Meteorological history.

Hurricane Camille originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 5, 1969. It tracked quickly westward along the 15th parallel north, several days later, a tropical disturbance became clearly identifiable on satellite imagery on August 9. By that time, the thunderstorm activity in the disturbance concentrated into a circular area of convection. On the next day, the storm moved through the Lesser Antilles, although there was no evidence of a closed circulation. On August 13, the wave passed near or over the southern coast of Jamaica as its convection spread northeastward through the Bahamas. Subsequently, it began a slower motion to the northwest. It is believed that the tropical wave organized into a tropical depression shortly thereafter, early on August 14, and it became a tropical storm a few hours later. On the morning of August 14, the Hurricane Hunters flew to investigate for a closed circulation near the Bahamas and near the Cayman Islands. The crew observed a developing center in the western Caribbean, and winds had reached tropical storm status. By then, the storm had strengthened into a strong tropical storm with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), about west-northwest of Grand Cayman.  Upon first being classified as a tropical storm, Camille was located in an area favorable for further strengthening, although initially it slowly intensified. It was located within an area of very light wind shear and an overall warm environment. Additionally, the storm developed strong low-level inflow from the deep southern Caribbean, which continuously brought moisture into the storm. Throughout its duration, it was a small tropical cyclone, although with a radius of gale-force winds spreading to the north, the storm's thunderstorm area quickly spread over Cuba. As the storm approached the western coast of Cuba, it began rapid deepening, reaching hurricane status and less than 12 hours later attained winds of 110 mph (175 km/h). Prior to landfall, its eye was tracked by radar from Havana; it is estimated the hurricane moved ashore between Cape San Antonio and Guane late on August 15 as a strong Category 2 hurricane. Camille was a small hurricane as it crossed western Cuba, and its winds decreased slightly to 105 mph (165 km/h) over land before it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico. Initially, Hurricane Camille was forecast to turn northeastward toward the Florida panhandle. Instead, it continued northwestward and rapidly intensified after leaving Cuba. Its eye contracted to a diameter of less than, and strong rainbands developed around the entire hurricane. Due to the small eye, Hurricane Hunters at first had difficulties in determining the strength; however a flight late on August 16 found a strong Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson scale and recorded a very low pressure of 908 mbar (hPa; 26.82 inHg), with winds estimated at 175 mph (280 km/h). At the time, it was not expected to intensify further. However, a subsequent Hurricane Hunters flight early on August 17 recorded a central pressure of 905 mbar (hPa; 26.73 inHg), at the time the lowest pressure recorded by reconnaissance aircraft. That made Camille the most intense hurricane since the 1935 Labor Day hurricane; currently it is the sixth-most intense Atlantic hurricane, as ranked by lowest pressure. At the same time, maximum wind speeds in the hurricane peaked at by 00:00 UTC on August 17.  As it continued toward the Gulf Coast of the United States, Camille maintained its small eye, and forecasters continued to anticipate a turn toward Florida. Late on August 17, Camille briefly weakened to a Category 4 storm due to an eyewall replacement cycle; a reconnaissance flight was forced to end its mission early due to a damaged engine. Before they left the storm, the crew recorded a pressure of 919 mbar (hPa; 27.14 inHg) and estimated surface winds at 155 mph (250 km/h), while Camille was located about southeast of the Mississippi River Delta. There were no subsequent Hurricane Hunter flights, but surface observations recorded later suggested that Camille quickly re-strengthened and regained Category 5 intensity. After passing very close to southeastern Louisiana, Hurricane Camille made landfall at 11:30 CDT in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. Maximum sustained wind speeds near the coastline were estimated to have been about 175 mph (280 km/h), with a minimum central pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg).  The hurricane weakened as it progressed inland, and within 14 hours of moving ashore, Camille weakened to tropical storm status. About 12 hours later, it weakened to tropical depression status, by which time it began a turn to the north and northeast. On August 20, Tropical Depression Camille turned eastward through Kentucky, dropping heavy rainfall in West Virginia and Virginia. Later that day, it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean east of Norfolk, and by that afternoon, as Camille was emerging offshore it regained tropical storm status. Camille accelerated east-northeastward, attaining peak winds of 70 mph (110 km/h) as it interacted with larger Hurricane Debbie to its southeast (although the poor sampling of the region means that it is possible that the storm may have regained hurricane intensity in a location where measurements of wind speed were not taken). Subsequently, Camille began to interact with a frontal storm, causing it to gradually transition into an extratropical cyclone as it entrained cooler air. On August 22, Camille was absorbed by the frontal system to the south of Atlantic Canada.

Preparations.

Shortly after Camille formed, the National Hurricane Center advised residents on the Isle of Pines and in western Cuba to prepare for gale-force winds, heavy rains, and rising tides. The agency also recommended small boats to remain in harbor. The threat of the storm prompted officials to evacuate thousands along the western coast of Cuba and on the Isle of Pines; on the island, 10,000 cattle and 6,000 turkeys were moved to safer areas.  As Camille impacted Cuba, small craft were advised not to venture out too far from the coasts of Florida.  On August 15, the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch for a stretch of land in Florida, between Apalachicola and Fort Walton Beach. The next day, as these hurricane watches were upgraded to a hurricane warning, thousands of people boarded up their homes and evacuated inland. During the afternoon of August 16, the weather bureau ordered that a hurricane watch should be placed in force for the coastline from Biloxi to St Marks, Florida. Later that day, the hurricane watches were upgraded to a hurricane warning for the northwestern Florida coast, from Fort Walton to St Marks.  By Saturday morning, a hurricane watch was issued for the coast from Biloxi eastward. Civil defense organizations in coastal counties went on alert. Keesler Air Force Base and the Naval Construction Battalion Center prepared for the storm. By 5 p.m. on Sunday, a hurricane warning was issued for the coast. This activated the National Guard units. Many refused to believe the reports concerning Camille's intensity that afternoon. Many people living at elevations of above sea level refused to believe they were going to be submerged. The mayor of Gulfport ordered the release of prisoners from the city jail as winds increased at 9 p.m. on Sunday evening, but none would leave.

Impact.

Making landfall in Waveland, Mississippi, as a Category 5 hurricane, Camille caused damage and destruction across much of the Gulf Coast of the United States. Because it moved quickly through the region, Hurricane Camille dropped only moderate precipitation in most areas. Areas in and around Pass Christian, its point of landfall, reported from. The area of total destruction in Harrison County, Mississippi was. The total U.S. estimated cost of damage was $1.42 billion (1969 USD). This made Camille tied (with Hurricane Betsy) as the most expensive hurricane in the United States, up to that point. The storm directly killed 143 people along Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. An additional 153 people perished as a result of catastrophic flooding in Nelson County, Virginia and other areas nearby. In all, 8,931 people were injured, 5,662 homes were destroyed, and 13,915 homes experienced major damage, with many of the fatalities being coastal residents who had refused to evacuate.

Caribbean and Offshore Gulf of Mexico.

As a developing tropical storm, Camille brought rain showers to Grand Cayman, although there were no reports of damage. Stations in Cuba on the outer fringes of the storm reported winds of. East of where it moved ashore, the city of Guane recorded winds of, although no wind reports were taken in the landfall location. The hurricane produced up to near Guane, as well as on the Isle of Pines. On the Isle of Pines, the storm inflicted damage to about 100 houses. Throughout Pinar del Río Province, Camille caused heavy damage, primarily from river flooding; about 20,000 people were left homeless in the province. Strong winds downed trees and power lines, which caused power outages eastward through the capital city of Havana. Initially, the government reported no casualties from the storm. Subsequent research indicated the hurricane killed five people in the country during its passage, and damage was estimated at $5 million (1969 USD).  In the days after the storm struck Cuba, the government deployed medical teams to affected regions to provide typhoid vaccine shots. Officials noted the potential for the spread of disease, due to flooding from Camille as well as previously wet conditions.  In the open Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane produced wave heights of at least, as measured by Shell Oil Company. Along the ocean floor, the storm created mudslides which lowered the ocean floor; its combination with strong waves and winds destroyed three oil platforms, including one that at the time was the deepest oil well. Property damages to the offshore oil industry were initially estimated at $100 million (1969 USD).

