Description.

"Suillus grevillei" is a mushroom with a 5–10 cm (2–4 in) cap colored from citrus yellow to burnt orange, that is at first hemispherical, then bell-shaped, and finally flattened. It has a sticky skin, short tubes of yellow or brownish which descend down to the bottom of its cylindrical stalk (6–10 x 1–2 cm) which is cream-colored turning to reddish brown with a cream-white ring.  It has a thin meat which has consistency at first but then quickly becomes soft. It has an odor reminiscent of rumpled "Pelargonium" geranium leaves.  It grows in the soil of mixed forests, not always at the foot of larch (can be quite some distance away) with which it lives in symbiosis. It grows from June until November.  "Suillus grevillei" is an edible mushroom (without consistency nor flavor) if the slimy cuticle is removed off the cap. This mucousy skin layer is what is known to cause intestinal issues, as is the case with several other "Suillus" such as Slippery Jack ("S. luteus") or Jill ("S. salmonicolor"); often considered to be not worth the work.  Its name is derived from Robert Kaye Greville.

Habitat and distribution.

Grows only under larch trees. Widespread in North America and Europe. In Asia, it has been recorded from Taiwan.

Chemistry.

The fungus produces grevillin which is characteristic of this fungus. The genetic and enzymatic basis for atromentin, the precursor to various pulvinic acid-type pigments, has been characterized (an atromentin synthetase by the name, GreA). A cosmid library (31 249 bp in total) has been made from the genome. The estimated gene density based on the cosmid library is 1 per 3900 bp of genomic DNA. The genome has a GC content of 49.8%.

References.

Works in French.

"This article is based on a translation of the article on the French Wikipedia."

Suillus grevillei (commonly known as Greville's bolete and larch bolete) is a mycorrhizal mushroom with a tight, brilliantly coloured cap, shiny and wet looking with its mucous slime layer. The hymenium easily separates from the flesh of the cap, with a central stalk that is quite slender. The species has a ring or a tight-fitting annular zone.

Suillus grevillei, de son nom vernaculaire le bolet élégant, autrefois Boletus elegans, est une espèce de champignons basidiomycètes du genre "Suillus", de la famille des "Suillaceae" (autrefois de la famille des "Boletaceae"). La cuticule du sporophore est généralement collante et brillante et l’hyménium sec à tubes se sépare facilement de la chair du chapeau, avec un pied central assez mince. Il présente un anneau ou une zone annulaire collante.


Types.

The tricorder of the 23rd century, as seen in "", is a black, rectangular device with a top-mounted rotating hood, two opening compartments, and a shoulder strap. The top pivots open, exposing a small screen and control buttons. The ship's doctor uses a variant of this model with a detachable "sensor probe" stored in the bottom compartment when not in use. The probe was actually fashioned from a salt shaker to save costs. The 24th-century version introduced in "" is a small, gray, hand-held model with a flip-out panel to allow for a larger screen. This design was later refined with a slightly more angular appearance that was seen in most "Next Generation"–era movies as well as later seasons of "" and "".  In the post-"Next Generation" era ("Star Trek Nemesis" and "" ), a newer tricorder was introduced. It is flatter, with a small flap that opens on top and a large touchscreen interface.

Production.

The tricorder prop for the was designed and built by Wah Ming Chang, who created several futuristic props under contract. Some of his designs are considered to have been influential on later, real-world consumer electronics devices. For instance, his communicator inspired cell phone inventor Martin Cooper's desire to create his own form of a mobile communication device. Many other companies followed this example and life-sized replicas remain popular collectibles today. The tricorder in "The Next Generation" was initially inspired by the HP-41C scientific calculator.

"Real" tricorders.

Software exists to make hand-held devices simulate a tricorder. Examples include Jeff Jetton's Tricorder for the PalmPilot; the Web application for the Pocket PC, iPhone, and iPod Touch; and an Android version.  Vital Technologies Corporation sold a portable device dubbed the "Official Star-Trek Tricorder Mark 1" (formally, the TR-107 Tricorder Mark 1) in 1996. Its features were an "Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Meter", "Two-Mode Weather Station" (thermometer and barometer), "Colorimeter" (no wavelength given), "Light meter", and "Stardate Clock and Timer" (a clock and timer). Spokespersons claimed the device was a "serious scientific instrument". Vital Technologies marketed the TR-107 as a limited run of 10,000 units before going out of business, although far fewer than 10,000 were likely ever built. The company was permitted to call this device a "tricorder" because Gene Roddenberry's contract included a clause allowing any company able to create functioning technology to use the name.  In February 2007, researchers from Purdue University publicly announced their portable (briefcase-sized) DESI-based mass spectrometer, the "Mini-10", which can be used to analyze compounds in ambient conditions without prior sample preparation. This was also announced as a "tricorder".  In March 2008, British biotech company QuantuMDx was founded to develop the world's first handheld DNA lab, a molecular diagnostic point-of-care device which will provide disease diagnosis in under 15 minutes. In March 2014, the company launched a crowdfunding campaign to support clinical trials of the device and to name it. Contributors and members of the public called for the device to be officially named a "Tricorder".  In May 2008, researchers from Georgia Tech publicly announced their portable hand-held multi-spectral imaging device, which aids in the detection of the severity of an injury under the skin, including the presence of pressure ulcers, regardless of lighting conditions or skin pigmentation. The day after the announcement, technology websites including Inside Tech and The Future of Things began comparing this device to the "Star Trek" tricorder.  On May 10, 2011, the X Prize Foundation partnered with Qualcomm Incorporated to announce the Tricorder X Prize, a $10 million incentive to develop a mobile device that can diagnose patients as well as or better than a panel of board-certified physicians. On the contest was officially opened at the 2012 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. Early entrants to the competition include two Silicon Valley startups, Scanadu and Senstore, which began work on the medical tricorder in early 2011. The winner of the competition was Final Frontier Medical Devices which is now Basil Leaf Technologies On Aug 23, 2011, moonblink's tricorder app for Android was served with a copyright infringement notice by lawyers for CBS and it was deleted from the Android Market by Google. On January 5, 2012, it was put back again as a new app in the Android market, although it is no longer available.  In 2012, cognitive science researcher Dr. Peter Jansen announced having developed a handheld mobile computing device modeled after the design of the tricorder.

Toys and replicas.

The first mass-produced tricorder replica was featured in AMT's "Star Trek" Exploration Set in 1974, followed shortly thereafter by a palm-sized version in Remco's 1975 "Star Trek" Utility Belt which was sized and marketed to young children in hopes of taking advantage of "" that was on TV at that time.  The first life-sized tricorder was produced by Mego Corporation in 1976 and was actually a cassette tape player made to look like a tricorder. In the 1990s, "Star Trek" replicas were mass-produced by Playmates, Playing Mantis, and Master Replicas, making commercially produced replicas affordable to the average fan for the first time. In the 2000s, Art Asylum and later Diamond Select produced prop replicas of the original tricorder.

In the science-fictional "Star Trek" universe, a tricorder is a multifunction hand-held device used for sensor (environment) scanning, data analysis, and recording data.

Dans l'univers de fiction de "Star Trek", le tricordeur (parfois également appelé tri-enregistreur) est un petit outil tenant dans la main ou portable en bandoulière et capable de remplir trois fonctions de base : détecter, enregistrer et analyser.


History.

1971–1973: Formation and early releases.

