Name.

The name "Curnonsky" comes from the Latin "cur" + "non" "why not?" plus the Russian suffix "-sky", as all things Russian were in vogue in 1895, when he coined it. He once said that this nickname was "my tunic of Nessus, as I am neither Russian, nor Polish, nor Jewish, nor Ukrainian, but just an average Frenchman and wine-guy [sacavin]".  He was often called the prince-elect of gastronomy (Prince-élu de la Gastronomie) or of gastronomes, and he had in fact been duly elected in a poll of 3,000 chefs held by Paris-Soir in 1927. There was at the time a series of 'Princes', including André de Lorde, the Prince of Terror, and so on.

Philosophy.

A celebrated aphorism of Curnonsky's was:  He advocated simple food over complicated, rustic over refined, and often repeated the phrase  which was probably due to Escoffier.

Chronology.

Curnonsky was a ghostwriter for 'Willy', Colette's husband.  According to his biographer Arbellot, he coined the name Bibendum for the Michelin Man in 1907—because "Michelin tires drink ["i.e."'soak up' or 'eat up'] everything, even obstacles"—, and wrote Michelin's weekly column "Les Lundis de Michelin" in Le Journal starting on November 25, 1907. It was originally signed "Michelin" but starting on March 2, 1908, it was signed "Bibendum". Michelin had used the phrase "Nunc est bibendum" ("Cheers!" in Latin) on a poster in 1898, showing the Michelin Man swallowing a glass full of nails, but it is unclear when the word "Bibendum" became applied to this character.  In 1921, he started the publication of "La France Gastronomique" with Marcel Rouff.  He was named a knight of the Légion d'Honneur in 1929, and promoted to officer in 1938.  In 1930, he co-founded the Académie des gastronomes, modelled on the Académie Française, and served as its first president, until 1949. In 1947, he started the magazine "Cuisine et Vins de France" along with Madeleine Decure. In 1950, he was a co-founder of the Confrérie de la Chaîne des Rôtisseurs.  To honor his eightieth birthday, eighty restaurants marked his favorite table with a copper plaque reading: Cette place est celle
 de Maurice Edmond Sailland-Curnonsky
 Prince élu des gastronomes
 Défenseur et illustrateur de la Cuisine française
 Hôte d'honneur de cette maison This led to the legend that eighty restaurants reserved a table for him every night in case he should show up, though by that point, he rarely went out at all.  Curnonsky died by falling out of the window of his apartment. He was dieting at the time, and hence it was speculated that he had fainted. A year later a commemorative plaque on nr. 14 of the place Henri-Bergson, Paris 8e was installed and a booklet published on this occasion.

Partial bibliography.

In 2003, German art historian Inge Huber discovered five boxes with letters of Curnonsky, and authored a biography "Curnonsky. Oder das Geheimnis des Maurice-Edmond Sailland" 2010, Rolf Heyne Editor.

Maurice Edmond Sailland (October 12, 1872, Angers, France – July 22, 1956, Paris), better known by his pen-name Curnonsky (nicknamed 'Cur'), and dubbed the Prince of Gastronomy, was the most celebrated writer on gastronomy in France in the 20th century. He wrote or ghost-wrote over 65 books and enormous numbers of newspaper columns. He is often considered the inventor of gastronomic motor-tourism as popularized by Michelin, though he himself could not drive. He was a student of Henri-Paul Pellaprat.

Maurice Edmond Sailland, dit Curnonsky, né à Angers le et mort à Paris le, est un gastronome, humoriste et critique culinaire français, élu « Prince des gastronomes ».


Description.

Its body is elongated and covered with small, scarcely visible scales; the back is an iridescent blue, while the sides are silvery with a pattern of irregular vertical blue bars. These colors fade rapidly during death. The mouth is large, and the teeth of the wahoo are razor sharp. Both the upper and lower jaws have a somewhat sharper appearance than those of king or Spanish mackerel.  Specimens have been recorded at up to in length, and weighing up to. Growth can be rapid. They are among the fastest fish in the sea.  The wahoo may be distinguished from the related Atlantic king mackerel and from the Indo-Pacific narrow-barred Spanish mackerel by a fold of skin which covers the mandible when its mouth is closed. In contrast, the mandible of the king mackerel is always visible as it is also the case for the smaller Spanish mackerel and Cero mackerel. The teeth of the wahoo are similar to those of king mackerel, but shorter and more closely set together.  The barracuda is sometimes confused with the mackerel and wahoo, but it is easy to distinguish from the latter two species. Barracuda have prominent scales, larger, dagger-like teeth, and lack the caudal keels and blade-like (forked) tail characteristic of the scombrids.

Biology.

Wahoo tend to be solitary or occur in loose-knit groups of two or three fish. Where conditions are suitable, they can be found in schools as large as 100 or more. Their diet is made up of other fish and squid.  Most wahoo taken from waters have a trematode parasite, the giant stomach worm "(Hirudinella ventricosa)," living in their stomachs, but it does not appear to harm the fish.

Fisheries.

Commercial.

Although local wahoo populations can be affected by heavy commercial and sports fishing pressure, wahoo as a species are less susceptible to industrial commercial fishing than more tightly schooling and abundant species such as tuna. Wahoo are regularly taken as a bycatch in various commercial fisheries, including longline fisheries for tuna, billfish, and dolphinfish (mahi-mahi or dorado). It is also taken in tuna purse seine fisheries, especially in sets made around floating objects which act as a focal point for a great deal of other marine life besides tuna. In 2003, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council issued a "Dolphin Wahoo Fishery Management Plan" for the Atlantic. However, the species as a whole is not considered overfished.

Recreational.

In most parts of its range, the wahoo is a highly prized sport fishing catch. It reaches a good size, and is often available not too far from land; it is also a very good fighter on light to medium tackle. It is known in sports fishing circles for the speed and strength of its first run.

Wahoo ("Acanthocybium solandri") is a scombrid fish found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. It is best known to sports fishermen, as its speed and high-quality flesh makes it a prized game fish. In Hawaii, the wahoo is known as "ono."

Le Thazard noir, Acanthocybium solandri, est un poisson aussi connu sous les noms de Thazard raité, Thazard-bâtard ou bien encore Thon banane. Dans les pays anglophones, il est connu sous le nom de '. Il fait partie de la famille des Scombridae, qui contient aussi les thons et les maquereaux. C'est la seule espèce de son genre Acanthocybium""' (monotypique).


Geography.

The German Wine Gate ("Deutsches Weintor") in Schweigen-Rechtenbach on the French border adjacent to Wissembourg (Weißenburg) in France marks the start of the route. Built in 1936, the gate is an imposing ceremonial gatehouse made of sandstone., the route traverses the Palatinate wine region ("Pfalz", formerly "Rheinpfalz") which lies in the lee of the Haardt Mountains, an area known as Anterior Palatinate ("Vorderpfalz").  The route runs northward, beside the path of Bundesstraßen B 38 and B 271 for 85 km, passing through towns like Bad Bergzabern, Edenkoben, Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Deidesheim, Bad Dürkheim and Grünstadt. It ends at the House of the German Wine Route in Bockenheim an der Weinstraße.  The route is marked by a yellow sign with a stylized bunch of ten grapes and the name of the route.  The region around the route has come to be known as the "Weinstraße" (Wine Route) region, and the administrative district ("Kreis") of Südliche Weinstraße (literally, "Southern Wine Route") takes its name from the route.

History.

The German Wine Route was established in 1935. There was a record harvest in 1934, and another one was foreseen for 1935, so Gauleiter Josef Bürckel had the idea of establishing a road that connects all vintners' villages to boost the wine sales.  The German Wine Route was officially opened on 19 October 1935. Existing local roads along the route were renamed to incorporate ""Weinstraße"" into their names and local municipalities were told to add ""an der Weinstraße"" to their names.  After World War 2, Nazi symbols were removed from the heraldic eagle on the south side of the German Wine Gate. Below, a US-Graffito from March 1945 honours Mineral Wells, Texas.

Climate.

With a sunshine duration of over 1800 hours a year, the area around the German Wine Route is one of the warmest regions in Germany, allowing the cultivation of crops such as figs, lemons, and kiwifruit, which in Germany are only common here or in other parts of the upper Rhine valley, where the climate is similar.  The German Wine Route is also famous for its almond blossoms, painting the whole region in pink and white colours around the beginning of March.  The characteristic plant for this region is the vine, almost exclusively covering the landscape. Imported in Roman times, vines have ideal growing conditions: warm climate, minimum condensation due to the protective Palatinate Forest in the west, and attenuation of frost in the autumn due to the hillside location that benefits the outflow of cold air masses.

