Biography.

Wolf Vostell was born in Leverkusen, Germany, and put his artistic ideas into practice from 1950 onwards. In 1953, he began an apprenticeship as a lithographer and studied at the Academy of Applied Art in Wuppertal. Vostell created his first Dé-coll/age in 1954. In 1955–1956, he studied at the École Nationale Superieur des Beaux Arts in Paris and in 1957 he attended the Düsseldorf Academy of Arts. Vostell's philosophy was built around the idea that destruction is all around us and it runs through all of the twentieth century. He used the term "Dé-coll/age", (in connection with a plane crash) in 1954 to refer to the process of tearing down posters, and for the use of mobile fragments of reality. Vostell's working concept of Dé-coll/age is as a visual force that breaks down outworn values and replaces them with thinking as a function distanced from media.  His first Happening, "The Theater is in the Street", took place in Paris in 1958, and incorporated auto parts and a TV. He was impressed by the work of Karlheinz Stockhausen, which he encountered in the electronic studios of the German radio station WDR in 1959 and he creates his electronic "TV Dé-coll/age". It marked the beginning of his dedication to the Fluxus Movement, which he co-founded in 1962. Vostell was behind many Happenings in New York, Berlin, Cologne, Wuppertal and Ulm among others. In 1962 he participated in the FLUXUS Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik event in Wiesbaden together with Nam June Paik, George Maciunas and other artists. In 1963 Wolf Vostell became a pioneer of Video art and Installation with his work "6-TV-Dé-coll/age" shown at the Smolin Gallery in New York, and now in the collection of the Museo Reina Sofía in Madrid. The Smolin Gallery sponsored two innovative Wolf Vostell events on TV; the first, "Wolf Vostell and Television Decollage", featured visitors to the gallery who were encouraged to create poster art on the walls. In 1967 his Happening "Miss Vietnam" dealt with the subject of the Vietnam war. In 1968, he founded Labor e.V., a group that was to investigate acoustic and visual events, together with Mauricio Kagel, and others. In 1978 he met Salvador Dalí, with whom he would later create a joint project with a sculpture from each other in their museums.  Wolf Vostell was the first artist in art history to integrate a television set into a work of art. This installation was created in 1958 under the title "The black room" is now part of the collection of the art museum Berlinische Galerie in Berlin. Early works with television sets are "Transmigracion" I-III from 1958 and "Elektronischer Dé-coll/age Happening Raum"("Electronic Dé-coll/age Happening Room") an Installation from 1968. In 1974, his first major retrospective took place in the ARC 2 at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, an expanded version of which was shown at the Neue Nationalgalerie, in 1974.  Wolf Vostell's automobile-concrete-sculptures made from cars and concrete are to be found in Cologne "Ruhender Verkehr" ("Stationary traffic") from 1969, "Concrete Traffic" from 1970 in Chicago, "VOAEX" ("Viaje de (H)ormigón por la Alta Extremadura") from 1976 in the Museo Vostell Malpartida in Malpartida de Cáceres, Spain and "Zwei Beton-Cadillacs in Form der nackten Maja" ("Two Concrete Cadillacs in form of the Naked Maja") from 1987 in Berlin.  Vostell also gained recognition for his drawings and objects, such as images of American B-52 bombers, published under the rubric "capitalist realism" and as a result of his inclusion of television sets with his paintings. Nam June Paik and Vostell were both participants in the Fluxus movement and the work of both artists involved a critique of the fetishization of television and the culture of consumption. The catalogue raisonné of his screen prints and posters has been published in the "Nouvelles de l'estampe" by Françoise Woimant and Anne Moeglin-Delcroix in 1982.  In 1992, the town of Cologne honoured Vostell with a major retrospective of his work. His pieces were distributed over 6 exhibition venues: Stadtmuseum Köln, Kunsthalle Köln, Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, Kunsthalle Mannheim, Schloss Morsbroich Leverkusen and Städtisches Museum Mülheim / Ruhr. Under the artistic direction of David Vostell, the documentary "Vostell 60 - Rückblick 92" ("Vostell 60 - Review 92") was created.  Vostell's grave is at the Cementerio Civil de la Almudena in Madrid.

Artistic work.

From 1950 on, Vostell implemented his first artistic ideas, in 1953 he began an apprenticeship as a lithographer and attended the Werkkunstschule at the Bergische Universität with Ernst Oberhoff in Wuppertal. On September 6, 1954 in Paris, he found the word décollage (i.e. to lift off, loosen, loosen the glued, separate) on the title page of Le Figaro, which was used in connection with the crash of a Lockheed Super Constellation into the Shannon. Vostell changed the spelling to Dé-coll/age and applied the term to his poster tear-offs and happenings. For Wolf Vostell, Dé-coll/age became a design principle and a comprehensive concept of art.  In 1955/1956 he attended the Parisian École nationale supérieure des beaux-arts and in 1957 the Düsseldorf Art Academy. Vostell's Happening Das Theater ist auf der Straße from 1958 in Paris was the first happening in Europe. His happening Cityrama of 1961 in Cologne was the first happening in Germany. Vostell produced objects with televisions and car parts. Influenced by the work of Karlheinz Stockhausen in the electronic studio of the WDR, electronic TV-Dé-coll/agen were produced in 1959. This marked the beginning of his involvement in the Fluxus movement, which he co-founded in 1962.  In 1959 Vostell founded the Vostell-archive. Wolf Vostell collected photographs, artistic texts, personal correspondence with companions like Nam June Paik, Joseph Beuys, Dick Higgins, as well as other objects, which documented the work of the artists of his generation. Since the 1990s, Vostell's private library has been part of the archive. His work is documented photographically and is also part of the archive, which has been housed in the "Museo Vostell Malpartida" since 2006.  Vostell initiated further happenings, among others 9-Nein-dé-coll/agen in Wuppertal in 1963, the Happening You in New York in 1964 and others in Berlin, Cologne, Wuppertal and Ulm. In 1963 Wolf Vostell became a pioneer of video art with the installation 6 TV Dé-coll/age in the collection of the Museo Reina Sofía Madrid and with the video Sun in your head. In 1965 he took part in the 24-hour happening at the Galerie Parnass in Wuppertal. In 1967 he dealt with the Vietnam War in the happening Miss Vietnam. In 1968, in collaboration with the composer Mauricio Kagel and others, he founded Labor e. V., which was to research acoustic and visual events.  Vostell is regarded as the first artist who integrated a television set into a work of art. This environment from 1958, consisting of three assemblages, entitled Das schwarze Zimmer (German View, Auschwitz Spotlight 568, Treblinka) is part of the collection of the Berlinische Galerie. Early works with televisions are Transmigracion I to III, from 1958, and Elektronischer dé-coll/age Happening Raum, an installation from 1968.  Since the 1950s Wolf Vostell has thematized the Holocaust in numerous works. Wolf Vostell did not want to express with his outward appearance that he was Jewish by his appearance he rather carried his values to the outside world and thus directed himself unambiguously against the danger of suppressing or even forgetting the extermination of European Jews by the German National Socialists. With his temple curls, fur hat and caftan, he was a perfect match for the image of the enemy that the propaganda of the Hitler regime had painted as an anti-Semitic stereotype, following the example of the Eastern European Jews. He exaggerated this image by using other attributes, such as ostentatious rings on his fingers and an equally thick cigar, which in slanderous caricatures from the Nazi era had been symbolically given to the "money-greedy Jewish usurer".

First works.

In 1953, he initially produced traditionally produced works such as "Korea" and Korea Massacre (both oil on paper), War Crucifixion II (oil on canvas) as well as the watercolors The Couple, Family, Airplane and War Crucifixion. In 1955, he drew a cycle of ink drawings on Peter Schlemihl's miraculous story.

1960s.

In 1962 Vostell participated in the Fluxus manifestation Fluxus: International Festival of Contemporary Music in Wiesbaden and in 1963 in the Fluxus festival Festum Fluxorum Fluxus in Düsseldorf. In 1962 he founded the journal Dé-coll/age - Bulletin of Current Ideas. In 1963 he showed the installation Das schwarze Zimmer (The Black Room), which is installed in a dark room with black painted walls, in the Galerie Parnass. In 1964 Vostell initiated the Happening In Ulm, around Ulm and around Ulm - in the same year he had his first exhibition participation in the 13th exhibition of the Deutscher Künstlerbund in Berlin. In 1965 the Happenings Berlin 100 Ereignisse and 1967 Miss Vietnam followed. He often took up political and social themes.  Between 1965 and 1969, exhibitions, happenings, multiples and publications were created in collaboration with René Block. In 1968 he created the silkscreen B-52 - instead of bombs. In 1969 - in cooperation with the gallery art intermedia of Helmut Rywelski in Cologne - Vostell created his first car-concrete sculpture "Ruhender Verkehr" (resting traffic).

Berlin and Malpartida de Cáceres.

In 1970 Vostell moved to Berlin. In 1970 he created Heuschrecken, an installation with 20 monitors and a video camera. The installations TV-Schuhe and TEK were created in the same year. In 1973 he created the cycle Mania. 40 works in which Vostell drew on photographs from magazines and glued objects onto the photographs. In 1973 he created the installations Auto Fieber und Energie. 1976 Vostell founded the Museo Vostell Malpartida in Malpartida de Cáceres. In 1974 he realized the happening Strawberries in Berlin.  From 1975 onwards, he worked on Spanish themes such as the paintings in the Extremadura cycle, the 1976 cycle El muerto que tiene sed (The Dead Who Thirsty Has) or 1985 El entierro de la Sardina (The Burial of the Sardine). In the 1980s he created the installation The Winds, the painting The Battle of Anghiari from 1982, a reminiscence of Leonardo da Vinci's painting of the same name Battle of Anghiari, the cycle Milonga from 1985, and the Tauromaqie with BMW part from 1988.