The Eagles began in early 1971, when Linda Ronstadt and her then-manager John Boylan recruited local musicians Glenn Frey and Don Henley for her band. Henley had moved to Los Angeles from Texas with his band Shiloh to record an album produced by Kenny Rogers, and Frey had come from Michigan and formed Longbranch Pennywhistle; they had met in 1970 at The Troubadour in Los Angeles and became acquainted through their mutual record label, Amos Records. Randy Meisner, who had been working with Ricky Nelson's backing band, the Stone Canyon Band, and Bernie Leadon, a veteran of the Flying Burrito Brothers, also later joined Ronstadt's group of performers for her summer tour promoting the "Silk Purse" album.  While

1973–1975: "On the Border" and "One of These Nights".

For their next album, "On the Border", Henley and Frey wanted the band to break away from the country rock style and move more towards hard rock. The Eagles initially started with Glyn Johns as the producer for this album, but he tended to emphasize the lush side of their double-edged music. After completing only two usable songs, the band turned to Bill Szymczyk to produce the rest of the album. Szymczyk wanted a harder-edged guitarist for the song "Good Day in Hell" and the band remembered Bernie Leadon's childhood friend Don Felder, a guitarist who had jammed backstage with the band in 1972 when they opened for Yes in Boston. Felder had been nicknamed "Fingers" at the

1975–1977: Major success with "Hotel California".

Leadon's replacement was guitarist and singer Joe Walsh, who had been a friend of the band for some years. He had previously performed with James Gang, Barnstorm, and as a solo artist; he was also managed by Azoff and used Szymczyk as his record producer. There was some initial concern as to Walsh's ability to fit in with the band, as he was considered too "wild" for the Eagles, especially by Henley. After the departure of Leadon, the Eagles' early country sound almost completely disappeared, with the band employing a harder sound with the addition of Felder and Walsh; however, Felder also had to play banjo, pedal steel and mandolin on future tours, something that had previously been Leadon's domain.  In early 1976, the band released their first compilation album, "Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)". The album became the highest-selling album of the 20th century in the United States, and

1977–1980: "The Long Run", breakup.

The Eagles went into the recording studio in 1977 to begin work on their next album, "The Long Run". The album took two years to complete. It was originally intended to be a double album, but the band members were unable to write enough songs. "The Long Run" was released on September 24, 1979. Considered a disappointment by some critics for failing to live up to "Hotel California", it proved a huge commercial hit nonetheless; the album topped the charts and sold

1980–1994: Hiatus.

After the Eagles broke up, the former members pursued solo careers. Elektra, the band's long-time record label, initially owned the rights to solo albums created by members of the Eagles. Walsh had established himself as a solo artist in the 1970s, but it was uncharted waters for the others.  Walsh released a successful album in 1981, "There Goes the Neighborhood," but subsequent albums throughout the 1980s were less well received. During this period, Walsh performed as a session musician for Dan Fogelberg, Steve Winwood, John Entwistle, Richard Marx and Emerson, Lake & Palmer, among others, and produced and co-wrote Ringo Starr's "Old Wave" album.  Henley achieved commercial solo success. In 1981, he sang a

1994–2001: Reunion, "Hell Freezes Over".

An Eagles country tribute album, titled "", was released in 1993, 13 years after the breakup. Travis Tritt insisted on having the "Long Run"-era Eagles in his video for "Take It Easy" and they agreed. Following years of public speculation, the band formally reunited the following year. The lineup comprised the five "Long Run"-era members—Frey, Henley, Walsh, Felder, and Schmit—supplemented by Scott Crago (drums), John Corey (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), Timothy Drury (keyboards, guitar, backing vocals), and former Loggins and Messina sideman Al Garth (sax, violin) on stage.  "For the record, we never broke up, we just took a 14-year vacation," said Frey at their first live performance in April 1994. The ensuing tour spawned a live album titled "Hell Freezes Over" (named for Henley's recurring statement that the group would get back together "when hell freezes over"), which debuted at number 1 on the "Billboard" album chart. It included four new studio songs, with "Get Over It" and "Love Will Keep Us Alive" both becoming Top 40 hits. The album proved as successful as

2001–2007: Don Felder lawsuit.

On February 6, 2001, Don Felder was fired from the Eagles. He responded by filing two lawsuits against "Eagles, Ltd.", a California corporation; Don Henley, an individual; Glenn Frey, an individual; and "Does 1–50", alleging wrongful termination, breach of implied-in-fact contract and breach of fiduciary duty, reportedly seeking $50 million in damages. Felder alleged that from the 1994 "Hell Freezes Over" tour onward, Henley and Frey had.".. insisted that they each receive a higher percentage of the band's profits...," whereas the money had previously been split in five equal portions. Felder accused them of coercing him into signing an agreement under which Henley and Frey would receive three times as much of the "Selected Works: 1972–1999" proceeds.  On behalf of Henley and Frey, attorney Daniel M. Petrocelli responded by saying "[Henley and Frey] felt—creatively, chemistry-wise and performance-wise—that he should no longer be part of the band... They removed him, and they had every legal right to do so. This has been happening with rock 'n' roll bands since day one. Henley and Frey then countersued Felder for breach

2007–2012: "Long Road Out of Eden" world tour and possible eighth album.

In 2007, the Eagles consisted of Frey, Henley, Walsh, and Schmit. On August 20, 2007, "How Long", written by J. D. Souther, was released as a single to radio with an accompanying online video at Yahoo! Music. It debuted on television on Country Music Television during the Top 20 Countdown on August 23, 2007. The band had performed the song as part of their live sets in the early to mid-1970s, but did not record it at the time because Souther wanted to reserve it for use on his first solo album. Souther had

2013–2016: "History of the Eagles", Glenn Frey's death, and second hiatus.

In February 2013, the Eagles released a career-spanning documentary called "History of the Eagles" and began the supporting tour with 11 US arena concerts in July. Henley said that the tour, which expanded internationally and continued until July 2015, "could very well be our last...we're gonna include at least one former band member in this tour and kinda go back to the roots, and how we created some of these songs. We're gonna break it down to the fundamentals and then take it up to where it is now." Original Eagles guitarist Bernie Leadon also appeared on the tour. Walsh stated, "Bernie’s brilliant, I never really got a chance to play with him, but we've been in contact. We see him from time to time, and I'm really glad he's coming

2017–present: Return to touring.

Despite Henley's statements the previous year, the band continued touring and headlined the Classic West and Classic East concert in July 2017, which were organized by their manager Irving Azoff. Glenn Frey's son Deacon performed in his father's place, along with country musician Vince Gill. At the Classic West concert, the band was joined by Bob Seger who sang "Heartache Tonight", which he co-wrote.  A North American tour, again with Gill and Deacon Frey, began in March 2018. Henley's son Will joined the touring band as a

Musical style.

Influenced by 1960s rhythm and blues, soul, bluegrass, and rock bands such as the Byrds and Buffalo Springfield, the Eagles' overall sound has been described as "California rock". In the words of Sal Manna, author of the CD liner notes of the band's 1994 album "Hell Freezes Over", "no one knew quite what 'California rock' meant – except perhaps that, because in California anything was possible, music that came from that promising land was more free-spirited and free-ranging." "Rolling Stone" described the Eagles' sound as "country-tinged vocal harmonies with hard rock guitars and lyrics".  The group's sound has also

Band members.

Current members  Current touring musicians Former members  Former touring musicians

The Eagles are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles in 1971. The founding members were Glenn Frey (guitars, vocals), Don Henley (drums, vocals), Bernie Leadon (guitars, vocals) and Randy Meisner (bass guitar, vocals). With five number-one singles, six number-one albums, six Grammy Awards, and five American Music Awards, the Eagles were one of the most successful musical acts of the 1970s. Their albums "Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975)" and "Hotel California" rank first and third, respectively, among the best-selling albums in the United States, with 38million and 26million album units in sales. The Eagles are one of the world's best-selling bands, having sold more than 200 million records, including 100 million albums sold in U.S alone. They were ranked number 75 on "Rolling Stone"s 2004 list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.

