Etymology.

The place where it is located has a toponymia related to a hill seen long distance during trips to the Campos Gerais. The name would have originated from a high hill that stood out before the whole pastures landscape by its prominent height and the capo of bush that covers it. The tropeiros to refer to its location said that they were near Ponta Grossa. But other stories have the same idea, like that

History.

According to the historian Paulo Eduardo Dias de Mello the earliest account of European actvity in this area is of the "tropeiros" who travelled with their wares towards the fair of Sorocaba. Ponta Grossa served as a resting point since 1703 of the long voyages that left Rio Grande do Sul. Along the way was commercialized the charque, where the meat was preserved only with salt. Unlike other settlements, Ponta Grossa was not inhabited, indigenous groups occupied places to the north, with expansion, conflicts later came with European settlers, such as that of the city of Reserva, but outside the urban space of the city in question. Another version, but not necessarily contradictory, states that the farmers of the area would launch a couple of pigeons and where these birds would land would mark the beginning of the "Freguesia" with the construction of the chapel Mrs. Saint Anne.

Colonial Expeditions.

Ponta Grossa had its territory traversed from the 16th century, when the Campos Gerais were crossed by Spanish expeditions that demanded of the Santa Catarina coast until Asunción, in Paraguay. Later it was successively moved on account of the "seiscentistas bandeirantes", notably for capture of the natives. Portuguese bandeirantes like Aleixo Garcia passed in 1525, five years later Peró Lobo and Francisco Chaves. In 1541 passed the Spaniard Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca who had some conflicts of tribes not too distant. Also it is reported the passage of a non-Iberian: Ulrich Schmidel that during the course brought 20 Paraguayan natives and four German soldiers from the current paulista coast.  "Tropeiros", troop drivers (usually mules and donkeys) carrying goods used the region as a route, the landscape in the form of a field became welcome to pass with mules and in the future cattle ranching. The fixation in the form of farms by the "tropeiros" came beyond the rest,

Fixed Settlements.

It was not long before, and he was lord of the Campos Gerais, the Captain-General José Góes e Moraes. Along with Pedro Taques de Almeida (besides others of noble lineage) that required territories between the left bank of the Itarare River and the headwaters of the Tibagi River, they donated part of his lands to the Jesuits who in the vicinity of São Miguel Riverside, a tributary of the Pitangui River, erected the Santa Bárbara do Pitangui Chapel. where they established the Curato of the Company of Jesus that in no time knew extraordinary progress. But the route of the main road was diverted, causing a stagnation of the growth of the city where the first built chapel. At

Consolidation.

Ponta Grossa seen as a city and with predominantly urban features appeared after 1800. Period that served as a zone of attraction, political discussions begin to arise and even new farms. Until then it was an entirely agrarian environment, where self-sufficiency prevailed through cultivars. Regulatory measures and organs of justice are put into operation as a control of civility. "Criatório" (where the cattle are handled) and "invernagem" (rest period of animals) stimulated trade. So that the farmer "returns" to becomes "tropeiro" again. Through the agriculture do not effective and as consequence the urbanization process is slow.  From then the town progressed extraordinarily. On 15 September 1823, through the Imperial license, the "Freguesia" of Estrela was created, being first vicar of the locality the father Joaquim Pereira da Fonseca. In 1840 the patrimony was

Administrative division.

On 5 December 1931 acquires the old municipality of Conchas that happens to be district (Decree no 2,439). In letters from 1936 and the following year, Itaiacoca appears as another district that on 31 March 1938 was renamed Cerrado (State Decree-Law No. 6,667), returning to the old name on 20 October of the same

Geography.

Ponta Grossa is on the Second Plateau Paranaense (also known as Plateau of Ponta Grossa, limited the east through the "Escarpa Devoniana"), at a latitude of 25o09'S and longitude of 50o16'W, from the capital of Paraná to downtown is 70,8 miles (114 km). The city has 16 neighbourhoods giving the urban area a sum of 172,41 km. The relief is quite bumpy is found numerous valleys within the urban area. It is considered the main road and rail junction in southern Brazil. It has access to the federal highway BR-376 that connects to the north of the state and gives access to BR-277 that allows access from west to east of the state, including Curitiba and Foz do Iguaçu. The same highway gives access in the south direction to resume the BR-376 allowing to go towards Santa Catarina.  The average salary is 2.7 Brazilian minimum wage, placing it in a satisfactory position in Paraná in relation to other areas. The number of people to be in regular employment is 99,317, almost 1/3 of the population, a little more of this proportion represents the number of workers who receive half of a minimum wage stipulated for the country. The schooling rate is 98.2%. GDP per capita (2015) is R$34,941.59. The HDI is 0.763 for 2010. Infant mortality is 11 occurrences for every thousand births, a high value for state statistics. The treatment of sewage is 81.3% in relation to the pipes connected to the network. It is also characterized by low urban afforestation in relation to most of the paranaenses cities. For a historical and phytogeographic regionalization, the city is located in the Campos Gerais do Paraná (In English: "General Fields of the Paraná") the most important of the region. For the IBGE's official regionalization, the city is located in the Central-Eastern region of Paraná. Locating in the meso and microregion homonymous to the name of this urban settlement.

Climate.

On the Koppen classification is "Cfb", typical of the plateaus of southern Brazil which is usually attributed as subtropical of the highlands with mild or warm summers. Although far from the coast has a strong oceanic influence combined with altitude. The average annual temperature is 63.5 °F (17.5 °C). Winters are cold to their latitude, but are generally mild to be considered temperate as the true ocean climates. The average temperature in the winter (July) is from 56.7 °F (13.7 °C) and in the summer (January) is from 70.5 °F (21.4 °C), a high temperature average relatively low for the location. In the plant hardiness of the USDA the city is in zone 9b in almost your totality, in the same zone that the Central Florida by which it allows the growth of the genus Pinus, among other subtropical species. The various valleys are important to create microclimates with different temperatures and humidity. Heat islands can occur in the Downtown and Santa Paula (besides the urban density is associated too with the predominant direction of slopes).  According to data from the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), Brazilian institute, referring to

Ecology.

In ecological terms it is diversified. The composition and species varies according to climatic, pedological and rock formation. The biota differs from region to region. One of the ecosystems found are of field vegetation similar to North American prairies. Tree vegetation is rare, usually dominated by grasses and herbaceous. Sometimes it is interspersed with shrubs. Covering an area of 22,800 ha in 1996. The origin goes back to the own sandstone units found in the urban and rural environment. The trampling of the herds is responsible for the modification of the location and quantity of species that live in these

Geology and geomorphology.

The city has a rich geological heritage. It is located on the Paraná Sedimentary Basin (morphostructural unit) of Paleozoic age on the Crystalline Basement presenting metamorphic and igneous rocks. Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks of the Cunhaporanga granitic complex are the exception because do not belong of the sedimentary basin covering a large part of the state. Within the larger structure that models the relief is the morphosculptural unit represented by the Second Planalto modeled by climatic influence to millions of years of similar origins and modeling. The relief is gently undulating (though rugged) exhibiting prominent hills and points. Furnas and ruiniform reliefs are present within its political limit. Rivers like the Tibagi accompany the slope, as posteriorly prescribed, while others, like the Pitangui, cross deep valleys between the steep relief towards the 2nd plateau. To the northeast the altitudes can exceed 1800 meters, places where it finds the greater slopes. Larger elevations are explained due to the passage of the topographic step known as Devonian Escarpament to

Hydrography.

The main drainage basin that covers Ponta Grossa is the Tibagi River (original indigenous denotation "Tibaji"), tributary of the Paranapanema River in a hierarchy with the Paraná River. Tibagi covers 6.5% of the entire area of the municipality, its tributaries are the Pitangui River which in its margin is subdivided into: Verde, Cará-Cará and Botuquara known in the city. There are no major watercourses on the left bank. The municipality also has the source of the Ribeira River within the Campos Gerais Park in a depression with altitude much smaller than the urban area and it is found in the 1st Planalto (Plateau of Curitiba).  The area is considered well irrigated even if it has relatively small basins outside the Tibagi River that covers the whole region. With the retention of moisture has its rapid displacement to the main water flows. Some of the region's rivers are affected by structural controls. Many times it accompanies faults, fractures and dikes in the direction

Limits.

It borders seven municipalities as a whole, although their downtown may be more than 56 miles (90 km) in some cases. To the

Demographics.

For the data collected by the census the population in 2010 was 311,611 inhabitants with a density of 150.72 inhabitants/km, for an estimate of 2018 the value is 348,043 inhabitants of Paraná. For IPARDES the estimate for 2030 is 381,051 inhabitants, a burden of 109.48%, but for this simulation, São José dos Pinhais would surpass Ponta Grossa in population, which would lower the second to the fifth place in the state. Historically its geographical condition was important for the population increase, from the breeding and wintering to the yerba mate and wood and finally the services sector.  Ponta Grossa grew faster in the late 17th century, though Jesuits had settled a century earlier. Used as a breeding ground for the troops of Viamão due to natural pasture, in the "freguesia" in 1853 there were 3,033 people (1652 men and 1381 women). In 1877 by order of the Empire, this city as well as other of the south of Brazil received immigrants such as: Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Russians and Italians, generating a cultural broth and increasing population. Demographic growth continued at the end of the same century with the railway under construction. Finalized, it allowed greater interconnection between other regions. In 1890 there were 4,774 inhabitants. Being the population concentrated in rail districts in Uvaranas and Oficinas, accompanying of basic services that were coming up successively. Ponta Grossa lives in a historical context of urbanization seen in the south and southeast of the country. The construction of the railroad was translated in decadence of the "tropeirismo". Several people from other municipalities came to work in Ponta Grossa for the maintenance of the lines. It also marks an advance in the level of schooling, with elite members holding an undergraduate degree in other Brazilian states. It is in 1940 that it becomes the second largest population contingent of Paraná and consequently reference to the interior of the lost state in the following decade. Guaragi, reincorporated in 1957 (annexed by Palmeira in 1940) brought a new demographic balance.  In 1969 with fiscal incentives in the government of Cyro Martins was installed of new industries, which generated a "bomm" of factories. In the 1980s there was an expansion of the urban network, while the railroad is now located in Uvaranas, accompanied by a better infrastructure and then the growth of the urban network and peripheral neighborhoods. In the later decade there were improvements in other sectors. Other districts have predominantly agrarian characteristics, although Guaragi is closer to an urbanized environment. Ponta Grossa became predominantly urban in the 1970s, in which 52.9% of people lived in urbanized areas. A period that also declines in the rural population that went from 28.2% to 20.2% between the 1980s and 1990s, explained by the mechanization of agriculture, where the labor force migrated to the city (until the 1960s it was only increasing). ""Princess of fields"" reached a rate of urbanization of 97.5% in the start 2000s. Among the controversial aspects is the intense slump that followed in the last decades of the twentieth century, markedly since 1989 due to rapid urbanization and real estate speculation that generated the "lack" of land (20% were idle). In all, there were 58,730 people living in precarious conditions in 2004. Often residing near urban arroyos sand with buildings in places that should be areas of preservation and inefficient policies for transfer or denial of relocation.  By 2040 the population may reach 460 thousand inhabitants, an increase of 31% in relation to that registered in 2019, 3.4% above the national average and 11% of the predicted state average.