1990s.

In Berlin, he created large-format paintings such as the Triptych Berlin from 1990, the cycle Weinende from 1992 and Weinende Hommage an Anne Frank. Bronze sculptures like Berlinerin from 1994 in a small edition. Graphic works, sculptures and assemblages such as Arc de Triomphe N°1 from 1993, Ritz from 1998 and multiples such as Berliner Brot from 1995.

Influence on art.

Dé-coll/age and blurring.

During a stay in Paris in September 1954, Vostell read the word Décollage in a headline of Le Figaro (German translation: "Untie, loose the glued, separate"). Vostell changed the spelling for himself. From 1954 on he named his poster tear-offs Dé-coll/age. Later he transferred the term Dé-coll/age to his happenings. For Wolf Vostell the Dé-coll/age became a design principle and a comprehensive concept of art. Ceres from 1960, Coca-Cola, your candidate, Great Session with Da (all pictures from 1961), Wochenspiegel Beatles and Livio from 1966 are examples of Wolf Vostell's Dé-coll/agen.  In the 1960s Wolf Vostell worked with the technique of blurring. With a mixture of turpentine and carbon tetrachloride, photographs in magazines can be blurred. The cycle Kleenex from 1962, Kennedy before Corham from 1964, Goethe Today from 1967 and Homage to Henry Ford and Jaqueline Kennedy from 1967 are examples of Wolf Vostell's blurred images. He combined dé-coll/age with blurring like in Jayne Mansfield from 1968 and Marilyn Monroe from 1962 or Hours of fun from 1968.

Politics.

Wolf Vostell has been dealing with world political events in his artistic work since the 1950s. As early as 1958 he thematized the Second World War and the Holocaust in the installation Das schwarze Zimmer (The Black Room). The Korean War and the Vietnam War became themes of his works, as they did with his 1968 blurred Miss America. The assassination of John F. Kennedy and other international political events were the subject of his paintings and assemblages.  Wolf Vostell also thematized domestic political topics of the Federal Republic. The student revolts, the economic miracle and the criticism of capitalism are documented in his works. The Cold War and the Bosnian War are present in his works. Wolf Vostell documented and processed the fall of the Berlin Wall in more than 50 works. From the 6 meter wide triptych 9th November 1989 to smaller works, Wolf Vostell created a further cycle of works after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Over the decades a political work was created in Wolf Vostell's work.

Television.

Since 1958 Wolf Vostell integrated television sets into his works. Pictures, assemblages, installations and sculptures by Wolf Vostell are often designed with TV sets. Most of the time the sets are set to normal program. Thus Wolf Vostell incorporates topicality and current events into his works.

Tauromaquia.

From 1976 Wolf Vostell travelled regularly between Berlin and Malpartida de Cáceres. During this time he created a series of paintings and drawings in his Spanish studio, which show the theme Tauromaquia. Large-format canvases show bulls, mostly bleeding and torn to shreds. He made assemblages in which he combined painted bull heads with light bulbs, car parts or other objects.

Concrete, lead and gold.

Since the early 1960s Wolf Vostell worked with concrete, which became a kind of distinctive feature of his works. He created sculptures, like his car-concrete sculptures. He also processed the concrete liquid as a color for his paintings and drawings. He also painted with liquid concrete, acrylic paint and charcoal. In his paintings and drawings you can see many times drawn concrete blocks. Human bodies can often be recognized as angular concrete forms. In the 1980s and 1990s he worked with liquid lead. He poured liquid lead over his canvases, combining acrylic paint, liquid lead and liquid concrete. Wolf Vostell also worked with gold leaf, which he applied directly to the canvas.

Wolf Vostell Archive.

In the 1960s, Vostell founded the Vostell Archive. With great fervour and strict consistency, Wolf Vostell collected photographs, artistic texts, private correspondence with colleagues such as Nam June Paik, Allan Kaprow, Dick Higgins and many others, as well as press cuttings, invitations to exhibitions and events or books and catalogues which document wolf Vostell's work and that of his contemporaries. His private library with more than 6000 books has formed part of the Archive. Wolf Vostell's extensive oeuvre is documented in photographic form and makes up part of the archive. About 50000 documents from four decades make the Vostell Archive a treasure of art history. Since 2005 the archive has been housed in the Museo Vostell Malpartida and is available to art historians, journalists and authors.

Reception.

In 1989 the Art'otel Berlin Kudamm opened, which Wolf Vostell has as its theme and thus became a permanent exhibition.  In 1990, Vostell's triptych 9th November 1989 and design drawings for it were exhibited for the first time in the eastern part of Berlin in the gallery at Weidendamm in Friedrichstraße 103.  In 1992 the city of Cologne honoured Vostell with a retrospective of his work. His works were exhibited at six venues: the Cologne City Museum, the Kunsthalle Köln, the Rheinische Landesmuseum Bonn, the Kunsthalle Mannheim, the Schloss Morsbroich in Leverkusen and the Kunstmuseum Mülheim an der Ruhr. Under the artistic direction of David Vostell, the documentary film Vostell 60 - Retrospective 92 was produced about this retrospective.  Since 1989, the 1969 car-concrete sculpture Resting Traffic, for which Vostell cast an Opel Kapitän in concrete, has stood on the central reservation of the Hohenzollernring in Cologne. Other car-concrete sculptures are Concrete Traffic from 1970 in Chicago, in the Museo Vostell Malpartida V.O.A.E.X. from 1976 and Two Concrete Cadillacs in the shape of the naked Maja in Berlin from 1987.

Collections.

Further works are to be found in the Center for Art and Media Technology, the Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, the Germanisches Nationalmuseum, the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, the Museo Reina Sofia, the Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, the Musée d'Art Moderne et Contemporain de Strasbourg, the Fondazione Mudima in Milan, on public streets and squares and in other museums and private collections worldwide.

Wolf Vostell (14 October 1932 – 3 April 1998) was a German painter and sculptor, considered one of the early adopters of video art and installation art and pioneer of Happenings and Fluxus. Techniques such as blurring and Dé-coll/age are characteristic of his work, as is embedding objects in concrete and the use of television sets in his works. Wolf Vostell was married to the Spanish Mercedes Vostell and has two sons, David Vostell and Rafael Vostell.

Wolf Vostell est un artiste allemand né à Leverkusen en 1932, mort à Berlin en 1998. Il est peintre et sculpteur. Il est également considéré comme l'un des pionniers de l’installation, de l’art vidéo, de l’happening et du mouvement Fluxus. Des techniques comme l’estompage ou le Dé-coll/age sont des caractéristiques de ses œuvres, de même que l’encastrement dans du béton.


History and profile.

"De Volkskrant" was founded in 1919 and has been a daily morning newspaper since 1921. Originally "de Volkskrant" was a Roman Catholic newspaper closely linked to the Catholic People's Party and the Catholic pillar. The paper temporarily ceased publication in 1941.  On its re-founding in 1945, its office moved from Den Bosch to Amsterdam. It became a left-wing newspaper in the 1960s, but began softening its stance in 1980. On 23 August 2006 the "Volkskrant" published its 25,000th edition.  In 2010, Pieter Broertjes completed his 20-year tenure as editor-in-chief. In 2013 "de Volkskrant" was awarded the European Newspaper of the Year in the category of nationwide newspapers.

Ownership.

"De Volkskrant" was part of PCM Uitgevers N.V., a publishing company which also owned "NRC Handelsblad", "Algemeen Dagblad", and "Trouw". Until 1 January 2003 the newspaper "Het Parool" was part of PCM Uitgevers too.  In 2009 PCM Uitgevers was taken over by DPG Media (known as De Persgroep until 2019), a Belgian publishing company.

Free newspaper.

In October 2006, "Volkskrant" announced it intended to start publishing a free version of its paper, targeting young people. Its competitors were to have been "Metro" and "Sp!ts", two other free dailies. However PCM gave no permission for this plan so it had to be retracted. Instead PCM intended to produce a free newspaper together with investor Marcel Boekhoorn, although PCM later withdrew from the project and Boekhoorn started the free daily "De Pers" using his own resources. A year later PCM started its own free paper "DAG", that had a short life and went digital after another year.

Circulation.

In 2001 the circulation of "De Volkskrant" was 335,000 copies. The daily circulation of the paper was 326,000 copies in 2002, dwindling to some 235,000 in 2011, which nevertheless makes it the Netherlands' third-biggest newspaper, after "De Telegraaf" and "Algemeen Dagblad". The paper has since then heavily lost circulation.

Typeface.

The typeface Capitolium News by Gerard Unger (2006) has been the main type used in "de Volkskrant" since 2 December 2006.

de Volkskrant (; "The People's Paper") is a Dutch daily morning newspaper. Founded in 1919, it has a nationwide circulation of about 250,000.

Le journal de Volkskrant (en français : « le journal populaire ») est un quotidien du matin néerlandais. Il est fondé en 1919 sur une ligne d'inspiration chrétienne-démocrate bien qu'aujourd'hui il soit classé au centre-gauche de l'échiquier politique. En termes de diffusion, il est le troisième quotidien des Pays-Bas, après "De Telegraaf" et "Algemeen Dagblad".


Life and career.