Les Eagles étaient un groupe rock américain, originaire de Los Angeles, en Californie. Ils se sont formés en 1970, aux influences country et bluegrass, pionnier du country rock. Le style musical des Eagles est connu sous le nom de "West Coast Sound".


History.

The basic idea now known as the Z-transform was known to Laplace, and it was re-introduced in 1947 by W. Hurewicz and others as a way to treat sampled-data control systems used with radar. It gives a tractable way to solve linear, constant-coefficient difference equations. It was later dubbed "the z-transform" by Ragazzini and Zadeh in the sampled-data control group at Columbia University in 1952.  The modified or advanced Z-transform was later developed and popularized by E. I. Jury.  The idea contained within the Z-transform is also known in mathematical literature as the method of generating functions which can be traced back as early as 1730 when it was introduced by de Moivre in conjunction with probability theory. From a mathematical view the Z-transform can also be viewed as a Laurent series where one views the sequence of numbers under consideration as the (Laurent) expansion of an analytic function.

Definition.

The Z-transform can be defined as either a "one-sided" or "two-sided" transform.

Bilateral Z-transform.

The "bilateral" or "two-sided" Z-transform of a discrete-time signal formula_1 is the formal power series formula_2 defined as  where formula_3 is an integer and formula_4 is, in general, a complex number: where formula_6 is the magnitude of formula_4, formula_8 is the imaginary unit, and formula_9 is the "complex argument" (also referred to as "angle" or "phase") in radians.

Unilateral Z-transform.

Alternatively, in cases where formula_1 is defined only for formula_11, the "single-sided" or "unilateral" Z-transform is defined as  In signal processing, this definition can be used to evaluate the Z-transform of the unit impulse response of a discrete-time causal system.  An important example of the unilateral Z-transform is the probability-generating function, where the component formula_1 is the probability that a discrete random variable takes the value formula_3, and the function formula_2 is usually written as formula_15 in terms of formula_16. The properties of Z-transforms (below) have useful interpretations in the context of probability theory.

Inverse Z-transform.

The "inverse" Z-transform is  where "C" is a counterclockwise closed path encircling the origin and entirely in the region of convergence (ROC). In the case where the ROC is causal (see Example 2), this means the path "C" must encircle all of the poles of formula_2.  A special case of this contour integral occurs when "C" is the unit circle. This contour can be used when the ROC includes the unit circle, which is always guaranteed when formula_2 is stable, that is, when all the poles are inside the unit circle. With this contour, the inverse Z-transform simplifies to the inverse discrete-time Fourier transform, or Fourier series, of the periodic values of the Z-transform around the unit circle:  The Z-transform with a finite range of "n" and a finite number of uniformly spaced "z" values can be computed efficiently via Bluestein's FFT algorithm. The discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT)—not to be confused with the discrete Fourier transform (DFT)—is a special case of such a Z-transform obtained by restricting "z" to lie on the unit circle.

Region of convergence.

The region of convergence (ROC) is the set of points in the complex plane for which the Z-transform summation converges.

Example 1 (no ROC).

Let "x[n]" = (0.5). Expanding "x[n]" on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes  Looking at the sum  Therefore, there are no values of "z" that satisfy this condition.

Example 2 (causal ROC).

Let formula_23 (where "u" is the Heaviside step function). Expanding "x[n]" on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes  Looking at the sum  The last equality arises from the infinite geometric series and the equality only holds if |0.5"z"| < 1 which can be rewritten in terms of "z" as |"z"| > 0.5. Thus, the ROC is |"z"| > 0.5. In this case the ROC is the complex plane with a disc of radius 0.5 at the origin "punched out".

Example 3 (anti causal ROC).

Let formula_26 (where "u" is the Heaviside step function). Expanding "x[n]" on the interval (−∞, ∞) it becomes  Looking at the sum  Using the infinite geometric series, again, the equality only holds if |0.5"z"| < 1 which can be rewritten in terms of "z" as |"z"| < 0.5. Thus, the ROC is |"z"| < 0.5. In this case the ROC is a disc centered at the origin and of radius 0.5.  What differentiates this example from the previous example is "only" the ROC. This is intentional to demonstrate that the transform result alone is insufficient.

Examples conclusion.

Examples 2 & 3 clearly show that the Z-transform "X(z)" of "x[n]" is unique when and only when specifying the ROC. Creating the pole–zero plot for the causal and anticausal case show that the ROC for either case does not include the pole that is at 0.5. This extends to cases with multiple poles: the ROC will "never" contain poles.  In example 2, the causal system yields an ROC that includes |"z"| = ∞ while the anticausal system in example 3 yields an ROC that includes |"z"| = 0. In systems with multiple poles it is possible to have a ROC that includes neither |"z"| = ∞ nor |"z"| = 0. The ROC creates a circular band. For example,  has poles at 0.5 and 0.75. The ROC will be 0.5 < |"z"| < 0.75, which includes neither the origin nor infinity. Such a system is called a mixed-causality system as it contains a causal term (0.5)"u"["n"] and an anticausal term −(0.75)"u"[−"n"−1].  The stability of a system can also be determined by knowing the ROC alone. If the ROC contains the unit circle (i.e., |"z"| = 1) then the system is stable. In the above systems the causal system (Example 2) is stable because |"z"| > 0.5 contains the unit circle.  Let us assume we are provided a Z-transform of a system without a ROC (i.e., an ambiguous "x[n]"). we can determine a unique "x[n]" provided we desire the following:  For stability the ROC must contain the unit circle. If we need a causal system then the ROC must contain infinity and the system function will be a right-sided sequence. If we need an anticausal system then the ROC must contain the origin and the system function will be a left-sided sequence. If we need both stability and causality, all the poles of the system function must be inside the unit circle.  The unique "x[n]" can then be found.

Properties.

Parseval's theorem  Initial value theorem: If "x"["n"] is causal, then  Final value theorem: If the poles of ("z"−1)"X"("z") are inside the unit circle, then

Table of common Z-transform pairs.

Here:  is the unit (or Heaviside) step function and  is the discrete-time unit impulse function (cf Dirac delta function which is a continuous-time version). The two functions are chosen together so that the unit step function is the accumulation (running total) of the unit impulse function.

Relationship to Fourier series and Fourier transform.

For values of formula_4 in the region formula_36, known as the unit circle, we can express the transform as a function of a single, real variable, ω, by defining formula_37. And the bi-lateral transform reduces to a Fourier series:  which is also known as the discrete-time Fourier transform (DTFT) of the formula_1 sequence. This 2-periodic function is the periodic summation of a Fourier transform, which makes it a widely used analysis tool. To understand this, let formula_39 be the Fourier transform of any function, formula_40, whose samples at some interval, "T", equal the x["n"] sequence. Then the DTFT of the "x"["n"] sequence can be written as follows.  When "T" has units of seconds, formula_41 has units of hertz. Comparison of the two series reveals that formula_42 is a normalized frequency with units of "radians per sample". The value ω=2 corresponds to formula_43 Hz. And now, with the substitution formula_44 can be expressed in terms of the Fourier transform, X(•):  As parameter T changes, the individual terms of move farther apart or closer together along the f-axis. In however, the centers remain 2 apart, while their widths expand or contract. When sequence "x"("nT") represents the impulse response of an LTI system, these functions are also known as its frequency response. When the formula_45 sequence is periodic, its DTFT is divergent at one or more harmonic frequencies, and zero at all other frequencies. This is often represented by the use of amplitude-variant Dirac delta functions at the harmonic frequencies. Due to periodicity, there are only a finite number of unique amplitudes, which are readily computed by the much simpler discrete Fourier transform (DFT). (See DTFT; periodic data.)