Wine festivals.

The German Wine Route is marked by numerous open-air wine festivals, held annually from March to October, that make it a major tourist attraction. The largest wine festival worldwide with more than 600,000 visitors each year is the "Wurstmarkt" in front of the world's largest wine barrel, the Giant Cask or "Riesenfass", in Bad Dürkheim in September.  Other important wine festivals are the German Wine Harvesting Festival ("Deutsches Weinlesefest") in Neustadt an der Weinstraße where the German Wine Queen is selected in October, the festival in Freinsheim ("Stadtmauerfest" in July), and in Deidesheim ("Deidesheimer Weinkerwe" in August).  The first wine fest on the wine route is the "Mandelblütenfest" (Almond Blossom Festival) in Gimmeldingen held in March depending on the start of the flowering.  On the last Sunday in August, the route is closed to motorized traffic for German Wine Route Day ("Erlebnistag Deutsche Weinstraße") with many wineries and "Straußwirtschaften" open air (seasonal wine bars) open to the hundreds of thousands of hikers, cyclers and inline skaters who visit this festival.  Unlike with festivals in other German wine regions, wine is served in 50 cl glasses rather than the typical 25 cl ones. They are of a special shape specific to the Palatinate wine region and are known as the "Dubbeglas", widening from bottom to top and featuring indentations or large dimples ("Dubbe") that give the glass its name. The dimples are especially useful when socializing starts and one's dexterity is affected by the wine. The undimpled half-litre "Schoppenglas" is also frequently seen along the route.

The German Wine Route or Wine Road () is the oldest of Germany's tourist wine routes. Located in the Palatinate region of the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate, the route was established in 1935.

La, longue d'environ 85 kilomètres, parcourt les principaux villages et villes viticoles de la région Rhénanie-Palatinat. Du nord au sud, elle traverse les communes à partir de Schweigen-Rechtenbach, près de Bad Bergzabern et jusqu'à Bockenheim an der Weinstraße. La route est l’une des plus célèbres routes de vacances d’Allemagne. Elle traverse la deuxième plus grande région viticole d'Allemagne. De nombreux villages viticoles longent les routes fédérales 38 et, anciennement la route 81 du Premier Empire.


History.

1982–1986: Formation and early success.

means "Holy Devouring Demon", but with the II ("tsu") added to the end it becomes a play on the term or "the end of the century". It is also an abbreviation of the phrase.  Seikima-II was formed in late December 1982 by guitarist Damian Hamada while he was attending the Waseda University Folk Song Club. The original lineup included His Excellency Demon Kakka (then known as "Demon Kogure") on vocals, Zod Hoshijima on bass and Ace Shimizu on drums. The band was known for their Kabuki-inspired makeup and flamboyant outfits. Although the exact date is unknown, Damian Hamada left the band soon after its formation, but remained a respected founder and songwriter throughout their career.  In September 1983, two new members joined the band's lineup. Majo ("witch") Ryoko joined as keyboardist, however she only stayed for one month. Zeed Iijima joined as drummer replacing Ace, who briefly left in October before returning as a guitarist that same month. That year, the band had its first live performance (a concert by the band is referred to as a ) playing a series of small gigs. They gained popularity among metal fans for their heavy music style and unique appearance.  In 1984, Seikima-II continued to play small gigs at various concert halls. In April, Giantonio Babayashi both joined and left as a second guitarist. Later that year, they passed an audition for major label CBS/Sony.  1985 marked the year in which the band's biggest lineup change would occur. A new second guitarist, Gandhara Sangeria Tigris-Euphrates Kaneko joined in January. Drummer Zeed Iijima decided to finally leave the band in April. In March he was temporarily replaced by a new drummer named Jagy Furukawa. Soon, Gandhara and Jagy both left the group in June. At this point the band was lacking in both a second guitarist and a drummer. In June they discovered guitarist Jail O'Hashi and drummer Raiden Yuzawa, who would both go on to be part of the first well-known lineup. Later in September of that same year, the group released their first full-length album (an album by the band is called a ), "Seikima-II ~ Akuma ga Kitarite Heavy Metal". The album received mixed reviews by critics, but became very popular among heavy metal fans. It exceeded 100,000 in sales, the first debut album in Japanese metal history to do so.  On April 2, 1986 they released both their second album, "The End of the Century", and their first single "House of Wax". (A single by the band is called a.) The album's name was also the meaning behind Seikima-II (seikimatsu), as according to them, they were destined to disband at the end of the century (the year 1999). In June bassist Zod, who was one of the original members, would finally leave the band, being replaced by Xenon Ishikawa. At the end of the year they released their third album, "From Hell with Love". This was followed by their first major live concert called The Great Black Mass Tour held on December 24, 1986. That same year, a video game was released for the Famicom based on the band, under the title "Seikima II Akuma no Gyakushū!". The game was re-released for the MSX2 the following year.

1987–1999: Popularity and disbandment.

One year later, in January 1987, guitarist Jail O'Hashi also decided to leave the band. He abandoned his band name and would later be recognized as Takashi "Jam" O'Hashi, playing in the American/Japanese hard rock group Cats in Boots and in his own band, the Takashi O'Hashi Project, although he would once again go by "Jail O'Hashi" while playing with Seikima-II at future concerts. In February, guitarist Sgt. Luke Takamura III joined the group to form the most well-known lineup. That same year the band released their "Big Time Changes" album. This album brought about a change in the band's music style by mixing heavy metal with hard rock. Also here for the first time, Luke Takamura takes on the role as more of a lead guitarist, switching off with Ace Shimizu, who is heard playing more rhythm guitar. In 1988 they continued their experimentation with other genres on the album "The Outer Mission". With this album they experimented with a fusion of heavy metal, progressive rock and even some jazz music to add for an interesting new sound. Regardless of these changes they continued being praised by heavy metal fans while also receiving attention from the general public. A 1989 home video release also titled "The Outer Mission" was directed by Macoto Tezuka, son of manga and anime pioneer Osamu Tezuka.  After releasing their next album "Yuugai" in 1991, they began playing their first overseas concerts in surrounding Asian countries and in Europe, most notably England and Spain. Later in 1992, they followed up by releasing "Kyoufu no Restaurant", which, as a drastic change from the last few albums, was a return to their heavy metal roots; combining dark, Satanic lyrics with heavy music. Their next album "Ponk!!", released in 1994, brought about even more change from the band's past style. Combining heavy metal with folk rock music and more ballad songs. The album was produced at Abbey Road Studios in London, England, where the band was living for a short time.  In 1996, the band released their next full-length album, "Mephistopheles no Shouzou", leaving the CBS Sony label and signing to BMG Japan. The album was a return to their heavier sound while also having elements of power metal. The move to BMG also made a noticeable difference in the sound quality of their following albums. In 1997 the album "News" was released, followed by "Move" in 1998. Both albums bring about a new digital quality sound combining various styles with heavy metal.  In 1999, their final album, "Living Legend", was released. They kept true to their roots and fans consider it to be a proper final chapter in the band's history before finally disbanding on December 31, 1999, at 23:59:59. Their final concerts were called The Black Mass Final 3 Nights, and were three days lasting from December 29–31. The concerts were separated into three days called The Theatrical Day, The Satan All Star's Day (on this night every former member and supporting member that was ever in the band performed, except Giantonio Babayashi and Gandhara Sangeria Tigris-Euphrates Kaneko, who sent video messages), The Doomsday, which at the end, the band is seen disappearing into a portal of light leaving the stage and finishing their 14-year career.  After disbanding in 1999, each member continued musical careers. Demon Kakka has been a solo artist since the early 1990s and still continues to perform and release new material. Ace Shimizu has been involved in his own two piece band called Face to Ace. Luke Takamura formed the hard rock band Canta with Raiden Yuzawa. Xenon Ishikawa was involved in the band RX with Raiden and Seikima-II support keyboardist Yuichi Matsuzaki.

Reunions.