Louisiana.

The pressure fell to at Garden Island. Winds gusted to at Slidell as their pressure sank to on August 19. Almost total destruction was seen from Venice to Buras. Ostrica Lock measured a storm surge of. Water overwashed U.S. Highway 90 to a depth of. The highest rainfall report from the state was from Slidell. Camille caused about $322 million (1969 dollars) of damage in Louisiana. The storm turned just in time to avoid a direct hit to the City of New Orleans, which was devastated just four years prior by Hurricane Betsy. The worst effects in New Orleans proper were flooding from some levees, particularly in the lowest lying areas, including the Lower Ninth Ward, which suffered the most severe flooding during Betsy.

Mississippi.

In Mississippi, Camille was significantly worse than Hurricane Betsy and a September 1947 hurricane. Electricity went out during Camille's approach to the Mississippi coastline. United States Highway 90 flooded as a large storm surge overtopped seawalls, leaving a barge along the highway in Gulfport. Fires consumed coastal communities, with the exceptions of Bay St. Louis and Waveland. Camille destroyed the antebellum Trinity Episcopal church in Pass Christian, taking 15 lives. The Dixie White House, where President Woodrow Wilson and his family once stayed, was badly damaged. In Biloxi, Mississippi, the storm surge reached the second floor of the structure. The highest rainfall total recorded was at the Mississippi Test Facility. Mississippi received the worst of the damage. Upon making landfall, Camille produced a storm surge. Along Mississippi's entire shore and for some three to four blocks inland, the destruction was nearly complete. The worst-hit areas were Clermont Harbor, Lakeshore, Waveland, Bay St. Louis, Pass Christian, Long Beach, and the beachfront of Gulfport, Mississippi City, and Biloxi. One of Frank Lloyd Wright's waterfront houses for W. L. Fuller, in Pass Christian, was completely destroyed.  More than of rain occurred in Hancock County, and most low-lying areas were flooded with up to of water. U.S. Highway 90, which is close to the shore, was broken up in many areas, and sand and debris blocked much of it. Totals say that 3,800 homes and businesses were completely destroyed. As Camille came ashore, it passed over Ship Island, off the coast of Mississippi; Camille's strong storm surge and torrential rains literally split the island in two: the body of water between West Ship Island and East Ship Island is now called "Camille's Cut". Camille had significant ecological effects in the Gulf Coast region. A barrier island chain off the coast of Mississippi and 70% of Dauphin Island were completely inundated by the storm's surge. Camille caused about $950 million (1969 dollars) of damage in Mississippi.

Hurricane Party.

One persistent account about Camille states that 24 people held a "hurricane party" on the third floor of the Richelieu Manor Apartments in Pass Christian, Mississippi, in the path of the eyewall as it made landfall. The high storm surge flooded and destroyed the building, killing all but one person. Who the survivor is, how many party guests there were, and just how far away the sole survivor was swept by the storm varies with the recounting.  News footage from Hurricane Camille was used in the 1974 ABC made-for-TV movie titled "Hurricane", which also features a plotline based on the Richelieu Manor hurricane party that never happened. Well-known stars in the film included Will Geer and Michael Learned as NWS meteorologists tracking the storm; Larry Hagman and Jessica Walter as a vacationing couple who get caught in the storm on their boat, and are actually drawn into the eye of the hurricane; and Martin Milner as the Air Force Major who flies over the storm and reports their location (so they can be rescued by a Navy submarine). One of the plotlines does feature a group of people holding a hurricane party in the home of Bert Pearson, played by Frank Sutton (best known for playing Sergeant Carter on "Gomer Pyle USMC"). Only Jim, played by Patrick Duffy, and his wife refuse to join the party. Pearson and his guests turn out the lights and hide when a Highway Patrolman checks whether the building has been entirely evacuated. Afterward, the party resumes and the guests are oblivious to any danger, until the storm strikes, knocking in the wall and causing other major damage. When Pearson awakes the next morning after the storm has passed, he discovers his wife has been killed.  An episode of the NBC series "Quantum Leap" also incorporated the apocryphal party into a story set in 1969, in a town that gets struck by Hurricane Camille.  Twenty-three people are known to have stayed in the Richelieu Manor Apartments during the hurricane, eight of whom died despite taking all precautions they knew in order to secure the building. The tale of the non-existent party, and the lone survivor when there were 15, apparently originated with survivor Mary Ann Gerlach, who also told her story in the NOVA episode Hurricane! (Nova). Another survivor, Ben Duckworth, has expressed irritation at the story. ′′There was no hurricane party,′′ Duckworth reiterated in 2001. ′′We were exhausted from boarding up windows and helping the police move cars. We were too tired to party. I can't tell you why that story persists, or why people didn't put two and two together. I guess the hurricane party makes a good story.′′  The site of the Richelieu Apartments, the corner of Henderson Avenue and U.S. 90 in Pass Christian, later became a shopping center. The shopping center was later destroyed by Hurricane Katrina, and is now Henderson Park.

Alabama and Florida.

Alabama also experienced damage along U.S. Highway 90: 26,000 homes and over 1,000 businesses were wiped out completely across the state of Alabama. Camille's large circulation also resulted in a storm surge in Apalachicola, Florida. The highest rainfall report received within Alabama was two miles northeast of Fairhope. Camille caused about $8 million (1969 dollars) of damage in Alabama. Places farther east across the western Florida panhandle saw lesser rains, as was measured at Pensacola Naval Air Station.

Ohio Valley and West Virginia.

Camille caused moderate rainfall in Tennessee and Kentucky of between 3 and, helping to relieve a drought in the area, yet in West Virginia, there was flash flooding which destroyed 36 houses and 12 trailers, a total of three quarters of a million dollars in damage.

Virginia.

Because the hurricane was expected to quickly dissipate over land, few were prepared for the flash flooding. Arriving in Virginia on the evening of August 19, Camille was no longer a hurricane, but it carried high amounts of moisture and contained sufficient strength and low pressure to pull in additional moisture.  A widespread area of western and central Virginia received over of rain from Camille's remains, leading to significant flooding across the state. A total of 153 people lost their lives from blunt trauma sustained during mountain slides, related to the flash flooding, not drowning. More than 123 of these deaths, including 21 members of one family, the Huffmans, were in Nelson County. Debris avalanches occurred on hillsides with a slope greater than 35 percent. In Nelson County, the number of deaths amounted to over one percent of the county's population. The worst of the damage was reported in Massies Mill, Woods Mill, Roseland, Bryant, Tyro, Montebello, Lovingston, Norwood, Rockfish, and along the Davis and Muddy creeks. The James and Tye rivers crested well above flood stage in many areas, including a record high of at Columbia. Hurricane Camille caused more than $140 million of damage (1969 dollars) in Virginia. Camille was considered one of the worst natural disasters in central Virginia's recorded history. The storm dropped torrential rainfall of, with a maximum of. Most of the rainfall occurred in Virginia during a 3–5 hour period on August 19–20. More than five inches of rain fell near the North Fork of the Tye River in only half an hour with the grounds already saturated from previous rains. Many rivers flooded across the state, with the worst being the James River in Richmond with a peak crest of. Many rivers in Virginia and West Virginia set records for peak flood stages, causing numerous mudslides along mountainsides. In the mountain slopes between Charlottesville and Lynchburg, more than of rain fell in 12 hours, but the worst was in Nelson County where fell. There, rainfall was so heavy that reports were received of birds drowning in trees, cows floating down the Hatt Creek and of survivors having to cup hands around their mouth and nose in order to breathe through the deluge. Though the official rainfall was recorded as 27 inches, unofficial estimates are much greater. Some estimate that more than 40 inches of rain fell at Davis Creek. Most gauges were washed away; however, it was reported that an empty 55-gallon drum that was not even in the center of the heaviest rainfall had 31 inches of water in it after Camille passed. "So much rain fell in such a short time in Nelson County that, according to the National Weather Service at the time, it was 'the probable maximum rainfall which meteorologists compute to be theoretically possible.' "  The ensuing flash floods and mudslides killed 153 people. In Nelson County alone, 133 bridges washed out, while in some places entire communities were under water.  The major flooding that occurred downstream cut off all communication between Richmond and the Shenandoah Valley. Waynesboro on the South River saw eight feet of water downtown, and Buena Vista had more than five feet.  Throughout Virginia, Camille destroyed 313 houses, 71 trailers, and 430 farm buildings. 3,765 families were affected by the hurricane in the area, and total damage in the state amounted to $140.8 million (1969 USD, $747 million 2005 USD).

