Route description.

Massachusetts.

Interstate 93's southern terminus is at exit 12 of I-95 in Canton, co-signed with U.S. Route 1 North. At this junction, I-95 North heads to the northwest (co-signed with U.S. Route 1 South, as well as Route 128, which begins at the interchange), to serve as the beltway around Boston, while I-95 South runs by itself southwest through Boston's southwestern suburbs toward Rhode Island. This violates the numbering plan for the highway system of the United States, which dictates that the signed number for odd-numbered interstates increase from west to east, and therefore I-95 should be farther east than I-93.  The southernmost of I-93 run east through Boston's southern suburbs, passing through Canton and Randolph. In Randolph, I-93 meets the northern end of Route 24 (Fall River Expressway/AMVETS Memorial Highway) at Exit 4. I-93 continues east into Braintree, interchanging with Route 3, the major freeway linking Boston to Cape Cod, at Exit 7 (known locally as the "Braintree Split"). Route 3 North joins I-93 and US-1, and the highway turns north toward Boston. These first of I-93 follows what was formerly part of Massachusetts Route 128 before it was truncated at the I-95/I-93 junction and many locals still refer to this section of roadway as part of Route 128. Upon turning northward, the highway is known as the Southeast Expressway passing through Quincy and Milton before crossing into the city of Boston over the Neponset River. After the Massachusetts Avenue connector exit, the highway officially becomes the John F. Fitzgerald Expressway, which is also known as the Central Artery, and passes beneath downtown Boston. A major intersection with the Massachusetts Turnpike/Interstate 90 (Exit 20) takes place just south of downtown Boston. After the massive interchange, motorists use the Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel to travel underneath the city and then use Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge to cross the Charles River. Two exits are located in the tunnel, where the speed limit is an hour. Route 3 leaves the Artery just before the Zakim bridge via Exit 26, and U.S. Route 1 leaves the Artery just after the bridge, via Exit 27 (no southbound access). From Boston through the rest of Massachusetts, Concord, NH appears as the control city on northbound overhead signs. The Artery ends as I-93 continues north out of the city.  I-93 continues through the northern suburbs of Boston, coming to a second interchange with Interstate 95 and Route 128, which run concurrently. Travelers going north can either change over to I-95 north to eventually reach Maine, or remain on I-93 toward New Hampshire. Farther north, in Andover, I-93 meets I-495, providing access to Worcester to the southwest and New Hampshire's seacoast region to the northeast. Just south of the state line, I-93 crosses the Merrimack River into Methuen, where it interchanges with Routes 110 and 113 at exit 46 just north of the river crossing. Prior to August 2016, the Route 110 and 113 junction beneath I-93 was a rotary, but current construction routes the highways straight under I-93. While two new ramps are being built at the interchange to complete the new partial cloverleaf format, there are temporary signals and inlets at the end of two existing ramps to serve traffic that will soon be using the new loop ramps. Work began in July 2014, on the project, and with the rotary closed, demolition of the rotary will be underway in late 2016. The full project is scheduled for completion in June 2018. I-93 then interchanges with the western end of Route 213, a connector between I-93 and I-495. I-93 then crosses into New Hampshire after about.  In all, I-93 has 48 numbered exits in Massachusetts, although several numbers are skipped in and near Boston. One noteworthy reason that some exits were removed from I-93 is to further address traffic problems in addition to converting the Central Artery from six to eight to ten lanes, by reducing the combined number of on- and off-ramps from 27 to 14. Exit 48 in Methuen, just before the New Hampshire state line, is the highest-numbered exit along the entire route. I-93 once had only 22 exits prior to the re-routing of I-95 onto MA 128. Due to the highway being one of the two major Interstates that enter Boston directly (Interstate 90 is the other), nearly the entire length of the highway in Massachusetts carries four lanes in each direction. Average daily traffic volumes on I-93 in the state range from 100,000 vehicles at the New Hampshire border and 150,000 vehicles at the southern end at I-95 to over 200,000 vehicles through Braintree and Quincy.

New Hampshire.

Interstate 93 travels just over in the Granite State, around two-thirds of the highway's total distance. Serving as the main interstate route in New Hampshire, it connects the state capital, Concord, and its largest city, Manchester. Beyond Concord are the towns of Tilton, Plymouth, and Littleton. I-93 is designated as the Alan B. Shepard Highway, from the Massachusetts line to Hooksett (just north of Manchester at the northern terminus of I-293), as the F.E. Everett Turnpike from Hooksett to Concord, and as the Styles Bridges Highway from Concord to the Vermont line. This section of roadway was constructed between 1961 and 1977.  Between the northern end of I-293 in Hooksett and the beginning of I-89 in Bow, I-93 also carries the northern end of the Everett Turnpike. There is one toll booth along this section, at Exit 11 in Hooksett; the toll for passenger cars is $1 (50¢ at the ramp toll booth). This is the only toll collected along the entire length of Interstate 93. I-93 in New Hampshire is also notable for having state liquor stores serve as rest areas, which are passed just after the toll plaza, traveling north. There are separate stores on both sides of the Interstate for travelers in each direction.  I-93 enters New Hampshire at Salem. A rest area/welcome center is available on the northbound side of the freeway, directly before Exit 1. I-93 remains three lanes wide in each direction for its first, until after the exit 3 interchange in Windham. It then drops to two lanes until the split with Interstate 293 and the junction with New Hampshire Route 101 add a third and fourth lane back to the freeway. I-93 and New Hampshire Route 101 run concurrently for about before New Hampshire Route 101 heads directly east as its own freeway, serving Portsmouth and the Seacoast region. I-93 keeps three lanes of traffic in each direction until the junction with Interstate 89, when each side reduces back to two, and remains a four-lane freeway through most of its journey northward, with the only exception being the Franconia Notch section.  It crosses the Merrimack River again before going through the state capital of Concord. In Concord, Interstate 393 heads directly east (co-signed with eastbound U.S. Route 4 and U.S. Route 202), providing another route to the Seacoast region. Westbound U.S. Route 4 joins I-93 and runs concurrently with it until Exit 17 for Penacook, about further north, before exiting westward. Continuing north, I-93 traverses the Lake Winnipesaukee tourist region and makes its way north through the heart of the White Mountains Region. I-93 passes through Franconia Notch State Park as a Super-2 parkway (one lane in each direction) with a speed limit, designed to reduce I-93's impact on Franconia Notch. For the trip through Franconia Notch, I-93 and U.S. Route 3 run concurrently.  Beyond Franconia Notch State Park, U.S. 3 heads northeastward through the Great North Woods region, while I-93 runs to the northwest. The final town along I-93 in New Hampshire is Littleton, served by four exits. Many motorist services are available at Exit 42. After passing through town, it crosses the Connecticut River into Vermont. The last exit along I-93 is exit 44 for Monroe, through which a rest area/welcome center is accessible to travelers on both sides of the highway.  In 2013, a bill was signed by governor Maggie Hassan to raise the speed limit on Interstate 93 to from mile marker 45 to the Vermont border. The new limit took effect on January 1, 2014.

Vermont.

Interstate 93 runs for in Vermont, with one numbered exit in the state before ending at the interchange with Interstate 91 in St. Johnsbury in the Northeast Kingdom of Vermont. A rest area/welcome center is located along the northbound side of the highway for travelers entering from New Hampshire. The final of the Interstate, just before its terminus, actually veer to the southwest. Vehicles bound for Canada can use northbound I-91 to reach the Derby Line/Stanstead border crossing at that Interstate's end, and northwards into Canada as an "autoroute" freeway into the Canadian province of Quebec. The portion of I-93 in Vermont parallels both U.S. Route 2 and Vermont Route 18.

History.

Southeast Expressway.

The Southeast Expressway was constructed between 1954 and 1959, at the same time the John F. Fitzgerald Expressway (Central Artery) was built. Its northern terminus is at Exit 18 (Massachusetts Avenue) in South Boston, a former Y-interchange where the cancelled Inner Belt (I-695) was to meet with the expressway and the Central Artery. The southern terminus is at the Y-interchange (the "Braintree Split") at Exit 7 in Braintree (the former southern terminus of Route 128). A section of the Expressway, beginning south of the Savin Hill overpass and ending just before the Braintree Split utilizes a zipper lane, in which a movable barrier carves out a reversible high occupancy vehicle lane on the non-peak side of the highway during rush hour. Most of the right of way for the Granite Railway in Milton and Quincy was incorporated into the expressway.

Boston.