Relationship to Laplace transform.

Bilinear transform.

The bilinear transform can be used to convert continuous-time filters (represented in the Laplace domain) into discrete-time filters (represented in the Z-domain), and vice versa. The following substitution is used:  to convert some function formula_47 in the Laplace domain to a function formula_48 in the Z-domain (Tustin transformation), or  from the Z-domain to the Laplace domain. Through the bilinear transformation, the complex s-plane (of the Laplace transform) is mapped to the complex z-plane (of the z-transform). While this mapping is (necessarily) nonlinear, it is useful in that it maps the entire formula_50 axis of the s-plane onto the unit circle in the z-plane. As such, the Fourier transform (which is the Laplace transform evaluated on the formula_50 axis) becomes the discrete-time Fourier transform. This assumes that the Fourier transform exists; i.e., that the formula_50 axis is in the region of convergence of the Laplace transform.

Starred transform.

Given a one-sided Z-transform, X(z), of a time-sampled function, the corresponding starred transform produces a Laplace transform and restores the dependence on sampling parameter, T:  The inverse Laplace transform is a mathematical abstraction known as an "impulse-sampled" function.

Linear constant-coefficient difference equation.

The linear constant-coefficient difference (LCCD) equation is a representation for a linear system based on the autoregressive moving-average equation.  Both sides of the above equation can be divided by α, if it is not zero, normalizing α = 1 and the LCCD equation can be written  This form of the LCCD equation is favorable to make it more explicit that the "current" output "y[n]" is a function of past outputs "y[n−p]", current input "x[n]", and previous inputs "x[n−q]".

Transfer function.

Taking the Z-transform of the above equation (using linearity and time-shifting laws) yields  and rearranging results in

Zeros and poles.

From the fundamental theorem of algebra the numerator has "M" roots (corresponding to zeros of H) and the denominator has N roots (corresponding to poles). Rewriting the transfer function in terms of zeros and poles  where "q" is the "k"-th zero and "p" is the "k"-th pole. The zeros and poles are commonly complex and when plotted on the complex plane (z-plane) it is called the pole–zero plot.  In addition, there may also exist zeros and poles at "z" = 0 and "z" = ∞. If we take these poles and zeros as well as multiple-order zeros and poles into consideration, the number of zeros and poles are always equal.  By factoring the denominator, partial fraction decomposition can be used, which can then be transformed back to the time domain. Doing so would result in the impulse response and the linear constant coefficient difference equation of the system.

Output response.

If such a system "H(z)" is driven by a signal "X(z)" then the output is "Y(z)" = "H(z)X(z)". By performing partial fraction decomposition on "Y(z)" and then taking the inverse Z-transform the output "y[n]" can be found. In practice, it is often useful to fractionally decompose formula_59 before multiplying that quantity by "z" to generate a form of "Y(z)" which has terms with easily computable inverse Z-transforms.

In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete-time signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-domain representation.

La transformation en Z est un outil mathématique de l'automatique et du traitement du signal, qui est l'équivalent discret de la transformation de Laplace.


History.

The upper Aire valley was formed 12,000 years ago by a retreating glacier. A moraine formed in the Cononley area and the lake stretched as far north as Gargrave. Colonisation by man developed later on, especially during the Iron Age. The peoples that occupied the Aire Valley (and much of north eastern England) were called Brigantes by the Romans.  Transport improved in the 18th and 19th centuries with the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. The railways arrived from the 1830s onwards and during the twentieth century the roads were vastly improved in the valley.

Description.

Airedale was formerly wholly within the West Riding of Yorkshire, right from Malhamdale, the source of the river, to Airmyn, where the river joins the Ouse. After the Boundary changes of 1974, Airedale starts off in what is now North Yorkshire. Airmyn is now in the East Riding of Yorkshire.  The upper valley is characterised by the beautiful landscape of the Yorkshire Dales (Malhamdale is just inside the Yorkshire Dales National Park). The part of the dale from Skipton to Knottingley is heavily industrialised and continues in that vein today despite many mill closures. The East Yorkshire section of the dale is flatter and more agricultural than the upper sections. From Aire Springs the river flows past Skipton and Keighley, through Bingley, Saltaire, Shipley and into Leeds. Up until this point the river is essentially swift flowing and fed by streams and becks. Thereafter, the flow through Castleford and Knottingley out to Airmyn is a meandering course through a broad floodplain.  The broad definition of Airedale, is one that encompasses all the immediate areas adjacent to the River Aire and its tributaries. The Aire Catchment Flood Management Plan (CFMP), which takes into account all the becks and streams that feed the river, lists the Worth Valley and most of Bradford City as part of Airedale. Similarly, the Airedale Partnership's Masterplan, which is sponsored by Bradford Council, shows the same boundaries as the Aire CFMP.

Geology.

The upper section between Malham and Skipton is largely upfaulted Carboniferous limestone. The middle section between Skipton and Knottingley is peat and gritstone, with steep valley walls crested with moorland prevalent between Skipton and Shipley. The sandstone deposits between Skipton and Leeds have characterised the buildings within this part of Airedale, whilst the deposits of Limestone, Coal, Fireclay and Ironstone fuelled industrial developments.

Tourism.

Airedale is notable for several tourist sites and the World Heritage Site of Saltaire village. Other attractions include The Keighley and Worth Valley Railway, Bingley Five Rise Locks, The Shipley Glen Tramway, East Riddlesden Hall, Rodley Nature Reserve, Kirkstall Abbey, The Royal Armouries (Leeds), St Aidan's Nature Reserve and Fairburn Ings Nature Reserve.

Industry.

Many of the former woollen and cotton mills of the dale have been demolished or converted into housing. The heavy industry east of Leeds is still in existence and two of the three coal fired powers stations in the lower section take their water from the River Aire. Industry that lies alongside the Aire includes Ferrybridge, Eggborough and Drax power stations, Eggborough Saint Gobain glassworks, Stolze and Allied Glass in Knottingley and Kellingley Colliery.  Leeds City Council have an enterprise zone that covers 400 acres of regenerated land along the Aire Valley from the city centre up to junction 45 of the M1 (known as Gateway 45). This houses several manufacturing and food companies.

Eponyms.

The names Aire and Airedale are associated with many things and areas. Most notable in the valley are Airedale General Hospital, Aireborough (a region comprising mostly Wharfedale towns) and Airedale, a suburb of Castleford.  The area gaves its name to the Airedale Terrier, the largest of the terrier group of dogs. They were first bred in the area in the nineteenth century.

Augustin Thierry (or "Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry"; 10 May 1795 – 22 May 1856) was a French historian. Although originally a follower of Henri de Saint-Simon, he later developed his own approach to history. A committed liberal, his approach to history often introduced a romantic interpretation, although he did engage in research of primary sources. He nevertheless was recognised as a significant historian of the evolution of communal governance.

Jacques Nicolas Augustin Thierry, né le à Blois et mort le à Paris, est un historien français. Reconnu comme l'un des premiers historiens à avoir travaillé sur des sources originales, il se démarque de ses homologues contemporains par une narration très vivante et presque romancée, mêlant érudition et imagination. On lui doit aussi la première étude critique des institutions communales françaises.


