History.

"Echorouk El Yawmi" was started in 1990 under the name of "Echorouk Al Arabi". It is independent, and often critical of the government and the Islamist rebel movements which remain active after the Algerian Civil War. The newspaper also publishes "Echorouk El Ousboui", a weekly supplement.  The newspaper's online version – "Echorouk Online" – was the third most visited website in 2010 in the MENA region.  In July 2015, "Echorouk El Yawmi" partnered with the British Council in Algeria to launch a competition to learn English. The newspaper used to publish a series of weekly articles in English from July 24 to August 20, 2015. Participants had to read the articles then answer the two asked questions on the newspaper's website, the British Council's website, or the Facebook page. The prizes were granted to five winners and were awarded in September in a ceremony held at the UK Ambassador's Residence in Algiers in presence of prominent personalities.

2006 Qadhafi affair.

In a fall 2006 trial, the leader of neighbouring Libya, Muammar Gaddafi, took the unprecedented step of suing the paper in an Algerian court for defamation. The court decided on October 31 that Ech Chorouk's reporting of Qadhafi's attempts to induce Algerian Tuaregs to separatism had slandered the Libyan leader, and suspended the paper for two months. The editor and the responsible reporter were both sentenced to six months in jail. The verdict was condemned as a strike against press freedom by virtually the entire Algerian independent press and numerous political parties, as well as from international press watchdogs.

Echorouk (in Arabic الشروق اليومي) or Ech Chorouk El Youmi (Arabic, aš-šurūqu-l-yawmi, "The Daily Dawn") is a daily newspaper in Algeria published Saturday to Thursday in the tabloid format. It is the second-largest daily Arabophone newspaper (after "El Khabar").

Echorouk (Arabe : الشروق اليومي) ou Ech Chorouk El Youmi(Arabe: aš-šurūqu-l-yawmi, "L'Aurore du Jour") est un quotidien algérien au format tabloïd créé en 1991 sous le nom dEchorouk Al Arabi.


Geography and population.

Glogovac municipality is located in central Kosovo, between the Čičavica mountains in the east and the Drenica hills in the north and west. The main road from Pristina to Peć crosses the municipality.  At a junction at Komorani village, a smaller road extends north from the highway, passing through Glogovac town and continuing to Skenderaj. There are a total of 36 villages in the municipality, including the town of Glogovac. The municipality's population prior to the 1999 bombing was approximately 58,579 made up almost entirely of Albanians, with a small number of Serbs and others only in the Glogovac town. No minorities remained in the municipality, thus Glogovac today reflects a mono-ethnic environment.

History.

The municipality of Glogovac was established before World War II. During Yugoslavia economic growth was low. Lately, there has been a gradual improvement in economic, agricultural, educational, medical and industrial growth. Municipal development has affected the construction of network-educational system, health and service network intensifying agricultural development has become especially after the construction of the irrigation system "Iber Lepenci", while a positive movement for the economy of Glogovac is marked by complex building "Ferronikeli".  Prior and during the Kosovo War (1998–99), the ethnic Albanian separatist Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) had a strong level of influence and during the war controlled large areas of the municipality. Drenica, including the Glogovac municipality was consequently badly affected. During the war, there were instances of massacres carried out by Yugoslav forces. Mass graves were later exhumed in an attempt to conceal crimes.

Services, media and organizations.

Internet services.

The strongest local Internet providing company at the area at the time is KUJTESA.Other companies like:Sky Net,Galaktika and others were established after the war at 2002 and are some of leading companies at the region.

Local and international NGOs.

The presence of the international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the municipality remains unchanged. The number of international NGOs is reduced, while their activity level can be described as modest. Only the International Committee of Red Cross (ICRC) continues to be based in Glogovac while the few other international NGOs working in Glogovac are mainly based in Pristina. These include Swiss CARITAS and the Danish Refugee Council (DRC). The most prominent local NGOs are Mother Theresa Society (MTS), the ‘Council for Defense of Human Rights and Freedoms’, Shpresa, Aureola, Gresa, Nora, and Handikos. The KLA War Veterans Association, KLA Invalids Association, Friends of KPC, Pensioners Association, Glogovac Hearing Impaired Association, Union Fund of the Republic of Kosova (UFORK) or the so- called "Bukoshi Fund" are active in the municipality as well.

Local media.

There are no local newspapers, except two temporary magazines "Realiteti" (a youth magazine) and "Spektri" (local magazine). However, there are four correspondents residing in Glogovac working for major newspapers based in Pristina. There are two Radio Stations, "92.1 Capital FM" broadcasting on a regional coverage, and "Radio Dodona" of which at the moment is not operating for unknown reasons, and there is a local TV station "Star TV" broadcasting on cable only.

Police, civil protection, and military presence.

Police in Glogovac is under the KPS management since July 2003. 15 UNMIK International police officers are mainly assisting and advising. The number of KPS is 99. They are all Kosovo Albanians. The Norwegian Kosovo Force (KFOR) contingent was taken over by the Finnish Battalion of KFOR in July 2003. The Finnish team enjoy the support of the community and has excellent co-operation with UNMIK Police, UN Civil Administration, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and other members of international and local communities. The Kosovo Protection Corps (KPC), a civilian defence unit and the successor of the KLA, numbers 60 members and is still dependent on the Regional Training Group (RTG) 1 Zone located in Skenderaj.

Economy.

UNMIK, KFOR and NGOs are the main employers in the municipality, while the majority of the population is employed in family-owned, small sized, non-productive, private businesses like shops, car washes, and petrol stations. Most businesses have officially registered with UNMIK. Glogovac is an agricultural-based, rural municipality with wheat and maize as the primary crops. Before the conflict, a socially owned agricultural enterprise dominated the production but was destroyed. As a result, a large portion of the arable land is not cultivated as of today. The cattle farm in Krajkovo is now utilised as the temporary community shelter. The Ferronikel Factory provided jobs for more than 2,000 people at the peak of its production in 1988. Heavy damages were inflicted on the facility during the 1999 conflict, leaving it inoperable. Nevertheless, the recently privatised factory is still contributing to the infrastructure of Glogovac town with power, including water supply and an electric grid. A major development is the building of the Trade Centre in Glogovac town, which was completed by mid-2004. The municipality played a central role in the whole process by co-ordinating the financing, construction and management of the project. The Trade Centre contains 134 shops and offices for small businesses. Two quarries at Korroticë e Ulët and Çikatovë e Vjeter have become operational since the conflict.  There are four nickel mines operating at the territory of Glogovac: Čikatovo, Dushkaja, Gllavica and Suke.

Infrastructure.

The roads in the municipality range from good to poor. The main road has been redone. Local roads in the town and roads in the majority of villages remain a primary concern. During rainy or icy weather conditions it is difficult to reach some of the more remote villages due to the poor road conditions. All over the municipality there is a great lack of appropriate sewage systems in place, although in some areas the system was rehabilitated during 2001 and 2002. Telephone land lines are operational and the usage of mobile phones is the main form of communication. Electricity is available with daily power cuts, similar to the rest of the country. Latest developments include work done on the sewage network in Bushat and Drenasi II, construction of Court building and restoration of the Town Hall. Furthermore, the decision by EAR to discontinue the housing reconstruction program negatively impacted on the municipality where 1171 homes remain to be rebuilt.

Social services, health, and education.

According to the information from the Social Centre, there are 2,166 families receiving social assistance. A specialized team is dispatched to deal with traumatized people and domestic violence problems. A Health Center and six small Clinics serve the immediate need of population in Glogovac. A lack of sufficient amount of medicine and specialized equipment is notable. The outstanding issue of reimbursing the additional staff has been a major issue during 2003 and 2004. Despite the allocation of funds during the course of last year, no similar provisions have been made for 2004. In 2002 eight new buildings, including elementary schools and one pre-primary school were built, while in 2003 an additional primary school was constructed. In Glogovac municipality there are 21 primary schools, 2 secondary schools and 2 pre-primary school. The quality of teachers is less than desirable as many of them do not have the necessary qualifications. The overcrowding of schools presents one of the most persisting dilemmas for the municipality. The additional of “9th” class has further overburdened an existing malfunctioning system. There is a need for more kindergarten facilities, pre-primary and primary schools, and upgrading of the existing schools. Another persisting problem is the effective de-politicization of educational institutes, intensive training for the teachers and revision of the curriculum.

Glogovac () or Gllogoc (in Albanian), is a town and municipality located in the Pristina District in central Kosovo. According to the 2011 census, the town of Glogovac had 6,143 inhabitants, while the municipality had 58,531 inhabitants.

Gllogoc ou Drenas en albanais et Glogovac en serbe latin {en serbe cyrillique : ; autres noms albanais : et ) est une ville et une commune/municipalité du Kosovo située dans le district de Pristina (Kosovo) ou dans le district de Kosovo (Serbie). Selon le recensement kosovar de 2011, la commune compte et la ville "intra muros".


Football career.

Born in Praia, Cape Verde, Furtado started his football career in Portugal with lowly Casa Pia A.C. in the Lisbon area, where he also made his senior debuts. He moved to FC Porto in 2003, playing one full season with its reserves then moving on loan to another modest club, G.D. Tourizense.  In June 2005, Furtado, still on loan from Porto, signed with Bulgarian team FC Vihren Sandanski, where he scored regularly in the First Professional Football League. In the following January transfer window, he was sold to fellow league side PFC CSKA Sofia for €300.000.  Furtado's spell with the "armymen" also started in a scoring fashion, but eventually ended on a sour note: he fell out with manager Stoycho Mladenov due to disciplinary breaches (being temporarily removed from the squad), and was also involved in a physical confrontation with captain Valentin Iliev, which ultimately led to his return to Portugal.  In the summer of 2007, Furtado moved to the Portuguese Primeira Liga as he signed with F.C. Paços de Ferreira. On 18 August he made his debut in the competition by playing the second half of a 1–3 away loss against C.S. Marítimo, and was relatively used during the campaign in a second-to-last finish with the subsequent relegation – later reinstatement due to Boavista FC's irregularities.  Furtado split 2008–09 with Paços and U.D. Leiria, then moved abroad again, signing for Ionikos F.C. in the Greek second level. In his first year, he finished third in the competition's top scorers list but his team could only rank 15th, the last position before the relegation zone.  In 2010, Furtado signed for Pas Giannina FC, still in Greece and its second division. More of the same happened in the 2011–12 season, with Panachaiki FC.