The Central Artery, officially the John F. Fitzgerald Expressway, was a section of highway in downtown Boston constructed in the 1950s and was originally designed as a fully elevated highway. This new highway was greatly disliked by the citizens of the city because it cut the heart of the city in half, cast long, dreary shadows and was an eyesore to the community. Because of the public outcry, Gov. John Volpe ordered the southern half of the highway redesigned so that it was underground; this section became known as the Dewey Square Tunnel. With the cancellation of the highway projects leading into the city in 1972 by Gov. Francis W. Sargent, the Central Artery gained the designation of Interstate 93 in 1974. It has also carried the local highway designations of U.S. 1 (since 1989) and Route 3.  By the mid-1970s, I-93 had outgrown its capacity and had begun to deteriorate due a lack of maintenance. State Transportation Secretary Frederick P. Salvucci, aware of the issues surrounding the elevated roadway, proposed a plan conceived in the early 1970s by the Boston Transportation Planning Review to replace the rusting elevated six-lane Central Artery with a new, more efficient underground roadway. This plan was merged with a long-standing proposal to build a third harbor tunnel to alleviate congestion in the Sumner and Callahan tunnels to East Boston; the new plan became known as the Central Artery/Tunnel Project or the "Big Dig".  These new roadways were built during a twelve-year period from 1994 to early 2006. The massive project became the largest urban construction project ever undertaken in American history. Construction on the new I-93 segment was not without serious issues: a lengthy Federal environmental review pushed the start of construction back from approximately 1990, causing many inflationary increases; funding for the project was the subject of several political battles between Pres. Ronald Reagan and Rep. Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr. Major construction on the new roadway was done while maintaining the old roadway, a step that also greatly increased the cost of the project. The original Charles River crossing, named Scheme Z, was the object to great public outcry similar to that of the building of the original highway. The outcry eventually led to the replacement of Scheme Z with a newer, more sleek cable-stayed bridge and complementing exit for Cambridge, increasing the cost even more.  In Downtown Boston, I-93 is made up of the Thomas P. O'Neill Jr. Tunnel and the Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge, which spans the Charles River. The underground construction of the tunnel system was completed as of October 2006; however, repairs continue to many parts of the tunnel due to water leakage because of improper construction of the slurry walls supporting the O'Neill tunnel. The former route of the above-ground Artery, so named "the other Green Monster" by Mayor Thomas Menino, was replaced mostly by open space known formally as the Rose Kennedy Greenway.  Additional improvements were done in the South Bay section of the highway: The I-90/I-93 interchange was completely redesigned, a new HOV lane extending from the zipper lane in Quincy was added and the South Boston Haul road that was constructed to bypass truck traffic around residential streets in the South End is open to general traffic.  Hazardous cargoes are prohibited from I-93 in Boston due to safety issues in the tunnels; these cargoes must exit at either the Leverett Circle connector when traveling southbound or at the Massachusetts Ave. exit when traveling northbound.

Northern Expressway.

The Northern Expressway was constructed from Medford to the New Hampshire border between 1956 and 1963. It was extended through Somerville and Charlestown to the Central Artery, U.S. Route 1, and the planned route of the Inner Belt between 1965 and 1973. Because it was already under construction, the highway was granted an exception to the moratorium on highway expansion inside Route 128 which was announced in 1970.  I-93's original southern terminus was in Cambridge (just north of Boston) where it was to meet the Inner Belt (I-695). However, when that route was canceled, and the I-95 section into Boston was canceled and rerouted along Route 128 in the mid-1970s, I-93's route was extended an additional down the Central Artery (which had been signed as a concurrency of I-95/MA-3 before I-95 was rerouted) and the Southeast Expressway (what was then just Route 3) from Boston to Braintree and then west along former Route 128 to its intersection with I-95 in Canton.  In an attempt to alleviate rush-hour traffic jams, travel in the breakdown lane of I-93 is permitted on a small stretch between Exit 41 and Exit 47/48. This extra travel is permitted on the southbound side on weekdays between 6AM and 10AM, and on the northbound side between 3PM and 7PM. However, on most busy days this fails to prevent traffic delays. The Massachusetts State Police is displeased with this arrangement, citing that traffic in the breakdown lanes interferes with the ability of emergency vehicles to respond to accidents.

Rapid bridge replacement project.

In August 2010, in Medford, a section of bridge deck on the northbound side partially collapsed due to age-related structural fatigue. The collapse forced the Massachusetts Department of Transportation to evaluate the remaining bridges along the corridor, eventually deciding to replace several bridges along the highway in a plan called 93 Fast 14. The MassDOT set in motion a plan to replace the superstructure and concrete decks on 14 overpass bridges along that section of the interstate, using rapid bridge replacement methods. The $98.1 million project replaced bridges originally built in 1957 with a set of prefabricated modular concrete bridges in a series of weekend roadway closures. Traffic was diverted into a series of crossover lanes during construction. The main part of the project took place each weekend from June through August 2011,with the exception of the July 4th holiday weekend. One or two bridges were replaced each weekend during the construction time frame. The project was part of the Commonwealth's Accelerated Bridge Program.

Methuen Rotary.

Off exit 46 in Methuen, Massachusetts, the surface level traffic circle was rebuilt as part of an overall infrastructure improvement that included a new 8-lane bridge for I-93.

New Hampshire.

Exit 1 in Salem was originally designed and built with ramps allowing northbound traffic to exit to Rockingham Park and return drivers to southbound 93 only. The complementary ramps were added much later, with the southbound off ramp being a particularly tight and dangerous turn squeezed within the curve of the southbound on ramp, which was replaced in August 2012.  A section of I-93 through Franconia Notch State Park, called the Franconia Notch Parkway, was constructed as a two-lane freeway with a median divider. This was built as a compromise between the state's park department and highway officials. The speed limit on the parkway is. Originally, this section's signage read "U.S. 3 TO I-93", complete with its own exit number sequence, but this has since been replaced by I-93 and US-3 signage along the entire length of the parkway. The exits were renumbered to Exit 34A, 34B, and 34C. This section of the highway is the only remaining section of two-lane freeway on an Interstate highway in the United States.

Vermont.

Construction of Interstate 93 was completed in 1982, in Vermont. It was planned to be built longer if I-91 didn't change its designation eastward in northeastern part of the state. It was the last interstate to be built in the state.

Future expansion.

Massachusetts plans.

Since 1996, MassHighway has studied rebuilding the intersection of I-93 and I-95 in Woburn along the border with Stoneham and Reading. The project was expected to start in Spring 2017 and cost $267 million, however continued community opposition has postponed the project indefinitely. A project to upgrade the I-93/I-95 interchange in Canton is proposed.  An additional proposal around 2010, to upgrade MA Route 24, running southwards from I-93's Exit 4, to Interstate 195 near Fall River, MA also has been put off due to studies showing the cost of the project being very high.  The Massachusetts Department of Transportation and its predecessor MassHighway have planned on widening I-93 to a uniform four travel lanes in both directions from the lane drop near Exit 41 in Wilmington to the New Hampshire border since the beginning of the 2000s. The first section of widening will be done as part of the I-93 Tri-Town Interchange Project. The project will construct a new interchange in Wilmington. I-93 will be widened from 3 to 4 lanes in each direction from Exit 41 to I-495, a distance of approximately, as the first phase in widening I-93 from Exit 41 to the New Hampshire state line. Early estimates of the entire project place the cost at $567 million.

New Hampshire plans.

Initial plans to widen I-93 to a uniform four travel lanes in both directions from Salem to Manchester beginning in 2008 were put on hold due to a lawsuit designed to force the New Hampshire Department of Transportation (NHDOT) to update the plans to include other transportation options. Under orders from US District Court, the NHDOT and US Department of Transportation must provide an updated environmental review. The Conservation Law Foundation (CLF) filed a lawsuit in February 2006, hoping to force any expansion plans in the area to include the restoration of commuter rail service between Manchester and Boston. Despite the suit, the Exit 1 interchange construction was allowed to undergo upgrading and expansion; other associated projects related to the widening, chiefly around Exits 3 and 5, were also eventually allowed to proceed. The whole set of projects were eventually allowed to move forward when an agreement between the state and the CLF that removed the group's opposition to construction which does not pose a threat to the environment.  As part of the 2009 stimulus package, New Hampshire was set to receive several million dollars in highway construction funds. One of the projects was the widening of a portion of the highway between the Massachusetts border and Manchester. Bidding was set to begin in February 2009 with construction slated to begin in late 2009 or early 2010. The plans call for the New Hampshire Department of Transportation to widen the southernmost of I-93 to four lanes in each direction, from the two. In addition, all five interchanges along this length will be upgraded to accommodate larger amounts of traffic, including replacing many aging bridges. Smaller construction projects at some of the interchanges are already taking place. According to plans filed by the state with US DOT, the project is scheduled to run from 2009 through 2016, with work starting at the Massachusetts line and moving northward to Manchester. The project is designed with an intermodal transit bent; new or improved park and ride facilities deployed at exits 1, 3 and 5 and a widened median strip that is designed to accommodate a planned commuter rail service between Boston and Manchester.  As a way to help defray the costs of the expansion, in early 2010 the NHDOT made a formal request to the Federal Highway Administration to add tolls to I-93 at the Massachusetts-New Hampshire border. The new toll facility was to be located in Salem, New Hampshire, approximately from the state line, and would cost travelers $2 per car. The proposal faced opposition from state legislators in both states who claimed the tolls would cause severe congestion in the area and lead to an economic burden to local residents. Opponents included US senator Scott Brown (R-Massachusetts). The proposal was eventually dropped in favor of issuing new state bonds to pay for expansion. The new policy was laid out by Transportation Commissioner George Campbell after reviewing the proposal and receiving a promise from the MassDOT that it would not be enacting a similar toll on the Massachusetts side of the border.  Plans were announced in 2012 that I-93 would have a new northbound and southbound bridge over Interstate 89 in Bow, New Hampshire. To reduce traffic on the southbound bridge the NHDOT added a third lane to ease congestion. The bridges were completed in 2014.  More plans were announced in 2014 that the Hooksett, New Hampshire, rest areas would be rebuilt. The new rest areas would feature a 14-pump Irving gas station, a new New Hampshire liquor and wine outlet, and a few restaurants and shops. The project was completed in 2015.