Economy.

It is one of the major economic forces in your state. The economy of Ponta Grossa has always been linked to agriculture. It was in the last decade of the nineteenth century that there was a jump in the then small town. It is the time of the inauguration of the railway. Products such as yerba mate, soybeans, wood and cereals that were cultivated in this place are now processed in the municipality, entering the first wave of industrialization. The installation of logistics companies and shopping centers such as Palladium Shopping Center further strengthened the economy, especially in terms of trade. In terms of GDP per Capita, it is in 63rd place with 34,941.59 reais, which shows the social inequality in relation to other cities of economic port such as Araucária and São José dos Pinhais. Even so, the value is close to Belo Horizonte, which may indicate that the inequality is not yet the most serious, even more compared to other cities outside the center-south. In terms of wealth generated, in 2015 the industry generated the city the 5th place in the city, the front of services (6th place) and the agricultural sector (17th place), in a total balance is in 7th place for the sum of sectors. Being among the 100 largest economies, in terms of city in the national ranking (72nd position). GDP in 2015 was R$10,289,960.68. In 2017 it was 6.6 trillion. In 2018 there was an increase in Tetra Pak and Madero's growth, as well as the installation of AmBev. In the same year, trade and services fell to seventh and there is an intention to foster these sectors with the Ponta Grossa Economic Development Council (CDEPG). Ponta Grossa has 56% of the GDP of Campos Gerais, largely due to the Value Added Tax (VAT).  Between the years 1910 and 1920 Ponta Grossa became the second largest economy in the state. The relapse of the economy surfaced in 1940, even during the crisis of 1929 the city managed to remodel itself. In addition, much of the area was a victim of deforestation of native vegetation, as well as other areas of Paraná that were sold to Buenos Aires and London. Ahead the municipality saw the solution in mechanization, in the concentration of capital, the division of factors of production and tasks. The Industrial District of Ponta Grossa was to share with Curitiba the development project for eastern Paraná, but in fact it was to concentrate industries in the capital of Paraná and leave the factories related to agriculture inland. The Industrial District was created in 1971, near the Cará-Cará neighborhood in the south of the city. The city hall gives ownership to industries. In the late 1970s Ponta Grossa became known as one of the main agro-industrial processing centers for soybeans. Until 1987 it was called the Botuquara Industrial District, but from that year on it became the Industrial District Mayor Cyro Martins. In 1992 the planned community determined that much of the right bank of the BR-376 towards Curitiba was destined as Industrial Zone. Between 2001 and 2007 there was an increase of 54.43% of the area occupied by industries.  Between 2010 and 2015 there was a considerable increase in formal jobs, especially in the services sector. The increase was 13,3%, going from 34650 to 39261 formal jobs. In trade alone there was an increase of 15.6% between 2010 and 2017, formal employment rose from 20,199 to 23,353, respectively. Between 2017 and 2018 were 1137 jobs. The amount between June 2016 and June 2017 is less than a third of the figure. Highlighting whether it serves the service sector, followed by the manufacturing industry, with associated with an increase of more than 40 industries.  Currently, Ponta Grossa is the fifth largest city in export and import in Paraná, with a balance in the order of hundreds of millions of dollars. Exports increased by 136.5% and imports by 19.4% in 2019 compared to 2018, which helps to significantly increase the positive trade balance. 80.9% of the products exported to the municipality go to China and Europe. In the same percentage, soybean as a result of production leads international flow, either as shredded or uncrushed grain or pure oil. 37.3% of imports come from machinery, electrical materials and the like. A recent increase has been detected in recent years in vehicle parts and accessories. When considered in isolation, European countries are the main partners of the pontagrossenses than the Chinese buyer. Recently, a greater partnership has been sought between Mercosur and the European Union, which together make up 1/4 of the world economy, according to Gustavo Ribas Netto, president of the Ponta Grossa Rural Union.

Tourism.

Several tourist attractions are in the municipality, but the main place visited is Vila Velha State Park. Even though business travel is the one that most receives visitors in the city. In tourist terms, the city is important because it is a regional center (in the Campos Gerais of the Paraná). The Marketing & Tourism magazine cites in addition to Vila Velha, the Buraco do Padre, German colonies, St. Ann Cathedral and Abadia da Ressureição as being the most important attractions in relation to marketing, contemplating nature, historical, cultural and religious tourism. Was in the third tourism hierarchy group in Paraná by TripAdivisor evaluations in 2018, along with Cascavel and Paranaguá. Ponta Grossa City Hall lists 7 natural attractions, 11 religious attractions, 11 monuments, 3 museums and 16 other buildings (including libraries, extinct railway stations and historical and cultural buildings). In the municipality there is the project "Conhecendo PG" (in English: Knowing PG) which since 2011 takes the local community to visit tourist spots within its political limit, being promoted by the Municipal Tourism Secretary, Tourism Department of the State University of Ponta Grossa and the bus company VCG. The visits are accompanied by academics in order to highlight the importance of preserving and valuing the attractions.  Although in 2011, Ponta Grossa is declared as the fourth tourist inducing municipality in Paraná, it was not officially classified. Some obstacles are the infrastructure and accessibility of most places, in addition the necessity to greater marketing. Still, the city participated for the first time in the Brazil International Tourism Exchange (Brite) in the same year, one of the main tourism events. Still not fully explored, rural tourism has been growing in the last century. There was qualification of rural producers who began to receive visitors mostly from 2001, allowing access to wineries, cheesemaking, vegetable gardens and the manufacture of jellies, preserves, colonial coffee, candied candies, take and harvest and access to natural attractions.

Attractions.

Vila Velha State Park.

The Vila Velha State Park was created on October 12, 1953, being listed as Historical and Artistic Heritage of Paraná on January 18, 1966, remaining closed between 2002 and 2004 for revitalization. Access is via BR-376 and is about 28 km from Ponta Grossa and 84 km from the capital of Paraná. The park is a conservation unit under Brazilian law and is administered by the Environmental Institute of Paraná. Much of the route, visitation takes place through trails. What most calls the attention of tourists is the features (which often resemble objects) of the exposed sandstones that originate from erosion and weathering, giving off particles during the melting of the rocks. These that formed on the sand deposit in the Carboniferous, 360 million years ago (Ice Age). There is no consensus on which is the main agent, although it certainly involves

Buraco do Padre.

Buraco do Padre is a furna, just like the ones found in the Vila Velha State Park, that is, formed by underground erosion where the dissolution of sandstone minerals and the direction of faults and fractures contribute to forming the feature. It is situated on a private property owned by Álvaro Scheffer, 24 km from the center of Ponta Grossa and relatively close to the protected area of Vila Velha. Access is via the PR-513 connecting Itaiacoca, with part of the road not paved. The name has an uncertain origin, but it must have appeared in

Education.

The city has two public colleges:  Both institutions attract undergraduate and graduate students from many regions, mostly from the south of

Culture.

Ponta Grossa has three theaters, movie theaters, art galleries and spaces for visual arts and music expositions and events. Ponta Grossa State University

Public administration.

The municipal government is composed of an executive, headed by the Mayor and his Secretariat, and a legislative branch, represented by the City Council. The sitting mayor is Marcelo Rangel. The Municipality of Ponta Grossa is composed of 14 aldermen (or is it 15) elected to four-year terms.

Ponta Grossa () is a municipality in the state of Paraná, southern Brazil. The estimated population is 351,736 (released on August 28, 2019) according to official data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics and it is the 4th most populous city in Paraná (76th in Brazil). It is also the largest city close to Greater Curitiba region, so within a radius of 186 miles (300 km) of Ponta Grossa.

Ponta Grossa est une ville brésilienne du centre-est de l'État du Paraná. Elle se situe à une latitude de 25° 05' 42" sud et par une longitude de 50° 09' 43" ouest, à une altitude de 975 mètres. Sa population était estimée à 304 973 habitants en 2006. La municipalité s'étend sur 2 068 km2.


Early life.

Tilly was born in Long Beach, California, the daughter of Patricia Ann (née Tilly), a Canadian teacher, and businessman Harry Chan. Her father was Chinese American, while her mother was of Irish and Finnish descent.  Following her parents' divorce when she was three, Tilly was raised by her mother and stepfather, John Ward, on rural Texada Island in British Columbia. She later claimed that Ward was a violent pedophile. At the age of 12, Tilly started taking dance lessons, in part to avoid her stepfather, and in a few years had developed into a gifted ballerina.  Tilly attended Esquimalt High School in Esquimalt, British Columbia, and also Chief Sealth International High School in Seattle, Washington where she is listed among its alumni. After graduating high school, Tilly left home and moved to the United States to pursue a career as a professional dancer. In New York City she studied with Madame Darvash and Melissa Hayden on full scholarship. She joined the Connecticut Ballet Company. She made her screen debut as a dancer in Alan Parker's 1980 musical drama "Fame". Tilly's dance career came to an abrupt halt when, in 1979, a dance partner dropped her, causing a serious back injury.

