attach the reins to the bit. Sanctioning organizations require a running martingale to be used in conjunction with rein stops if the reins are buckled to the bit.  The primary difficulty in use of a running martingale is the inability to raise the horse's head in the event of the animal bucking. If adjusted too short, lateral use of the reins may be impeded. If used improperly, the force exerted by the running martingale on the horse's mouth can be severe and for this reason the standing martingale is preferred in some circles. Improper use includes use on the reins of a curb bit; adjustment too short, so that the equipment pulls the horse's head below the proper position.

The Irish martingale.

The Irish martingale is not a true martingale in the sense of a device that affects the rider's control over the horse. Thus, it is sometimes known as a semi-martingale. It is a simple short strap with a ring on either end. The reins are each run through a ring on either side before being buckled. The Irish martingale's purpose is not to control the head, but to prevent the reins from coming over the horse's head, risking entanglement, should a rider fall. It is used mostly in European horse racing.

A martingale is any of several designs of tack that are used on horses to control head carriage. Martingales may be seen in a wide variety of equestrian disciplines, both riding and driving. Rules for their use vary widely; in some disciplines they are never used, others allow them for schooling but not in judged performance, and some organizations allow certain designs in competition.

Les enrênements sont des moyens mécaniques qui agissent sur l'attitude du cheval, généralement sur le placement de la tête et de l'encolure, ainsi que leur angle de fermeture. Leur fonction peut être de stabiliser le cheval dans une attitude pratique, ou de faciliter un travail gymnastique. Ils permettent de parfaire l'attitude du cheval, de le muscler dans le bon sens, d'améliorer sa soumission et de faciliter son usage. Ils n'ont normalement pas vocation à se substituer au travail de dressage du cheval, sauf dans le cas des rênes fixes. L'effet d'un enrênement ne peut être positif que si l'impulsion est maintenue, par l'action du cavalier ou par l'action de la chambrière dans le cas d'un travail à pied. Il peut aussi être néfaste malgré une impulsion maintenue, notamment dans le cas des rênes allemandes.


Université Saint-Clément-d'Ohrid de Sofia

History.

The university was founded on 1 October 1888—ten years after the liberation of Bulgaria—to serve as Bulgaria's primary institution of higher education. Initially, it had 4 regular and 3 additional lecturers and 49 students. It was founded as a higher pedagogical course, it became a higher school after a few months and a university in 1904. The first rector was Bulgarian linguist Aleksandar Teodorov-Balan.  During Sofia University's first years, it had three faculties, namely a Faculty of History and Philology (since 1888), a Faculty of Mathematics and Physics (since 1889) and a Faculty of Law (since 1892). History, geography, Slavic philology, philosophy and pedagogics, mathematics and physics, chemistry, natural sciences and law were also taught. The first women (16 in number) were welcomed to the university in 1901 and 25 November (8 December N.S.), the day of St. Kliment of Ohrid, became the university's official holiday the following year.  As Prince Ferdinand opened the National Theatre in 1907, he was booed by Sofia University students, for which the university was closed for six months and all lecturers were fired. Not until a new government with Aleksandar Malinov at the head came into power in January 1908 was the crisis resolved.  At the beginning of the Balkan Wars, 1,379 students (725 men and 654 women) were recorded to attend the university. A fourth faculty was established in 1917, the Faculty of Medicine, the fifth, the Faculty of Agronomy following in 1921, the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and the Faculty of Theology being founded in 1923. In 1922–1923, Sofia University had 111 chairs, 205 lecturers and assistants and 2,388 students, of which 1,702 men and 686 women.  The foundation stone of Sofia University's new edifice was laid on 30 June 1924. Funds were secured by the brothers Evlogi Georgiev and Hristo Georgiev. The rectorate was built according to the initial plans of the French architect Henri Bréançon, who had won a competition for the purpose in 1907. The plans were developed by Nikola Lazarov and revised by Yordan Milanov, who also directed the construction, but died before the official opening on 16 December 1934.  On 27 October 1929, the first doctoral thesis in natural science of the university was defended by geologist Vassil Tzankov. The second one in chemistry followed on 1 July 1930 and the title doctor was granted to Aleksandar Spasov. In 1930–1931, the university had four more doctors.  After the political changes of 9 September 1944 and the emergence of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, radical alterations were made in the university system of the country. At that time in 1944–1945, 13,627 students attended the university, taught by 182 professors and readers and 286 assistants. Communist professors were introduced to the higher ranks of university authority, with others that did not share these views being removed. Specific party-related chairs were established and the university was restricted after the Soviet model. Three new faculties were founded in 1947, one of forestry, one of zootechnics and one of economics and major changes occurred, with many departments seceding in later years to form separate institutions.  Sofia University Mountains on Alexander Island, Antarctica were named for the university in commemoration of its centennial celebrated in 1988 and in appreciation of the university’s contribution to the Antarctic exploration.

Faculties and departments.

Faculties.

Sofia University offers a wide range of degrees in 16 faculties:

Sofia University, "St. Kliment Ohridski" at the University of Sofia, (, "Sofijski universitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“") is the oldest higher education institution in Bulgaria.

L’université Saint-Clément-d’Ohrid de Sofia (en bulgare, translittération scientifique internationale "Sofijski universitet “Sveti Kliment Ohridski”", souvent abrégé en СУ/SU) est le plus ancien établissement d'enseignement supérieur de Bulgarie. Elle a été créée le par décision de l’Assemblée nationale de Bulgarie, tout d’abord sous forme d’établissement pédagogique supérieur. L’aile centrale du bâtiment principal de l’université de Sofia a été construit grâce à une donation des frères Evlogui Georguiev et Hristo Gueorguiev, entrepreneurs et mécènes bulgares. Des statues les représentant ornent l’entrée principale. L’établissement est composé de seize facultés et trois départements, ainsi que d’autres structures indépendantes telles que la bibliothèque universitaire et une maison d’édition et d’autres centres d’enseignement et de recherche. Son parc immobilier est composé de huit implantations principales.


Biography.

Early life and education.

