Signs and symptoms.

The most spectacular symptom of lymphatic filariasis is elephantiasis, a stage 3 lymphedema with thickening of the skin and underlying tissues. This was the first mosquito-borne disease to be discovered. Elephantiasis results when the parasites lodge in the lymphatic system and cause blockages to the flow of lymph. Infections usually begin in childhood.  The skin condition the disease causes is called "elephantiasis tropica" (also known as "elephantiasis arabum").  Elephantiasis mainly affects the lower extremities; the ears, mucous membranes, and amputation stumps are affected less frequently. However, various species of filarial worms tend to affect different parts of the body: "Wuchereria bancrofti" can affect the arms, breasts, legs, scrotum, and vulva (causing hydrocele formation), while "Brugia timori" rarely affects the genitals. Those who develop the chronic stages of elephantiasis are usually amicrofilaraemic and often have adverse immunological reactions to the microfilariae as well as the adult worms.  The subcutaneous worms present with skin rashes, urticarial papules, and arthritis, as well as hyper- and hypopigmentation macules. "Onchocerca volvulus" manifests itself in the eyes, causing "river blindness" (onchocerciasis), one of the leading causes of blindness in the world. Serous cavity filariasis presents with symptoms similar to subcutaneous filariasis; it may also be associated with ascites following the severe inflammatory reaction in the lymphatics.  Elephantiasis leads to marked swelling of the lower half of the body and thickening of the skin, making it look like that of an elephant, a term called "pachyderm".

Causes.

Elephantiasis occurs in the presence of microscopic, thread-like parasitic worms such as "Wuchereria bancrofti" (the most common), "Brugia malayi", and "Brugia timori" (also known as "B. timori"), all of which are transmitted by bites from infected mosquitoes. It is a type of helminth infection. Three types of worm cause the disease and damage the lymphatic system.  The disease itself is a result of a complex interplay between several factors: the worm, the endosymbiotic "Wolbachia" bacteria within the worm, the host’s immune response, and the numerous opportunistic infections and disorders that arise. The adult worms only live in the human lymphatic system. The parasite infects the lymph nodes and blocks the flow of lymph throughout the body; this results in chronic lymphedema, most often noted in the lower torso (typically in the legs and genitals).

Diagnosis.

The standard method for diagnosing active infection is by finding the microfilariae via microscopic examination. This may be difficult, as in most parts of the world, microfilariae only circulate in the blood at night. For this reason, the blood has to be collected nocturnally. The blood sample is typically in the form of a thick smear and stained with Giemsa stain. Testing the blood serum for antibodies against the disease may also be used.

Prevention.

The present objective of prevention is the eradication of lymphatic filariasis.  The World Health Organization recommends mass deworming—treating entire groups of people who are at risk with a single annual dose of two medicines, namely albendazole in combination with either ivermectin or diethylcarbamazine citrate. With consistent treatment, since the disease needs a human host, the reduction of microfilariae means the disease will not be transmitted, the adult worms will die out, and the cycle will be broken. In sub-Saharan Africa, albendazole (donated by GlaxoSmithKline) is being used with ivermectin (donated by Merck & Co.) to treat the disease, whereas elsewhere in the world, albendazole is used with diethylcarbamazine. As of 2019 WHO recommends prevention with a combination of ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine, and albendazole in areas were onchocerciasis does not occur. Transmission of the infection can be broken when a single dose of these combined oral medicines is consistently maintained annually for a duration of four to six years. Using a combination of treatments better reduces the number of microfilariae in blood. Avoiding mosquito bites, such as by using insecticide-treated mosquito bed nets, also reduces the transmission of lymphatic filariasis.  The Carter Center's International Task Force for Disease Eradication declared lymphatic filariasis one of six potentially eradicable diseases. According to medical experts, the worldwide effort to eliminate lymphatic filariasis is on track to potentially succeed by 2020.  For similar-looking but causally unrelated podoconiosis, international awareness of the disease will have to increase before elimination is possible. In 2011, podoconiosis was added to the World Health Organization's Neglected Tropical Diseases list, which was an important milestone in raising global awareness of the condition. The efforts of the Global Programme to Eliminate LF are estimated to have prevented 6.6 million new filariasis cases from developing in children between 2000 and 2007, and to have stopped the progression of the disease in another 9.5 million people who had already contracted it. Dr. Mwele Malecela, who chairs the programme, said: "We are on track to accomplish our goal of elimination by 2020." In 2010, the WHO published a detailed progress report on the elimination campaign in which they assert that of the 81 countries with endemic LF, 53 have implemented mass drug administration, and 37 have completed five or more rounds in some areas, though urban areas remain problematic.

Treatment.

Anthelmintic.

Treatments for lymphatic filariasis differ depending on the geographic location of the area of the world in which the disease was acquired. In sub-Saharan Africa, albendazole is being used with ivermectin to treat the disease, whereas elsewhere in the world, albendazole is used with diethylcarbamazine. Geo-targeting treatments is part of a larger strategy to eventually eliminate lymphatic filariasis by 2020.

Antibiotics.

The antibiotic doxycycline is also effective in treating lymphatic filariasis. Its drawbacks over anthelmintic drugs are that it requires 4 to 6 weeks of treatment, should not be used in young children and pregnant women, and is photosensitizing, which limits its use for mass prevention. The parasites responsible for elephantiasis have a population of endosymbiotic bacteria, "Wolbachia", that live inside the worm. When the symbiotic bacteria of the adult worms are killed by the antibiotic, they no longer provide chemicals which the nematode larvae need to develop, which either kills the larvae or prevents their normal development. This permanently sterilizes the adult worms, which die within 1 to 2 years instead of their normal 10 to 14 year lifespan.

Vaccine.

A vaccine is not yet available, but in 2013 the University of Illinois College of Medicine was reporting 95% efficacy in testing against "B. malayi" in mice.

Supportive treatments.

Additionally, surgical treatment may be helpful for issues related to scrotal elephantiasis and hydrocele. However, surgery is generally ineffective at correcting elephantiasis of the limbs.

Epidemiology.

Elephantiasis caused by lymphatic filariasis is one of the most common causes of disability in the world. A 2012 report noted that lymphatic filariasis affected 120 million people and one billion people at risk for infection. About 40 million people were disfigured or incapacitated by the disease in 2015. It is considered endemic in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Central and South America, and Pacific Island nations.  In areas endemic for podoconiosis, prevalence can be 5% or higher. In communities where lymphatic filariasis is endemic, as many as 10% of women can be afflicted with swollen limbs, and 50% of men can suffer from mutilating genital symptoms.  Filariasis is considered endemic in 73 countries; 37 of these are in Africa.  In many of these countries, considerable progress has been made towards elimination of filariasis. In July 2017, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that the disease had been eliminated in Tonga. Elimination of the disease has also occurred in Cambodia, the Cook Islands, Egypt, Kiribati, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Niue, Palau, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vanuatu, Viet Nam and Wallis and Fortuna. This list is constantly updates and adds on the China and South Korea that were among the first countries to eliminate LF, according to the WHO.

History.

Lymphatic filariasis is thought to have affected humans for about 4000 years. Artifacts from ancient Egypt (2000 BC) and the Nok civilization in West Africa (500 BC) show possible elephantiasis symptoms. The first clear reference to the disease occurs in ancient Greek literature, wherein scholars differentiated the often similar symptoms of lymphatic filariasis from those of leprosy, describing leprosy as "elephantiasis graecorum" and lymphatic filariasis as "elephantiasis arabum".  The first documentation of symptoms occurred in the 16th century, when Jan Huyghen van Linschoten wrote about the disease during the exploration of Goa. Similar symptoms were reported by subsequent explorers in areas of Asia and Africa, though an understanding of the disease did not begin to develop until centuries later.  In 1866, Timothy Lewis, building on the work of and Otto Henry Wucherer, made the connection between microfilariae and elephantiasis, establishing the course of research that would ultimately explain the disease. In 1876, Joseph Bancroft discovered the adult form of the worm. In 1877, the lifecycle involving an arthropod vector was theorized by Patrick Manson, who proceeded to demonstrate the presence of the worms in mosquitoes. Manson incorrectly hypothesized that the disease was transmitted through skin contact with water in which the mosquitoes had laid eggs. In 1900, George Carmichael Low determined the actual transmission method by discovering the presence of the worm in the proboscis of the mosquito vector.

Research directions.

Researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) have developed a novel vaccine for the prevention of lymphatic filariasis. This vaccine has been shown to elicit strong, protective immune responses in mouse models of lymphatic filariasis infection. The immune response elicited by this vaccine has been demonstrated to be protective against both "W. bancrofti" and "B. malayi" infection in the mouse model and may prove useful in the human.  On September 20, 2007, geneticists published the first draft of the complete genome (genetic content) of "Brugia malayi", one of the roundworms which causes lymphatic filariasis. This project had been started in 1994 and by 2000, 80% of the genome had been determined. Determining the content of the genes might lead to the development of new drugs and vaccines.

Lymphatic filariasis is a human disease caused by parasitic worms known as filarial worms. Most cases of the disease have no symptoms. Some people, however, develop a syndrome called elephantiasis, which is marked by severe swelling in the arms, legs, breasts, or genitals. The skin may become thicker as well, and the condition may become painful. The changes to the body have the potential to harm the person's social and economic situation. The worms are spread by the bites of infected mosquitoes. Three types of worms are known to cause the disease: "Wuchereria bancrofti", "Brugia malayi", and "Brugia timori", with "Wuchereria bancrofti" being the most common. These worms damage the lymphatic system. The disease is diagnosed by microscopic examination of blood collected during the night. The blood is typically examined as a smear after being stained with Giemsa stain. Testing the blood for antibodies against the disease may also permit diagnosis. Other roundworms from the same family are responsible for river blindness. Prevention can be achieved by treating entire groups in which the disease exists, known as mass deworming. This is done every year for about six years, in an effort to rid a population of the disease entirely. Medications used include antiparasitics such as albendazole with ivermectin, or albendazole with diethylcarbamazine. The medications do not kill the adult worms but prevent further spread of the disease until the worms die on their own. Efforts to prevent mosquito bites are also recommended, including reducing the number of mosquitoes and promoting the use of bed nets. In 2015 about 38.5 million people were infected. About 950 million people are at risk of the disease in 54 countries. It is most common in tropical Africa and Asia. Lymphatic filariasis is classified as a neglected tropical disease and one of the four main worm infections. The impact of the disease results in economic losses of billions of dollars a year.