Career.

Acting.

Forced to give up dancing because of complications stemming from her back injury, Tilly moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career as an actress and studied acting under Peggy Fuery. She made her television debut in the 1982 half-hour drama "The Trouble with Grandpa", co-starring Elisha Cook Jr. After playing a prostitute in a second-season episode of "Hill Street Blues", she appeared in her first starring role in the 1982 coming-of-age adventure film "Tex" with Matt Dillon.  In 1983, after she starred as the lead in the supernatural horror film "One Dark Night", she appeared in "Psycho II" with Anthony Perkins, and Lawrence Kasdan's award-winning ensemble film "The Big Chill", with Kevin Kline, Glenn Close, Tom Berenger, William Hurt, Jeff Goldblum, JoBeth Williams and Mary Kay Place. Tilly's appearance in "The Big Chill", which was nominated for three Academy Awards, including Best Picture, helped her career significantly. In 1984, she starred in the movie "Impulse".  Tilly was the first choice for the role of Constanze Mozart in Miloš Forman's film "Amadeus", having received glowing appraisals of her rehearsal work by both her would-be costar Tom Hulce and director Forman. However, she sustained a leg injury playing soccer and had to abandon the project. The role later went to Elizabeth Berridge.  In 1985, Tilly landed the acclaimed, title role in Norman Jewison's "Agnes of God", appearing with Jane Fonda and Anne Bancroft. Playing the role of a novitiate nun who confesses her involvement in a virgin conception, Tilly "delivered a magnificent portrayal of a tormented young woman experiencing the ultimate crisis of faith". Tilly's critically praised performance earned her an Academy Award nomination and a Golden Globe Award.  Tilly later appeared in "Valmont" (1989), "The Two Jakes" (1990) with Jack Nicholson and "Leaving Normal" (1992) with Christine Lahti, as well as the 1993 horror film, "Body Snatchers". After this, she stopped acting for the next 15 years.  Tilly returned to acting in 2010, portraying the Blessed Mother, a Pope-like figure in the "Caprica" episode "Unvanquished". In 2011 she played Martha in Edward Albee's "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?", presented by the Blue Bridge Repertory Theatre in Victoria, B.C.  In January 2012, Global Television in Canada launched the six-part "Bomb Girls" about women who work in a munitions factory during World War II. Tilly stars as Lorna, the emotionally closed floor matron who blossoms as a leader and an appealing woman. She won the 2013 Lead Actress, Drama Canadian Screen Award for her work on the series.

Writing.

Tilly is the author of six published novels. In 1994, Tilly's first novel "Singing Songs" was published by Dutton to generally positive reviews. Donna Rifkind from "Publishers Weekly" called the book "an impressive first novel", and the "New York Times" Book Review praised Tilly for "the remarkable coherence and clarity" of Anna's narrative voice. The book is about a young girl and her sisters living in the Northwest who are molested by their stepfather.  Her second novel "Gemma" was published in 2006 by the Syren Book Company. and picked up by St. Martin's Press in 2010. The book is about a twelve-year-old girl who is kidnapped and taken on a cross-country journey in which she is physically and sexually abused by her captor.  Her third novel "Porcupine" was published in 2007 by Tundra Books. The book is about a twelve-year-old girl, Jacqueline "Jack" Cooper, whose life is shattered by the death of her father by friendly fire in the War in Afghanistan. "Porcupine" was a finalist for the Sheila A. Egoff Children's Literature Prize, shortlisted for The Canadian Libraries Association Best Children's Book 2008, Foreword Magazine Book of the Year and was an Ontario Library Best Bets 2008.  Her fourth novel "First Time" was published in 2008 by Orca Book Publishers. The novel is about a sixteen-year-old who is molested and physically abused by her mother's boyfriend, and must deal with the trauma alone without the help of her mother or best friend. "First Time" was a 2009 Golden Eagle Award Nominee, a 2009 YALSA Quick Picks and 2010 CCBC Best Books.  Tilly's fifth novel "A Taste of Heaven" was published in 2013 by Puffin Books. A departure from the darker themes of Tilly's previous work, the novel is about two young girls who become friends who experience the "comical, sometimes bittersweet and melodramatic trials and tribulations of tweenhood". One reviewer wrote, "Tilly paints an insightful, memorable portrait of the ups and downs of friendship and the unwavering bonds of family, delving into age-old issues of honesty, trust, and loyalty. "A Taste Of Heaven" was shortlisted for the 2014 Libris Young Reader Book of the Year, a 2014 Diamond Willow Award and won the 2014/2015 Chocolate Lilly Award.  Her latest novel, "Behind the Scenes", was published in 2014 by Puffin Books (Canada).

Personal life.

In 1983, Tilly married her first husband, Tim Zinnemann, an American film producer and son of film director Fred Zinnemann. They met on the set of her first film, "Tex". The marriage produced two children, Emily (born 1984) and David (born 1986), and ended in divorce in 1989.  In 1989, Tilly began a 5-year relationship with British actor Colin Firth, whom she met during the filming of "Valmont". They moved from Los Angeles to a log house on five acres of mountainside property about an hour outside Vancouver near the town of Maple Ridge, British Columbia. Their relationship produced a son, William "Will" (born 1990), and ended in 1994.  In 1995, Tilly married her second husband, John Calley, an American film studio executive and producer 30 years her senior. They moved to Los Angeles where Calley worked as president and CEO of Sony Pictures Entertainment. The marriage ended in divorce in 2002.  In 2002, Tilly married her third and current husband, author Don Calame, who writes fiction for adolescents. They met during a writing seminar in Big Sur, California. The couple now lives in the Gulf Islands, British Columbia.  She is the younger sister of actress Jennifer Tilly.

Meg Tilly (born Margaret Elizabeth Chan; February 14, 1960) is a Canadian-American actress and novelist. For her role in the 1985 film "Agnes of God", she won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Her other film roles include "Psycho II" (1983), "The Big Chill" (1983), "Masquerade" (1988), and "Valmont" (1989). For her role in the television series "Bomb Girls" (2012–13), she won the 2013 Canadian Screen Award for Best Lead Actress in a Drama Series.

Meg Tilly, née Margaret Elizabeth Chan le à Long Beach en Californie, est une actrice américano-canadienne. Elle est la sœur cadette de l'actrice Jennifer Tilly.


Treaty details.

The agreement was initiated with the aim of having solidarity with other countries in accordance with ALBA. The payment system allows for the purchase of oil at market value for 5%-50% up front with a grace period of one to two years; the remainder can be paid through a 17-25 year financing agreement with 1% interest if oil prices are above US$40 per barrel. The agreement builds on payment terms from the San Jose Agreement and the Caracas Energy Accord. Energy and Petroleum Minister and President of PDVSA Rafael Ramírez said of the deal that it seeks to cut out the middleman in such transactions: "We're not talking about discounts...We're talking about financial facilities, direct deliveries of products, [and] infrastructure."

Membership.

There are a total of 17 members; 12 of the members are from the 15 member CARICOM (excluding Barbados, Montserrat, and Trinidad and Tobago). At the first summit, 14 countries joined the alliance; these were Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Belize, Cuba, Dominica, the Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Venezuela. At the third summit, Haiti and Nicaragua joined the union. Guatemala joined in July 2008 but left the organization in November 2013 stating that Venezuela had not provided them with the ultra-low financing rates that they had been promised.  Haiti had not been initially invited to the talks, since Venezuela did not recognize its then post-Jean-Bertrand Aristide government. However, Hugo Chavez actively "courted" newly elected president René Préval when he took office, much to Chevron, Exxon, and the US State Department's chagrin. After Venezuela had invested in developing Haitian infrastructure, and after the Haitian government convinced Chevron to deliver the oil from Venezuela, on 8 March 2008 the first shipment of oil was received. Honduras became the 17th member of the alliance in December 2007, under President Manuel Zelaya but left the organization after the 2009 coup d'état before rejoining it on May 2012. Belize set up the Belize Petroleum Energy Company to coordinate for the project.

Non-members.

Barbados denied that it had succumbed to pressure from the United States, who had a strained relationship with Venezuela, as the reason, but has not ruled out agreeing to Petrocaribe in the future. On August 31, 2005, Energy Minister Anthony Wood said that they are weighing options over signing Petrocaribe. In April 2011 Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez renewed his offer for Barbados to join Petrocaribe.  Panama applied for membership on 3 March 2009 and initially said it would continue to join Petrocaribe under the new president, but Panama remains a non-member.

Summits.

The first summit, which launched the project was held in Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela. The second summit of Petrocaribe was held in Montego Bay, Jamaica. The third summit was held in Caracas, Venezuela and the fourth summit was held in Cienfuegos, Cuba in December 2007. The seventh summit was held in Caracas, on 6 April 2013. The membership of Honduras was revived after suspension because of the 2009 Honduran coup; Guatemala became an official new member of Petrocaribe. Summit also propose deeper cooperation between Petrocaribe states and states of ALBA on basis of new economic zone. Summit had discussion also about tourism, air traffic and food security. The 11th Summit was hosted by Haiti in Port-au-Prince.

Petrocaribe is an oil alliance involving 18 Caribbean member states. The alliance was founded on 29 June 2005 in Puerto La Cruz, Venezuela, Venezuela offering the other member states oil supplies based on a concessionary financial agreement. Petrocaribe has been part of the "pink tide" in Latin America seeking to achieve post-neoliberal development in the region. In 2013 Petrocaribe established links with the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA) aiming to go beyond oil trade and promoting economic cooperation.