In late 2005, the final line-up of Seikima-II held two different kinds of reunion tours in Japan for the 20th anniversary of their debut. The first tour included guitarist Jail O'Hashi, bassist Zod Hoshijima and enka singer Kiyoko Suizenji as special guests. The reunion tours were both very well received and were completely sold out within a short period of time. They later released two live albums recorded on the tours, with the second including a bonus CD of six new songs written by the band.  The album "Akuma Nativity "Songs of the Sword"" received a physical release on September 16, 2009. It includes the band's classic songs completely re-recorded in English. The similar albums "Akuma Relativity" and "A Quarter Century of Rebellion" were released a year later on July 28, 2010.  In 2010, Seikima-II reunited to celebrate their 25th anniversary and to perform a world tour entitled Intercontinental Black Mass Tour. It was announced that guitarist Ace Shimizu, an original member of the band, would not be taking part and instead Jail O'Hashi would rejoin the group. On June 6 they held their first concert in America at Project A-Kon in Dallas, Texas. On July 4 they held their second show in Europe when they visited Paris, France for the Japan Expo. On September 3 and 4 they performed in Korea at the Viva! Korea Rock Festival, which was broadcast on TV. A tribute album to the band, titled "Tribute to Seikima-II: Akuma to no Keiyakusho", was released on September 15, 2010 and features their songs covered by artists such as Show-Ya, Sex Machineguns and Galneryus.  An "encore" of their world tour was held from July to September 2011. Then on November 30 and December 1, 2011, Seikima-II revived once again for charity concerts titled Seikima-II Presents Tribute to Japan. They included several different artists, them being Cali Gari, jealkb, Man With A Mission, Nokko, Kishidan and Rookiez is Punk'd, and were in response to the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. All proceeds were donated to the Japanese Red Cross. Material from both nights was released as a live CD and DVD on June 20, 2012.  The compilation "XXX -The Ultimate Worst-" was released on August 26, 2015. That year, Seikima-II performed a tour in celebration of their 30th anniversary. Split into two legs, Zenseki Shikei and Zoku Zenseki Shikei, the first was held from September 17 to November 8 and the second from November 26, 2015 to January 21, 2016. The band released their first single in 17 years on April 13, 2016. Both of the double A-side's songs, and "Planet/The Hell", were used as theme songs to the "Terra Formars Revenge" anime. The author of the original "Terra Formars" manga, Yū Sasuga, is a fan of Seikima-II and designed the cover of "XXX -The Ultimate Worst-", which was drawn in finality by his partner on the series Kenichi Tachibana. A second double A-side single,, was released on June 15. The first track is the theme song for the horror film "Sadako vs. Kayako".  At a special event held at Zepp Tokyo on December 31, 2019, it was announced that Seikima-II will perform a 35th anniversary tour in 2020.

Seikima-II in pop culture.

Seikima-II notoriety in Japan is very high: they are considered a legendary heavy metal band in their country. The original video animation was released in 1992 and features Seikima-II members as main characters, with Demon Kakka providing his character's voice.  The "Hokuto no Ken" anime adaptation contains a character called Kogure, who is based on Demon Kakka, himself formerly known as Kogure.  Episode 49 of "YuYu Hakusho" also briefly mentioned Seikima-II, with the parody being that one of the demons was listening to them on their walkman.  The aesthetics and mythology of the band in manga/live action film/OVA series "Detroit Metal City" also appears to be largely based on Seikima-II.  On episode 200 of "AKBingo!" where AKB48 hosted a cover contest for their song "Give Me Five!" a band by the name of "Niseikima-II" performed and won over the other acts. In their introduction on the show they mention that they were influenced by Seikima-II, they also pretend to be devils and wore lots of makeup.

Legacy and influences.

Many notable artists cited them as an influence, including Tetsuya Kanmuri, Go, Shinichi Kobayashi, and Nov from Zigoku Quartet, Joe, Panther and Kenjiro Murai of Sex Machineguns, Show-Ya, Syu from Galneryus, Shuse and Levin of La'cryma Christi, Shouchikubai Shiratori from Kishidan, miko of exist†trace, Kick the Can Crew's MCU, and Hatake from Sharam Q. Tomoi from Laputa covered Seikima-II in his high school days.

The band members each wear face paint and elaborate stage outfits and have adopted fictional personas. According to them, Seikima-II is a group of from the futuristic hyper-evolved dimension that preach a religion called in order to propagate Satan through the use of heavy metal music. Each member is a demon of a different hierarchical class, with His Excellency Demon Kakka being leader of the Akuma and His Majesty Damian Hamada being the "Crown Prince of Hell". In accordance to the prophecy and after completing their world conquest, the band disbanded at the end of the century on December 31, 1999 at 23:59:59.

, stylisé SEIKIMA-II, prononcé « seikimatsu », est un groupe de heavy metal et hard rock japonais, originaire de Shinjuku, à Tokyo. Formé en 1982, les membres adoptent des identités de démons mythologiques et des costumes et maquillages extravagants inspirés du théâtre Kabuki. Il est mené par le chanteur Demon Kogure, et sort son premier album studio en 1985. Son nom est un jeu de mot qui peut aussi se traduire littéralement par, ce qui semble avoir motivé sa dissolution le à minuit. Il se reforme à deux reprises, en 2005 pour ses vingt ans, puis en 2010 avec un nouvel album chez Avex et sa première tournée mondiale.


Biography.

Salimbeni was born in Siena. He studied painting, together with his half-brother Francesco Vanni, under their father Arcangelo Salimbeni in his native Siena,  He possibly spent some time, in Northern Italy and then moved to Rome in 1588 to work, together with others, on the fresco painting of the Vatican Library under pope Sixtus V.  During 1590-1591, he received a commission from Cardinal Bonifazio Bevilacqua Aldobrandini for paintings in the Roman Jesuit Church of the Gesù and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. These paintings show the influence of Cavalier D'Arpino and the Counter-Mannerist Barocci pupil Andrea Lillio.  Salimbeni returned to Siena in 1595. Here he persisted in a Reformist or Counter-Maniera style. He was here influenced by Federico Barocci as can be seen in the draperies, highlighted with abrupt changes of light and flickering surfaces, of his painting "Birth of a Virgin" in the San Domenico church in Ferrara (1607–1608).  He completed painting cycles (1595–1602) for Sienese churches such as the Oratory of Santa Trinità. He is known for detailed preparatory drawings, most of which are now in the Uffizi in Florence or the Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco. At around 1600, he began painting the "Life of St Hyacinth" for the Sienese church of Santo Spirito. These paintings show the innovative perspective and style of the Florentine Reformers Ludovico Cigoli Cigoli and Domenico Passignano Domenico Passignano. He continued to create paintings for churches throughout Italy, including Florence. At the Basilica della Santissima Annunziata di Firenze, he frescoed lunettes (1605–1608) illustrating events in the history of the Servite Order. In the Duomo di San Salvatore, he executed a magnificent "John the Baptist".  At about the same time, around 1600, he got an assignment in Assisi for a fresco of the "Resurrection of Christ" and the "Dying Saint Clare is visited by the pope" in the vault of chapel of San Massimo in the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli.  In 1603, Salimbeni was commissioned to paint frescoes with scenes from the church's patron saints Quiricus and Julietta for the church of Ss Quirico e Giulitta, one of the oldest churches in Siena. As in the church of Santa Trinità, he worked here alongside the painter Alessandro Casolari.  This period saw a proliferation of new assignments : three paintings for the church San Lorenzo in San Pietro in Montalcino, the "Donation of the Keys" (1599), the "Glorification of the Eucharist" (1600) and the "Crucifixion" (1604).  At the same time he was painting the "Vision of Gregory the Great" and the "Punishment of David" in the Basilica of San Pietro in Perugia. The papal legate, cardinal Bonifazio Bevilacqua (1571–1627), who had commissioned these paintings, was so pleased that he invested Ventura Salimbeni with the Order of the Golden Spur, a very selective papal order. He was even authorized from now on to name himself Cavalieri Bevilacqua. He painted the canvas of the "Ascension of the Virgin" (1607) for San Frediano, Pisa.  In 1612 he painted the "Life of Saint Galganus" for the Church of the Santuccio in Siena with the hermit saint set in a wooded landscape.  His last work of art was the oil painting the "Marriage of the Virgin" for the Seminario Diocesano in Foligno in 1613.  He was influenced by Federico Barocci, Domenico Beccafumi and by the rich and harmonious palette of Lodovico Cigoli. Among his pupils was Alessandro Casolani.  In the period between 1589 and 1594 he also made in Rome some etchings, of which seven survive. They are among the finest Italian prints of the period. The earliest dated, and the largest, is the "Baptism of Christ" of 1589, which he produced in collaboration with the more experienced Ambrogio Brambilla.

Ventura di Archangelo Salimbeni (also later called Bevilacqua; 20 January 1568 – 1613) was an Italian Counter-Maniera painter and printmaker highly influenced by the "vaghezza" and sensual reform of Federico Barocci.

Ventura di Archangelo Salimbeni ou Bevilacqua, né le à Sienne où il est mort en 1613, est un peintre et graveur italien maniériste, un des derniers représentants de l'école siennoise.


Reception.