José Emílio Robalo Furtado (born 14 March 1983) is a Cape Verdean professional former footballer who played as a striker. He also holds Portuguese citizenship.

José Emílio Robalo Furtado, né le à Praia (Cap-Vert) est un footballeur cap-verdien naturalisé portugais, qui évolue au poste d'attaquant.


What's My Line (Buffy the Vampire Slayer)

Plot.

Part one.

Spike works on a cure for Drusilla. Dalton, a vampire transcriber, is unable to decipher the book stolen from the library which contains a cure. Drusilla informs Spike that they need a key because the book is in code.  Buffy witnesses Dalton stealing an object from a mausoleum, but he escapes when she is distracted by another vampire. She enters her bedroom and finds Angel waiting to warn her of grave danger. Buffy reports to Giles, and he is concerned when she tells him about the theft from the mausoleum.  Spike and Drusilla examine the key stolen by Dalton, a gold cross. Spike decides to call the Order of Taraka, an ancient guild of assassins, to rid himself of Buffy once and for all. Back at school, Willow is taken into a secluded lounge area to be recruited by a leading software company, along with Oz, the boy who has been watching her for weeks. At the mausoleum, Giles realizes that Josephus du Lac, the author of the book stolen from the library, is buried there and that the book's key was taken from the mausoleum.  The assassins begin to arrive. A large, intimidating man exits a bus, and a door-to-door beauty salesman attacks Buffy's next-door neighbor. A young woman attacks an airplane worker in the cargo hold of a plane, escaping with little difficulty.  Giles tells Buffy, Xander, and Willow about the "du Lac Cross" which can be used as the key, and he enlists their help with further research. Buffy arrives at the ice skating stadium for a date with Angel. She is attacked, but Angel arrives in time to help her fight off the assassin whom she kills with the blade of her skate. Angel, recognizing the assassin's ring, warns Buffy that she should leave Sunnydale and hide. The female from the plane watches from the shadows.  The assassin next-door to Buffy's house feeds on the neighbors's body by disintegrating into hundreds of writhing mealworms which can reshape themselves into limbs at will. Buffy is paranoid and jittery, suspicious of each person who passes by in the hallways at school, including Oz. Buffy arrives at Angel's empty home and falls asleep in his bed. Angel goes to Willy's bar for information, and Willy finally confirms Angel's suspicions that Spike is behind the assassins. Before Angel can leave, he is attacked by the mysterious female. She locks him in a metal cage in front of an eastern window, with only a few hours until sunrise.  Giles reveals that the missing manuscript contains a ritual to restore a weakened vampire back to health. Xander and Cordelia enter Buffy's house, and Xander searches for her while Cordelia waits downstairs. She hears a knock at the door and lets in the mealworm assassin. In Angel's bedroom, Buffy is attacked by the mysterious woman. They fight, and the woman tells Buffy that her name is Kendra the Vampire Slayer.

Part two.

Realising that they are both slayers, Buffy and Kendra go to Giles for assistance in explaining the situation. They learn that Kendra was called when Buffy temporarily died in her fight with The Master in "Prophecy Girl". Meanwhile, Willy has saved Angel from certain death, but sold him out to Spike. Spike takes Angel back to the warehouse, where he will be held until he can be sacrificed to restore Drusilla to full strength.  Xander and Cordelia run and hide in the basement, although before long they are arguing with each other. After an unexpected kiss, they rush to escape, running past the attacking mealworm assassin. At school, Buffy, whose test results recommend a career in law enforcement, attends a career seminar. The police officer leading the seminar tries to shoot Buffy. Oz is shot and slightly injured as he pushes Willow out of harm's way. Kendra comes to Buffy's rescue, and they fight off the attacker. The Scoobies then gather in the library, where Giles announces that Spike intends for Angel to die in the ritual to restore Drusilla.  Angel is tortured by Drusilla, both emotionally and physically; she pours holy water on him as she reminds him about how he killed her whole family. Angel taunts Spike with insinuations that Spike is unable to satisfy Drusilla, in the hope that Spike will kill him before he can be used to cure Drusilla. Meanwhile, Kendra gains a newfound respect for Buffy's qualities as a slayer. Later, the slayers go after Willy to learn what happened to Angel; they force Willy to take them to the location of Spike and Angel. However, Willy leads them to the assassins, and the ritual has already begun. Buffy attacks Spike to save Angel, and Kendra and the Scooby Gang arrive to back her up. Xander and Cordelia lure the mealworm assassin underneath a door into a liquid glue trap. Willow and Giles stake a vampire while Buffy and Kendra fight several of their own. Spike starts a fire and rushes to rescue the unconscious Drusilla, hoping that the ritual has had time to cure her. Buffy prevents their exit, crushing them in falling rubble. She helps the weakened Angel to exit the building.  With the danger over, it is time for Kendra to leave. Buffy and Kendra discuss their position as slayer. Kendra remarks that Buffy considers slaying to be a job when it is actually a part of who she is. The two, now friends, say their goodbyes and Buffy is left with a new outlook on her position as the slayer, as well as the knowledge that she is no longer alone in her calling.  At the remains of the church, Spike lies seriously injured under the rubble. Drusilla rises, the ritual having worked and restored her to full power. She carries her partner out of the debris, promising to return the favor and make him as powerful as her.

Reception.

Part one pulled in 3.5 million households on its original airing, while part two had an audience of 3.9 million households.

"What's My Line" is a two-episode story in season two of the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer". In part one, Buffy endures Career Week at school while Spike hires assassins to kill her; a fierce fighter who identifies herself as "Kendra the Vampire Slayer" shows up in Sunnydale. In part two, Angel is taken by Spike for a ritual in which Drusilla is restored to health.

Kendra est un épisode en deux parties (épisodes 9 et 10) de la saison 2 de la série télévisée "Buffy contre les vampires".


Biography.

Early life.

Ang Mey was born in 1815 as the second daughter of Ang Chan II, king of Cambodia during the Oudong period, by his second wife, Neak Moneang Krachap.  After King Ang Chan II died in 1834, there was no heir apparent to the Khmer throne. The king had no son but four daughters: Princess Baen, Mey, Peou and Sngon. This delighted Vietnam and Siam, both of which wanted to eliminate the royal rulers in Cambodia. Although Ang Chan's surviving brothers, Ang Im and Ang Duang, immediately laid claim to the throne, the Vietnamese then occupying Cambodia did not allow them to be crowned.  Instead, the Vietnamese emperor and the Cambodian courtiers chose to install Ang Chan II's eldest daughter, Princess Ang Baen, as the sovereign. However, she was passed over due to her being sympathetic to the Thai court's interests and her refusal to marry the emperor's son. Ang Mey was an alternative to her sister, Baen. A Thai manuscript stated that the Vietnamese had tried to persuade Ang Mey to marry the son of emperor Gia Long in order to facilitate the incorporation of Cambodia into Vietnam, however this plan was abandoned at strong objections from Cambodian nobles.

Puppet queen.

In May 1835, Ang Mey was crowned with the title of "quan-chua" (郡主) or "Commandery Princess," a title of princess which was lower than gong-chua (公主), bestowed by the court of Hué. Her three sisters were given the title "huyen quan" (縣君), or "sub-prefecture ladies". The Vietnamese kept close guard over the Ang princesses. Queen Ang Mey had two companies of soldiers, 100 men in total, for her personal protection. The other three Cambodian princesses were each assigned thirty soldiers. Ostensibly for their safety, the guards were in reality assigned to ensure that they did not escape.  During Ang Mey's reign, all Cambodian women were ordered to wear Vietnamese-style pyjamas instead of the khmer sampot (similar to the sarong), and had to grow their hair long in Vietnamese style. The market sold only Vietnamese food. Khmer classical dance had assimilated elements of Vietnamese and Chinese tradition. Cambodian officials had to don Vietnamese ceremonial garb. Wats were destroyed in order to eradicate the Khmer identity. Places also received Vietnamese names. The area around Phnom Penh was renamed from Annam to "Tran Tay", or "Western Commandery". The Cambodian people, not accustomed to be ruled by a Queen and despairing of the "Vietnamization" of their country, asked the Siamese to install a male ruler, Ang Duong, brother of Ang Chan II.  In 1840, the elder sister of Ang Mey, Princess Baen, was discovered corresponding with her mother and uncle who were living in Battambang and planning to escape to them. The princess was imprisoned pending her trial in Phnom Penh. The Vietnamese emperor, Minh Mạng, demoted Mey and the other princesses. In August 1841 they were all arrested and deported to Vietnam along with the royal regalia. Around that time, some of Ang Mey's relatives were imprisoned on the island of Poulo Condore. According to Thai and Cambodian sources, Ang Baen was drowned in the Mekong river, although Khin Sok states that Baen was tortured to death by the Vietnamese general and her body thrown in the river.  Spurred by the death of Princess Ang Baen and the absence of their Queen Ang Mey, many Cambodian courtiers and their followers revolted against the Vietnamese rule. Seizing the opportunity Siam invaded Cambodia in an attempt to install Ang Duong on the throne as their own puppet, triggering the Siamese–Vietnamese War (1841–45). In an attempt to defuse the rebellion, Vietnamese officials in Phnom Penh called for the return of Mey to Cambodia but the emperor Ming Mang refused. Only when the Vietnamese counter-offensive gained momentum and victory seemed assured was Mey returned to Phnom Penh. Her proclamation in March 1844 intended for the provincial officials and leaders sought their support while Ang Duong issued similar appeals from Oudong for his claim to the throne. Queen Ang Mey was reinstated as a queen and her sisters, Poeu and Sngon, as sub-prefecture rulers, in 1844.  As the warring factions fought to a stalemate in 1845, the Thai and Vietnamese initiated talks to resolve the Cambodian succession. In October 1846, the Vietnamese released the daughter and other family members of Ang Duong to join him in Oudong. Vietnam and Siam forged a compromise whereby both Ang Duong and Ang Mey would rule together are co-sovereigns. However, when the simultaneous coronation was held in Bangkok and Phnom Penh in 1848, records only show Ang Duong's accession to the throne. His niece, Ang Mey, was recorded as his successor instead of co-sovereign.

