Position.

It comprises five blocks of Municipality Stari Grad, between the Kralja Petra, Gospodar Jovanova, Kapetan Misina, Simina, Kneginje Ljubice, Brace Jugovića, Studentski Trg and Zmaja od Nocaja Streets. In this area protected by Law, first regulation directions and objects of great urban, architectonic and cultural-historical value have been saved until nowadays. Foundation and activities of some of the most important institutions in Serbia during the time of the First Serbian Uprising, Council during the Uprising, as well as the first insurrection government and The Great School, and the first Higher education institution are closely connected to some of them. Names of the eminent persons from Serbian history and culture, educator Dositej Obradović and Vuk Karadžić are brought into relation with theses objects. Stojan Čupić ("Zmaja od Nocaja"), Filip Višnjić, Ivan Jugović, Jevrem and Jovan Obrenović, Sima Nešić and Miša Anastasijević are some of the names of important persons from wars of liberation of Serbian people, to whom the streets refer to with their names, and initial communication inherited from directions of their stretching.  Area around Dositej’s Lyceum has been proclaimed as the 1st category cultural property. Beside these five blocks two more blocks between the Zmaja od Noćaja, Cara Uroša, Gospodar Jovanova and Kralja Petra Streets are proclaimed as a cultural property in 1999 and they all form protected surrounding of cultural-historical complex "Area around Dositej’s Lyceum".  Below one part of Belgrade’s central area, as well as under this city complex, an archaeological locality of Roman culture, civilian settling and necropolis "Antic Singidunum" is situated. It was formed during the period from the 2nd to the 4th century and it also represents a cultural property since 1964.  Architectural content of this area is characterized by variety in style and height, difference and contrast. Examples of Islamic architecture, Oriental-Balkan, to the ones of transitive Balkan to European architecture and monumental houses in Neoclassicism (academism), Romanticism, Modernism between the two World War and objects of modern architecture have been preserved. Rare ground-storey and onestorey houses depict the former ambient of the old town of Belgrade, while numerous academic and modernistic mainly four-storey buildings indicate the notable development of Belgrade between the two World War. Less numerous multistorey constructions, built from the seventh and eighth decade of the 20th century until the beginning of the 21st century, are in strong style and height contrast compared to the earliest built ground-storey houses. Certain objects from this cultural-historical area and its protected surrounding, due to their great importance, have been proclaimed as individual cultural monuments. Most of them are situated along Gospodar Jeveremova Street, which has kept its route as one of the more important roads from Antiques and Middle Ages.

Single monuments.

Bajrakli Mosque.

Bajrkali mosque, 11, Gospodar Jevremova Street, was built during the period from 1660 to 1688, as a foundation of Suleiman II. It represents the only saved building of Turkish religious architecture in Belgrade. Its name originates from the eighth decade of the 18th century, when a flag was raised to mark the beginning of a prayer in all town churches. During Austrian reign from 1717 to 1739 it was turned into the Catholic Church and when Turks returned it was restored as a mosque. Interior decoration is very modest. Openings on the edifice end with characteristic broken arches.

The Great School of Ivan Jugović.

In the original building of The Great School in the courtyard house of 22, Gospodar Jevremova Street, which has been built in the second half of the 18th century, The Great School, first Higher educational institution in Serbia was opened in 1808, with a solemn speech of Dositej Obradović. Its founder and first professor was Ivan Jugović, writer and secretary of the Council during the Uprising, a diplomat during the Uprising and Minister of education after Dositej Obradović. The Street Building has been built in 1862 and it is connected to the history of conflicts between Serbs and Turks.  Dositej’s Lyceum, 21, Gospodar Jevermova Street, built between 1739 and 1789 is one of the oldest living intended buildings in Belgrade. It is situated in the middle of this historic-cultural area, which was named after it. The edifice retained the characteristics of the Oriental-Balkan architecture, with baywindows on upper storey and a specific treatment of facades. It was built in timber (bondruk) construction with brick placed between with lime mortar and covered with tiles. A side room with a fireplace has been added to it at the beginning of the 19th century. House surrounded by a builtfence faithfully depicts the atmosphere of those times and a high social status of the owner. It represents the highest degree of the construction culture among the wealthier class of Turkish citizens after ending of the Ottoman–Habsburg wars and before armoured uprisings of Serbian people. Great School of Professor Ivan Jugović continued with its work in this building from 1809 to 1813. Now it is the place of Museum of Vuk and Dositej

The Božić House.

The Božić House, 19, Gospodar Jevremova Street, from the end of the 18th century represents a significant object of the Oriental-Balkan architecture formed in reconstruction in 1836. It served as a house of Mr. Miloje G. Božić, who was a merchant and business cooperate of Miloš Obrenović, who attended the Great School. The house has a covered entrance (portico) and at the opposite side, in the back of the house, a characteristic outer niche. From the third decade of the 20th century the House served as an apartment and an atelier of sculptor Toma Rosandic. Later on it was called "The Artists’ house" as few of the famous artists worked and lived there.

Turbeh of Sheikh Mustafa.

Turbeh of Sheikh Mustafa, 1st Visnjiceva Street, from 1793, and basement walls of the neighbour building are the only remains of fenced complex of Islamic monastery of dervish order Hajji Sheikh Muhammad from the middle of the 17th century. In this ground-storey house, which was torn down in 1892, between 1808 and 1813 the first Government of Uprising, Praviteljstvujusci Sovjet srpski, had their meeting and for a short period of time, Dositej Obradović, great Serbian writer and educator, member of the Government, lived in it. Tomb of Sheikh Mustafa from dervish order, was situated in turbeh and later on two more leaders of the order were buried there.

House of Sculptor Dragomir Arambašić.

House of sculptor Dragomir Arambašić, in the backyard of 20, Gospodar Jevremova Street, was built during 1906, according to the design of eminent architect Branko Tanazević. It was constructed in manner of an academism, with elements of secession in decoration and treatment of facades. It is situated in immediate vicinity to the before mentioned oldest objects from complex and presents modern architecture from the beginning of the 20th Century and continuity of development of Belgrade architecture and its transformation from Oriental-Balkan to European town in the centre core of the historic cultural area. Nowadays, the house is used as a part of children’s nursery "Leptirić"  Ground storey houses in 24, Gospodar Jeremova Street, 2, 2a and 26 Visnjiceva and 1, 3, 5 and 7 Simina Street even though built during different periods have in common the value of preservation of the atmosphere of old Belgrade and connection of all construction types of this historic-cultural area. Some structures that no longer exist are: Kizlar-aga mosque once stood (the building of Turkish police) at 12, Braće Jugovića Street, from the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, house of Uzun Mirko Apostolović, below Tekija in Visnjiceva Street, from the 19th century, mosque of Hadzi Mustafa Cebedzija, 31, Gospodar Jevremova Street, from the 16th century, house in 1, Kosacina Street, Hadzi Ridzalov Konak from the end of the 18th century, at 15 Gospodar Jevremova Street, where later during the 19th century a big ground storey building was built, where city police, i.e. The Management of Belgrade and a well known prison Glavnjača was situated. The Building was located at the place of today’s Faculty of mathematics. Due to great importance, architectonic-urbanistic qualities and age of foundation the saved objects from this complex are considered to be some of the most valuable monuments of Belgrade and Serbia.  Among others, within this complex, the Building of Gallery of Frescos, Jewish historic museum, Elementary school " Mika Petrović Alas" and hotel "Royal".

Cultural-historical complex Area around Dositej’s Lyceum is one of the oldest and most important city parts in Belgrade, which centre formed at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century.

Le quartier du lycée de Dositej (en serbe cyrillique : ; en serbe latin : ), est un quartier de Belgrade, la capitale de la Serbie. Il est situé dans la municipalité de Stari grad. En raison de sa valeur architecturale, notamment des constructions datant des, l'ensemble est inscrit sur la liste des entités spatiales historico-culturelles d'importance exceptionnelle de la République de Serbie (identifiant PKIC 18) et sur la liste des biens culturels de la Ville de Belgrade.


Orbit and classification.

"Palamedes" is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of the Gas Giant's orbit in a 1:1 resonance "(see Trojans in astronomy)". It is also a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population.  It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.7–5.5 AU once every 11 years and 7 months (4,244 days; semi-major axis of 5.13 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 14° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery taken at Palomar Observatory in February 1953, nearly 13 years prior to its official discovery observation at Nanking.

Naming.

This minor planet was named from Greek mythology after Palamedes, the most intelligent of all the Greek commanders of the Trojan War. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 28 January 1983 ().

Physical characteristics.

"Palamedes" is an assumed carbonaceous C-type asteroid. It has an average V–I color index of, typically associated with D-type asteroid "(also see table below)".

Rotation period.

In August 1995, a rotational lightcurve of "Palamedes" was obtained from photometric observations by Stefano Mottola and Hans-Josef Schober using the now decommissioned Bochum 0.61-metre Telescope at ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of 0.05 magnitude ().  A more refined period of hours with an amplitude of 0.27 magnitude was obtained by Robert Stephens at the Goat Mountain Astronomical Research Station in October 2009 ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Palamedes" measures between 65.92 and 99.60 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.026 and 0.071. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.0399 and a diameter of 91.83 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 9.3.

2456 Palamedes is a large Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 30 January 1966, by astronomers at the Purple Mountain Observatory in Nanking, China. The assumed C-type asteroid has a rotation period of 7.24 hours and belongs to the 50 largest Jupiter trojans. It was named after Palamedes from Greek mythology.

(2456) Palamède (officiellement "(2456) Palamedes") est un astéroïde troyen. Il a été découvert le à l'observatoire de la Montagne Pourpre.


Early years.