"Homo Ludens" is an important part of the history of game studies. It influenced later scholars of play, like Roger Caillois. The concept of the magic circle was inspired by "Homo Ludens". It is based on Durkheim's distinction between the sacred and the profane. While it did not play a central role in Huizinga's thinking, it was later popularized and expanded by Katie Salen and Eric Zimmermann in "Rules of Play" within game studies.

Foreword controversy.

Huizinga makes it clear in the foreword of his book that he means the play element "of" culture, and not the play element "in" culture. He writes that he titled the initial lecture the book is based on "The Play Element of Culture". This title was repeatedly corrected to "in" Culture, a revision he objected to. The English version modified the subtitle of the book to ""A Study of the Play-Element in Culture"", contradicting Huizinga's stated intention. The translator explains in a footnote in the Foreword, ""Logically, of course, Huizinga is correct; but as English prepositions are not governed by logic I have retained the more euphonious ablative in this sub-title.""

Contents.

I. Nature and significance of play as a cultural phenomenon.

Play is older than culture, for culture, however inadequately defined, always presupposes human society, and animals have not waited for man to teach them their playing. Huizinga begins by making it clear that animals played before humans. One of the most significant (human and cultural) aspects of play is that it is fun.  Huizinga identifies 5 characteristics that play must have:

II. The play concept as expressed in language.

Word and idea are not born of scientific or logical thinking but of creative language, which means of innumerable languages—for this act of "conception" has taken place over and over again. Huizinga has much to say about the words for play in different languages. Perhaps the most extraordinary remark concerns the Latin language. "It is remarkable that, as the general term for play, has not only not passed into the Romance languages but has left hardly any traces there, so far as I can see... We must leave to one side the question whether the disappearance of and is due to phonetic or to semantic causes."  Of all the possible uses of the word "play" Huizinga specifically mentions the equation of play with, on the one hand, "serious strife", and on the other, "erotic applications".

Play-category, play-concept, play-function, play-word in selected languages.

Huizinga attempts to classify the words used for play in a variety of natural languages. The chapter title uses "play-concept" to describe such words. Other words used with the "play-" prefix are play-function and play-form. The order in which examples are given in natural languages is as follows:

III. Play and contest as civilizing functions.

The view we take in the following pages is that culture arises in the form of play, that it is played from the very beginning... Social life is endued with supra-biological forms, in the shape of play, which enhances its value. Huizinga does not mean that "play turns into culture". Rather, he sets play and culture side by side, talks about their "twin union", but insists that "play is primary".

IV. Play and law.

The judge's wig, however, is more than a mere relic of antiquated professional dress. Functionally it has close connections with the dancing masks of savages. It transforms the wearer into another "being". And it is by no means the only very ancient feature which the strong sense of tradition so peculiar to the British has preserved in law. The sporting element and the humour so much in evidence in British legal practice is one of the basic features of law in archaic society.

Three play-forms in the lawsuit.

Huizinga puts forward the idea that there are "three play-forms in the lawsuit" and that these forms can be deduced by comparing practice today with "legal proceedings in archaic society":

V. Play and war.

Until recently the "law of nations" was generally held to constitute such a system of limitation, recognizing as it did the ideal of a community with rights and claims for all, and expressly separating the state of war—by declaring it—from peace on the one hand and criminal violence on the other. It remained for the theory of "total war" to banish war's cultural function and extinguish the last vestige of the play-element. This chapter occupies a certain unique position not only in the book but more obviously in Huizinga's own life. The first Dutch version was published in 1938 (before the official outbreak of World War II). The Beacon Press book is based on the combination of Huizinga's English text and the German text, published in Switzerland 1944. Huizinga died in 1945 (the year the Second World War ended).  The chapter contains some pleasantly surprising remarks:

VI. Playing and knowing.

For archaic man, doing and daring are power, but knowing is magical power. For him all particular knowledge is sacred knowledge—esoteric and wonder-working wisdom, because any knowing is directly related to the cosmic order itself. The riddle-solving and death-penalty motif features strongly in the chapter.

VII. Play and poetry.

"Poiesis", in fact, is a play-function. It proceeds within the play-ground of the mind, in a world of its own which the mind creates for it. There things have a different physiognomy from the one they wear in "ordinary life", and are bound by ties other than those of logic and causality. For Huizinga, the "true appellation of the archaic poet is "vates", the possessed, the God-smitten, the raving one". Of the many examples he gives, one might choose Unferd who appears in "Beowulf".

VIII. The elements of mythopoiesis.

As soon as the effect of a metaphor consists in describing things or events in terms of life and movement, we are on the road to personification. To represent the incorporeal and the inanimate as a person is the soul of all myth-making and nearly all poetry. Mythopoiesis is literally myth-making (see Mythopoeia and Mythopoeic thought).

IX. Play-forms in philosophy.

At the centre of the circle we are trying to describe with our idea of play there stands the figure of the Greek sophist. He may be regarded as an extension of the central figure in archaic cultural life who appeared before us successively as the prophet, medicine-man, seer, thaumaturge and poet and whose best designation is "vates".

X. Play-forms in art.

Wherever there is a catch-word ending in "-ism" we are hot on the tracks of a play-community. Huizinga has already established an indissoluble bond between play and poetry. Now he recognizes that "the same is true, and in even higher degree, of the bond between play and music" However, when he turns away from "poetry, music and dancing to the plastic arts" he "finds the connections with play becoming less obvious". But here Huizinga is in the past. He cites the examples of the "architect, the sculptor, the painter, draughtsman, ceramist, and decorative artist" who in spite of her/his "creative impulse" is ruled by the discipline, "always subjected to the skill and proficiency of the forming hand".  On the other hand, if one turns away from the ""making" of works of art to the manner in which they are received in the social milieu", then the picture changes completely. It is this social reception, the struggle of the new "-ism" against the old "-ism", which characterises the play.

XI. Western civilization sub specie ludi.

<poem> We have to conclude, therefore, that civilization is, in its earliest phases, played. It does not come "from" play like a baby detaching itself from the womb: it arises "in" and "as" play, and never leaves it. </poem>

XII. Play-element in contemporary civilization.

In American politics it [the play-factor present in the whole apparatus of elections] is even more evident. Long before the two-party system had reduced itself to two gigantic teams whose political differences were hardly discernible to an outsider, electioneering in America had developed into a kind of national sport.

Homo Ludens is a book originally published in Dutch in 1938 by Dutch historian and cultural theorist Johan Huizinga. It discusses the importance of the play element of culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play is primary to and a necessary (though not sufficient) condition of the generation of culture. The Latin word is the present active participle of the verb, which itself is cognate with the noun. has no direct equivalent in English, as it simultaneously refers to sport, play, school, and practice.

Homo ludens est une expression utilisée pour la première fois par Johan Huizinga dans son ouvrage "Homo ludens, essai sur la fonction sociale du jeu". L'être humain a d'abord été qualifié par Carl von Linné d"Homo sapiens" (homme qui sait) puis d"Homo faber" (homme qui fabrique). L'expression "Homo ludens" insiste sur l'importance de l'acte de jouer. En effet, la thèse principale de Huizinga est que le jeu est consubstantiel à la culture.


Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all of it land. Notable landmarks in Ross are the Ross Bear located in front of the Ross police station, the post office, the Marin Art and Garden Center, and Phoenix Lake.

History.

After the Mexican Revolution of 1821, the “land grant” system of parceling out land gave rise to what is now known as Marin County. Ross was originally part of an 8,877-acre Mexican land grant to Juan B.R. Cooper in 1840 known as Ranch Punta de Quentin Canada de San Anselmo.  In 1857, James Ross (1812–1862) bought Rancho Punta de Quentin for $50,000. Ross, a Scot who had arrived in San Francisco from Australia in 1848 and made his fortune in the wholesale liquor business, set up a trading post called "Ross Landing". He built his home on Redwood Drive and moved there with his wife and three children. When James Ross died in 1862, his wife, Annie Ross, was forced to sell a portion of James Ross’ larger land holdings to pay each of their daughters $10,000. The remainder of 297 acres comprises the Town of Ross today.  The first post office opened in 1887. Ross incorporated in 1908.

Demographics.

2010.

At the 2010 census Ross had a population of 2,415. The population density was 1,551.8 people per square mile (599.2/km2). The racial makeup of Ross was 2,265 (93.8%) White, 6 (0.2%) African American, 2 (0.1%) Native American, 45 (1.9%) Asian, 3 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 19 (0.8%) from other races, and 75 (3.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 94 people (3.9%).  The census reported that 2,363 people (97.8% of the population) lived in households, 52 (2.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and no one was institutionalized.  There were 798 households, 357 (44.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 575 (72.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 55 (6.9%) had a female householder with no husband present, 28 (3.5%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 13 (1.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 7 (0.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 120 households (15.0%) were one person and 60 (7.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.96. There were 658 families (82.5% of households); the average family size was 3.26.  The age distribution was 731 people (30.3%) under the age of 18, 108 people (4.5%) aged 18 to 24, 362 people (15.0%) aged 25 to 44, 801 people (33.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 413 people (17.1%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 45.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.0 males.  There were 884 housing units at an average density of 568.0 per square mile, of the occupied units 686 (86.0%) were owner-occupied and 112 (14.0%) were rented.The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 2,078 people (86.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 285 people (11.8%) lived in rental housing units.