Records.

Camille produced the sixth lowest official sea level pressure ever recorded in the Atlantic basin, at. This was also its landfalling pressure; the only hurricane to hit the United States with a lower pressure at landfall was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935. A reconnaissance flight indicated a pressure of, but this pressure was later corrected in 1969 by researchers to. The wind speed of Camille can only be approximated, as no meteorological equipment survived the extreme conditions at landfall, but Camille is estimated to have had sustained winds of 190 mph (305 km/h) at landfall, with gusts exceeding 230 mph (370 km/h), although a reanalysis in April 2014 concluded that Camille had maximum winds of 175 mph (280 km/h) rather than the 190 mph reading used previously. Before Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Camille likely had the highest storm surge measured in the United States, at over.  The storm surge quoted by the Army Corps of Engineers was based on high-water marks inside surviving buildings, of which there were but three. Prior to the collapse of the Richelieu Apartments, Ben Duckworth shone a flashlight down a stairwell and found the water within one step of the third-story floor; this establishes a surge height of at that spot at that time. About 15 minutes later, the building collapsed and the evidence vanished with it.  In addition, Camille forced the Mississippi River to flow backwards for a river-distance of 125 miles (from its mouth to a point north of New Orleans). The river further backed up for an additional, to a point north of Baton Rouge.  In 1969 the naming conventions for hurricanes were not strictly controlled as they are today. There were only three requirements: the name had to be female (male names were not used at that time), the names had to remain in alphabetical order, and the name could not have been retired.

Aftermath.

The response after the storm involved many federal, state, and local agencies and volunteer organizations. The main organization for coordinating the federal response to the disaster was the Office of Emergency Preparedness, which provided $76 million (1969 USD, $403 million 2005 USD) to administer and coordinate disaster relief programs. Food and shelter were available the day after the storm. On August 19, parts of Mississippi and Louisiana were declared major disaster areas and became eligible for federal disaster relief funds. President Richard Nixon ordered 1450 regular troops and 800 United States Army Engineers into the area to bring tons of food, vehicles, and aircraft. Large organizations contributing to the relief effort included the Federal Power Commission, which helped fully return power to affected areas by November 25, 1969. The Coast Guard (then under the Department of Transportation), Air Force, Army, Army Corps of Engineers, Navy Seabees, and Marine Corps all helped with evacuations, search and rescue, clearing debris, and distribution of food. The Department of Defense contributed $34 million (1969 USD, $180 million 2005 USD) and 16,500 military troops overall to the recovery. The Department of Health provided $4 million towards medicine, vaccines and other health related needs.  On Monday, the Air National Guard and those at Keesler Air Force Base airlifted patients to Jackson and other more inland locations. Volunteers searched for those injured and dead, as well as helping refugees. When many of the evacuees returned by Tuesday, Governor John Bell Williams declared martial law, blocking highways into the area and leading to a 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. curfew. The governor also opened Camp Shelby, dormitories within the University of Southern Mississippi, and the Robert E. Lee Hotel to serve as shelters for those who lost homes. Sections of Bay St. Louis and Pass Christian were evacuated. Survivors were found for days after the storm, with 35 trapped by high water north of Bay St. Louis rescued on Thursday. Army engineers disposed of 25 tons of dead animals, mostly cows, during the week following Camille. One week after the storm, Keesler-based airplanes sprayed malathion at low altitudes to kill the thriving insect population. Martial law would be lifted on August 27. The federal and state military presence would continue for several weeks. During the evening of September 8, President Nixon visited the Biloxi-Gulfport Regional Airport and gave a speech to elevate the spirits of local residents struggling with the storm's aftermath. During the rebuilding process, stricter building codes were enforced by local governments. In 1973, hurricane hunters and their associated reconnaissance aircraft relocated to Keesler Air Force Base when their previous headquarters at Ramey, Puerto Rico, closed. Long-term redevelopment was overseen by the Department of Commerce, which contributed $30 million (1969 USD, $159 million 2005 USD) towards planned and coordinated redevelopment of affected areas. NOAA Weather Radio was expanded to coastal locations during the 1970s in the wake of Camille based upon recommendations made by the Department of Commerce in September 1969.  The devastation of Camille inspired the implementation of the Saffir–Simpson scale. After the storm, many Gulf Coast residents commented that hurricane warnings were not clear enough in conveying the expected intensity of the coming storm. The Saffir–Simpson scale offered a much more concise statement of storm intensity than barometric pressure and wind-speed measurements, and veterans of previous hurricanes could analogize the power of the approaching storm to those they had experienced.  In a 1999 report on Hurricane Camille sponsored by the NOAA Coastal Services Center, the authors concluded: "With Camille, the preparations for the event and the response were based on processes put in place long before the storm made landfall. Coordination between government agencies as well as with state and local officials was enhanced because of preexisting plans."  One small compensation was that recovery from flood damage in Nelson County, Virginia led to the discovery of the Ginger Gold apple in the orchards of Clyde Harvey.

Retirement.

Due to the major destruction and death in much of the Southern United States, the name "Camille" was retired after the 1969 season, and will never again be used for an Atlantic or Gulf hurricane or tropical storm. The name Cindy was scheduled to replace the name in 1973, although a new ten-year list of names was created for the 1972–1980 Atlantic hurricane seasons.

Comparisons to Hurricane Katrina.

Although Hurricane Camille and Hurricane Katrina took different paths, they both reached the same section of the coast of Mississippi with similar destructive effects. Camille intensified more rapidly than Katrina, and unlike Katrina, Camille re-intensified a second time and maintained status as a Category 5 hurricane until landfall. Both hurricanes shared the common aspect of undergoing periods of rapid intensification. The size of Camille's radius of maximum wind was less than one-third that of Katrina, more similar to the intense but small Hurricane Andrew. Also unlike Katrina, Camille caused little damage in New Orleans, Louisiana, though Camille itself just barely missed the city. The area of hurricane-force winds within Camille was just over two-thirds the size of Hurricane Katrina. Both storms were moving at a similar forward motion at the time of landfall. Although Camille's wind speed at landfall was higher, Katrina's storm surge exceeded Camille's storm surge at all known locations due to its greater size. Both hurricanes' names were retired.

Naming issues.

In the 1960s, Atlantic hurricane names consisted of women's names which were reused every fourth year. The practice of retiring hurricane names was meant to be temporary, with the guideline that a name be retired for ten years. When the name Carla was retired in 1961 it was replaced on the 1965 list with Carol, a name retired in 1954 when its namesake devastated New England. Since over a decade had passed, Carol was eligible for reuse. Carol entered the 1969 list, but scientists from the National Hurricane Research Laboratory (NHRL) asked the naming committee in January 1969 to permanently retire Carol, Edna, and Hazel since papers were still being written about the storms. The committee agreed but needed a replacement "C" name. John Hope's daughter Camille was involved in an advanced science and math program in high school and had carried out a required independent research project. John Hope asked Banner Miller to mentor her in her investigation of hurricanes and long-term atmospheric trends. Miller was impressed by her project and suggested her name for the list. "We kept it quiet for many years," Camille said in a phone interview circa 2014.  Historical Hurricanes

A djembe or jembe ( ; from Malinke "jembe" ) is a rope-tuned skin-covered goblet drum played with bare hands, originally from West Africa. According to the Bambara people in Mali, the name of the djembe comes from the saying "Anke djé, anke bé" which translates to "everyone gather together in peace" and defines the drum's purpose. In the Bambara language, "djé" is the verb for "gather" and "bé" translates as "peace."

Un djembé est un instrument de percussion africain composé d'un fût de bois en forme de calice sur lequel est montée une peau de chèvre ou d'antilope tendue grâce à un système de tension (originellement des chevilles en bois ou des cordes en peaux, maintenant le plus souvent utilisées sont des cordes synthétiques et des anneaux en fer à béton), que l'on joue à mains nues et dont le spectre sonore très large engendre une grande richesse de timbre. La forme évasée du fût viendrait de celle du mortier à piler le grain.