Later life.

After her reign concluded, Ang Mey lived with memories of death and dishonour for over twenty years. She did not succeed the throne after Ang Duong's death. His son and heir, Norodom, left her in the care of an old retainer when he and his court moved to Phnom Penh. At Oudong, Ang Mey carried on, although sources described her as "unbalanced" when she took merchandise by her right as queen. Her servants had to intervene to placate the merchants.  She later married an unknown man and had two daughters. She and her husband died in an accident in late December 1874 but were cremated at Phnom Penh in 1884.

Life and reign of scandal.

Ang Mey was portrayed as a puppet of the Vietnamese emperor and officials in sources like "The Cambodia Chronicle". Ang Duong took care to emphasize association between Mey and the Vietnamese, and blamed her rule for the loss of indentured slaves. Most chronicles of the period imply that the Cambodian courtiers acquiesced to Ang Mey as their sovereign while secretly holding out for Ang Im or Ang Duong to return as sovereign. There were even rumors that Mey was a concubine of Truong Minh Giang, the Vietnamese governor in Phnom Penh but there is no historical evidence of such a liaison. Others tempered their allegation of Ang Mey's misdeeds; the once beautiful princess may have sold her country, but not her body, to the Vietnamese.  During the succession crisis, Ang Mey did seem to seek a peaceful solution to the factional strife in Cambodia, corresponding through Ang Duong's envoys that she wished for a return to peace and the family's reunion. This may have been at diplomatic response; the Vietnamese annals described her as an intelligent young lady at the time of her accession. Sudden and forced relocations to Vietnam and back, the murder of her sisters, and continued changes in her status may have induced hysterical or untoward behaviour. By the end of her reign, Ang Mey reportedly was mad.  Cambodian history has constructed Mey as a passive victim hardly legitimate in the eye of her own people, her reign a disaster during which Khmer territory, culture, and independence was almost lost. While it cannot be denied that the Vietnamese were in control of Cambodia during Ang Mey's reign, she inherited a country that had already been mortgaged to the Court of Hué by her father, Ang Chan II. Mey was crowned sovereign of a kingdom under Vietnamese overlordship. It is difficult to ascertain what course of action other than acquiescence was available to her.

Queen Ang Mey ( ; 1815 – December 1874) was the 97th monarch of Cambodia. Her official title was Her Majesty Samdech Preah Maha Rajini Ang Mey. She was one of three female rulers in Cambodia's history, the others being Queen Soma and Queen Sisowath Kossamak. Installed on the Cambodian throne by the Vietnamese, her reign was dominated by the Siamese-Vietnamese War (1841–1845)

Ang Mey (née vers 1815 morte après 1845) fut reine nominale du Cambodge de 1834 à 1841 et de 1844 à 1845.


Background.

Part V of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles had imposed severe restrictions on the size and capacities of Germany's armed forces. Germany was allowed no submarines, no naval aviation, and only six obsolete pre-dreadnought battleships; the total naval forces allowed to the Germans were six heavy cruisers of no more than 10,000 tons displacement, six light cruisers of no more than 6,000 tons displacement, twelve destroyers of no more than 800 tonnes displacement and twelve torpedo boats.  Through the interwar years, German opinion had protested these restrictions as harsh and unjust, and demanded that either all the other states of Europe disarm down to German levels, or Germany be allowed to rearm to the level of all the other European states. In the UK, where after 1919 guilt was felt

London Naval Conference.

Equally important as one of the origins of the Treaty were the deep cuts made to the Royal Navy after the Washington Naval Conference of 1921–22 and the London Naval Conference 1930. The cuts imposed by the two conferences, combined with the effects of the Great Depression, caused the collapse of much of the UK's shipbuilding industry in the early 1930s. That seriously hindered efforts at British naval rearmament later in the decade, leading the Admiralty to value treaties with quantitative and qualitative limitations on potential enemies as the best way of ensuring the UK's sea supremacy. Maiolo argues that it

World Disarmament Conference.

In February 1932, the World Disarmament Conference opened in Geneva, Switzerland. Among the more hotly-debated issues at the conference was the German demand for "Gleichberechtigung" ("equality of armaments", abolishing Part V of Versailles) as opposed to the French demand for "sécurité" ("security"), maintaining Part V. The UK attempted to play the "honest broker" and sought to seek a compromise between the French claim to "sécurité" and the German claim to "Gleichberechtigung", which in practice meant backing the German claim to rearm beyond Part V, but not allowing the Germans to rearm enough to threaten France. Several of the UK's compromise proposals along these lines

Adolf Hitler.

During the 1920s, Hitler's thinking on foreign policy went through a dramatic change. At the beginning of his political career Hitler was hostile to the UK, considering it an enemy of the "Reich". However, after the UK opposed the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923, he came to rank the UK as a potential ally. In "Mein Kampf", and even more in its sequel, "Zweites Buch", Hitler strongly criticised the pre-1914 German government for embarking on a naval and colonial challenge to the British Empire, and in Hitler's view, needlessly antagonizing the UK. In Hitler's view, the UK was a fellow "Aryan" power, whose friendship could be won by a German "renunciation" of naval and colonial ambitions against the UK. In return for such a "renunciation", Hitler expected an Anglo-German alliance directed at France and the Soviet Union, and the UK's support for the German efforts to acquire "Lebensraum" in Eastern Europe. As the first step towards the Anglo-German alliance, Hitler had written in "Mein Kampf" of his intention to seek a "sea pact", by which Germany would "renounce" any naval challenge against the UK.  In January 1933, Hitler became the German chancellor. The new government in Germany had inherited a strong negotiating position at Geneva from the previous government of General Kurt von Schleicher. The German strategy was to make idealistic offers of limited rearmament, out of the expectation that all such offers would be rejected by the French, allowing Germany to go on ultimately with the maximum rearmament. The ultra-nationalism of the Nazi regime had alarmed the French, who put the most minimal possible interpretation of German "theoretical equality" in armaments, and thereby played into the German strategy. In October 1933, the Germans again walked out of the conference, stating that everyone else should either disarm to the Versailles level, or allow Germany to rearm beyond Versailles. Though the Germans never had any serious interest in accepting any of the UK's various compromise proposals, in London, the German walk-out was widely, if erroneously, blamed on French "intransigence". The UK Government was left with

U-boat construction.

Though every government of the Weimar Republic had violated Part V of Versailles, in 1933 and 1934, the Nazi government had become more flagrant and open in violating Part V. In 1933, the Germans started to build their first U-boats since World War I, and in April 1935, launched their first U-boats. On 25 April 1935, the UK's naval attaché to Germany, Captain Gerard Muirhead-Gould was officially informed by Captain Leopold Bürkner of the "Reichsmarine" that Germany had laid down twelve 250 ton U-boats at Kiel. On 29 April 1935, the Foreign Secretary Sir John Simon informed the British House of Commons that Germany was now building U-boats. On 2 May 1935, the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald told the House of his government's intention to reach a naval pact to regulate the future growth of the German Navy. In a more general sense, because of the UK's championing of German "theoretical equality" at the World Disarmament Conference, London was in a weak moral position to oppose the German violations. The German response to the UK's complaints about violations of Part V were that they were merely unilaterally exercising rights the UK's delegation at Geneva were prepared to concede to the "Reich". In March 1934, a British Foreign Office memo stated "Part V of the Treaty of

Talks.

In early March 1935, talks intended to discuss the scale and extent of German rearmament in Berlin between Hitler and Simon were postponed when Hitler took offence at a UK Government White Paper that justified a higher defence budget under the grounds that Germany was violating the Versailles Treaty, and he claimed to have contracted a "cold". In the interval between Hitler "recovering" and Simon's visit, the German government took the chance for formally rejecting all the clauses of Versailles relating to disarmament on the land and air. In the 1930s, the UK Government was obsessed with the idea of a German bombing attack destroying London and so placed a great deal of value on reaching an air pact outlawing bombing. The idea of a naval agreement was felt to be a useful stepping stone to an air pact. On 26 March 1935, during one of his meetings with Simon, and his deputy Anthony Eden, Hitler stated his intention to reject the naval disarmament section of Versailles but was prepared to discuss a treaty regulating the scale of German naval rearmament. On 21 May 1935, Hitler in a speech in Berlin formally offered to discuss a treaty offering a German Navy that was to operate forever on a 35:100 naval ratio. During his "peace speech" of 21 May, Hitler disavowed any intention of engaging in a pre-1914 style naval race with the UK, and he stated: "The German "Reich" government recognises of itself the overwhelming importance for existence and thereby the justification of dominance at sea to protect the British Empire, just as, on the other hand, we are determined to do everything necessary in protection of our own continental existence and freedom". For Hitler, his speech illustrated the "quid pro quo" of an Anglo-German alliance, the UK's acceptance of German mastery of Continental Europe in exchange for German acceptance of the UK's mastery over the seas.  On 22 May 1935, the British Cabinet voted for formally taking up Hitler's offers of 21 May as soon as possible. Sir Eric Phipps, the UK's ambassador in Berlin, advised London that no chance at a naval agreement with Germany should be lost "owing

Text.