Petrocaribe est une alliance entre les pays des Caraïbes et le Venezuela. Ce dernier, premier pays exportateur de pétrole brut latino-américain, permet aux pays membres de PetroCaribe de lui acheter le pétrole à des conditions de paiement préférentielles. Cette alliance a été créée le en signant l'accord au départ avec 13 pays. Elle regroupe actuellement 18 pays. C'est une expression du soft power vénézuélien qui, par le levier du pétrole, exerce une influence sur ces États et peut donc faire prévaloir ses décisions au sein d'organisations régionales telles que l'OEA. C'est également une alliance marquée par une corruption importante, en particulier à Haïti où elle a déclenché des manifestations d'ampleur dans ce qu'on a appelé l'affaire PetroCaribe.


Biography.

Early life.

Basil Davidson was born in Bristol, United Kingdom on 9 November 1914 and left school at 16 and moved to London. In 1938, he gained a job at the Paris correspondent of "The Economist" and later as the diplomatic correspondent of "The Star". He travelled widely in Italy and Central Europe in the 1930s.

Wartime service.

Davidson was recruited by the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS) and MI6, D Section. He was sent to Budapest, Hungary in December 1939 under the cover of establishing a news service. In April 1941, with the Nazi invasion, he fled to Belgrade, Yugoslavia. In May, he was captured by Italian forces and was later released as part of a prisoner exchange.  From late 1942 to mid-1943, he was chief of the Special Operations Executive (SOE) Yugoslav Section in Cairo, Egypt, where he was James Klugmann's supervisor. He parachuted into Bosnia on 16 August 1943, and spent the following months serving as a liaison with the Partisans, as he would describe in his 1946 book, "Partisan Picture". Davidson moved east into Srem and the Fruška Gora. He was nearly captured or killed several times. SOE higher-ups sent him to Hungary to try to organize a rebel movement there, but Davidson found that the conditions weren't ripe and crossed back over the Danube into the Fruska Gora. The Germans encircled the Fruška Gora in June 1944 in a last attempt to liquidate the Partisans there, but Davidson and the others made a narrow escape. After the Soviets moved into Yugoslavia, Davidson was airlifted out. Davidson had enormous appreciation for the Partisans and the communist leader Josip Broz Tito.  From January 1945 Davidson was liaison officer with partisans in Liguria and Genoa, Italy. He was present for the surrender of the German forces in Genoa on 26-27 April 1945. He finished the war as a lieutenant-colonel and was awarded the Military Cross and was mentioned in despatches on two occasions.

Africa and writing career.

Davidson returned to journalism after the war. He was employed initially by "The Times" in Paris but was widely considered to have communist sympathies after his wartime role as the Cold War began. He left in 1949 and became the secretary of the pressure-group, the Union of Democratic Control (UDC) and began to work for the left-leaning "New Statesman". However, the Cold War prevented him from returning to Central Europe and instead Davidson instead became interested in Africa after being invited to South Africa by trade unionists opposed to Apartheid. He published several articles and books critical of white-rule in South Africa and colonial rule in Africa, passing to the "Daily Herald" (1954-57) and the "Daily Mirror" (1959-62).  He began a career as a popular writer. He published five novels and 30 other books, mainly on African history and politics. These consolidated his reputation as one of the leading authorities on Africa in the era of independence. From 1969, Davidson was involved in the Anti-Apartheid Movement and eventually became the movement's vice-president. He was a strong supporter of Pan-Africanism, especially from the 1980s, and was critical of the white-minority government in Rhodesia and of the American-backed UNITA in Angola. He spent long periods in Angola and Eritrea during its struggle for independence from Ethiopia. In 1984, Davidson produced an 8-part documentary series for Channel 4 entitled "Africa".  Although not an academic, Davidson gained a reputation as an authority on African affairs and received a number of honorary positions at universities, including the School of Oriental and African Studies. Davidson also gained honorary degrees from universities in Europe and Africa, as well as a number of civic decorations. In 1976, he won the Medalha Amílcar Cabral. He received honorary degrees from the Open University of Great Britain in 1980, and the University of Edinburgh in 1981. For his film series "Africa", he won the Gold Award, from the International Film and Television Festival of New York in 1984. In 2002 he was decorated by the Portuguese president Jorge Sampaio as Grande Oficial da Ordem do Infante D. Henrique.

Basil Risbridger Davidson (9 November 1914 – 9 July 2010) was a British journalist and historian who wrote more than 30 books on African history and politics. According to two modern writers, "Davidson, a campaigning journalist whose first of many books on African history and politics appeared in 1956, remains perhaps the single-most effective disseminator of the new field to a popular international audience".

Basil Davidson, né le à Bristol en Angleterre; mort le à 95 ans, était un journaliste, sociologue et historien britannique.


History.

In the wake of the construction of I-95 in the late 1960s, many middle- and upper-income African American and West Indian American families migrated from Miami neighborhoods like Liberty City to what became Miami Gardens (also called Carol City, Norland or Norwood) as race-based covenants were outlawed with the Fair Housing Act, and mostly lower income blacks moved into the Liberty City and Little Haiti neighborhoods surrounding Liberty Square and Edison Courts.  Miami Gardens was incorporated on May 13, 2003. The city's neighborhoods of Andover, Bunche Park, Carol City, Lake Lucerne, Norland, Opa-locka North, and Scott Lake were previously unincorporated areas within Miami-Dade County.  In 2007, Mayor Shirley Gibson said that the city would no longer allow any low-income housing developments; many residents blamed the developments for spreading crime and recreational drugs throughout the city. Around that time, the city's tax revenues dropped to the third-lowest in Miami-Dade County.  In 2012, Oliver Gilbert, only the second mayor the city has had, proposed forming a community redevelopment agency (CRA). CRAs are formed to remove "slum and blight", to improve the physical environment of the city and to combat the social and economic problems typical of slum areas. CRAs are funded with property tax increases, which funds are used, in part, to stimulate private investment in the rehabilitation of the community.  Police misconduct against Earl Sampson, who was repeatedly questioned, detained, jailed, and/or arrested for trespassing at his own workplace, against the wishes of his boss, occurred from 2008 until roughly 2013.

Demographics.

The city was incorporated in 2003, but various parts of the city appear as census designated places in the 2000 census and previous censuses. They now make up the neighborhoods of Andover, Bunche Park, Carol City, Lake Lucerne, Norwood, Opa-locka North, and Scott Lake. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Miami Gardens was 112,514 on July 1, 2016, a 6.5% increase since the 2010 census.  In 2010, there were 34,284 housing units of which 6.0% were vacant. As of 2016, the age distribution was 5.6% under the age of 5, 6.7% from 5 to 9, 6.5% from 10 to 14, 15.5% from 15 to 24, 14.6% from 25 to 34, 12.7% 35 to 44, 13.1% 45 to 54, 12.6% 55 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The population was 46.9% male and 53.1% female. Families made up 72% of households, while 28% were non-families. The average household size was 3.52 members, and the city covered.  As of 2000, the Bunche Park neighborhood of Miami Gardens had the ninth highest percentage of African-American and black residents in the US, with 96.5% of the populace. It also was the most Bahamian place in the United States, as well as having the highest percentage of British West Indians in the US, at 1.8% (which tied with Brentwood, Maryland.) It was also home to the fifty-third highest percentage of Haitians in the US, at 2.8% of all residents (which also tied with Sunrise, Lake Alfred and Brentwood, New York.)  As of 2000, the Carol City section of Miami Gardens had the twenty-seventh highest percentage of Cuban residents in the US, with 18.75% of the populace. It had the nineteenth highest percentage of Jamaican residents in the US, at 5.80% (which tied with Lake Park, Florida,) and the thirty-ninth highest percentage of Dominican residents in the US, at 3% of its population. It also had the fifty-sixth most Haitians in the US, at 2.50% (tied with five other areas in the US, including Plantation and Taft, Florida) while it had the twentieth highest percentage of Nicaraguans, at 2.20% of all residents. The Carol City neighborhood of Miami Gardens is also home to the seventieth highest percentage of Colombian residents in the US, at 2.15% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Andover neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 74.96% of all residents, while Spanish accounted for 17.91%, French Creole accounted for 4.61%, French made up 1.58%, West African Niger-Congo languages (Kru, Igbo and Yoruba) were at 0.52%, and Yiddish was the mother tongue for 0.39% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Bunche Park neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 95.97% of all residents, while Spanish was at 3.07%, and French Creole as a mother tongue made up 0.94% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Carol City neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 53.73% of all residents, while Spanish accounted for 43.16%, and French Creole as a mother tongue made up 2.15% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Lake Lucerne neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 82.27% of all residents, while Spanish accounted for 14.16%, French Creole was at 2.55%, and French as a mother tongue made up 1.00% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Norland neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 74.87% of all residents, while French Creole accounted for 12.92%, Spanish was at 10.19%, and French as a mother tongue made up 1.02% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Opa-Locka North neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 75.24% of all residents, while Spanish was spoken by 21.04%, French Creole was at 3.27%, and Jamaican Creole as a mother tongue made up 0.44% of the population.  As of 2000, before being annexed to Miami Gardens, the Scott Lake neighborhood had English as a first language accounted for 85.76% of all residents, while 6.81% spoke Spanish, French Creole accounted for 5.83%, French was at 0.93%, and Jamaican Creole as a mother tongue made up 0.64% of the population.

Crime rates.

According to City Rating, Miami Gardens crime statistics have decreased in the past 13 years. The crimes that have decreased the most are property crimes and violent crimes. The crime rate for Miami Gardens for 2018 is expected to be lower than in 2016. Miami Garden's 2016 violent crime rate was 63.64% higher than the national violent crime rate, and the property crime rate was 30.99% higher than the national property crime rate.  In 2016, Miami Gardens' violent crime rate was higher than that in Florida by 50.99%, and the property crime rate was 19.49% higher.  In 2016, there were 432 reported cases of aggravated assault, 22 reported cases of arson, 509 reported cases of burglary, 24 cases of forcible rape, 2,743 cases of larceny and theft, 419 reported cases of motor vehicle theft, 22 reported cases of murder and manslaughter, and 265 cases of robbery.  The projected 2018 crime data is as follows: 286 reported cases of aggravated assault, 26 reported cases of arson, 435 reported cases of burglary, 7 cases reported of forcible rape, 2,139 cases reported of larceny and theft, 205 cases reported of motor vehicle theft, 18 reported cases of murder and manslaughter, and 102 reported cases of robbery.