Overview.

The terms 'federalism' and 'confederalism' both have a root in the Latin word "foedus", meaning "treaty, pact or covenant." Their common meaning until the late eighteenth century was a simple league or inter-governmental relationship among sovereign states based upon a treaty. They were therefore initially synonyms. It was in this sense that James Madison in "Federalist 39" had referred to the new US Constitution as 'neither a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition of both' (i.e. neither constituting a single large unitary state nor a league/confederation among several small states, but a hybrid of the two). In the course of the nineteenth century the meaning of federalism would come to shift, strengthening to refer uniquely to the novel compound political form established, while the meaning of confederalism would remain at a league of states. Thus, this article relates to the modern usage of the word 'federalism'.  Modern federalism is a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments. The term "federalist" describes several political beliefs around the world depending on context.  Federalism is sometimes viewed as in the context of international negotiation as "the best system for integrating diverse nations, ethnic groups, or combatant parties, all of whom may have cause to fear control by an overly powerful center." However, in some countries, those skeptical of federal prescriptions believe that increased regional autonomy is likely to lead to secession or dissolution of the nation. In Syria, federalization proposals have failed in part because "Syrians fear that these borders could turn out to be the same as the ones that the fighting parties have currently carved out."  Federations such as Yugoslavia or Czechoslovakia collapsed as soon as it was possible to put the model to the test.

Early origins.

An early historical example of federalism is the Achaean League in Hellenistic Greece. Unlike the Greek city states of Classical Greece, each of which insisted on

Explanations for adoption.

According to Daniel Ziblatt's "Structuring the State", there are

Immanuel Kant.

Immanuel Kant was an advocate of federalism, noting that "the problem of setting up a state can be solved even by a nation of devils"

Examples.

Australia.

On 1 January 1901, the dominion of Australia officially came into existence as a federation. The Australian continent was colonised by the United Kingdom in 1788, which subsequently established six, eventually self-governing, colonies there. In the 1890s the governments of these colonies all held referendums

Brazil.

In Brazil, the fall of the monarchy in 1889 by a military "coup d'état" led to the rise of the presidential system, headed by Deodoro da Fonseca. Aided by well-known jurist Ruy Barbosa, Fonseca established federalism in Brazil by decree, but this system of government would be confirmed by every Brazilian constitution since 1891, although some of them would distort some

Canada.

In Canada the system of federalism is described by the division of powers between the federal parliament and the country's provincial governments. Under the "Constitution Act" (previously known as the "British North America Act of 1867"), specific powers of legislation are allotted. Section 91 of the constitution gives

Europe.

Several federal systems exist in Europe, such as in Switzerland, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina and the European Union.  In Britain, an Imperial Federation was once seen as ("inter alia") a method of solving the Home Rule problem in Ireland; federalism has long been proposed as a solution to the "Irish Problem", and more lately, to the "West Lothian question".

French Revolution.

During the French Revolution, especially in 1793, "federalism" had an entirely different

European Union.

Following the end of World War II, several movements began advocating a European federation, such as the Union of European Federalists and the European Movement, founded in 1948. Those organizations exercised influence in the European unification process, but never in a decisive way.  Although the drafts of both the Maastricht Treaty and the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe mentioned federalism,

Germany.

Germany and the European Union present the only examples of federalism in the world where members of the federal "upper houses" (the German Bundesrat, i.e. the Federal Council; and the European Council) are neither elected nor appointed but comprise members or delegates of the governments of their constituents. The United States had a similar system until 1913, where prior to the 17th Amendment, Senators were delegates of the state elected by the state legislatures rather than the citizens.  Already the Holy Roman Empire, the Confederation of the Rhine, the German Confederation, the North German Confederation, the German

India.

The Government of India (referred to as the "Union Government") was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of a "federal union" of 28 states and 9 union territories.  The government of India is based on a 3 tiered system, in which the Constitution of India delineates the subjects on which each tier of government has executive powers. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government (also known as the Central Government), representing the Union of India, and the State governments. Later, a third tier was added in the form of Panchayats and Municipalities. In the current arrangement, The Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution delimits the subjects of each level of governmental jurisdiction, dividing them into three lists:

Asymmetric federalism.

A distinguishing aspect of Indian federalism is that unlike many other forms of federalism, it is asymmetric and gives limited autonomy to only some Indian states. Article 370 of the Constitution of India made special provisions for the state of Jammu and Kashmir as per its Instrument of Accession but it was revoked

Coalition politics.

Although the constitution does not say so, India is now a multilingual federation. India has a multi-party system, with political allegiances frequently based on linguistic, regional and identities, necessitating coalition politics, especially at the Union level. India has generally two main groups known as the NDA and the UPA and the third group known as the Left Front.

Malaysia.

Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy. Its monarchy is elective with the nine rulers and four state leaders (representing states with its sultanates abolished) meet at the Conference of Rulers to elect the next monarch every five years, or if the position becomes vacant for any reason. There is also a custom of rotation of the monarchy between the nine rulers. A legacy of British colonial rule, the federation's system of government is modelled closely on the Westminster parliamentary system. There exists a lower and upper house. Governance of the states is

Ethiopia.

Ethiopia has over 80 ethno-linguistic groups and the new Constitution which was introduced in 1994, dividing Ethiopia on ethnic lines into nine regional states and two multiethnic "chartered administrations" (Addis Ababa and Diredawa).[10][14]:54-55 Ethnic groups received rights to self-government:[8] the states were given autonomy

Nigeria.

The Federal Republic of Nigeria has various states which have evolved over time due to complex socioeconomic issues as well as the effect of their colonial era. However, in modern Nigeria there are thirty

Pakistan.

Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic. Powers are shared between the federal government and the provinces. Relations between federation and provinces is defined in Part V(Articles 141-159) of the constitution.  Pakistan consists of four provinces and three territories, including the Islamabad Capital Territory.

Levels of government.

There are several levels of government in Pakistan:

South Africa.

Although South Africa bears some elements of a federal system, such as

Russian Federation.

The post-Imperial nature of Russian subdivision of government changed towards a generally autonomous model which began with the establishment of the USSR (of which Russia was governed as part). It was liberalized in the aftermath of the Soviet Union, with the reforms under Boris Yeltsin preserving much of the Soviet structure while applying increasingly liberal reforms

United Arab Emirates.

The UAE is a federal absolute monarchy of the six ruling families of the United Arab

United States of America.

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism. In "Federalist No. 46," James Madison asserted that the states and national government "are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers." Alexander Hamilton, writing in "Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: "If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress." Because the states

Venezuela.

The Federal War ended in 1863 with the signing of the Treaty of Coche by both the centralist government of the time and the Federal Forces. The United States of Venezuela were subsequently incorporated under a "Federation of Sovereign States" upon principles borrowed from the Articles of Confederation of the United States of America. In this Federation, each State had

With two components.

Belgium.

Federalism in the Kingdom of Belgium is an evolving system.  Belgian federalism is a twin system which reflects both the  On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French-speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequently has a number of political issues—even minor ones—that are being fought out over the Dutch/French-language political division. With such issues, a final decision is possible only in the form of a compromise. This

Other examples.

Current examples of two-sided federalism: Historical examples of two-sided federalism include:

Proposed.

It has been proposed in several unitary states to establish a federal system, for various reasons.

China.

China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area. Although China has had long periods of central rule for centuries, it is often argued that the unitary structure of the

Libya.

Shortly after the 2011 civil war, some people in Cyrenaica (in the eastern region of the country) began to call for the new regime to be federal, with

Myanmar.

The changes in the state structure that composes the national government in Naypyitaw and the state/regional governments and the federal negotiations between the national

Philippines.

The Philippines is a unitary state with some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code. There is also one autonomous region, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Over the years various modifications have been proposed to

Spain.

Spain is a unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism". The country has been quoted as being "an extraordinarily decentralized country", with the central government accounting for just 18% of public spending, 38% for the regional governments, 13% for the local councils, and the remaining 31% for the social security system. The current Spanish constitution has been implemented in such a way that, in many respects, Spain can be compared

Sri Lanka.