Jones played football for East Lansing High School from 2000-2003. As a senior captain and team MVP, Jones was a First-team All-State selection and All-state Dream Team performer by the Detroit Free Press, when the Lansing State Journal also named him the Defensive Player of the Year. During his senior and junior years he earned First-team All-Conference (Capitol Area Athletic Conference), All-area and All-area Dream Team honors by the Lansing State Journal. The Detroit Free Press made him an All-State special mention honoree his junior year, as he also earned a spot on the First-team All-conference when he was a sophomore.  As a senior, he recorded 117 total tackles (79 solo), 18 tackles for loss, 11 sacks, two fumble recoveries (including one for a 70-yard touchdown), five forced fumbles, four interceptions (with one going for a 30-yard touchdown), 15 quarterback hurries and six pass deflections. On offense, where he also started at tight end, he reeled in 27 passes and five touchdowns for 501 yards. As a junior and dual starter once again, he compiled 110 total tackles (62 solo), 11 stuffs for loss, five sacks, four fumble recoveries, two forced fumbles, two interceptions, five quarterback pressures, three pass breakups and one blocked field goal. He also caught 12 balls and one touchdown totaling 280 yards. During his sophomore season, he finished with 99 total stops (42 solo), six tackles for loss, two sacks, one recovered fumble, one interception, three quarterback hurries and one pass deflection, while also netting one reception for 30 yards. East Lansing was the 9-2 conference champs his senior year, 6-4 his junior season and 13-1 his sophomore year, losing in the second round of the state playoffs.  In addition to football, he lettered four years in track & field, where he competed in the 200-meter dash (21.7 career-best) and the 110m hurdles (14.32 career-best), earning All-area and All-regional runner-up honors as a junior. He also played basketball as a freshman and sophomore.

College career.

In 2008 Jones started all 12 games at outside linebacker, earning honorable mention All-Big 12; He was CU’s co-defensive player of the year, as selected by the coaches (Dave Jones Award). He racked up 78 tackles, of which 48 were solo and 14 for losses, including seven sacks. He also led the team in quarterback hurries with 14 and also forced two fumbles, had a pass breakup and three chasedowns (near sacks). In 2007, he started all 13 games including the Independence Bowl at the “sam” outside linebacker position, and posted 72 tackles on the year (45 solo), with six for losses including a pair of quarterback sacks. He also had nine third down stops, seven hurries, five tackles for zero and three passes broken up. In 2006, he played in all 12 games, starting 11 and he finished third on the team in tackles with 72 (41 solo). Though he had a season-low two stops at Kansas, he did make his first career interception against the Jayhawks. He had six third down stops on the season, and he was credited with half a quarterback sack against Iowa State, the first of his career. He also had two hurries and a pass broken up. In 2005, he played in all 13 games, including the Champs Sports Bowl (no starts), making 20 tackles on the year, including 16 solo and one for a loss, to go with two third down stops, a quarterback hurry and pass broken up. In 2004, he redshirted.

Professional career.

Green Bay Packers.

He was drafted by the Packers in the seventh round of the 2009 NFL Draft, and moved into a starting role during the 2009 season after a season-ending injury to Linebacker/Defensive End Aaron Kampman. Although taken in a lower round and didn't have many of the qualities expected for an NFL linebacker, Jones surprised many with a high degree of productive quality, producing four sacks and holding his own for the remainder of the season. His work ethic and moral standards are also thought very highly of with the Packers' coaching staff.  Jones became the permanent starting outside linebacker when Aaron Kampman signed on with the Jacksonville Jaguars during the 2010 offseason. He remained the starter at outside right linebacker before he suffered a shoulder injury in a game against division rival Minnesota Vikings. He was placed on injured reserve three days later.  In the January 1, 2012, regular season finale versus the Detroit Lions, Jones tackled very roughly a 15-year-old boy who had run onto the field.  Following the 2011-2012 season, the Packers moved Jones to inside linebacker, where he earned a roster spot as mainly a special teams player. Following season ending injuries to Desmond Bishop and D.J. Smith, Jones started every game from week 6 on, including the playoffs, he went on to have his best season as a pro, recording 77 tackles, 2 sacks, 4 passes defensed and one forced fumble. After The 2012-2013, The Packers re-signed Jones to a 3 year $11.25 million dollar contract extension, and released Desmond Bishop, which put Jones and A. J. Hawk atop the depth-chart for the Packers at middle linebacker for the 2013-2014 season. On February 20, 2015, he was released by the Packers.

Philadelphia Eagles.

On March 2, 2015, Jones signed a two-year contract with the Philadelphia Eagles. On November 11, 2015, Jones was cut from his contract with the Eagles.

Personal life.

Jones is a member of Omega Psi Phi fraternity.

Bradley Edward Jones (born April 1, 1986) is a former American football linebacker. He was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the seventh round of the 2009 NFL Draft, and played college football at Colorado. With the Packers, he was part of their Super Bowl XLV team that beat the Pittsburgh Steelers.

Bradley Edward Jones (né le à Lansing) est un joueur américain de football américain. Il joue actuellement avec les Packers de Green Bay.


Potentiometry.

Potentiometry passively measures the potential of a solution between two electrodes, affecting the solution very little in the process. One electrode is called the reference electrode and has a constant potential, while the other one is an indicator electrode whose potential changes with the composition of the sample. Therefore, the difference of potential between the two electrodes gives an assessment of the composition of the sample. In fact, since potentiometric measurement is a non-destructive measurement, assuming that the electrode is in equilibrium with the solution we are measuring the potential of the solution. Potentiometry usually uses indicator electrodes made "selectively" sensitive to the ion of interest, such as fluoride in fluoride selective electrodes, so that the potential solely depends on the activity of this ion of interest. The time that takes the electrode to establish equilibrium with the solution will affect the sensitivity or accuracy of the measurement. In aquatic environments, platinum is often used due to its high electron transfer kinetics, although an electrode made from several metals can be used in order to enhance the electron transfer kinetics. The most common potentiometric electrode is by far the glass-membrane electrode used in a pH meter.  A variant of potentiometry is chronopotentiometry which consists in using a constant current and measurement of potential as a function of time. It has been initiated by Weber.

Coulometry.

Coulometry uses applied current or potential to completely convert an analyte from one oxidation state to another. In these experiments, the total current passed is measured directly or indirectly to determine the number of electrons passed. Knowing the number of electrons passed can indicate the concentration of the analyte or, when the concentration is known, the number of electrons transferred in the redox reaction. Common forms of coulometry include bulk electrolysis, also known as "Potentiostatic coulometry" or "controlled potential coulometry", as well as a variety of coulometric titrations.

Voltammetry.

Voltammetry applies a constant and/or varying potential at an electrode's surface and measures the resulting current with a three electrode system. This method can reveal the reduction potential of an analyte and its electrochemical reactivity. This method in practical terms is nondestructive since only a very small amount of the analyte is consumed at the two-dimensional surface of the working and auxiliary electrodes. In practice the analyte solutions is usually disposed of since it is difficult to separate the analyte from the bulk electrolyte and the experiment requires a small amount of analyte. A normal experiment may involve 1–10 mL solution with an analyte concentration between 1 and 10 mmol/L. Chemically modified electrodes are employed for analysis of organic and inorganic samples.

Polarography.

Polarography is a subclass of voltammetry that uses a dropping mercury electrode as the working electrode.

Amperometry.

Amperometry is the term indicating the whole of electrochemical techniques in which a current is measured as a function of an independent variable that is, typically, time or electrode potential. Chronoamperometry is the technique in which the current is measured, at a fixed potential, at different times since the start of polarisation. Chronoamperometry is typically carried out in unstirred solution and at fixed electrode, i.e., under experimental conditions avoiding convection as the mass transfer to the electrode. On the other hand, voltammetry is a subclass of amperometry, in which the current is measured by varying the potential applied to the electrode. According to the waveform that describes the way how the potential is varied as a function of time, the different voltammetric techniques are defined. Confusion arose recently about the correct use of many terms proper of electrochemistry/electroanalysis, often owing to the diffusion of electroanalytical techniques in fields where they constitute an instrument to use, not being the 'core business' of the study. Though electrochemists are pleased about this, they invite to use the terms properly, in order to avoid fatal misunderstandings.

Electroanalytical methods are a class of techniques in analytical chemistry which study an analyte by measuring the potential (volts) and/or current (amperes) in an electrochemical cell containing the analyte. These methods can be broken down into several categories depending on which aspects of the cell are controlled and which are measured. The three main categories are potentiometry (the difference in electrode potentials is measured), coulometry (the cell's current is measured over time), and voltammetry (the cell's current is measured while actively altering the cell's potential).

Les méthodes électroanalytiques sont une classe de techniques de chimie analytique qui caractérisent un analyte en utilisant de l’électricité, notamment par électrolyse. Ces méthodes sont utilisées pour réaliser des dosages chimiques (titrage pour déterminer le point d'équivalence) ou physico-chimiques.


Early life.

Amer was born in Cairo, Egypt she has lived in France for twenty years, and doesn't consider herself singularly Egyptian, African or French. When she was growing up in Cairo, her mother, an agronomist, made business suits for herself, and local women would often gather to sew. Amer's father, Mohamed Amer, was a diplomat and moved the family many times, not only to France but to such countries as Libya, Morocco and Algeria. For her, this exposure to different cultures are ultimately the most important biographical details needed to understand her art. Amer's art practice began in a fascination with sentimental, romantic postcards and illustrations. Her favored theme remains idyllic images of women in love. After having total art freedom in Egypt, Amer decided to become an artist after experiencing what it is like to have your art controlled. ‘We had to learn perspective, representation, and it was completely controlled,’ Ghada stated in an interview.

Education.

Amer studied at the Villa Arson École Nationale Supérieure d’Art in Nice, France where she received her B.F.A. degree in painting in 1986. In 1989, she received her M.F.A. degree from the same institution. While receiving her degrees, Amer had the opportunity to study abroad at the School of the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, MA in 1987. She also studied at Institut des hautes études en arts plastiques for some time as well. In 1995, she moved to the United States. As a student in the BFA and MFA programs, she was informed that her art school's painting classes were reserved for male students, at which point she became committed to finding her own feminine artistic language with which to speak about women, as a woman. “It was then that, suddenly, I realized I was a woman. I decided to speak about this – and to make painting at the same time. This is what I’m doing. It’s painting with the conscience that I’m a woman.’ Innovative and provocative, she used sewing and embroidery—skills learned from her mother and grandmother and typically associated as "women's work"—as a medium for celebrating and asserting women into the art world. Amer's approach to mediums and subjects from an emphatically female perspective manifest itself throughout her career.