Gleason was born in New York City, the son of Mina (née Crolius) and William L. Gleason. Coming from theatrical stock, as a schoolboy he made stage appearances while on holiday. He began earning his living at the age of thirteen, being a messenger boy, printer's devil, assistant in an electrical store and a lift boy. He enlisted in the United States Army at age 16 and served three years in the Philippines.  On discharge, he began his stage career, later taking it up professionally. He played in London for two years and following his return to the United States, he began in films by writing dialogue for comedies. He wrote a number of plays, several of which were performed on Broadway. He also acted on Broadway, including in a couple of his own plays. When World War I broke out, Gleason reenlisted in the United States Army and served to the end of the war.  His film debut was in "Polly of the Follies" (1922), starring Constance Talmadge. Balding and slender with a craggy voice and a master of the double-take, Gleason portrayed tough but warm-hearted characters, usually with a New York background. He co-wrote "The Broadway Melody", the second film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, and had a small uncredited role in it. He also co-wrote and briefly appeared as a hot dog vendor in the 1934 Janet Gaynor vehicle "Change of Heart". He performed in a number of films with his wife Lucile. In "The Clock" (1945), he played a milk cart driver who gives lessons in marriage to the characters played by Judy Garland and Robert Walker, while Lucile played his wife. The same year, he played the bartender in the film adaptation of "A Tree Grows in Brooklyn". In the Frank Capra classic "Meet John Doe", he played the cynical, "hard boiled" editor brought in to pump up the newspaper that runs with the "John Doe" story.  Gleason was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance as boxing manager Max "Pop" Corkle in the 1941 film "Here Comes Mr. Jordan". He starred in two movie series, playing police inspector Oscar Piper in six Hildegarde Withers mystery films during the 1930s, starting with "The Penguin Pool Murder", and Joe Higgins in the first seven of nine films about the Higgins Family, in which his wife Lucile and son Russell played Lil and Sydney Higgins. One of Gleason's best-known roles is Uncle Birdie, the kind-hearted ship captain plagued by alcohol and the memory of his deceased wife, in Charles Laughton's film noir classic "The Night of the Hunter" (1955).  Gleason also performed in other media. In 1931, he co-starred with Robert Armstrong in the radio sitcom "Gleason and Armstrong". His television credits include several episodes of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", the Reed Hadley legal drama "The Public Defender" and ABC's "The Real McCoys". In "The Child", the Christmas 1957 episode of John Payne's "The Restless Gun" on NBC, Gleason and Anthony Caruso played Roman Catholic priests who run an orphanage. Dan Blocker, just launching his acting career, also guest starred in the episode.  For his contributions to the motion picture industry, Gleason has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7038 Hollywood Boulevard.

Family.

James and Lucile Gleason had a son, actor Russell Gleason. On December 26, 1945, the younger Gleason was in New York City awaiting deployment to Europe with his regiment, when he fell out of a fourth story window in the Hotel Sutton — which the army had commandeered to house the troops — resulting in his death. Reports varied, some saying the fall was accidental, while others stating it was a suicide. Russell's most prominent role had been as Muller in the Academy Award-winning version of "All Quiet on the Western Front" (1930). Russell Gleason was married to Cynthia Hobart (later becoming Cynthia Lindsay), a swimmer and stunt woman who later wrote a biography of family friend Boris Karloff.  James Gleason was interred in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California.

James Austin Gleason (May 23, 1882 – April 12, 1959) was an American actor born in New York City. He was also a playwright and screenwriter. Gleason often portrayed "tough-talking, world-weary guys with a secret heart-of-gold."

James Gleason, dit Jimmy Gleason, est un acteur, réalisateur, scénariste, producteur et dramaturge américain, né le à New York, New York, et mort le à Woodland Hills (États-Unis).


In the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Freesat+, Freeview+, Sky+, V+, TiVo, YouView and BT Vision services in Ireland and the UK allow one to timeshift.

Africa.

DStv, based in South Africa, offers PVR set-top boxes to countries across Africa which allow time shifting of live and recorded television, using a remote.

History in the United States.

The idea of a consumer pausing a live television broadcast was depicted in popular media as early as November 1966 at the end of Season 2, Episode 12 of I Dream of Jeannie, when character Major Nelson asked his genie to pause a live broadcast of a football game so that they could continue to watch it after making a trip to the supermarket. With the advent of digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo, launched at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, it became possible in practice for consumers to purchase devices that supported pausing live television broadcasts and Chase Play (playing back a delayed version of a recorded live stream while simultaneously continuing to record the live stream).  The major legal issue involved in time shifting concerns "fair use" law and the possibility of copyright infringement. This legal issue is first raised in the landmark court case of "Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc." or the "Betamax case". In 1979, Universal sued Sony, claiming its timed recording capability amounted to copyright infringement. The Supreme Court of the United States found in favor of Sony; the majority decision held that time shifting was a fair use, represented no substantial harm to the copyright holder and would not contribute to a diminished marketplace for its product.  RCA mentioned time shifting in its marketing as a reason to buy VCRs, even while an on-screen disclaimer mentioned the Betamax case and cautioned that "Such recordings should not be made". By 1985 cable movie channels encouraged time shifting by broadcasting films subscribers wanted for their home libraries overnight, so their VCRs could record them while they slept. Some providers, such as satellite TV companies, have introduced digital video recorder (DVR) features allowing consumers to skip over advertising entirely when watching a program which has been recorded to their DVR. The legality of this service, for which an extra fee can be assessed, has been challenged by television broadcasters, who assert that this form of time shifting is a violation of their copyright.

In broadcasting, time shifting is the recording of programming to a storage medium to be viewed or listened to after the live broadcasting. Typically, this refers to TV programming but can also refer to radio shows via podcasts.

Le contrôle du direct, ou timeshifting (de l'anglais ', ou décalage temporel), est un procédé de gestion d'enregistrement vidéo et audio sur un support de stockage numérique permettant de visionner ou de retrouver un élément temporel venant d'être enregistré ou plus spécifiquement un programme télévisé avec un léger différé. La technique s'applique également à des émissions de radio via des podcasts.


Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the census area has, of which is land and (1.6%) is water. The area is roughly the same size as the U.S. state of Montana or the country of Germany. The area is bigger than 47 of the 50 states, with only California, Texas and Alaska itself being bigger than the county size. Its population density, at, is the lowest in the United States.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 6,551 people, 2,309 households, and 1,480 families residing in the census area. The population density was square miles (km) per person. It is the least densely populated county-equivalent of all 3,141 county-equivalents of the United States. There were 3,917 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the census area was 24.27% White, 0.09% Black or African American, 70.89% Native American, 0.37% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 3.91% from two or more races. 1.19% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 12.95% reported speaking an Athabaskan language at home; of these 35.26% speak Gwich’in and 10.94% speak Koyukon.  Of the 2,309 households 38.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.90% were married couples living together, 16.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.90% were non-families. 30.50% of households were one person and 6.20% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.53.  The age distribution was 35.00% under the age of 18, 8.70% from 18 to 24, 26.90% from 25 to 44, 22.10% from 45 to 64, and 7.30% 65 or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 118.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 122.60 males.

Education.

Galena City School District operates public schools serving Galena. Nenana City School District operates public schools serving Nenana. Yukon–Koyukuk School District and Yukon Flats School District operate public schools serving rural areas.

Yukon–Koyukuk Census Area () is a census area in the U.S. state of Alaska. As of the 2010 census, the population was 5,588. It has the largest area of any county or county-equivalent in the United States. It is part of the unorganized borough of Alaska and therefore has no borough seat. Its largest communities are the cities of Galena, in the west, and Fort Yukon, in the northeast.

La région de recensement de Yukon-Koyukuk, en anglais ", est une région de recensement de l'État d'Alaska aux États-Unis, partie du borough non organisé.


Early life.

Smoot was born in Yukon, Florida. His maternal grandfather was Johnson Tal Crawford. He graduated from Upper Arlington High School in Upper Arlington, Ohio, in 1962. He studied mathematics before switching to physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he obtained dual bachelor's degrees in mathematics and physics in 1966 and a Ph.D. in particle physics in 1970. (It is Smoot's cousin, Oliver R. Smoot, who was the MIT student who was used as the unit of measure known as the "smoot".)

Initial research.

George Smoot switched to cosmology and began work at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, collaborating with Luis Walter Alvarez on the High Altitude Particle Physics Experiment, a stratospheric weather balloon designed to detect antimatter in Earth's upper atmosphere, the presence of which was predicted by the now discredited steady state theory of cosmology.  He then took up an interest in cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), previously discovered by Arno Allan Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. There were, at that time, several open questions about this topic, relating directly to fundamental questions about the structure of the universe. Certain models predicted the universe as a whole was rotating, which would have an effect on the CMB: its temperature would depend on the direction of observation. With the help of Alvarez and Richard A. Muller, Smoot developed a differential radiometer which measured the difference in temperature of the CMB between two directions 60 degrees apart. The instrument, which was mounted on a Lockheed U-2 plane, made it possible to determine that the overall rotation of the universe was zero, which was within the limits of accuracy of the instrument. It did, however, detect a variation in the temperature of the CMB of a different sort. That the CMB appears to be at a higher temperature on one side of the sky than on the opposite side, referred to as a dipole pattern, has been explained as a Doppler effect of the Earth's motion relative to the area of CMB emission, which is called the last scattering surface. Such a Doppler effect arises because the Sun, and in fact the Milky Way as a whole, is not stationary, but rather is moving at nearly 600 km/s with respect to the last scattering surface. This is probably due to the gravitational attraction between our galaxy and a concentration of mass like the Great Attractor.

COBE.