Federalism has long been advocated as a means of resolving the ethnic issues and unbalanced development in Sri Lanka. As the unitary state has resulted in uneven development across Sri Lanka the Western Province dominates over the other 8 provinces. Despite declining regional disparity

Syria.

The federalization of Syria has been proposed as a way to end the Syrian Civil War. In the broadest sense, it means turning the centralized Syrian Arab Republic into a federal republic with autonomous subdivisions. Many powers and actors involved in the Syrian Civil War have entertained the idea of "federal division", not least among them Russia, United Nations representatives, and the United States. President Bashar al-Assad has not ruled out the possibility of a federal

United Kingdom.

The United Kingdom has traditionally been governed as a unitary state by the Westminster Parliament in London. Instead of adopting a federal model, the UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power. Devolution in the UK began with the Government of Ireland Act 1914 which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland in 1921 which saw the creation of the sovereign Irish Free State (which eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland retained its devolved government through the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the only part of the UK to have such a body at this time. This body was suspended in 1972 and Northern Ireland was governed by direct rule during the period of conflict known as The Troubles.  In modern times, a process of devolution in the United Kingdom has decentralised power once again. Since the 1997 referendums in

Europe vs. the United States.

In Europe, "Federalist" is sometimes used to describe those who favor a common federal government, with distributed power at regional, national and supranational levels. Most European federalists want this development to continue within the European Union. European federalism originated in post-war Europe; one of the more important initiatives was Winston Churchill's speech in Zürich in 1946.  In the United States, federalism originally referred to belief in a stronger central government. When the U.S. Constitution was being drafted, the Federalist Party supported a stronger central government, while "Anti-Federalists" wanted a weaker central government. This is very different from the modern usage of "federalism" in Europe and the United States. The distinction stems from the fact that "federalism" is situated in the middle of the political spectrum between a confederacy and a unitary state. The U.S. Constitution was written as a reaction to the Articles of Confederation, under which the United States was a loose confederation with a weak central government.

Anarchism.

Anarchists are against the state, but they are not against political organization or "governance", so long as it is self-governance utilizing direct democracy. The mode of political organization

Christian Church.

Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of "political federalism") to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in "political federalism", in presbyterian ecclesiology there

Constitutional structure.

Division of powers.

In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually outlined in the constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-government, in federations the right to self-government of the component states is constitutionally entrenched. Component states often also possess their own constitutions which they may amend as they see fit, although in the event of conflict the federal constitution usually takes precedence.  In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for

Bicameralism.

The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the

Intergovernmental relations.

In Canada, the provincial governments represent regional interests and negotiate directly with the central government. A First Ministers

Constitutional change.

Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall

Political philosophy.

The meaning of "federalism", as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context. Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends. For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known

Conflict reducing device.

Federalism, and other forms of territorial autonomy, is generally seen as a useful way to structure political systems in order to prevent violence among different groups within countries because it allows certain groups to legislate at the subnational level. Some scholars have suggested, however, that federalism can divide countries and result in state collapse because it creates proto-states. Still others have shown that federalism is only divisive when it lacks mechanisms that encourage political parties to compete across regional boundaries.

Federalism is the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system. Its distinctive feature, exemplified in the founding example of modern federalism by the United States under the Constitution of 1787, is a relationship of "parity" between the two levels of government established. Federalism can thus be defined as a form of government in which there is a division of powers between two levels of government of equal status.

Le fédéralisme, du latin "fœdus", « renvoie à l'ensemble des caractéristiques et des pratiques institutionnelles des systèmes politiques fédéraux ainsi qu’aux théories politiques qui ont été construites pour en rendre compte ou pour les promouvoir ». Le fédéralisme est un système d’organisation, d’administration et de gouvernement dans lequel l’État est organisé en fédération et partage avec les États fédérés les diverses compétences constitutionnelles : législatives, juridictionnelles et administratives (ex. à des degrés différents : Union des Comores, Suisse, Allemagne, États-Unis, États fédérés de Micronésie, Émirats arabes unis, Brésil, Argentine, Nigeria).


Overview.

To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts: the terms folk and lore. It is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of "popular antiquities" or "popular literature". The second half of the compound word, "lore", proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār 'instruction,' and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, frequently passed along by word of mouth.  The concept of "folk" proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, "folk" applied only to rural, frequently poor and illiterate peasants. A more modern definition of "folk" is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. "Folk is a flexible concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family." This expanded social definition of "folk" supports a broader view of the material, i.e. the lore, considered to be "folklore artifacts". These now include all "things people make with words (verbal lore), things they make with their hands (material lore), and things they make with their actions (customary lore)". Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a social group

Origin and development of folklore studies.

Folklore began to distinguish itself as an autonomous discipline during the period of romantic nationalism in Europe. A particular figure in this development was Johann Gottfried von Herder, whose writings in the 1770s presented oral traditions as organic processes grounded in locale. After the German states were invaded by Napoleonic France, Herder's approach was adopted by many of his fellow Germans who systematized the recorded folk traditions and used them in their process of nation building. This process was enthusiastically embraced by smaller nations like Finland, Estonia, and Hungary, which were seeking political independence from their dominant neighbours.  Folklore as a field of study further developed among 19th century European scholars who were contrasting tradition with the newly developing modernity. Its focus was the oral folklore of the rural peasant populations, which were considered as residue and survivals of the past that continued to exist within the lower strata of society. The "Kinder- und Hausmärchen" of the Brothers Grimm (first published 1812) is the best known but by no means only collection of verbal folklore of the European peasantry of that time. This interest in stories, sayings and songs continued throughout the 19th century and aligned the fledgling discipline of folkloristics with literature and mythology. By the turn into the 20th century the number and sophistication of folklore studies and folklorists had grown both in Europe and North America. Whereas European folklorists remained focused on the oral folklore of the homogenous

Definition of folk.

The folk of the 19th century, the social group identified in the original term "folklore", was characterized by being rural, illiterate and poor. They were the peasants living in the countryside, in contrast to the urban populace of the cities. Only toward the end of the century did the urban proletariat (on the coattails of Marxist theory) become included with the rural poor as folk. The common feature in this expanded definition of folk was their identification as the underclass of society.  Moving forward into the 20th century, in tandem with new thinking in the, folklorists also revised and expanded their concept of the folk group. By the 1960s it was understood that social groups, i.e. folk groups, were all around us; each individual is enmeshed in a multitude of differing identities and their concomitant social groups. The first group that each of us is born into is the family, and each family has its own unique family folklore. As a child grows into an individual, its identities also increase to include age, language, ethnicity, occupation, etc. Each of these cohorts has its own folklore, and

Genres: the lore of folklore.

Individual folklore artifacts are commonly classified as one of three types: material, verbal or customary lore. For the most part self-explanatory, these categories include physical objects (material folklore), common sayings, expressions, stories and songs (verbal folklore), and beliefs and ways of doing things (customary folklore). There is also a fourth major subgenre defined for children's folklore and games (childlore), as the collection and interpretation of this fertile topic is peculiar to school yards and neighborhood streets. Each of these genres and their subtypes is intended to organize and categorize the folklore artifacts; they provide common vocabulary and consistent labeling for folklorists to communicate with each other.  That said, each artifact is unique; in fact one of the characteristics of all folklore artifacts is their variation within genres and types. This is in direct contrast to manufactured goods, where the goal in production is to create products which are identical, and variations are considered mistakes. It is however just this required variation that makes identification and classification of the defining features a challenge. And while this classification is essential for the subject area of folkloristics, it remains just labeling, and adds little to an understanding of the traditional development and meaning of the artifacts themselves.  Necessary as they are, genre classifications are misleading in their oversimplification of the subject area. Folklore artifacts are never self-contained, they do not stand in isolation but are particulars in the self-representation of a community. Different genres are frequently combined with each other to mark an event. So a birthday celebration might include a song or formulaic way of greeting the birthday child (verbal), presentation of a cake and wrapped presents (material), as well as customs to honor the individual, such as sitting at the head of the table, and blowing out the candles with a wish. There might also be special games played at birthday parties which are not generally played at other times. Adding to the complexity of the interpretation, the birthday party for a seven-year-old will not be identical to the birthday party for that same child as a six-year-old, even though they follow the same model. For each artifact embodies a single variant of a performance in a given time and space. The task of the folklorist becomes to identify within this surfeit of variables the constants and the expressed meaning that shimmer through all variations: honoring of the individual within the circle of family and friends, gifting to express their value and worth to the group, and of course, the festival food and drink as signifiers of the event.