Work.

A multimedia artist, Amer is known for her abstract canvases that combine painting with needlework. Her work frequently addresses issues of femininity, sexuality, postcolonial identities, and Islamic culture. She is most famous for her large-scale paintings wherein embroidered images of women in autoerotic poses (traced from porn magazines) are layered over abstract monochromatic drips and washes of acrylic paint.  She specifically looks for women who are posing erotically and/or involved in explicit pornographic acts. Once she makes her selection, she traces the women onto Vellum paper with pencil for future use, when she eventually transfers them onto a canvas or uses them as source material for works on paper. Her most prominent and signature formal style is Embroidery, a medium taken up by feminist artist since the 1970s as a political tool. Her work is feminist, subverting the traditionally masculine genre of painting, and its rejection of the norms of female sexuality. Her oeuvre includes examples of painting, drawing, sculpture, performance, and installation. When Amer returned to France from Boston, she became fascinated with Rosemarie Trockel. “She had successfully invented a language for women using knitting, and I liked her use of commercial and political symbols, as well.” Amer's multiple geographic relocations are reflected in her work. Her painting is influenced by the idea of shifting meanings and the appropriation of the languages of abstraction and expressionism. Her work adopts "politically incorrect" imagery for subversive purposes.  Embroidery Paintings  In 1991, Amer's "Cinq Femmes Au Travail" embroidery stitching techniques to show women performing tasks that had been advertised for women in magazines—childcare, house cleaning, and cooking. The quadriptych is constructed as neatly stitched line drawings on unprimed canvases. This was a turning point for Amer because by using embroidery and gel on canvas as her medium, she was developing her own feminine language of painting. "Cinq Femmes Au Travail" begins a series of narrative works that present women performing daily chores or quotidian activities, demonstrating Amer's continued interest in the themes of “bored women” as she characterizes it. In 1993, Amer's interest in the subject of women in domestic imagery ended abruptly. A year later, she began to depict pornographic subject matter, images of naked women in ecstasy or with other women to overthrow ideas of exploitation and objectification that have long been associated with these images. “Sexuality has always been on my mind because one should not forget that I come from a society where sexuality is completely taboo and never mentioned. And since everything forbidden is always desired, I have always been attracted to this notion. Therefore, talking about love in my art implied a very sexual aspect.” In 2000, she continued her work extracting images of women from magazines such as "Hustler" and "Club." In works such as "Coleurs Noires" and "The Slightly Smaller Colored Square Painting" she traced and stitched serially masturbating or bound figures and partially covered the erotic images behind tangled threads and gel medium. She explained that "pornography is the starting point of the image, then it becomes something else." Her radical re-imagination of pornography, which comes from a tradition of being made by men for men, show s erotic female desires and fantasies. A second-order transformation in Amer's work, which might be linked with her early interest in the politics and aesthetics of the written and printed text, began with sculptural objects and installations covered with repetitive embroidered texts.  Sculpture  Although best known for her embroidered canvases, Amer also works with printing, drawing, sculpture and installation. For example, in 2001, Ghada Amer created "Encyclopedia of Pleasure", a sculptural installation that features fifty-four boxes, covered in canvas, and embroidered with texts about female beauty and sexuality. The installation shares a name with a twelfth-century Arabic text by Ali Ibn Nasr Al Katib, a literary and medical manual that catalogues sexual pleasure for both men and women that was produced during a progressive period of Islamic culture, but the Encyclopedia of Pleasure is forbidden today. To make the work, Amer selected passages of the text that talk about female sexuality and beauty. She then embroidered a gold thread on fifty-four stacked canvas-covered boxes. Another example of her sculpture is "100 Words of Love". It is a globular, openwork sculpture the structure of which consists of a web of flat, linear, flowing elements that are, in fact, one hundred different words for love in the Arabic language, written also in the Arabic script. It is perhaps appropriate, given that Amer is still at an early stage of exploring the possibilities of her new sculptural language, that 100 Words of Love, Baiser #1 and Baiser #2, and Blue Bra Girls propose different ways in which the manipulation of line, shape, and color can yield an infinite range of compositional and design effects, even within the limitation of globular form. Following well-established feminist art practices of the 1970s, she translated this quintessentially women's craft into an elite art form that often shares, within the compositional space of the canvas, a fraught optical neighborliness with abstract painterly gestures. The facture and medium of her new sculpture demands a different perspective on this subject, precisely because the casting technique it requires is a traditionally male craft. To be sure, her use of resin, stainless steel, and bronze casting to make these sculptures does not suggest the kind of dramatic intervention in the gendering of the arts that her abstract expressionist gestures did in her canvases a decade ago.  Installations  She has created public works such as "Love Park" (1999) in Santa Fe, New Mexico. It is one of her garden projects, a series of outdoor installations she began as an attempt to translate her idea of “women’s work” from embroidery on canvas to an outdoor, sculptural equivalent. For example, "Women’s Qualities" consists of floral inscriptions in eight flowerbeds on the grounds of the Metropolitan Art Museum. Amer asked people passing by the museum what qualities they would attribute to women. Words like “docile,” “sweet,” “long-lashed,” and “virgin” were a few of the most common adjectives used to describe “women’s qualities.” Following the events of September 11, 2001, Amer's work began to explore the charged topic of Islamic terrorism. "Language of Terror" (2005) consisted of a bright pink wallpaper adorned with gold crowns and a lattice pattern into which she inscribed numerous definitions of the word terrorism. In the Arabic language, there is no definition of terrorism. She made plates, cups, napkins, and tray liners with the phrase "Terrorism is not indexed in Arabic dictionaries." "La Salon Courbé" (2007) dealt with similar controversial topics. She installed an elaborately decorated drawing room typically found in elegant homes across Egypt. However, the domestic scene was not as inviting as it seemed. The pattern of the carpet was inscribed with the only Arabic meaning of the word terrorism that Amer could find. Amer's adoption of naked or semi-naked female figures as a recurring pictorial element in her work assumes an ideological and political dimension that is anything but discreet or ambiguous.  Over her career spanning more than twenty years, Amer's work as addressed the subject of women and stereotypes associated with women, as well as the American-Muslim identity. Despite the differences between her Islamic upbringing and Western models of behavior, Amer's work addresses universal problems, such as the oppression of women, which are prevalent in many cultures. “ I was in Cairo in the midst of August [1988] and I was downtown with my mother when I saw a magazine called Venus. It attracted my attention because the cover read: "Special Edition for Veiled Women - month of August." The entire 1980s was a big draw back for women's rights in Egypt. Each summer I was there I witnessed the rising number of veiled women. Women in the street, then my relatives, my aunts, mother, cousins, friends, every women I know was choosing to return to the traditional veil. It was very upsetting,” Ghada states. Amer's work follows a long modernist tradition of critical practices against veiling, which, as Qassem Amin, Huda Sha'rawi, and Duriyah Shafiq argued decades before, represents a most visible symbol of the forces arrayed against women's emancipation. By encouraging women to use their bodies as vehicles of pleasure and instruments of power, Amer allies herself with a brand of gender politics whose very name remains hotly contested. Sometimes referred to as Third Wave Feminism or Postfeminism, or decried as no feminism at all, the wish to reclaim the sexuality of the female body for female pleasure has been gaining currency in Anglo-American gender criticism. Hoping to move past the aesthetic tradition (first identified by Laura Mulvey) in which men are the bearers of the erotic gaze and women merely its object, critics have sought to reintegrate sexuality into the female subject. In the 1990s, Johanna Drucker, Amelia Jones, and Mulvey herself, among others, sought new ways to think about visual pleasure without sacrificing female sexuality. Moving beyond voyeurism to embrace exhibitionism, Amer has said, "I think women like to show their bodies and men like to look at them. [In these works] there is an allusion to masturbation for women, to pleasure." The submission of women to the tyranny of domestic life, the celebration of female sexuality and pleasure, the incomprehensibility of love, the foolishness of war and violence, and an overall quest for formal beauty, constitute the territory that she explores and expresses in her art.

Solo Exhibitions.

Amer's work has been presented in numerous solo exhibitions at such venues as Cheim & Read, New York; Deitch Projects, New York; P.S.1 Contemporary Art Center, New York; the 2000 Gwangju Biennale, South Korea; SITE Santa Fe, New Mexico; the 1999 Venice Biennale; Gagosian Gallery, London; and Gagosian Gallery, Beverly Hills. She is the first Arab artist to have a one-person exhibition at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art. A detail of her work, "Knotty but Nice", was used on the cover of the September 2006 issue of "ARTnews" magazine, as part of a focus on erotic art. Some more of her solo exhibitions include the 1996 Hanes Art Center, UNC-Chapel Hill, 2001 "Ghada Amer: Pleasure", Contemporary Art Museum, Houston, the 2004 Valencia, Spain, and the 2007 "Ghada Amer and Reza Farkhondeh: Collaborative Drawings", Kukje Gallery in Seoul.

Group Exhibitions.

Her group work include New York; the 1997 Johannesburg Biennale, the 2000 Whitney Biennial, the 2006 "Without Boundary: Seventeen Ways of Looking", Museum of Modern Art, New York, the 2008 "Demons, Yarns and Tales: Tapestry by Contemporary Artists", The Dairy, London, the 2009 "Against Exclusion", 3rd Moscow Biennale.  In 2003, Amer's work was included in "Looking Both Ways: Art of the Contemporary African Diaspora" at The Museum for African Art in Queens. In early 2008, a retrospective of her work, curated by Maura Reilly, was exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, at the museum's Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art. In the same year, she was featured in Chiara Clemente's documentary "Our City Dreams". In 2014 and 2015, her work was included in the traveling exhibition "The Divine Comedy: Heaven, Purgatory and Hell Revisited by Contemporary African Artists" curated by Simon Njami.