La filariose lymphatique, est une maladie tropicale, infectieuse et plus précisément parasitaire provoquée par des vers parasites du genre filaire "Wuchereria bancrofti" (filariose de Bancroft), "Brugia malayi" (filariose de Malaisie) et "Brugia timori", toutes transmises par les moustiques.


Signs and symptoms.

A filariasis such as loiasis most often consists of asymptomatic microfilaremia. Some patients can develop lymphatic dysfunction causing lymphedema. Episodic angioedema (Calabar swellings) in the arms and legs, caused by immune reactions, are common. Calabar swellings are 3–10 cm in surface area, sometimes erythematous, and not pitting. When chronic, they can form cyst-like enlargements of the connective tissue around the sheaths of muscle tendons, becoming very painful when moved. The swellings may last for one to three days and may be accompanied by localized urticaria (skin eruptions) and pruritus (itching). They reappear at referent locations at irregular time intervals. Subconjunctival migration of an adult worm to the eyes can also occur frequently, and this is the reason Loa loa is also called the "African eye worm." The passage over the eyeball can be sensed, but it usually takes less than 15 minutes. Eyeworms affect men and women equally, but advanced age is a risk factor. Eosinophilia is often prominent in filarial infections. Dead worms may cause chronic abscesses, which may lead to the formation of granulomatous reactions and fibrosis.  In the human host, "Loa loa" larvae migrate to the subcutaneous tissue, where they mature to adult worms in approximately one year, but sometimes up to four years. Adult worms migrate in the subcutaneous tissues at a speed less than 1 cm/min, mating and producing more microfilariae. The adult worms can live up to 17 years in the human host.

Cause.

Transmission.

"Loa loa" infective larvae (L3) are transmitted to humans by the deer fly vectors "Chrysops silica" and "C. dimidiata". These carriers are blood-sucking and day-biting, and they are found in rainforest-like environments in western and central Africa. Infective larvae (L3) mature to adults (L5) in the subcutaneous tissues of the human host, after which the adult worms—assuming presence of a male and female worm—mate and produce microfilariae. The cycle of infection continues when a non-infected mango or deer fly takes a blood meal from a microfilaremic human host, and this stage of the transmission is possible because of the combination of the diurnal periodicity of microfilariae and the day-biting tendencies of the "Chrysops spp".

Reservoir.

Humans are the primary reservoir for "Loa loa". Other minor potential reservoirs have been indicated in various fly-biting habit studies, such as hippopotamus, wild ruminants (e.g. buffalo), rodents and lizards. A simian type of loiasis exists in monkeys and apes but it is transmitted by "Chrysops langi". There is no crossover between the human and simian types of the disease. A related fly, "Chrysops langi", has been isolated as a vector of simian loiasis, but this variant hunts within the forest and has not as yet been associated with human infection.

Vector.

"Loa loa" is transmitted by several species of tabanid flies (Order: Diptera; Family: Tabanidae). Although horseflies of the genus "Tabanus" are often mentioned as vectors, the two most prominent vectors are from the tabanid genus "Chrysops"—"C. silacea" and "C. dimidiata". These species exist only in Africa and are popularly known as deer flies and mango, or mangrove, flies.  "Chrysops spp" are small (5–20 mm long) with a large head and downward-pointing mouthparts. Their wings are clear or speckled brown. They are hematophagous and typically live in forested and muddy habitats like swamps, streams and reservoirs, and in rotting vegetation. Female mango and deer flies require a blood meal for production of a second batch of eggs. This batch is deposited near water, where the eggs hatch in 5–7 days. The larvae mature in water or soil, where they feed on organic material such as decaying animal and vegetable products. Fly larvae are 1–6 cm long and take 1–3 years to mature from egg to adult. When fully mature, "C. silacea" and "C. dimidiata" assume the day-biting tendencies of all tabanids.  The bite of the mango fly can be very painful, possibly because of the laceration style employed; rather than puncturing the skin as a mosquito does, the mango fly (and deer fly) makes a laceration in the skin and subsequently laps up the blood. Female flies require a fair amount of blood for their aforementioned reproductive purposes and thus may take multiple blood meals from the same host if disturbed during the first one.  Although "Chrysops silacea" and "C. dimidiata" are attracted to canopied rainforests, they do not do their biting there. Instead, they leave the forest and take most blood meals in open areas. The flies are attracted to smoke from wood fires and they use visual cues and sensation of carbon dioxide plumes to find their preferred host, humans.  A study of "Chrysops spp" biting habits showed that "C. silacea" and "C. dimidiata" take human blood meals approximately 90% of the time, with hippopotamus, wild ruminant, rodent and lizard blood meals making up the other 10%.

Morphology.

Adult "Loa" worms are sexually dimorphic, with males considerably smaller than females at 30–34 mm long and 0.35–0.42 mm wide compared to 40–70 mm long and 0.5 mm wide. Adults live in the subcutaneous tissues of humans, where they mate and produce wormlike eggs called microfilariae. These microfilariae are 250–300 μm long, 6–8 μm wide and can be distinguished morphologically from other filariae, as they are sheathed and contain body nuclei that extend to the tip of the tail.

Lifecycle.

The vector for "Loa loa" filariasis originates with flies from two hematophagous species of the genus "Chrysops" (deer flies), "C. silacea" and "C. dimidiata". During a blood meal, an infected fly (genus "Chrysops", day-biting flies) introduces third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they penetrate into the bite wound. The larvae develop into adults that commonly reside in subcutaneous tissue. The female worms measure 40 to 70 mm in length and 0.5 mm in diameter, while the males measure 30 to 34 mm in length and 0.35 to 0.43 mm in diameter. Adults produce microfilariae measuring 250 to 300 μm by 6 to 8 μm, which are sheathed and have diurnal periodicity. Microfilariae have been recovered from spinal fluids, urine and sputum. During the day, they are found in peripheral blood, but during the noncirculation phase, they are found in the lungs. The fly ingests microfilariae during a blood meal. After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their sheaths and migrate from the fly's midgut through the hemocoel to the thoracic muscles of the arthropod. There the microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae and subsequently into third-stage infective larvae. The third-stage infective larvae migrate to the fly's proboscis and can infect another human when the fly takes a blood meal.

Diagnosis.

Microscopic examination of microfilariae is a practical diagnostic procedure to find "Loa loa". It is important to time the blood collection with the known periodicity of the microfilariae (between 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m.). The blood sample can be a thick smear, stained with Giemsa or haematoxylin and eosin (see staining). For increased sensitivity, concentration techniques can be used. These include centrifugation of the blood sample lyzed in 2% formalin (Knott's technique), or filtration through a nucleopore membrane.  Antigen detection using an immunoassay for circulating filarial antigens constitutes a useful diagnostic approach, because microfilaremia can be low and variable. Though the Institute for Tropical Medicine reports that no serologic diagnostics are available, tests that are highly specific to "Loa loa" have been developed in recent years. This is despite the fact that many recently developed methods of antibody detection are of limited value because substantial antigenic cross-reactivity exists between filaria and other parasitic worms (helminths), and that a positive serologic test does not necessarily distinguish among infections. The new tests have not reached the point-of-care level yet, but show promise for highlighting high-risk areas and individuals with co-endemic loiasis and onchocerciasis. Specifically, Dr. Thomas Nutman and colleagues at the National Institutes of Health have described the a luciferase immunoprecipitation assay (LIPS) and the related QLIPS (quick version). Whereas a previously described LISXP-1 ELISA test had a poor sensitivity (55%), the QLIPS test is practical, as it requires only a 15 minutes incubation, while delivering high sensitivity (97%) and specificity (100%). No report on the distribution status of LIPS or QLIPS testing is available, but these tests would help to limit complications derived from mass ivermectin treatment for onchocerciasis or dangerous strong doses of diethylcarbamazine for loiasis alone (as pertains to individual with high "Loa loa" microfilarial loads).  Calabar swellings are the primary tool for visual diagnosis. Identification of adult worms is possible from tissue samples collected during subcutaneous biopsies. Adult worms migrating across the eye are another potential diagnostic, but the short timeframe for the worm's passage through the conjunctiva makes this observation less common.  In the past, healthcare providers used a provocative injection of "Dirofilaria immitis" as a skin-test antigen for filariasis diagnosis. If the patient was infected, the extract would cause an artificial allergic reaction and associated Calabar swelling similar to that caused, in theory, by metabolic products of the worm or dead worms.  Blood tests to reveal microfilaremia are useful in many, but not all cases, as one-third of loiasis patients are amicrofilaremic. By contrast, eosinophilia is almost guaranteed in cases of loiasis, and blood testing for eosinophil fraction may be useful.

Prevention.

Diethylcarbamazine has been shown as an effective prophylaxis for "Loa loa" infection. A study of Peace Corps volunteers in the highly Loa—endemic Gabon, for example, had the following results: 6 of 20 individuals in a placebo group contracted the disease, compared to 0 of 16 in the DEC-treated group. Seropositivity for antifilarial IgG antibody was also much higher in the placebo group. The recommended prophylactic dose is 300 mg DEC given orally once weekly. The only associated symptom in the Peace Corps study was nausea.  Researchers believe that geo-mapping of appropriate habitat and human settlement patterns may, with the use of predictor variables such as forest, land cover, rainfall, temperature, and soil type, allow for estimation of Loa loa transmission in the absence of point-of-care diagnostic tests. In addition to geo-mapping and chemoprophylaxis, the same preventative strategies used for malaria should be undertaken to avoid contraction of loiasis. Specifically, DEET-containing insect repellent, permethrin-soaked clothing, and thick, long-sleeved and long-legged clothing ought to be worn to decrease susceptibility to the bite of the mango or deer fly vector. Because the vector is day-biting, mosquito (bed) nets do not increase protection against loiasis.  Vector elimination strategies are an interesting consideration. It has been shown that the "Chrysops" vector has a limited flying range, but vector elimination efforts are not common, likely because the insects bite outdoors and have a diverse, if not long, range, living in the forest and biting in the open, as mentioned in the vector section.  No vaccine has been developed for loiasis and there is little report on this possibility.

Treatment.