Marcelo Spínola was born on the island of San Fernando in Cádiz Province on 14 January 1835 at 6:00am.  His parents were Juan Spínola y Osorno, Marquis of Spínola and Antonia Maestre y Osorno; they had eight children, of whom four died in infancy. He was baptized the following day in the military parish of San Fernando by the military chaplain of the second battalion of the Real Cuerpo de Artillería de la Marina. His last name is also listed as Espínola.  He did his initial studies in the school of San Fernando, directed by priests from 1843-1845; then at the Colegio Santo Tomás in Cádiz, 1845-1846 where he studied Latin, Spanish and French grammar and basic philosophy. He then went to the school of Motril, where his father had been transferred from 1846-1847. He went on to the school in Granada, 1847-1848, where he studied physics, chemistry and natural history. He then went to the University of Valencia from 1849-1852 and the University of Seville, graduating on the 29 June 1856.  He opened a law office in Huelva, offering free services to the poor. He moved to Sanlúcar de Barrameda when his father was transferred to that city as chief of the port. He decided to follow his sacerdotal vocation on the advice of Canon Diego Herrero y Espinosa de los Monteros and began to study theology at home. He received the ecclesiastical tonsure on 29 May 1863 and the diaconate on 20 February 1864.

Priesthood and Episcopate.

He was ordained on 21 March 1864. He did pastoral work in the archdiocese of Seville from 1864 in various parishes until 1880.  He was appointed titular bishop of "Milos" and auxiliary bishop of Seville by Pope Leo XIII on 16 December 1880. He was transferred to the diocese of Coria on 10 November 1884, and to the diocese of Málaga on 10 June 1886. He was promoted to the metropolitan see of Seville on 2 December 1895. He served as a Senator of the Spanish Kingdom from 1891 to 1894, and from 1898 until his death.

Cardinalate and death.

He was created a cardinal by Pope Pius X in the consistory of 11 December 1905. He was made a Cardinal-Priest but with no title assigned to him.  Spínola died at noon on 20 January 1906 in Seville. On 24 January 1913, his remains were transferred to a new mausoleum built in the chapel of Dolores in the same cathedral.

Beatification.

The cause of beatification commenced on 19 February 1956 under Pope Pius XII and began on a diocesan level in the Archdiocese of Seville. The Positio - which documented his life of heroic virtue - was submitted to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in 1978. This culminated with the decree of heroic virtue on 24 September 1983 in which Pope John Paul II bestowed upon him the title of Venerable.  A miracle attributed to his intercession was investigated and ratified in 1985 with documentation sent to Rome. John Paul II confirmed the miracle on 10 November 1986 and it led to his beatification on 29 March 1987.  Another miracle was then under investigation in Jaén on a diocesan level from 11 April 2011 to 7 April 2013. The documentation must be submitted to Rome and approved prior to canonization.

Blessed Marcelo Rafael José María de los Dolores Hilario Spínola y Maestre (14 January 1835 - 19 January 1906) was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as the Archbishop of Seville. He established the Handmaids of the Divine Heart.

Marcelo Spínola y Maestre (né le à San Fernando, dans la province de Cadix et mort le ) est un archevêque et cardinal espagnol de la fin du et du début du fondateur des Servantes du Divin Cœur. L'Église catholique le célèbre le.


Medical plastic oxygen masks.

Medical plastic oxygen masks are used primarily by medical care providers for oxygen therapy because they are disposable and so reduce cleaning costs and infection risks. Mask design can determine accuracy of oxygen delivered with many various medical situations requiring treatment with oxygen. Oxygen is naturally occurring in room air at 21% and higher percentages are often essential in medical treatment. Oxygen in these higher percentages is classified as a drug with too much oxygen being potentially harmful to a patient's health, resulting in oxygen dependence over time, and in extreme circumstances patient blindness. For these reasons oxygen therapy is closely monitored. Masks are light in weight and attached using an elasticated headband or ear loops. They are transparent for allowing the face to be visible for patient assessment by healthcare providers, and reducing a sensation of claustrophobia experienced by some patients when wearing an oxygen mask. The vast majority of patients having an operation will at some stage wear an oxygen mask; they may alternatively wear a nasal cannula but oxygen delivered in this way is less accurate and restricted in concentration.

Silicone and rubber masks.

Silicone and rubber oxygen masks are heavier than plastic masks. They are designed to provide a good seal for long-duration use by aviators, medical research subjects, and hyperbaric chamber and other patients who require administration of pure oxygen, such as carbon monoxide poisoning and decompression sickness victims. Dr. Arthur H. Bulbulian pioneered the first modern viable oxygen mask, worn by World War II pilots and used by hospitals. Valves inside these tight-fitting masks control the flow of gases into and out of the masks, so that rebreathing of exhaled gas is minimised.

Hoses and tubing and oxygen regulators.

Hoses or tubing connect an oxygen mask to the oxygen supply. Hoses are larger in diameter than tubing and can allow greater oxygen flow. When a hose is used it may have a ribbed or corrugated design to allow bending of the hose while preventing twisting and cutting off the oxygen flow. The quantity of oxygen delivered from the storage tank to the oxygen mask is controlled by a valve called a regulator. Some types of oxygen masks have a breathing bag made of plastic or rubber attached to the mask or oxygen supply hose to store a supply of oxygen to allow deep breathing without waste of oxygen with use of simple fixed flow regulators.

History.

An early 1919 high-altitude oxygen system used a vacuum flask of liquid oxygen to supply two people for one hour at. The liquid passed through several warming stages before use, as expansion when it evaporated, and absorbed latent heat of vaporization, would make the gasified oxygen so cold that it could cause instant frostbite of the lungs.  The first successful creation for the oxygen mask was by Armenian born Dr. Arthur Bulbulian, in the field of facial prosthetics, in 1941.  Many designs of aviator's oxygen masks contain a microphone to transmit speech to other crew members and to the aircraft's radio. Military aviators' oxygen masks have face pieces that partially cover the sides of the face and protect the face against flash burns, flying particles, and effects of a high speed air stream hitting the face during emergency evacuation from the aircraft by ejection seat or parachute. They are often part of a pressure suit or intended for use with a flight helmet.

Regulations.