2000.

At the 2000 census there were 2,329 people, 761 households, and 626 families in the town. The population density was 1,461.5 people per square mile (565.6/km2). There were 805 housing units at an average density of 505.2 per square mile (195.5/km2). The racial makeup of the town in 2010 was 90.9% non-Hispanic White, 0.2% non-Hispanic African American, 1.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.9%.  Of the 761 households 44.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 72.0% were married couples living together, 7.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.7% were non-families. 12.7% of households were one person and 5.3% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.94 and the average family size was 3.21.  The age distribution was 30.2% under the age of 18, 3.4% from 18 to 24, 21.3% from 25 to 44, 32.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.0 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $102,015, and the median family income was $102,593. Males had a median income of $75,784 versus $52,083 for females. The per capita income for the town was $51,150. About 5.6% of families and 8.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.2% of those under age 18 and 5.7% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

According to the California Secretary of State, as of February 10, 2019, Ross has 1,606 registered voters. Of those, 685 (42.7%) are registered Democrats, 380 (23.7%) are registered Republicans, and 472 (29.4%) have declined to state a political party.

Ross is a small incorporated town in Marin County, California, United States, just north of San Francisco. Ross is located west-southwest of San Rafael, at an elevation of 36 feet (11 m). The population was 2,415 at the 2010 census. The town is bordered by Kentfield and Greenbrae to the east, Larkspur to the south and San Anselmo to the north.

Ross est une petite ville incorporée au comté de Marin en Californie (États-Unis). Elle se situe au nord de San Francisco. Sa population était de lors du recensement de 2000.


Geography.

Alabaster is located at (33.231162, −86.823829).  Alabaster mostly occupies the Cahaba and Opossum Valleys, which are divided by the Pine Ridge that runs north to south. To the east and west, both valleys are flanked by parallel mountain ridges that locally run north to south, but are a part of a larger system of ridges that generally runs north-east to south-west (the tailing ends of the Appalachian foothills). The valleys are drained by small creeks (Buck Creek, Beaverdam Creek) which flow into the Cahaba River.  Access to the city from major highways is found from U.S. Route 31, which runs through the city, and via I-65 exit 238. Downtown Birmingham is 23 mi (37 km) north, and Montgomery is 69 mi (111 km) south, both via US-31 or I-65.  According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and (0.24%) is water.

History.

George L. Scott, Sr., an Alabaster pioneer, owned and operated Alabaster Lime Co., which mined this mineral. His shipping point was known as “Scott Rock.” Later, worker housing was built to accommodate some of the mine employees. The community was named Alabaster after the "white calcium carbonate mineral."  The First Bank of Alabaster opened in 1952, and its president was George L. Scott, Jr., who later was elected as the first mayor of Alabaster. The first attempt in 1952 to incorporate Alabaster failed. In January 1953, the petition was again filed, and on February 23, 1953, Alabaster was officially incorporated, with a favorable vote of 79 to 23, and 427 residing inhabitants. In 1955, the Alabaster Water and Gas Board was formed.  In 2015, the city announced that it was considering options to expand the area commonly known as the "Main Street Medical Mile" along Highway 31. The plans include not just expansion of medical facilities, but a civic center and different retail locations.  Additionally, it was announced in 2017 that a 350,000 square feet retail complex would be built at the corner of Highway 31 and Interstate 65. The new complex, currently named District 31, was slated to open in 2019, but as of 2020, the complex remains under construction.

City of Alabaster (1960-).

Alabaster first appeared on the 1960 U.S. Census as an incorporated city.

2010 Census data.

As of the census of 2010, there were 30,352 people, 11,016 households, and 6,482 families residing in the city [9]. The population density was 1,104.8 people per square mile (426.6/km). The racial makeup of the city was 81.2% White, 15.0% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.64% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 2.2% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. 4.54% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 11,016 households out of which 41.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.0% were married couples living together, 8.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.6% were non-families. 17.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.73 and the average family size was 3.09.  In the city, the population was spread out with 27.7% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 25.0% from 45 to 64, and 8.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.7 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $64,411, and the median income for a family was $78,940. The per capita income for the city was $22,466. About 4.3% of families and 5.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.0% of those under age 18 and 12.3% of those age 65 or over.

Alabaster-Helena Census Division (1980-).

The Alabaster-Helena Census Division was created in 1980 through the merger of the former Helena Division and Siluria Divisions. It includes portions of Alabaster, Birmingham (Shelby County portion), Brantleyville, Calera, Chelsea, Helena, Hoover, Indian Springs Village, Meadowbrook, Montevallo, Pelham and Vestavia Hills.

Government.

The government consists of a mayor, who is elected at-large, and a seven-member city council. Each member is elected from a single-member district, called a ward, of roughly equal population.  The Mayor and City Council are elected every four years. The most recent election was held in 2016. Alabaster Fire Department ISO Class 2 rated. Consisting of 3 Firehouses with 61 Full Time Firefighters.  Alabaster Firehouse #1 Located at 890 1st Avenue West.  Alabaster Firehouse #2 Located at 950 Butler Road.  Alabaster Firehouse #3 Located at 910 1st Street South (US 31 South)

Schools.

On 1 July 2013, the Alabaster City Schools System officially separated from the Shelby County Schools system, and now operates the public schools in the city. Private school K-12 education is also available.

Alabaster is a city and southern suburb of Birmingham in Shelby County, Alabama, United States. At the 2010 census, the population was 30,352. According to the 2019 Census Estimates, the city had a population of 33,487. Alabaster is the 16th largest city in Alabama by number of residents.

Alabaster est une ville de l'Alabama, dans le Comté de Shelby, aux États-Unis. La ville compte une usine à béton du groupe français Vicat.


Causes.

One of the causes for the Panic of 1893 can be traced back to Argentina. Investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers. However, the 1890 wheat crop failure and a coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. In addition, speculations also collapsed in South African and Australian properties. Because European investors were concerned that these problems might spread, they started a run on gold in the U.S. Treasury. Specie was considered more valuable than paper money; when people were uncertain about the future, they hoarded specie and rejected paper.  During the Gilded Age of the 1870s and 1880s, the United States had experienced economic growth and expansion, but much of this expansion depended on high international commodity prices. To exacerbate the problems with international investments, wheat prices crashed in 1893.  One of the first clear signs of trouble came on February 20, 1893, twelve days before the inauguration of U.S. President Grover Cleveland, with the appointment of receivers for the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, which had greatly overextended itself. Upon taking office, Cleveland dealt directly with the Treasury crisis and successfully convinced Congress to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which he felt was mainly responsible for the economic crisis.  As concern for the state of the economy deepened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, and caused bank runs. The credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in London combined with a drop in continental European trade caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold.

Populists.

The People's Party, also known as the 'Populists', was an agrarian-populist political party in the United States. From 1892 to 1896, it played a major role as a left-wing force in American politics. It drew support from angry farmers in the West and South. It was highly critical of capitalism, especially banks and railroads, and allied itself with the labor movement.  Established in 1891 as a result of the Populist movement, the People's Party reached its zenith in the 1892 presidential election, when its ticket, composed of James B. Weaver and James G. Field, won 8.5% of the popular vote and carried five states (Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Nevada and North Dakota), and the 1894 House of Representatives elections, when it won nine seats. Built on a coalition of poor, white cotton farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama and Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the Plains States (especially Kansas and Nebraska), the Populists represented a radical crusading form of agrarianism and hostility to elites, cities, banks, railroads, and gold.

Silver.

The Free Silver movement arose from a synergy of farming and mining interests. Farmers sought to invigorate the economy and thereby end deflation, which was forcing them to repay loans with increasingly valuable dollars. Mining interests sought the right to turn silver directly into money without a central minting institution. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890, while falling short of the Free Silver movement's goals, required the U.S. government to buy millions of ounces of silver above what was required by the 1878 Bland–Allison Act (driving up the price of silver and pleasing silver miners). People attempted to redeem silver notes for gold. Ultimately, the statutory limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached and U.S. notes could no longer be successfully redeemed for gold. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments. Rumors regarding the National Cordage Company (NCC)'s financial distress (NCC was the most actively traded stock at the time) caused its lenders to call in their loans immediately, and the company went into bankruptcy receivership as a result. The company, a rope manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price and value of silver dropped. Holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds, and many became worthless.  A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad failed. This was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies; in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the West, failed. According to high estimates, about of the workforce was unemployed at the panic's peak. The huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result.