Sports facilities.

The Calder Race Course opened in 1971.  Miami Gardens is home to the Miami Dolphins, who play in Hard Rock Stadium on land that was part of the Lake Lucerne CDP. This stadium also hosts the annual Orange Bowl college football game, and is the home field for the University of Miami Hurricanes football team. The Miami Open tennis tournament is held on the grounds of the stadium. The Florida Marlins Major League Baseball team shared Hard Rock Stadium with the Dolphins for almost two decades until, in 2012, they relocated to Miami and changed their name to the Miami Marlins.

Health.

Medical.

The city of Miami Gardens has several health care clinics and facilities that offer medical care and support to its residents. Although the city has no hospital directly within its limits, Jackson North Medical Center, Concentra Urgent Care, and, Chen Medical Center provide medical services to the residents of Miami Gardens. Supplementing this, several health care clinics and facilities provide medical services that include general medicine, walk-in/urgent care, dental services, gynecology, physical therapy, chiropractor services, laboratory tests, x-rays, sonograms, osteoporosis screening, vaccinations, and health and exercise programs.

Government.

Miami Gardens is governed by a seven-member city council. Members include Mayor Oliver Gilbert (since 2012), and six council members, four elected from districts and two elected citywide. The mayor recommends – and the city council hires – the City Manager, City Attorney, and City Clerk.  These are 17 of the many departments for which the City Manager of Miami Gardens creates a budget.

Police.

The Miami Gardens Police Department is the lead law enforcement agency for the 110,000 residents living within the city's. The department operates under a unified command structure with its headquarters located at 1020 NW 163 Drive, Miami Gardens, Florida 33169. The department became operational on Sunday, December 16, 2007 with 159 sworn officers. Since then, the department has grown to 259 members consisting of 201 sworn positions with 58 non-sworn support positions.

Police controversy.

In 2013, law enforcement abuses were alleged regarding the Miami Gardens Police Department by several news outlets. The abuses were first uncovered when it became public that a convenience store employee, Earl Sampson was arrested 27 times for trespassing, while working at and around the store at which he was employed. Video evidence was gathered by the owner of the store, Ali Saleh, showing Miami Garden police involved in clear and repeated misconduct involving his employee, and customers. According to the "Miami Herald"s Julie K. Brown: "The videos show, among other things, cops stopping citizens, questioning them, aggressively searching them and arresting them for trespassing when they have permission to be on the premises". It appeared Sampson had been arrested in this way due to police quotas, a department culture, and that Sampson was easy to arrest. Sampson always pleaded guilty so they would let him out almost immediately, with one exception where he pleaded not guilty, and he was jailed for 20 days. The guilty plea would validate the officers' improper arrest and increment their quota, so he became a continuous target.

Volume of stops.

It was reported that, between 2008 and 2013, 99,980 stops occurred in Miami Gardens, involving 56,922 people, over half of the city's population. In the City of Miami, 3,753 stops occurred during the same period, with four times the population. Some stops involved children aged 5 to 7, totaling more than 1,000 children. These numbers were compiled after news regarding Earl Sampson.

Resignation and lawsuits.

Following these reports, the Police Chief resigned. Civil rights lawsuits have been filed against the Miami Gardens Police Department by the store owner and others who were illegally detained and/or arrested. A police officer filed a lawsuit claiming that he had been fired for reporting abuses.

Education.

Public schools.

Miami-Dade County Public Schools operates area public schools.  Norland Middle School, in the Miami Gardens area, has a magnet program in dance, music, theatre and art, which began in 1985. The young actors Alex R. Hibbert and Jaden Piner, who starred in the Oscar-winning film "Moonlight", were trained at this school.

Private schools.

The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Miami operates area Catholic schools. Monsignor Edward Pace High School is in the Miami Gardens city limits. The archdiocese formerly operated Saint Monica School in Miami Gardens.

Public libraries.

Miami-Dade Public Library System operates the North Dade Regional Library, which opened in September 1979.

Miami Gardens is a city located in north-central Miami-Dade County, Florida, United States. It is 16 miles north of Downtown Miami and its boundaries stretch from I-95 and NE 2nd Avenue on the east, to NW 47th and NW 57th Avenues on the west, and from the Broward County line on the north, to 151st Street on the south. The city name comes from one of the major roadways through the area, Miami Gardens Drive. According to the 2019 estimate from the US Census Bureau, the city had a population of 110,001, and it is the largest city in Florida that has a majority African American population. It is a principal city of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people in 2015.

Miami Gardens est une ville située dans le comté de Miami-Dade, dans l'État de Floride, aux États-Unis. La ville s'est incorporée en 2003 à partir des anciennes localités ("CDPs") de "Andover, Bunche Park, Carol City, Lake Lucerne, Norland, Opa-Locka North, et Scott Lake", qui aujourd'hui sont des quartiers de la nouvelle ville de Miami Gardens. La population est estimée par la municipalité à habitants en 2010.


Collection.

The collection features a number of unique highlights of modern 20th-century art. Particularly well represented are Cubism, Expressionism, the Bauhaus and Surrealism. The collection owns masterpieces of artists like Pablo Picasso, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Joan Miró, Wassily Kandinsky and Barnett Newman. The design of the building, despite its large site, allows for the display of only a small part of the collection, and the displays are therefore changed at intervals.

Architecture.

Dimensions, specifications and materials.

The plan of the Neue Nationalgalerie is divided into two distinct stories. The upper story serves as an entrance hall as well as the primary special exhibit gallery, totaling of space. It is elevated from street level and only accessible by three flights of steps. Though it only comprises a small portion of the total gallery space, the exhibition pavilion stands boldly as the building's primary architectural expression. Eight cruciform columns, two on each length placed so as to avoid corners, support a square pre-stressed steel roof plate 1.8 meters thick and painted black. An eighteen-meter cantilever allows for ample space between the gallery's glazed façade and eight supporting columns. Mies’ office studied this cantilever extensively in various scaled models in order to ensure its structural stability as well as the seeming flatness of the roof plate. The floor-to-ceiling height reaches 8.4 meters, and the space is laid out on a 3.6-meter square dimensional grid. Black anodized aluminum “egg crates” fit within the grid house lighting fixtures, with air ducts suspended above.  The lower story serves primarily as housing for the gallery's permanent collection, though it also includes a library, offices, and a shop and café, and totals about of space. It is three quarters below ground so as to allow for safe storage of the artwork, its sole glazed façade looking out on the museum's sloping sculpture garden and providing ample indirect interior lighting.  A rooftop plaza further extends the museum's exhibition space.

Contemporaneous projects.

In 1956, José M. Bosch, President of Ron Bacardí y Compañía approached Mies to commission the design of a new office space. He was particularly interested in a very open plan, and the relatively simple idea Mies came up with involved a square roof plate supported on each side by two columns. Though initial structural challenges had to be dealt with, the resulting pavilion typology became integral to Mies’ architectural lexicon, in many ways the epitome of his universal conception of space.  The Bacardí Building was abandoned in September 1960 due to general political unrest in Cuba, but at the same time, two other museum commissions were brought to Mies’ office. Georg Schaefer, a wealthy industrialist living in Schweinfurt approached Mies about the construction of a museum for his nineteenth-century art collection during the summer of 1960. A modest initial plan was drawn for the structure, but later that year Mies decided to reconfigure the unbuilt Bacardí project to fit Schaefer's program as he wished to see it built. Consequently, a scaled-down model of the Bacardí project this time rendered in steel rather than concrete was created. In March 1961, Mies also received a letter from the Senator for Building and Housing in Berlin, inviting him to build what was to be called the Neue Nationalgalerie, an exhibition space for the state's collection of early twentieth-century art. The two museum projects, though slightly different in scale, where to be essentially identical in form, both a version in steel of the original Barcardí design. Though the Schweinfurt project never came to fruition, the reductive exercise of continual reconfiguration allowed for the perfection of Mies' expression in Berlin, and the Neue Nationalgalerie remains as the sole built form of the initial tripartite conception.

Aesthetic Importance.

Much of Mies’ syntactical development throughout the three building progression leading up to the Neue Nationalgalerie was prefigured in an earlier project for a Museum for a Small City. This project was published in a special May 1943 edition of "Architectural Forum". In his publication, Mies describes a seemingly floating roof plane, suspended above a single clear-span space punctuated by equidistant columns. This project is now seen as a significant move on Mies’ part toward the alleviation of interior space by both defining and minimizing structural enclosure, thus joining exterior and interior space in a meaningful way. The structure itself, a composite of little more than ground plane, support and roof, thus becomes the building. The aesthetic importance of the clear-span was directly related to Mies’ conception of museum space in general, a “defining, rather than confining space.” The completely open nature of the plan also serves to eliminate the barrier between art and community, simultaneously breaking down the reverence enacted by severely partitioned spaces and inviting interaction between viewer and art. The overall aesthetic affect is thus one of vitalizing liberation. This infinitely transformative capability and universality is also seen in Mies’ buildings from the intervening years, namely the Farnsworth House in Plano, Illinois, and Crown Hall of the Illinois Institute of Technology campus. Various commentators have recognized the structure's ties to classical building, seeing it as a modern temple whose monumental simplicity evinces the immense skill behind its design and conception.

Criticism.