"Exchange of Notes between His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom and the German Government regarding the Limitation of Naval Armaments-London, 18 June 1935.  Sir Samuel Hoare to Herr von Ribbentrop Your Excellency, Foreign Office, June 18, 1935  During the last few days the representatives of the German Government and His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom have been engaged in conversations, the primary purpose of which has been to prepare the way for the holding of a general conference on the subject of the limitation of naval armaments. I have now much pleasure in notifying your Excellency of the formal acceptance by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of the proposal of the German Government discussed at those conversations that the future strength of the German navy in relation to the aggregate naval strength of the Members of the British Commonwealth of Nations should be in the proportion of 35:100. His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom regard this proposal as a contribution of the greatest importance to the cause of future naval limitation. They further believe that the agreement which they have now reached with the German government, and which they regard as a permanent and definite agreement as from to-day between the two Governments, will facilitate the conclusion of a general agreement on the subject of naval limitation between all the naval Powers of the world.  2. His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom also agree with the explanations which were furnished by the German representatives in the course of the recent discussions in London as the method of application of this principle. These explanations may be summarised as follows:-  (a) The ratio of 35:100 is to be a permanent relationship, i.e. the total tonnage of the German fleet shall never exceed a percentage of 35 of the aggregate tonnage of the naval forces, as defined by treaty, of the Members of the British Commonwealth of Nations, or, if there should in the future, be no treaty limitations of the Members of the British Commonwealth of Nations.  (b) If any future general treaty of naval limitation should not adopt the method of limitation by agreed ratios between the fleets of different Powers, the German Government will not insist on the incorporation of the ratio mentioned in the preceding sub-paragraph in such future general treaty, provided that the method therein adopted for the future limitation of naval armaments is such as to give Germany full guarantees that this ratio can be maintained.  (c) Germany will adhere to the ratio 35:100 in all circumstances, e.g. the ratio will not be affected by the construction of other Powers. If the general equilibrium of naval armaments, as normally maintained in the past, should be violently upset by any abnormal and exceptional construction by other Powers, the German Government reserve the right to invite His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom to examine the new situation thus created.  (d)The German Government favour, the matter of limitation of naval armaments, that system which divides naval vessels into categories, fixing the maximum tonnage and/or armament for vessels in each category,

French reaction.

The Naval Pact was signed in London on 18 June 1935 without the UK Government consulting with France and Italy, or, later, informing them of the secret agreements which stipulated that the Germans could build in certain categories more powerful warships than any of the three Western nations then possessed. The French regarded this as treachery. They saw it as

Impact.

Because of the lengthy period needed to construct warships and the short duration of the agreement its impact was limited. It was estimated by both German and British naval experts that the earliest year that Germany could reach the 35% limit was 1942. In practice, lack of shipbuilding space, design problems, shortages of skilled workers, and the scarcity of foreign exchange to purchase necessary raw materials slowed the rebuilding of the German Navy. A lack of steel and non-ferrous metals caused by the "Kriegsmarine" being third in terms of German rearmament priorities, behind the Heer and the Luftwaffe, led to the "Kriegsmarine" (as the German Navy had been renamed in 1935) being still far from the 35% limit when Hitler denounced the agreement in 1939.  The requirement for the "Kriegsmarine" to divide its 35% tonnage ratio by warship categories had the effect of forcing the Germans to build a symmetrical "balanced fleet" shipbuilding program that reflected the UK's priorities. Since the Royal Navy's leadership thought that the "balanced fleet" would be the easiest German fleet to defeat and a German "guerre-de-course" fleet the most dangerous, the agreement brought the UK considerable strategic benefits. Above all, since the Royal Navy did not build "pocket battleships", Chatfield valued the end of the "Panzerschiff" building.  When the "Kriegsmarine" began planning for a war with the UK in May 1938, the "Kriegsmarine's" senior operations officer, Commander Hellmuth Heye, concluded the best strategy for the "Kriegsmarine" was a "Kreuzerkrieg" fleet of U-boats, light cruisers and "Panzerschiff" operating in tandem. He was critical of the existing building priorities dictated by the agreement since there was no realistic possibility of a German "balanced fleet" defeating the Royal Navy. In response, senior German naval officers started to advocate a switch to a "Kreuzerkrieg" type fleet that would pursue a "guerre-de-course" strategy of attacking the British Merchant Marine, but they were overruled by Hitler, who insisted on the prestige of Germany building a "balanced fleet". Such a fleet would attempt a Mahanian strategy of winning maritime supremacy by a decisive battle with the Royal Navy in the North Sea. Historians such as Joseph Maiolo, Geoffrey Till and the authors of the "Kriegsmarine" Official History have agreed with Chatfield's contention that a "Kreuzerkrieg" fleet offered Germany the best chance for damaging the UK's power and that the UK benefited strategically by ensuring that such a fleet was not built in the 1930s. In the field of Anglo-German relations, the agreement had considerable importance. The UK expressed hope, as Craigie informed Ribbentrop, that it "was designed to facilitate further agreements within a wider framework and there was no further thought behind it". In addition, the UK viewed it as a "yardstick" for measuring German intentions towards the UK. Hitler regarded it as marking the beginning of an Anglo-German alliance and was much annoyed when this did not result.  By 1937, Hitler started to increase both the

Munich agreement and denunciation.

At the conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement in September 1938, Hitler informed Neville Chamberlain that if the UK's policy was "to make it clear in certain circumstances" that the UK might be intervening in a mainland European war, the political preconditions for the agreement no longer existed, and Germany should denounce it. This led to Chamberlain including mention of it in the Anglo-German Declaration of 30 September 1938. By the late 1930s, Hitler's disillusionment with the UK's led to German foreign policy taking increasing anti-UK course. An important sign of Hitler's changed perceptions about the UK was his decision in January 1939 to give first priority to the "Kriegsmarine" in allocations of money, skilled workers and raw materials and to launch Plan Z to build a colossal "Kriegsmarine" of 10 battleships, 16 "pocket battleships", 8 aircraft carriers, 5 heavy cruisers, 36 light cruisers and 249 U-boats by 1944 purposed to crush the Royal Navy. Since the fleet envisioned in the Z Plan was considerably larger than allowed by the 35:100 ratio in the agreement, it was inevitable that Germany would renounce it. Over the winter of 1938–39, it became clearer to London that the Germans no longer intended to abide by the agreement, which played a role in straining Anglo-German relations. Reports received in October 1938 that the Germans were considering denouncing the agreement were used by Halifax in Cabinet discussions for the need for a tougher policy with the "Reich". The German statement of 9 December 1938 of intending to build to 100% ratio allowed in submarines by the agreement and to the limits in heavy cruisers led to a speech by Chamberlain before the correspondents of the German News Agency in London that warned of the "futility of ambition, if ambition leads to the desire for domination".  At the same time, Halifax informed Herbert von Dirksen, the German ambassador to the UK, that his government viewed the talks to discuss the details of the German building escalation as a test case for German sincerity. When the talks began in Berlin on 30 December 1938, the Germans took an obdurate approach, leading London to conclude that the Germans did not wish for the talks to succeed.  In response to the UK's "guarantee" of Poland of 31 March 1939, Hitler, enraged by the UK's move proclaimed "I shall brew them a devil's drink". In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz, Hitler threatened to denounce the agreement if the UK persisted with its "encirclement" policy, as represented by the "guarantee" of Polish independence. On 28 April 1939, Hitler denounced the AGNA. To provide an excuse for its denunciation of and to prevent the emergence of a new naval treaty, the Germans began refusing to share information about their shipbuilding, leaving the UK with the choice of either accepting the unilateral German move or rejecting it, thus providing the Germans with the excuse to denounce the treaty.  At a Cabinet meeting on 3 May 1939, the First Lord of Admiralty, Lord Stanhope, stated that "at the present time Germany was building ships as fast as she could but that she would not be able to exceed the 35 per cent ratio before 1942 or 1943". Chatfield, now Minister for the Co-ordination of Defence, commented that Hitler had "persuaded himself" that the UK had provided the "Reich" with a "free hand" in Eastern Europe in exchange for the agreement. Chamberlain stated that the UK had never given such an understanding to Germany, and he commented that he first learned of Hitler's belief in such an implied bargain during his meeting with the Führer at the Berchtesgaden summit in September 1938. In a later paper to the Cabinet, Chatfield stated "that we might say that we now understood Herr Hitler had in 1935 thought that we had given him a free hand in Eastern and Central Europe in return for his acceptance of the 100:35 ratio, but that as we could not accept the correctness of this view it might be better that the 1935 arrangements should be abrogated".  In the end, the UK's reply to the German move was a diplomatic note, strongly disputing the German claim that the UK was attempting to "encircle" Germany with hostile alliances. The German denunciation and reports of increased German shipbuilding in June 1939 caused by the Z Plan played a significant part in persuading the Chamberlain government of the need to "contain" Germany by building a "Peace front" of states in both Western and Eastern Europe and raised the perception in the Chamberlain government in 1939 that German policies were a threat to the UK.

The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 was a naval agreement between the United Kingdom and Germany regulating the size of the "Kriegsmarine" in relation to the Royal Navy.

Le traité naval germano-britannique ( (AGNA|) était un traité bilatéral signé le par le Royaume-Uni et le Troisième Reich. Torpillant les dispositions du traité de Versailles et de la conférence de Stresa, il est signé entre Joachim von Ribbentrop pour les Allemands et Samuel Hoare pour les Britanniques. Ceux-ci, sans concerter leurs alliés de la Première Guerre mondiale, autorisent le Troisième Reich à disposer d'une flotte de guerre au tonnage limité de façon permanente à 35% de celui de la Royal Navy.


History.