Effects.

As a result of the panic, stock prices declined. Five hundred banks closed, 15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation. The unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to help feed the destitute. Facing starvation, people chopped wood, broke rocks, and sewed by hand with needle and thread in exchange for food. In some cases, women resorted to prostitution to feed their families. To help the people of Detroit, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree launched his "Potato Patch Plan", which were community gardens for farming.  President Grover Cleveland was blamed for the depression. Gold reserves stored in the U.S. Treasury fell to a dangerously low level. This forced President Cleveland to borrow $65 million in gold from Wall Street banker J.P. Morgan and the Rothschild banking family of England. His party suffered enormous losses in the 1894 elections, largely being blamed for the downward spiral in the economy and the brutal crushing of the Pullman Strike. After their defeat in 1896, the Democrats did not regain control of any branch of the Federal Government until 1910.

Shipping.

The Panic of 1893 affected many aspects of the shipping industry, both by rail and by sea. It arrested the acquisition of ships and rolling stock, and pushed down shipping rates.

Fluctuations in railroad investment after the Panic of 1893.

The bad omen of investors switching from potentially volatile stocks to more stable bonds in 1894 was mirrored in railroads by slower acquisition of rolling stock. Railroad expansion rose again in 1895, but was arrested in 1897 by another economic trough.

Receivership.

In 1893, the total railroad mileage in the U.S. was 176,803.6 miles. In 1894 and 1895, railroads only expanded 4,196.4 miles, although 100,000 miles of rail was added from 1878 to 1896. In 1893, the year following the panic, one fourth of all rail mileage went into receivership. The U.S. Census placed this value at close to $1.8 billion (not adjusted for inflation), the largest amount recorded between 1876 and 1910. This was over $1 billion (also not adjusted for inflation) more than the next largest amount, in 1884.

Pullman Strike.

In 1894, the U.S. Army intervened during a strike in Chicago to prevent property damage. The strike was instigated at the Pullman Company in Chicago after it refused to either lower rent in the company town or raise wages for its workers due to increased economic pressure from the Panic of 1893. Since the Pullman Company was a railroad car company, this only increased the difficulty of acquiring rolling stock.

American merchant tonnage.

The maritime industry of the United States did not escape the effects of the Panic of 1893. The total gross registered merchant marine tonnage employed in "foreign and coastwise trade and in the fisheries", as measured by the U.S. Census between 1888 and 1893, grew at a rate of about 2.74%. In 1894, however, U.S. gross tonnage decreased by 2.9%, and again in 1895 by 1.03%.

Rates.

In 1894, the rate for a bushel of wheat by rail dropped from 14.7¢ in 1893 to 12.88¢. This rate continued to decrease, reaching a terminal rate in 1901 of 9.92¢ and never reached 12 cents between 1898 and 1910.  Between 1893 and 1894, average shipping rates by lake or canal per wheat bushel decreased by almost 2 cents, from 6.33¢ to 4.44¢. Rates on the transatlantic crossing from New York City to Liverpool also decreased, from 2 and 3/8 to 1 and 15/16, but this reflected a trend downward since 1891.

The Panic of 1893 was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897. It deeply affected every sector of the economy, and produced political upheaval that led to the realigning election of 1896 and the presidency of William McKinley.

La Panique de 1893 est un krach financier qui se déroule aux États-Unis. Semblable à la panique de 1873, elle est marquée par l'effondrement du financement des sociétés de chemins de fer qui ont construit trop et trop vite. Il en résulte une série de faillites bancaires. S'y ajoute la crise des "Silver Certificates" que les investisseurs tentent de convertir en or, alors que la réserve américaine n'en dispose pas en suffisance. La dépression économique engendrée est alors la pire qu'ait connu le pays qui subit un taux de chômage de plus de 10 % et un nombre de faillites record.


Human history.

Indigenous people.

To Squamish people, the local indigenous people of this territory, the mountain is called Nch’ḵay̓. In their language it means "Dirty Place" or "Grimy One". This name of the mountain refers to the muddy water in the Cheekye River. This mountain, like others located in the area, is considered sacred for it plays an important part in their history. In their oral history, they passed down a story of the flood covering the land. During this time, only two mountains peaked over the water, and this mountain was one of them. It was here that the remaining survivors of the flood latched their canoes to the peak and waited for the waters to subside. The mountain also serves as weather indicator to the people, as when clouds cover the face of the mountain, it signals the coming of rain or snow. Cultural ceremonial use, hunting, trapping and plant gathering occur around the Mount Garibaldi area, but the most important resource was a lithic material called obsidian. Obsidian is a black volcanic glass that was used to make knives, chisels, adzes, and other sharp tools in pre-contact times. This material appears in sites dated to 10,000 years ago up to protohistoric time periods. The source for this material is found in upper parts of the mountain area in higher elevations that surround the mountain range.

Later history.

British Explorer Captain George Vancouver reached Howe Sound in June 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain. During this time George Vancouver met and traded with the local natives in the area. In 1860, while carrying out a survey of Howe Sound on board the Royal Navy survey ship HMS "Plumper", Captain George Henry Richards was impressed by a gigantic mountain dominating the view to the northeast. Captain Richards, and his officers, renamed the mountain after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi, who that year had succeeded in unifying Italy by patriating Sicily and Naples. In August 1907, the Vancouver mountaineers A. Dalton, W. Dalton, A. King, T. Pattison, J.J. Trorey, and G. Warren reached the summit of Mount Garibaldi. The views from the peak inspired the establishment of summer climbing camps at Garibaldi Lake. This early interest led to the creation in 1920 of a park reserve.  In 1927, Garibaldi was made into a large wilderness park called Garibaldi Provincial Park. Named after Mount Garibaldi, this 1,946.5 square kilometre park was established to protect the rich geological history, diverse vegetation, iridescent waters, abundant wildlife, and rugged mountains, many of which are capped by glaciers.  When skiing caught on in the 1940s, Vancouver skiers began to search the glaciers and rugged mountains within the park. Early skiing was limited to the more easily reached area around Garibaldi Lake. In the winter of 1944, a club group completed the first possible ski of Mount Garibaldi. The famous mountaineers Don and Phyllis Munday completed lots of tracks additionally. In the 1944–45 "Canadian Alpine Journal", the Mundays reported a ski attempt on Mount Garibaldi with Phil Brook, who was a friend of the Mundays. They skied on Sphinx Glacier and scrabbled Panorama Ridge just north of Garibaldi Lake during the same trip. Most importantly, during this period a road was built on Paul Ridge near the small community of Squamish at the north end of Howe Sound, thereby affording better vehicle approach to the highlands near Mount Garibaldi. With easier access Vancouver skiers spent even more time on the glaciers of Mount Garibaldi. The result of this was the formation in the 1940s of the Garibaldi Névé Traverse, an overnight adventure that (weather permitting) can include a fine descent of Mount Garibaldi.

Subsidiary peaks.

The broad top of Mount Garibaldi contains three named peaks. The highest peak is named as the mountain itself, reaching above sea level. The second highest peak is the sharp pyramid of Atwell Peak at the southern edge of the summit plateau, which reaches a height of and lies on the southwest end of Garibaldi Provincial Park. This peak is named after Atwell Duncan Francis Joseph King, leader of the first ascent of Mount Garibaldi in 1907. The lowest of the three is the rounded Dalton Dome, high, west of the highest summit. This peak is named after Arthur Tinniswood Dalton, one of the guides of the 1907 ascent.  A feature on the north side of the mountain, known as The Tent, reaches and lies in Garibaldi Provincial Park. Another minor summit on the south side of the mountain, high, is known as Diamond Head (sometimes Little Diamond Head) for its resemblance to Diamond Head in Hawaii. Diamond Head was the site of a ski proposal and small lodge, now derelict. On the northwest side of Mount Garibaldi, Brohm Ridge lies outside the western boundary of Garibaldi Provincial Park. The Sharkfin sticks up out of the Warren Glacier on the northeast side of the mountain with a height of, just northeast of Squamish. Columnar Peak rises on the south side of the mountain with a height of, just southwest of Mamquam Lake at southwest end of Garibaldi Provincial Park. Two pinnacles of volcanic rock south of Mount Garibaldi's summit, which attain heights of and, have been known as The Gargoyles since 1978.