The ability of clearly articulated external structures to alleviate façades and create large-scale universal spaces required certain boldness on the part of the client. The ineffable expression of the Neue Nationalgalerie's entrance pavilion had certain logistical downsides. Its smooth granite flooring reflects the warm natural light that floods the space, creating hazy shadow and making curatorial efforts notoriously complicated. The singular expression of the pavilion space also relegated the lower story to a secondary position, presenting further difficulties for the display of artwork involving a lack of natural lighting and relatively pedestrian layout of viewing space. When asked later to renovate and expand the building's lower story, Mies refused, as to do so would destroy the perfect proportions of the temple above. He originally conceived of the entrance pavilion as a place for very large works, allowing for unencumbered visual interaction and for use of the piece as space element in itself. An early collage included in the May 1943 "Architectural Forum" article about Museum for a Small City includes Picasso's "Guernica", along with other large, plane-like paintings. Yet smaller works had to be shown on moveable freestanding walls or hanging partitions, making a curator's ability to effectively differentiate spaces difficult.

Future renovation.

The Neue Nationalgalerie has had no thorough modernization since its inauguration. In 2012 it was announced that British architect David Chipperfield will oversee a major renovation of the building. In a non-competitive selection process common for public contracts in Germany, his firm was chosen for the contract out of 24 architectural firms based on a two-stage negotiation process. The museum requires new security and fire technology and the shop and cafe will be renovated. The €101 million renovation project started in 2015 and is expected to last three years, during which time the museum will be closed. Original building elements, such as handrails and shelves, will be removed, restored and reinstalled in their previous locations. Meanwhile, the structural framework of the roof, which rests on eight steel beams, and the glass facade will be restored.

Permanent art installations.

The Neue Nationalgalerie's ceiling, constructed as a grid of black-painted steel beams, has been used as an exhibit surface in itself for "Installation for the Neue Nationalgalerie", an installation of long lines of LCD displays by artist Jenny Holzer in 2001, which continuously scrolled abstract patterns down their length.  The Neue Nationalgalerie's terrace provides a particularly prominent space for large-scale pieces of sculpture from the 20th century. Permanently installed sculptures include "Gudari" (1957) by Eduardo Chillida, "Polis" (1968) by Joannis Avramidis, the kinetic metal sculpture "Vier Vierecke im Geviert" (1969) by George Rickey, "Three Way Piece No.2: The Archer" (1964–65) by Henry Moore, "Têtes et Queue" (1965) by Alexander Calder, and "Berlin Block Charlie Chaplin" (1978) by Richard Serra. In 2003, with the permission of the Barnett Newman Foundation, a fourth edition of the sculpture "Broken Obelisk" (1963) by Barnett Newman was cast and temporarily installed in front of the museum. In 2011, Thomas Schütte's work "Vater Staat" (2010) was donated by Nicolas Berggruen and installed on the terrace. Many other pieces of sculpture - by artists from Auguste Renoir to Ulrich Rückriem - are on permanent display in the museum's garden.

The Neue Nationalgalerie (New National Gallery) at the Kulturforum is a museum for modern art in Berlin, with its main focus on the early 20th century. It is part of the National Gallery of the Berlin State Museums. The museum building and its sculpture gardens were designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and opened in 1968.

La Neue Nationalgalerie (« nouvelle galerie nationale ») est un musée de Berlin construit par Ludwig Mies van der Rohe dans les années 1960, qui abrite des collections d'art moderne du.


Etymology and name.

Changyi, from the Chinese characters for "prosperous" and for "city", means literally the "Prosperous City". The site of ancient Ziyi () is located in Changyi. Changyi was called Duchang (), as it was named Duchang County by the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). The area was renamed “Changyi” during the Northern Song Dynasty in 962 AD, and has retained its name since then.

History.

Early history.

Changyi is over 2200 years old. In the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the city served as the manor of Yanzi () and Sun Bin ().

People's Republic.

In 1988, Changyi was designated by the Central Government of China as “coastal open city”, and in 1994 it was established as a county-level city to replace the old Changyi County.

Geography.

Changyi is located in the northwest corner of the Shandong Peninsula and in the southern Bohai Laizhou Bay area, with geographical coordinates of latitude 36 ° 25'-37 ° 08 ', longitude 119 ° 13'-119 ° 37'. Situated on southern Laizhou Bay area of Bohai Sea, it neighbors with Yantai, Laizhou, Qingdao, and Pingdu to its east, and Weifang City to its west. It belongs to the Qingdao One-hour Economic Zone” and “Weifang Half-hour Economic Zone.” It has Shandong's largest reservoir, the Xiashan Reservoir (). The city has a total area of.

Administrative divisions.

Changyi comprises six towns, three districts, 691 administrative villages (communities), and one special economic development area, which are Kuiju District, Duchang District, Weizi District, Liutuan Town, Longchi Town, Buzhuang Town, Yinma Town, Beimeng Town, Xiaying Town, Shibu Economic Development Zones. In addition, Changyi also has the jurisdiction over the provincial-level Changyi Economic Development Zone (within the jurisdiction of Duchang District), Xiaying Coastal Economic Development Zone including the entire Xiaying Town, Liutuan Town, and part of Longchi Town north of Dalailong Railway, which is currently applying for the upgrade to a provincial-level development zone.

Economy.

The economy of Changyi is more industrially based, and has formed a competitive market marked by new products, new technologies, and new projects, such as the petrochemical industry, salt and salt chemical industry, machinery manufacturing, textiles, food processing, aquaculture, and green seedlings among others. Changyi's Petrochemical industry has an annual processing capacity of 10 million tons, and a sales income of 13.7 billion yuan. Changyi's salt and salt chemical industry produces crude salt with an annual production capacity of four million tons, accounting for one sixth of the China's sea salt production. The bromine production capacity of Changyi by the Shandong JinDian Chemical Company is 40,000 tons a year, accounting for a quarter of China's production of bromine. Machinery manufacturing includes textile machinery, plastic machinery, broaching machines, auto parts. The auto parts manufacturing, particularly by Consolidated Metco's Shandong branch, is the largest production base in China for large automotive wheels, brake drums, brake discs production. The existing textile enterprises, such as that of the Huachen group, have more than 2,500 factories with an annual spinning capacity of 1.8 million meters, weaving capacity of 3.5 billion meters, and with dyeing, printing capacity of 2.1 billion meters, and is ranked within the top 50 of the Chinese textile brands. Food processing industry has over 160 processing enterprises, whose products are sold in over 30 countries and regions in the world.Tyson Foods also has a branch in Changyi which processes chicken for Tyson's Asia market. The Tyson plant processes up to 80,000 chickens per day. The aquaculture industry currently has factory farming area of 230,000 square meters, producing over 140,000 tons of aquatic products, with the total output value of 820 million RMB. Industry of seedlings has seedlings of 1647.369 acres, seedling stock of 200 million annual turnover of 500 million RMB. Changyi has been assessed as the National seedlings market by the State Forestry Administration of the People's Republic of China, the National Advanced Unit of Tree Seed and Seedling" and has successfully organized nine National North China Green Seedlings Expos and six Chinese Garden Flowers and Information Exchanges.

Development of high-tech industries.

Currently, Changyi has one national post-doctoral research institution, 29 of the Provincial and Weifang municipal engineering and technical centers, produces two top national brand-name products, four famous national trademarks, twelve Shandong name-brands, and 26 famous Shandong trademarks. The city has been nationally named an advanced city for science and technology for six consecutive years. Changyi is fast in developing strategic new enterprises marked by new energy sources, new materials, high-end equipment manufacturing, energy saving and environmental protection, and bio-pharmaceutical industry. The urban and rural household waste utilization project has applied for 13 Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China, passed the provincial assessment of science and technology achievements, and reached the international advanced level, and won major energy-saving achievement award of Shandong Province. Jinsida Project of Treatment and Recycling of Printing and Dyeing Waste Water has applied for 12 national patents, and been included in the top 10 model technology projects of sustainable development in Shandong Province, winning the 3rd place of scientific and technological progress in Shandong. Swiss electric company direct drive permanent magnet wind turbine won 11 national patents and is designated as one of the 2011 key projects of Shandong Province.

Coastal development.

Changyi City has of coastline, 430 mu of shallow sea area, over 300 thousand mu of tidal flats. In recent years, construction of the "yellow-blue areas" has built up an opportunity of national strategic importance, and the city has gone all out to speed up coastal development. The first is the strategic planning based on location and resources to establish development goals to create "one city, one district, one port, and four bases." "One city" means to construct the coastal city of advanced economy, complete and perfect infrastructure, sound ecological environment, livable modern coastal city. " One District" means to build the Binhai (Xiaying) Economic Development Zone into an influential modern economic coastal economic zone in the province or even nationally. "One port" means to accelerate the construction of the east port of Weifang Port (Xiaying Port). "Four bases" means to build an emerging industrial base of 100 billion yuan, a high-end chemical industrial base of 200 billion yuan, and a port logistics base of 20 million tons, and green energy base of two billion kilowatt-hour. The second is to improve the facilities. At present, Binhai Economic Development Zone (Xiaying) has completed the infrastructure investing over 10 billion yuan, supporting an area of over 90 square km, and has built a 616 square km coastal development framework, which has formed the initial concentration of industry, and distinctive Northern coastal ecosystems of industrial uplift belt. The third is to speed up port construction. Taking full advantage of the favorable natural conditions for port building in Xiaying, to speed up the construction of the East Port (Xiaying Port) of Weifang Port to create an important engine for the coastal economic development. The first phase of the project invests 100 billion yuan to build twelve 10-thousand-ton berths with an annual throughput of more than 20 million tons. The fourth is to promote industrial aggregation. Emphasizing the salt chemical industry chain investment and introduce new industries of strategic importance and actively develop new energy industry and advanced manufacturing. At present, 109 projects with a total investment of more than 33 billion yuan have been settled. The Haitian bio-chemical industry, new Jiayuan Chemical new dyes and other 47 projects were completed and commissioned; Jindian Chemical Industry, KDN pharmaceutical etc. 48 projects are under construction. The fifth is to improve the services. "The Beneficial policies for Investment in the Changyi Binhai Economic Development Zone” was developed to attract foreign investment, to give maximum discount in the fees charged and formalities. Promote the administrative services, such as safety supervision, industry and commerce, environmental protection, taxation, finance and other departments in the coastal economic development zone were set up with strong staff, to provide zero-distance service for projects and business development.