In action: performance in context.

Lacking context, the folklore artifacts in the Smithsonian Folklife Archive contain as much life as the stuffed elephant down the street in the Natural History Museum. It is only in performance that they come alive as an active and meaningful component of a social group; this is where the intergroup communication lives, where transmission of these cultural elements takes place. "Folklore is folklore only when performed". Without transmission, these items are not folklore, they are just individual quirky tales and objects.  This understanding in folkloristics only occurred in the second half of the 20th century, when the two terms "folklore performance" and "text and context" dominated discussions among folklorists. These terms are not contradictory or even mutually exclusive. As borrowings from other fields of study, one or the other linguistic formulation is more appropriate to any given discussion. Performance is frequently tied to verbal and customary lore, whereas context is used in discussions of material lore. Both formulations offer different perspectives on the same folkloric understanding, specifically that folklore artifacts need to remain embedded in their cultural environment if we are to gain insight into their meaning for the community.  The concept of cultural (folklore) performance is shared with ethnography and anthropology among other social sciences. The cultural anthropologist Victor Turner identified four universal characteristics of cultural performance. These are playfulness, framing, using symbolic language and employing the subjunctive mood. In performance the audience leaves the daily reality to move into a mode of make-believe, "what if". That this fits well with all types of verbal lore, where reality finds no footing among the symbols, fantasies, and nonsense of traditional tales, proverbs, and jokes is self-evident. Customs and the lore of children and games also fit easily into the language of a folklore performance.  Material culture requires some kneading to turn it into a performance. Should we consider the performance of the production, as in a quilting party, or the performance of the recipients who use the quilt to cover their marriage bed? Here the language of context works better to describe the quilting of patterns copied from the grandmother, quilting as a social event during the winter months, or the gifting of a quilt to signify the importance of the event. Each of these, the traditional pattern chosen, the social event and the gifting occur within the broader context of the community. That said, even in a discussion of context the structure and characteristics of performance can be recognized, including an audience, a framing event, and the use of decorative figures and symbols which go beyond the utility of the object.

Backstory.

Before the Second World War, folk artifacts had been understood and collected as cultural shards of an earlier time. They were considered individual vestigial artifacts, with little or no function in the contemporary culture. Given this understanding, the goal of the folklorist was to capture and document them before they disappeared. They were collected with no supporting data, bound in books, archived and classified more or less successfully. The Historic–Geographic Method worked to isolate and track these collected artifacts, mostly verbal lore, across space and time.  Following the Second World War, folklorists began to articulate a more holistic approach toward their subject matter. In tandem with the growing sophistication in

Tradition-bearer and audience.

Transmission is a communicative process requiring a binary: one individual or group who actively transmits information in some form to another individual or group. Each of these is a defined role in the folklore process. The tradition-bearer is the individual who actively passes along the knowledge of an artifact; this can be either a mother singing a lullaby to her baby, or an Irish dance troupe performing at a local festival. They are named individuals, usually well known in the community as knowledgeable in their traditional lore. They are not the anonymous "folk", the nameless mass without of history

Framing the performance.

To initiate the performance, there must be a frame of some sort to indicate that what is to follow is indeed performance. The frame brackets it as outside of normal discourse. In customary lore such as life cycle celebrations (ex. birthday) or dance performances, the framing occurs as part of the event, frequently marked by location. The audience goes to the event location to participate. Games are defined primarily by rules, it is with the initiation of the rules that the game is framed. The folklorist Barre Toelken describes an evening spent in a Navaho family playing string figure games, with each of the

In the subjunctive voice.

Framing as a narrative device serves to signal to both the story teller and the audience that the narrative which follows is indeed a fiction (verbal lore), and not to be understood as historical fact or reality. It moves the framed narration into the subjunctive

Anderson's law of auto-correction.

The theory of self-correction in folklore transmission was first articulated by the folklorist Walter Anderson in the 1920s; this posits a feedback mechanism which would keep folklore variants closer to the original form. This theory addresses the question about how, with multiple performers and multiple audiences, the artifact maintains its identity across time and geography. Anderson credited the audience with censoring narrators who deviated too far from the known (traditional) text.  Any performance is a two-way communication process. The performer addresses the audience with words and actions; the audience in turn actively responds to the performer. If this performance deviates too far from audience expectations of the familiar folk artifact, they will respond with negative feedback. Wanting to avoid more

Context of material lore.

For material folk artifacts, it becomes more fruitful to return to the terminology of Alan Dundes: text and context. Here the text designates the physical artifact itself, the single item made by an individual for a specific purpose. The context is then unmasked by observation and questions concerning both its production and its usage. Why was it made, how was it made, who will use it, how will they use it, where did the raw materials come from, who designed it, etc. These questions are limited only by the skill of the interviewer.  In his study of southeastern Kentucky chair makers, Michael Owen Jones describes production of a chair within

Toelken's conservative-dynamic continuum.

No two performances are identical. The performer attempts to keep the performance within expectations, but this happens despite a multitude of changing variables. He has given this performance one time more or less, the audience is different, the social and political environment has changed. In the context of material culture, no two hand-crafted items are identical. Sometimes these deviations in the performance and the production are unintentional, just part of the process. But sometimes these deviations are intentional; the performer or artisan want to play with the boundaries of expectation and add their own creative touch.

In the electronic age.

It is too soon to identify how the advent of electronic communications will modify and change the performance and transmission of folklore artifacts. Just by looking at the development of one type of verbal lore, electronic joking, it is clear that the internet is modifying folkloric process, not killing it.

Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next. Folklore is not something one can typically gain in a formal school curriculum or study in the fine arts. Instead, these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration. The academic study of folklore is called folklore studies or folkloristics, and it can be explored at undergraduate, graduate and Ph.D. levels.

Le folklore (de l'anglais ', peuple et ', traditions) est l'ensemble des productions collectives émanant d'un peuple et se transmettant d'une génération à l'autre par voie orale et par imitation. Ces arts et traditions populaires comprennent la culture littéraire (contes, récits, chants, musiques et croyances), figurative (rites, costumes, danses, décors, représentations), et matérielle (habitation, outillage, techniques, instruments, etc.).


History.

Courtyards are a common feature of houses in the Indian subcontinent, whether they are mansions or farmhouses. The traditional courtyard homes of the Indian subcontinent were influenced by the ancient principles of Vastu Shastra, which state that all spaces emerge from a single point that is the center of the house.  The earliest archaeological evidence of courtyard homes in the region dates back to 3300 BCE. Traditional homes in the Indian subcontinent are built around a courtyard, and all family activities revolved around this "chowk" or courtyard. Additionally, the courtyard serves as a lightwell and helps ventilate the house in the hot and dry climates of the region.  During the medieval period, the term Haveli was first applied in Rajputana by the Vaishnava sect to refer to their temples in Gujarat under the Mughal Empire and Rajputana kingdoms. The generic term "haveli" eventually came to be identified with townhouses and mansions of the merchant class.

Characteristics.

All these elements join to form an enclosure and give the "chowk" a composed, secured feel. The architectural form of "havelis" has evolved in response to the climate, lifestyle, and availability of material. In hot climates where cooling is a necessity, buildings with internal courtyards for airflow and cooling were considered the most appropriate; in rainy places the houses were built to be kept dry from humid air. It provided shade while also allowing light inside. The arcade along the court, or the high wall around it, kept the interiors cool.  Many of the "havelis" of India and Pakistan were influenced by Rajasthani architecture. They usually contain a courtyard, often with a fountain in the center. The old cities of Agra, Lucknow, Jaisalmer and Delhi in India and Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, Hyderabad in Pakistan have many fine examples of Rajasthani-style "havelis". "Havelis" in Nepal were built in the Newari architectural style; houses in old markets and bazaars in Kathmandu, Kritipur, Bhakthapur and Patan are built in this style.