Three main kinds of oxygen masks are used by pilots and crews who fly at high altitudes: continuous flow, diluter demand, and pressure demand.  In a "continuous-flow system", oxygen is provided to the user continuously. It does not matter if the user is exhaling or inhaling as oxygen is flowing from the time the system is activated. Below the oxygen mask is a rebreather bag that collects oxygen during exhalation and as a result allows a higher flow rate during the inhalation cycle.  "Diluter-demand" and "pressure-demand" masks supply oxygen only when the user inhales. They each require a good seal between the mask and the user's face.  In a "diluter-demand system," as the altitude increases (ambient pressure, and therefore the partial pressure of ambient oxygen, decreases), the oxygen flow increases such that the partial pressure of oxygen is roughly constant. Diluter-demand oxygen systems can be used up to.  In a "pressure-demand system", oxygen in the mask is above ambient pressure, permitting breathing above. Because the pressure inside the mask is greater than the pressure around the user's torso, inhalation is easy, but exhalation requires more effort. Aviators are trained in pressure-demand breathing in altitude chambers. Because they seal tightly, pressure-demand-type oxygen masks are also used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers and for oxygen breathing research projects with standard oxygen regulators.  Supplemental oxygen is needed for flying more than 30 minutes at cabin pressure altitudes of 12,500 feet or higher, pilots must use oxygen at all times above 14,000 feet and each occupant must be provided supplemental oxygen above 15,000 ft.

Aviation passenger masks and emergency oxygen systems.

Most commercial aircraft are fitted with oxygen masks for use when cabin pressurization fails. In general, commercial aircraft are pressurized so that the cabin air is at a pressure equivalent to no more than altitude (usually somewhat lower altitude), where one can breathe normally without an oxygen mask. If the oxygen pressure in the cabin drops below a safe level, risking hypoxia, compartments containing the oxygen masks will open automatically, either above or in front of the passenger and crew seats, and in the lavatories.  In the early years of commercial flight, before pressurized cabins were invented, airliner passengers sometimes had to wear oxygen masks during routine flights.

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

Firefighters and emergency service workers use full face masks that provide breathing air as well as eye and face protection. These masks are typically attached to a tank carried upon the back of the wearer and are called self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBA). Open circuit SCBAs do not normally supply oxygen, as it is not necessary and constitutes a fire hazard. Rebreather SCBAs usually supply oxygen as this is the lightest and most compact option, and uses a simpler mechanism than other types of rebreather.

Specialized masks for astronauts.

Specialized full-face masks that supply oxygen or other breathing gases are used by astronauts to remove nitrogen from their blood before space walks (EVA).

Specialized masks for pets.

Specialized snout masks which supply oxygen to revive family pets have been donated to fire departments.

Oxygen delivery to divers.

Divers only use pure oxygen for accelerated decompression, or from oxygen rebreathers at shallow depths where the risk of acute oxygen toxicity is acceptable. Oxygen supply during in-water decompression is via rebreather, open circuit diving regulator, full-face mask or diving helmet which has been prepared for.

Built-in breathing system.

Oxygen supply to divers in decompression chambers is preferably through a built-in breathing system, which uses an oxygen mask plumbed into supply and exhaust hoses which supply oxygen from outside the chamber, and discharge the exhaled oxygen-rich gas outside the chamber, using a system equivalent to two demand valves, one upstream of the diver, to supply oxygen on demand, and the other downstream, to exhaust exhaled gas on demand, so that the oxygen partial pressure in the chamber is limited to relatively safe levels. If oxygen masks are used that discharge into the chamber, the chamber air must be replaced frequently to keep the oxygen level within safe operating limits.

Anesthesia oxygen masks.

Anesthesia masks are face masks that are designed to administer anesthetic gases to a patient through inhalation. Anesthesia masks are either made of anti-static silicone or rubber, as a static electricity spark may ignite some anesthetic gases. They are either black rubber or clear silicone. Anesthesia masks fit over the mouth and nose and have a double hose system. One hose carries inhaled anesthetic gas to the mask and the other brings exhaled anesthetic gas back to the machine. Anesthesia masks have 4 point head strap harnesses to securely fit on the head to hold the mask in place as the anaesthesia doctor controls the gases and oxygen inhaled.

Masks for high-altitude climbers.

Oxygen masks are used by climbers of high peaks such as Mt. Everest. Because of the severe cold and harsh conditions oxygen masks for use at extreme altitude must be robust and effective. The oxygen storage tanks used with the masks (called oxygen bottles) are made of lightweight, high-strength metals and are covered in high-strength fiber such as kevlar. These special oxygen bottles are filled with oxygen at a very high pressure which provides a longer time duration of oxygen for breathing than standard pressure oxygen bottles. These systems are generally only used above.  In recent years oxygen mask systems for high-altitude climbing which pump oxygen constantly have been increasingly replaced by systems supplying oxygen on demand via nasal cannulas.

Oxygen helmets.

Oxygen helmets are used in hyperbaric oxygen chambers for oxygen administration. They are transparent, lightweight plastic helmets with a seal that goes around the wearer's neck that looks like a space suit helmet. They offer a good visual field. Light weight plastic hoses provide oxygen to the helmet and remove exhaled gas to the outside of the chamber. Oxygen helmets are often preferred for oxygen administration in hyperbaric oxygen chambers for children and patients that are uncomfortable wearing an oxygen mask.

Mask retention systems.

Medical oxygen masks are held in place by medical personnel or the user by hand, or they may be fitted with a lightweight elastic headband so the mask can be removed quickly. Full-face masks are secured by several straps. Tightly fitting oxygen masks are secured at four points by two head straps. Aviators' masks are often equipped with "quick don" harnesses that allow those in pressurized aircraft to rapidly don the masks in emergencies. Military aviators' oxygen masks are secured to flight helmets with quick-release systems.

An oxygen mask provides a method to transfer breathing oxygen gas from a storage tank to the lungs. Oxygen masks may cover only the nose and mouth (oral nasal mask) or the entire face (full-face mask). They may be made of plastic, silicone, or rubber. In certain circumstances, oxygen may be delivered via a nasal cannula instead of a mask.

Un masque à oxygène est un masque fournissant de l'oxygène aux poumons à partir d'un réservoir de stockage. Il couvre généralement le nez et la bouche, voire parfois toute la tête et peut être en plastique, en silicone ou en caoutchouc.


Biography.

Early life.