Treatment of loiasis involves chemotherapy or, in some cases, surgical removal of adult worms followed by systemic treatment. The current drug of choice for therapy is diethylcarbamazine (DEC), though ivermectin use while not curative (i.e., it will not kill the adult worms) can substantially reduce the microfilarial load. The recommended dosage of DEC is 8–10 mg/kg/d taken three times daily for 21 days per CDC. The pediatric dose is the same. DEC is effective against microfilariae and somewhat effective against macrofilariae (adult worms). The recommended dosage of ivermectin is 150 μg/kg in patients with a low microfilaria load (with densities less than 8000 mf/mL).  In patients with high microfilaria load and/or the possibility of an onchocerciasis coinfection, treatment with DEC and/or ivermectin may be contraindicated or require a substantially lower initial dose, as the rapid microfilaricidal actions of the drugs can provoke encephalopathy. In these cases, initial albendazole administration has proved helpful (and is superior to ivermectin, which can also be risky despite its slower-acting microfilaricidal effects over DEC). The CDC recommended dosage for albendazole is 200 mg taken twice a day for 21 days. Also, in cases where two or more DEC treatments have failed to provide a cure, subsequent albendazole treatment can be administered.  Management of "Loa loa" infection in some instances can involve surgery, though the timeframe during which surgical removal of the worm must be carried out is very short. A detailed surgical strategy to remove an adult worm is as follows (from a real case in New York City). The 2007 procedure to remove an adult worm from a male Gabonian immigrant employed proparacaine and povidone-iodine drops, a wire eyelid speculum, and 0.5 ml 2% lidocaine with epinephrine 1:100,000, injected superiorly. A 2-mm incision was made and the immobile worm was removed with forceps. Gatifloxacin drops and an eye-patch over ointment were utilized post surgery and there were no complications (unfortunately, the patient did not return for DEC therapy to manage the additional worm—and microfilariae—present in his body).

Epidemiology.

As of 2009, loiasis is endemic to 11 countries, all in western or central Africa, and an estimated 12–13 million people have the disease. The highest incidence is seen in Cameroon, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Gabon, and Equatorial Guinea. The rates of "Loa loa" infection are lower but it is still present in and Angola, Benin, Chad and Uganda. The disease was once endemic to the western African countries of Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Ivory Coast and Mali but has since disappeared.  Throughout "Loa loa"-endemic regions, infection rates vary from 9 to 70 percent of the population. Areas at high risk of severe adverse reactions to mass treatment (with Ivermectin) are at present determined by the prevalence in a population of >20% microfilaremia, which has been recently shown in eastern Cameroon (2007 study), for example, among other locales in the region.  Endemicity is closely linked to the habitats of the two known human loiasis vectors, "Chrysops dimidiata" and "C. silicea".  Cases have been reported on occasion in the United States but are restricted to travelers who have returned from endemic regions.  In the 1990s, the only method of determining "Loa loa" intensity was with microscopic examination of standardized blood smears, which is not practical in endemic regions. Because mass diagnostic methods were not available, complications started to surface once mass ivermectin treatment programs started being carried out for onchocerciasis, another filariasis. Ivermectin, a microfilaricidal drug, may be contraindicated in patients who are co-infected with loiasis and have associated high microfilarial loads. The theory is that the killing of massive numbers of microfilaria, some of which may be near the ocular and brain region, can lead to encephalopathy. Indeed, cases of this have been documented so frequently over the last decade that a term has been given for this set of complication: neurologic serious adverse events (SAEs).  Advanced diagnostic methods have been developed since the appearance the SAEs, but more specific diagnostic tests that have been or are currently being development (see: Diagnostics) must to be supported and distributed if adequate loiasis surveillance is to be achieved.  There is much overlap between the endemicity of the two distinct filariases, which complicates mass treatment programs for onchocerciasis and necessitates the development of greater diagnostics for loiasis.  In Central and West Africa, initiatives to control onchocerciasis involve mass treatment with Ivermectin. However, these regions typically have high rates of co-infection with both "L. loa" and "O. volvulus", and mass treatment with Ivermectin can have severe adverse effects (SAE). These include hemorrhage of the conjunctiva and retina, heamaturia, and other encephalopathies that are all attributed to the initial L. loa microfilarial load in the patient prior to treatment. Studies have sought to delineate the sequence of events following Ivermectin treatment that lead to neurologic SAE and sometimes death, while also trying to understand the mechanisms of adverse reactions to develop more appropriate treatments.  In a study looking at mass Ivermectin treatment in Cameroon, one of the greatest endemic regions for both onchocerciasis and loiasis, a sequence of events in the clinical manifestation of adverse effects was outlined.  It was noted that the patients used in this study had a "L. loa" microfilarial load of greater than 3,000 per ml of blood.  Within 12–24 hours post-Ivermectin treatment (D1), individuals complained of fatigue, anorexia, and headache, joint and lumbar pain—a bent forward walk was characteristic during this initial stage accompanied by fever. Stomach pain and diarrhea were also reported in several individuals.  By day 2 (D2), many patients experienced confusion, agitation, dysarthria, mutism and incontinence. Some cases of coma were reported as early as D2. The severity of adverse effects increased with higher microfilarial loads. Hemorrhaging of the eye, particularly the retinal and conjunctiva regions, is another common sign associated with SAE of Ivermectin treatment in patients with "L. loa" infections and is observed between D2 and D5 post-treatment. This can be visible for up to 5 weeks following treatment and has increased severity with higher microfilarial loads.  Haematuria and proteinuria have also been observed following Ivermectin treatment, but this is common when using Ivermectin to treat onchocerciasis. The effect is exacerbated when there are high "L. loa" microfilarial loads however, and microfilariae can be observed in the urine occasionally. Generally, patients recovered from SAE within 6–7 months post-Ivermectin treatment; however, when their complications were unmanaged and patients were left bed-ridden, death resulted due to gastrointestinal bleeding, septic shock, and large abscesses.  Mechanisms for SAE have been proposed. Though microfilarial load is a major risk factor to post-Ivermectin SAE, three main hypotheses have been proposed for the mechanisms.  The first mechanism suggests that Ivermectin causes immobility in microfilariae, which then obstructs microcirculation in cerebral regions. This is supported by the retinal hemorrhaging seen in some patients, and is possibly responsible for the neurologic SAE reported.  The second hypothesis suggests that microfilariae may try to escape drug treatment by migrating to brain capillaries and further into brain tissue; this is supported by pathology reports demonstrating a microfilarial presence in brain tissue post-Ivermectin treatment.  Lastly, the third hypothesis attributes hypersensitivity and inflammation at the cerebral level to post-Ivermectin treatment complications, and perhaps the release of bacteria from L. loa after treatment to SAE. This has been observed with the bacteria "Wolbachia" that live with "O. volvulus".  More research into the mechanisms of post-Ivermectin treatment SAE is needed to develop drugs that are appropriate for individuals suffering from multiple parasitic infections.  One drug that has been proposed for the treatment of onchocerciasis is doxycycline. This drug has been shown to be effective in killing both the adult worm of "O. volvulus" and "Wolbachia", the bacteria believed to play a major role in the onset of onchocerciasis, while having no effect on the microfilariae of "L. loa". In a study done at 5 different co-endemic regions for onchocerciasis and loiasis, doxycycline was shown to be effective in treating over 12,000 individuals infected with both parasites with minimal complications. Drawbacks to using Doxycycline include bacterial resistance and patient compliance because of a longer treatment regimen and emergence of doxycycline-resistant "Wolbachia". However, in the study over 97% of the patients complied with treatment, so it does pose as a promising treatment for onchocerciasis, while avoiding complications associated with L. loa co-infections.  Human loiasis geographical distribution is restricted to the rain forest and swamp forest areas of West Africa, being especially common in Cameroon and on the Ogooué River. Humans are the only known natural reservoir. It is estimated that over 10 million humans are infected with "Loa loa" larvae.  An area of tremendous concern regarding loiasis is its co-endemicity with onchocerciasis in certain areas of west and central Africa, as mass ivermectin treatment of onchocerciasis can lead to serious adverse events (SAEs) in patients who have high "Loa loa" microfilarial densities, or loads. This fact necessitates the development of more specific diagnostics tests for "Loa loa" so that areas and individuals at a higher risk for neurologic consequences can be identified prior to microfilaricidal treatment. Additionally, the treatment of choice for loiasis, diethylcarbamazine, can lead to serious complications in and of itself when administered in standard doses to patients with high "Loa loa" microfilarial loads.

History.

The first case of "Loa loa" infection was noted in the Caribbean (Santo Domingo) in 1770. A French surgeon named Mongin tried but failed to remove a worm passing across a woman's eye. A few years later, in 1778, the surgeon François Guyot noted worms in the eyes of West African slaves on a French ship to America; he successfully removed a worm from one man's eye.  The identification of microfilariae was made in 1890 by the ophthalmologist Stephen McKenzie. Localized angioedema, a common clinical presentation of loiasis, was observed in 1895 in the coastal Nigerian town of Calabar—hence the name "Calabar" swellings. This observation was made by a Scottish ophthalmologist named Douglas Argyll-Robertson, but the association between "Loa loa" and Calabar swellings was not realized until 1910 (by Dr. Patrick Manson). The determination of vector—"Chrysops" spp.—was made in 1912 by the British parasitologist Robert Thomson Leiper.

Synonyms.

Synonyms for the disease include African eye worm, loaiasis, loaina, "Loa loa" filariasis, filaria loa, filaria lacrimalis, filaria subconjunctivalis, Calabar swellings, Fugitive swellings, and microfilaria diurnal. "Loa loa", the scientific name for the infectious agent, is an indigenous term itself and it is likely that there are many other terms used from region to region.

"Loa loa" filariasis is a skin and eye disease caused by the nematode worm "Loa loa". Humans contract this disease through the bite of a deer fly or mango fly ("Chrysops" spp), the vectors for "Loa loa". The adult "Loa loa" filarial worm migrates throughout the subcutaneous tissues of humans, occasionally crossing into subconjunctival tissues of the eye where it can be easily observed. "Loa loa" does not normally affect one's vision but can be painful when moving about the eyeball or across the bridge of the nose. The disease can cause red itchy swellings below the skin called "Calabar swellings". The disease is treated with the drug diethylcarbamazine (DEC), and when appropriate, surgical methods may be employed to remove adult worms from the conjunctiva. Loiasis belongs to the so-called neglected diseases.