At that time, the CMB appeared to be perfectly uniform excluding the distortion caused by the Doppler effect as mentioned above. This result contradicted observations of the universe, with various structures such as galaxies and galaxy clusters indicating that the universe was relatively heterogeneous on a small scale. However, these structures formed slowly. Thus, if the universe is heterogeneous today, it would have been heterogeneous at the time of the emission of the CMB as well, and observable today through weak variations in the temperature of the CMB. It was the detection of these anisotropies that Smoot was working on in the late 1970s. He then proposed to NASA a project involving a satellite equipped with a detector that was similar to the one mounted on the U-2 but was more sensitive and not influenced by air pollution. The proposal was accepted and incorporated as one of the instruments of the satellite COBE, which cost $160 million. COBE was launched on November 18, 1989, after a delay owing to the destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger. After more than two years of observation and analysis, the COBE research team announced on 23 April 1992 that the satellite had detected tiny fluctuations in the CMB, a breakthrough in the study of the early universe. The observations were "evidence for the birth of the universe" and led Smoot to say regarding the importance of his discovery that "if you're religious, it's like looking at God." The success of COBE was the outcome of extensive teamwork involving more than 1,000 researchers, engineers and other participants. John Mather coordinated the entire process and also had primary responsibility for the experiment that revealed the blackbody form of the CMB measured by COBE. Smoot had the main responsibility of measuring the small variations in the temperature of the radiation.  Smoot collaborated with "San Francisco Chronicle" journalist Keay Davidson to write the general-audience book "Wrinkles in Time", that chronicled his team's efforts. In the book "The Very First Light", John Mather and John Boslough complement and broaden the COBE story, and suggest that Smoot violated team policy by leaking news of COBE's discoveries to the press before NASA's formal announcement, a leak that, to Mather, smacked of self-promotion and betrayal. Smoot eventually apologized for not following the agreed publicity plan and Mather said tensions eventually eased. Mather acknowledged that Smoot had "brought COBE worldwide publicity" the project might not normally have received.

Other projects.

After COBE, Smoot took part in another experiment involving a stratospheric balloon, Millimeter Anisotropy eXperiment IMaging Array, which had improved angular resolution compared to COBE, and refined the measurements of the anisotropies of the CMB. Smoot has continued CMB observations and analysis and was a collaborator on the third generation CMB anisotropy observatory Planck satellite. He is also a collaborator of the design of the Supernova/Acceleration Probe, a satellite which is proposed to measure the properties of dark energy. He has also assisted in analyzing data from the Spitzer Space Telescope in connection with measuring far infrared background radiation. Smoot also was a leader in a group that launched the Mikhailo Lomonosov April 28, 2016.  Smoot is credited by Mickey Hart for inspiring the album "Mysterium Tremendum", which is based, in part on "sounds" that can be extracted from the background signature of the Big Bang.

Media appearances.

Smoot had a cameo appearance as himself in "The Terminator Decoupling" episode of "The Big Bang Theory". He contacted the show as a fan of their often physics-based plots and was incorporated into an episode featuring him lecturing at a fictional physics symposium. He is also credited by the producer of the show with providing a joke told by Penny in the episode "The Dead Hooker Juxtaposition". In April 2019 he also appeared in the episode The Laureate Accumulation.  On September 18, 2009, Smoot appeared on an episode of the Fox television show "Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?" During filming, he reached the final question, "What U.S. state is home to Acadia National Park?", to which he gave the correct answer "Maine", becoming the second person to win the one-million-dollar prize.  On December 10, 2009, he appeared in a BBC interview of Nobel laureates, discussing the value science has to offer society.  Smoot gave a 2014 TEDx lecture in which he suggested that certain aspects of physics support the simulation hypothesis, the idea that our reality is a computer-generated virtual reality.  In 2016, Smoot appeared in a TV commercial for Intuit TurboTax, advising a user of the software on what to do.

George Fitzgerald Smoot III (born February 20, 1945) is an American astrophysicist, cosmologist, Nobel laureate, and one of two contestants to win the 1 million prize on "Are You Smarter than a 5th Grader?". He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for his work on the Cosmic Background Explorer with John C. Mather that led to the "discovery of the black body form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation".

George Fitzgerald Smoot III ( à, Floride, États-Unis) est un astrophysicien et un cosmologiste américain. Il a obtenu le prix Nobel de physique de 2006 conjointement avec John C. Mather.


Development.

Background.

The "M.9A Master I" was based on the M.9 Kestrel trainer that was first demonstrated at the Hendon Air show in July 1937, although this aircraft never entered production. The M.9 Kestrel, powered by a single Rolls-Royce Kestrel XVI V-12 engine, capable of generating up to 745 hp (555 kW), could attain a maximum speed of 296 mph (477 km/h). The British Air Ministry had previously selected the rival de Havilland Don to meet Specification T.6/36, which called for an advanced trainer aircraft; however, this aircraft would prove to be a failure. Still requiring an aircraft to perform the duties intended for the Don, the RAF placed a large order for 500 examples of a modified version of the Kestrel, designated M.9A Master, at a cost of £2 million.  Upon receipt of this order, Miles had the prototype M.9 rebuilt into a representative prototype for the Master. Alterations included the installation of a lower-powered (715 hp (535 kW)) Kestrel XXX engine, of which there were large surplus stocks available, along with extensive revisions to the airframe, which involved the adoption of a new cockpit canopy, a modified rear fuselage and tail, along with the repositioning of the radiator from underneath the nose to the underside of the wing's centre-section. These modifications came at the cost of a significantly reduced maximum speed over the M.9; despite this, the Master was a relatively fast and manoeuvrable trainer. According to aviation periodical Flight, Miles had designed the Master to fulfil their vision of an effective trainer aircraft being one that could match the performance of, and possess similar characteristics to, that of the frontline RAF monoplane fighters of the day, these being the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane.

Into flight.

On 31 March 1939, the first true production Master I conducted its maiden flight. According to "Flight", the first production examples were being delivered during late July of that year. The Master had entered RAF service just prior to the start of the Second World War Eventually, 900 Mk. I and Mk. IA Masters were constructed. This total included 26 built as the "M.24 Master Fighter" which were modified to a single-seat configuration, and armed with six.303 in machine guns for use as an emergency fighter; this model never saw any combat use.  When production of the Kestrel engine ceased, a new variant of the Master was designed that used an air-cooled Bristol Mercury XX radial engine, capable of producing 870 hp (650 kW), instead. Thus configured, on 30 October 1939, the first "M.19 Master II" prototype made its first flight; 1,748 aircraft were eventually built. After the Lend-Lease programme provided a supply of engines from the United States to Britain, a third variant of the Master, designated "M.27 Master III", was designed, which was powered by the American-built Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp Junior, a two-row radial engine that could generate 825 hp (615 kW). A total of 602 Master IIIs were constructed.  In a typical trainer configuration, the Master was equipped to carry eight practice bombs, plus a single.303 in Vickers machine gun that was mounted in the front fuselage. During 1942, it was decided to have the wings of all variants clipped by three feet (c. one metre); this modification reduced the stress imposed upon the wings while also increasing the aircraft's manoeuvrability.

Production.

A total of 3,249 Masters were built by Phillips and Powis Aircraft Limited at Woodley, Berkshire; South Marston, Swindon, Wiltshire; and Doncaster, South Yorkshire. This was the largest number produced of any Miles aircraft type prior to production of the newer Miles Martinet taking precedence during 1942.  The mass production of this aeroplane at Woodley required a major expansion of the original Phillips & Powis factory, which was officially opened on 20 January 1939 by the Secretary of State for Air, Sir Kingsley Wood. This facility was outfitted with a pioneering moving track assembly line, which is believed to be the first such facility in a British aircraft factory. A similar facility was also installed in the company's shadow factory at South Marston by the end of 1940.

Design.

The Miles Master was a tandem-seat low-wing cantilever monoplane, powered by a single reciprocating engine. Initial models used the Kestrel XXX engine; capable of providing up to 745 hp (555 kW), this powerplant enabled the aircraft to achieve a maximum speed of 296 mph (477 km/h), which reportedly made the Master as fast as the single-seat biplane fighters of 1935. The "inverted gull"-shaped wing of the Master was a major distinguishing factor of the aircraft and was adopted, despite higher production costs, due to its performance benefits, permitting the stowage of both the retractable undercarriage and fuel tanks; aside from this shaping, the wing's design largely conformed with traditional approaches. It features hydraulically-actuated split flaps along its trailing edge, their position being indicated electronically on the cockpit's instrumentation planel. The wing's center-section also accommodates a machine gun.  While the Master had incorporated relatively advanced aerodynamic characteristics (intended to mimic frontline fighters) for a contemporary trainer aircraft, it used a conventional structure, comprising an oval-section fuselage covered by a plywood skin, featuring a semi-monocoque approach. Forward of the tandem cockpits, the nose is strengthened by a metal former that provides protection against nose-overs, a common occurrence amongst trainee pilots when flying aircraft outfitted with a 'taildragger' undercarriage. The tail section had an orthodox cantilever structure, the tailplane being mounted directly on top of the fuselage; according to "Flight", the tailplane's aerodynamics were designed to facilitate easy spin recovery. The Kestrel engine is mounted on tubular steel bearings which was designed to facilitate engine removal for ease of maintenance via the undoing of only four main bolts along with the connecting leads. Further maintenance savings were made via the engine's derating, allowing for a longer interval between overhauls.  The Master was furnished with a constant-speed propeller, which was interchangeable between Rotol and de Havilland units. The Kestrel engine of early-built aircraft incorporated various auxiliary drives to power both vacuum and hydraulic pumps, along with an air compressor and a 500-watt electrical generator. Cooling for the water and oil systems was provided via a duct running underneath the fuselage. Fuel was housed in a pair of fuel tanks, each containing up to 36 gallons, accommodated within the wings; the oil tank is mounted behind a fireproof bulkhead while the water tank is mounted in front of the engine. The retractable undercarriage is operated via two separate hydraulic systems along with a hand-pump as backup; the brakes are also hydraulically-actuated.  The cockpit of the Master was designed was considerable attention to best facilitate its use as a trainer aircraft, including for use of use and comfort. The positions of the two flying crew, the student in front and the instructor behind, was staggered; the rear position is 12-inches higher to provide the instructor with greater visibility. Mid-flight, an instructor was able to disconnect several of the student pilot's controls, such as the brakes, using various cut-outs provided. The forward windscreen is composed of molded Perspex and is furnished with a reflector-type gun sight, providing an optically-perfect view of a target. Two small panels can be opened to aid visibility while flying in poor weather conditions, sun blinds are also incorporated. Catches on either side of the sliding canopy allow for the panels to be rapidly detached, facilitating faster bailing-out during an emergency. Other emergency equipment included a Graviner fire extinguisher mounted behind the rear seat and emergency hydraulic controls set into the floor on the cockpit.