Exit list.

Exits 17, 19, 21, and 25 in Massachusetts were eliminated as part of the Big Dig. Massachusetts exit numbers were to be changed to those based on I-93 mileposts with a project that was due to start in early 2016, but this project was postponed by the MassDOT for several years. On November 18, 2019, the MassDOT confirmed that beginning in late summer 2020 the exit renumbering project would begin.

Washington County is a county located in the U.S. state of Ohio. As of the 2010 census, the population was 61,778. Its county seat is Marietta. The county, the oldest in the state, is named for George Washington.

Le comté de Washington – en anglais : – est un des 88 comtés de l'État de l'Ohio, aux États-Unis.


Properties of the category of sets.

The axioms of a category are satisfied by Set because composition of functions is associative, and because every set "X" has an identity function "id : X → X" which serves as identity element for function composition.  The epimorphisms in Set are the surjective maps, the monomorphisms are the injective maps, and the isomorphisms are the bijective maps.  The empty set serves as the initial object in Set with empty functions as morphisms. Every singleton is a terminal object, with the functions mapping all elements of the source sets to the single target element as morphisms. There are thus no zero objects in Set.  The category Set is complete and co-complete. The product in this category is given by the cartesian product of sets. The coproduct is given by the disjoint union: given sets "A" where "i" ranges over some index set "I", we construct the coproduct as the union of "A"×{"i"} (the cartesian product with "i" serves to ensure that all the components stay disjoint).  Set is the prototype of a concrete category; other categories are concrete if they are "built on" Set in some well-defined way.  Every two-element set serves as a subobject classifier in Set. The power object of a set "A" is given by its power set, and the exponential object of the sets "A" and "B" is given by the set of all functions from "A" to "B". Set is thus a topos (and in particular cartesian closed and exact in the sense of Barr).  Set is not abelian, additive nor preadditive.  Every non-empty set is an injective object in Set. Every set is a projective object in Set (assuming the axiom of choice).  The finitely presentable objects in Set are the finite sets. Since every set is a direct limit of its finite subsets, the category Set is a locally finitely presentable category.  If "C" is an arbitrary category, the contravariant functors from "C" to Set are often an important object of study. If "A" is an object of "C", then the functor from "C" to Set that sends "X" to Hom("X","A") (the set of morphisms in "C" from "X" to "A") is an example of such a functor. If "C" is a small category (i.e. the collection of its objects forms a set), then the contravariant functors from "C" to Set, together with natural transformations as morphisms, form a new category, a functor category known as the category of presheaves on "C".

Foundations for the category of sets.

In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory the collection of all sets is not a set; this follows from the axiom of foundation. One refers to collections that are not sets as proper classes. One cannot handle proper classes as one handles sets; in particular, one cannot write that those proper classes belong to a collection (either a set or a proper class). This is a problem because it means that the category of sets cannot be formalized straightforwardly in this setting. Categories like Set whose collection of objects forms a proper class are known as large categories, to distinguish them from the small categories whose objects form a set.  One way to resolve the problem is to work in a system that gives formal status to proper classes, such as NBG set theory. In this setting, categories formed from sets are said to be "small" and those (like Set) that are formed from proper classes are said to be "large".  Another solution is to assume the existence of Grothendieck universes. Roughly speaking, a Grothendieck universe is a set which is itself a model of ZF(C) (for instance if a set belongs to a universe, its elements and its powerset will belong to the universe). The existence of Grothendieck universes (other than the empty set and the set formula_1 of all hereditarily finite sets) is not implied by the usual ZF axioms; it is an additional, independent axiom, roughly equivalent to the existence of strongly inaccessible cardinals. Assuming this extra axiom, one can limit the objects of Set to the elements of a particular universe. (There is no "set of all sets" within the model, but one can still reason about the class "U" of all inner sets, i.e., elements of "U".)  In one variation of this scheme, the class of sets is the union of the entire tower of Grothendieck universes. (This is necessarily a proper class, but each Grothendieck universe is a set because it is an element of some larger Grothendieck universe.) However, one does not work directly with the "category of all sets". Instead, theorems are expressed in terms of the category Set whose objects are the elements of a sufficiently large Grothendieck universe "U", and are then shown not to depend on the particular choice of "U". As a foundation for category theory, this approach is well matched to a system like Tarski–Grothendieck set theory in which one cannot reason directly about proper classes; its principal disadvantage is that a theorem can be true of all Set but not of Set.  Various other solutions, and variations on the above, have been proposed.  The same issues arise with other concrete categories, such as the category of groups or the category of topological spaces.

In the mathematical field of category theory, the category of sets, denoted as Set, is the category whose objects are sets. The arrows or morphisms between sets "A" and "B" are the total functions from "A" to "B", and the composition of morphisms is the composition of functions.

En mathématiques, plus précisément en théorie des catégories, la catégorie des ensembles, notée Set ou Ens, est la catégorie dont les objets sont les ensembles, et dont les morphismes sont les applications d'un ensemble dans un autre. Sa définition est motivée par le fait qu'en théorie des ensembles usuelle, il n'existe pas d'« ensemble de tous les ensembles », car l'existence d'un tel objet résulterait en une contradiction logique : le paradoxe de Russell.


History.

In 1987, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) standardized a version of wideband audio known as G.722. Radio broadcasters began using G.722 over Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) to provide high-quality audio for remote broadcasts, such as commentary from sports venues. AMR-WB (G.722.2) was developed by Nokia and VoiceAge and it was first specified by 3GPP.  The traditional telephone network (PSTN) is generally limited to narrowband audio by the intrinsic nature of its transmission technology, TDM (time-division multiplexing), and by the analogue-to-digital converters used at the edge of the network, as well as the speakers, microphones and other elements in the endpoints themselves.  Wideband audio has been broadly deployed in conjunction with videoconferencing. Providers of this technology quickly discovered that despite the explicit emphasis on video transmission, the quality of the participant experience was significantly influenced by the fidelity of the associated audio signal.  Communications via Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) can readily employ wideband audio. When PC-to-PC calls are placed via VoIP services, such as Skype, and the participants use a high-quality headset, the resulting call quality can be noticeably superior to conventional PSTN calls. A number of audio codecs have emerged to support these services, supplementing G.722.  Manufacturers of audio conferencing equipment have introduced wideband-capable models that include support for G.722 over VoIP.  Conference calls are a direct beneficiary of the enhancements offered by wideband audio. Participants often struggle to figure out who is talking or to understand accented speakers. Misunderstandings are commonplace due primarily to generally poor audio quality and accumulation of background noise.  Some listener benefits cited of wideband audio compared to traditional (narrowband):  Despite its reputation for poor audio quality, the mobile telephone industry has started to make some progress on wideband audio. The 3GPP standards group has designated G.722.2 as its wideband codec and calls it Adaptive Multirate – Wideband (AMR-WB). More than a hundred handsets have been introduced supporting this codec (for example, Apple, Google, HTC, Nokia, Samsung and Sony), and network demonstrations have been conducted.

Deployment.

As business telephone systems have adopted VoIP technology, support for wideband audio has grown rapidly. Telephone sets from Avaya, Cisco, NEC Unified Solutions, Grandstream, Gigaset, Panasonic (which brands wideband audio "HD Sonic"), Polycom (which brands wideband audio "HD Voice"), Snom, AudioCodes (which brands wideband audio "HDVoIP") and others now incorporate G.722, as well as varying degrees of higher-quality audio components. AMR-WB is natively supported in Android since Android Gingerbread, and in iOS since the iPhone 5.  Suppliers of integrated circuits for telephony equipment, including DSP Group, Broadcom, Infineon, and Texas Instruments, include wideband audio in their feature portfolios. There are audio conferencing service providers that support wideband connections from these and other VoIP endpoints, while also permitting PSTN participants to join the conference in narrowband. sipXtapi is an open-source solution for VoIP media processing engine supporting wideband and HD voice that provides RTP and codecs through a plugin framework for use with SIP and other VoIP protocols. Skype uses an audio codec called Silk which allows for extremely high-quality audio.  A number of carriers around the world have rolled out HD voice services based on the G.722 wideband standard. In North America, hosted service providers have recently deployed the Aastra Hi-Q upgrade to its installed user base and as of January 2010 claimed around 70,000 HD voice endpoints. The consumer service provider ooma has an estimated 25,000 HD voice endpoints deployed stemming from its rollout of its second-generation Telo hardware.  As of December 2015, a report announces 117 commercial mobile HD Voice networks launched in 76 countries.