Recognition and awards.

2009: Artist-in-Residence, Leroy Nieman Center for Print Studies, Columbia University, New York 2008 : Artist-in-Residence, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, Artist-in-Residence, Pace Prints Chelsea, New York 2007: Smithsonian Artist Research Fellowship Program, Washington, D.C., Artist-in-Residence, Singapore Tyler Print Institute, Singapore 2005: Artist-in-Residence, H&R Block Artspace at Kansas City Art Institute, Kansas City, Missouri 1999: Artist-in-Residence, School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, UNESCO Prize, 48th International Art Exhibition, La Biennale di Venezia, Venice, Italy 1997: Pollock-Krasner Foundation Grant, New York> 1996: Artist-in-Residence,University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill

Ghada Amer (, born 1963 in Cairo, Egypt) is a contemporary artist, much of her work deals with issues of gender and sexuality. Her most notable body of work involves highly layered embroidered paintings of women's bodies referencing pornographic imagery.

Ghada Amer, née le au Caire, est une artiste plasticienne égyptienne, peintre-brodeuse, et une figure féministe de l'art contemporain. Elle vit et travaille à New York.


List of Royal Canadian Air Force squadrons

Liste des unités de l'Aviation royale du Canada

Early squadrons.

These early squadron numbers have a history going back to the post-First World War Canadian Air Force which disbanded in 1920. These units were formed after the creation of the RCAF in 1924.

100-series squadrons.

Established in Canada in the 1930s most of these units were either disbanded or reassigned a 400 series number for overseas service.

400-series squadrons.

During the Second World War, the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) set out co-operation between the various British Commonwealth air forces. Under Article XV of the BCATP, RCAF squadrons were attached to and/or formed within British RAF operational formations. These squadrons were known as 'Article XV squadrons'. To avoid confusion with squadron numbers of other Commonwealth squadrons, RCAF units were assigned squadron numbers from 400-449. Not all squadrons up No. 449 were formed, however. This squadron series continued through the post-war years, and the majority of current Royal Canadian Air Force operational squadrons are still numbered in the 400s due to their legacy as wartime units. For this historical reason current squadrons are listed here with their original RCAF names.

600-series squadrons.

During the Second World War pilots who served in the 600-series RCAF squadrons were recruited from the Royal Canadian Artillery in England and Italy, and trained to fly at 22 E.F.T.S. Cambridge (England), completing their operational flying training at 43 O.T.U. (RAF Andover). Observers were trained at Larkhill (England); these were selected 'Other Ranks' from the Royal Canadian Air Force and Royal Canadian Artillery. The three Canadian 'Air Observation Post' squadrons operated under the command of 70 Group, RAF Fighter Command; the first two squadrons saw action while serving with 84 Group, Second Tactical Air Force.

Post-war squadrons.

Subsequent to the Second World War the RCAF expanded their squadron numbers to include 444-450. No. 450 was also a Royal Australian Air Force squadron during the war and the Canadian squadron duplicated the number by error, which was discovered when No. 450 Squadron RCAF was formed in 1968.

The Royal Canadian Air Force existed from 1924 to 1968, later designated "Canadian Forces Air Command" under the Canadian Forces, and then renamed to its original historic name of "Royal Canadian Air Force" in 2011. These are the squadrons that have served with Canada's air force since 1924.

Cette liste regroupe les unités de l'Aviation royale canadienne par escadre. Toutes les escadres relèvent de la Division aérienne du Canada.


His life and work.

According to Professor Herbert Novak, a longtime friend of Theodore Illion, the latter was born in Canada in a wealthy family descended from a branch of the British royalty, the Plantagenets. He is supposed to have left home at a very young age.  In the 1930s Theodore Illion published two travelogues :  The Hulton Archive at Gettyimages contains photos of the writer, taken in London in April 1934, before his planned departure for Tibet:  After World War II, the author wrote various articles and books on Tibetan medicine under the pseudonym of Theodor Burang or Theodor Nolling, notably : The first book was criticized for containing vague and superficial assertions that were not supported by genuine references or quotations. Similar criticism was levelled at the second book for containing unverifiable claims.  According to Herbert Novak, Illion was a member of the Club of Rome in the 1980s and 1990s. He was in touch with Italian tibetologist Giuseppe Tucci. Illion was an astute, friendly, helpful, and quite humorous character. He never married and was survived by no offspring. He is buried in the village of Kuchi, 20 km south of Salzburg. The local newspaper "Salzburger Nachrichten" published his obituary.

Reviews.

Laura Knight-Jadczyk, author of "The Secret History of the world", observes that Illion’s first two books were published during the period when Alexandra David-Néel, back in France from Tibet, wrote and lectured widely (i.e. from 1925 till 1937). She suggests that under the pseudonym of Illion may lie someone who studied the stories of the famous explorer. The same author finds the story of "Darkness Over Tibet" somewhat "artificial" despite the presence of some elements that strike her as being factual rather than made-up. In his book "Lost Cities of China, Central Asia, and India" (1998), David Hatcher Childress raises the possibility that "Darkness Over Tibet" is an alarmist novel under the guise of a travelogue.  Physician and bibliographer Jürgen C. Aschoff highly doubts that Theodore Illion ever went to Tibet or even approached the borders of Tibet. His books are, in his eyes, "truly science fiction, a figment of the imagination." He finds it incredible that Illion’s publications should still be read and cited in so many scientific articles and books on Tibetan medicine although the author never mentioned a single line of published reference or renowned Tibetan doctor in support of his more than vague assertions.

Theodore Illion or Theodor Illion (1898 in Canada (?) – September 4, 1984 in Hallein in the state of Salzburg), is a writer of travel books who claimed to have visited Tibet in the 1930s and discovered an underground city there. He published his Tibetan adventures under that name but later resorted to the pseudonyms Theodore Burang or Theodor Burang and more rarely Theodor Nolling to write various books and articles on Tibetan medicine.

Theodore Illion ou Theodor Illion, né en 1898 au Canada (?), mort le à Hallein dans le land de Salzbourg, est un auteur de livres de voyage qui prétendit être parti au Tibet et y avoir découvert une cité souterraine. Il publia ses aventures tibétaines sous ce nom, mais par la suite employa les pseudonymes Theodor Burang ou Theodore Burang et, plus rarement, Theodor Nolling pour écrire divers livres et articles sur la médecine tibétaine.


Championnat de Nouvelle-Zélande de football 1982

Promotion and relegation.

Promotion was automatic, with the three lowest placed sides in the 1981 league (Takapuna City, Woolston WMC, and Rangers) replaced by the winners of the northern, central, and southern leagues (East Coast Bays, Napier City Rovers, and Invercargill Thistle respectively).

Team performance.

The league's top five positions were filled by the same teams which had finished in the top five in the 1981 league, though those five teams finished in a different order. The league overall was marked by a high proportion of drawn games (39 out of 132 fixtures), and was severely disrupted by New Zealand's participation in the 1982 FIFA World Cup in Spain.  Mount Wellington comfortably finished top, remaining undefeated at home and only losing one away game. The Mount's Keith Nelson was the league's top scorer with 15 goals, the fourth time he had achieved that feat. Seven points back were Hanimex North Shore United, who had remarkably different home and away records. They won 10 of their 11 home games, but only won one on the road, drawing seven. Dunedin City held on to third place from Gisborne City. The Dunedinites' season was marked with a large number of low-scoring games, over half of their matches finishing either 1–0 or 1–1. As in the 1981 season, Gisborne were badly affected by the World Cup, which left it with a severe backlog of games. Despite this, they still managed to finish fourth.  1981 Champions Wellington Diamond United were let down by their poor away form. Only one away win meant they could finish no higher than fifth. The team lacked striking power which further hampered their chances. Miramar Rangers started the season slowly, but improved in form as the season progressed to finish two places higher than in their debut season of 1981. Christchurch United's season was marked by a plethora of draws. It managed to recover from the danger of relegation mid-season through a nine-match unbeaten run at the end of the campaign. Napier City Rovers' first match in the top flight saw them docked a point for fielding an unregistered player—the 1–1 result (against Manurewa) was subsequently amended to a 1–0 win to the Aucklanders. This was the first time such a point deduction had been made in the league's history. Despite this, Napier had a satisfactory debut season, only losing one home game and scoring more goals than several higher-finishing teams.  Manurewa was, like Gisborne, badly affected by the New Zealand World Cup campaign, and its backlog of matches left it struggling to avoid relegation. A run of four straight wins aided its cause, and even a late-season slump was not enough to see it go down. After several seasons in the lower reaches of the table, Hamilton's luck finally ran out and they were consigned to the drop along with league newcomers East Coast Bays and Invercargill Thistle. Bays' season started with five straight losses, and despite a brief rally after that they soon slipped back down with a run of poor results. The final position went to the league's southernmost ever participant. Thistle's season started and ended with good results, but between these was a dreadful succession of results gaining the club just six points in 19 fixtures.

The 1982 New Zealand National Soccer League was the 13th season of a nationwide round-robin club competition in New Zealand football. Mount Wellington comfortably won the league for a fifth time, finishing seven points clear of second-placed Hanimex North Shore United. This was the last season in which a win scored two points; from 1983 wins were worth three points.

La saison 1982 du Championnat de Nouvelle-Zélande de football est la du championnat de première division en Nouvelle-Zélande. La "NSL" (National Soccer League) regroupe douze clubs du pays au sein d'une poule unique, où ils s'affrontent deux fois au cours de la saison, à domicile et à l'extérieur. À la fin de la compétition, les trois derniers du classement sont relégués et remplacés par le champion de chacune des trois ligues régionales.


Biography.