Glaciers and icefields.

Two pocket glaciers lie right below the east side of Atwell Peak, the Diamond Glacier to the southeast and the upper Bishop Glacier to the northeast. Straight north of Atwell toward Mount Garibaldi lies a small, high-elevation ice cap called the Cheekye Glacier, the name of which is associated with Cheekye River.  A large icefield lies on the eastern and northern flanks of Mount Garibaldi called the Garibaldi Névé. Its drainage is to the east into the Pitt River, to the southwest into Garibaldi Lake. It has an area of and is an area of substantial snowfall with more than in many winters. The Garibaldi Névé is usually accessed from the south through the Bishop Glacier or from the north through the Sentinel Glacier.

Climbing and recreation.

Mountain climbing on Mount Garibaldi is fairly difficult; it is fairly steep-sided and involves climbing very loose rotten lava and volcanic ash. Fortunately, Mount Garibaldi has large areas of massive glaciation and extensive snowfields. The eastern and northern flanks of the mountain are smothered by the Garibaldi Névé where the finest climbing opportunities exist, making the easiest route a glacial travel or snow climb. Routes keep mostly to the alpine glaciers and snow slopes, which are abundant in winter and spring, but eventually melt in late spring and commonly vanish after June or July of most years. After the snow and ice melts, fissures and fractures can pose difficulty and danger, and avalanches from higher peaks of the mountain are a hazard. For this reason, early season, cold-weather ascents are recommended for most routes up Garibaldi.  Hiking, photography, and camping are popular in the Garibaldi area. Several trailheads provide access to the backcountry. In mid to late summer, visitors pass through meadows of wildflowers along alpine trails. Garibaldi Provincial Park is also popular for winter sports, including backcountry skiing and snowshoeing.

Geology.

Mount Garibaldi lies within the Coast Plutonic Complex, which is the single largest contiguous granite outcropping in North America. The intrusive and metamorphic rocks extend approximately along the coast of British Columbia, the Alaska Panhandle and southwestern Yukon. This is a remnant of a once vast volcanic arc called the "Coast Range Arc" that formed as a result of subduction of the Farallon and Kula Plates during the Jurassic-to-Eocene periods. In contrast, Garibaldi, Meager, Cayley and Silverthrone areas are of recent volcanic origin.  Mount Garibaldi is one of the few Cascade volcanoes that is made exclusively of dacite (Glacier Peak is the other). The mountain has a unique asymmetrical shape because its main cone was constructed atop part of a large glacier system associated with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet that has since melted away. Unlike many of the other Cascade volcanoes to the south, Garibaldi does not dominate the surrounding landscape, which consists of many high, rugged peaks. Many residents of Vancouver are therefore not aware that there is a volcano closer to the city than the more easily visible Mount Baker in Washington State.

Origins.

Mount Garibaldi began erupting about 250,000 years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like all of the Cascade volcanoes, Mount Garibaldi has its origins in the Cascadia subduction zone—a long convergent plate boundary that stretches from mid-Vancouver Island to Northern California. The subduction zone separates the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda and North American Plates. Here, the oceanic crust of the Pacific Ocean sinks beneath North America at a rate of per year. Hot magma upwelling above the descending oceanic plate creates volcanoes, and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years.  The subduction zone has existed for at least 37 million years, and has created a line of volcanoes called the Cascade Volcanic Arc which stretches over along the subduction zone. Several volcanoes in the arc are potentially active. Lassen Peak in California, which last erupted in 1921, is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc, while the Mount Meager massif, just north of Mount Garibaldi, which erupted about 2,350 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost. A few isolated volcanic centres northwest of the Mount Meager massif, such as the Silverthrone Caldera, which is a circular wide, deeply dissected caldera complex, are considered by some geologists to be the northernmost member of the arc.

Structure.

Mount Garibaldi is the largest volcano in southernmost British Columbia. Like other stratovolcanoes, it is composed of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. Eruptions are explosive in nature, and the most common form is the Peléan style, which involves viscous magma, glowing avalanches of hot volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows. The source magma of this rock is classified as acidic, having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite). The tephra deposits have lower volume and range than the corresponding Plinian and Vulcanian eruptions.  Mount Garibaldi is known both for the very high quality exposures of its internal structure and for its conspicuous topographic anomalies, which can be attributed to the growth of the mountain onto a large glacier system and the subsequent collapse of the flanks of the volcano with the melting of the ice. The western flanks of the mountain expose basement rocks, sheared and altered quartz diorite, carved by streams and glaciers into a rugged topography with relief up to. Valleys in this jagged surface have been filled with 0.52 to 0.22 million year old dacite and andesite flows, tuff breccias, and domes, precursors of the activity at Mount Garibaldi. About of material remains in the volcano. In modern times, the apron of material around the volcano's main vent extends at least from its source in places that were covered by ice. In other areas its extent is less and its slope is steeper.  Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of subduction zones. The magma that forms them arises when water, which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressure/temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths. The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the surface it pools in a magma chamber under the volcano. The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other volatiles (CO, S, Cl) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution, much like when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle provided by the volcanic cone is overcome, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.

Ancestral stages of eruptive activity.

The mountain grew in three phases. Garibaldi's first phase resulted in the creation of a broad composite cone made of dacite and breccia that has been potassium-argon dated to 250,000 years old. Parts of this "proto-Garibaldi" or ancestral volcano are exposed on Garibaldi's lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper of Brohm Ridge. Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located, a series of coalescing dacite lava domes were constructed. During the ensuing long period of dormancy, the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone's western flank that was later filled with a glacier.  After reaching its maximum extent the Cheekye Glacier along with part of the area's ice sheet were covered with volcanic ash and fragmented debris from Garibaldi. This period of growth began with the eruption of the Atwell Peak plug dome from a ridge surrounded by the several thousand foot ice sheet. As the plug dome rose, massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides. Numerous Peléan pyroclastic flows (consisting of a super-heated mix of gas, ash, and pumice) accompanied these cooler avalanches, forming a fragmental cone in volume and an overall slope of 12 to 15 degrees. (Erosion has since steepened this slope.) Some of the glacial ice was melted by the eruptions, forming a small lake against Brohm Ridge's southern arm. The volcanic sandstones seen today atop Brohm Ridge were created by ash settling in this lake. Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south. Subsequent melting of the ice sheet and its component glaciers initiated a series of avalanches and mudflows on Garibaldi's western flank that moved nearly half of the original cone's volume into the Squamish Valley. This series of debris flows carried of the mountain into the Squamish Valley where it covers to a thickness of about. Gaps left by melting ice caused minor to moderate cone distortion where the ice sheet was thin and major distortion where it was thick. The ice was thickest in and thus cone distortion was greatest over the buried Cheekye valley.  Soon before or after the buried ice had melted away, dacite lava quietly erupted from Opal Cone southeast of the Atwell Peak plug dome 10,700 to 9,300 years ago and flowed down Ring Creek on Garibaldi's southern and southwestern flanks without encountering any residual glacial ice. One of the lava flows traveled down a 30% to 35% grade over the landslide scar on the western flank. About of dacite erupted in Garibaldi's third period of activity. This lava forms a thin layer of solid rock on the southern and western sides of the volcano and contains well-defined lava flow margin levees. The Ring Creek lava flow is very unusual because lengthy lava flows are usually attained by fluid basalt flows, but the Ring Creek flow is dacite.

Current activity.

Mount Garibaldi is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes most strongly associated with recent seismic activity; the others are Castle Rock, Mount Edziza, Mount Cayley massif, Hoodoo Mountain, The Volcano, Crow Lagoon, Silverthrone Caldera, Mount Meager massif, Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field and Nazko Cone. The mountain is informally described as "dormant" ("asleep") because the mountain has not erupted in historic times, nor does it display fumarolic activity like nearby Mount Baker. However, seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma plumbing systems, indicating possible future eruptive activity. Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some of Canada's volcanoes are potentially active, and that their associated hazards may be significant. The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canada's most youthful volcanoes, and with long-lived volcanic centres with a history of significant explosive behavior, such as Mount Garibaldi. No hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area like those found at the Mount Meager and Mount Cayley massifs, the other major volcanic complexes in the Garibaldi belt, although there are hints of anomalously high local heat flow in Table Meadows and elsewhere.

Volcanic hazards.