Following the 1898 discovery of radium through chemical analysis of radioactive ore, Marie and Pierre Curie observed a new radioactive substance emanating from radium in 1899 that was strongly radioactive for several days. Around the same time, Ernest Rutherford and Robert B. Owens observed a similar (though shorter-lived) emission from thorium compounds. German physicist Friedrich Ernst Dorn extensively studied these emanations in the early 1900s and attributed them to a new gaseous element, radon. In particular, he studied the product in the uranium series, radon-222, which he called "radium emanation".  In the early 20th century, the element radon was known by several different names. Chemist William Ramsay, who extensively studied the element's chemical properties, suggested the name "niton", and Rutherford originally suggested "emanation". At that time, "radon" only referred to the isotope Rn, whereas the names "actinon" and "thoron" denoted Rn and Rn, respectively. In 1957, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) promoted the name "radon" to refer to the element rather than just Rn; this was done under a new rule concerning isotope naming conventions. This decision was controversial because it was believed to give undue credit to Dorn's identification of radon-222 over Rutherford's identification of radon-220, and the historical use of the name radon created confusion as to whether the element or the isotope Rn was being discussed.

Decay properties.

Radon-222 is generated in the uranium series from the alpha decay of radium-226, which has a half-life of 1600 years. Radon-222 itself alpha decays to polonium-218 with a half-life of approximately 3.82 days, making it the most stable isotope of radon. Its final decay product is stable lead-206.  In theory, Rn is capable of double beta decay to Ra, and depending on the mass measurement, single beta decay to Fr may also be allowed. These decay modes have been searched for, yielding lower partial half-life limits of 8 years for both transitions. If the beta decay of Rn is possible, it is predicted to have a very low decay energy (24 ± 21 keV) and thus a half-life on the order of 10 years, also resulting in a very low branching probability relative to alpha decay.

Occurrence and hazards.

All radon isotopes are hazardous owing to their radioactivity, gaseous nature, chemical inertness, and radioactivity of their decay products (progeny). Radon-222 is especially dangerous because its longer half-life allows it to permeate soil and rocks, where it is produced in trace quantities from decays of uranium-238, and concentrate in buildings and uranium mines. This contrasts with the other natural isotopes that decay far more quickly (half-lives less than 1 minute) and thus do not contribute significantly to radiation exposure. At higher concentrations, gaseous Rn may be inhaled and decay before exhalation, which leads to a buildup of its daughters Po and Po in the lungs, whose high-energy alpha and gamma radiation damages cells. Extended periods of exposure to Rn and its progeny ultimately induce lung cancer. Alternatively, radon may enter the body through contaminated drinking water or through the decay of ingested radium – making radon diffusion one of the greatest dangers of radium. Thus, Rn is a carcinogen; in fact, it is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the United States after cigarette smoking, with over 20,000 deaths per year attributed to radon-induced lung cancer.

Radon-222 (Rn, Rn-222, historically radium emanation or radon) is the most stable isotope of radon, with a half-life of approximately 3.8 days. It is transient in the decay chain of primordial uranium-238 and is the immediate decay product of radium-226. Radon-222 was first observed in 1899, and was identified as an isotope of a new element several years later. In 1957, the name "radon", formerly the name of only radon-222, became the name of the element. Owing to its gaseous nature and high radioactivity, radon-222 is one of the leading causes of lung cancer.

Le radon 222, noté Rn, est l'isotope du radon dont le nombre de masse est égal à 222 : son noyau atomique compte 86 protons et 136 neutrons avec un spin 0+ pour une masse atomique de 222,0175705 g/mol. Il est caractérisé par un excès de masse de 16 366 787 ± 2 513 eV/c et une énergie de liaison nucléaire de 1 708 184 484 ± 2 532 eV.


Taxonomy and systematics.

Dupont's lark was originally described by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1820 and placed in the genus "Alauda". It was named for the French naturalist Léonard Puech Dupont, who had collected the species and showed it to Vieillot.

Subspecies.

Two subspecies are recognized:

Description.

Like most other larks, Dupont's lark is an undistinguished looking species on the ground. It is 17–18 cm long, slim, with a long neck, long legs and a fine slightly curved bill. It has a thin pale crown stripe and a dark-streaked breast. The north-western Dupont's lark of Europe and north-west Africa is mainly brown-grey above and pale below. The south-eastern Dupont's lark, which occupies most of the rest of the African range, has rufous upperparts.

Vocalisations.

Its song is a repeated thin, melancholic whistling phrase, very ventriloquial (difficult to locate) and a nasal whistle given mainly at dawn and dusk or at night.

Distribution and habitat.

It breeds across much of northern Africa, from Algeria to Egypt, and in Spain and France. It is a non-migratory resident. It is a species that commonly inhabits chaparral areas. However, it experiences a 3.9% annual population decrease in Spain with a 32.8% decrease from 2008-2018, shifting its conservation status to vulnerable on the national level and endangered in the regions of Andalusia and Castile-Leon.

Behaviour and ecology.

This is a very shy species, which runs for cover when disturbed. It is difficult to see while running among vegetation but it sometimes sings, standing upright on the edge of a low bush.

Breeding.

This is a bird of open sandy semi-desert or steppe with some grass. Its nest is on the ground, with three or four eggs being laid. Its food is seeds and insects.

Dupont's lark ("Chersophilus duponti") is a species of lark in the family Alaudidae of the monotypic genus "Chersophilus". It is found in northern Africa and Spain.

Le Sirli de Dupont (Chersophilus duponti), ou Sirli ricoti, est une espèce d'oiseaux de la famille des Alaudidae, la seule du genre Chersophilus.


Life.

The earliest record of his employment is for 1538 to 1539 when he was "maître de chant" at church of St John the Evangelist in Liège. Subsequently De Latre was employed at St Martin, Liège. From about 1550 he was also chapel master to George of Austria, Prince-Bishop of Liège (1544–1557), to whom De Latre dedicated his first volume of secular songs or chansons of 1552.  During his time in Liège notable pupils included Gerard de Villers and Johannes Mangon.  After George of Austria's death in 1557 De Latre continued to work at St Martin, but in 1563 took up a post for a short period in Amersfoort (within the province of Utrecht). Around this time the former rector of the Latin school in Amersfoort, Johannes Oridryus, together with Albertus Buysius, undertook the publication of a collection De Latre's chansons, "Cantionum musicarum", in Düsseldorf. De Latre returned to Liège as succentor at St Martin, but was dismissed for debt in 1564.  By 1565 De Latre was employed at the Janskerk in Utrecht where he is described as a "Magister" and "Cantor". He may later have been employed at the Buurkerk there. He was buried at the Buurkerk in Utrecht in 1569, where his epitaph described him as a "musici excellentissimi".  The best attested of his works are his published chansons and the set of Lamentations, which was published in 1554 in Maastricht by the Flemish printer Jacob Bathen. The work entitled "Lamentationes aliquot Jeremiae" was dedicated to Anton of Schauenburg, at that time the dean of the Saint Servatius chapter in Maastricht, and later archbishop of Cologne. In addition a number of works survive in manuscript, but some may be by other composers.

Petit Jean De Latre ( or 1510 – 31 August 1569) or Joannes de Latre (his surname is also recorded as "Delattre", "Delatre", "De Lattre" and "Laetrius") was a Flemish Renaissance composer and choirmaster who worked in Liège and Utrecht. He is no longer believed to be same person as Claude Petit Jehan who died in 1589.

Jean De Latre, également Joannes et nom de famille Delatre ou Delattre (aussi surnommé Petit Jean ou Jean Petit), né en Flandre ou à Liège vers 1505, décédé à Utrecht le, était un maître de chapelle et compositeur de l'école dite franco-flamande.


Background.

Ophélie Bretnacher disappeared in Budapest, Hungary on December 4, 2008. She was part of the European exchange program known as the Erasmus Programme City security cameras tracked part of her route after leaving a nightclub called Portside of Cuba. The footage showed her walking alone from Dohány Street to Deák Square up to the Széchenyi Chain Bridge across the Danube. The captured videos have since been uploaded to YouTube.  Investigations revealed that she left the club after an argument with her boyfriend, who was identified as Paolo Pierre, an Italian student. Her companions recounted that she already drank liquor before going out. Her bag and cell phone were later found on the Széchenyi Chain Bridge. The police were only alerted about her disappearance two days later.  Her friends and family used several methods to attempt to find her. An official investigation was opened in Hungary and was soon followed by one in France. Bretnacher's body was discovered in Csepel, in February 2009, in a backwater of the Danube.

The criminal case.

After the discovery of her body, Hungarian authorities assigned a seven-member police team to investigate the case. The police said that death was probably the result of a suicide or accident. However, homicide cannot be ruled out because of the finding of a hematoma on Ophelie's body as well as many gray areas during the search. One of the puzzles, for instance, was that her body was found upstream.  In February 2010, her family filed a new claim for murder.  In March 2010, a judicial inquiry was opened in Paris for kidnapping, sequestration, followed by murder. By 2014, authorities in Hungary were prepared to close the case, considering the investigation deadline was set to expire in February of that year. New information reportedly surfaced, prompting the Budapest prosecutor's office to continue the inquiry. Sources say that investigation resumed due to inconsistencies in the testimonies of the interrogated witnesses.

Political and diplomatic consequences.

While Hungarian police concluded that the case could either be a suicide or accidental drowning, in France, there was a public clamor for a more thorough investigation. An online petition has been signed by over 10,000 people and was sent to the French President. By January 11, 2009, several hundred people marched silently in a white march, from the Champ-de-Mars, near the Eiffel Tower, to seek the involvement of the French authorities.  French politicians also expressed interest such as Catherine Vautrin, the Vice-Président of the National Assembly, who called for a French intervention Following this intervention, French investigators were sent for the second time to Hungary.

Conclusion.

This affair was closed in Hungary in 2014.

The disappearance of Ophélie Bretnacher, a French student, was a complex criminal case and it remains a mystery until today. It also involved diplomatic friction between France and Hungary, particularly with respect to the outcome of the subsequent investigations and the involvement of prominent political figures.

L'affaire Ophélie Bretnacher concerne une Française (Ophélie Bretnacher) disparue en Hongrie en 2008 et dont le corps a été retrouvé deux mois plus tard.


Gameplay.