Education.

Changyi currently has 113 schools of various levels, a total of 72,330 students, and a total of 5,709 faculty and staff members. There are 146 kindergartens, 866 teachers and 16,390 custodians. In recent years, Changyi has won numerous national and provincial awards and honorary titles for its advancement in education and for promoting diverse education systems and pre-school education. In basic education, Changyi was the first in the province to implement the reform of Education in the People's Republic of China; and in the Weifang City Prefecture, Changyi was the first to begin consolidating high schools into the metropolitan areas. It has invested 400 million RMB on the new Changyi Number 1 High School, and has invested 120 million RMB to expand the Wenshan High School. It invested 150 million RMB to build the Changyi Foreign Language School. The city's primary school and secondary school enrollment rate is 100%, pre-school admission rate is 91.5%, and high school enrollment rate is 95.2%. It has completed 22 provincial standardized schools, 37 municipal standardized schools, and 22 provincial and municipal level, experiment, demonstration kindergartens. In the area of vocational education, since 2008, the integration of the city's eight vocational schools into the vocational education center, which now offers training in computer application, mechanical and electrical technology, and more than a dozen specialties, and built over 30 laboratories and training workshops. The employment rate of graduates is 100%, of which 95% found employments within their specialties. In 2010, based on the Vocational Education Center, the Changyi Branch of the Institute of Weifang Technic School was established, and planned the construction of a new campus of Vocational Education Center, covering an area of 548 mu, with the building area of 200,000 square meters, total investment of 460 million yuan. School conditions continue to improve. Vigorously implementing the primary and secondary school building safety standardization, the city has invested nearly 400 million for new school buildings of 290,000 square meters, more than 16 million to create “Shandong model county for experimental teaching in primary and secondary schools.” It invested more than 1900 million on implementation of the IT facilities and rural primary and secondary school distance education project.” Education quality has been steadily improved in recent years. Each year, over 1600 students are enrolled in four-year colleges, of which average 10 people are admitted to Beijing University or Qinghua University. Changyi has four vocational schools, two high schools, and 29 middle schools. Changyi First High School and Wenshan High School are among the top high schools in Shandong Province.

Demographics.

The population in 1999 was 684,434.

Changyi () is a county-level city of Weifang, Shandong province, People's Republic of China. The city is 1627.5 square kilometers in area, with a household population of 581,000 as of 2010. The city is under the administration of the Changyi Municipal People's Government, with three neighborhoods, six towns, 691 administrative villages, and one special economic development zone. Changyi has a long history that extends back into the Spring and Autumn period.

Changyi (昌邑 ; pinyin : Chāngyì) est une ville de la province du Shandong en Chine. C'est une ville-district placée sous la juridiction de la ville-préfecture de Weifang.


History.

Guanabara Bay was first encountered by Europeans on January 1, 1502, when one of the Portuguese explorers Gaspar de Lemos and Gonçalo Coelho arrived on its shores. According to some historians, the name given by the exploration team to the bay was originally "Ria de Janeiro" "January's Lagoon", then a confusion took place between the word "ria" "lagoon" and "rio" "river". As a result, the name of the bay was soon fixed as "Rio de Janeiro". Later, the city was named after the bay. Natives of the Tamoio and Tupiniquim tribes inhabited the shores of the bay.  After the initial arrival of the Portuguese, no significant European settlements were established until French colonists and soldiers, under the Huguenot Admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon invaded the region in 1555 to establish the France Antarctique. They stayed briefly on Lajes Island, then moved to Serigipe Island, near the shore, where they built Fort Coligny. After they were expelled by Portuguese military expeditions in 1563, the colonial government built fortifications in several points of Guanabara Bay, rendering it almost impregnable against a naval attack from the sea. They were the Santa Cruz, São João, Lajes and Villegaignon forts, forming a fearsome crossfire rectangle of big naval guns. Other islands were adapted by the Navy to host naval storehouses, hospitals, drydocks, oil reservoirs and the National Naval Academy.  Underwater exploration in the bay was disallowed by the Brazilian government in 1985 amid a dispute with an American treasure hunter.

Description.

There are more than 130 islands dotting the bay, including:  The bay is crossed by the Rio-Niterói Bridge ( long and with a central span high) and there is heavy boat and ship traffic, including regular ferryboat lines. The Port of Rio de Janeiro, as well as the city's two airports, Galeão - Antônio Carlos Jobim International Airport (on Governador Island) and Santos Dumont Airport (on reclaimed land next to downtown Rio), are located on its shores. The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro main campus is located on the artificial Fundão Island. A maze of smaller bridges interconnect the two largest islands, Fundão and Governador, to the mainland.  There is an Environmental Protection Area (APA), which is located mostly in the municipality of Guapimirim and given the name of Guapimirim APA.

Environment.

Guanabara Bay's once rich and diversified ecosystem has suffered extensive damage in recent decades, particularly along its mangrove areas. The bay has been heavily impacted by urbanization, deforestation, and pollution of its waters with sewage, garbage, and oil spills. As of 2014, more than 70% of the sewage from 12 million inhabitants of Rio de Janeiro now flows into the bay untreated.  There have been three major oil spills in Guanabara Bay. The most recent was in 2000 when a leaking Petrobras underwater pipeline released of oil into the bay, destroying large swaths of the mangrove ecosystem. Recovery measures are currently being attempted, but more than a decade after the incident, the mangrove areas have not returned to life.  One of the world's largest landfills is located at Jardim Gramacho adjacent to Guanabara Bay. It was closed in 2012 after 34 years of operation. The landfill attracted attention from environmentalists and it supported 1700 people scavenging for recyclable materials.  In June 2014 Dutch windsurfer and former Olympic and world champion Dorian van Rijsselberghe made an urgent appeal to government and industry in the Netherlands to collaborate in cleaning up the bay, together with the Plastic Soup Foundation. The Dutch government picked up the message and formulated a Clean Urban Delta Initiative Rio de Janeiro together with a consortium of Dutch industry, knowledge institutes and NGOs which will be presented to the Brazilian authorities in the State of Rio de Janeiro.  As part of the preparations for the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio, the government was supposed to improve the conditions, but progress has been slow. There have been concerns that the efforts may only be short-term and abandoned following the Games, as there would be little political incentive to continue with them.  The marine ecosystem of Guanabara Bay was severely damaged; the bay was once a whaling ground, and today whales are no longer or rarely seen while Bryde's whales can be seen around the bay entrance. The bay is also home to a population of botos and this population faces severe risks of population decline.

Further reading.

Guanabara Bay (, ) is an oceanic bay located in Southeast Brazil in the state of Rio de Janeiro. On its western shore lies the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Duque de Caxias, and on its eastern shore the cities of Niterói and São Gonçalo. Four other municipalities surround the bay's shores. Guanabara Bay is the second largest bay in area in Brazil (after the All Saints' Bay), at, with a perimeter of.

La baie de Guanabara, autrefois Rio de Janeiro au moment de sa découverte, est une baie du littoral brésilien de l'État de Rio de Janeiro, qui entre d'une trentaine de kilomètres dans les terres, et est large de presque autant. La profondeur de l'eau y est de 17 mètres à l'entrée de la baie, et de 8 mètres à la verticale du pont Rio-Niterói. Du fait du rejet des eaux usées de l'agglomération de Rio de Janeiro directement dans la baie, se pose un problème de pollution révélé lors de la préparation des Jeux olympiques de 2016.


Outline of development.

The German Idealist philosopher Fichte had attempted to show that the whole structure of reality follows necessarily from the fact of self-consciousness. Schelling took Fichte's position as his starting-point, and in his earliest writings posited that nature must have reality for itself. In this light Fichte's doctrines appeared incomplete. On the one hand, they identified the ultimate ground of the universe of reason too closely with finite, individual Spirit. On the other, they threatened the reality of the world of nature by seeing it too much in the manner of subjective idealism. Fichte, in this view, had not managed to unite his system with the aesthetic view of nature to which Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Judgment" had pointed.  "Naturphilosophie" is therefore one possible theory of the unity of nature. Nature as the sum of what is objective, and intelligence as the complex of all the activities making up self-consciousness, appear as equally real. The philosophy of nature and transcendental idealism would be the two complementary portions making up philosophy as a whole.

German philosophy.

"Naturphilosophie" translated into English would mean just "philosophy of nature", and its scope began to be taken in a broad way. Johann Gottfried Herder, particularly taken in opposition to Immanuel Kant, was a precursor of Schelling:  Herder's dynamic view of nature was developed by Goethe and Schelling and led to the tradition of "Naturphilosophie"[...]  Later Friedrich Schlegel theorised about a particular German strand in philosophy of nature, citing Jakob Böhme, Johannes Kepler and Georg Ernst Stahl, with Jan Baptist van Helmont as an edge case. Frederick Beiser instead traces "Naturphilosophie" as developed by Schelling, Hegel, Schlegel and Novalis to a crux in the theory of matter, and identifies the origins of the line they took with the "vis viva" theory of matter in the work of Gottfried Leibniz.  Subsequently Schelling identified himself with Baruch de Spinoza, to whose thought he saw himself as approaching. The "Darstellung meines Systems", and the expanded treatment in the lectures on a "System der gesamten Philosophie und der Naturphilosophie insbesondere" given in Würzburg in 1804, contain elements of Spinoza's philosophy.

Schelling.