Wideband audio coding standards.

The following are wideband audio coding standards and audio codecs used in telecommunication.

Wideband audio, also known as wideband voice or HD voice, is high definition voice quality for telephony audio, contrasted with standard digital telephony "toll quality". It extends the frequency range of audio signals transmitted over telephone lines, resulting in higher quality speech. The range of the human voice extends from 80 Hz to 14 kHz but traditional, voiceband or narrowband telephone calls limit audio frequencies to the range of 300 Hz to 3.4 kHz. Wideband audio relaxes the bandwidth limitation and transmits in the audio frequency range of 50 Hz to 7 kHz or even up to 22 kHz. In addition, some wideband codecs may use a higher audio bit depth of 16-bits to encode samples, also resulting in much better voice quality.

La téléphonie large-bande se distingue de la téléphonie classique par une bande passante plus importante (50-7000 Hz) permettant d'améliorer sensiblement la qualité d'écoute. Les réseaux de téléphonie fixe et de téléphonie mobile standards permettent de transmettre la voix d'un correspondant entre 300 et 3400 Hz. La téléphonie large-bande utilise des codecs spécifiques comme le G.722, le G.722.2, le G.729.1 ou Opus Interactive Audio Codec


Adaptations.

Various patterns of behavior enable certain ectotherms to regulate body temperature to a useful extent. To warm up, reptiles and many insects find sunny places and adopt positions that maximise their exposure; at harmfully high temperatures they seek shade or cooler water. In cold weather, honey bees huddle together to retain heat. Butterflies and moths may orient their wings to maximize exposure to solar radiation in order to build up heat before take-off. Gregarious caterpillars, such as the forest tent caterpillar and fall webworm, benefit from basking in large groups for thermoregulation. Many flying insects, such as honey bees and bumble bees, also raise their internal temperatures endothermally prior to flight, by vibrating their flight muscles without violent movement of the wings (see insect thermoregulation). Such endothermal activity is an example of the difficulty of consistent application of terms such as poikilothermy and homiothermy.  In addition to behavioral adaptations, physiological adaptations help ectotherms regulate temperature. Diving reptiles conserve heat by heat exchange mechanisms, whereby cold blood from the skin picks up heat from blood moving outward from the body core, re-using and thereby conserving some of the heat that otherwise would have been wasted. The skin of bullfrogs secretes more mucus when it is hot, allowing more cooling by evaporation.  During periods of cold, some ectotherms enter a state of torpor, in which their metabolism slows or, in some cases, such as the wood frog, effectively stops. The torpor might last overnight or last for a season, or even for years, depending on the species and circumstances.

Pros and cons.

Ectotherms rely largely on external heat sources such as sunlight to achieve their optimal body temperature for various bodily activities. Accordingly, they depend on ambient conditions to reach operational body temperatures. In contrast, endothermic animals maintain nearly constant high operational body temperatures largely by reliance on internal heat produced by metabolically active organs (liver, kidney, heart, brain, muscle) or even by specialized heat producing organs like brown adipose tissue (BAT). Ectotherms typically have lower metabolic rates than endotherms at a given body mass. As a consequence, endotherms generally rely on higher food consumption, and commonly on food of higher energy content. Such requirements may limit the carrying capacity of a given environment for endotherms as compared to its carrying capacity for ectotherms.  Because ectotherms depend on environmental conditions for body temperature regulation, as a rule, they are more sluggish at night and in early mornings. When they emerge from shelter, many diurnal ectotherms need to heat up in the early sunlight before they can begin their daily activities. In cool weather the foraging activity of such species is therefore restricted to the day time in most vertebrate ectotherms, and in cold climates most cannot survive at all. In lizards, for instance, most nocturnal species are geckos specialising in "sit and wait" foraging strategies. Such strategies do not require as much energy as active foraging and do not require hunting activity of the same intensity. From another point of view, sit-and-wait predation may require very long periods of unproductive waiting. Endotherms cannot, in general, afford such long periods without food, but suitably adapted ectotherms can wait without expending much energy. Endothermic vertebrate species are therefore less dependent on the environmental conditions and have developed a higher variability (both within and between species) in their daily patterns of activity.

Contrast between thermodynamics and biological terminology.

Possible confusion can arise from the difference in the terminology of physics and biology. Whereas the thermodynamic terms "exothermic" and "endothermic" respectively refer to processes that give out heat energy and processes that absorb heat energy, in biology the sense is effectively inverted. The metabolic term "ectotherm" refers to organisms that rely largely on external heat to achieve a full working temperature, and "endotherm" refers to organisms that produce heat from within as a major factor in controlling their bodily temperature.

References.

Notes

An ectotherm (from the Greek ἐκτός ("ektós") "outside" and θερμός ("thermós") "hot") is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature. Such organisms (for example frogs) rely on environmental heat sources, which permit them to operate at very economical metabolic rates. Some of these animals live in environments where temperatures are practically constant, as is typical of regions of the abyssal ocean and hence can be regarded as homeothermic ectotherms. In contrast, in places where temperature varies so widely as to limit the physiological activities of other kinds of ectotherms, many species habitually seek out external sources of heat or shelter from heat; for example, many reptiles regulate their body temperature by basking in the sun, or seeking shade when necessary in addition to a whole host of other behavioral thermoregulation mechanisms. For home captivity of pet reptiles, owners can use a UVB/UVA light system to assist the animals' basking behaviour.

Les organismes ectothermes sont des organismes ne produisant pas ou peu de chaleur. C'est le cas des insectes, des reptiles et des poissons par exemple. Ces organismes sont à opposer aux organismes endothermes qui produisent, eux, des quantités non négligeables de chaleur (les mammifères et les oiseaux par exemple).


Development.

Every game produced in the "WWE 2K" series until 2019 was developed by Yuke's and Visual Concepts, and published by 2K Sports. From 2000 to 2012, the publisher was THQ. The game engine was originally based on the one used by the Japanese professional wrestling video game series "Toukon Retsuden", which was also developed by Yuke's. Before the release of "WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw", the only communication possible in season mode was through subtitles. Voice over, however, was included in season mode with the release of "WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw". WWE superstars record a script, which is then assigned to the voice of the corresponding superstar in the game. With the exception of "WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain", pre-recorded commentary by WWE commentators has been included in each game since the release of "WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It".  Yuke's studios in Yokohama, Japan, worked with WWE writers to create storylines for the season modes of

History.

The series was originally named "SmackDown!", after WWE's own "SmackDown" television program. The first release in the series was "WWF SmackDown!" in March 2000, which along with these subsequent titles, remained exclusive to Sony's PlayStation consoles. After the brand extension, the series was retitled "SmackDown! vs. Raw" in 2004, to indicate the "Raw" brand was also featured. Within a few years, the series had expanded to a yearly release cycle for various seventh-generation consoles as well as mobile devices. Yuke's had also released the games in Japan under the name of "Exciting Pro Wrestling". However, after "SmackDown! vs.

Gameplay.