History.

In 1849, the company was founded in Detroit by Elon Farnsworth as the Detroit Savings Fund Institute.  Its name changed to The Detroit Savings Bank in 1871 and to The Detroit Bank in 1936, being one of the few area banks to survive the Great Depression. In 1956, the company merged with Birmingham National Bank, Ferndale National Bank and Detroit Wabeek Bank and Trust Company to form The Detroit Bank & Trust Company. In 1973, it formed a holding company, DetroitBank Corporation. The current name was adopted in 1982.  In 1982, Comerica entered the Florida market. In 1983, it acquired its hometown rival, Bank of the Commonwealth of Michigan. It entered the Texas market in 1988 when it acquired Grand Bancshares.  In 1990, Comerica received approval to construct a new headquarters building, One Detroit Center.  In 1991, the bank expanded to California by acquiring Plaza Commerce Bancorp and InBancshares.  In 1992, the bank merged with a similarly-sized Detroit-based bank, Manufacturers National Corporation.  In 1996, the bank sold its Illinois operation to LaSalle Bank parent ABN Amro for $190 million.  In 1998, the bank signed a 30-year $66 million agreement for the naming rights to Comerica Park in downtown Detroit, home to the Detroit Tigers of Major League Baseball.  In 2000, the bank sold its credit card division to MBNA and formed an alliance with the company.  In 2001, the bank acquired Imperial Bank of California, which also had branches in Arizona.  On March 6, 2007, the company announced its decision to relocate its corporate headquarters to Dallas to move closer to its customer base in the Sun Belt. In August, the company announced that it selected 1717 Main Street in Downtown Dallas. The company executives began moving into the new location in November 2007 and the building was renamed Comerica Tower.  In January 2008, the United States Department of the Treasury selected the company as the issuing bank for its Direct Express debit card program. The federal government uses the Express Debit product to issue electronic payments, such as Social Security benefits, to people who do not have bank accounts (unbanked).  In July 2011, the bank acquired Sterling Bank of Texas for $1.03 billion.  In 2017, the bank announced plans to reduce its office space by 500,000 square feet, saving $7 million in 2018.  In March 2020, Comerica appointed a new executive vice president and chief enterprise technology and operations services officer, Megan Crespi.

Comerica Incorporated is a financial services company headquartered in Dallas, Texas. It has retail banking operations in Texas, Michigan, Arizona, California and Florida, with select business operations in several other U.S. states, as well as in Canada and Mexico.

Comerica Incorporated () est une société de services financiers américaine dont le siège social est situé à Dallas. Comerica propose ses services aux particuliers, aux petites entreprises et au grandes compagnies. On trouve des banques Comerica au Michigan, en Californie, au Texas et en Floride.


Taxonomy.

Their scientific name is from Latin. "Larus" appears to have referred to a gull or other large seabird and "argentatus" means decorated with silver.  The taxonomy of the herring gull/lesser black-backed gull complex is very complicated, with different authorities recognising between two and eight species.  This group has a ring distribution around the Northern Hemisphere. Differences between adjacent forms in this ring are fairly small, but by the time the circuit is completed, the end members, herring gull and lesser black-backed gull, are clearly different species. The terminal forms do not interbreed, though they coexist in the same localities.  The Association of European Rarities Committees recognises six species:

Subspecies.

These taxa are classified as subspecies of "Larus argentatus" by some authorities such as the American Ornithologists' Union and "Handbook of the Birds of the World". Others such as the Association of European Rarities Committees, British Ornithologists' Union, and the International Ornithological Union now regard them as one or two separate species.  Several other gulls have been included in this species in the past, but are now normally considered separate, e.g. yellow-legged gull ("L. michahellis"), Caspian gull ("L. cachinnans"), Armenian gull ("L. armenicus") and Heuglin's gull ("L. heuglini").

Description.

The male European herring gull is long and weighs, while the female is and weighs. The wingspan can range from. Among standard measurements, the wing chord is, the bill is and the tarsus is. Adults in breeding plumage have a grey back and upper wings and white head and underparts. The wingtips are black with white spots known as "mirrors". The bill is yellow with a red spot and a ring of bare yellow skin is seen around the pale eye. The legs are normally pink at all ages, but can be yellowish, particularly in the Baltic population, which was formerly regarded as a separate subspecies ""L. a. omissus"". Non-breeding adults have brown streaks on their heads and necks. Male and female plumage are identical at all stages of development, but adult males are often larger.  Juvenile and first-winter birds are mainly brown with darker streaks and have a dark bill and eyes. Second-winter birds have a whiter head and underparts with less streaking and the back is grey. Third-winter individuals are similar to adults, but retain some of the features of immature birds such as brown feathers in the wings and dark markings on the bill. The European herring gull attains adult plumage and reaches sexual maturity at an average age of four years.

Yellow-legged variety.

At least in the south-west part of the Baltic Sea and surrounding areas, the European herring gull ("L. argentatus") actually can be seen with yellow legs. They are not considered as a subspecies, since they regularly breed with grey/flesh-coloured legged herring gulls. The offspring may get yellow or normal-coloured legs. They must not be confused with the in general yellow-legged "L. michahellis", which are more common in the Mediterranean area, but single birds may reach more northern seas.

Similar species.

Adult European herring gulls are similar to ring-billed gulls, but are much larger, have pinkish legs, and a much thicker yellow bill with more pronounced gonys. First-winter European herring gulls are much browner, but second- and third-winter birds can be confusing since soft part colours are variable and third-year herring gull often show a ring around the bill. Such birds are most easily distinguished by the larger size and larger bill of European herring gull.  The European herring gull can be differentiated from the closely related, slightly smaller lesser black-backed gull by the latter's dark grey (not actually black) back and upper wing plumage and its yellow legs and feet.  The smaller silver gull is largely confined to Australia.

Voice.

Their loud, laughing call is well known in the Northern Hemisphere, and is often seen as a symbol of the seaside in countries such as the United Kingdom. The European herring gull also has a yelping alarm call and a low, barking anxiety call. The most distinct and best known call produced by European herring gulls - which is shared with their American relative - is the raucous territorial 'long call', used to signal boundaries to other birds; it is performed by the gull initially with its head bowed, then raised as the call continues.  European herring gull chicks and fledglings emit a distinctive, repetitive, high-pitched 'peep', accompanied by a head-flicking gesture when begging for food from or calling to their parents. Adult gulls in urban areas also exhibit this behaviour when fed by humans.

Behaviour.