In a short space of time Schelling produced three works: "Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur als Einleitung in das Studium dieser Wissenschaft", 1797 ("Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature as Introduction to the Study of this Science"); "Von der Weltseele", 1798 ("On the World Soul"); and "Erster Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie", 1799 (First Plan of a System of the Philosophy of Nature). As criticism of scientific procedure, these writings retain a relevance. Historically, according to Richards:  Despite the tentativeness of their titles, these monographs introduced radical interpretations of nature that would reverberate through the sciences, and particularly the biology, of the next century. They developed the fundamental doctrines of "Naturphilosophie".  In "System des transzendentalen Idealismus", 1800 ("System of Transcendental Idealism") Schelling included ideas on matter and the organic in Part III. They form just part of a more ambitious work that takes up other themes, in particular aesthetics. From this point onwards "Naturphilosophie" was less of a research concern for him, as he reformulated his philosophy. However, it remained an influential aspect of his teaching. For a short while, he edited a journal, the "Neue Zeitschrift für speculative Physik" (bound volume 1802).  Schelling's "Naturphilosophie" was a way in which he worked himself out of the tutelage of Fichte, with whom he quarrelled decisively towards the end of the 1790s. More than that, however, it brought him within the orbit of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, both intellectually and (as a direct consequence of Goethe's sympathetic attitude) by a relocation; and it broke with basic Kantian tenets. Grant writes:  Schelling's postkantian confrontation with nature itself begins with the overthrow of the Copernican revolution...  Schelling held that the divisions imposed on nature, by our ordinary perception and thought, do not have absolute validity. They should be interpreted as the outcome of the single formative energy which is the soul or inner aspect of nature. In other words he was a proponent of a variety of organicism. The dynamic series of stages in nature, the forms in which the ideal structure of nature is realized, are matter, as the equilibrium of the fundamental expansive and contractive forces; light, with its subordinate processes (magnetism, electricity, and chemical action); organism, with its component phases of reproduction, irritability and sensibility. The continual change presented to us by experience, taken together with the thought of unity in productive force of nature, leads to the conception of the duality through which nature expresses itself in its varied products.  In the introduction to the "Ideen" he argues against dogmatism, in the terms that a dogmatist cannot explain the organic; and that recourse to the idea of a cosmic creator is a feature of dogmatic systems imposed by the need to explain nature as purposive and unified. Fichte's system, called the "Wissenschaftslehre", had begun with a fundamental distinction between dogmatism (fatalistic) and criticism (free), as his formulation of idealism.  Beiser divides up the mature form of Schelling's "Naturphilosophie" into the attitudes of transcendental realism (the thesis that "nature exists independent of all consciousness, even that of the transcendental subject") and transcendental naturalism (the thesis that "everything is explicable according to the laws of nature, including the rationality of the transcendental subject"). He notes how "Naturphilosophie" was first a counterbalance to "Wissenschaftslehre", and then in Schelling's approach became the senior partner. After that, it was hardly to be avoided that Schelling would become an opponent of Fichte, having been a close follower in the early 1790s.  We are able to apprehend and represent nature to ourselves in the successive forms which its development assumes, since it is the same spirit of which we become aware in self-consciousness, though here unconsciously. The variety of its forms is not imposed on it externally, since there is no external teleology in nature. Nature is a self-forming whole, within which only natural explanations can be sought. The function of "Naturphilosophie" is to exhibit the ideal as springing from the real, not to deduce the real from the ideal.

Influence and critics of "Naturphilosophie".

Criticism of "Naturphilosophie" has been widespread, over two centuries. Schelling's theories, however influential in terms of the general culture of the time, have not survived in scientific terms. Like other strands of speculation in the life sciences, in particular, such as vitalism, they retreated in the face of experiment, and then were written out of the history of science as Whig history. But critics were initially not scientists (a term not used until later); rather they came largely from within philosophy and Romantic science, a community including many physicians. Typically, the retrospective views of scientists of the 19th century on "Romantic science" in general erased distinctions:  Scientific criticism in the nineteenth century took hardly any notice of the distinctions between Romantic, speculative and transcendental, scientific and aesthetic directions.  One outspoken critic was the chemist Justus von Liebig, who compared "Naturphilosophie" with the Black Death. Another critic, the physiologist Emil du Bois-Reymond, frequently dismissed "Naturphilosophie" as "bogus".

Role in aesthetics.

Isaiah Berlin summed up the reasons why "Naturphilosophie" had a wide-ranging impact on views of art and artists:  if everything in nature is living, and if we ourselves are simply its most self-conscious representatives, the function of the artist is to delve within himself, and above all to delve within the dark and unconscious forces which move within him, and to bring these to consciousness by the most agonising and violent internal struggle.

Philosophical criticism.

Fichte was very critical of the opposition set up in Schelling's "Naturphilosophie" to his own conception of "Wissenschaftslehre". In that debate, Hegel then intervened, largely supporting his student friend Schelling, with the work usually called his "Differenzschrift", the "Differenz des Fichteschen und Schellingschen Systems der Philosophie" (The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's System of Philosophy); a key publication in his own philosophical development, his first book, it was published in September 1801.  Schelling's Absolute was left with no other function than that of removing all the differences which give form to thought. The criticisms of Fichte, and more particularly of Hegel (in the Preface to the "Phenomenology of Spirit"), pointed to a defect in the conception of the Absolute as mere featureless identity. It was ridiculed by Hegel as "the night in which all cows are black."

Other views in Romantic science.

Ignaz Paul Vitalis Troxler, a follower of Schelling, later broke with him. He came to the view that the Absolute in nature and mind is beyond the intellect and reason.

Naturphilosophie (German for "nature-philosophy") is a term used in English-language philosophy to identify a current in the philosophical tradition of German idealism, as applied to the study of nature in the earlier 19th century. German speakers use the clearer term "Romantische Naturphilosophie", the philosophy of nature developed at the time of the founding of German Romanticism. It is particularly associated with the philosophical work of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel—though it has some clear precursors also. More particularly it is identified with some of the initial works of Schelling during the period 1797–9, in reaction to the views of Fichte, and subsequent developments from Schelling's position. Always controversial, some of Schelling's ideas in this direction are still considered of philosophical interest, even if the subsequent development of experimental natural science had a destructive impact on the credibility of the theories of his followers in "Naturphilosophie".

La Naturphilosophie (« philosophie de la nature ») désigne un courant de pensée, essentiellement allemand... Ce courant, dominé par la figure scientifique et philosophique de Schelling, apparaît en Allemagne dans la seconde moitié du, et se propage ensuite dans le reste de l'Europe, où il reste cependant discret. Ancré dans le contexte du romantisme et de l'idéalisme allemand, il vise à rendre compte de l'intégralité des phénomènes de toute nature, matériels et spirituels, avec l'ambition de dévoiler l'être total de la nature par la remise en cause de la frontière rigide entre la nature et l'esprit. Il s'appuie sur une vision organique et dynamique du monde, se présentant ainsi comme une alternative à la vision atomiste et mécaniste de la science moderne. Selon Antoine Faivre,.


Gentrification and resistance.

During recent years, Oltrarno has undergone massive changes due to the arrival of richer social classes - often short term residents - but especially due to the tourist and entertainment industry, which also seeks customers from other areas of Florence. In November 2011, the urban restoration office of the Municipality of Florence set up a project, not yet put into practice, to turn the former Gasometer - just a few hundred feet from the Oltrarno - into a major private health and beauty spa and restaurant centre, a magnet for the whole city and for tourists.  A few months later, the shopkeepers association Confesercenti launched an initiative called Progetto Oltrarno, in order to open up Oltrarno to mass tourism, like other parts of the town. In autumn 2012, the district, which has almost no parks, lost the Nidiaci garden and playroom. Formerly the study of the sculptor Emilio Santarelli, in 1923, the Nidiaci was turned into an area for the children of San Frediano and later became the "symbol of social Catholicism in Florence", attended by the pupils and friends of Giorgio La Pira, Fioretta Mazzei and father Danilo Cubattoli ("don Cuba").  The building and a large part of the garden were sold off at an auction to a real estate company which raised a wooden wall to close the inhabitants out, causing demonstrations in the neighbourhood.  What is left of the Nidiaci garden is currently kept open on a volunteer basis by an association of parents and residents.  In May 2012, the company Firenze Parcheggi submitted a feasibility project for building an underground parking lot in the historic Piazza del Carmine, which would replace the 247 places currently available to residents with 201 places (65 to be sold to residents, the rest open to all on a quick turnover basis). The promoters claimed the project was aimed at freeing the surface of the square from cars, but residents saw it as an attempt to drive them out, accompanied as it was by the simultaneous selling off and closure of local health units in Oltrarno, and as a threat to the architectural and hydrogeological stability of monuments of primary importance.  This led to the birth of the "NoScav" ("No Digging") movement, with its typical banners, hung by residents from their windows, depicting a stylized Carmine church and recalling the "NoTav" struggle against a high speed train system elsewhere.  The movement in the Oltrarno gathered around the already existing Comitato Oltrarnofuturo, which united protest against the underground parking lot, the Nidiaci issue, the closure of local health units, the issue of three buildings put up in Via della Chiesa by a construction company which blocked out the view of the back of the Carmine church, the reduction of hours in the schools and the traffic of heavy tourist buses along the narrow Via de' Serragli and Via Romana.  Due to strong resistance by the district, the underground parking lot plan was temporarily suspended by the Municipality, though mayor Matteo Renzi declared himself in favour of the project giving rise to accusations of conflict of interest, since the managing director of Firenze Parcheggi, Marco Carrai, was one of Renzi's main sponsors in the centre-left primary elections in 2012.

The Oltrarno is a quarter of Florence, Italy. The name means "beyond the Arno" (compare to the Roman quarter of Trastevere); it is located south of the River Arno. It contains part of the historic centre of Florence and many notable sites such as the church Santo Spirito di Firenze, Palazzo Pitti, Belvedere, and Piazzale Michelangelo.

L'Oltrarno est la rive gauche de l'Arno qui passe à Florence (c'est-à-dire « outre-Arno » par rapport au Lungarno, qui est constitué de l'ensemble des quartiers bordant le fleuve sur l'autre rive) et son quartier se nomme en florentin le "Diladdarno".