The first game in the series, "WWF SmackDown!" had a clear cut system for moves such as combining an arrow key with the circle button for grappling and moves and combining an arrow key with the X button for striking moves. Most of the later games, from "WWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role" to "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2006" used the aforementioned control scheme. When "WWE SmackDown vs Raw 2007" was released, new game mechanics were introduced, in which a new control scheme altered the grappling system of the game, called "Ultimate Control moves." Unlike the previous games, where the player pressed two buttons to perform a grapple or an attack, players were able to place their opponents into a grapple position and then choose to perform a move by moving the directional buttons of their system's controller. For example, the player could place their opponent in a suplex grappling position and then either perform a normal suplex or an inverted suplex slam. Before the release of "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008", in order for players to force a superstar to submit, they had to tap buttons to move a marker towards the end of the meter labeled "Submit", and the only way for opponents to escape was for them to move the meter towards "Escape". Included with the release of "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008" was a new submission system, in which the player had to move the analog sticks of their system's controller in different directions to force the opponent to submit, while the opponent could do the same to escape the submission hold.  Every game in the "SmackDown vs. Raw" series used to have the amount of damage inflicted to the player's chosen superstar, measured with a meter on the HUD, where a design of a male figure presented the damage. As a move was performed against a superstar, the affected area of the body flashed—the more damage that is done to that specific body part, the more likely it is for the superstar to submit. Colors were used to represent the amount of damage done to a specific body area; yellow represented minimal damage, orange represented moderate damage, and red represented maximum damage. This was however taken out of "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010". Now the only way to tell how damaged the opponent is to watch their physical body actions that indicate how hurt they are. The more damage inflicted to opponents, the more likely it is for them to lose the match. There are four ways to win a match in every game: by pinfall, submission, knockout, countout; alternatively, the match could end in a draw. With the introduction of an on-screen referee in "WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It", the ability to win by disqualification was also included.  Included with the release of "WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw" was the option of fighting "dirty" or "clean". When players select "dirty", the superstar is booed by the audience in the game; conversely, the "clean" superstar is cheered by the audience. With the "dirty" or "clean" option comes the inclusion of performing a special maneuver when playing. Players using a "dirty" superstar must direct their superstar into building up their "dirty" meter by performing "dirty" tactics, such as attacking the referee or taking the pad off the ring's turnbuckle. Unlike performing dirty tactics, "clean" superstars build their meters by performing "clean" tactics, such as an aerial technique or performing a taunt. When "dirty" superstars' meters build up, they are able to perform a signature low blow; likewise, "clean" superstars can perform their signature move at double its normal damage.  With the release of "WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006" was the inclusion of a stamina system, which was a measure of the superstars' stamina. The stamina system was measured by a meter on the HUD; the meter decreased when performing a variety of moves. The meter increases, however, when the player does nothing with the superstar or holds down a selected button that increased the stamina, which varied depending on the player's system. When the superstar's stamina was low, the wrestler reacted by moving slower when performing moves, walking, and running. If the meter decreased completely, the superstar fell to the ground until the meter increased. This system is disabled by default for "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008" and was disabled until 2K took over the series, bringing in a similar system with "WWE 2K16."  The weak/strong grapple system from the past games was removed from "WWE '12" onwards. Characters now perform different moves based on their opponent's current physical state. Players now have a window of opportunity to attack while still in a downed state and can also interrupt moves and Royal Rumble eliminations with attacks. Similarly, the pinning meter from the past games has been reworked to make it more difficult to kick out as a wrestler takes more damage. The game's artificial intelligence has also been adjusted to prevent players from overusing the same move. In addition, the ability to store finishing moves has returned. "Dynamic Comebacks" gives players on the verge of losing the opportunity to successfully hit a combination of moves to gain two finishing moves. New "wake up taunts" bring a downed opponent to their feet for a finishing move (such as pounding on the ground before RKO finishing maneuver). Players also have the ability to target specific limbs during matches and perform submissions through a "Breaking Point" submission minigame.  OMG! moments were introduced to "WWE '13". These are moves than can be performed in certain situations with certain superstars when a finisher is obtained. An example of this is Mark Henry superplexing the Big Show, making the ring break and the match stop. Better weight detection was implemented to "WWE '13", so that small superstars such as Rey Mysterio are unable to lift larger wrestlers such as the Big Show, super heavyweights like now have different frames to better capture their enormous size. Pinning is now not only influenced by damage, but the power of the move that was previously executed. In "WWE '13" alongside selecting arenas, characters and the number of finishing moves available at the start of a match (a new option, which can range from 0 to Infinite), players will be able to adjust a setting called 'Match Experience'. Three settings – "Quick", "Normal" and "Epic" – will affect the overall pacing of a fight, independent of AI difficulty. Factors such as momentum, damage, enemy aggressiveness and even kick out and reversal rates will be affected.  To overhaul the gameplay of the series, "2K15" added five times more animation data than "WWE 2K14", containing over fifty days work of motion capture by the WWE superstars, and over four times the amount of dialogue for commentary compared to "2K14" was recorded. The general gameplay of the game was also revised, with the wrestlers being divided once more into classes, as was present in the Smackdown vs. Raw series. This created what is known as in-ring psychology. The classes (brawlers, giants, grapplers and high-flyers) all provide different and unique movesets within the game to diversify its mechanics.  "WWE 2K16" introduced Working Holds, which allows the player to go through a collar-elbow tie-up situation in order to either damage the opponent or regain stamina to reverse the tide in the match. Dirty Pins now came in various animations, and AI for the referee was also improved; for example, a referee may now break up collar-elbow tie-ups when the wrestlers are holding each other at the corner for too long. The Reversal Limit system was introduced to prevent players from constantly reversing moves throughout the match; they come as minor and major ones depending on the class of the wrestler. This method can be toggled on/off in the Options section.  "WWE 2K17" retained the control scheme from the previous title while implementing two styles of submissions. Ladders can now be used in other methods, new OMG moments were added to the game, and a new mini-game involving the Money in the Bank briefcase changed the aesthetics to ladder matches.  "WWE 2K18" re-worked the carrying system. Top rope moves such as elbow drops are now performed faster, and attack animations were massively improved. "2K18" also added new corner finishers, such as Randy Orton's Corner RKO and John Cena's Corner AA.  "WWE 2K19" introduced the Payback engine, which gives advantages to players who are losing a match. These advantages include an automatic reversal, spraying green mist to blind your opponent, or storing one or multiple finishers.  "WWE 2K20" changed the controls to be more precise and simple for new players, yet easy to understand and adapt to for veterans. Paybacks made their return, and new versions of paybacks were introduced.

Reception.

The original "WWF SmackDown!" was one of the most popular games for the PlayStation console in 2000, selling over 975,000 units for the PlayStation, and selling over one million copies in the United States. The game lost appeal due to the failing of a well-established season mode that was deemed "disappointing." The season mode was criticized for the lack of in-depth storylines and the way superstars spoke in season mode, through "putrid lines" and "blocked text." "" received a better reception than the first "WWE SmackDown" game, as IGN stated that season mode "actually works properly", though the audio of the game was lacking as there was no commentary, and only generic music was included in the game. "WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It", according to IGN, did little to improve the season mode of the game, while GameSpot stated that the addition of audio commentary detracted from the playing experience.  "WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth" and "WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain" received more positive reviews from both IGN and GameSpot, both of whom cited the expanded season mode as an improvement, although flaws were still visible in the mode. It improved from the previous three "WWF SmackDown!" games, as it was written by actual WWE storyline writers. Both games also featured generic music, though the quality of it had improved. "Shut Your Mouth" featured little improvement to the commentary, which was then removed completely from "Here Comes the Pain". "WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW" received a more positive review than previous games, as GameShark stated that it was "a wonderful new edition to the SmackDown! family, serving up slick graphics, vastly enhanced gameplay, and lots of other bells and whistles that make the whole package shine." "WWE SmackDown! vs. RAW 2006" received a positive review and a 9.2/10 rating by IGN due to the additions of matches, the General Manager mode, and the ability to defend championships in exhibition mode. "SmackDown vs. Raw 2007" received positive reviews upon release. According to video game review aggregator Metacritic, "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007" received favorable reviews on all platforms. In Japan, "Famitsu" gave it a score of one eight and three sevens for the Xbox 360 version, and one five, one seven and two sixes for the PSP version. The game received praise for presentation and the high amount of content, but was criticized for glitches, including commentary and ring announcing problems, and collision detection issues, with wrestlers being able to skip climbing an occupied ladder, making the "Money In The Bank" match extremely difficult. For example, if one wrestler is on top of the ladder, another wrestler may suddenly superplex him, without even climbing the ladder. "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008" received more negative reviews due to lack of an appealing season mode and little improvement of features, with the exceptions of the "Ultimate Control moves," "Struggle system," and the ECW Extreme Rules matches. "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2009" was rated 31st and 28th (Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, respectively) in IGN's "Top 100 Games" list. It is among the best-selling video game franchises, with 60 million copies shipped as of 2013. "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2010" was met with mostly positive reception from numerous video game publications. GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 81.29% and 80 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version; 80.60% and 81 out of 100 for the PlayStation 3 version; 79% and 78 out of 100 for the Wii version; 76% and 76 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version; 73.29% and 75 out of 100 for the DS version; 71% and 71 out of 100 for the PSP version; and 48.33% and 42 out of 100 for the iOS version. "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2011" was met with positive to mixed reception upon release. GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 80% and 80 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version; 77.47% and 74 out of 100 for the PlayStation 3 version; 76.84% and 75 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version; 74% and 72 out of 100 for the Wii version; and 60% and 62 out of 100 for the PSP version. Greg Miller of IGN gave the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions of the game an eight out of ten. He praised the game's Universe Mode and the wrestler animations, but criticized the limitations of Road to WrestleMania mode and the inaccurate commentary. In addition, he stated that the grappling system could be "frustrating at times." Miller gave the Wii version of the game a 7.5 out of ten, however. He mentioned the same criticisms from the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions, but also criticized the graphics. GameSpot's Chris Watters rated the PS3 and X360 versions seven out of ten, lauding the game's customization options, while finding fault with the game's collision detection and the lag during online multiplayer games. He also claimed that the series was starting to "show its age." The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of "WWE '12" garnered mixed reviews. IGN gave the game a 9.0 out of 10, stating that the gameplay changes are "breathing new life into its core mechanics". Mike D'Alonzo of G4 called it "the best wrestling game ever made". However, Andy Hartup of Computer and Video Games gave the game a 6.7 out of 10 and wrote that the game, "offers little more than some new gloss painted over an old product". Game Informer's Dan Ryckert echoed the sentiment, stating, "Thanks to a severely downgraded story mode and a lack of substantial improvements, this is the weakest "WWE" title in years."