European herring gull flocks have a loose pecking order, based on size, aggressiveness, and physical strength. Adult males are usually dominant over females and juveniles in feeding and boundary disputes, while adult females are typically dominant when selecting their nesting sites. Communication between these birds is complex and highly developed —employing both calls and body language. The warning sounds to chicks are the most obvious to interpret.  The warning to their chicks sounds almost like a bark from a small dog. If the danger closes in, the bark is repeated, and when very close, the warning is three quick barks. If a chick is "grounded", the bird makes itself appear bigger to intimidate the threat. If other adult birds are present, they will help in the same way. For instance, a person with a dog (or someone who chases the chick) may be attacked by many adult birds, even if just one chick is in danger.  The warning sound from a flying bird to a flock of fully fledged birds sounds very different. All kinds of gulls seemingly understand the "general alert warning sound" of all other gulls. Little doubt remains that the gull's screaming is a language for communication. It is limited to the present tense, but includes rather complex matters such as "follow me".  Two identical vocalizations can have very different (sometimes opposite) meanings. For example, it depends on the position of the head, body, wings, and tail relative to each other and the ground.  Unlike many flocking birds, European herring gulls do not engage in social grooming and keep physical contact between individuals to a minimum. Outside the male/female and parent/chick relationships, each gull attempts to maintain a respectful'safe distance' from others of its kind. However, the bird must be considered a social bird that dislikes being alone, and fights mainly occur over food or to protect their eggs and chicks. If a few birds discover a piece of food, the first one to land by the food piece often unfolds its wings (together with a sound) to proclaim "this food is mine". This is very often opposed by another gull, and during a short fight, a third bird may grab the food while the two other are arguing. However, if much food is found, especially at a "dangerous location" (such as in the backyard of a tall building), the bird that discovered the food will call to other gulls close by (of any species). The first bird may dare to land, but waits before eating; the others then feel safe to land, and they eat. If a large feast is found at a safer location, the gull that discovers it calls to other gulls, but starts eating immediately. The conclusion is that if more food is available than one bird can eat, it shares the food with other gulls.  During the winter, large flocks can be seen at (snow-free) fields (agricultural or grass), especially if the ground has a high degree of moisture. At first sight, it the birds appear to be just standing there, but then on closer inspection, only their bodies are not moving; the birds actually are trampling the soil, most likely to trick worms to crawl closer to the surface of the soil.  During early spring and late autumn, many herring gulls feed heavily on earthworms, but they are very opportunistic birds that seem to have many sources of food. For instance in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany, this species recently has become the most common of all gulls, and the increase has mostly occurred in urban or suburban environments.  The great black-backed gull ("L. marinus") was around 1900 as common as the herring gull in the mentioned parts, but has not increased as much (if at all), though some signs indicate the bigger gull has learned (adopted) some of the herring gull's behaviour within urban environments. Where the herring gull is breeding in coastal urban environments, the great black-backed gull seems to do the same, but in a lesser scale.  Herring gulls are good at producing all three eggs into flying birds. This means that at least one (often two) of the newly flying chicks loses both its parents within days after first flight. Some of these can later be seen in flocks of smaller gulls like the black-headed gull ("Chroicocephalus ridibundus") or the common gull ("L. canus"). They are probably not welcomed in such flocks, but follow them for some months, anyway, and do thereby learn where to find food. Lonely juvenile herring gulls born in urban environments can also be seen staying for a some weeks close to outdoor restaurants and similar facilities, squeaking and begging for food from humans. By November or December, most juveniles have found other "flockmates", usually in areas near water.  The herring gull does not need swimming, but seems to enjoy all kind of waters, especially on hot summer days. It can only catch slow creatures, like small crabs, which it often drops from some altitude to crack them open. The bird has little real power in its jaws while biting, but it may "stab" with better strength. Fish on land, eggs of other birds, and helpless chicks of smaller ducks (and similar birds where the female is the only caretaker of up to 9 eggs and chicks) are about as much predator the bird gets. It is then far more successful as a scavenger. Like vultures, an adult bird can dig its whole head and neck into a dead rabbit, for instance. Although not always appreciated by mankind due to their droppings and screaming, the herring gull must be regarded as a "natural cleaner", and just as with crows, they help by keeping rats away from the surface in urban environment, not by killing rats, but by eating the potential rat food before the rats get the chance. Unlike real scavengers, herring gulls also eat most other things than meat, like wasted food of all kinds, from bread to human vomit. They seldom eat fresh fruit, but windfalls and rotten fruit seem more desired.  In cities, herring gulls have been witnessed attacking and killing feral pigeons.  The European herring gull has long been believed to have extremely keen vision in daylight and night vision equal or superior to that of humans; however, this species is also capable of seeing ultraviolet light. This gull also appears to have excellent hearing and a sense of taste that is particularly responsive to salt and acidity.  Parasites of European herring gulls include the fluke "Microphallus piriformes".

Distribution.

Ireland: Copeland Bird Observatory, Co Down.  Britain: Since 2009, herring gulls in the United Kingdom have been on the red list of birds of conservation concern, including County Durham.  Europe: Recorded from all the coasts of Europe including the Mediterranean and occasionally inland.

Diet.

These are omnivores and opportunists like most "Larus" gulls, and scavenge from garbage dumps, landfill sites, and sewage outflows, with refuse comprising up to half of the bird's diet. It also steals the eggs and young of other birds (including those of other gulls), as well as seeking suitable small prey in fields, on the coast or in urban areas, or robbing plovers or lapwings of their catches. European herring gulls may also dive from the surface of the water or engage in plunge diving in the pursuit of aquatic prey, though they are typically unable to reach depths greater than due to their natural buoyancy. Despite their name, they have no special preference for herrings — in fact, examinations have shown that echinoderms and crustaceans comprised a greater portion of these gulls' stomach contents than fish, although fish is the principal element of regurgitations for nestlings. European herring gulls can frequently be seen to drop shelled prey from a height to break the shell. In addition, the European herring gull has been observed using pieces of bread as bait with which to catch goldfish. Vegetable matter, such as roots, tubers, seeds, grains, nuts, and fruit, is also taken to an extent. Captive European herring gulls typically show aversion to spoiled meat or heavily salted food, unless they are very hungry. The gulls may also rinse food items in water in an attempt to clean them or render them more palatable before swallowing.  European herring gulls may be observed rhythmically drumming their feet upon the ground for prolonged periods of time in a behaviour that superficially resembles Irish stepdancing, for the purpose of creating vibrations in the soil, driving earthworms to the surface, which are then consumed by the gull. These vibrations are thought to mimic those of digging moles, eliciting a surface-escape behaviour from the earthworm, beneficial in encounters with this particular predator, which the European herring gull then exploits to its own benefit in a similar manner to human worm charmers.  Whilst the European herring gull is fully capable (unlike humans) of consuming seawater, using specialized glands located above the eyes to remove excess salt from the body (which is then excreted in solution through the nostrils and drips from the end of the bill), it drinks fresh water in preference, if available.

Courtship and reproduction.

When forming a pair bond, the hen approaches the cock on his territory with a hunched, submissive posture, while making begging calls (similar to those emitted by young gulls). If the cock chooses not to attack her and drive her away, he responds by assuming an upright posture and making a mewing call. This is followed by a period of synchronised head-tossing movements, after which the cock then regurgitates some food for his prospective mate. If this is accepted, copulation follows. A nesting site is then chosen by both birds which is returned to in successive years. European herring gulls are almost exclusively sexually monogamous and may pair up for life, provided the couple is successful in hatching their eggs.  Two to four eggs, usually three, are laid on the ground or cliff ledges in colonies, and are defended vigorously by this large gull. The eggs are usually olive-brown in colour with dark speckles or blotches. They are incubated by both parents for 28–30 days. The chicks hatch with their eyes open, covered with fluffy down, and they are able to walk around within hours. Breeding colonies are preyed upon by great black-backed gulls, harriers, corvids and herons.  Juveniles use their beaks to peck at the red spot on the beaks of adults to indicate hunger. Parents then typically disgorge food for their offspring. The young birds are able to fly 35–40 days after hatching and fledge at five or six weeks of age. Chicks are generally fed by their parents until they are 11–12 weeks old, but the feeding may continue for more than six months of age if the young gulls continue to beg. The male feeds the chick more often than the female before fledging, with the female more often feeding after fledging.  Like most gulls, European herring gulls are long-lived, with a maximum age of 49 years recorded. Raptors (especially owls, peregrine falcons, and gyrfalcons) and seals (especially grey seals) occasionally prey on the non-nesting adults.