Operational history.

Typical service use of the Master primarily revolved around "(Pilot) Advanced Flying Units", where they were used for training aircrew in preparation for service with frontline squadrons. Amongst other parts of the training syllabus, pilots would often be first exposed to fighter tactics while flying the aircraft. By 1942, advertisements claimed that the Master was being flown by every RAF fighter pilot-in-training.  Several hundred Master IIs were either delivered in, or subsequently converted to, a configuration that allowed their use in the glider-towing role. Such aircraft would have the lower portion of their rudder cut away to allow fitting of a towing hook. Starting in 1942, Miles Masters were extensively used as tugs for General Aircraft Hotspur gliders at various Glider Training Schools. Examples were also operated by multiple Anti-aircraft Co-operation Units of the RAF as a liaison aircraft with British Army units.  Initially, the type was mainly used for training, thus few aircraft entered squadron service. Known deployments were to No. 287 Squadron between February and August 1942, to No. 286 Squadron from November 1944 to February 1945, and to No. 613 Squadron between August 1941 and October 1943.  The Master II was also used for target tug purposes at the Central Gunnery School whilst the School was based at RAF Sutton Bridge from April 1942 to March 1944. In this role, they pulled the drogue targets required for aerial gunnery training by pupils at the Pilot Gunnery Instructors' Training Wing. The Miles Martinet, a derivative of the Master, was a developed specifically to be a target tug and would see widespread use in this capacity.  RAF stocks were frequently diverted to support several of the air services of the Allies. Such diversions included 426 aircraft to the South African Air Force, 52 to the Fleet Air Arm, nine to the United States Army Air Force (USAAF) units based in Britain, 23 to the Royal Egyptian Air Force, 23 to Turkish Air Force, two to Portuguese Air Force, and fourteen to the Irish Air Corps.  Despite having been produced in the thousands, there are no known surviving aircraft of the type today, although a few outer wings and other parts are held by several aviation museums in Britain.

The Miles M.9 Master was a British two-seat monoplane advanced trainer designed and built by aviation company Miles Aircraft Ltd. It was inducted in large numbers into both the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Fleet Air Arm (FAA) during the Second World War.

Le Miles Master est un avion d'instruction de la Royal Air Force utilisé pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale produit à plus de. 1.090 d'entre eux furent construits à South Marston.


Early life and education.

Birthistle was born in Bray, County Wicklow, Ireland, but moved with her family to Derry, Northern Ireland when she was 14. She was raised Catholic but attended the non-denominational Foyle College. After her GCSEs, she studied acting at The Gaiety School of Acting in Dublin.

Career.

In 1995, she got her first TV role as Regina Crosbie in the serial "Glenroe". She stayed for three years until 1998. She was offered her first feature film in 1997, "All Souls' Day" by Alan Gilsenan. She played a variety of roles in Irish films, including "Drinking Crude" (1997), co-starring Colin Farrell, and TV movie "Miracle at Midnight" (1998), with Mia Farrow. In 2002, Eva appeared in "Sunday", a dramatization of the events of Bloody Sunday written by Jimmy McGovern.  In 2003, she appeared in the TV series "Trust" before starring as Roisin Hanlon in the Ken Loach movie "Ae Fond Kiss..." (2003–04), which won her the 2005 London Critics Circle Film Award as "British Actress of the Year". She appeared in "Breakfast on Pluto", "Imagine Me & You" and "Save Angel Hope" (by Lukas Erni) in 2005, and in Brian Kirk's "Middletown" in 2006. She starred as human rights lawyer Jane Lavery in the TV conspiracy drama "The State Within", and played Rosaleen in the "Taken at the Flood" episode of "Agatha Christie's Poirot" in 2006. In late 2007, she featured as Rembrandt's wife Saskia van Uylenburg in the historical drama, "Nightwatching" by Peter Greenaway.  She featured in the BBC drama "The Last Enemy" in early 2008, playing the role of Eleanor Brooke, a junior minister. In 2009, she portrayed Jenette in the last episode of the second season of the BBC hit series "Ashes to Ashes". She also appeared in two successful horror films "The Children" (2008) and "Wake Wood" (2011). In 2010, she won Best Actress at the Myrtle Beach International Film Festival for her acclaimed performance as a lovelorn paralegal in Curt Truninger's "The Rendezvous".  She played "Annette Nicholls" in the 2010 three-part TV series "Five Daughters". She appeared as Detective Superintendent Sarah Cavendish in the ninth, and final, series of "Waking the Dead". In 2011, Birthistle appeared in the Sky1 TV series "" as Captain Kate Marshall. In 2013, Birthistle was co-starring Anna Friel in the Sky1 TV production "The Psychopath Next Door". In "Brooklyn" she played Georgina, the cabin-mate of Eilis (Saoirse Ronan), mentoring her in surviving the voyage to New York and dealing with immigration to the USA. In 2014, she portrayed Sarah Bailey in the miniseries "Amber". Since 2015, she has starred in "The Last Kingdom" as Hild, a nun turned warrior and friend of Uhtred of Bebbanburg. She appeared in the 2017 Irish film "The Delinquent Season" opposite Cillian Murphy.

Personal life.

Birthistle's husband, Ross, is an acupuncturist. They have a son, Jesse, born in 2013, and a daughter, Joni (named after Joni Mitchell) born in 2017.

Eva Birthistle (born 1 January 1974) is an Irish actress and writer. She is best known for her role in "Ae Fond Kiss..." and since 2015 has starred in "The Last Kingdom". She won the London Film Critics Circle British Actress of the Year Award in 2004, and has twice won the IFTA Best Actress in a Leading Role (Film) award.

Eva Birthistle est une actrice, scenariste et productrice irlandaise, née le à Bray, dans le comté de Wicklow. Elle est notamment connue pour son rôle principal dans le film "Just a Kiss". Elle joue également un rôle régulier dans la série "The Last Kingdom".


Plot.

A group of friends share a few drinks, when an eminent doctor, Wolfe Macfarlane, enters. One of the friends, Fettes, recognizes the name and angrily confronts the new arrival. Although his friends all find this behaviour suspicious, none of them can understand what might lie behind it. It turns out that Macfarlane and Fettes had attended medical school together, under anatomy professor Robert Knox. Their duties included taking receipt of bodies for dissection, and paying the pair of shifty and suspicious men who supplied them.  On one occasion, Fettes identifies a body as that of a woman he knew, and is convinced she has been murdered. But Macfarlane talks him out of reporting the incident, lest they are both implicated in the crime. Later, Fettes meets Macfarlane at a tavern, along with a man named Gray, who treats Macfarlane in a rude manner. The following night, Macfarlane brings Gray's body along as a dissection sample. Although Fettes is now certain that his friend has committed murder, Macfarlane again convinces him to keep his silence, persuading him that if he is not courageous enough to perform such manly deeds as these, he will end up as just another victim. The two men make sure the body is comprehensively dissected, destroying any forensic evidence. Fettes and Macfarlane continue their work, without being implicated in any crime. However, when a shortage of bodies leaves their mentor in need, they are sent to a country churchyard to exhume a recently buried woman. As they are driving back with the body seated between them, they begin to feel nervous and stop to take a better look. They are shocked to discover that the body between them is that of Gray, which they thought they had destroyed.

Adaptations in other media.

The 1945 film "The Body Snatcher" was loosely based on the short story. The film was produced by Val Lewton and directed by Robert Wise, and starred Boris Karloff and Bela Lugosi.  The movie The Flesh and the Fiends was released in 1960. It tells the story of Dr. Knox (Peter Cushing) and his association with Burke and Hare.  A television film was made of the story in 1966, directed by Toby Robertson.  "The Body-Snatcher" published in the Warren magazine "Creepy" #7 [February 1966] was adapted by Archie Goodwin and illustrated by Reed Crandall. The story is slightly altered: Fettes is Dr "Toddy" MacFarlane's laboratory assistant rather than a fellow student of Dr Knox.  The story was also adapted by Ian Martin for a 1974 episode of "The CBS Radio Mystery Theater" starring Howard Da Silva, Ralph Bell, Court Benson, Patricia Elliott, and Ken Harvey. The show was also adapted for radio again in 1980 as part of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation series Nightfall.  A translated audio book version of the short story has been published in Malayalam by Kathacafe in 2017.

"The Body Snatcher" is a short story by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894). First published in the "Pall Mall Christmas "Extra"" in December 1884, its characters were based on criminals in the employ of real-life surgeon Robert Knox (1791–1862) around the time of the notorious Burke and Hare murders (1828).

Le Voleur de cadavres ("The Body Snatcher") est une nouvelle de l'écrivain écossais Robert Louis Stevenson publiée en décembre 1884. L'histoire s'inspire d'un fait divers qui secoua Édimbourg dans les années 1827-1828 dans lequel fut impliqué le docteur Robert Knox, célèbre anatomiste écossais.


Life.

Joachim Hoffmann was born in Königsberg, East Prussia, in 1930. In the latter stages of World War II Hoffmann's family fled to western Germany to avoid the advancing Red Army. There the family settled in Berlin.  From 1951 Hoffmann studied modern history, eastern European history and comparative ethnology at the Free University of Berlin and University of Hamburg. In 1959 he received his PhD in history for his study "Die Berliner Mission des Grafen Prokesch-Osten 1849-1852". From 1960 until 1995 Hoffmann was working in the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office, where his field of expertise was the “Armed Forces of the Soviet Union”. In his later years he held the post of scientific director. In these years he was also awarded prizes for his work, such as the “Dr. Walter-Eckhardt” Award (1991) and the “General Andrej Andrejewitsch Wlassow” Cultural Prize (1992). After Hoffmann had retired in 1995, he continued to work as an independent author.  He died at Freiburg in February 2002.