WWE 2K, formerly known as the WWF/E SmackDown series, SmackDown vs. Raw, or simply the WWE series, is a series of professional wrestling sports simulation video games developed and released annually since 2000. It was co-developed by Yuke's and Visual Concepts from "WWE 2K14" until "WWE 2K20", when Yuke's had left the development team (Yuke's was the sole developer of the games prior to 2K14). It is published by 2K Sports. The premise of each game in the series is to emulate the sport of professional wrestling, more specifically that of WWE, and present improvements over the previous installments. The games feature WWE match types, storylines and wrestlers.

WWE 2K (anciennement intitulé WWF SmackDown!, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw" et intitulé Exciting Pro Wrestling" au Japon) est une série de jeux vidéo de catch basée sur la promotion et franchise professionnelle World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) actuellement développée et éditée par les compagnies de jeux vidéo Yuke's et Take-Two.


History.

Art historians have argued that the origins of the art can be found with Eastern-style representations of the crucified Christ, and in particular the "Holy Face of Lucca", a large 11th-century carved wooden figure of Christ on the Cross (now replaced by a 13th-century copy), bearded like a man, but dressed in a full-length tunic that might have appeared to be like that of a woman instead of the loin cloth familiar and by the late Middle Ages normal in depictions in the West.  The theory is that when the composition was copied and brought north of the Alps over the next 150 years, in small copies by pilgrims and dealers, this unfamiliar image led Northerners to create a narrative to explain the androgynous icon. Some older images of the crucified Christ were repurposed as Wilgefortis, and new images clearly intended to represent the saint created, many with female clothes and breasts. Some older images of Christ on the cross are argued to have already deliberately included hints at an androgynous figure for theological reasons. Single images normally showed Wilgefortis on her cross, but two prominent standing images where she carries a smaller cross as an attribute as part of a group of saints, are mentioned below. Images showing a set of scenes covering the whole legend are unusual, but a German one of 1513 is illustrated here.

Veneration.

The popularity of prayer in the period of the middle ages has been connected to the "Devotio Moderna" and related devotion, where meditation on and identification with the sufferings of Christ was encouraged by writers such as Thomas à Kempis author of "The Imitation of Christ" or mostly encouraged by the Groote to focus on the personal structure of simplicity, obedience, and followed the book The Imitation of Christ circulating from the 1420s.  According to the narrative of the life of this Saint, set in Portugal and Galicia, a teen-aged noblewoman named Wilgefortis had been promised in marriage by her father to a Muslim king. To thwart the unwanted wedding, she had taken a vow of virginity, and prayed that she would be made repulsive. In answer to her prayers she sprouted a beard, which ended the engagement. In anger, Wilgefortis's father had her crucified.  St Wilgefortis remained popular in the North until the end of the Gothic period; there is an especially attractive carving in the Henry VII Chapel of Westminster Abbey of a beautiful standing Wilgefortis holding a cross, with a very long beard. She also appears in a similar pose, very lightly bearded, on the outside of a triptych door by Hans Memling. She was decisively debunked during the late 16th century (after a period in the 15th and 16th centuries in which she was popular), and thereafter disappears from high art, although lingering well into the 20th century in more popular forms, especially in Bavaria and Austria, but also in northern France and Belgium. In the 12th-century church of Saint-Etienne in Beauvais, there is a 16th-century wooden statue of Saint Wilgefortis on the cross. She is depicted in a full blue tunic and sports a substantial beard. She is venerated by the name of Santa Librada, in Argentina and Panama.  She is often shown with a small fiddler at her feet, and with one shoe off. This derives from a legend, also attached to the Volto Santo of Lucca, of a silver shoe with which the statue had been clothed dropping spontaneously at the feet of a poor pilgrim. In the Wilgefortis version the poor devotee became a fiddler, perhaps in the 13th century.

Wilgefortis is a female saint of the Catholic Church whose legend arose in the 14th century, and whose distinguishing feature is a large beard. Her name is thought to have derived from the Latin "virgo fortis" ("courageous virgin"). In England her name was Uncumber, and in Dutch Ontkommer (meaning one who avoids something, here specifically other people from suffering). In German lands she was known as Kümmernis ("grief" or "anxiety"). In Poland she was called Frasobliwa. She was known as Liberata in Italy and Librada in Spain ("liberated"), and as Débarras ("riddance") in France. In places such as Sigüenza, Spain, she was sometimes conflated with another Saint Liberata, the sister of Saint Marina of Aguas Santas, whose feast was also celebrated on July 20. She was venerated by people seeking relief from tribulations, in particular by women who wished to be liberated ("disencumbered") from abusive husbands.

Wilgeforte, ou Livrade, est une sainte légendaire de la tradition catholique, également invoquée sous le nom de sainte Débarras. Récits et représentations la dépeignent sous les traits d'une vierge miraculeusement barbue et d'une martyre crucifiée.


History.

TDK was founded in Tokyo, Japan, on 7 December 1935 to manufacture the iron-based magnetic material ferrite, which had been recently invented by Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei. In 1952 and 1957 they began production of magnetic tapes, with compact cassette tapes following in 1966; it is for these that the company is most widely noted. TDK used to manufacture an extensive portfolio of magnetic and optical media, including several formats of videotape and blank CD-R and recordable DVD discs until the recording business was sold to Imation in 2007.  Operations in the USA began in 1965 with a New York City office, and European operations began in 1970 with an office in Frankfurt, West Germany.  In 1980, TDK developed a multilayering technology to create chip capacitors and inductors inside personal computers, laptops, smartphones, and other electronic devices.  In 1986, TDK acquired SAE Magnetics and introduced high-density recording heads to their product offerings.  In the 1990s TDK's Mass Storage Division included brushless DC spindle motors, magnetoresistance (MR) heads, and thin-film heads.  Since 1997 TDK has gradually withdrawn from the production of compact cassettes. First with the MA-X and AR ("Acoustic Response"), then the AD ("Acoustic Dynamic") and SA-X line in 2001 and 2002 respectively, then the MA ("Metal Alloy") line in 2004. The SA ("Super Avilyn") and D ("Dynamic") lines were withdrawn in 2012 under Imation ownership. Industry trends see the company moving into new forms of media; in 2004 TDK was the first media manufacturer to join the companies developing BD post-DVD technology. TDK operated a semiconductor division in California for about a decade, but divested it in 2005.  In late 2007, Imation acquired TDK's recording business, including flash media, optical media, magnetic tape, and accessories, for $300 million. This also included a license to use the "TDK Life on Record" brand on data storage and audio products for 25 years. In September 2015, Imation announced that it had agreed to relinquish this license and would cease selling TDK-branded products by the end of the year.  Since the 2000s, TDK has turned its focus to the development, manufacture and sales of electronic components, HDD heads and suspension, and power supplies.  Beginning in 2005, TDK has acquired all manner of electronic device manufacturers including passive component developers, sensors manufacturers and power supply companies. These areas remain TDK's focus today.  Since acquiring numerous companies and honing its product line focus in recent years, TDK has begun building a portfolio of varying sensors, actuators and power electronic components through these brands. These include multi-axis MEMS motion tracking devices and MEMS microphones from InvenSense, a point-of-load DC-DC converter from Faraday Semi, and MEMS-based ultrasonic Time-of-Flight sensors from Chirp Microsystems intended for consumer electronics, AR/VR, robotics, drones, IoT, automotive, and industrial market segments. Other areas of TDK's recent focus include power components for mobile devices, high-stability MEMS accelerometers from Tronics, and miniaturized haptic actuators.  Since 2016, Shigenao Ishiguro has been President and CEO of TDK.

Sponsorship and advertising.