Xue was born in either Suzhou or Jiaxing (contemporary sources disagree). According to the historian Qian Qianyi she spent at least some of her childhood in Beijing. She spent her professional life in the Qinhuai pleasure quarter of Nanjing in the 1580s, where she became something of a celebrity among the literati and government officials who frequented the "flower houses" there. She was highly selective in her clientele, accepting only learned and scholarly men as her lovers and declining to proffer her affections for mere financial gain; suitors might spend thousands of taels on her to no avail.  In the 1590s she returned to Beijing, where the parties and literary gatherings that she hosted, as well as her archery demonstrations, further cemented her reputation. Xue referred to herself as "a female knight-errant", and took her name from a famous woman warrior from history; she also chose the sobriquet Wulang 五郎 ("fifth young gentleman") as a nickname. The "female knight-errant" epithet was reiterated by both the bibliophile Hu Yinglin and Fan Yulin, Secretary to the Ministry of War. Apparently fond of martial causes, she was not above using her position to influence military affairs, on one occasion abandoning her lover Yuan Baode when he refused to fund an expedition against the Japanese in Korea.  At some point after 1605 her career as a courtesan came to an end when she married the playwright and bureaucrat Shen Defu. She was married several times (making many of the proposals herself) but none of these unions lasted. As well as Shen Defu, her husbands included General Li Hualong, art critic Li Rihua and, in later life, an unnamed (but wealthy) merchant from Suzhou. Although she wanted children, she was never able to have any.  In later life she converted to Buddhism and remained single thereafter, largely retiring from the world. Even in her eighties, however, she was still active in the literary world, entertaining female artists such as Huang Yuanjie and Yi Lin at her home on the West Lake after the collapse of the Ming Dynasty. With her Buddhist friend Yang Jiangzi (the sister of Xue's fellow courtesan Liu Yin), she made pilgrimages to sacred sites such as Mount Lu and Mount Emei. The date of her death is uncertain; some sources suggest that she may have lived into the 1650s whilst others put her death in the late 1630s or early 1640s. Qian Qianyi mentions her death in a work published in 1652, so it is evident that she must have died before this date.

Paintings.

Already an accomplished painter in her teenage years, Xue was well known for her artistic talent. Her work was considered similar to that of Chen Chun. One of her paintings was considered "the most accomplished work of its kind in the whole of the Ming period", and contemporary art critics regarded her as "a master of technique". Hu Yinglin considered her to be at the pinnacle of contemporary painting, asking, "What famous painter with skilled hands can surpass her?" and claiming that "... [she] surpasses anyone in the painting of bamboo and orchids." She was also keenly admired by eminent painter and art critic Dong Qichang, who was inspired to copy the entire Heart Sutra in response to Xue's painting of the bodhisattva Guanyin; he claimed that "None [of Xue Susu's works] lacks an intention and spirit that approaches the divine." Although she painted the standard subjects of landscapes, bamboo and blossoms (being particularly fond of orchids), Xue was noted for her work in figure painting, which was a comparatively unusual artistic topic for courtesans to address. Examples of her paintings are displayed at the Honolulu Museum of Art and the San Francisco Asian Art Museum.

Poetry.

Xue regularly accented her paintings with her own poems, and published two volumes of writing, only one of which is still extant. "Hua suo shi" ("Trifles about Flowers") is a collection of short prose essays and anecdotes about various flowers, whilst "Nan you cao" ("Notes from a Journey to the South"), which has been lost, apparently contained a selection of her poems regarding life as a courtesan. A number of these were collected in various anthologies from the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.  Hu Yinglin wrote that "Her poetry, although lacking in freedom, shows a talent rare among women." Moving in literary circles, Xue also provided the subject matter for many contemporary poets. Xu Yuan, another female poet of the period, describes Xue's allure: <poem> "Lotus blossoms as she moves her pair of arches" "Leaning coyly against the East Wind" </poem> Hu Yinglin wrote of Xue: <poem> "Who transplanted this flower of renowned species to the Imperial garden?" "She lives near the mooring like Taoye [Peach Leaf], under the wind" "The red phoenix is half-raised because of her mate" "This is the moment to read "Eternal Regret", the poem of Bo Juyi" </poem> Xue's own works deal with a variety of themes, from the mildy erotic: <poem> "Inside the city walls of stone in the pleasure quarter" "The river glitters, the waters clear, and the seagulls swim in pairs" "My embroidered dress partly borrows the hue of hibiscus" "If I did not reciprocate your feelings" </poem> to the romantic: <poem> "This lovely night I think of you, wondering whether you will return" "I clutch one lone pillow; there is nobody to talk to" </poem> to the whimsically philosophical: <poem> "Full of aroma is the taste of wine beneath the bloom" "In solitude I watch the seagulls fly across the sky" </poem> Xue often exchanged poems and paintings with her clientele, receiving their own artworks in exchange.

Archery.

Whilst she excelled at poetry, painting and embroidery, the skill that set Xue apart from other courtesans and created a cult of celebrity around her was her talent for archery. Her mastery of a traditionally masculine art gave her an air of androgyny that was considered highly attractive by the literati of the time. Having practiced in Beijing as a child she furthered her skills during a sojourn in the company of a military officer in the outlying regions of China. The horsemen of the local tribes there were impressed with her shooting, and she became something of a local celebrity. Later in life she gave public demonstrations in Hangzhou, which drew large audiences. Hu Yinglin describes one such performance: "She is able to shoot two balls from her crossbow one after another and make the second ball strike the first and break it in mid-air. Another trick she can do is to place a ball on the ground, and, by pulling the bow backwards with her left hand, while her right hand draws the bow from behind her back, hit it. Out of a hundred shots, she does not miss a single one. The poet Lu Bi recalls another trick shot performed by Xue: "When the servant girl takes a ball in her hand and places it on top of her head / She [Xue] turns around, hits it with another ball, and both balls fall to the ground."

Xue Susu (; also known as Xue Wu, Xuesu, Sunjung among other pen names) (1564–1650? C.E.) was a Chinese courtesan. Known as one of the "Eight Great Courtesans of the Ming Dynasty", she was an accomplished painter and poet, and was noted for her skill at mounted archery. She was particularly noted for her figure paintings, which included many Buddhist subjects. Her works are held in a number of museums both in China and elsewhere. Her archery was commented upon by a number of contemporary writers, as were her masculine, martial tendencies; these were regarded as an attractive feature by the literati of the period.

Xue Susu ou Hsüeh Su-Su, Slue Sou-Sou, Hsüeh Wu, Siue Wou, surnoms: Runqing et Suquing, nom de pinceau: Runniang, née vers 1564, originaire de Suzhou, province de Jiangsu, morte vers 1637.. Chinoise. Peintre.


Uses.

Affinity chromatography can be used to purify and concentrate a substance from a mixture into a buffering solution, reduce the amount of unwanted substances in a mixture, identify the biological compounds binding to a particular substance, purify and concentrate an enzyme solution. The molecule of interest can be immobilized through covalent bonds. This occurs through an insoluble matrix such as chromatographic medium like cellulose or polyacrylamide. When the medium is bound to the protein of interest it becomes immobilized.

Immunochromatographic test.

Affinity chromatography is the basis for immunochromatographic test (ICT) strips, which provide a rapid means of diagnosis in patient care. Using ICT, a technician can make a determination at a patient's bedside, without the need for a laboratory. ICT detection is highly specific to the microbe causing an infection.

Principle.

In summary, affinity chromatography exploits the differences in interactions' strengths between the different biomolecules within a mobile phase, and the stationary phase. The stationary phase is first loaded into a column with mobile phase containing a variety of biomolecules from DNA to proteins (depending on the purification experiment). Then, the two phases are allowed time to bind. A wash buffer is then poured through a column containing both bound phases. The wash buffer removes non-target biomolecules by disrupting their weaker interactions with the stationary phase. Target biomolecules have a much higher affinity for the stationary phase, and remain bound to the stationary phase, not being washed away by wash buffer. An elution buffer is then poured through the column containing the remaining target biomolecules. The elution buffer disrupts interactions between the bound target biomolecules with the stationary to a much greater extent than the wash buffer, effectively removing the target biomolecules. This purified solution contains elution buffer and target biomolecules, and is called elution.  The stationary phase is typically a gel matrix, often of agarose; a linear sugar molecule derived from algae. To prevent steric interference or overlap during the binding process of the target molecule to the ligand, an inhibitor containing a hydrocarbon chain is first attached to the agarose bead (solid support). This inhibitor with a hydrocarbon chain is commonly known as the spacer between the agarose bead and the target molecule.  Usually, the starting point is a crude, heterogeneous group of molecules in a whole cell extract, such as a cell lysate, growth medium or blood serum. The molecule of interest will have a well known and defined property and can be exploited during the affinity purification process. The process itself can be thought of as an entrapment, with the target molecule becoming trapped on a solid or stationary phase or medium. The other molecules in the mobile phase will not become trapped as they do not possess this property. The stationary phase can then be removed from the mixture, washed and the target molecule released from the entrapment in a process known as dialysis. The desired molecules are eluted with specific substances after washing the non-interacting molecules away. Thus, this results in a highly purified material. Highly specific elution of the desired macromolecule from the stationary phase is usually effected by adding to the eluting buffer a gradient of the same kind on the macromolecule and displaces it. Possibly the most common use of affinity chromatography is for the purification of recombinant proteins. Affinity chromatography is an excellent choice for the first step in purifying a protein or nucleic acid from a crude mixture.  If the molecular weight, hydrophobicity, charge, etc. of a protein is unknown, affinity chromatography can still apply to this situation. An example of this situation is when trying to find an enzyme with a particular activity, where it can be possible to build an affinity column with an attached ligand that is similar or identical to the substrate of choice. The way that the desired enzyme would be eluted would be from the mixture based on the strong interaction of enzyme and the immobilized substrate analog, which would be done selectively through the affinity column. Then, the elution of the enzyme with the appropriate substrate can be done. Typical Biological Interaction Used in Affinity Chromatography

Batch and column setups.