The game contains nine different modes, split into three categories: friendlies, leagues and competitions. Friendly games are non-competitive, leagues provide round-robin and knockout events, while the competitions category contains a variety of competitions such as the FIFA World Cup or UEFA European Football Championship.  Each team has a set lineup, which can be altered by the player. As Rage did not acquire a license from FIFA, footballer names used are fictitious by default. They can be adjusted, as can team outfits, by the player. Footballers can perform all actions common on a football field, such as dribbling, passing, headering, one touch actions doing, and even bicycle kicking. In the US version, commentary is provided by Jonathan Pearce and Ron Atkinson.  Performing an illegal action can result in a foul being committed; it is possible but rare for a footballer to receive a yellow or red card. Slide tackles are most likely to draw a foul, while the steal technique rarely results in an infringement.

Development.

Microsoft recruited several English coaches to assist in the development game. They helped Rage develop the AI to use tactics and strategies used in real football. The game was released in the United States for $20.

Reception.

Reception of "Microsoft International Soccer 2000" was generally positive.  IGN's Uros Jojic said that the game's design was not unique, and was generally similar to most other games of the genre, with "Classic Matches" the only exception. He complained that the game included no clubs, due to the lack of a FIFA license. Sports Gaming Network's Eric Dysinger agreed that the game's interface was simple but effective. Allgame's Nick Woods said that the controls were generally easy to learn, but that it was a times difficult to select the footballer the player wishes to control—he said it was possible to adjust to the controls, "but it's not an intuitive or easy task".  The game's graphics were rated highly by reviewers. IGN said the sky textures were beautiful and "the grass textures of the pitch look extremely realistic". However, reviewer Jojic was less receptive of other features such as the stadium and crowd effects, which he said sometimes lacked detail. He also said the game's animations were "a mixed bag". Dysinger said the background graphics were of a high quality, stating the game presents "the best fields and stadiums to play in". "PC Zone"<nowiki>'s</nowiki> review was more positive; it said "Microsoft International Soccer 2000" is "arguably... the best looking of the current crop of football games". Audio, however, was not rated as highly. The commentary had a mediocre reception—"PC Zone" wrote that "Ron Atkinson... sounds as if he is reading from a script", while Sports Gaming Network complained that "frequently the announcers were broadcasting the play by play when the play was already over". IGN, while approving of the commentary, said the music was "weak and uninspiring", while Dysinger said it was good, but repetitive.  Gameplay earned a mixed reception from different reviewers. Sports Gaming Network complained of some lag in game, with footballers not responding to commands until after the AI had passed the ball on. Dysinger was also critical of the lack of FIFA license, which forced players to learn the strengths and weaknesses of different nations as they did not have a real roster. "PC Zone" was more positive; the game was described as "straightforward arcade stuff, making for an exciting game of football". The high paced gameplay was likened to "Sensible World of Soccer". IGN rated the gameplay highly, especially the "phenomenal" ball physics, which Jojic described as "the most realistic interpretation of ball movement I've seen in any soccer game so far". However, he noted several glitches in the AI which made the game easier at times. GameSpy, on the other hand, said the AI was "highly sophisticated".

Microsoft International Soccer 2000 is a sports game developed by Rage Software and published by Microsoft. It was released on October 20, 1999 for the PC. In the game, the player takes the role of manager of an international football team in a competition such as the FIFA World Cup or UEFA European Football Championship. The game was developed in conjunction with several football coaches, and released in the United States for $20. Reception of the game was generally positive. Its graphics were rated highest, though reviewers also enjoyed the simplicity of play. However, gameplay aspects such as AI earned a mixed response.

Microsoft International Football 2000 est un jeu vidéo de football qui a été développé par Rage Software et qui a été commercialisé par Microsoft. Il est sorti le pour le PC. Dans le jeu, le joueur joue le rôle du manager d'une équipe de football internationale dans une compétition telle que la coupe du monde de la FIFA ou le championnat d'Europe de football. Le jeu a été développé en collaboration avec plusieurs entraîneurs de football. La réception du jeu était généralement positive. Ses graphiques ont été évalués au plus haut, bien que les critiques aient également apprécié la simplicité du jeu. Cependant, les aspects gameplay tels que l'IA ont obtenu une réponse mitigée.


Beginning of the conflict.

The civil war between Atahualpa and Huascar weakened the empire immediately prior to its struggle with the Spanish. Historians are unsure of whether a united Inca Empire could have defeated the Spanish in the long term due to factors such as the high mortality from disease and its related social disruption, and the superior military technology of the conquistadors, who possessed horses, dogs, metal armor, swords, cannons, and primitive, but effective, firearms. Atahualpa appeared to be more popular with the people than his brother, and he was certainly more valued by the army, the core of which was based in the recently conquered northern province of Quitu.  At the outset of the conflict, each brother controlled his respective domains, with Atahualpa secure in the north, and Huáscar controlling the capital of Cuzco and the large territory to the south, including the area around Lake Titicaca. This region had supplied large numbers of troops for Huáscar's forces. After a period of diplomatic posturing and jockeying for position, open warfare broke out. Huáscar seemed poised to bring the war to a rapid conclusion, as troops loyal to him took Atahualpa prisoner, while he was attending a festival in the city of Tumibamba. However, Atahualpa quickly escaped and returned to Quitu. There, he was able to amass what is estimated to be at least 30,000 soldiers. While Huáscar managed to muster about the same number of soldiers, they were less experienced.  Atahualpa sent his forces south under the command of two of his leading generals, Challcuchima and Quisquis, who won an uninterrupted series of victories that soon brought them to the very gates of Cuzco. On the first day of the battle for Cuzco, the forces loyal to Huáscar gained an early advantage. However, on the second day, Huáscar personally led an ill-advised "surprise" attack, of which the generals Challcuchima and Quisquis had advance knowledge. In the ensuing battle, Huáscar was captured, and resistance completely collapsed. The victorious generals sent word north by "chasqui" messenger to Atahualpa, who had moved south from Quitu to the royal resort springs outside Cajamarca. The messenger arrived with news of the final victory on the same day that Pizarro and his small band of adventurers, together with some indigenous allies, descended from the Andes into the town of Cajamarca.

Arrival of Pizarro.

Francisco Pizarro and his brothers (Gonzalo, Juan, and Hernando) were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. They had left the then impoverished Extremadura, like many migrants after them.  In 1529, Francisco Pizarro obtained permission from the Spanish Monarchy to conquer the land they called Peru.  According to historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea, Peru is not a Quechuan nor Caribbean word, but Indo-Hispanic or hybrid. Unknown to Pizarro, as he was lobbying for permission to mount an expedition, his proposed enemy was being devastated by the diseases brought to the American continents during earlier Spanish contacts.  When Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, he found it vastly different from when he had been there just five years before. Amid the ruins of the city of Tumbes, he tried to piece together the situation before him. From two young local boys whom he had taught how to speak Spanish in order to translate for him, Pizarro learned of the civil war and of the disease that was destroying the Inca Empire.  After four long expeditions, Pizarro established the first Spanish settlement in northern Peru, calling it San Miguel de Piura. When first spotted by the natives, Pizarro and his men were thought to be "viracocha cuna" or "gods". The Natives described Pizarro's men to the Inca. They said that "capito" was tall with a full beard and was completely wrapped in clothing. The Natives described the men's swords and how they killed sheep with them. The men did not eat human flesh, but rather sheep, lamb, duck, pigeons, and deer, and cooked the meat. Atahualpa was fearful of what the white men were capable of. If they were "runa quicachac" or "destroyers of peoples," then he should flee. If they were "viracocha cuna runa allichac" or "gods who are benefactors of the people," then he should not flee, but welcome them. The messengers went back to Tangarala, and Atahualpa sent Cinquinchara, an Orejon warrior, to the Spanish to serve as an interpreter.  After traveling with the Spanish, Cinquinchara returned to Atahualpa; they discussed whether or not the Spanish men were gods. Cinquinchara decided they were men because he saw them eat, drink, dress, and have relations with women. He saw them produce no miracles. Cinquinchara informed Atahualpa that they were small in number, about 170–180 men, and had bound the Native captives with "iron ropes". When Atahualpa asked what to do about the strangers, Cinquinchara said that they should be killed because they were evil thieves who took whatever they wanted, and were "supai cuna" or "devils". He recommended trapping the men inside of their sleeping quarters and burning them to death.  At this point, Pizarro had 168 men under his command: 106 on foot and 62 on horses. Pizarro sent his captain Hernando de Soto to invite Atahualpa to a meeting. Soto rode to meet Atahualpa on his horse, an animal that Atahualpa had never seen before. With one of his young interpreters, Soto read a prepared speech to Atahualpa telling him that they had come as servants of God to teach them the truth about God's word. He said he was speaking to them so that they might "lay the foundation of concord, brotherhood, and perpetual peace that should exist between us, so that you may receive us under your protection and hear the divine law from us and all your people may learn and receive it, for it will be the greatest honor, advantage, and salvation to them all."  Atahualpa responded only after Hernando Pizarro arrived. He replied with what he had heard from his scouts, saying that Pizarro and his men were killing and enslaving countless numbers on the coast. Pizarro denied the report and Atahualpa, with limited information, reluctantly let the matter go. At the end of their meeting, the men agreed to meet the next day at Cajamarca.

Capture of Atahualpa.