La filariose à loa loa (également appelée "loase" et "ver africain de l’œil ") est une maladie de la peau et de l’œil provoquée par un ver nématode, la filaire loa loa. Les humains contractent cette maladie à la suite de la piqûre d'un taon, également connu sous le nom de « mouche à mangue ». Certaines mouches sont également un vecteur de loa Loa.


Early life and family.

Born in Dunedin on 11 March 1903, Dickinson was the son of Henry Dickinson and Eliza Jane Dickinson (née McDonald). He was educated at Otago Boys' High School. On 11 June 1929 he married Rua Belle Milne at First Church in Dunedin.

Sporting career.

Rugby union.

While at Otago Boys' High School, Dickinson played as a five-eighth in the school's 1st XV rugby team between 1918 and 1921. He made his debut for the All Blacks in 1922 on their tour of New South Wales, playing five matches and scoring three tries. He went on to play 12 matches for between 1922 and 1924, scoring five tries, 11 conversions and one penalty goal. Dickinson also played for the South Island in 1922. He retired from first-class rugby at the age of 21.

Cricket.

A fast bowler, Dickinson became the first so-called "double All Black" when he represented New Zealand at cricket against Victoria in the 1924-25 season. He played a match against Australia in 1927-28, then in New Zealand's first two official Tests, against England in 1929-30, and a final Test against South Africa in 1931-32. He took eight wickets at an average of 30.62 in his three Tests.  Dickinson played for Otago from 1920-21 to 1937-38, and one match for Wellington in the 1943-44 season. His best performances were 6 for 43 and 5 for 46 against Canterbury in 1924-25, and 7 for 90 and 4 for 55 against Wellington the next season. He also scored useful runs in the lower order, with one century, 104, against Wellington in 1927-28.

Working life and death.

Dickinson worked as a salesman, store manager, and clerk. He died in Lower Hutt on 17 March 1978, and his ashes were buried at Taita Lawn Cemetery.

George Ritchie Dickinson (11 March 1903 – 17 March 1978) was a New Zealand cricketer and rugby union player. He played three tests for the New Zealand cricket team between 1930 and 1932, and five matches for the New Zealand national rugby side, the All Blacks, in 1922.

George Ritchie Dickinson, né le à Dunedin et mort le à Lower Hutt, est un joueur de rugby et de cricket néo-zélandais, qui évoluait au poste de centre.


History.

Long before Lincoln Park was incorporated as a city, an area along the Ecorse River was the site of a pivotal meeting during Pontiac's Rebellion. On April 27, 1763, a council of several American Indian tribes from the Detroit region listened to a speech from the Ottawa leader Pontiac. Pontiac urged the listeners to join him in a surprise attack on the British Fort Detroit, which they attempted on May 9. Today, the area is known as Council Point Park, and a small engraved boulder marks the site of the historic meeting.  Neighborhoods were first laid in the area of Ecorse Township that would become Lincoln Park in 1906. It was incorporated as a village in 1921, and as a city in 1925.  Preston Tucker, famous for his controversial financing and development of the revolutionary 1948 Tucker Sedan, grew up in Lincoln Park in the early 1900s. Tucker joined the Lincoln Park Police Department in his early years to gain access to the high performance cars the department used.  During the 20th century, Lincoln Park grew as a bedroom community for the numerous workers at Henry Ford's River Rouge Plant and other mills and factories of the auto industry. Two major shopping hubs were constructed in the 1950s: Lincoln Park Plaza in 1955 on the southeast side and the Lincoln Park Shopping Center the following year on the northwest side.  Among Lincoln Park's minor claims to fame is that it was the home of the members of the seminal punk rock group MC5 in the 1960s. The band was rumored to have evolved out of the group's habit of listening to music from a car radio in the parking lot of the local White Castle restaurant in the small downtown area. Gary Grimshaw, a noted rock concert poster artist, grew up in Lincoln Park at the same time.  In 2015 the city planned to hold its first Cinco de Mayo event.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.  The north and south branches of the Ecorse River run through Lincoln Park and join just before leaving the city. Lincoln Park borders the cities of Detroit, Allen Park, Melvindale, Ecorse, Wyandotte, and Southgate.  By 2015, many Hispanic businesses had opened along Dix Highway and Fort Street.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 38,144 people, 14,924 households, and 9,685 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 16,530 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 84.2% White, 5.9% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.5% Asian, 5.4% from other races, and 3.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.9% of the population.  There were 14,924 households, of which 34.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.8% were married couples living together, 16.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 7.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.1% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.13.  The median age in the city was 36.7 years. 24.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 28.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.3% were from 45 to 64; and 11.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.0% male and 51.0% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 40,008 people, 16,204 households, and 10,581 families living in the city. The population density was 6,834.9 per square mile (2,640.5/km). There were 16,821 housing units at an average density of 2,873.7 per square mile (1,110.2/km). The racial makeup of the city was 93.26% White, 2.06% Black or African American, 0.53% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 1.82% from other races, and 1.81% from two or more races. 6.39% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 16,204 households, out of which 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were married couples living together, 13.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.7% were non-families. 29.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.04.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.3% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.7 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $22,515, and the median income for a family was $29,747. Males had a median income of $10,197 versus $6,549 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,140. About 40.1% of families and 44.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.3% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.

Ethnic groups.

In 2015, Brad Coulter, the emergency manager for the City of Lincoln Park, stated that the Hispanic and Latino population make up about 15% of Lincoln Park residents, is "growing and an important part of the city" and "are really helping to stabilize the city."

Education.

The city's education system is served by the Lincoln Park Public Schools primarily serving its 19,700 people under the age of 18. The district includes Lincoln Park High School, Lincoln Park Middle School, Carr Elementary, James A. Foote Elementary, Hoover Elementary, Keppen Elementary, Lafayette Elementary, Paun Elementary, and Raupp Elementary.  Frank G. Mixter Elementary closed after the 2009/10 school year.  Lincoln Park private schools include Christ the Good Shepherd, which conformed with the schools of Mt. Carmel and Wyandotte Catholic to create Pope John Paul II.

Lincoln Park is a city in Wayne County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 38,144 at the 2010 census, down from 40,008 at the 2000 census. With a population density of at the 2010 census, Lincoln Park is the second most-densely populated municipality in the state after Hamtramck.

Lincoln Park est une ville située dans l’État américain du Michigan, dans le comté de Wayne. Elle est une banlieue de Détroit. Selon le recensement de 2000, la population est de habitants.


Translation as "for all".

Several initial vernacular translations of the Roman Missal employed "for all" instead of "for many" to represent the phrase "pro multis" in the Eucharistic Prayer. Thus, Italian had "per tutti", Spanish "por todos los hombres", Portuguese "por todos os homens", German "für alle". However, languages such as Polish translated literally, while Dutch had "voor de velen" (for the many), and French "pour la multitude" (for the multitude).  The word "many" (Latin "multi", Greek "πολλοί") is opposed to "few" (Latin "pauci", Greek "ὀλίγοι"), not to "all" (Latin "omnes", Greek "πάντες"). In a large group, all the members are many; in a small group, all are few. People can be many whether they form the totality of a group or only part of a group. An article by Father Max Zerwick, S.J. gives examples of texts in which the totality of a group are referred to as "many".  In 2006, the Holy See gave instructions that in vernacular translations of the revised edition of the Roman Missal published in 2002, "pro multis" was to be translated literally, as "for many". In a circular of 17 October of that year, the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments pointed out that "for all" is not a literal translation of "pro multis", nor of the words "περὶ πολλῶν" in or "ὑπὲρ πολλῶν" in. "For all", it said, is not so much a "translation" as "an "explanation" of the sort that belongs properly to catechesis". Accordingly, it directed the episcopal conferences to make an effort, in line with the Instruction "Liturgiam authenticam", to translate the words "pro multis" "more faithfully".  The official English translation of the 2002 edition of the Roman Missal has been issued, but work continues for several other languages. The new Spanish version has already been approved, with "por muchos" (for many) replacing the previous "por todos los hombres" (for all men), and as early as Pentecost 2009 the change was effected in Hungary from "mindenkiért" (for all) to "sokakért" (for many); but reluctance in some quarters to abandon the use of "for all" to represent "pro multis" has caused delay in relation to German and Italian.  In view of the resistance of some German-speaking episcopal conferences, Pope Benedict XVI wrote a personal letter on 14 April 2012 to the German conference, which had accepted the change. In it he stressed the importance of using the literal translation.  The Italian bishops conference also voted against translating "pro multis" literally as "per molti" (for many), and in favour of keeping "per tutti" (for all). In 2012, Biblicist Francesco Pieri proposed using the phrase "per una moltitudine" (for a multitude) as a way of being faithful to the Latin original.

1973 English translation.

In its initial translation of the Order of Mass, the International Commission on English in the Liturgy rendered the phrase "qui pro vobis et pro multis effundetur in remissionem peccatorum" as "which will be shed for you and for all men, so that sins may be forgiven". (The word "men" was later omitted because of complaints that it could be understood as referring only to males.) This version was approved by the Episcopal Conferences of English-speaking countries in 1973 and confirmed by the Holy See. It has now been replaced by a more accurate translation.  The 1973 translation was confessedly a non-literal translation, and objections were raised against it not only for this reason but also on the grounds that it could be taken to mean that all are in fact saved, regardless of their relationship to Christ and his Church. Some even claimed that use of the "for all" translation made the consecration invalid.  As mentioned in the introduction, Biblicist Albert Vanhoye stated that "pollon" does not exclude the meaning "all" and consequently the English word "many" is not an accurate translation as it excludes "all".  In defence of the 1973 translation, it was said that the literal translation, "for many", could nowadays be taken to mean "not for all", contradicting the declaration in that Christ died for all, though not all choose to avail of the redemption won for them by the shedding of Christ's blood.

Translation as "for the many".