Volcanic eruptions in Canada rarely cause fatalities because of their remoteness and low level of activity. The only known fatality due to volcanic activity in Canada occurred at the Tseax Cone in 1775, when a long basaltic lava flow travelled down the Tseax and Nass Rivers, destroying a Nisga'a village and killing approximately 2,000 people by volcanic gases. Many towns and cities near Mount Garibaldi are home to over half of British Columbia's human population, and there is a likelihood that future eruptions will cause damage to populated areas, making Mount Garibaldi and other Garibaldi belt volcanoes a major hazard. There are significant hazards from almost all Canadian volcanoes that require hazard maps and emergency plans. Volcanoes which exhibit significant seismic activity, such as Mount Garibaldi, appear to be most likely to erupt. A significant eruption of any of the Garibaldi belt volcanoes would significantly impact Highway 99 and communities like Pemberton, Whistler and Squamish, and possibly Vancouver.

Explosive eruptions.

Explosive eruptions from Mount Garibaldi would pose a severe threat to the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish. Although no Plinian eruptions have been identified in Garibaldi's eruptive history, even Peléan eruptions could create large amounts of ash that could significantly affect these local communities. Ash columns may rise to several hundred meters above the volcano, and due to its close proximity to Vancouver this could pose a threat for air traffic. Melting of leftover glacial ice covering the Mount Garibaldi area may cause floods, lahars, or debris flows that could possibly threaten small communities such as Brackendale. Highway 99 is already plagued by landslides and debris flows from the steep rugged Coast Mountains. An eruption creating floods could demolish sections of the highway. Flooding and debris flows could also have severe issues for the salmon fishery on the Squamish, Cheakamus, and Mamquam rivers. In addition, explosive eruptions and the associated ash column could cause short-and long-term water supply difficulties for Vancouver and most of the lower mainland. The catchment area for the Greater Vancouver watershed is close to the Garibaldi area. Pyroclastic fall could also have a deleterious effect on the ice fields to the east of Mount Garibaldi, causing more melting and spring flooding. This in turn could endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake as well as fisheries on the Pitt River.

Lava flows.

The hazard from lava flows would be low to moderate because the nature of the lavas would prevent them from travelling far from their source, even though the Ring Creek lava flow ends only from Squamish. Magma with high to intermediate levels of silica (as in andesite, dacite or rhyolite) commonly move slowly and typically cover small areas to form steep-sided mounds called lava domes. Lava domes often grow by the extrusion of many individual flows less than thick over a period of several months or years. Such flows will overlap one another and typically move less than a few meters per hour. Lava flows with high to intermediate levels of silica rarely extend more than from their source; for example, Garibaldi's long Ring Creek dacite lava flow.

Landslides.

In the past, Garibaldi has had large debris flows. A section of the mountain collapsed into the Cheakamus River valley when the glacier Garibaldi was built on melted, creating a jagged unstable slope at the head of the Cheekye River. Repeated landslides from this steep cliff have created a huge debris fan at the mouth of the Cheekye River just north of Brackendale called the Cheekye Fan. Danger from future collapses have limited the growth of Brackendale onto the fan.  The steep northern edge of The Barrier in the Garibaldi area has partly collapsed several times, the most recent being in 1855–56. This collapse created a large boulder field below it, which gave Rubble Creek its name. Danger from future collapses prompted the provincial government to declare the area immediately below it unsafe for human habitation in 1981. This led to the evacuation of the small resort village of Garibaldi nearby, and the relocation of residents to new recreational subdivisions away from the hazard zone. Although imminent danger is unlikely, special regulations exist to warn potential danger and to minimize the risk to life and property in the event of a landslide.

Monitoring.

Currently, Mount Garibaldi is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano's magma system is. The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain. It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption. It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting.  A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Garibaldi's geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behaviour, in terms of its eruption style, magnitude and frequency, so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions.  While there is a likelihood of Canada being critically affected by local or close by volcanic eruptions argues that some kind of improvement program is required. Benefit-cost thoughts are critical to dealing with natural hazards. However, a benefit-cost examination needs correct data about the hazard types, magnitudes and occurrences. These do not exist for volcanoes in British Columbia or elsewhere in Canada in the detail required.  Other volcanic techniques, such as hazard mapping, displays a volcano's eruptive history in detail and speculates an understanding of the hazardous activity that could possibly be expected in the future. At present no hazard maps have been created for Mount Garibaldi because the level of knowledge is insufficient due to its remoteness. A large volcanic hazard program has never existed within the Geological Survey of Canada. The majority of information has been collected in a lengthy, separate way from the support of several employees, such as volcanologists and other geologic scientists. Current knowledge is best established at the Mount Meager massif north of Mount Garibaldi and is likely to rise considerably with a temporary mapping and monitoring project. An intensive program classifying infrastructural exposure near all young Canadian volcanoes and quick hazard assessments at each individual volcanic edifice associated with recent seismic activity would be in advance and would produce a quick and productive determination of priority areas for further efforts. The existing network of seismographs to monitor tectonic earthquakes has existed since 1975, although it remained small in population until 1985. Apart from a few short-term seismic monitoring experiments by the Geological Survey of Canada, no volcano monitoring has been accomplished at Mount Garibaldi or at other volcanoes in Canada at a level approaching that in other established countries with historically active volcanoes. Active or restless volcanoes are usually monitored using at least three seismographs all within approximately, and frequently within, for better sensitivity of detection and reduced location errors, particularly for earthquake depth. Such monitoring detects the risk of an eruption, offering a forecasting capability which is important to mitigating volcanic risk. Currently Mount Garibaldi does not have a seismograph closer than. With increasing distance and declining numbers of seismographs used to indicate seismic activity, the prediction capability is reduced because earthquake location accuracy and depth decreases, and the network becomes less accurate. The inaccurate earthquake locations in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt are a few kilometers, and in more isolated northern regions they are up to. The location magnitude level in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is about magnitude 1 to 1.5, and elsewhere it is magnitude 1.5 to 2. At carefully monitored volcanoes both the located and noticed events are recorded and surveyed immediately to improve the understanding of a future eruption. Undetected events are not recorded or surveyed in British Columbia immediately, nor in an easy-to-access process.  In countries like Canada it is possible that small precursor earthquake swarms might go undetected, particularly if no events were observed; more significant events in larger swarms would be detected but only a minor subdivision of the swarm events would be complex to clarify them with confidence as volcanic in nature, or even associate them with an individual volcanic edifice.

Garibaldi Lake volcanic field.

Mount Garibaldi is associated with a group of small volcanoes that form the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field. An unusual volcanic structure called The Table is located between Garibaldi Lake and Mount Garibaldi. This several-hundred-foot-high flat-topped volcano is made of layers of andesitic dacite that are arranged like a stack of more or less equal sized pancakes. The Table was formed in the early Holocene at a time when the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the region. As the volcano's lava rose it melted the part of the ice sheet above The Table's vent, creating space for the lava to move into. Repeated eruptions constructed the steep-walled stack of lava seen today.  The Black Tusk is a large spire of extensively eroded dark volcanic rock that is shaped like a Walrus tusk. It is considered to be the remnant of an extinct andesitic stratovolcano which formed between about 1.3 and 1.1 million years ago.  Mount Price, west of Garibaldi Lake, south of The Black Tusk, was formed in three stages of activity, dating back 1.1 million years, the latest of which produced two large lava flows from Clinker Peak during the early Holocene that ponded against the retreating continental ice sheet and formed The Barrier, containing Garibaldi Lake.  Cinder Cone stands above a gap between two arms of Helmet Glacier on Garibaldi's flanks. During summer its crater is filled with a snow melt lake.

Mount Garibaldi is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Sea to Sky Country of British Columbia, north of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Located in the southernmost Coast Mountains, it is one of the most recognized peaks in the South Coast region, as well as British Columbia's best known volcano. It lies within the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges.

Le mont Garibaldi, en, nommé d'après l'Italien Giuseppe Garibaldi en 1860, est un volcan endormi situé en Colombie-Britannique, dans le Sud-Ouest du Canada, à environ soixante kilomètres au nord de Vancouver. Le sommet s'élève à d'altitude, ce qui en fait le point culminant des chaînons Garibaldi au sein des chaînons du Pacifique, dans la partie méridionale de la chaîne Côtière. Il surplombe le champ volcanique du lac Garibaldi situé au nord, et fait partie de la ceinture volcanique de Garibaldi, à l'extrémité septentrionale de l'arc volcanique des Cascades. Sa dernière éruption date d'environ et il demeure une menace pour les installations humaines, notamment en raison des séismes et des glissements de terrain qu'il connaît. Malgré un climat relativement clément, son versant oriental surplombe un champ de glace, le névé Garibaldi. Protégés au sein du parc provincial Garibaldi et visibles depuis la ville de Squamish, le sommet et ses environs constituent une destination prisée des adeptes de nature, de randonnée pédestre et de ski de montagne.