After his victory and the death of his brother Huáscar, Atahualpa was fasting in the Inca baths outside Cajamarca. Pizarro and his men reached that city on 15 November 1532.  Pizarro sent Hernando de Soto and Hernando Pizarro to the Inca leader's camp. Hernando Pizarro and De Soto explained they were emissaries of Emperor Charles I of Spain, to offer their services, and "impart to him the doctrines of the true faith." Additionally, they invited the Incan leader to visit Pizarro at his quarters along the Cajamarca plaza. Atahualpa replied that his fast would end the next day, when he would visit Pizarro. When De Soto noticed Atahualpa's interest in his horse, he put on a display of "excellent horsemanship" in close proximity. Atahualpa displayed hospitality by serving refreshments. The next morning, Pizarro had arranged an ambuscade around the Cajamarca plaza, where they were to meet. When Atahualpa arrived with about 6,000 unarmed followers, Friar Vincente de Valverde and Felipillo met them and proceeded to "expound the doctrines of the true faith" "(requerimiento)" and seek his tribute as a vassal of King Charles. The unskilled translator likely contributed to problems in communication. The friar offered Atahualpa the Bible as the authority of what he had just stated. Atahualpa stated, "I will be no man's tributary."  Pizarro urged attack starting the Battle of Cajamarca on 16 November 1532. Though the historical accounts relating to these circumstances vary, the true Spanish motives for the attack seemed to be a desire for loot and flat-out impatience. The Inca likely did not adequately understand the conquistadors' demands. And, of course, Pizarro knew they did not have the slightest chance against the Inca army unless they captured the Emperor.  At the signal to attack, the Spaniards unleashed volleys of gunfire at the vulnerable mass of Incas and surged forward in a concerted action. The effect was devastating, the shocked Incas offered such feeble resistance that the battle has often been labeled a massacre, with the Inca losing 2,000 dead. Pizarro also used cavalry charges against the Inca forces, which stunned them in combination with gunfire.  The majority of Atahualpa's troops were in the Cuzco region along with Quisquis and Challcuchima, the two generals he trusted the most. This was a major disadvantage for the Inca. Their undoing also resulted from a lack of self-confidence, and a desire to make public demonstration of fearlessness and godlike command of situation. The main view is that the Inca were eventually defeated due to inferior weapons, 'open battle' tactics, disease, internal unrest, the bold tactics of the Spanish, and the capture of their emperor. While Spanish armour was very effective against most of the Andean weapons, it was not impenetrable to maces, clubs, or slings. However, ensuing hostilities such as the Mixtón Rebellion, Chichimeca War, and Arauco War would require that the conquistadors ally with friendly tribes in these later expeditions.  The battle began with a shot from a cannon and the battle cry ""Santiago!"" Many of the guns used by the Spaniards were hard to use in the frequent close-combat situations. Most natives adapted in 'guerrilla fashion' by only shooting at the legs of the conquistadors if they happened to be unarmored.  During Atahualpa's captivity, the Spanish, although greatly outnumbered, forced him to order his generals to back down by threatening to kill him if he did not. According to the Spanish envoy's demands, Atahualpa offered to fill a large room with gold and promised the Spanish twice that amount in silver. While Pizarro ostensibly accepted this offer and allowed the gold to pile up, he had no intention of releasing the Inca; he needed Atahualpa's influence over his generals and the people in order to maintain the peace.  When Atahualpa was captured at the massacre at Cajamarca, he was treated with respect, allowed his wives to join him, and the Spanish soldiers taught him the game of chess. Francisco Pizarro sent his brother Hernando to gather gold and silver from the temples in Pachacamac in January 1533, and on his return in March, captured Chalcuchimac in the Jauja Valley. Francisco Pizzaro sent a similar expedition to Cuzco, bringing back many gold plates from the Temple of the Sun. By February 1533, Almagro had joined Pizarro in Cajamarca with an additional 150 men with 50 horses.  Pizarro held Atahualpa for a ransom of gold and silver; the treasure began to be delivered from Cuzco on 20 December 1532 and flowed steadily from then on. By 3 May 1533 Pizarro received all the treasure he had requested; it was melted, refined, and made into bars. The question eventually came up of what to do with Atahualpa; both Pizarro and Soto were against killing him, but the other Spaniards were loud in their demands for death. False interpretations from the interpreter Felipillo made the Spaniards paranoid. They were told that Atahualpa had ordered secret attacks and his warriors were hidden in the surrounding area. Soto went with a small army to look for the hidden army, but a trial for Atahualpa was held in his absence. Among the charges were polygamy, incestuous marriage, and idolatry, all frowned upon in Catholicism but common in Inca culture and religion.  The men who were against Atahualpa's conviction and murder argued that he should be judged by King Charles since he was the sovereign prince. Atahualpa agreed to accept baptism to avoid being burned at the stake and in the hopes of one day rejoining his army and killing the Spanish; he was baptized as Francisco. On 29 August 1533 Atahualpa was garrotted and died a Christian. He was buried with Christian rites in the church of San Francisco at Cajamarca, but was soon disinterred. His body was taken, probably at his prior request, to its final resting place in Quito. Upon de Soto's return, he was furious; he had found no evidence of any secret gathering of Atahualpa's warriors.  Pizarro advanced with his army of 500 Spaniards toward Cuzco, accompanied by Chalcuchimac. The latter was burned alive in the Jauja Valley, accused of secret communication with Quizquiz, and organizing resistance. Manco Inca Yupanqui joined Pizarro after the death of Túpac Huallpa. Pizarro's force entered the heart of the Tawantinsuyu on 15 November 1533.  Benalcázar, Pizarro's lieutenant and fellow Extremaduran, had already departed from San Miguel with 140-foot soldiers and a few horses on his conquering mission to Ecuador. At the foot of Mount Chimborazo, near the modern city of Riobamba (Ecuador) he met and defeated the forces of the great Inca warrior Rumiñawi with the aid of Cañari tribesmen who served as guides and allies to the conquering Spaniards. Rumiñahui fell back to Quito, and, while in pursuit of the Inca army, Benalcázar was joined by five hundred men led by Guatemalan Governor Pedro de Alvarado. Greedy for gold, Alvarado had set sail for the south without the crown's authorization, landed on the Ecuadorian coast, and marched inland to the Sierra. Finding Quito empty of its treasures, Alvarado soon joined the combined Spanish force. Alvarado agreed to sell his fleet of twelve ships, his forces, plus arms and ammunition, and returned to Guatemala.

Rebellion and reconquest.

After Atahualpa's execution, Pizarro installed Atahualpa's brother, Túpac Huallpa, as a puppet Inca ruler, but he soon died unexpectedly, leaving Manco Inca Yupanqui in power. He began his rule as an ally of the Spanish and was respected in the southern regions of the empire, but there was still much unrest in the north near Quito where Atahualpa's generals were amassing troops. Atahualpa's death meant that there was no hostage left to deter these northern armies from attacking the invaders. Led by Atahualpa's generals Rumiñahui, Zope-Zupahua and Quisquis, the native armies were finally defeated, effectively ending any organized rebellion in the north of the empire.  Manco Inca initially had good relations with Francisco Pizarro and several other Spanish conquistadors. However, in 1535 he was left in Cuzco under the control of Pizarro's brothers, Juan and Gonzalo, who so mistreated Manco Inca that he ultimately rebelled. Under the pretense of recovering a statue of pure gold in the nearby Yucay valley, Manco was able to escape Cuzco. Manco Inca hoped to use the disagreement between Almagro and Pizarro to his advantage and attempted the recapture of Cuzco starting in April 1536. The siege of Cuzco was waged until the following spring, and during that time Manco's armies managed to wipe out four relief columns sent from Lima, but was ultimately unsuccessful in its goal of routing the Spaniards from the city. The Inca leadership did not have the full support of all its subject peoples and furthermore, the degrading state of Inca morale coupled with the superior Spanish siege weapons soon made Manco Inca realize his hope of recapturing Cuzco was failing. Manco Inca eventually withdrew to Tambo.  Archaeological evidence of the rebellion incident exists. The remains of about 70 men, women, and adolescents were found in the path of a planned expressway near Lima in 2007. Forensic evidence suggests that the natives were killed by European weapons, probably during the uprising in 1536.  After the Spanish regained control of Cuzco, Manco Inca and his armies retreated to the fortress at Ollantaytambo where he, for a time, successfully launched attacks against Pizarro based at Cuzco and even managed to defeat the Spanish in an open battle.  When it became clear that defeat was imminent, Manco Inca retreated further to the mountainous region of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State, where Manco Inca and his successors continued to hold some power for several more decades. His son, Túpac Amaru, was the last Inca. After deadly confrontations, he was murdered by the Spanish in 1572.  In total, the conquest took about forty years to complete. Many Inca attempts to regain the empire had occurred, but none had been successful. Thus the Spanish conquest was achieved through relentless force, and deception, aided by factors like smallpox and a great communication and cultural divide. The Spaniards destroyed much of the Incan culture and introduced the Spanish culture to the native population.

Aftermath.

A struggle for power resulted in a long civil war between Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in which Almagro was killed. Almagro's loyal followers and his descendants later avenged his death by killing Pizarro in 1541. This was done inside the palace of Francisco Pizarro in a fight to the death by these assassins, most of which were former soldiers of Diego de Almagro who were stripped of title and belongings after his death.  Despite the war, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Spanish royal authority on these territories was consolidated by the creation of an Audiencia Real, a type of appellate court. In January 1535, Lima was founded, from which the political and administrative institutions were to be organized. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, that shortly after would be called Viceroyalty of Peru. Nevertheless, the Viceroyalty of Peru was not organized until the arrival of a later Viceroy Francisco de Toledo in 1572. Toledo ended the indigenous Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba, executing the Inca Túpac Amaru. He promoted economic development using commercial monopoly and built up the extraction from the silver mines of Potosí, using slavery based on the Inca institution of forced labor for mandatory public service called "mita".  The integration of Spanish culture into Peru was carried out not only by Pizarro and his other captains, but also by the many Spanish who also came to Peru to exploit its riches and inhabit its land. These included many different kinds of immigrants such as Spanish merchants, peasants, artisans, and Spanish women. Another element that the Spanish brought with them were African slaves to work alongside captive Incas for use in labor with things such as agriculture and mining for silver. These people all brought with them their own pieces of Spanish culture to integrate into Peruvian society.  The arrival of the Spanish also had an unexpected impact on the land itself, recent research points out that Spanish conquest of the Inca altered Peru's shoreline. Before the Spaniards arrived, inhabitants of the arid northern Peruvian coast clad massive sand dune–like ridges with a -likely- accidental form of “armor”, millions of discarded mollusk shells, which protected the ridges from erosion for nearly 4700 years prior to the Spanish arrival, and produced a vast corrugated landscape that is visible from space. This incidental landscape protection came to a swift end, however, after diseases brought by Spanish colonists decimated the local population and after colonial officials resettled the survivors inland, without humans to create the protective covering, newly formed beach ridges simply eroded and vanished. According to Archaeologist Torben Rick, parts of the northern coast of Peru may look completely natural and pristine, “but if you rewind the clock a couple of millennia, you see that people were actively shaping this land by creating beach ridge systems".  Almost nothing was left of the Inca civilizations after the conquest by the Spanish, as culture was not as significant as gold to the new conquerors. The unique indigenous road and communications systems were essentially lost. The only things that persisted of the original culture are the very few artifacts that remained and the minute cultural aspects, such as language, that was left behind by the small percentage of Incas who persisted. (survived)

Effects of the conquest on the people of Peru.