The Dutch bishops chose to translate "pro multis" as "voor de velen" (for the many). The German Bishops Conference also initially decided to translate "pro multis" as "für die Vielen" (for the many), which was to be explained in catechesis as meaning "for all"; however, under the influence of a movement that began in Italy and spread to other countries, they then decided in 1968 to adopt instead "für alle" (for all). The French conference used "pour la multitude" (for the multitude), but the Italian Bishops Conference has rejected this expression for use in the Mass in Italian.  "For many", rather than "for all" or "for the many", is now the official translation in English. The Holy See is insisting on the same for the German translation, with Pope Benedict XVI pointing out that "neither Matthew nor Mark uses the definite article, so it is not 'for the many', but 'for many'".  In fact, the Latin liturgical phrase "pro multis" is drawn from, which in the original Greek reads περὶ πολλῶν ("peri pollon"), the form used in the Byzantine Greek liturgy, and from, which in the original Greek reads ὑπὲρ πολλῶν ("hyper pollon"). Unlike Latin, Greek has the definite article, which appears in neither passage. "For many", not "for the many", is also how all English translations of the Bible translate these phrases. In the view of Manfred Hauke, use in the liturgy of "for the many" would be "a shabby compromise".  Hebrew רבים (rabbim), translated in Greek as πολλῶν (pollon), "means 'a great number' without any specification as to whether this refers to a totality". This also is without the article: רבים (rabbim), not הרבים (harabbim).

For whom was Christ's blood shed?

In the Apostolic Constitution "Cum occasione" of 31 May 1653 Pope Innocent X declared that it is orthodox Catholic teaching to say that Christ shed his blood for all human beings without exception. Indeed, the traditional blessing of a Paten found in the Pontificale Romanum includes the phrase, "Jesus Christ Thy Son, Who for our salvation, and of everyone, (pro nostra omniumque salute) chose to immolate Himself to Thee, God the Father, on the gallows of the Cross."  It is also orthodox Catholic teaching that not all will necessarily avail of the redemption obtained by the shedding of Christ's blood. While Christ's redemptive suffering makes salvation available to all, it does not follow that all men are actually saved. This seems never to have been authoritatively defined, since it has remained uncontroversial.  The Roman Catechism, also known as the Catechism of the Council of Trent, stated: "If we look to its value, we must confess that the Redeemer shed his blood for the salvation of all; but if we look to the fruit which mankind have received from it, we shall easily find that it pertains not unto all, but to many of the human race."  It would be heretical to interpret "for many" in the words of consecration of the wine as indicating that there were some for whom the shedding of Christ's blood was in itself incapable of redeeming (its value). So the Roman Catechism interpreted "for many" in the context of the consecration form as referring to the effect actually accepted by individuals (its fruits). It declared: "When therefore (our Lord) said: 'For you', he meant either those who were present, or those chosen from among the Jewish people, such as were, with the exception of Judas, the disciples with whom he was speaking. When he added, 'And for many', he wished to be understood to mean the remainder of the elect from among the Jews or Gentiles."  In this, the Roman Catechism differed somewhat from the Summa Theologica of Saint Thomas Aquinas. This interpreted "for you" as a reference either to the elect among the Jews, who witnessed the blood shed in the Old Testament sacrifices, or to the priest and the faithful partaking of Mass; and it took "for many" to refer either to the elect among the Gentiles, or to those for whom Mass is offered.  The Catechism went on to say with regard to the words used in the Roman Canon: "With reason, therefore, were the words 'for all' not used, as in this place the fruits of the Passion are alone spoken of, and to the elect only did His Passion bring the fruit of salvation. And this is the purport of the Apostle when he says: 'Christ was offered once to exhaust the sins of many'; and also of the words of our Lord in John: 'I pray for them; I pray not for the world, but for them whom thou hast given me, because they are thine'."  It would also be heretical to interpret "for all" in the words of consecration of the wine as indicating that, without any exception, everybody must in concrete fact receive the benefit won by the shedding of Christ's blood. So the Holy See has interpreted "for all" in the 1973 English translation of the consecration form as referring to the value of the shedding of Christ's blood and to his intention. On 25 January 1974, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith declared that there was no doubt whatsoever regarding the validity of Masses celebrated using "for all" as a translation of "pro multis", since "for all" corresponds to a correct interpretation of Christ's intention expressed in the words of the consecration, and since it is a dogma of the Catholic faith that Christ died on the Cross for all (cf.,,, ).

Pro multis is a Latin phrase that means "for many" or "for the many". Not having the definite article, Latin does not distinguish between these two meanings.

Dans la liturgie catholique, la formule (qui peut se traduire par "pour beaucoup" ou "pour des multitudes") fait partie de la prière eucharistique. Le sens précis de cette formule, et la façon de la traduire dans les langues vernaculaires, font l'objet de débats. Elle est liée à la théologie de l'eucharistie et à la sotériologie, branche de la théologie qui étudie la question du salut.


Forming the team.

Background.

For many years, FIBA rules specifically prevented NBA players from participating in Olympic tournaments, although players in other professional leagues, outside the United States, were still eligible. In the 1988 Summer Olympics, the Americans lost to the USSR and settled for bronze, their worst finish in the history of the tournament.  In 1989, FIBA voted to change the rule and allow NBA players to participate. The vote was 56-13 in favor of the change; USA Basketball actually voted against it.

Selections.

USA Basketball asked the NBA to supply players for its 1992 roster. The league was initially unenthusiastic, not foreseeing the cultural phenomenon that the team would become. "Sports Illustrated" was the first to nickname the forthcoming American roster as the "Dream Team," on the cover of its February 18, 1991, issue. The first ten players for the team were selected on September 21, 1991: Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen of the Chicago Bulls, John Stockton and Karl Malone of the Utah Jazz, Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers, Larry Bird of the Boston Celtics, Patrick Ewing of the New York Knicks, Chris Mullin of the Golden State Warriors, David Robinson of the San Antonio Spurs, and Charles Barkley of the Philadelphia 76ers. Most of the players were at or near the peaks of their NBA careers. Bird had back trouble, but was selected due to the team's historic nature. Robinson had played with the 1988 Olympic team, and was eager to earn a gold medal at Barcelona. Johnson had retired from the Lakers in November 1991 after testing positive for HIV. His teammates expected Johnson to die from the disease, and he later described his selection for the Olympics as "almost like a life saver," evidence that he could still overcome the illness and live a productive life. The Australian Olympic delegation prominently threatened to boycott the games in protest of Johnson's presence, fearing that he might infect other athletes. Their threats backfired, however, as Johnson received even more public support. Ewing, Jordan, and Mullin had won gold at the 1984 games but Malone, for instance, had not made the team and had seen his non-selection in 1984 as a challenge.  On May 12, 1992, Clyde Drexler of the Portland Trail Blazers was chosen over Isiah Thomas of the Detroit Pistons for the final professional roster spot.  As an acknowledgment to the previous amateur system, the U.S. basketball committee decided to include one collegiate player on the team. Christian Laettner of Duke University was added on May 12, 1992, chosen over Louisiana State University's Shaquille O'Neal.  Jordan declined Daly's suggestion that he serve as the public face of the team, and Bird and Johnson were selected as co-captains. At the time of the 1992 Olympics, these three superstars over the previous 13 seasons combined for 10 NBA championships, seven NBA Finals MVP awards, and nine regular-season MVP awards.

Isiah Thomas left off team.

There was speculation that Thomas was not part of the team because Jordan would participate only if Thomas was not on the roster. At the time, it was widely believed that Jordan did not like Thomas because he was seen as the "ring leader" of the Detroit Pistons teams of the late 1980s and early 1990s, known as the "", who employed overtly physical tactics against Jordan in the NBA Playoffs. In his 2012 book "Dream Team", author Jack McCallum quotes Jordan as saying to Team USA selection committee member Rod Thorn: "Rod, I don’t want to play if Isiah Thomas is on the team". In 2020, Thorn and Jordan denied directly mentioning Thomas's name in discussions. According to Jordan in "The Last Dance", he asked Thorn, "Who’s all playing?" Thorn responded, "The guy you’re thinking about is not going to be playing."  After the selection of the first ten members of the team, Johnson released an official statement in support of Thomas, but years later it was discovered that his support was less than enthusiastic. In the book "When the Game Was Ours", Johnson said, "Isiah killed his own chances when it came to the Olympics. Nobody on that team wanted to play with him."  Longtime NBA analyst Jan Hubbard claims that when John Stockton got injured at the 1992 Tournament of the Americas, his potential replacement would have been Thomas' teammate Joe Dumars.

Laettner makes team over O'Neal.

The selection committee considered several college players including Harold Miner, Jimmy Jackson, and Alonzo Mourning in addition to O'Neal and Laettner. O'Neal was the number-one pick in the 1992 NBA draft, but Laettner's Duke Blue Devils teams won consecutive National Championships 1991 and 1992. Laettner was the Naismith College Player of the Year, and hit the game-winning shot in the 1992 NCAA Eastern Regional final. Although O'Neal was a two-time Consensus NCAA First Team All-American in 1991 and 1992, his team lost in the second round of the 1992 NCAA Men's Tournament. Laettner's college success ultimately secured his position on the team.

Success on the court.

Early scrimmages.

To help the team prepare for the Olympics, a squad of the best NCAA college players was formed to scrimmage them. USA Basketball selected players whose style of play, it hoped, would resemble that of the Europeans the Dream Team would face. Members included the penetrating guard Bobby Hurley, all-around players Grant Hill and Penny Hardaway, outside shooter Allan Houston, and the tough Chris Webber and Eric Montross. Hill and Hardaway would play for the 1996 national team, and Houston on the 2000 team. In late June, the Dream Team first met together in La Jolla, California, astounding and intimidating the collegians who watched them practice. However, on June 24, the Dream Team lost to the NCAA team, 62–54, after underestimating the opposition. Daly intentionally limited Jordan's playing time and made non-optimal substitutions; assistant coach Mike Krzyzewski later said that the head coach "threw the game" to teach the NBA players that they could be beaten. The teams played again the following day, with the Olympians winning decisively in the rematch. Some of the college players visited Jordan's hotel room afterward and asked their hero for his personal items as souvenirs.

Tournament of the Americas.

The Dream Team made its international debut on June 28 at the Tournament of the Americas, an Olympic qualifying event in Portland, Oregon. The team defeated Cuba 136–57, prompting Cuban coach Miguel Calderón Gómez to say, "You can't cover the sun with your finger." Marv Albert, who announced the game, recalled that "it was as if [the Americans] were playing a high school team, or grade school team. They were so overwhelming... a blowout after blowout." The Cubans were the first of many opponents who were more interested in taking photos with the Americans than playing them. The next five games were also easy victories for Team USA, which ended the tournament on July 5 with a 127–80 victory over Venezuela in the championship game to win the tournament and be one of four Americas squads to qualify for the Olympics.