Lord was born in Baltimore, Maryland to John Walter Lord Sr. and Henrietta MacTier (Hoffman) Lord on October 8, 1917. His father, who was a lawyer, died when Lord was just three years old. Lord's grandfather, Richard Curzon Hoffman, was president of the Baltimore Steam Packet Company ("Old Bay Line") steamship firm in the 1890s.  In July 1925, at the age of 7, Lord traveled across the Atlantic Ocean with his mother and sister, from New York to Cherbourg and Southampton, on the RMS "Olympic", the "Titanic"s sister ship. Like many other boys who attended high school at Baltimore's Gilman School, he spent his summers at Hyde Bay Camp for Boys in Cooperstown, NY, where he was awarded the honorary title of "The Commodore" and later returned to reign over many annual camp events, like the eight inch regatta and closing barbecue and bonfire. He then studied history at Princeton University and graduated in 1939. Lord then enrolled at Yale Law School, interrupting his studies to join the United States Army after the attack on Pearl Harbor. During World War II, he was assigned to the Office of Strategic Services as a code clerk in London, in 1942. He was the agency's secretariat when the war ended in 1945. Afterwards, Lord returned to Yale, where he earned a degree in law.

Career.

Lord wrote, or edited and annotated 11 bestselling books on such diverse subjects as the Attack on Pearl Harbor ("Day of Infamy", 1957), the Battle of Midway ("Incredible Victory", 1967), the Battle of the Alamo ("A Time to Stand", 1961), the Battle of Baltimore ("The Dawn's Early Light", 1972), Arctic exploration ("Peary to the Pole", 1963), pre-World War I America ("The Good Years: From 1900 to the First World War", 1960), Coastwatchers ("Lonely Vigil", 1977), the Dunkirk evacuation ("The Miracle of Dunkirk", 1982), and the civil rights struggle ("The Past That Would Not Die", 1965).  Shortly after going to work as a copywriter for the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency in New York City, Lord published "The Fremantle Diary", edited and annotated from the journals of the British officer and Confederate sympathizer, Arthur Fremantle, who toured the South for three months in 1863. It became a mild, but surprising, success in 1954, as Lord was well into completing "A Night to Remember", which would win him much popular acclaim.  "A Night to Remember", about the sinking of the RMS "Titanic", became a bestseller in 1955 and was made into a popular 1958 British movie of the same name. The historian tracked down 63 "Titanic" survivors and wrote a dramatic, minute-by-minute account of the ocean liner's sinking during her maiden voyage. Lord's knowledge of the "Titanic" catastrophe achieved considerable renown, and he frequently lectured at meetings of the Titanic Historical Society. In his final years, Lord wrote another book about the "Titanic" titled "The Night Lives On: Thoughts, Theories and Revelations about the Titanic", published in 1986, a year after the wreck of the "Titanic" was discovered and interest in the "Titanic" renewed again. In the next decade, Lord served as a consultant to director James Cameron during the filming of "Titanic" (1997). The sequel documentary to Cameron's film "Titanic", "Ghosts of the Abyss" (2003), was dedicated to Lord's memory.  In 2009, Jenny Lawrence edited and published a biography of Lord — "The Way It Was: Walter Lord on His Life and Books". In the late 1980s, Lawrence had recorded hours of interviews she had with Lord, in which he discussed his writing and life. After chapters on his early life in Baltimore and up to his time with the OSS in London and Paris, chapters are devoted to his research and writing of each of his books.

Death.

Lord, a lifelong bachelor, died at age 84 on May 19, 2002, after a long struggle with Parkinson's disease, at his Manhattan home. Noted historian David McCullough said of Lord at his death, "He was one of the most generous and kind-hearted men I've ever known, and when I had stars in my eyes and wanted to become a writer, he was a great help. I'll always be indebted to him."  Lord is buried in his maternal family's plot at historic Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore. His grave is marked by a marble bench listing the books he authored.

Publications.

Lord published 12 historical works:

John Walter Lord Jr. (October 8, 1917 – May 19, 2002) was an American lawyer, ad man, author and popular historian, best known for his 1955 account of the sinking of the "RMS Titanic", "A Night to Remember".

John Walter Lord Jr, plus connu sous le nom de Walter Lord ( - ), est un auteur et historien américain spécialisé dans l'histoire navale et plus particulièrement l'histoire du RMS "Titanic". Son ouvrage à succès, "La Nuit du Titanic" a été adapté au cinéma sous le titre "Atlantique, latitude 41°". Toute sa vie, Lord a rencontré des rescapés du naufrage et a participé à plusieurs projets concernant le navire, dont la réalisation d'un jeu vidéo.


Football career.

Early career.

Sané was born in Villeneuve-sur-Lot in southwestern France and began his football career playing for local club US Lormont on the outskirts of Bordeaux. He later joined Stade Bordelais before signing a contract with Championnat de France amateur club RCO Agde at the age of 19. Sané spent one season at Agde appearing in 25 matches scoring one goal. Following the season, he returned to Lormont and spent a season playing in the Division d'Honneur. During the summer of 2008, Sané jumped five divisions signing a three-year professional contract with Ligue 1 club Bordeaux.

Bordeaux.

Sané initially played with the club's reserve team upon his arrival appearing in 15 matches during the 2008–09 season. While playing with the amateurs, the young player impressed manager Laurent Blanc and assistant Jean-Louis Gasset. For the 2009–10 pre-season, Sané featured regularly and performed well, most notably in a 3–1 win over Spanish club Athletic Bilbao after appearing as a second-half substitute. On 19 September 2009, Sané was called up to the first team for the first time for Bordeaux's league match against Boulogne. He didn't appear in the match, but eventually became a regular in the first 18 often appearing on the bench as a backup for French international Alou Diarra. On 3 November, Sané made his professional debut in the club's 2–0 victory over German club Bayern Munich in the UEFA Champions League appearing as a substitute in the 84th minute. The following month, he earned his first start playing the entire match in Bordeaux's 1–0 victory over Israeli club Maccabi Haifa. Sané made his league debut four days later in Bordeaux's important tie with Lyon. Bordeaux won the match 1–0 with Sané playing the full 90 minutes.  On 8 January 2010, Sané agreed to a contract extension with Bordeaux which will tie him to the club until 2014. He scored his first goal for Bordeaux in a 3–1 loss to Olympique de Marseille in a Coupe de la Ligue final at the Stade de France.

Werder Bremen.

After spending seven senior years at Bordeaux, Sané departed the club and signed for Bundesliga side Werder Bremen for an undisclosed fee. In January 2018, the club's sporting director Frank Baumann announced that Sané would not be part of the team "for the time being" because he had been absent from training on two days without a valid excuse. Sané would also be allowed to settle his personal sporting future.