Work.

Hoffmann published a number of books and articles mainly on the German-Soviet war (1941-1945). Most of his works were based on little-known topics like "Deutsche und Kalmyken 1942 bis 1945" (Germans and the Kalmyk people) (1977), "Die Ostlegionen 1941 bis 1943" (1981) and "Kaukasien 1942/43 - Das deutsche Heer und die Orientvölker der Sowjetunion" (Caucasus 1942/43 - The German army and the eastern peoples of the Soviet Union) (1991). Also in 1984 he published the book "Die Geschichte der Wlassow-Armee" (History of the Vlasov Army) (1984). With the support of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn it was also introduced in Russia in 1990, where it caused great controversy.  From the middle of the 1980s, Hoffmann was involved in the debate about alleged Soviet preparations for an attack on Germany since the summer of 1940. In 1995, right after he had retired, he published his work "Stalins Vernichtungskrieg 1941-1945" ("Stalin's War of Extermination"). This book caused great controversy, because of some of its thesis. Even the German Bundestag had to pay some attention, because the foreword was written by Manfred Kehrig, who was by this time still employed by the Military History Research Office. This gave Hoffmann's book the appearance of an official work by the office. In later versions of the book, Kehrig was only allowed to sign this foreword as a private person and without his occupation written under his name.<ref name='German Bundestag: Print 13/5773 of 11.10.1996'> Answer of the Federal Government on the request of the delegates Annelie Buntenbach, Volker Beck (Cologne), Winfried Nachtwei and the parliamentary group ALLIANCE 90/GREEN - Bundestag archives print 13/5559 </ref>

Controversies.

Hoffmann has been criticised by historians for his uncritical attitude to the Nazi regime, and its war in the Soviet Union. Most critics concentrate on his last book "Stalins Vernichtungskrieg 1941-1945 (1995) [Stalin's War of Annihilation]".

Hitler's preemptive war thesis.

One of the main theses of Hoffmann's book (Chapter 1 and 2) was that Stalin had planned a war against Nazi Germany in 1941. He mostly referred to the works by Russian authors such as Danilov, Gorkov or Viktor Suvorov. According to this thesis, Stalin would have waged war on Nazi Germany in the late summer of 1941, if Hitler had not struck first. According to Hoffmann there was no evidence that Hitler had any knowledge of these plans, which means that even if Stalin had planned a war, the German attack could not be considered a defensive action.

Total number of Holocaust victims.

In one part of the book Hoffmann also wrote about the absolute number of victims of the Holocaust. He criticised the evidence for the accepted number of about 6 million victims, claiming that it was a propaganda figure of the Soviet leadership for which there were no evidence. Hoffmann stated that according to papers now lying in Russian archives only 74.000 victims could be identified by name. However, he added that these figures would naturally make up only a small part of the absolute number. In view of the lack of archive material, Hoffmann then raised the question of the basis for the estimation of about 5 to 6 million victims. He came to the conclusion that the Soviet commission examining the concentration camp Auschwitz (which did not find any of the German paperwork) had made the best estimate the number of victims. From interviews with former prisoners, the Soviet officers learned that it had been theoretically possible to burn about 5 million corpses. Through they also estimated that 20% of the prisoners were occupied by forced labor, they reported a total number of 4 million victims to Moscow. This report was published later in the Communist party newspaper "Pravda" (8 May 1945). Hoffmann added, that some former Nazis had also reported a similar figure. SS-Organiser Adolf Eichmann had spoken of about 4 to 5 million victims, for which he had no suitable explanation. Last Hoffmann referred to other historians, such as Dr. Franciszek Piper, the director of the Auschwitz museum, and Jean Claude Pressac, who had both been writing of about only 800,000 to 1.2 million (Piper) or even 631,000 to 711,000 (Cressac) victims of Auschwitz. Because of this argumentation, some critics accused Hoffmann of getting close to Holocaust denial.

Hoffmann and the extreme right.

Shortly after he had retired Hoffmann took part as an expert in a trial against the extremist "Grabert Verlag". In the process he granted some degree of respectability to the book ""Dissecting the Holocaust"", which had been published by Holocaust denier Germar Rudolf. Still, the court found that phrases such as "supposed", "presumed", "victim of the Jews", "imputed forethought", "furious phantasies", denied the Holocaust and therefore qualified as the crime of race persecution. On 15 June 1996, judge Burkhardt Stein from Tübingen County Court ordered the confiscation and incineration of all books "Grundlagen zur Zeitgeschichte" and the destruction of all means for manufacturing them. Later the certificate written by Hoffmann was published in Rudolf's magazine "Vierteljahreshefte für freie Geschichtsforschung".  In the same year Hoffmann published "Wartime bombings of neutral Switzerland" in the Holocaust denying "Journal of Historical Review".

Joachim Hoffmann (1 December 1930 – 8 February 2002) was a German historian and scientific director of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office.

Joachim Hoffmann (né le à Königsberg en Prusse-Orientale, décédé le à Freiburg - en français, Fribourg-en-Brisgau) est un historien allemand.


Publication history.

American Eagle first appears in "Marvel Two-in-One Annual" #6 (October 1981), by writer Doug Moench and penciler Ron Wilson. In the story entitled "An Eagle from America!" Strongbow gains superhuman powers and becomes American Eagle. He joins with Thing, Ka-Zar, and Wyatt Wingfoot to defeat Klaw.  The character subsequently appears in "Contest of Champions" #1, 3 (June & August 1982), "Incredible Hulk" vol. 1 #279 (January 1983), and "Rom" #65-66 (April 1985-May 1985). He makes several appearances in stand-alone stories in "Marvel Comics Presents" vol. 1, including issues #27 (September 1989), 128 (May 1993), 130 (June 1993), and 147-148 (February 1994). The story "Just Another Shade of Hate", in issue #27, is its first solo adventure.  The American Eagle is not seen again for some time until his appearance in "Thunderbolts" #112-115 (May 2007-August 2007) where the writer Warren Ellis and the artist Mike Deodato Jr gave him a new look. American Eagle appears in his own digital comic on Marvel Digital Comics Unlimited published Nov. 12, 2008. Titled "American Eagle: Just a Little Old-Fashioned Justice", it is an eight-page story written by Jason Aaron with art by Richard Isanove. This eight-page digital story was later printed in "Marvel Assistant-Sized Spectacular" #1 (2009). He plays a big role in the story "Homeland" in "War Machine" vol. 2 #6-7 (2010) written by Greg Pak. He appears in "Heroic Age: Heroes" #1 (November 2010) and "Fear Itself: The Home Front" #5 (October 2011).  American Eagle received an entry in the original "Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe" #1, in the "Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Deluxe Edition" #1, in "The Marvel Encyclopedia" (2009) and in the "Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe A To Z Update" #2 (2010).

Fictional character biography.

Jason Strongbow is a member of the Navajo Nation who was born in Kaibito, Arizona. He attempted to stop a mining company from excavating a mountain sacred to his tribe. He discovered that the villain Klaw was in league with the mining company. Klaw needed uranium to augment his sonic powers. Strongbow's brother Ward did not agree with him about preserving the mountain. Inside the mine, an argument erupted between the brothers and Klaw which led to violence. During the fight, Klaw used his sonic blaster on the two brothers. Somehow, a combination of the sonic energy of the blast and the exposure to the uranium gave both of the Strongbow brothers enhanced physical abilities. Klaw fled with his crew and Ward to the Savage Land in hopes of gaining vibranium to augment his powers.  Jason emerged from the mine. Taking inspiration from a flying eagle, he took up the mantle of American Eagle. He followed Klaw to the Savage Land. There, he met Ka-Zar, Thing, and Wyatt Wingfoot. The four joined forces and defeated Klaw and his minions. During the battle, Ward was shot and killed by one of the miners.  American Eagle returned to become a champion of his tribe, subsequently identified as the Navajo Nation. Since his battle with Klaw in the Savage Land, he was among the heroes of the world gathered to take part in the Contest of Champions, he was among the heroes who gathered to honor the Hulk, and he was among the heroes who helped Rom the Spaceknight defeat the Dire Wraiths.  In his first solo adventure, the American Eagle defeated the Peace Monger and his Knights of Saint Virgil in Washington, D.C.. With the NYPD, American Eagle arrests his cousin Jimmy Littlehawk who - along with two friends - robbed a casino on the Reservation then left for New York City. He helped F.B.I. agent Dale Peck arrest Jonas Murphy, a mutant and a serial killer. With Detective Frank Ramirez, Strongbow stopped a drug ring led by a man named Sinner, who used children to sell his merchandise. Strongbow escaped execution by John Marshall, who stole land from Native Americans man and was later ruined through a real estate charge by American Eagle. With the help of Interpol, Strongbow lured Marshall and his soldiers into a trap.  After the 2006 "Civil War" storyline, Jason Strongbow confirms to his friend Steve Rogers that he is strongly against the Super-Human Registration Act, and is planning to fight Iron Man over it. He also bears a new costume with fewer stereotypically Native American attributes, including a leather jacket and a helmet resembling the head and beak of a bald eagle. It is his intent to prevent the Steel Spider from direct confrontation with an angry group of men from Jason's Navajo reservation by persuading the Steel Spider to ease up on his zealous vigilante act. By talking to Ollie, he hopes to defuse a time bomb of local violence just waiting to explode.  The Eagle finds the Steel Spider in downtown Phoenix, Arizona, as the Thunderbolts unexpectedly arrive. Ollie argues that they will try to kill him and replace him with "Some Good Government Worker". When the Thunderbolts eventually do emerge, Jason decides to ally himself with Steel Spider, shooting the team's leader, Moonstone, through the wrist with a crossbow bolt. After a prolonged fight, Sepulchre becomes involved, and the three defeat Venom, the Swordsman, Songbird, and Radioactive Man. Though the latter two wish to try to defeat them using the old team's methods, leaving Sepulchre and the Eagle, Moonstone orders that Bullseye cripple the Eagle in the same way he did Jack Flag. The issue ends with Songbird, Radioactive Man, Penance and Venom squaring up against Steel Spider, Sepulchre and Jason, in what Steel Spider describes as 'almost... a fair fight'. The Eagle ends up crippling Bullseye before making his escape.  A news reporter stated that because American Eagle lives on a Native American Reservation he is exempt from the Registration Act, and that the Commission on Superhuman Activities would take no action against him because of this.  During the 2008-09 "Dark Reign" storyline, it is revealed that Jason is hiding James Rhodes' mother inside the Navajo County. Norman Osborn later tries to convince him to subdue War Machine, besides he has no jurisdiction over Strongbow. Jason refuses to act for anyone other than the interests of the Navajo and fights together with War Machine against a "Giant Ultimo Head" Rhodes stumbled upon along the way to find the men behind the "Ultimo Virus" deployed in Acquiria.  During the 2011 "Fear Itself" storyline, American Eagle deals with the fear and chaos in Bleachville as well as drug traffickers and the town's mayor.  American Eagle later appears as a member of the Agents of Wakanda.