Olympics.

The team trained for the Olympics in Monaco for six days, practicing two hours a day and playing exhibition games against other national teams. During their time away from the court, the squad spent time enjoying the nude beaches, Monte Carlo's casinos, and dining with royalty. There was no curfew; as Daly stated, "I'm not putting in a curfew because I'd have to adhere to it, and Jimmy'z [a noted Monte Carlo nightclub] doesn't open until midnight."  For one scrimmage, the group divided into two teams: Blue (led by Johnson, with Barkley, Robinson, Mullin, and Laettner) and White (led by Jordan, with Malone, Ewing, Pippen, and Bird). Drexler and Stockton did not play because of injuries. Daly told the teams to play "All you got now. All you got." White won, 40 to 36, in what Jordan recalled as "the best game I was ever in" and "Sports Illustrated" later called "the Greatest Game Nobody Ever Saw".  Because of the team's unique celebrity, the Dream Team did not stay in the Olympic Village with the other athletes. The Olympic Village had four guards at the gate when the team arrived to pick up their credentials; one of the guards, upon seeing the Dream Team, grabbed his camera and his child while the team members were mobbed by other Olympic athletes. Coach Chuck Daly also stated that the beds in the Village were a problem, as two of his athletes were over seven feet tall and he considered comfort a priority to keep the team rested.  As a result, the team stayed at Barcelona's Hotel Ambassador, where USA Basketball occupied 80 of the hotel's 98 rooms. Fans were not allowed to enter the lobby, but did gather outside the hotel, hoping to see their favorite players. "It was like Elvis and the Beatles put together," Daly said. Opposing basketball players and athletes from other sports often asked to have photographs taken with the players.  In an interview years later, Charles Barkley recounted that "we got death threats". Despite that claim, Barkley walked around the city alone. When asked where his bodyguards were, he held up his fists and answered, "This is my security."  Jordan was the only player who studied the opposition, carefully watching game tapes. He and the other Americans enjoyed the opportunity to get to know each other in a casual setting, often playing cards all night and, for Jordan, playing several rounds of golf daily with little rest.  Opposing teams were nonetheless overwhelmed by the talent of the American roster, losing by an average of 43.8 points per game. The Dream Team was the first to score more than 100 points in every game. Its 117.3 average was more than 15 points more than the 1960 US team. Johnson later recalled, "I look to my right, there's Michael Jordan... I look to my left, there's Charles Barkley or Larry Bird... I didn't know who to throw the ball to!"  In a press conference before the team's first Olympic game against Angola, Barkley famously quipped "I don't know anything about Angola. But Angola's in trouble." Herlander Coimbra of Angola recalled that "those guys were on another level—a galaxy far, far away". During the game, Barkley elbowed Coimbra in the chest and was unapologetic after the game, claiming he was hit first. Barkley was called for an intentional foul on the play. Coimbra's resulting free throw was the only point scored by Angola during a 46–1 run by the US. Although this incident had no bearing on the final result (a 116–48 USA win), at the time there was a concern about the image of America to the rest of the world. After the game, Jordan said, "There just wasn't any place for it. We were dominating the game. It created mixed feelings, it caused a mixed reaction about the U.S. There's already some negative feelings about us." Even though this was the only incident of the game, it changed the narrative; instead of the Americans being viewed as a highly skilled team beating an underdog, some viewed them as bullies.  Daly started Jordan in every game, and Johnson started in five of the six games he played, missing two games because of knee problems. Pippen, Bird, Mullin, Robinson, Ewing, Malone, and Barkley rotated in the other starting spots. Barkley was the Dream Team's leading scorer during the Olympics, averaging 18.0 points per game, although the player selection committee had been unsure of his inclusion, worried that he would not represent the United States well.  The closest of the eight matches was Team USA's 117–85 victory over Croatia in the gold medal game. Croatia, participating as an independent nation in the Olympics for the first time since its separation from the former Yugoslavia, briefly led the Dream Team by a score of 25–23 in the first half. By the end of the game, Team USA had pulled away and Stockton agreed to a Croatian player's plea not to shoot. Pippen and Jordan aggressively sought the opportunity to guard Toni Kukoč of Croatia. He had just signed a contract with the Bulls for more money than Pippen, who believed that the team's negotiation with the Croatian had delayed his own contract. Tired of hearing about Kukoč's talent, Pippen and Jordan agreed to, as Jordan later said, "not... let this guy do "anything" against us." McCallum described the two Bulls as "rabid dogs" against Kukoč. Croatia had lost to the Dream Team 103–70 in their first game. The only team besides Croatia to hold the margin under 40 points was Puerto Rico, which lost 115–77 in the quarterfinals.

Legacy.

"Sports Illustrated" later stated that the Dream Team was "arguably the most dominant squad ever assembled in any sport" and compared it to "Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison, the Allman Brothers at the Fillmore East, Santana at Woodstock." In 2009, the team was elected to the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Hall of Fame. The following year, the team was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Barkley later said, "I don't think there's anything better to representing your country. I don't think anything in my life can come close to that." Bird called the medal ceremony and the playing of "The Star-Spangled Banner" "the ultimate experience." Johnson said, "The 92 Dream Team was the greatest moment of my life in terms of basketball, bar none." Jordan said that the biggest benefit for him from the Olympics was that he learned more about his teammates' weaknesses. He later defeated Barkley, Malone, and Stockton in three NBA finals. As of 2014, 11 of the 12 players on the roster (all except Laettner) and three of the four coaches (all except Carlesimo) have been elected to the Hall of Fame as individuals.  Global interest in basketball soared due to the Dream Team. In one game, an opposing player guarding Magic Johnson was seen frantically waving to a camera-wielding teammate on the bench, signaling to make sure he got a picture of them together. Head coach Chuck Daly said of the opposing teams "They'll go home and for the rest of their lives be able to tell their kids, 'I played against Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson and Larry Bird.' And the more they play against our best players, the more confident they're going to get". International Olympic Committee head Juan Antonio Samaranch stated that "the most important aspect of the [Barcelona] Games has been the resounding success of the basketball tournament, as we've witnessed the best basketball in the world." Subsequently, the number of international players in the NBA rose. On opening day of the 1991–92 season, NBA rosters included 23 international players from 18 countries. At the start of the 2011–12 season, there were 74 players from 35 countries. Many international players credited the Dream Team as their inspiration to take up basketball.  Kobe Bryant and LeBron James said they believed their 2012 Olympic team would win against the Dream Team. Bryant said, "[T]hey were a lot older, at kind of the end of their careers. We have just a bunch of young racehorses, guys that are eager to compete." Barkley said that he "just started laughing" upon hearing Bryant's comment and that the Dream Team would win by double digits. Jordan added, "For [Bryant] to compare those two teams is not one of the smarter things he ever could have done... Remember now, they learned from us. We didn't learn from them." Bird joked, "They probably could. I haven't played in 20 years and we're all old now."  The team was elected to the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2017.

Tournament of the Americas results.

The team was undefeated, with their closest margin of victory being 38 points over Puerto Rico.

Olympics results.

The team was again undefeated, with their closest outing being the 32-point victory over Croatia for the gold medal.

The 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team, nicknamed the "Dream Team", was the first American Olympic team to feature active professional players from the National Basketball Association (NBA). The team has been described by American and international journalists as the greatest sports team ever assembled. Eleven of its players and three of its coaches were eventually inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.

La (« équipe de rêve ») est le surnom donné à l'équipe nationale de basket-ball des États-Unis qui a participé aux Jeux olympiques de 1992 à Barcelone. Elle rassemblait pour la première fois les meilleurs joueurs du championnat professionnel nord-américain : la National Basketball Association (NBA), parmi lesquels Michael Jordan, Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, Charles Barkley, Scottie Pippen, David Robinson, Karl Malone, John Stockton, Patrick Ewing et a remporté la médaille d'or en gagnant tous ses matches avec un écart moyen de 43,75 points. La Dream Team est généralement considérée comme la plus grande équipe de basket-ball de tous les temps et est entrée au Basketball Hall of Fame en août 2010 (Karl Malone et Scottie Pippen ont été intronisés le même jour).


People termed "Wendes" in the course of history.

According to one theory, Germanic peoples first applied this name to the ancient Veneti, and then after the migration period they transferred it to their new neighbours, the Slavs.  For the medieval Scandinavians, the term Wends ("Vender") meant Slavs living near the southern shore of the Baltic Sea ("Vendland"), and the term was therefore used to refer to Polabian Slavs like the Obotrites, Rugian Slavs, Veleti/Lutici and Pomeranian tribes.  For people living in the medieval Northern Holy Roman Empire and its precursors, especially for the Saxons, a Wend ("Wende") was a Slav living in the area west of the River Oder, an area later entitled "Germania Slavica", settled by the Polabian Slav tribes (mentioned above) in the north and by others, such as the Sorbs and the Milceni, in the middle.  The Germans in the south used the term "Winde" instead of "Wende" and applied it, just as the Germans in the north, to Slavs they had contact with; e.g., the Polabians from Bavaria Slavica or the Slovenes (the names Windic March, Windisch Feistritz, or Windischgraz still bear testimony to this historical denomination). The same term was sometimes applied to the neighoring region of Slavonia, which appears as Windischland in some documents prior to the 18th century.  Following the 8th century, the Frankish kings and their successors organised nearly all Wendish land into marches. This process later turned into the series of crusades. By the 12th century, all Wendish lands had become part of the Holy Roman Empire. In the course of the Ostsiedlung, which reached its peak in the 12th to 14th centuries, this land was settled by Germans and reorganised.  Due to the process of assimilation following German settlement, many Slavs west of the Oder adopted the German culture and language. Only some rural communities which did not have a strong admixture with Germans and continued to use West Slavic languages were still termed "Wends". With the gradual decline of the use of these local Slavic tongues, the term "Wends" slowly disappeared, too.  Some sources claim that in the 13th century there were actual historic people called Wends or Vends living as far as northern Latvia (east of the Baltic Sea) around the city of Wenden. Henry of Livonia (Henricus de Lettis) in his 13th-century Latin chronicle described a tribe called the Vindi.  Today, only one group of "Wends" still exists: the Lusatian Sorbs in present-day eastern Germany, with international diaspora.