Orlando City.

On 20 February 2018, Sané signed for Major League Soccer side Orlando City SC. He made his debut as a halftime substitute away to New York City on 17 March and scored his first goal for the club against Real Salt Lake in a 3–1 home victory on 6 May. After an injury-troubled first season with the club in which they set a new MLS record for goals conceded in a season, Sané formed a strong central partnership with Robin Jansson in 2019 and was a regular starter as Orlando turned things round defensively, conceding a team-record low number of goals. Despite this, on 21 November 2019, it was announced Sané had his contract option for the 2020 season declined by Orlando as part of the end-of-season roster decisions.

FC Utrecht.

On 8 February 2020, Sané signed for FC Utrecht until the end of the season. He made his debut on 16 February as an 89th minute substitute against Willem II, entering with Utrecht leading 1–0. The game finished 1–1 after Willem II scored a stoppage time equalizer.

Personal life.

Ludovic's younger brother Salif Sané is also a professional footballer and Senegalese international.

Honours.

Bordeaux

Ludovic Lamine Sané (born 22 March 1987) is a French-born Senegalese international footballer who plays for FC Utrecht in the Eredivisie. He is primarily a central defender but has also been used as holding midfielder.

Ludovic Lamine Sané, connu comme Lamine Sané, né le à Villeneuve-sur-Lot, est un footballeur international sénégalais, qui joue au poste de défenseur central au FC Utrecht. Il est également de nationalité française.


Symptoms.

Small, painless nodules appear after about 10–40 days of the contact with the bacteria. Later, the nodules burst, creating open, fleshy, oozing lesions. The infection spreads, mutilating the infected tissue. The infection will continue to destroy the tissue until treated. The lesions occur at the region of contact typically found on the shaft of the penis, the labia, or the perineum. Rarely, the vaginal wall or cervix is the site of the lesion. At least one case in India led to partial autoamputation of the penis. The patient tested positive for HIV-2 and had been infected for six years.

Mechanism.

The microorganism spreads from one host to another through contact with the open sores.

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis is based on the patient's sexual history and on physical examination revealing a painless, "beefy-red ulcer" with a characteristic rolled edge of granulation tissue. In contrast to syphilitic ulcers, inguinal lymphadenopathy is generally mild or absent. Tissue biopsy and Wright-Giemsa stain are used to aid in the diagnosis. The presence of Donovan bodies in the tissue sample confirms donovanosis. Donovan bodies are rod-shaped, oval organisms that can be seen in the cytoplasm of mononuclear phagocytes or histiocytes in tissue samples from patients with granuloma inguinale.  They appear deep purple when stained with Wright's stain. These intracellular inclusions are the encapsulated Gram-negative rods of the causative organisms. They were discovered by Charles Donovan.

Classification.

The first known name for this condition was "serpiginous ulcer", which dates to 1882. The proper clinical designation for donovanosis is "granuloma inguinale". A granuloma is a nodular type of inflammatory reaction, and inguinale refers to the inguinal region, which is commonly involved in this infection. The disease is commonly known as donovanosis, after the Donovan bodies seen on microscopy, which are a diagnostic sign.  The causative organism, "Klebsiella granulomatis", was called "Calymmatobacterium granulomatis", and some sources still use this classification, from the Greek "kalymma" (a hood or veil), referring to the lesions that contain the bacteria. Prior to this, it was called "Donovania granulomatis", named after the Donovan bodies.  The specific name "granulomatis" refers to the granulomatous lesions. The organism was recently reclassified under the genus "Klebsiella", a drastic taxonomic change since it involved changing the organism's phylum. However, polymerase chain reaction techniques using a colorimetric detection system showed a 99% similarity with other species in the genus "Klebsiella".

Prevention.

The disease is effectively treated with antibiotics, therefore, developed countries have a very low incidence of donovanosis; about 100 cases reported each year in the United States. However, sexual contacts with individuals in endemic regions dramatically increases the risk of contracting the disease. Using condoms, sexually transmitted disease testing before beginning a sexual relationship, and avoidance of these sexual contacts are effective preventative measures for donovanosis.

Treatment.

Recommended regimen is azithromycin 1gram oral/iv once per week, alternatively doxycycline 100 mg orally twice a day or ciprofloxacin 750 mg orally twice a day or erythromycin base 500 mg orally four times a day or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole one double-strength (160 mg/800 mg) tablet orally twice a day. All antibiotic regimens should last for at least 3 weeks and until all lesions have completely healed. Normally, the infection will begin to subside within a week of treatment, but the full treatment period must be followed to minimize the possibility of relapse.  According to the CDC 2015 guidelines Azithromycin is the antibiotic of choice.

Granuloma inguinale is a bacterial disease caused by "Klebsiella granulomatis" (formerly known as "Calymmatobacterium granulomatis") characterized by genital ulcers. It is endemic in many less-developed regions. It is also known as donovanosis, granuloma genitoinguinale, granuloma inguinale tropicum, granuloma venereum, granuloma venereum genitoinguinale, lupoid form of groin ulceration, serpiginous ulceration of the groin, ulcerating granuloma of the pudendum, and ulcerating sclerosing granuloma.

La donovanose (également connu sous le nom de "granulome inguinal" et "granulome vénérien" est une maladie bactérienne qui a atteint des proportions endémiques dans beaucoup de pays en développement. En raison de la pénurie de soins médicaux, la maladie reste souvent sans traitement. La maladie se caractérise par des ulcères génitaux non douloureux, qu’on peut confondre avec ceux de la syphilis. Toutefois, au cours de son évolution terminale elle aboutit à la destruction des tissus internes et externes, avec écoulement de mucus et de sang. Le caractère destructeur de la donovanose augmente également le risque de surinfection par d'autres microbes pathogènes.


Overview.