Powers, abilities and equipment.

American Eagle possesses superhuman strength, enabling him to lift (press) approximately 15 tons under optimal conditions. He also possesses superhuman speed, agility, stamina, and sturdiness as a result of radiation-induced mutation. Strongbow's bodily tissues are somewhat harder and more resistant to physical injury than that of an ordinary human. However, he is far from invulnerable. While he can be injured by weapons composed of conventional materials, he can withstand impact forces that would severely injure or kill a normal human with little to no injury to show for it. He can run at a maximum speed of 65 miles per hour for approximately 5 hours before tiring to an appreciable degree.  American Eagle's sensory organs have also been fortified by the radiation-induced mutation. Like his namesake, the Eagle, he has hyperkeen eyesight, able to see at what the average human being sees at. His senses of hearing, smell, taste, and touch are approximately three times that of an average human being.  He also carries a crossbow which fires special bolts.

Analysis.

In "Native Americans in Comic Books - A Critical Study", Michael A. Sheyahshe notes that while American Eagle "may have some inherent stereotypic issues, the fact that American Eagle's powers come from a non-ethnically based source (and not, say, the Great Spirit) marks a significant improvement for Indigenous characters."  During an interview with Comic Book Resources, the assistant editor Lauren Sankovitch explains why she chose to represent American Eagle in "Marvel Assistant-Sized Spectacular" #1 (2009):  In an interview, Greg Pak, the writer of the story "Homeland" in "War Machine" vol. 2 #6-7 (2010), told that Jason Strongbow, aka American Eagle, is easily his "favorite reinvented character of the past decade." Indeed, the modern character has undergone some transformations compared to its appearances from 1981 to 1994. At the beginning, the Navajo hero was wearing a stereotypical costume with feather headdress and buckskin boots. When the writer Warren Ellis and the artist Mike Deodato Jr. used the character in "Thunderbolts", its new look is composed of ordinary clothes, a leather jacket and a helmet resembling the head and beak of a bald eagle. In its first appearances, Strongbow was running under his own power, at the opposite the new version uses a motorcycle.

Other characters named American Eagle.

World War II.

There was an American Eagle before Strongbow took the mantle. Lt. Col. James Fletcher, a renowned battlefield hero of World War I in recent times became the security chief and trainer for Project: Rebirth. He was captured by agents of the Red Skull (Johann Schmidt) and was tortured by the Master Interrogator. He refused to yield any information and committed suicide to avoid breaking under further torture. First appeared in "Adventures of Captain America" #1 (September 1991) and appeared through to issue #3 (December 1991) which depicted his death.

Earth-712.

There have also been two incarnations of characters named the "American Eagle" in the Squadron Supreme:

American Eagle (Jason Strongbow) is a fictional character, a Navajo superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.

Jason « Jase » Strongbow, alias l’Aigle américain (« American Eagle » en version originale), est un super-héros évoluant dans l'univers Marvel de la maison d'édition Marvel Comics. Créé par le scénariste Doug Moench et le dessinateur, le personnage de fiction apparaît pour la première fois dans le comic book "Marvel Two-in-One Annual" #6 en octobre 1981.


Early years.

Spotted Tail was born about 1823 in the White River country west of the Missouri River in present-day South Dakota. His father, Cunka or Tangle Hair, was from the Saône band, and his mother, Walks-with-the-Pipe, was a Brulé. He was given the birth name of Jumping Buffalo. During the previous 40 years, the Lakota or Teton Sioux had moved from present-day Minnesota and eastern South Dakota to areas west of the Missouri. They had differentiated into several sub-tribes or bands, including the Saône, Brulé and Oglala. During this time the people adopted the use of horses and expanded their range in hunting the buffalo across their wide grazing patterns.  The young man took his warrior name, Spotted Tail, after receiving a gift of a raccoon tail from a white trapper; he sometimes wore a raccoon tail in his war bonnet. He took part in the Grattan Massacre. Two of his sisters, Iron Between Horns and Kills Enemy, were married to the elder Crazy Horse, in what was traditional Sioux practice for elite men. Spotted Tail may have been the maternal uncle of the famous warrior Crazy Horse, which meant he was a relative of the notable Touch the Clouds as well.  General Anson Mills, who knew Spotted Tail well, called him "a fine-looking man, with engaging manners, perfectly loyal to the government, a lover of peace, knowing no good could come to his people from war," a man who had both a high respect for and confidence in U.S. Army officers as well as a good sense of humor.

Marriage and family.

Spotted Tail married and had children. Eugene Fitch Ware, a Fort Laramie army officer, wrote that Spotted Tail's daughter, "Ah-ho-appa" (Fallen Leaf), "... was one of those individuals found in all lands, at all places, and among all people; she was misplaced." He suggested that she adopted some European-American practices, and that she was thought to be secretly in love with one of the officers at the fort. When she was dying in 1866, Fallen Leaf made her father promise that she would be buried on a hillside overlooking Fort Laramie. The entire garrison at the post helped Spotted Tail to honor her request by arranging for a ceremonial funeral, including a Christian service and Sioux ceremony. Many years later, Spotted Tail had her remains transported to the Rosebud Indian Agency in South Dakota and re-interred.

The Treaty of Fort Laramie.

Spotted Tail agreed to the treaty, which in 1868 established the Great Sioux Reservation in West River, west of the Missouri River. In 1871, the senior Spotted Tail visited Washington, D.C. to meet the Commissioner of Indian Affairs Ely S. Parker and President Ulysses S. Grant. While there, he met with Red Cloud, a chief of the Oglala Lakota, and they agreed to work together on preserving Sioux rights and land.  In 1881, following the Black Hills War, Spotted Tail was killed by Crow Dog for reasons that have been disputed. Luther Standing Bear claimed Spotted Tail was killed by Crow Dog for having sold land not belonging to him and for taking the wife of a crippled man. Although these actions are said to have angered many Sioux leaders, Spotted Tail refused to give the woman back, claiming the United States government stood behind him. Several men decided to kill Spotted Tail but, before they could act, he was killed by Crow Dog on August 5, 1881. According to historian Dee Brown: "White officials...dismissed the killing as the culmination of a quarrel over a woman, but Spotted Tail's friends said that it was the result of a plot to break the power of the chiefs."

Prelude to the Great Sioux War of 1876-77.

In 1874, George Armstrong Custer led a reconnaissance mission into Sioux territory that reported gold in the Black Hills, an area held sacred by the local Indians. Formerly, the Army tried to keep miners out but did not succeed; the threat of violence grew. In May 1875, delegations headed by Spotted Tail, Red Cloud, and Lone Horn traveled to Washington, D.C. in a last-ditch attempt to persuade President Grant to honor existing treaties and stem the flow of miners into their territories. The Indians met with Grant, Secretary of the Interior Delano, and Commissioner of Indian Affairs Smith, who informed them that Congress wanted to resolve the matter by giving the tribes $25,000 for their land and resettling them into Indian Territory. The Indians rejected such a treaty, with Spotted Tail's reply to the proposition being as follows:  My father, I have considered all the Great Father told me, and have come here to give you an answer... When I was here before, the President gave me my country, and I put my stake down in a good place, and there I want to stay... I respect the Treaty (doubtless referring to the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie) but the white men who come in our country do not. You speak of another country, but it is not my country; it does not concern me, and I want nothing to do with it. I was not born there... If it is such a good country, you ought to send the white men now in our country there and let us alone...

Death in 1881.

On August 5, 1881, after a long simmering feud, Crow Dog shot and killed Chief Spotted Tail on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Crow Dog was arrested and tried in a territorial court in Deadwood, Dakota Territory, and found guilty of murder and sentenced to hang. In the case of "Ex parte Crow Dog", the United States Supreme Court overturned the verdict because the Deadwood Court had no jurisdiction in a case of one Indian killing another on reservation lands. Crow Dog was released and returned to the Rosebud.  Spotted Tail is buried in Rosebud, South Dakota. A tribal university (Sinte Gleska University) on the Rosebud Indian Reservation in South Dakota was named for him in 1971.

Impact on Indian Legal Jurisprudence and Tribal Sovereignty.

Spotted Tail's death influenced critical Indian law principles, long after his death. The case of "Ex parte Crow Dog" established that Indian tribes retain their sovereignty. The case also motivated the immediate creation, starting in 1885 of a series of federal statutes laying out the division of power between federal courts and Indian tribal courts to try Indian and non-Indian persons, in different circumstances for different crimes on Indian reservations. However "Ex parte Crow Dog" also established the plenary powers doctrine, giving Congress the power to pass any law they choose (including laws altering treaties that had been previously entered into), even over the opposition of the tribe or tribes affected.