Roman-era Veneti.

The term "Wends" derived from the Roman-era people called in Latin "Veneti", "Venedi" or "Venethi", in Greek Ουενεδαι ("Ouenedai"). This people was mentioned by Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy as inhabiting the Baltic coast.

History.

Rise (500–1000).

In the 1st millennium AD, during the Slavic migrations which split the recently formed Slav ethnicity into Southern, Eastern and Western groups, some West Slavs moved into the areas between the Rivers Elbe and Oder - moving from east to west and from south to north. There they assimilated the remaining Germanic population that had not left the area in the Migration period. Their German neighbours adapted the term they had been using for peoples east of the River Elbe before to the Slavs, calling them "Wends" as they called the "Venedi" before and probably the "Vandals" also. In his late sixth century work "History of Armenia", Movses Khorenatsi mentions their raids into the lands named Vanand after them.  While the Wends were arriving in so-called "Germania Slavica" as large homogeneous groups, they soon divided into a variety of small tribes, with large strips of woodland separating one tribal settlement area from another. Their tribal names were derived from local place names, sometimes adopting the Germanic tradition (e.g. Heveller from "Havel", Rujanes from Rugians). Settlements were secured by round "burghs" made of wood and clay, where either people could retreat in case of a raid from the neighbouring tribe or used as military strongholds or outposts.  Some tribes unified into larger, duchy-like units. For example, the Obotrites evolved from the unification of the "Holstein" and Western "Mecklenburg" tribes led by mighty dukes known for their raids into German Saxony. The Lutici were an alliance of tribes living between Obotrites and Pomeranians. They did not unify under a duke, but remained independent. Their leaders met in the temple of Rethra.  In 983, many Wend tribes participated in a great uprising against the Holy Roman Empire, which had previously established Christian missions, German colonies and German administrative institutions ("Marken" such as "Nordmark" and "Billungermark") in pagan Wendish territories. The uprising was successful and the Wends delayed Germanisation for about two centuries.  Wends and Danes had early and continuous contact including settlement, first and mainly through the closest South Danish islands of Møn, Lolland and Falster, all having place-names of Wendish origin. There were also trading and settlement outposts by Danish towns as important as Roskilde, when it was the capital: 'Vindeboder' (Wends' booths) is the name of a city neighbourhood there. Danes and Wends also fought wars due to piracy and crusading.

Decline (1000–1200).

After their successes in 983 the Wends came under increasing pressure from Germans, Danes and Poles. The Poles invaded Pomerania several times. The Danes often raided the Baltic shores (and, in turn, the Wends often raided the raiders). The Holy Roman Empire and its margraves tried to restore their marches.  In 1068/69 a German expedition took and destroyed Rethra, one of the major pagan Wend temples. The Wendish religious centre shifted to Arkona thereafter. In 1124 and 1128, the Pomeranians and some Lutici were baptised. In 1147, the "Wend crusade" took place in what is today north-eastern Germany.  This did, however, not affect the Wendish people in today's Saxony, where a relatively stable co-existence of German and Slavic inhabitants as well as close dynastic and diplomatic cooperation of Wendish and German nobility had been achieved. (See: Wiprecht of Groitzsch).  In 1168, during the Northern Crusades, Denmark mounted a crusade led by Bishop Absalon and King Valdemar the Great against the Wends of Rugia in order to convert them to Christianity. The crusaders captured and destroyed Arkona, the Wendish temple-fortress, and tore down the statue of the Wendish god Svantevit. With the capitulation of the Rugian Wends, the last independent pagan Wends were defeated by the surrounding Christian feudal powers.  From the 12th to the 14th centuries, German colonists settled in the Wend lands in large numbers, transforming the area's culture from a Slavic to a Germanic one. Local dukes and monasteries invited settlers to repopulate land devastated in the wars, to cultivate the large woodlands and heavy soils that had not supported agriculture beforehand, and to found cities as part of the "Ostsiedlung" (German eastward expansion).  The Polabian language was spoken in the central area of Lower Saxony and in Brandenburg until around the 17th or 18th century. The German population assimilated most of the Wends, meaning that they disappeared as an ethnic minority - except for the Sorbs. Yet many place names and some family names in eastern Germany still show Wendish origins today. Also, the Dukes of Mecklenburg, of Rügen and of Pomerania had Wendish ancestors.  Between 1540 and 1973, the kings of Sweden were officially called "kings of the Swedes, the Goths and the Wends (in Latin translation: kings of Suiones, Goths and Vandals)" ("Swedish: Svears, Götes och Wendes Konung"). After the Danish monarch Queen Margrethe II chose not to use these titles in 1972 the Swedish monarch, Carl XVI Gustaf also chose only to use the title King of Sweden" ("Sveriges Konung"), thereby changing an age-old tradition.  From the Middle Ages the kings of Denmark and of Denmark–Norway used the titles "King of the Wends (from 1362) and Goths (from the 12th century)". The use of both titles was discontinued in 1972.

Legacy.

The Wendish people co-existed with the German settlers for centuries and became gradually assimilated into the German-speaking culture.  The Golden Bull of 1356 (one of the constitutional foundations of the German-Roman Empire) explicitly recognised in its Art. 31 that the German-Roman Empire was a multi-national entity with "diverse nations distinct in customs, manner of life, and in language". For that it stipulated "the sons, or heirs and successors of the illustrious prince electors, [...] since they are expected in all likelihood to have naturally acquired the German language, [...] shall be instructed in the grammar of the Italian and Slavic (i.e. Wendish) tongues, beginning with the seventh Year of their age."  Many geographical names in Central Germany and northern Germany can be traced back to a Slavic origin. Typical Slavic endings include -itz, -itzsch and -ow. They can be found in city names such as Delitzsch and Rochlitz. Even names of major cities like Leipzig and Berlin are most likely of Wendish origin.  Today, the only remaining minority people of Wendish origin, the Sorbs, maintain their traditional language and culture and enjoy cultural self-determination exercised through the Domowina. The third minister president of Saxony Stanislaw Tillich (2008-2017) is of Sorbian origin, being the first head of a German federal state with an ethnic minority background.

The Texas Wends.

In 1854, the Wends of Texas departed Lusatia on the Ben Nevis seeking true liberty, in order to settle an area of central Texas, primarily Serbin. The Wends succeeded, expanding into Warda, Giddings, Austin, Houston, Fedor, Swiss Alp, Port Arthur, Mannheim, Copperas Cove, Vernon, Walburg, The Grove, Bishop, and the Rio Grande Valley.  A strong emphasis on tradition, principles, and education is evident today in families descendant from the Wendish pioneers. Today, thousands of Texans and other Americans (many unaware of their background), can lay claim to the courageous and rich heritage of the Wends.

Other uses.

Historically, the term "Wends" has also occurred in the following contexts:  With the diffusion of the term "slowenisch" for the Slovene language and "Slowenen" for Slovenes, the words "windisch" and "Winde" or "Wende" became derogatory in connotation. The same development could be seen in the case of the Hungarian Slovenes, who used to be known under the name "Vends".

Wends (; Old Norse: "Vindr"; ; ; ; ) is a historical name for Slavs living near Germanic settlement areas. It does not refer to a homogeneous people, but to various peoples, tribes or groups depending on where and when it was used. In the modern day, Wendish communities exist in Lusatia, Texas, and Australia.

Le nom français Wendes est la version francisée du mot germanique "Wenden" qui apparaît aussi dans les sources sous la forme latine "Venedi". Ces noms désignent les Slaves qui eux, se reconnaissaient par des dénominations comme "Slovani, Sloveni, Slovoni, Slavoni" ou "Sklaveni" qui peuvent avoir plusieurs sens : les « parlants », les « intelligibles », les « glorieux ». Il peut être plus ou moins synonyme de Vénètes selon les auteurs.


Reception.

"Substrata" is considered to be a classic ambient music album, consistently ranking in the top 5 in surveys on the Hyperreal ambient mailing list.  In 2016, "Pitchfork" ranked it at number 38 on its list of the 50 Best Ambient Albums of All Time.

Samples.

Sorry to wake you. [...] I forgot to tell you something. [...] The things I tell you will not be wrong.  This was a vision, fresh and clear as a mountain stream, the mind revealing itself to itself. In my vision, I was on the veranda of a vast estate, a palazzo of some fantastic proportion. There seemed to emanate from it a light from within, this gleaming, radiant marble. I'd known this place. I had in fact been born and raised there. This was my first return. A reunion with the deepest well-springs of my being. Wandering about, I noticed happily that the house had been immaculately maintained. There'd been added a number of additional rooms, but in a way that blended so seamlessly with the original construction, one would never detect any difference. Returning to the house's grand foyer, there came a knock at the door. My son was standing there. He was happy and carefree, clearly living a life of deep harmony and joy. We embraced, a warm and loving embrace, nothing withheld. We were, in this moment, one. My vision ended, and I awoke with a tremendous feeling of optimism and confidence in you and your future. That was my vision of you. I'm so glad to have had this opportunity to share it with you. I wish you nothing but the very best in all things.  This is either a metal or... If it is a metal, then it's painted... Cold surface... This is either a metal, painted, or could be a plastic... Colorful, there are... Bright... Seems like... Is this a toy? Probably. The surface is smooth, but... There are some bumps on it... Even the finger sticks in it... Probably it is... Some marks, or are these letters?... Or just bumps... Looks like a toy... Colorful metal, or a plastic... Painted metal... That's all... Stop.

In popular culture.

The track "Antennaria" was used in the 2009 video game "Osmos".

Substrata is the third studio album by Norwegian electronic musician Geir Jenssen under the stage name Biosphere, released in 1997 by All Saints Records.

Substrata est le troisième album studio du musicien électronique Geir Jenssen sous le nom de Biosphere, sorti en 1997. « Sorry to wake you. [...] I forgot to tell you something. [...] The things I tell you will not be wrong. »« Désolé de vous réveiller. [...] J'ai oublié de vous dire quelque chose. [...] Les choses que je vous ai dites ne seront pas fausses. » « This was a vision, fresh and clear as a mountain stream, the mind revealing itself to itself. In my vision, I was on the veranda of a vast estate, a palazzo of some fantastic proportion. There seemed to emanate from it a light from within, this gleaming, radiant marble. I'd known this place. I had in fact been born and raised there. This was my first return. A reunion with the deepest well [...] happy and carefree, clearly living a life [...]. My vision ended, and I awoke with a tremendous feeling of optimism [...]. »


Life and assassination.