On August 25, 1830, the Choctaw were supposed to meet with Andrew Jackson in Franklin, Tennessee, but Greenwood Leflore informed the Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, that the chiefs were fiercely opposed to attending. The president was upset but, as the journalist Len Green wrote in 1978, "Although angered by the Choctaw refusal to meet him in Tennessee, Jackson felt from LeFlore's words that he might have a foot in the door and dispatched Secretary of War Eaton and John Coffee to meet with the Choctaws in their nation." Jackson appointed Eaton and General John Coffee as commissioners to represent him to meet the Choctaws where the "rabbits gather to dance."  The commissioners met with the chiefs and headmen on September 15, 1830, at Dancing Rabbit Creek. In a carnival-like atmosphere, the US officials explained the policy of removal through interpreters to an audience of 6,000 men, women and children. The Choctaws faced migration west of the Mississippi River or submitting to U.S. and state law as citizens. The treaty would sign away the remaining traditional homeland to the United States; however, a provision in the treaty made removal more acceptable.  The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was one of the largest land transfers ever signed between the United States Government and American Indians in time of peace. The Choctaw ceded their remaining traditional homeland to the United States. Article 14 allowed for some Choctaw to remain in the state of Mississippi, if they wanted to become citizens:  ART. XIV. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land, to be bounded by sectional lines of survey; in like manner shall be entitled to one half that quantity for each unmarried child which is living with him over ten years of age; and a quarter section to such child as may be under 10 years of age, to adjoin the location of the parent. If they reside upon said lands intending to become citizens of the States for five years after the ratification of this Treaty, in that case a grant in fee simple shall issue; said reservation shall include the present improvement of the head of the family, or a portion of it. Persons who claim under this article shall not lose the privilege of a Choctaw citizen, but if they ever remove are not to be entitled to any portion of the Choctaw annuity.  The Choctaw were the first of the "Five Civilized Tribes" to be removed from the southeastern United States, as the federal and state governments desired Indian lands to accommodate a growing agrarian American society. In 1831, tens of thousands of Choctaw walked the 800-kilometer journey to Oklahoma and many died. Like the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole who followed them, the Choctaw attempted to resurrect their traditional lifestyle and government in their new homeland.  The Choctaw at this crucial time became two distinct groups: the Nation in Oklahoma and the Tribe in Mississippi. The nation retained its autonomy to regulate itself, but the tribe left in Mississippi had to submit to state and U.S. laws. Under article XIV, the Mississippi Choctaws became one of the first major non-European ethnic group to gain U.S. citizenship. The Choctaw sought to elect a representative to the U.S. House of Representatives.

Terms.

The preamble begins with,  The following terms of the treaty were:  1. Perpetual peace and friendship.
 2. Lands (in what is now Oklahoma) west of the Mississippi River to be conveyed to the Choctaw Nation.
 3. Lands east of the Mississippi River to be ceded and removal to begin in 1831 and end in 1833.
 4. Autonomy of the Choctaw Nation (in Oklahoma) and descendants to be secured from laws of U.S. states and territories forever.
 5. U.S. will serve as protectorate of the Choctaw Nation.
 6. Choctaw or party of Choctaws part of violent acts against the U.S. citizens or property will be delivered to the U.S. authorities.
 7. Offenses against Choctaws and their property by U.S. citizens and other tribes will be examined and every possible degree of justice applied.
 8. No harboring of U.S. fugitives with all expenses to capture him or her paid by the U.S.
 9. Persons ordered from Choctaw Nation.
 10. Traders require a written permit.  11. Navigable streams will be free for Choctaws, U.S. post-offices will be established in the Choctaw Nation, and U.S. military posts and roads may be created.
 12. Intruders will be removed from the Choctaw Nation. U.S. citizens stealing Choctaw property shall be returned and offender punished. Choctaw offending U.S. laws shall be given a fair and impartial trial.
 13. U.S. agent appointed to the Choctaws every four years.
 14. Choctaws may become U.S. citizens and are entitled to of land (in Mississippi) with additional land for children.
 15. Lands granted to the Choctaw chiefs (Greenwood LeFlore, Musholatubbee, and Nittucachee) with annuities granted to each of them.
 16. Transportation in wagons and steamboats will be provided at the costs of the U.S. Ample food will be provided during the removal and 12 months after reaching the new homes. Reimbursements will be provided for cattle left in Mississippi Territory.
 17. Annuities to Choctaws to continue from other treaties. Additional payments after removal.
 18. Choctaw Country to be surveyed
 19. Lands granted to I. Garland, Colonel Robert Cole, Tuppanahomer, John Pytchlynn, Charles Juzan, Johokebetubbe, Eaychahobia, and Ofehoma.
 20. Improve the Choctaw condition with Education. Provide tools, weapons, and steel.
 21. Choctaw Warriors who marched and fought in the army of U.S. General Wayne during the American Revolution and Northwest Indian War will receive an annuity.
 22. Choctaw delegate on the floor of the U.S. House of Representatives.

Unratified section.

The following paragraph of the treaty was not ratified:  "WHEREAS the General Assembly of the State of Mississippi has extended the laws of said State to persons and property within the chartered limits of the same, and the President of the United States has said that he cannot protect the Choctaw people from the operation of these laws; Now therefore that the Choctaw may live under their own laws in peace with the United States and the State of Mississippi they have determined to sell their lands east of the Mississippi and have accordingly agreed to the following articles of treaty".

Signatories.

The main signatories included John Eaton, John Coffee, Greenwood Leflore, Musholatubbee, and Nittucachee. Nearly 200 other signatures are on the treaty.

Aftermath.

After ceding nearly, the Choctaw emigrated in three stages: the first in the fall of 1831, the second in 1832 and the last in 1833. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was ratified by the U.S. Senate on February 25, 1831, and the President was anxious to make it a model of removal. The chief George W. Harkins wrote a letter to the American people before the removals began.  Around 15,000 Choctaws left the old Choctaw Nation for the Indian Territory – much of the state of Oklahoma today. The Choctaw word "Oklahoma" means "red people".  Late twentieth-century estimates are that between 5,000–6,000 Choctaws remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the first removal. For the next ten years they were objects of increasing legal conflict, harassment, and intimidation. The Choctaw describe their situation in 1849,  we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died.  Joseph B. Cobb, a settler who moved to Mississippi from Georgia, described the Choctaw as having  no nobility or virtue at all, and in some respect he found blacks, especially native Africans, more interesting and admirable, the red man's superior in every way. The Choctaw and Chickasaw, the tribes he knew best, were beneath contempt, that is, even worse than black slaves.  The removals continued well into the early 20th century. In 1903, three hundred Mississippi Choctaws were persuaded to move to the Nation in Oklahoma. The Choctaw did not gain a delegate on the floor of the U.S. House of Representative. Greenwood LeFlore, a Choctaw leader, stayed in Mississippi, where he was elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives and Senate.  The Choctaw Nation continued to thrive until Oklahoma was created as a state. Their government was dismantled under the Curtis Act, along with those of other Native American nations in the former Indian Territory, in order to permit the admission of Oklahoma as a state. Their communal lands were divided and allotted to individual households under the Dawes Act to increase assimilation as American-style farmers. The US declared communal land remaining after allotment to be surplus and sold it to American settlers. In the twentieth century, the Choctaw reorganized and were recognized by the government as the Choctaw Nation.  The descendants of the Choctaw who stayed in Mississippi reorganized themselves as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians in 1945 and gained federal recognition.