The long-term effects of the arrival of the Spanish on the population of South America were simply catastrophic. While this is the case for every group of Native-Americans that were invaded by Europeans from the fifteenth century onwards, the Incan population suffered a dramatic and quick decline following contact. It is estimated that parts of the empire, notably the Central Andes, suffered a population decline ratio of 58:1 during the years of 1520–1571.  The single greatest cause of the decimation of native populations was infectious disease. Old World Eurasian diseases, which had long been endemic on the Continent, were carried by colonists and conquistadors. As these were new to the natives, they had no acquired immunity and suffered very high rates of death. More died of disease than any army or armed conflict. As the Inca did not have as strong a writing tradition as the Aztec or Maya, it is difficult for historians to estimate population decline or any events after conquest. But, it is sometimes argued, and equally disputed among scholars. that the Inca began to contract these diseases several years before the Spanish appeared in the region, as it was possibly carried to their empire by traders and travelers. The outbreak, argued to be hemorrhagic smallpox, reached the Andes in 1524. While numbers are unavailable, Spanish records indicate that the population was so devastated by disease that they could hardly resist the foreign forces.  Historians differ as to whether the illness of the 1520s was smallpox; a minority of scholars claim that the epidemic was due to an indigenous illness called Carrion's disease. In any case, a 1981 study by N. D. Cook the shows that the Andes suffered from three separate population declines during colonization. The first was of 30–50 percent during the first outbreak of smallpox. When a measles outbreak occurred, there was another decline of 25–30 percent. Finally, when smallpox and measles epidemics occurred together, which occurred from 1585 to 1591, a decline of 30–60 percent occurred. Collectively these declines amounted to a decline of 93 percent from the pre-contact population in the Andes region. Mortality was particularly high among children, ensuring that the impact of the epidemics would extend to the next generation.  Beyond the devastation of the local populations by disease, they suffered considerable enslavement, pillaging and destruction from warfare. The Spanish took thousands of women from the local natives to use as servants and concubines. As Pizarro and his men took over portions of South America, they plundered and enslaved countless people. Some local populations entered into vassalage willingly, to defeat the Inca. Native groups such as the Huanca, Cañari, Chanka and Chachapoya fought alongside the Spanish as they opposed Inca rule. The basic policy of the Spanish towards local populations was that voluntary vassalage would yield safety and coexistence, while continued resistance would result in more deaths and destruction.  Another significant effect on the people in South America was the spread of Christianity. As Pizarro and the Spanish subdued the continent and brought it under their control, they forcefully converted many to Christianity, claiming to have educated them in the ways of the "one true religion." With the depopulation of the local populations along with the capitulation of the Inca Empire, the Spanish missionary work after colonization began was able to continue unimpeded. It took just a generation for the entire continent to be under Christian influence.

In fiction.

Peter Shaffer's play "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" (1964) dramatizes the conquest of the Incas. In the play, Pizarro, Atahualpa, Valverde and other historical figures appear as characters.  The conquest is also used as a starting point for the Matthew Reilly novel "Temple", where the siege of Cusco is used. Many historical figures are mentioned, especially Pizarro who is mentioned as the pursuer of the protagonist.  The Inca are featured in the third Campaign in "Age of Empires 3", having a Lost City hidden in the Andes. They are also in the Multiplayer, found primarily in the areas making up Chile and Argentina.  The conquest is parodied in "The Simpsons" TV series, in the episode "Lost Verizon", written by John Frink.  Pizarro and his fellow conquistadors feature as antagonists in the 1982 animated serial "The Mysterious Cities of Gold".

The Spanish conquest of Peru was one of the most important campaigns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military skirmishes, 168 Spanish soldiers under conquistador Francisco Pizarro, his brothers, and their native allies captured the Sapa Inca Atahualpa in the 1532 Battle of Cajamarca. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory in 1572 and colonization of the region as the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest of the Inca Empire (called "Tahuantinsuyu" or "Tawantinsuyu" in Quechua, meaning "Realm of the Four Parts"), led to spin-off campaigns into present-day Chile and Colombia, as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin.

La conquête du Pérou désigne, dans l'historiographie, l'annexion du "Tahuantinsuyu", à l'Empire espagnol à partir de 1532 (date de la capture de l'Inca Atahualpa). Néanmoins, même si les évènements les plus significatifs ont eu lieu entre 1531 et 1534, lors des expéditions des conquistadors Francisco Pizarro et Diego de Almagro, la conquête est la conséquence directe de la première expédition espagnole de Pascual de Andagoya, en 1522, et elle s'achève à la fin de la résistance inca et la mort de Túpac Amaru en 1572.


Foundation.

The founder was born Philip Martin Höver (Hoever) in 1816 into a hard-working farm family in the hill country of Neuhonrath, now part of the town of Lohmar, Germany, near the city of Cologne. Although his help was needed on the farm, the local parish priest saw potential in the young Höver and encouraged his eagerness to learn. This encouragement led in time to his becoming a successful schoolteacher.  Höver became a schoolmaster at Breidt and Aachen, during which time he met and married Anna Maria Katherine Zimmerman. They had two sons, but soon after the birth of their children, Anna Maria became ill and died. To forget the grief he felt at this loss, Höver became involved in the charitable organization of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul. He also became a member of the Third Order of St. Francis, the local fraternity of which had a long history of commitment to the poor. Through his service in both organizations, he became aware of the terrible situation of poor and homeless boys in the cities of Germany at the height of the Industrial Revolution.  Through the influence of a former member of the local fraternity of the Order, the Blessed Mary Frances Schervier, foundress of the Poor Sisters of St. Francis, he was led to dedicate his life to the service of the many poor around them. Thus, on Christmas Eve 1857, he and four other tertiaries dedicated themselves to the service of God and of abandoned men, while living in community under religious vows. At that time, Höver took the religious name of "Brother John" by which he is now known, and was appointed the first Superior General of the new congregation.  The Brothers obtained a home in Aachen in 1860, where they began their work of service to the poor and homeless men of the city. On 5 January of the following year, Cardinal Geissel, the Archbishop of Cologne, approved the new congregation. Within a few years, though, the pressures of leading the community and the demands of teaching, plus caring for his sons, led Brother John's health to deteriorate. Feeling his end approaching, he appointed Brother Bonaventure Schäben as the new Superior General. When Höver died on 13 July 1864, the community had twenty-six members and some postulants.

Expansion.

Under the leadership of Brother John, and under the watchful eye and guidance of the diocesan clergy, to whom they were subject, the young Congregation grew rapidly and spread from its cradle in Aachen to other parts of Germany. In 1866 the Congregation spread to the United States, where orphanages for boys were established in Teutopolis, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; Cincinnati, Ohio (1868) and Cold Spring, Kentucky (1869), through a donation by Sarah Worthington Peter.  In 1869 the Congregation also received the charge of a Catholic orphanage in Moabit, near Berlin. During the Austro-Prussian war, 1866, and in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870–71, the Poor Brothers were helped in the field hospitals. However, the policy of "Kulturkampf" by the German government led to the loss of all their houses in Prussia during 1876-77. They then moved to Bleijerheide on the German-Dutch border, where the new motherhouse was erected.  After 1888 the Brothers were allowed to return to Prussia and entirely new houses were founded: Hohenhof in Upper Silesia (1891); Dormagen on the Rhine (1902), Düsseldorf (1932), etc. At the last location, they currently run a senior housing complex for 189 residents, and various social services and a trade school. Foundations were also made in Belgium at Völkerich (1900) and in the Netherlands at Roermond (1903).  The Constitutions of the Congregation were approved by Pope Pius X in 1910. With that, they became a congregation of Pontifical (international) right, generally free to conduct their affairs without the supervision of local bishops.  In 1921 the American Brothers began to work in Arkansas, where they established several institutions over the next fifteen years. They also expanded to Iowa, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas and South Dakota, mostly in the field of youth work. In 1986, they purchased the Woodlands Treatment Center, a facility for drug and alcohol dependent youth in Burlington, Iowa.  By 1998, through the steady retirement and departure of members, total membership of the American province sank to 24 professed members dispersed across several assignments at schools, prisons and hospitals. The Morris School for Boys, established in 1922 near Searcy, Arkansas, continues to be the brothers' primary ministry. The order's motherhouse remains in Aachen and the order maintains houses in Brazil, Holland and the United States.

The Poor Brothers of the Seraphic St. Francis (, abbreviated after their names as C.F.P.) () are a congregation of Religious Brothers of the Third Order Regular of St. Francis, instituted for charitable work among orphan boys and for youth education. They commonly also use the title of Brothers of the Poor of St. Francis.

Les Pauvres Frères de Saint-François-Séraphique ("Congregatio Fratrum Pauperum Sancti Francisci Seraphici":CFP), font partie d'une congrégation catholique de frères laïcs du Tiers-Ordre franciscain. Ses constitutions ont été approuvées par le Saint-Siège en 1910. Ils sont connus aussi comme les Frères des pauvres de Saint-François.