Binding to the solid phase may be achieved by column chromatography whereby the solid medium is packed onto a column, the initial mixture run through the column to allow settling, a wash buffer run through the column and the elution buffer subsequently applied to the column and collected. These steps are usually done at ambient pressure. Alternatively, binding may be achieved using a batch treatment, for example, by adding the initial mixture to the solid phase in a vessel, mixing, separating the solid phase, removing the liquid phase, washing, re-centrifuging, adding the elution buffer, re-centrifuging and removing the elute.  Sometimes a hybrid method is employed such that the binding is done by the batch method, but the solid phase with the target molecule bound is packed onto a column and washing and elution are done on the column.  The ligands used in affinity chromatography are obtained from both organic and inorganic sources. Examples of biological sources are serum proteins, lectins and antibodies. Inorganic sources as moronic acts, metal chelates and triazine dyes.  A third method, expanded bed absorption, which combines the advantages of the two methods mentioned above, has also been developed. The solid phase particles are placed in a column where liquid phase is pumped in from the bottom and exits at the top. The gravity of the particles ensure that the solid phase does not exit the column with the liquid phase.  Affinity columns can be eluted by changing salt concentrations, pH, pI, charge and ionic strength directly or through a gradient to resolve the particles of interest.  More recently, setups employing more than one column in series have been developed. The advantage compared to single column setups is that the resin material can be fully loaded since non-binding product is directly passed on to a consecutive column with fresh column material. These chromatographic processes are known as periodic counter-current chromatography (PCC). The resin costs per amount of produced product can thus be drastically reduced. Since one column can always be eluted and regenerated while the other column is loaded, already two columns are sufficient to make full use of the advantages. Additional columns can give additional flexibility for elution and regeneration times, at the cost of additional equipment and resin costs.

Specific uses.

Affinity chromatography can be used in a number of applications, including nucleic acid purification, protein purification from cell free extracts, and purification from blood.  By using affinity chromatography, one can separate proteins that bind a certain fragment from proteins that do not bind that specific fragment. Because this technique of purification relies on the biological properties of the protein needed, it is a useful technique and proteins can be purified many folds in one step.

Various affinity media.

Many different affinity media exist for a variety of possible uses. Briefly, they are (generalized) activated/functionalized that work as a functional spacer, support matrix, and eliminates handling of toxic reagents.  Amino acid media is used with a variety of serum proteins, proteins, peptides, and enzymes, as well as rRNA and dsDNA. Avidin biotin media is used in the purification process of biotin/avidin and their derivatives.  Carbohydrate bonding is most often used with glycoproteins or any other carbohydrate-containing substance; carbohydrate is used with lectins, glycoproteins, or any other carbohydrate metabolite protein. Dye ligand media is nonspecific but mimics biological substrates and proteins. Glutathione is useful for separation of GST tagged recombinant proteins. Heparin is a generalized affinity ligand, and it is most useful for separation of plasma coagulation proteins, along with nucleic acid enzymes and lipases  Hydrophobic interaction media are most commonly used to target free carboxyl groups and proteins.  Immunoaffinity media (detailed below) utilizes antigens' and antibodies' high specificity to separate; immobilized metal affinity chromatography is detailed further below and uses interactions between metal ions and proteins (usually specially tagged) to separate; nucleotide/coenzyme that works to separate dehydrogenases, kinases, and transaminases.  Nucleic acids function to trap mRNA, DNA, rRNA, and other nucleic acids/oligonucleotides. Protein A/G method is used to purify immunoglobulins.  Speciality media are designed for a specific class or type of protein/co enzyme; this type of media will only work to separate a specific protein or coenzyme.

Immunoaffinity.

Another use for the procedure is the affinity purification of antibodies from blood serum. If the serum is known to contain antibodies against a specific antigen (for example if the serum comes from an organism immunized against the antigen concerned) then it can be used for the affinity purification of that antigen. This is also known as Immunoaffinity Chromatography. For example, if an organism is immunised against a GST-fusion protein it will produce antibodies against the fusion-protein, and possibly antibodies against the GST tag as well. The protein can then be covalently coupled to a solid support such as agarose and used as an affinity ligand in purifications of antibody from immune serum.  For thoroughness, the GST protein and the GST-fusion protein can each be coupled separately. The serum is initially allowed to bind to the GST affinity matrix. This will remove antibodies against the GST part of the fusion protein. The serum is then separated from the solid support and allowed to bind to the GST-fusion protein matrix. This allows any antibodies that recognize the antigen to be captured on the solid support. Elution of the antibodies of interest is most often achieved using a low pH buffer such as glycine pH 2.8. The eluate is collected into a neutral tris or phosphate buffer, to neutralize the low pH elution buffer and halt any degradation of the antibody's activity. This is a nice example as affinity purification is used to purify the initial GST-fusion protein, to remove the undesirable anti-GST antibodies from the serum and to purify the target antibody.  Monoclonal antibodies can also be selected to bind proteins with great specificity, where protein is released under fairly gentle conditions. This can become of use for further research in the future.  A simplified strategy is often employed to purify antibodies generated against peptide antigens. When the peptide antigens are produced synthetically, a terminal cysteine residue is added at either the N- or C-terminus of the peptide. This cysteine residue contains a sulfhydryl functional group which allows the peptide to be easily conjugated to a carrier protein (e.g. Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH)). The same cysteine-containing peptide is also immobilized onto an agarose resin through the cysteine residue and is then used to purify the antibody.  Most monoclonal antibodies have been purified using affinity chromatography based on immunoglobulin-specific Protein A or Protein G, derived from bacteria.

Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography.

Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) is based on the specific coordinate covalent bond of amino acids, particularly histidine, to metals. This technique works by allowing proteins with an affinity for metal ions to be retained in a column containing immobilized metal ions, such as cobalt, nickel, copper for the purification of histidine-containing proteins or peptides, iron, zinc or gallium for the purification of phosphorylated proteins or peptides. Many naturally occurring proteins do not have an affinity for metal ions, therefore recombinant DNA technology can be used to introduce such a protein tag into the relevant gene. Methods used to elute the protein of interest include changing the pH, or adding a competitive molecule, such as imidazole.

Recombinant proteins.

Possibly the most common use of affinity chromatography is for the purification of recombinant proteins. Proteins with a known affinity are protein tagged in order to aid their purification. The protein may have been genetically modified so as to allow it to be selected for affinity binding; this is known as a fusion protein. Tags include hexahistidine (His), glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and maltose binding protein (MBP). Histidine tags have an affinity for nickel, cobalt, zinc, copper and iron ions which have been immobilized by forming coordinate covalent bonds with a chelator incorporated in the stationary phase. For elution, an excess amount of a compound able to act as a metal ion ligand, such as imidazole, is used. GST has an affinity for glutathione which is commercially available immobilized as glutathione agarose. During elution, excess glutathione is used to displace the tagged protein.

Lectins.

Lectin affinity chromatography is a form of affinity chromatography where lectins are used to separate components within the sample. Lectins, such as concanavalin A are proteins which can bind specific alpha-D-mannose and alpha-D-glucose carbohydrate molecules. Some common carbohydrate molecules that is used in lectin affinity chromatography are Con A-Sepharose and WGA-agarose. Another example of a lectin is wheat germ agglutinin which binds D-N-acetyl-glucosamine. The most common application is to separate glycoproteins from non-glycosylated proteins, or one glycoform from another glycoform. Although there are various ways to perform lectin affinity chromatography, the goal is extract a sugar ligand of the desired protein.

Specialty.

Another use for affinity chromatography is the purification of specific proteins using a gel matrix that is unique to a specific protein. For example, the purification of E. coli β-galactosidase is accomplished by affinity chromatography using p-aminobenyl-1-thio-β-D-galactopyranosyl agarose as the affinity matrix. p-aminobenyl-1-thio-β-D-galactopyranosyl agarose is used as the affinity matrix because it contains a galactopyranosyl group, which serves as a good substrate analog for E.Coli-B-Galactosidase. This property allows the enzyme to bind to the stationary phase of the affinity matrix and is eluted by adding increasing concentrations of salt to the column.

Alkaline phosphatase.

Alkaline phosphatase from E. coli can be purified using a DEAE-Cellulose matrix. A. phosphatase has a slight negative charge, allowing it to weakly bind to the positively charged amine groups in the matrix. The enzyme can then be eluted out by adding buffer with higher salt concentrations.

Boronate affinity chromatography.

Boronate affinity chromatography consists of using boronic acid or boronates to elute and quantify amounts of glycoproteins. Clinical adaptations have applied this type of chromatography for use in determining long term assessment of diabetic patients through analysis of their glycated hemoglobin.

Serum albumin purification.

Of many uses of affinity chromatography, one use of it is seen in affinity purification of albumin and macroglobulin contamination. This type of purification is helpful in removing excess albumin and α-macroglobulin contamination, when performing mass spectrometry. In affinity purification of serum albumin, the stationary used for collecting or attracting serum proteins can be Cibacron Blue-Sepharose. Then the serum proteins can be eluted from the adsorbent with a buffer containing thiocyanate (SCN).

Weak affinity chromatography.

Weak affinity chromatography (WAC) is an affinity chromatography technique for affinity screening in drug development. WAC is an affinity-based liquid chromatographic technique that separates chemical compounds based on their different weak affinities to an immobilized target. The higher affinity a compound has towards the target, the longer it remains in the separation unit, and this will be expressed as a longer retention time. The affinity measure and ranking of affinity can be achieved by processing the obtained retention times of analyzed compounds.  The WAC technology is demonstrated against a number of different protein targets – proteases, kinases, chaperones and protein–protein interaction (PPI) targets. WAC has been shown to be more effective than established methods for fragment based screening.

External links.

"Affinity Chromatography Principle, Procedure And Advance Detailed Note - 2020".