Gustloff (a son of merchant Herrmann Gustloff), who worked for the Swiss government as a meteorologist, joined the NSDAP in 1929. He put much effort into the distribution of the antisemitic propaganda book "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion", to the point that members of the Swiss Jewish community sued the book's distributor, the Swiss NSDAP/AO, for libel. Gustloff was shot and killed in 1936 by David Frankfurter, a Croatian Jewish student incensed by Gustloff's antisemitic activism.  Frankfurter surrendered immediately to the Swiss police. He was sentenced to 18 years imprisonment and spent the war in a Swiss prison. Frankfurter was pardoned and exiled at the end of the Second World War.

Aftermath.

Gustloff was given a state funeral in his birthplace of Schwerin in Mecklenburg, with Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, Hermann Göring, Heinrich Himmler, Martin Bormann and Joachim von Ribbentrop in attendance. Thousands of Hitler Youth members lined the route. His coffin, transported on a special train from Davos to Schwerin, made stops in Stuttgart, Würzburg, Erfurt, Halle, Magdeburg and Wittenberg. Gustloff's widow, mother and brother attended the funeral and received personal condolences from Hitler. Ernst Wilhelm Bohle was the first at Gustloff's funeral to recite a few lines in his honour.  Gustloff was proclaimed a "Blutzeuge" of the Nazi cause and his murder became part of the propaganda that served as pretext for the 1938 Kristallnacht pogrom. His wife Hedwig, who had been Hitler's secretary, received from Hitler personally a monthly "honorary pay" of 400 Reichsmark, the equivalent of some $13,000 today.  Unlike the assassination of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan in Paris in 1938, Gustloff's death was not immediately politicized to incite "Kristallnacht". Hitler did not want to risk any domestic bouts of anti-Semitism to cause Germany to lose the recently awarded right to host the 1936 Summer Olympics, since his anti-Semitic policies had already led to calls to relocate the games.

Namesakes.

The German cruise ship MV "Wilhelm Gustloff" was named for Gustloff by the Nazi regime. The ship was sunk by a Soviet submarine in January 1945 in the Baltic Sea while carrying mostly civilian refugees from the advancing Red Army. More than 9,000 lives were lost, the greatest death toll from the sinking of a single vessel in human history. The disaster remains relatively unknown.  In 1933 the Nazi Party created the "Wilhelm-Gustloff-Stiftung" ("The Wilhelm Gustloff Foundation"), a national corporation funded by properties and wealth confiscated from Jews. It ran the "Gustloff Werke" ("Gustloff Factories"), a group of businesses that had been confiscated from their Jewish owners or partners.  The small arms factory Berlin Suhler Waffen und Fahrzeugwerke was renamed Wilhelm Gustloff Werke in Gustloff's honour in 1939.

Wilhelm Gustloff (30 January 1895 – 4 February 1936) was the founder of the Swiss NSDAP/AO (the Nazi Party organisation for German citizens abroad) at Davos. He remained its leader from 1932 until he was assassinated in 1936.

Wilhelm Gustloff, né le à Schwerin (Allemagne), est un militant nazi allemand actif en Suisse, mort le à Davos, assassiné par David Frankfurter, jeune yougoslave.


Protestant leader.

He was probably born in Lohn, or Samedan in the Upper Engadine. His childhood was spent in Silvaplana, before studying theology at Zürich and Basel, and in 1617 he became the Protestant pastor of Scharans (near Thusis) on the Protestant-Catholic border. Almost at once he plunged into active politics, taking the side of the Venetian and Protestant party associated primarily with the Salis family in the region, against the pro-Spanish Habsburgs and Catholic policy supported by the rival faction, headed by members of the Planta family.  He became one of the board of Protestant 'clerical overseers' and a leader of the anti-Spanish faction. In 1618 he supervised the torture to death of the arch-priest Nicola Rusca of Sondrio. The popular court in Thusis associated with the overseers also outlawed many leading men from the Spanish faction, notably Rudolf von Planta and his brother Pompeius von Planta. A subsequent popular court in the region's capital, Chur, rejected the Thusis verdicts, and the Republic of the Grisons slid towards anarchy in what became known as the Bündner Wirren or the Confusion of Graubünden. In 1620, an uprising coordinated with the Spanish governor in Milan resulted in the massacre of a number of Protestants in the Republic's subject territory in the Valtellina, a fertile valley of considerable strategic importance (for through it the Spaniards in Milan could communicate by the Umbrail Pass and the Stelvio Pass with the Austrians in Tirol). From 1620 to 1639, control over the Valtellina became a bone of contention among Spain, Venice and France, with the Republic of the Grisons unable to reassert its control.

Murders.

Jenatsch took part in the brutal murder (1621) of Pompeius von Planta, the head of the rival party, at his castle, Rietberg. Planta was left pinned to the floor with an axe, though the actual murderer was most likely Niklaus Carl von Hohenbalcken. Soon after, Jenatsch and many others associated with the Reformed church, Venice, or the Salis family had to flee the country. After the murder of Planta and several other violent incidents, Jenatsch also lost his position as a pastor, and henceforth acted solely as a soldier and military entrepreneur. He participated in the revolt against the Austrians in the Prättigau (1622), and in the invasion of the Valtellina by a French army (1624), but the peace made (1626) between France and Spain left the Valtellina in the hands of the pope, and so thwarted the Republic's hopes of regaining the territory. Jenatsch, however, thrived in the military life, and rose rapidly through the ranks to major, and later colonel of his own regiment.  Jenatsch killed his colonel, Giacomo Ruinelli, in a duel in 1626 in Chur, but was cleared of murder charges by a city court. He turned to military recruiting, and as Spanish and Austrian influence grew in the Grisons, eventually raised a company for service with the Venetians (1629-1630). He was briefly imprisoned in Venice after an incident of insubordination, and later claimed that reading the Church Fathers while jailed had contributed to his later religious conversion. In 1631 he was recruited for the French campaign designed by Richelieu to drive the Spaniards out of the Valtellina, which after several years of delay, led to the successful campaign of Henri, duc de Rohan (1635). But Jenatsch, along with the military and political leadership of the Republic, soon saw that the French were as unwilling as the Spaniards to restore the Grisons' lordship over the Valtellina.

Conversion to Catholicism.

In 1635, Jenatsch made public his conversion to Roman Catholicism (though his family declined to follow suit), and became one leader of a secret alliance, the Kettenbund, which included both Catholic and Protestant leaders in the Grisons, that negotiated secretly with the Spaniards and Austrians. The Kettenbund launched a strike in 1637 that resulted in the expulsion of Rohan and the French from the Grisons. During the next two years, Jenatsch pushed forward the negotiations with Spain and Austria for the return of the Valtellina under Grisons sovereignty, as well as seeking a noble title for himself. He also became one of the most powerful men in the region, taking the pivotal governorship of Chiavenna for himself, and mixing in the tangled affairs of the Planta clan.

Death.

On 24 January 1639 Jenatsch was assassinated in Chur by a band of men whose leader was costumed as a bear, as it was Carnival. Although the murderers remained anonymous and were never captured or tried, the most likely culprit was Rudolf von Planta, son of the murdered Pompeius, or men in his employ. Later historians have proposed many other suspects, and novels and plays about Jenatsch have searched even further afield. Later in 1639, the much coveted Valtellina was restored by Spain to the Grisons, which held it until 1797. Jenatsch's career is of general historical importance as one aspect of the long conflict between France and Spain for control over the Valtellina, which forms one of the most tumultuous episodes in the Thirty Years' War.

Jenatsch in Literature.

Although interest in Jenatsch waned rapidly after his burial in the Chur cathedral, still wearing the bloodied clothes he had been murdered in, later historians and literary figures took up his story again. In the nineteenth century, he became the subject of numerous plays and biographical studies, which tended to emphasize his fiery character as well as his allegedly deep attachment to his fatherland. One work to discuss him was the novel by Conrad Ferdinand Meyer (1876), which among other accomplishments changed his name, at least in popular perception, from Giorgio, Georg or Zoartz (the most common forms during his lifetime in Italian, German and Romansh, respectively) to the more north German 'Jürg.' A key feature of Meyer's novel, picked up by later literary versions, was that his murderer was 'Lucrecia' von Planta, daughter of Pompeius and Jenatsch's lover. In Meyer's adaptation of the story, Lucrecia kills Jenatsch, using the same axe he had used on her father, when his self-love and ambition overpower his desire to serve his fatherland. In fact, Meyer changed Jenatsch's birthdate in the novel to make such a relationship possible; earlier authors had already renamed the real Katherina von Planta as 'Lucrecia', a name for which there is no historical foundation. The story about the same axe, however, is found in chronicles written within weeks of Jenatsch's death in 1639.  Since Meyer's novel, several other novels as well as a film ("Jenatsch", 1987) have treated his story. In addition, there are two major biographies, one by Ernst Haffter (Davos, 1894), and one by Alexander Pfister, (1936, now in its fifth edition). On the significance of the Valtelline, see the article by Horatio Brown, "The Valtelline", in the Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 4 (1906), and Geoffrey Parker, The Army of Flanders and the Spanish Road, 1567-1659, (1972, 2nd edn. 2004). The newest investigation of Jenatsch the historical figure is Randolph C. Head's "Jenatsch's Axe: Social Boundaries, Identity and Myth in the Era of the Thirty Years' War" (University of Rochester Press, 2008); Head is a significant scholar of early modern Swiss history writing in English.  In 2012, Jenatsch's body was exhumed from Chur cathedral by a team seeking DNA to confirm that the body was, in fact, Jenatsch.

Jörg Jenatsch, also called Jürg or Georg Jenatsch (1596 – 24 January 1639), was a Swiss political leader during the Thirty Years' War, one of the most striking figures in the troubled history of the Grisons in the 17th century.

Georg (ou Jörg ou Jürg) Jenatsch (né en 1596 et décédé le à Coire) est un pasteur et politicien suisse. Une incertitude subsiste au sujet de son lieu de naissance, Samedan en Engadine ou Lohn. Actif pendant la guerre de Trente Ans, il est considéré comme le sauveur des Grisons.