The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was a treaty signed on September 27, 1830, and proclaimed on February 24, 1831, between the Choctaw American Indian tribe and the United States Government. This was the first removal treaty carried into effect under the Indian Removal Act. The treaty ceded about 11 million acres (45,000 km) of the Choctaw Nation in what is now Mississippi in exchange for about 15 million acres (61,000 km) in the Indian territory, now the state of Oklahoma. The principal Choctaw negotiators were Chief Greenwood LeFlore, Musholatubbee, and Nittucachee; the U.S. negotiators were Colonel John Coffee and Secretary of War John Eaton.

Le traité de Dancing Rabbit Creek est un traité signé en 1830 entre les représentants de la nation Choctaw et le gouvernement des États-Unis obligeant les populations amérindiennes à quitter leur lieu d'habitation pour émigrer au-delà du fleuve Mississippi.


Gameplay.

"Chick Chick Boom" is a single-player artillery game. The player commands a team of yellow-colored chicks and must use weaponry and defensive items to defeat the opposing team of black-colored chicks, led by a black Easter Bunny nicknamed the "Poster Bunny". To activate a weapon or defense item, the player needs to trace an image with a certain degree of accuracy for it to register and activate. Like Mission in Snowdriftland, Chick Chick Boom was scored by Fabian Del Priore.  The chicks will bounce throughout their field aimlessly until given commands to maneuver or send attacks. The player selects a command and is then prompted to trace a simple outline in order to activate the command. Afterwards, the command cannot be used again until the icon representing it "refills." Some commands refill faster than others.  Each drawing is given an accuracy rating, and a drawing must have an accuracy rating of at least 70% to register at all. The higher the accuracy percentage, the more effective the command. Upon finishing the ten introductory levels, Pro Mode is activated, which is essentially an "endless play" mode where the Poster Bunny's chicks are revived immediately.  A wallpaper is rewarded to the player for the completion of each introductory level. They appear in the Download center on the main menu and can be accessed at any time later. The wallpapers include "Mario Hoops 3-on-3", "Kororinpa", "Pokémon Ranger", Wii Menu, "", "", "", "Wii Sports", "Harvest Moon DS", and "Diddy Kong Racing DS".

Other commands.

Along with these commands, the player is offered the use of water sprinklers. Occasionally, it will protrude from the player's field. By clicking on it with the cursor, water will cover the field, defusing any opponent's bombs. Furthermore, while the sprinkler is active, earthworms will crawl around the field. If a chick touches a worm, life is automatically recovered. Worms will also appear when a raincloud appears over either team's field.

WiiWare.

"Chick Chick Boom" made a transition to WiiWare with new features and full 3D graphics. Based on information on the official website, the game has been released in the PAL region on October 29, 2010, in Japan on December 21, 2010 and on December 27, 2010 in North America.

Reception.

Kotaku were not fond of the mouse interface for the drawing mechanic, but found it was an excellent Wii browser game and reasoned that a "multiplayer version would be perfect on the DS."

Chick Chick Boom is an online Adobe Flash game created for Easter 2007 by German developer Extra Toxic and sponsored by Nintendo of Europe. (The two companies had previously cooperated in a similar project called "".) The game launched on April 3, 2007 and was only playable through the month of April. After the extra Toxic disabled play on April 30, 2007, a new version of the game, presenting new features and 3D visuals, was released on Q4 2010 for the Wii as a downloadable game for the WiiWare service.

Chick Chick Boom est un jeu vidéo d'artillerie en ligne développé à l'occasion de Pâques 2007 par Extra Tonic. Il a été édité et sponsorisé par Nintendo of Europe. Le jeu est sorti le. Les deux sociétés avaient déjà collaboré sur un projet similaire intitulé "Mission in Snowdriftland".


Playing career.

He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins 67th overall in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft. Before being drafted, Johnson played for the St. Albert Saints of the Alberta Junior Hockey League. After graduating high school and being drafted, Johnson played four seasons with Dartmouth of ECAC Hockey in the NCAA. Following his final season at Dartmouth, Johnson signed a two-year, entry-level contract with the Penguins on March 25, 2008. He shortly began his professional career with affiliate the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton Penguins of the American Hockey League.  In the 2009–10 season, Johnson scored his first career NHL goal in his NHL debut on January 21, 2010, with the Penguins against the Washington Capitals. He played in 6 games with the Pittsburgh before returning the Wilkes-Barre. On June 7, 2010, he was re-signed to a one-year contract with the Penguins.  On September 29, 2011, Johnson was claimed off waivers by the Minnesota Wild. In the 2011–12 season, Johnson earned a regular checking line role on the Wild, playing in a career high 77 games to recorded 8 goals and 26 points.  Despite his successful season with the Wild, Johnson was released as a free agent and on July 11, 2012, he was signed on a one-year, two-way deal with the Phoenix Coyotes. With the NHL lockout in affect, Johnson signed for a brief stint with the Idaho Steelheads of the ECHL. Upon conclusion of the lockout he was assigned to AHL affiliate, the Portland Pirates. He was later recalled by the Coyotes in the shortened 2012–13 season and appeared in 17 games for the Coyotes before on March 13, 2013, he was put on waivers and reassigned to Portland.  On July 5, 2013, Johnson was signed to a one-year, two-way contract with the Boston Bruins.  On July 9, 2014, Johnson left the Bruins organization after one season and signed his first contract abroad on a one-year deal with the Växjö Lakers of the Swedish Hockey League.

Nicholas VanCuran Johnson (born December 24, 1985) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward who is currently an unrestricted free agent who most recently played for Brynäs IF of the Swedish Hockey League (SHL).

Nick Johnson (né le à Calgary en Alberta au Canada) est un joueur professionnel canadien de hockey sur glace qui évolue au poste d'ailier droit.