Affinity chromatography is a method of separating biochemical mixture based on a highly specific interaction between antigen and antibody, enzyme and substrate, receptor and ligand, or protein and nucleic acid. It is a type of chromatographic laboratory technique used for purifying biological molecules within a mixture by exploiting molecular properties, e.g. protein can be eluted by ligand solution. Biological macromolecules, such as enzymes and other proteins, interact with other molecules with high specificity through several different types of bonds and interaction. Such interactions include hydrogen bonding, ionic interaction, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interaction, and more. The high selectivity of affinity chromatography is caused by allowing the desired molecule to interact with the stationary phase and be bound within the column in order to be separated from the undesired material which will not interact and elute first. The molecules no longer needed are first washed away with a buffer while the desired proteins are let go in the presence of the eluting solvent (of higher salt concentration). This process creates a competitive interaction between the desired protein and the immobilized stationary molecules, which eventually lets the now highly purified proteins be released.

La chromatographie d'affinité est une technique de chromatographie qui permet de séparer un composé en utilisant des interactions biologiques entre un ligand spécifique (greffé sur une matrice macromoléculaire) et son substrat, en l'occurrence la molécule à isoler. Sa principale application industrielle est la purification des anticorps monoclonaux.


Life.

Early career.

Although the year of his birth is uncertain, it is known that Du Shi was born in Henei, Henan province. Du Shi became an Officer of Merit in his local commandery before receiving an appointment in 23 as a government clerk under Gengshi Emperor (r. 23–25), following the revolt against the Xin Dynasty usurper Wang Mang (r. 9–23). However, Du soon after swore his allegiance to Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57), who is considered the true founder of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220).

Censorate officer.

Under Emperor Guangwu, Du Shi was appointed as an officer in the Censorate and was in charge of monitoring affairs and upholding law and order within the new capital at Luoyang. When the undisciplined troops of the military officer Xiao Guang (d. 26) ran rampant in the capital city and terrorized its inhabitants without any perceivable action on Xiao's part to prevent it, Du Shi had him arrested. Du had Xiao summarily executed without explicit consent from the throne, sending in a report of the event only after the execution. Guangwu was not displeased with this, as he called him into court to grant him an insignia which justified his actions. Shortly after this event, the bandit leader Yang Yi (d. 26) caused a major disturbance in Hedong Commandery, which Du Shi was sent to quell. When word of the arrival of Du Shi's forces in the region, Yang Yi planned to flee across the Yellow River. However, Du Shi anticipated this, sending a raiding party to burn the boats Yang Yi intended to use for his escape. After conscripting troops from Hedong Commandery, Du Shi led a surprise ambush with a cavalry unit that dispersed Yang's bandits and annihilated them.

Administrator.

For three years, Du served as a county magistrate in Henan province where his administration gained wide acclaim from provincial authorities. Afterwards, Du distinguished himself as a Commandant in Pei and in Runan. In 31 he was appointed as an administrator over Nanyang. While serving there, he had an array of dykes and canals built for land reclamation and growth of local agriculture. It is here that he also developed a water-powered reciprocator for bellows in smelting cast iron, a machine which reportedly saved an enormous amount of physical labor. It is recorded that the locals were so fond of him that they often referred to him as "Mother Du" and compared him to noteworthy figures of history, such as Shao Xinchen of the Western Han era.  Du Shi was by all means a local administrator, yet he also made recommendations to the imperial court on policy issues. He recommended that the Tiger Tallies system be reinstated. This was a means for imperial authorities to check possible official corruption in the forgery of mobilization of troops for war. Du also nominated several minor officials he deemed worthy as candidates for higher posts in the capital, including Fu Zhang. In a memorial of 37, he urged the court to consider Fu as the next Imperial Secretary.

Death.

Du Shi's reputation was somewhat stymied in 38 when he was accused of having one of his retainers sent to kill a man out of vengeance for his brother. In that same year, Du became ill and died. Despite Du's long-standing official career, the Director of Retainers Bao Yong reported that no proper funeral ceremony could be arranged for Du, since Du was nearly broke when he died. However, the Emperor had an imperial edict made which granted Du a proper funeral ceremony at his commandery residence in the capital, along with silk to pay for the expenditures.

The Water-Powered Blast Furnace.

Book of Later Han account.

The engineer and statesman Du Shi is mentioned briefly in the "Book of Later Han" ("Hou Han Shu") as follows (in Wade-Giles spelling):  Donald B. Wagner writes that there is no remaining physical evidence of the bellows which Du Shi used, so modern scholars are still unable to determine whether or not they were made of leather or giant wooden fans as described later in the 14th century.

Spread of Use.

The historical text "Sanguo Zhi" (Records of the Three Kingdoms) records the use of both human labor and horse-power to operate metallurgic bellows of a blast furnace before water-power was applied. It also records that the engineer and Prefect of Luoling Han Ji (d. 238) reinvented a similar water-powered bellows that Du Shi had earlier pioneered. Two decades after this, it is recorded that another design for water-powered bellows was created by Du Yu (222–285). In the 5th-century text of the "Wu Chang Ji", its author Pi Ling wrote that a planned, artificial lake had been constructed in the Yuanjia reign period (424–429) for the sole purpose of powering water wheels aiding the smelting and casting processes of the Chinese iron industry. The 5th-century text "Shui Jing Zhu" mentions the use of rushing river water to power waterwheels, as does the Tang Dynasty (618–907) geography text of the "Yuanhe Jun Xian Tu Chi", written in 814 AD.  Although Du Shi is the first historical figure to apply water power to metallurgic bellows, the oldest extant Chinese illustration depicting such a device in operation can be seen in a picture of the "Nong Shu", printed by 1313 AD during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) of China. The text was written by Wang Zhen, who explained the methods used for a water-powered blast-furnace (Wade-Giles spelling):

Du Shi (, d. 38) was a Chinese inventor, mechanical engineer, metallurgist, and politician of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Du Shi is credited with being the first to apply hydraulic power (i.e. a waterwheel) to operate bellows (air-blowing device) in metallurgy. His invention was used to operate piston-bellows of the blast furnace and then cupola furnace in order to forge cast iron, which had been known in China since the 6th century BC. He worked as a censorial officer and administrator of several places during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han. He also led a brief military campaign in which he eliminated a small bandit army under Yang Yi (d. 26).

Du Shi, en, (date de naissance inconnue - 38) était un préfet chinois de Nanyang en l'an 31 ainsi qu'un ingénieur en hydraulique du temps des Han orientaux. On attribue à Du Shi la première contribution de l'énergie hydraulique à la métallurgie, par l'utilisation d'une roue à aubes pour actionner les soufflets d'un four. Son invention fut utilisée sur les soufflets à piston des hauts fourneaux et des cubilots, ce qui permit l'obtention de fonte en fusion.


History.

The Laval Comets is founded in 2005 by Pierre Marchand ( a businessman of Laval), following the demise of Montreal Xtreme (2004) and Dynamites de Laval (1997-2001). Pierre Marchand joins to 3 partners ( Montreal Impact, Centre Sportif Bois-de-Boulogne, and the Fédération de soccer du Québec ) who will allow to assure the team for period minimum of three years. The club set up as a non-profit organization owned by the 3 partners: This to assure the survival of the team for some years. In October 2005, the contacts are established with the W-League and a new franchising is granted to the group for the city of Laval. In November, 2005, a competition is thrown to find a name to the new team. Already a craze for the new team is tangible because hundred of names are subjected. And so the management of the club opts for the name "Comètes de Laval". In January 2006, the club confirms the first major sponsor joins the team (Grolsch beer). The presentation of team's colors shirts and the first players under contract takes place on March 8, 2006.

Players.

The Laval Comets have a wide range of talent, some from university, high school and others that currently play or have played for the Canadian National Team ( 7 Laval Comets players in the 2010 CONCACAF Women’s Under-20 Championship ). The season is short since most players play in Canadian and American universities, therefore it is designed to accommodate their schedules and ends the first week of August.

Rivalries.

Laval Comets have a big rivalry with Quebec City Amiral SC. Several former players of Comets play for the Amiral SC. In matches between the two teams, it is not uncommon for supporters to travel Montreal-Quebec city or Quebec city-Montreal to go to encourage her teams.

Supporters.

At the gate, the Comets had always been solid with average crowds of 500 fans. After disappointing season in 2009 (where the average gate was between 800 and 900 people), the attendance to the matches falls to 266 persons by match in 2010.  The all-time single game high is the 952 fans in attendance against Ottawa Fury Women (Friday evening July 4, 2008).

The Laval Comets () was a Canadian women's soccer team established in 2006 in the city of Laval, Quebec, Canada, a northern suburb of Montreal. The team was a member of the W-League, the second tier of women’s soccer in the United States and Canada.

Les Comètes de Laval sont un club de soccer féminin canadien représentant la région de Laval, dans la banlieue nord de Montréal au Québec. Les Comètes jouent dans la Division centrale de la Conférence Centralede la USL W-League. Les couleurs du club sont le blanc, bleu foncé et le bleu clair.


Playing career.

Jokerit.

A product of Jokerit's youth system, Teräväinen made his SM-liiga debut on 18 October 2011 at age 17. He quickly established his place in the first team and played 40 games en route to winning the Jarmo Wasama memorial trophy for rookie of the year. During the season, he then entered the 2012 NHL Entry Draft and was ranked as the second best skater out of Europe by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau. He was ultimately selected in the first round, 18th overall, by the Chicago Blackhawks.  In his second season in the SM-liiga, Teräväinen played 44 games and scored 31 points. In the following August, he signed a three-year, entry-level contract with the Blackhawks. Teräväinen subsequently participated in Blackhawks' training camp, but returned to Jokerit for the 2013–14 season.  After Jokerit star centre Ilari Filppula moved to CSKA Moscow of the KHL, Teräväinen was promoted to become the team's new top-line centerman. However, he started the season relatively slowly, scoring just two points in his first nine games. However, Teräväinen eventually picked up his game and after a successful tournament at the World Junior Championships, went on a 13-game point streak, scoring 5 goals and 18 assists. He ended the season with 44 points in 49 games. He was even named team captain of Jokerit when their captain went down with injury.

Chicago Blackhawks.