Notable havelis in India.

In the northern part of India, "havelis" for Lord Krishna with huge mansion-like constructions are prevalent. These "havelis" are noted for their frescoes depicting images of gods, goddesses, animals, scenes from the British colonization, and the life stories of Lords Rama and Krishna. The music here was known as Haveli Sangeet.  Later on, these temple architectures and frescoes were imitated while building huge individual mansions and now the word is popularly associated with the mansions themselves. Between 1830 and 1930, Marwaris erected buildings in their homeland, Masterji Kee Haveli[Shekhawati]] and Marwar. These buildings were called "havelis". The Marwaris commissioned artists to paint those buildings, which were heavily influenced by the Mughal architecture. Nangal Sirohi in Mahendragarh district, 130 km from Delhi, is popular for its "havelis" and architecture within NCR.  The "havelis" served as status symbols for the Marwaris as well as homes for their extended families, providing security and comfort in seclusion from the outside world. The "havelis" were designed to be closed from all sides with one large main gate.  The typical "havelis" in Shekhawati incorporated two courtyards — an outer one for the men which served as an extended threshold, and the inner one, the domain of the women. The largest "havelis" could have up to three or four courtyards and were two to three stories high. Most of the "havelis" are empty nowadays or are maintained by a watchman, while others have been converted into hotels and tourist attractions.  The towns and villages of Shekhawati are famous for the embellished frescoes on the walls of their grandiose "havelis", to the point of becoming popular tourist attractions.  The "havelis" in and around Jaisalmer Fort (also known as the Golden Fort), situated in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, of which the three most impressive are Patwon Ki Haveli, Salim Singh Ki Haveli, and Nathmal-Ki Haveli, deserve special mention. These were the elaborate homes of Jaisalmer's rich merchants. The ostentatious carvings, etched in sandstone with great detail and then painstakingly pieced together in lavish patterns, were commissioned to put on show the owner's status and wealth. Around Jaisalmer, they are typically carved from yellow sandstone. They are often characterized by wall paintings, frescoes, "jharokhas" (balconies) and archways.  The "Patwon Ji ki Haveli" was the first erected in Jaisalmer. It is not a single "haveli" but a cluster of five small "havelis". The first in the row is the most popular, and is also known as Kothari's Patwa Haveli. Commissioned and constructed in the year 1805 by Guman Chand Patwa, then a rich trader of jewellery and fine brocades, it is the biggest and the most ostentatious of the five. Patwa was a rich man and a renowned trader of his time and he could afford and thus order the construction of separate stories for each of his five sons. These were completed in a span of 50 years. All five houses were constructed in the first 60 years of the 19th century. Patwon Ji Ki is renowned for its ornate wall paintings, intricate yellow sandstone-carved "jharokhas" (balconies), gateways and archways. Although the building itself is made from yellow sandstone, the main gateway is brown. Another notable "haveli" is Seth ji ri Haveli in Udaipur city; now known as "Shree Jagdish Mahal", it is 250 years old.

Notable havelis of Pakistan.

A number of historically and architecturally significant "havelis" survive in Pakistan, most of which are situated in the Punjab province. The most significant in Lahore, the Haveli of Nau Nihal Singh, dates from the Sikh era of the mid-19th century, and is considered to be one of the finest examples of Sikh architecture in Lahore. It is the only Sikh-era "haveli" that preserves its original ornamentation and architecture.  Some other historically and architecturally significant "havelis" in Pakistan:

Havelis in popular culture.

"Haveli" is also a novel by Suzanne Fisher Staples and is a sequel to her Newbery Award-winning novel "Shabanu: Daughter of the Wind". The story takes place in an old-fashioned "haveli" in Lahore, Pakistan.

A haveli is a traditional townhouse or mansion in the Indian subcontinent, usually one with historical and architectural significance. The word "haveli" is derived from Arabic "hawali", meaning "partition" or "private space", popularised under the Mughal Empire, and was devoid of any architectural affiliations. Later, the word "haveli" came to be used as a generic term for various styles of regional mansions, townhouse and temples found in the Indian subcontinent.

Les havelî (ou Haweli) sont des demeures, de petits palais ou des maisons de maître, parfois fortifiés que l'on trouve au Râjasthân et au Gujarat, en Inde, également au Pakistan.


Life and career.

Delerue was born 12 March 1925 in Roubaix, France, to Georges Delerue and Marie Lhoest. He was raised in a musical household; his grandfather led an amateur chorale group and his mother sang and played piano at family gatherings. By the age of fourteen he was playing clarinet at the local music conservatory. In 1940 he was forced to abandon his studies at the Turgot Institute in order to work at a factory to help support his family. He continued playing clarinet with local bands, eventually transitioning to piano under the instruction of Madame Picavet-Bacquart. He studied Bach, Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, and Grieg, and was particularly inspired by Richard Strauss. Following a long convalescence after being diagnosed with scoliosis, Georges decided to become a composer.  In 1945, following his studies at the Roubaix conservatory, Delerue was accepted into the Conservatoire de Paris, where he studied fugue with Simone Plé-Caussade and composition with Henri Büsser. To help support himself, he took jobs playing at dances, baptisms, marriages, and funerals—even performing jazz in the piano bars near the Paris Opera. In 1947 he received an honorable mention for the Rome Prize, and the following year he won the Second Grand Rome Prize. That year at the Theater Festival of Avignon, Delerue conducted a performance of "Scheherazade". In the 1949 Rome Prize competition, he won the First Second Grand Prize, and the First Prize for Composition. He began writing stage music during the late 1940s, including for the Théâtre National Populaire, Comédie-Française and the company of Jean-Louis Barrault. He also became friends with Maurice Jarre and Pierre Boulez.  By the early 1950s Delerue was composing music for short films and writing theatrical music for the Théâtre Babylone and the Opéra Comique. He began collaborating with Boris Vian on a number of projects during this time, including theatrical adaptations of "The Snow Knight" and "The Builders of Empire", an oratorio "A Regrettable Incident", and a ballet "The Barker". In 1952 he began directing the orchestra of the Club d'Essai for French National Radio and Television, and scored his first television drama "Princes du sang". In 1954 he wrote his first compositions for historical spectacles of light and sound, "Lisieux" and "The Liberation of Paris". In 1955 he composed his "Concert Symphony for Piano and Orchestra", and on 31 January 1957 his opera "The Snow Knight" premiered at Nancy and was a popular success. In 1959 he composed his first score for a feature film, "Le bel âge".  His career was diverse and he composed frequently for major art house directors, most often François Truffaut (including "Jules and Jim"), but also for Jean-Luc Godard's film "Contempt" ("Le Mépris"), and for Alain Resnais, Louis Malle, and Bernardo Bertolucci, besides working on several Hollywood productions, including Oliver Stone's "Platoon" and "Salvador".  He composed the music for Flemming Flindt's ballet, "Enetime" ("The Lesson"), based on Ionesco's play, "La Leçon". During his 42 years career he put his talent to the service of nearly 200 feature movies, 125 short ones, 70 TV films and 35 TV serials. The soundtrack for war docudrama by Pierre Schoendoerffer, "Diên Biên Phu" (1992), was one of the late notable works.  Delerue composed the music for five of the films made by the noted British director Jack Clayton. Their first collaboration was "The Pumpkin Eater" (1964), followed by "Our Mother's House" (1967). In 1982 they reunited for the Disney film version of Ray Bradbury's "Something Wicked This Way Comes", but the production was fraught with problems. Unhappy with the sinister tone of Clayton's original cut, the studio took control of the film, and held it back from release for over a year. They reportedly spent an additional $5 million on re-editing the film, cutting some scenes and replacing them with newly shot footage, with the aim of making the film more commercial and 'family-friendly'. To Delerue's great disappointment, Disney also insisted on the removal of his original music (which was considered 'too dark'), and replaced it with a new, 'lighter' score by American composer James Horner. Speaking later about the rejection of his score, Delerue said: "It was extremely painful... because it was probably the most ambitious score I wrote in the United-States." Delerue's music for the film was only available to collectors in low-quality bootleg copies until 2011, when Disney authorised the release of approximately 30 minutes of music, sourced from Delerue's personal tape copy of the score (which originally ran for over an hour). This was issued by Universal France (along with Delerue's music for the 1991 film "Regarding Henry") in a limited edition of 3000 CDs, as the inaugural release of its "Ecoutez le Cinema!" soundtrack series. Despite this disappointment, Delerue worked with Clayton twice more, on his last feature film, "The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne" (1987), and Clayton's final screen project, a feature length BBC TV adaptation of Muriel Spark's "Memento Mori" (1992), which aired just a month after Delerue's death.  Delerue made cameo appearances in "La nuit americaine" and "Les deux anglaises et le continent".  According to many testimonies he would do and redo some cues to fit the new editing of a sequence without any protestation. He insisted on being allowed to orchestrate and conduct himself in order to polish every detail. Georges Delerue had a great talent for melody and for creating surrounding overtones which encapsulated the spirit of the movies on which he collaborated, enhancing them often beyond the expectations of their directors.  Georges Delerue died on 20 March 1992 from a heart attack in Los Angeles, eight days after his 67th birthday, just after recording the last cue for the soundtrack to "Rich in Love". He is buried in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. He left behind his wife, Colette Delerue, whom he married in 1984, and his daughter Claire from an earlier marriage.