Spotted Tail (Siŋté Glešká, pronounced "gleh-shka"; birth name T'at'aŋka Napsíca "Jumping Buffalo"); born c. 1823 – died August 5, 1881) was a Brulé Lakota tribal chief. Although a great warrior in his youth, and having taken part in the Grattan massacre, he declined to participate in Red Cloud's War. He had become convinced of the futility of opposing the white incursions into his homeland; he became a statesman, speaking for peace and defending the rights of his tribe.

Spotted Tail (en lakota : "Siŋté Glešká") est un important chef lakota de la bande des Brûlés né vers 1823 et mort assassiné le. Bien qu’ayant été un grand guerrier dans sa jeunesse, il est devenu convaincu de l’inutilité de s’opposer aux incursions des Blancs dans sa terre natale, et est devenu un homme politique promouvant la paix et défendant les droits de sa tribu. Ce fut un contemporain de Crazy Horse. On dit que ses sœurs Iron Between Horns et Kills Enemy se seraient mariées avec son père après la mort de sa mère. Il a été tué par en 1881 parce que d’autres chefs le considéraient comme un traître dans la lutte pour le pouvoir entre les Lakotas, qui a suivi la guerre des Black Hills.


Signage.

Autoroutes are identified by blue-and-red shields, similar to the American Interstate system. The red header of the shield contains a white image representing a highway overpass, and the blue lower portion of the shield contains the Autoroute's number in white, along with a fleur-de-lis, which is a provincial symbol of Quebec.  Most Autoroute and road traffic signs in the province are in French, though English is also used on federally-financed or -owned routes, such as the Bonaventure Expressway in Montreal. To surmount the language barrier, however, most signs in Quebec use pictograms and text is avoided in most cases, with the exceptions usually only being the names of control cities. Other exceptions that are posted in both languages is the illegal use of radar detectors when entering the province that reads "DÉTECTEURS DE RADAR INTERDITS/RADAR DETECTORS PROHIBITED", as well as areas where roads can be slippery due to melting ice and snow, marked "DEGEL/THAW".

Numbering system.

Autoroutes are divided into three types – principal routes, deviation routes, and collector routes – and are laid out and numbered in a fashion similar to the Interstate Highway System in the United States. The principal Autoroutes are the major highways of the province, and have single- or double-digit numbers. East-west Autoroutes running parallel to the Saint Lawrence River (for example, Autoroute 20 and Autoroute 40) are assigned even numbers, while north-south Autoroutes running perpendicular to the Saint Lawrence (such as Autoroute 5 and Autoroute 15) are given odd numbers. Deviation and collector Autoroutes both feature triple-digit numbers. Deviation routes are bypasses intended for truck traffic to circumvent urban areas, and are identified by an even number prefixing the number of the nearby Autoroute that it bypasses (for example, Autoroute 440 in Laval). Collector Autoroutes, by contrast, are spur routes into urban areas, and are identified by an odd number prefixing the number of the nearby Autoroute that it branches off of (such as Autoroute 720, a spur of Autoroute 20 into downtown Montreal).

History.

Quebec's first Autoroute was the "Autoroute des Laurentides" (Laurentian Autoroute), which opened in 1959 as a toll road. This initiative to bring freeways into Quebec was started by Maurice Duplessis, whose government saw the construction of the Laurentian Autoroute (now A-15) from Montreal to Saint-Jérôme and the first section of the Boulevard Métropolitain (A-40), which opened in 1960.

1960s.

It was the Quebec Liberal government of the 1960s that saw the construction of further Autoroutes, with a grid numbering system and the introduction of the blue and red shield. The sign is inspired by the American Interstate sign. This was especially needed in light of the fact that many visitors would be flocking to Montreal by car for Expo 67. Montreal's "Autoroute Décarie" (A-15) and the Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel were constructed for that very reason. The "Autoroute des Cantons-de-l'Est" (Eastern Townships Autoroute - A-10) opened in 1964, and its continuation, A-55 between Magog and Rock Island, opened in 1967, connecting with Interstate 91. What are now the A-20 (part of the Trans-Canada Highway) and the A-15 to New York (connecting with Interstate 87), originally built in the 1940s, were upgraded to expressway standards. The A-20 also connects with Highway 401 in Ontario. A-40 was extended out to Berthierville, and later to Trois-Rivières in the 1970s. Others include Autoroutes 25, 30 (southern beltway), 31, 35 (eventually connecting to Interstate 89), "Autoroute Laurentienne" (73), and 640 (an unfinished proposed northern beltway).

1970s.

The 1970s also saw the completion of the Pierre Laporte Bridge in Quebec City, connecting the south shore of the Saint Lawrence River to the north. In addition to this, the A-73 was extended to Beauce, the A-20 was extended to Rivière-du-Loup, and the Chomedey Autoroute (A-13), the A-19 and the A-440 were constructed in Laval. Autoroutes were built (two sections of A-440, and A-740) and a few more planned in the Quebec City region, creating a dense web, which led to significant sprawl. In 1976, the Parti Québécois came to power, whose platform mandated an expansion of public transportation over the construction of more Autoroutes. Existing Autoroutes were extended (e.g., the A-40 was extended from Trois-Rivières to Quebec City) but no new Autoroutes were built.  The Autoroute des Laurentides, the Autoroute des Cantons-de-l'Est, the Autoroute de la Rive-Nord (North Shore Autoroute), and the A-13 were toll roads until the mid-1980s, when the toll barriers were removed and the province stopped collecting tolls from vehicles using the Autoroutes. The last toll booth was on the Champlain Bridge (A-10,A-15 and A-20). It was removed in 1990 because the Champlain Bridge is federal property and is thus not subject to provincial tolls.

2000s.

In the 2000s, there were several high-profile failures and collapses around some Autoroutes, due to aging and crumbling infrastructure, including the Boulevard du Souvenir overpass collapse, De la Concorde overpass collapse, and most recently the Ville-Marie tunnel collapse. An online poll by Léger Marketing conducted shortly after the Viger tunnel collapse found that 88 percent of Montrealers are "worried" about the state of roads, bridges and tunnels in the city, with more than half of respondents saying they are downright "scared" to drive under an overpass (58 percent), on a bridge (54 per cent), or through a tunnel (53 per cent). McGill University's Saeed Mirza stated that ill-advised design choices and poor-quality concrete were used in the construction rush ahead of Expo '67 and the 1976 Olympics. In particular, the concrete used was permeable with lack of proper drainage, and these allowed chlorides from de-icing salts to corrode the steel reinforcements.

The autoroute system is a network of freeways within the province of Quebec, Canada, operating under the same principle of controlled access as the Interstate Highway System in the United States and the 400-series highways in neighbouring Ontario. The Autoroutes are the backbone of Quebec's highway system, spanning almost. The speed limit on the Autoroutes is generally in rural areas and in urban areas; most roads are made of asphalt concrete.

Le réseau autoroutier québécois est un réseau d'autoroutes et de voies rapides dans la province de Québec, au Canada. Composé de 31 itinéraires différents, dont la numérotation est tributaire de leur fonction, le réseau est concentré dans la région métropolitaine de Montréal, traversée par 18 de ces voies.


Route description.

The A-31 begins just south of its interchange with A-40 in Lavaltrie. Motorists exiting the A-40 can opt to travel north on A-31 (multiplexed with Route 131) or south on Route 131 to Lavaltrie's city centre. The A-31/A-40 interchange has an unusual configuration, built to accommodate tollbooths (since dismantled). Also unusual for a Quebec autoroute: agricultural vehicles like tractors are permitted to cross over the A-40 by travelling on A-31 from its southern terminus to exit 2. For this reason, an automated traffic regulation system (commissioned in 2009) lowers the speed limit automatically from 100/60 km/h to 90/30 km/h as needed.  Exits at km 2 and km 7 provide access to local roads, while a partial interchange at km 12 serves an industrial zone south of Joliette. The A-31 ends at km 15 at a cloverleaf interchange with Route 158. Plans for Quebec's autoroute system initially called for A-31 to meet the A-50 at this interchange. Anticipating this outcome, Route 158 in the immediate vicinity of the interchange was constructed as a limited-access highway and signed as A-50. Once plans to extend the A-50 east of the A-15 were abandoned in the 1980s, this stretch of highway was redesignated Route 158. A series of deadly accidents on Route 158 prompted a 2014 petition drive to reconstruct the highway to Autoroute standards and return the designation of A-50.  Motorists exiting the A-31 at km 15 may continue on Route 158 west to St-Esprit, Route 158 east to Berthierville, or Route 131 north to Saint-Félix-de-Valois. Past this interchange, A-31 ends and becomes Boulevard Dollard, which continues into downtown Joliette.

Autoroute 31 (A-31) is an Autoroute in the region of Lanaudière in Quebec. Constructed in 1966, the A-31 primarily links Joliette with the A-40 and in turn to Montreal, Trois-Rivières, and other points served by Quebec's autoroute system. The A-31 is only long, making it one of the shortest autoroutes in the province. It is multiplexed with Route 131 for its entire length.

L'autoroute 31 (A-31) est une autoroute interurbaine québécoise desservant la région de Lanaudière. Elle sert de lien entre l'autoroute 40 (sortie 122) et le centre-ville de Joliette. Elle a une longueur de et chevauche la route 131 sur cette distance. Elle a été nommée en l'honneur d'Antonio Barrette, premier ministre du Québec en 1960, et originaire de Joliette. Elle fut mise en service en totalité en 1966. Le débit journalier moyen annuel (DJMA) de l'autoroute se situe entre 23 000 et 25 000 véhicules en 2018.