Teräväinen made his debut for the Blackhawks on 25 March 2014. He scored his first career NHL goal on 16 January 2015 against the Winnipeg Jets. During the 2015 Stanley Cup playoffs, Teräväinen made a large impact in Game 1 of the 2015 Stanley Cup Finals, scoring the tying goal before stripping the puck from the Tampa Bay Lightning's J. T. Brown late in the third period and setting up the eventual game-winning goal scored by Antoine Vermette. He became the fourth-youngest player to ever score a goal in the Stanley Cup Final (at 20 years, 265 days) and the second-youngest to have a multi-point game in the Cup Final since 1990. He won his first Stanley Cup in 2015 with the Blackhawks in his rookie season, scoring ten points in the playoff run.

Carolina Hurricanes.

On 15 June 2016, Teräväinen was traded to the Carolina Hurricanes (along with Bryan Bickell) in exchange for the New York Rangers' 2016 second-round draft pick (50th, acquired in the Eric Staal trade) and Chicago's own 2017 third-round pick.  Teräväinen scored his first natural hat-trick as a Hurricane on 13 November 2017 in a 5–1 win over the Dallas Stars.  On 21 January 2019, Teräväinen signed a 5-year, $27 million extension with the Hurricanes, carrying an annual cap hit of $5.4 million.  Teräväinen lead the Hurricanes as their most prolific goal scorer (7 g) during the 2019 Stanley Cup playoffs helping to the team to reach the NHL Conference Finals after series victories over the defending Stanley Cup champion Washington Capitals and the New York Islanders.

International play.

Teräväinen has represented Finland on several youth levels, most notably in the World Junior Championships. In the 2013 tournament, he scored 11 points, placing fourth in the tournament scoring. In the following year, he was named the captain of the team, leading Finland all the way to the final. In the final, Finland defeated Sweden 3–2 in overtime. Teräväinen assisted all three of Finland's goals and was the overall scoring leader of the tournament.  After the Carolina Hurricanes failed to make the 2018 playoffs, Teräväinen was named to the Finnish roster to compete at the 2018 IIHF World Championship.

Personal life.

Teräväinen has a younger brother and sister. His father is a dentist. His brother Eero also plays hockey, as a defenceman for the Lincoln Stars of the United States Hockey League (USHL). His sister, Satu, also plays elite-level hockey and currently plays with Kiekko-Espoo of the Naisten Liiga in Finland.

Teuvo Henri Matias Teräväinen (born 11 September 1994) is a Finnish professional ice hockey winger currently playing for the Carolina Hurricanes of the National Hockey League (NHL). Nicknamed "Turbo", he was selected in the first round, 18th overall, of the 2012 NHL Entry Draft by the Chicago Blackhawks after playing several seasons with the Jokerit organization in Finland. Also being drafted by the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL)'s Lokomotiv Yaroslavl in the 2011 KHL Junior Draft, he is known for his offensive abilities and play-making skills. In 2015, Teräväinen won a Stanley Cup as a member of the Blackhawks.

Teuvo Teräväinen (né le à Helsinki en Finlande) est un joueur professionnel finlandais de hockey sur glace. Il évolue au poste d'attaquant.


History.

Lloyd's Botanical Garden was established in 1878 when of land was acquired at Darjeeling to form a botanic garden as a distant annexe of the Calcutta Botanical Garden. The land was provided by William Lloyd, in whose name the botanical garden has been named.

Location.

The Garden is situated just below the Eden Sanatorium in an open slope covering an area of about 40 acres, bound by Cart Road and Victoria Road on the North, by Jail Road and Hari Ghose Road on the south, by Eden sanatorium on the east and Victoria Road on the west. This Garden is one of the main attractions to the visitors to Darjeeling with a treasury of many rare and beautiful plants as well as patches of typical forest of tall Cryptomeria, Bucklandia and Alnus with thick mass of lianas and shrubby undergrowth. It is a favorite spot of recreation with vistas across some of the loveliest slopes, a paradise to the students and research workers in Botany and an eminent institution distributing the plants and seeds and specimens of temperate and sub-temperate Himalayas to different parts of the world.

Approach.

The botanical garden has four gates. Gate No:1 ( Iron Gate or Loachnagar gate) is approachable from the taxi stand. The road is very steep but shorter than the other approaches. Vehicles can reach this gate, but there is no parking facility. Gate No:2 (Staff gate) can be approached from the Sadar Police Station. This path is through the settlements and is narrow and can be reached on foot only. The road will lead to the staff quarters and a flight of stairs will lead to Gate No:2.Approaching Gate No:2 on foot is comparatively easier than reaching other gates on foot. Gate No:3 (Chandmari gate) can be reached through Haro Ghose road which passes through the bazaar. Vehicles can reach this gate, but no parking is available. Gate No:4 (Victoria gate) is on the Victoria road and provides entry for visitors entering from the Western side.

Collections.

The Darjeeling Botanical Garden preserves several species of bamboo, oak, magnolia, arisaema, cotoneaster, wild geranium, and rhododendron — forest native plants of the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region, Sikkim region, and other neighbouring regions. Also, several exotic plants are preserved. The Cacti and Succulent collection of 150 species is displayed in the Conservatory. The collection of native Orchids from the Singalila Ridge in present-day Singalila National Park is rare and notable.  The Indian Botanical Garden Network's Garden code ascribed for this garden is WB-DBG.

References.

"Places of Interest in Darjeeling", Darjeelingnews.net. URL accessed on 8 May 2006.

Lloyd's Botanical Garden, or Darjeeling Botanical Garden, is a botanical garden in Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal.

Le jardin botanique de Darjeeling (anciennement: Lloyd's Botanical Garden) est un jardin botanique situé dans la ville de Darjeeling dans l'état indien du Bengale-Occidental.


History.

The town of San Carlos de Río Negro was founded in 1759 around a mounted camp by the expedition captained by José Solano that moved to that area in the extent of the works of exploration of the limits between the Crowns of Portugal and Spain requested by the Treaty of Madrid. José Solano set up his exploration base in that place, in the margins of the Rio Negro, and there he settled with the few men that had survived the ascent along the Orinoco River, since most, including the famous Swedish botanist Pehr Löfling that accompanied the expedition, they had succumbed prey of the tropical diseases, especially the yellow fever.  San Carlos de Río Negro was visited from May 7 to May 10, 1800 for the expedition of Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland, constituting the most southern point of their (périplo) for the Amazon Basin.

Demographics.

The Río Negro Municipality, according to a 2007 population estimate by the National Institute of Statistics of Venezuela, has a population of 2,660 (up from 2,314 in 2000). This amounts to 1.9% of the state's population. The municipality's population density is.

Government.

The mayor of the Río Negro Municipality is Luis Alirio Avaristo, elected on October 31, 2004 with 37% of the vote. Avaristo had been serving as the acting mayor of the Río Negro Municipality since August 13, 2002, following the resignation of Pedro Zerpa. The municipality is divided into four parishes; Capital Río Negro, Solano, Casiquiare, and Cocuy (previous to December 18, 1997, the Río Negro Municipality contained only a single parish).

The Río Negro Municipality () is one of the seven municipalities (municipios) that makes up the southern Venezuelan state of Amazonas and, according to the 2011 census by the National Institute of Statistics of Venezuela, the municipality has a population of 2,300.The town of San Carlos de Río Negro is the shire town of the Río Negro Municipality.

Río Negro est l'une des sept municipalités de l'État d'Amazonas au Venezuela. Son chef-lieu est San Carlos de Río Negro. En 2011, la population s'élève à habitants.


History.

Originally developed as The Elysian, the project was approved in June 2005; construction took place from 2006 until 2009. The 60 story hotel was designed by Chicago architect Lucien Lagrange and was developed by David Pisor. The project consists of two main parts: a 188-room hotel and 51 condominiums above (estimated at $280 million combined). In 2009 the condominiums were valued between $2.5 and $8.5 million.  The hotel opened in February, 2009. In keeping with the tradition of the Gold Coast neighborhood the entrance of the project is a cobblestone courtyard. Its design emulates the grand hotels of Paris in the 1920s, complete with colonnades, spires, and a motor court.  The hotel was reported to have failed to make a profit in its first two years and in September, 2011 it was announced that its owner Jones Lang LaSalle was looking to sell after Pisor's equity partner chose to remove itself from the hotel business, rather than developing the Elysian into a hotel brand as had been originally envisioned. By November, 2011 it was announced that an investment group and Hilton Hotels would be purchasing the Elysian and converting it to a Waldorf Astoria. A Waldorf Astoria had been planned as part of an international expansion in 2007, but failed to take off due to the economy in 2008. Although a sales price was not disclosed, it is believed that it was purchased for $95 million, which would put it at a per room price of $505,000.  It was renamed the Waldorf Astoria Chicago on February 1, 2012, although nearly all of the hotel remained the same.  In June 2015 it was reported that Sam Zell of Equity Group Investments had reached an agreement to sell the hotel for $113 million to a group led by hotel investor Laurence Geller (who previously founded Strategic Hotels & Resorts) and including the real estate arm of Chinese manufacturer Wanxiang Group.

Awards and honors.

As Elysian Hotel Chicago, it was named Condé Nast Traveler's top hotel in the United States in 2011.  It ranked first in the "Travel + Leisure" 2012 World's Best Awards readers' survey and is a 2013 TripAdvisor Certificate of Excellence Award recipient.

Location.

The Waldorf Astoria Chicago is located in the Gold Coast Neighborhood, a district that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is also close to Oak Street, which is known for its boutiques, high end jewelry stores, and spas, as well as State Street and Rush Street. The latter known for its night life.  Its street level retail tenants are Marc Jacobs and Saint Laurent.

The Waldorf Astoria Chicago, formerly the Elysian Hotel Chicago, is a luxury hotel located at 11 East Walton Street in the Gold Coast area of Chicago, Illinois.

Le Waldorf Astoria Chicago, anciennement l'Elysian, est un hôtel situé sur l'East Walton Street dans le secteur de Near North Side à Chicago (Illinois, États-Unis).