Medical uses.

Available forms.

Zuclopenthixol is available in three major preparations:  It is also used in the treatment of acute bipolar mania.

Dosing.

As a long-acting injection, zuclopenthixol decanoate comes in a 200 mg and 500 mg ampoule. Doses can vary from 50 mg weekly to the maximum licensed dose of 600 mg weekly. In general, the lowest effective dose to prevent relapse is preferred. The interval may be shorter as a patient starts on the medication before extending to 3 weekly intervals subsequently. The dose should be reviewed and reduced if side effects occur, though in the short-term an anticholinergic medication benztropine may be helpful for tremor and stiffness, while diazepam may be helpful for akathisia. 100 mg of zuclopenthixol decanoate is roughly equivalent to 20 mg of flupentixol decanoate or 12.5 mg of fluphenazine decanoate.  In acutely psychotic and agitated inpatients, 50 – 200 mg of zuclopenthixol acetate may be given for a calming effect over the subsequent three days, with a maximum dose of 400 mg in total to be given. As it is a long-acting medication, care must be taken not to give an excessive dose.  In oral form zuclopenthixol is available in 10, 25 and 40 mg tablets, with a dose range of 20–60 mg daily.

Side effects.

Chronic administration of zuclopenthixol (30 mg/kg/day for two years) in rats resulted in small, but significant, increases in the incidence of thyroid parafollicular carcinomas and, in females, of mammary adenocarcinomas and of pancreatic islet cell adenomas and carcinomas. An increase in the incidence of mammary adenocarcinomas is a common finding for D antagonists which increase prolactin secretion when administered to rats. An increase in the incidence of pancreatic islet cell tumours has been observed for some other D antagonists. The physiological differences between rats and humans with regard to prolactin make the clinical significance of these findings unclear.  Withdrawal syndrome: Abrupt cessation of therapy may cause acute withdrawal symptoms (eg, nausea, vomiting, or insomnia). Symptoms usually begin in 1 to 4 days of withdrawal and subside within 1 to 2 weeks.  Other permanent side effects are similar to many other typical antipsychotics, namely extrapyramidal symptoms as a result of dopamine blockade in subcortical areas of the brain. This may result in symptoms similar to those seen in Parkinson's disease and include a restlessness and inability to sit still known as akathisia, a slow tremor and stiffness of the limbs. Zuclopenthixol is thought to be more sedating than the related flupentixol, though possibly less likely to induce extrapyramidal symptoms than other typical depots. As with other dopamine antagonists, zuclopenthixol may sometimes elevate prolactin levels; this may occasionally result in amenorrhoea or galactorrhoea in severe cases. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome is a rare but potentially fatal side effect. Any unexpected deterioration in mental state with confusion and muscle stiffness should be seen by a physician.  Zuclopenthixol decanoate induces a transient dose-dependent sedation. However, if the patient is switched to maintenance treatment with zuclopenthixol decanoate from oral zuclopenthixol or from i.m. zuclopenthixol acetate the sedation will be no problem. Tolerance to the unspecific sedative effect develops rapidly.

Pharmacology.

Pharmacodynamics.

Zuclopenthixol antagonises both dopamine D and D receptors, α-adrenoceptors and 5-HT receptors with a high affinity, but has no affinity for cholinergic muscarine receptors. It weakly antagonises the histamine (H) receptor but has no α-adrenoceptor blocking activity.  Evidence from "in vitro" work and clinical sources (i.e. therapeutic drug monitoring databases) suggests that both CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 play important roles in zuclopenthixol metabolism.

Zuclopenthixol (brand names Cisordinol, Clopixol and others), also known as zuclopentixol, is a medication used to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is classed, pharmacologically, as a typical antipsychotic. Chemically it is a thioxanthene. It is the "cis"-isomer of clopenthixol (Sordinol, Ciatyl). Clopenthixol was introduced in 1961, while zuclopenthixol was introduced in 1978.

Le ("Clopixol") est un antipsychotique typique de la famille des thioxanthènes. Il est utilisé dans le traitement des psychoses chroniques ou comme sédatif dans le cadre des maladies psychiatriques. Il possède un effet anti-hallucinatoire et un effet sédatif.


History.

Altoona had its start in the year 1900 as a mining town, and was named for another coal town, Altoona, Pennsylvania. A post office has been in operation at Altoona since 1900. It incorporated in 1908.

Geography.

Altoona is located in western Etowah County at (34.029259, -86.320687). The town extends west into Blount County. It is located in the Murphree Valley at the base of Altoona Mountain. Straight Mountain is a small, narrow ridge which runs nearly through the center of the town. Alabama State Route 132 (Main Street) leads southwest to Oneonta, the Blount County seat, and northeast towards Gadsden via U.S. Route 278.  According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, of which, or 0.23%, is water.

Demographics.

Altoona first appeared on the 1910 U.S. Census as an incorporated town. See also Altoona precinct/division below.

2000 Census data.

As of the census of 2000, there were 984 people, 397 households, and 271 families residing in the town. The population density was 258.7 people per square mile (100.0/km). There were 437 housing units at an average density of 114.9 per square mile (44.4/km). The racial makeup of the town was 95.43% White, 2.54% Black or African American, 0.10% Native American, 0.91% from other races, and 1.02% from two or more races. 2.54% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 397 households, out of which 33.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.9% were married couples living together, 15.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.5% were non-families. 29.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.89.  In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.5% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 17.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 78.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.2 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $20,469, and the median income for a family was $28,750. Males had a median income of $30,250 versus $22,344 for females. The per capita income for the town was $11,168. About 21.8% of families and 27.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39.3% of those under age 18 and 16.3% of those age 65 or over.

Altoona Precinct/Division (1910-).

Altoona Precinct (Etowah County 32nd Precinct) first appeared on the 1910 U.S. Census. In 1960, it was changed to the Altoona Census Division as part of a general reorganization of counties. The census division only includes the Etowah County portion of the town of Altoona. The Blount County portion is in the Clarence Census Division.

Altoona is a town in Etowah County (and a small portion of Blount County) in the U.S. state of Alabama. It is part of the Gadsden Metropolitan Statistical Area. At the 2010 census the population was 933.

Altoona est une ville américaine située à cheval sur deux comtés, le Comté d'Etowah et le Comté de Blount, dans l'État de l'Alabama.