TDK has sponsored the IAAF World Championships in Athletics since the 1983 inaugural event in Helsinki.  TDK sponsored Ajax for several years in the 1980s during which it won UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1987. From 1993 to 1999, TDK were also the sponsors of the English football club Crystal Palace, who were promoted to the Premier League twice during this era, though lasting for just one season before being relegated on both occasions. TDK was also a minor sponsor of the Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Team during the early 1990s. It is a current sponsor of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. It also sponsors activities and events such as those at The Cross nightclub in Central London, and it had a prominent sign at Piccadilly Circus from 1990. The contract for this sign was terminated in 2015, as TDK was moving away from consumer electronics.  TDK has owned a sign on One Times Square since 2000. The screen is placed under that of Toshiba and can be seen during the annual Times Square New Year's Ball Drop.  Since 2001, TDK has supported performances of some of the world's distinguished orchestras in Japan within the company's "TDK Orchestra Concerts" program. TDK's "Outreach-Mini Concerts" and "Special Rehearsals and Main Concert Invitations" additionally serve as avenues for the company to attract younger audiences.  In 2002, the company's consumer electronics division was the presenting sponsor of the Third Annual Jammy Awards, with the TDK Live Performance of the Year award honoring the best live performance that was legally available on the Web as a free download. The award was given to the band moe. for their performance at the Bonnaroo Music Festival.  TDK's own football club, based in Nikaho, Akita, recently split from the corporation to become independent football club Blaublitz Akita, with the aim for the professional leagues.

Museum.

TDK operates a company museum in Nikaho, Akita, Japan. The museum is open to the public, free of charge. Among its exhibits are a comprehensive history of the company, its products and technologies, and emerging developments.

"TDK" is an initialism of the original Japanese name of the company: Tokyo Denki Kagaku Kōgyō K.K. (Tokyo Electric Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.). The company is listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the Nikkei 225 and TOPIX indices.

,, anciennement, est une entreprise japonaise de fabrication de matériel électronique. Elle fait partie de l'indice boursier TOPIX 100 () et est également côtée à New York et Francfort. TDK est l'abreviation de Tokyo Denki Kagaku.


In the agricultural year.

The ancient farmers' almanacs "(menologia rustica)" instruct farmers to sow wheat and barley, and to attend to "scribatio", trenching around trees.

Iconography of the month.

When the months are represented by agricultural activities, a man with a four-prong drag hoe "(rastrum quadridens)" can sometimes appear as November. In the Imperial period, the deity who often represents November in Roman art is Isis. The festival of Isis, which began October 28, continued through November 3. The Isia is first recorded on the "menologia rustica", which date to the reign of either Caligula (36–39 AD) or Claudius (41–54). Both emperors favored the cult of Isis.

Dates.

The Romans did not number days of a month sequentially from the first day through the last. Instead, they counted back from the three fixed points of the month: the Nones (5th or 7th), the Ides (13th or 15th), and the Kalends (1st) of the following month. The Nones of November was the 5th, and the Ides the 13th. The last day of November was the "pridie Kalendas Decembrīs," "day before the Kalends of December". Roman counting was inclusive; November 9 was "ante diem V Idūs Novembrīs", "the 5th day before the Ides of November," usually abbreviated "a.d. V Id. Nov." (or with the "a.d." omitted altogether); November 23 was "IX Kal. Dec.", "the 9th day before the Kalends of December," on the Julian calendar "(VIII Kal. Dec." on the pre-Julian calendar).  On the calendar of the Roman Republic and early Principate, each day was marked with a letter to denote its religiously lawful status. In November, these were:  By the late 2nd century AD, extant calendars no longer show days marked with these letters, probably in part as a result of calendar reforms undertaken by Marcus Aurelius. Days were also marked with nundinal letters in cycles of "A B C D E F G H", to mark the "market week" (these are omitted in the table below). The letter "G" never coincides with the Nones, and November is the only month when "F" occurs on a Nones.  On a "dies religiosus", one of which appears November 14, individuals were not to undertake any new activity, nor do anything other than tend to the most basic necessities. A "dies natalis" was an anniversary such as a temple founding or rededication, sometimes thought of as the "birthday" of a deity. During the Imperial period, some of the traditional festivals localized at Rome became less important, and the birthdays and anniversaries of the emperor and his family gained prominence as Roman holidays. On the calendar of military religious observances known as the "Feriale Duranum", sacrifices pertaining to Imperial cult outnumber the older festivals. After the mid-1st century AD, a number of dates are added to calendars for spectacles and games "(ludi)" held in honor of various deities in the venue called a "circus" "(ludi circenses)". Festivals marked in large letters on extant "fasti", represented by festival names in all capital letters on the table, are thought to have been the most ancient holidays, becoming part of the calendar before 509 BC.  Unless otherwise noted, the dating and observances on the following table are from H.H. Scullard, "Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic" (Cornell University Press, 1981), pp. 196–198. After the Ides, dates for the Julian calendar are given; pre-Julian dates for particular events, when April had one less day, are noted parenthetically.

November (from Latin "novem", "nine") or mensis November was originally the ninth of ten months on the Roman calendar, following October ("octo", "eight") and preceding December ("decem", "ten"). It had 29 days. In the reform that resulted in a 12-month year, November became the eleventh month, but retained its name, as did the other months from September through December. A day was added to November during the Julian calendar reform in the mid-40s BC.

, -bris ("Novembris mensis", littéralement du neuvième mois) était le neuvième mois du calendrier romain, issu du latin "novem", qui signifie neuf, et de "ber" issu du suffixe génitif "bris". Il devient graduellement, selon les pays, le mois de Novembre, le de l’année. Au Moyen Âge, les pays de la chrétienté commencent la numérotation de l'année à une fête religieuse importante, comme le 25 décembre ("style de la Nativité" de Jésus), le 25 mars ("style florentin" ou "style de l'Annonciation"), voire à Pâques ("style de Pâques") comme dans certaines régions françaises. En France, il s'impose comme le lorsque le roi Charles décide, par l’Édit de Roussillon en 1564, que l’année débuterait désormais le. Le pape Grégoire XIII étend cette mesure à l'ensemble de la chrétienté avec l'adoption du calendrier grégorien en 1582.


History.

Early history.

The site was first used as a cricket ground in 1857, when the Manchester Cricket Club moved onto the meadows of the de Trafford estate. Despite the construction of a large pavilion (for the amateurs—the professionals used a shed at the opposite end of the ground), Old Trafford's first years were rocky: accessible only along a footpath from the railway station, the ground was situated out in the country, and games only attracted small crowds. It was not until the Roses match of 1875 that significant numbers attended a game. When W. G. Grace brought Gloucestershire in 1878, Old Trafford saw 28,000 spectators over three days, and this provoked improvements to access and facilities.  In 1884, Old Trafford became the second English ground, after The Oval, to stage Test cricket: with the first day being lost to rain, England drew with Australia. Expansion of the ground followed over the next decade, with the decision being taken to construct a new pavilion in 1894.  The ground was purchased outright from the de Traffords in 1898, for £24,372, as crowds increased, with over 50,000 spectators attending the 1899 Test match.  In 1902, the Australian Victor Trumper hit a hundred before lunch on the first day; Australia went on to win the Test by 3 runs—the third-closest Test result in history.  Crowds fell through the early 20th century, and the ground was closed during the First World War; however, in the conflict's aftermath, crowd numbers reached new heights. Investment followed throughout the inter-war period, and during this time, Lancashire experienced their most successful run to date, gaining four championship titles in five years.  During the Second World War, Old Trafford was used as a transit camp for troops returning from Dunkirk, and as a supply depot. In December 1940, the ground was hit by bombs, damaging or destroying several stands. Despite this damage—and the failure of an appeal to raise funds for repairs—cricket resumed promptly after the war, with German PoWs being paid a small wage to prepare the ground. The 'Victory Test' between England and Australia of August 1945 proved to be extremely popular, with 76,463 seeing it over three days.

Post-Second World War.

Differences of opinion between the club's committee and players led to a bad run of form in the 1950s and early 1960s; this consequently saw gate money drop, and a lack of investment. After 1964, however, the situation was reversed, and 1969 saw the first Indoor Cricket Centre opened. In 1956 Jim Laker became the first person to take all 10 wickets in a Test match innings, achieving figures of 10 for 53 in the fourth Test against Australia (the only other bowler to take all 10 wickets in an innings is Anil Kumble of India in 1999). Having also taken 9 for 37 in the first innings, Laker ended the match with record figures of 19 for 90, which remain unmatched to this day. On 1 May 1963 the first ever one day cricket match took place at Old Trafford, as the Gillette Cup was launched. Lancashire beat Leicestershire in a preliminary knock-out game, as 16th and 17th finishers in the Championship the previous year, to decide who would fill the 16th spot in the One Day competition. Following Lancashire's reign as One Day champions in the 1970s, a programme of renovation and replacement was initiated in 1981. This changed the face of the ground to the extent that, now, only the Pavilion "is recognisable to a visitor who last watched or played a game in, say, the early 1980s". In 1981 Ian Botham hit 118, including six sixes (the second greatest number in an Ashes innings), which he has called "one of the three innings I would like to tell my grandchildren about". England went on to win the Ashes after being lampooned in the national media for such poor performances.  In 1990, Sachin Tendulkar scored his first Test hundred at the age of 17—becoming the second-youngest centurion—to help India draw. In 1993, Shane Warne bowled the "Ball of the Century" to Mike Gatting at the ground. In the same game, Graham Gooch was out handling the ball for 133—only the sixth out of nine times this has ever happened. In 1995, Dominic Cork took a hat-trick for England against the West Indies. In 2000, both Mike Atherton and Alec Stewart played their hundredth Tests, against the West Indies. In the Third Test of the 2005 Ashes series the match ended in a nailbiting draw, with 10,000 fans shut out of the ground on the final day as tickets were sold out. England went on to win the series regaining the Ashes for the first time since 1986/87.