Filmography.

Georges Delerue composed the musical scores for 351 feature films, television movies, television series, documentaries, and short films. The following is a list of feature films for which he composed the music.

Discography.

The following is a select list of albums of the music of Georges Delerue.

Georges Delerue (12 March 1925 – 20 March 1992) was a French composer who composed over 350 scores for cinema and television. Delerue won numerous important film music awards, including an Academy Award for "A Little Romance" (1980), three César Awards (1979, 1980, 1981), two ASCAP Awards (1988, 1990), and one Gemini Award for "Sword of Gideon" (1987). He was also nominated for four additional Academy Awards for "Anne of the Thousand Days" (1969), "The Day of the Dolphin" (1973), "Julia" (1977), and "Agnes of God" (1985), four additional César Awards, three Golden Globe Awards, and one Genie Award for "Black Robe" (1991).

Georges Delerue, prononcé [], né le à Roubaix (Nord) et mort le à Burbank (Californie), est un compositeur et musicien français, spécialiste de musiques de films.


"Virgilius orator an poeta".

The introduction to a dialogue called "Virgilius orator an poeta" is extant, in which the author (whose name is given as Publius Annius Florus) states that he was born in Africa, and at an early age took part in the literary contests on the Capitol instituted by Domitian. Having been refused a prize owing to the prejudice against African provincials, he left Rome in disgust, and after travelling for some time, set up at Tarraco as a teacher of rhetoric. Here he was persuaded by an acquaintance to return to Rome, for it is generally agreed that he is the Florus who wrote the well-known lines quoted together with Hadrian's answer by Aelius Spartianus ("Hadrian" I 6). Twenty-six trochaic tetrameters, "De qualitate vitae", and five graceful hexameters, "De rosis", are also attributed to him.

Poems.

Florus was also an established poet. He was once thought to have been "the first in order of a number of second-century African writers who exercised a considerable influence on Latin literature, and also the first of the "poetae neoterici" or "novelli" (new-fashioned poets) of Hadrian's reign, whose special characteristic was the use of lighter and graceful meters (anapaestic and iambic dimeters), which had hitherto found little favour." Since Cameron's article on the topic, however, the existence of such a school has been widely called into question, in part because the remnants of all poets supposedly involved are too scantily attested for any definitive judgment.  The little poems will be found in E. Bahrens, "Poëtae Latini minores" (1879–1883); for an unlikely identification of Florus with the author of the "Pervigilium Veneris" see E. H. O. Müller, "De P. Anino Floro poéta et de Pervigilio Veneris" (1855), and, for the poet's relations with Hadrian, Franz Eyssenhardt, "Hadrian und Florus" (1882); see also Friedrich Marx in Pauly-Wissowa's "Realencyclopädie", i. pt. 2 (1894).  Some his better-known poems include “Quality of Life”, “Roses in Springtime”, “Roses”, “The Rose”, “Venus’ Rose-Garden”, and “The Nine Muses”. Florus’ better-known poetry is also associated with his smaller poems that he would write to Hadrian out of admiration for the emperor.

"Epitome of Roman History".

The two books of the "Epitome of Roman History" were written in admiration of the Roman people. The books illuminate many historical events in a favorable tone for the Roman citizens. The documentation the book provides is mainly based on the writings of Livy, who was a Roman historian and author responsible for the work "Ab Urbe Condita Libri". It consists of a brief sketch of the history of Rome from the foundation of the city to the closing of the temple of Janus by Augustus (25 BC). The work, which is called "Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo", is written in a bombastic and rhetorical style – a panegyric of the greatness of Rome, the life of which is divided into the periods of infancy, youth and manhood. It is often wrong in geographical and chronological details. In spite of its faults, the book was much used as a handy epitome of Roman history, in the Middle Ages, and survived as a textbook into the 19th century. Florus is credited with being politically unbiased for almost all of his work. However, many will say that after reviewing his descriptions of the civil war, he seems to position himself closer to Julius Caesar than Pompeius. Florus starts his books with the founding of Rome and ends them with the reign of Augustus. The first book of the "Epitome of Roman History" is mainly about the establishment and growth of Rome. The second is mainly about the decline of Rome and its changing morals.  Florus has taken some criticism on his writing due to inaccuracies found chronologically and geographically in his stories, but even so, the "Epitome of Roman History" was vastly popular during the late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, as well as being used as a school book until the 19th century. The use of his writings far beyond his time is a testament to his premier narrative skills.  In the manuscripts, the writer is variously named as "Julius Florus", "Lucius Anneus Florus", or simply "Annaeus Florus". From certain similarities of style, he has been identified as "Publius Annius Florus", poet, rhetorician and friend of Hadrian, author of a dialogue on the question of whether Virgil was an orator or poet, of which the introduction has been preserved.  The most accessible modern text and translation are in the Loeb Classical Library (no. 231, published 1984, ).  Christopher Plantin, Antwerp, in 1567, published two Lucius Florus texts (two title pages) in one volume. The titles were roughly as follows: 1) "L.IVLII Flori de Gestis Romanorum, Historiarum"; 2) "Commentarius I STADII L.IVLII Flori de Gestis Romanorum, Historiarum." The first title has 149 pages; the second has 222 pages plus an index in a 12mo-size book.

Tentative biography.

The Florus identified as Julius Florus was one of the young men who accompanied Tiberius on his mission to settle the affairs of Armenia. He has been variously identified with Julius Florus, a distinguished orator and uncle of Julius Secundus, an intimate friend of Quintilian ("Instit." x. 3, 13); with the leader of an insurrection of the Treviri (Tacitus, "Ann." iii. 40); with the "Postumus" of Horace ("Odes", ii. 14) and even with the historian Florus.  Under Domitian’s rule, he competed in the Capital Competition, which was an event in which poets received rewards and recognition from the emperor himself. Although he acquired great applause from the crowds, he was not victorious in the event. Florus himself blamed his loss on favoritism on behalf of the emperor.  Shortly after his defeat, Florus departed from Rome to travel abroad. His travels are said to have taken him through the Greek-speaking sections of the Roman Empire, taking in Sicily, Crete, the Cyclades, Rhodes, and Egypt.  At the conclusion of his travels, he resided in Tarraco, Spain. In Tarraco, Florus founded a school and taught literature. During this time, he also began to write the "Epitome of Roman History".  After many years in Spain, he eventually migrated back to Rome during the rule of Hadrian (117-138 AD). Hadrian and Florus became very close friends, and Florus was rumored to be involved in government affairs during the second half of Hadrian's rule.

Three main sets of works are attributed to Florus (a Roman cognomen): Virgilius orator an poeta, an Epitome of Roman History and a collection of poems (26 tetrameters, and five hexameters about roses). As to whether these were composed by the same person, or set of people, is unclear, but the works are variously attributed to:

Florus (en latin "Publius Annius Florus") est un historien romain d'origine berbère’ du à la vie méconnue, né vers 70 et mort vers 140, sans certitude.