The ground.

The cricket ground is near the Old Trafford football stadium (a five-minute walk away down Warwick Road and Sir Matt Busby Way), in the borough of Trafford in Greater Manchester, approximately two miles south west of Manchester city centre. Its capacity is 22,000 for Test matches, for which temporary stands are erected, and 15,000 for other matches. Since 1884, it has hosted 74 Tests, the third-highest number in England, behind Lord's and The Oval.  The two ends of the ground are the James Anderson End to the north and the Brian Statham End to the south, renamed in honour of the former Lancashire and England player. A section of Warwick Road to the east is also called Brian Statham Way. Immediately abutting the ground to the south-east is the Old Trafford tram stop.  Old Trafford has a reputation for unpredictable weather. Old Trafford is the only ground in England where a Test match has been abandoned without a ball being bowled—and this has happened here twice in 1890 and 1938, though before five-day test matches were introduced. Before Cardiff hosted its first Test match in July 2009, Old Trafford was reputedly the wettest Test ground in the country; Manchester is situated to the west of the Pennines and faces prevailing winds and weather fronts from the Atlantic Ocean.  These prevailing conditions have encouraged Lancashire to keep the ground as well-drained as possible, most recently through the acquisition of a Hover Cover in 2007, and the installation of new drains towards the end of the 2008 season.  In the second Test of 1938 in a desperate effort to ensure play after heavy rain the groundstaff moved the turf from the practice pitch to the square—a unique attempt. In 2010–11 the wickets were relaid, changing their extremely unusual east–west axis to a more conventional north–south layout. The Brian Statham End to the east, and Stretford End to the west, were replaced by the Pavilion End to the north, and the Brian Statham End to the south.

The Pavilion.

The three-tiered Victorian members' pavilion was built in 1895 for £10,000. Hit by a bomb in 1940—which destroyed the members' dining room and groundsman's quarters—most of the pavilion was rebuilt. One million pounds was spent on a new roof after it began to leak in 2003.  The Pavilion's position was noteworthy in that, until 2010, it sat parallel to the wickets, rather than behind them, presenting the members with one of the worst viewing angles possible. It contains batting and bowling Honours Boards, unveiled during the 2004 Test match. The pavilion underwent redevelopment at the start of 2012 and was reopened for the YB40 game against Scotland.

The Point.

The Point, Old Trafford's distinctive £12 million conference centre, and at 1,000 seats one of the largest multi-purpose conference facilities in North West England, opened in 2010.

Media and Players Centre.

Old Trafford was unusual in that there were two media stands at opposite ends of the ground prior to the new Media Centre which opened in September 2012. Television and radio commentators previously operated in temporary television studios and commentary boxes at the Stretford End which were perched on hospitality boxes.

Cricket practice school.

The idea of an indoor school was born in 1951, when nets were strung up in the Members' Dining Room in the pavilion. A permanent facility was built in 1969, and replaced in 1997. The current building stands to the north-west of the pitch; it contains five 60-metre lanes on various surfaces, several conference rooms, and a large shop.

The hotel.

To the north-east of the ground, immediately adjacent to the Pavilion is a 150-bed Hilton Garden hotel which opened in late 2017. Similar in architecture to "The Point" on the other side of the Pavilion, half the rooms have a balcony with a full view of the pitch. Previously, this was occupied by the "Old Trafford Lodge" which opened in 1999. The hotel had 68 rooms, 36 having unobstructed views of the playing surface. It was demolished in 2016 and the new hotel opened in late 2017.

Redevelopment 2003–2017.

Following rejection of plans, in 2003, to sell Old Trafford, and move the club to a new purpose-built stadium in East Manchester, the focus was switched to upgrading the current ground. Lancashire CCC, with a coalition of businesses, are in the process of making the cricket ground the centre of an anticipated development, in a mixed-use scheme involving business, residential, retail, hotel and leisure facilities.  The first phase of redevelopment saw the laying of new drains in Autumn 2008. In 2009, the Stretford end of the ground was closed to facilitate destruction of the County Suite, Tyldesley Suite, 'K' and 'L' Stands and the scoreboard; The Point, overshadowing new seating to the west of the pavilion, opened in June 2010. During the 2010/11 winter the wickets were turned from their previous east–west axis to a more typical north–south alignment, which prevents the low evening sun from interfering with matches, and increased the number of available wickets by five, to sixteen. Many of Lancashire's home games for the 2011 season were transferred to out grounds while the new wickets 'bedded in'.  The main planning process began in September 2008, but faced stiff legal opposition. Since Tesco pledged £21 million to the redevelopment, the stadium's planning application included a request for a new supermarket nearby. Trafford Council gave this joint proposal permission in March 2010—a decision which was initially called in by the Communities Secretary for Judicial Review, before the go-ahead was given in September 2010. Derwent Holdings, a property development company denied permission to build a supermarket at the nearby White City retail park, then called for a Judicial Review. Although this was turned down by the High Court in March 2011, the case went to the Court of Appeal. Lancashire took the risky decision to begin work ahead of the matter being resolved, in order to qualify for grants from the North West Development Agency before it was wound up. However, the Court of Appeal ruled in Lancashire's favour in July 2011, and denied leave to further appeal.  Work therefore began on this main phase in summer 2011, beginning with the installation of permanent floodlights and a new video screen. A new 'Players and Media' facility, mimicking to some degree the design of The Point, has been built on the site of the demolished Washbrook-Statham stand, with a two-tiered cantilever stand being erected on either side. The Pavilion has been renovated to have its sloped roof replaced with two modern glass storeys, finished in April 2013.  The media facilities and corporate boxes on the western side of the ground have been demolished, leaving an empty space, which will be used for temporary seating or a stage when required.  The Old Trafford Lodge opened in 1999; however, it will be demolished and construction will begin on the Hilton Garden Inn Emirates Old Trafford. It will be a Hilton Garden Inn 150-bedroom hotel for Hilton Worldwide. It is expected to be completed by July 2017.

Uses.

Cricket.

The ground is used heavily throughout the summer as the base of Lancashire County Cricket Club, with other home games being played at Stanley Park, Blackpool, Birkdale in Southport and at Aigburth in Liverpool. Until 2008, Old Trafford commonly hosted a Test match each year; none were hosted in 2009, 2011 or 2012 due to sub-standard facilities, although following redevelopment, Old Trafford hosted an Ashes Test in 2013, and further Tests in 2014 and 2016. One Day Internationals and/or International Twenty20s continue to be hosted every year.  In Tests, the highest team score posted here is 656/8 dec by Australia against England on 23 July 1964. The leading run scorers here are Denis Compton (818 runs), Mike Atherton (729 runs) and Alec Stewart (704 runs). The leading wicket takers are Alec Bedser (51 wickets), James Anderson (28 wickets) and Jim Laker (27 wickets).  In ODIs, the highest team score posted here is 397/6 by England against Afghanistan national cricket team on 18 June 2019. The leading run scorers here are Graham Gooch (405 runs), Eoin Morgan (368 runs), and Allan Lamb (341 runs). The leading wicket takers are Bob Willis (15 wickets), James Anderson (14 wickets) and Darren Gough (13 wickets).

Musical venue.

The ground is occasionally used as a venue for large-scale concerts, with a maximum capacity of 50,000. Although the old stage location, in front of the Indoor Cricket School, has been built on, buildings on the western side of the ground will be cleared by 2013 to again allow space for a stage. The concert capacity will increase to 65,000 after redevelopment.

Other.

The Old Trafford Lodge, The Point, and other corporate facilities are open all year round, as are the ground's car parks, situated to the north and west of the ground.

Transport.

The ground is served by the adjacent Old Trafford tram stop on the Manchester Metrolink's Altrincham Line.

Old Trafford is a cricket ground in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, England. It opened in 1857 as the home of Manchester Cricket Club and has been the home of Lancashire County Cricket Club since 1864. From 2013 onwards it has been known as Emirates Old Trafford due to a sponsorship deal with the Emirates airline.

Old Trafford Cricket Ground, ou plus communément Old Trafford, est un stade de cricket situé à Manchester, en Angleterre. Il est le siège du Lancashire County Cricket Club depuis 1864. D'une capacité de places, il a accueilli son premier test en 1884, à l'occasion d'un match entre l'Angleterre et l'Australie et est régulièrement utilisé depuis par la sélection anglaise. Il a accueilli son premier One-day International en 1972. Des matchs y ont été joués lors des quatre Coupes du monde ayant eu lieu en Angleterre, en 1975, 1979, 1983 et 1999.