Interactions with humans.

In the UK, the species, when taken as a whole, is declining significantly across the country, despite an increase in urban areas. The UK European herring gull population has decreased by 50% in 25 years and it is protected by law: since January 2010, Natural England has allowed lethal control only with a specific individual licence that is available only in limited circumstances. Natural England made the change following a public consultation in response to the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in 2009 placing the species on its 'Red List' of threatened bird species, affording it the highest possible conservation status. (Previously, killing the species was allowed under a general licence obtainable by authorised persons (e.g. landowners or occupiers) under certain circumstances (e.g. to prevent serious damage to crops or livestock, to prevent disease, or to preserve public health or safety) without requiring additional permission beyond the general licence.)  The European herring gull is an increasingly common roof-nesting bird in urban areas of the UK, and many individual birds show little fear of humans. The Clean Air Act 1956 forbade the burning of refuse at landfill sites, providing the European herring gull with a regular and plentiful source of food. As a direct result, European herring gull populations in Britain skyrocketed. Faced with a lack of space at their traditional colonies, the gulls ventured inland in search of new breeding grounds. Dwindling fish stocks in the seas around Britain may also have been a significant factor in the gulls' move inland.  The gulls are found all year round in the streets and gardens of Britain, due to the presence of street lighting (which allows the gulls to forage at night), discarded food in streets, food waste contained in easy-to-tear plastic bin bags, food intentionally left out for other birds (or the gulls themselves), the relative lack of predators, and readily available, convenient, warm and undisturbed rooftop nesting space in towns and cities. Particularly large urban gull colonies (composed primarily of European herring gulls and lesser black-backed gulls) are now present in Cardiff, Bristol, Gloucester, London, and Aberdeen. to name but a few.  The survival rate for urban gulls is much higher than their counterparts in coastal areas, with an annual adult mortality rate less than 5%. Also, each European herring gull pair commonly rears three chicks per year. This, when combined with their long-lived nature, has resulted in a massive increase in numbers over a relatively short period of time and has brought urban-dwelling members of the species into conflict with humans.  Once familiar with humans, urban European herring gulls show little hesitation in swooping down to steal food from the hands of humans. During the breeding season, the gulls also aggressively 'dive bomb' and attempt to strike with claws and wings (sometimes spraying faeces or vomit at the same time) at humans that they perceive to be a threat to their eggs and chicks —often innocent passers-by or residents of the buildings on which they have constructed their nests. Large amounts of gull excrement deposited on property and the noise from courting pairs and begging chicks in the summer is also considered to be a nuisance by humans living alongside the European herring gull.  Nonlethal attempts to deter the gulls from nesting in urban areas have been largely unsuccessful. The European herring gull is intelligent and will completely ignore most 'bird-scaring' technology after determining that it poses no threat. Rooftop spikes, tensioned wires, netting, and similar are also generally ineffective against this species, as it has large, wide feet with thick, leathery skin, which affords the seagull excellent weight distribution and protection from sharp objects (the bird may simply balance itself on top of these obstacles with little apparent concern). If nests are removed and eggs are taken, broken, or oiled, the gulls simply rebuild and/or relay, or choose another nest site in the same area and start again.  Man-made models of birds of prey placed on top of buildings are generally ignored by the gulls once they realise they are not real, and attempts to scare the gulls away using raptors are similarly ineffective. Although they are intimidated by birds of prey, European herring gulls, in addition to being social birds with strength in numbers, are large, powerful, and aggressive as individuals and are more than capable of fighting back against the potential predator, particularly if they consider their chicks to be at risk; in fact, the gulls may actually pose a greater threat to a raptor than vice versa. European herring gulls are also naturally accustomed to predators (such as skuas and great black-backed gulls) living in the vicinity of their nest sites in the wild and are not particularly discouraged from breeding by their presence.

The European herring gull ("Larus argentatus") is a large gull, up to long. One of the best-known of all gulls along the shores of Western Europe, it was once abundant. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and the Baltic states. Some European herring gulls, especially those resident in colder areas, migrate further south in winter, but many are permanent residents, e.g. in Ireland, Britain, Iceland, or on the North Sea shores. They have a varied diet, including fish, crustaceans, and dead animals, as well as some plants.

Le Goéland argenté () est une espèce d'oiseau de mer européen de taille moyenne de la famille des. Blanc à dos gris, il est génétiquement proche des autres goélands à tête blanche du genre "". Mâle et femelle sont presque identiques, mais le juvénile possède un plumage très différent et met quatre ans à acquérir son plumage d'adulte.


Life.

Born in Rome, she was the daughter and heiress of Jean de Vivonne, marquis of Pisani, and Giulia Savelli, who belonged to a noble Roman family. She was married at the age of twelve to Charles d'Angennes, "vidame du Mans", and in 1612, "marquis de Rambouillet". They had seven children, two sons and five daughters. The young, beautiful and witty marquise found the coarseness and intrigues of the French court little to her taste and, in 1620, she began to gather around her the circle that gave its renown to her salon. She and her husband had taken residence in Paris at the Hôtel Pisani, later renamed "Hôtel de Rambouillet", and which she restored between 1618 and 1620. It was situated "rue Saint-Thomas-du-Louvre", between the Louvre and the Tuileries. The former "Hôtel de Rambouillet", which belonged to the d'Angennes family, was located rue Saint-Honoré and was sold in 1602 by her father-in-law, Nicolas d'Angennes. In 1624, it was bought by Cardinal Richelieu who had it demolished, and who built on its site his "Palais Cardinal", future Palais Royal.  Madame de Rambouillet arranged the former "Hôtel Pisani" for the purpose of receiving her guests, and devised suites of small rooms where guests could move around and find more privacy than in the large reception rooms. She received her visitors in the "chambre bleue", a salon painted in blue and with blue heavy brocade wall hangings. The "Hôtel de Rambouillet" maintained its importance as a literary "salon" until the mid-17th century: the beginning of its decline was in 1645, year of the marriage of Julie and of the death of the 30-year-old "marquis de Pisani", son of the marquis and marquise de Rambouillet; it continued in 1648, which saw the beginning of the Fronde and the death of Vincent Voiture, "l'âme du rond" ("the soul of the circle"), and was accelerated in 1652, at the death of the marquis de Rambouillet. Almost all major personages of the French aristocracy and literature of the time frequented it, and its reputation was at its height in the second quarter of the century. Occasionally, in spring and summer, the marquis and marquise de Rambouillet would entertain the "habitués" of their Parisian residence in the château de Rambouillet and its beautiful park.  Her success as a literary hostess (the term "salonnière" did not appear before the 19th century) has many explanations. Her natural abilities had been carefully trained. The marquise had a genuine kindness and a lack of prejudice that enabled her to entertain princes and princesses of the blood royal and literary men with the same grace, whilst among her intimate friends was the beautiful actress Angélique Paulet. The respect paid to ability in the salon effected a great advancement in the position of French men of letters. Moreover, the almost uniform excellence of the memoirs and letters of 17th century French men and women may be traced largely to the development of conversation as a fine art at the "Hôtel de Rambouillet", and the consequent establishment of a standard of clear and adequate expression. Mme de Rambouillet was known as the "incomparable Arthénice", the name being an anagram for "Catherine", devised by François de Malherbe and Racan.  Among the more noteworthy episodes in the history of the "Hôtel de Rambouillet" are the literary quarrel between the "Uranistes" and the "Jobelins" - respective partisans of two famous sonnets, the "Sonnet d'Uranie", by Vincent Voiture, and the "Sonnet de Job", by Isaac de Benserade - and the composition by almost all the great poets of the day of the "Guirlande de Julie", a collection of forty-one madrigals, each on the theme of a flower, offered in 1641 to Julie d'Angennes by Charles de Sainte Maure, who had been wooing her for ten years when he conceived the idea of the handsome manuscript, but whom she kept waiting four more years. Julie herself, the Hôtel de Rambouillet "Princesse Julie", was responsible for a good deal of the preciosity for which the "Précieuses" were later ridiculed by Molière.  The "Précieuses", who are usually associated with Molière's avowed caricatures and with the extravagances of Mlle de Scudéry, but a name Madame de Sévigné herself was proud to bear, insisted on a ceremonious gallantry from their suitors and friends, though it seems from the account given by Tallemant des Réaux that mild practical jokes took place at the "Hôtel de Rambouillet". They especially favoured an elaborate and quintessenced kind of colloquial and literary expression, imitated from Giambattista Marini and Luís de Góngora y Argote, then fashionable throughout Europe.  Molière's immortal "Précieuses ridicules" was no doubt directly levelled not at the "Hôtel de Rambouillet" itself, but at the numerous coteries which in the course of years had sprung up in imitation of it. The satire affected the originators as well as the imitators, the former more closely perhaps than they perceived. The "Hôtel de Rambouillet" remained in existence until the death of its hostess, although the troubles of the Fronde diminished its influence.  The chief original authorities respecting Madame de Rambouillet and her set are Tallemant des Réaux in his "Historiettes", and Antoine Baudeau de Somaize in his "Grand Dictionnaire des Précieuses" (1660).  Among the "habitués" of Madame de Rambouillet's "chambre bleue" were:  In homage to the "Marquise de Rambouillet", the city of Rambouillet has named its Junior High School "Collège Catherine de Vivonne".

Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet (1588 – 2 December 1665), known as Madame de Rambouillet, was a society hostess and a major figure in the literary history of 17th-century France.

La marquise de Rambouillet, née Catherine de Vivonne à Rome en 1588 et décédée à Paris le, est une femme d'exception qui tint au le premier salon célèbre dans son hôtel de Rambouillet situé à Paris, rue Saint-Thomas-du-Louvre.


Early years.

Maier did not initially enjoy much success in ski racing. As a 15-year-old at the Schladming ski academy, he was sent home after being told he would not succeed because of his slight build, caused by growth impairments. He returned home to his hometown of Flachau and his father's ski school, which remains Maier's home. He took up work as a bricklayer in the summer and a ski instructor in the winter.  Participating in local races, Maier became a multiple regional champion in Salzburg and Tyrol, but still was not able to gain a spot in the strong Austrian World Cup ski team. Putting that behind him, his outstanding talent was recognized for the first time by Austrian coaches on 6 January 1996, when he was timed with the 12th fastest time in a World Cup giant slalom in Flachau, although only starting as a forerunner, not participating in the actual competition. This would become the starting point of his international career.

Ski career.

Maier made his World Cup debut at age 23 on 10 February 1996, and finished 26th in the giant slalom at Hinterstoder, Austria. A year later in February 1997, he won his first World Cup event – a super-G race in Garmisch-Partenkirchen. He quickly established himself as an explosive and dynamic racer, well known for his strength, willingness to take risks, and strong work ethic.  Maier soon dominated alpine ski racing, winning the gold medal in the giant slalom and super-G at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, only a few days after a dramatic crash in the downhill race where he flew spectacularly off the sunlit course, landed partially on his head, tumbled head over heels several times, and crashed through two layers of B-netting. Despite the horrible look of the crash, Maier was able to walk out under his own power. That put him on the cover of "Sports Illustrated" magazine and made him a well known sportsman around the globe. Maier won the overall World Cup title in 1998, as well as the super-G and giant slalom season titles, and placed second in the downhill standings.  In 2000 he won the overall World Cup title, as well as the season titles in downhill, super-G, and giant slalom. He had a dominating performance, setting the then most point garnered by an alpine skier, of 2000 points. This record was not surpassed until female skier Tina Maze beat it in 2013, with 2,414 points.  In 2001 he won the overall World Cup title, as well as the season titles in downhill, super-G, and giant slalom. He won 13 World Cup races, but settled for two medals (silver and bronze) in the speed events at the 2001 World Championships in St. Anton. He was the reigning world champion in both events, won in 1999 at Beaver Creek, Colorado.  His racing career nearly ended following a near-fatal motorcycle accident on August 24, 2001; he collided with a car on his way home from a summer training session in Austria. Doctors nearly amputated his lower right leg, but instead Maier underwent massive reconstructive surgery. Most believed his racing career was over, and he had to sit out the 2002 season, missing the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. He returned to international competition in January 2003 in Adelboden, Switzerland. Just two weeks later, he shocked the skiing world with an amazing super-G victory in the skiing-mecca of Kitzbühel, Austria.  In 2004, his first full season back, he reclaimed both the super-G and overall titles, a feat widely seen as one of the greatest comebacks in sports history. In 2004, Maier received the Laureus World Sports Award for the "Comeback of the Year". His overall title was the fourth of his career.  Reflecting his apparently indestructible nature, he is sometimes jocularly known as "The Herminator." After his 1998 Olympic gold medals in Nagano he also appeared on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" on NBC – together with Austrian-born actor Arnold Schwarzenegger, who is known worldwide as "The Terminator". In 2004, Maier wrote an autobiography with his friend and former publicity agent, Knut Okresek. The book, "Hermann Maier: Das Rennen Meines Lebens" (in German), dealt mainly with his stunning recovery from the 2001 motorcycle accident. In 2005, VeloPress, a Boulder, Colorado-based publisher affiliated with "Ski Racing" magazine, acquired the worldwide English language rights to the book, which was published in time for the 2006 Olympics in Turin, Italy, as "Hermann Maier: The Race of My Life".  In October 2005, he won the opening giant slalom in Sölden to amass 51 victories in the World Cup. This placed him fifth on the career victory list, behind Ingemar Stenmark, Lindsey Vonn, Annemarie Moser-Pröll, and Vreni Schneider.  On 20 June 2007, Maier announced he was switching to Head as his equipment sponsor, ending his long affiliation with Atomic. Also switching from Atomic to Head at this time were champions Bode Miller of the U.S. and Didier Cuche of Switzerland.  On 18 January 2008, Maier finished second in the Kitzbühel's super-G, behind Marco Büchel and in front of Didier Cuche for a total podium age of 104 years. His career results in the super-G races at Kitzbühel are the best in history (7 races: 5 wins and 2 second places). The following day, Maier finished fifth in the downhill. These were his best results of the 2008 season.  On 30 November 2008, Maier won the first super-G of the 2009 season, held in Lake Louise, for his 24th super-G win. It was his 54th World Cup victory, but the first in nearly three years, and came a week before his 36th birthday. It was Maier's fourth victory in the super-G at Lake Louise, the last coming five years earlier.  On 13 October 2009, after 13 years competing in the World Cup circuit, 36-year-old Maier announced his retirement.

Besides skiing.

Maier also won an all-around sports competition, the 2001 edition of the American Superstars competition and he frequently acts in TV adverts for his sponsor bank Raiffeisen. His brother, Alexander Maier, also represented Austria at the Winter Olympics.

Hermann Maier (born 7 December 1972) is an Austrian former World Cup champion alpine ski racer and Olympic gold medalist. Nicknamed the "Herminator", Maier ranks among the greatest alpine ski racers in history, with four overall World Cup titles (1998, 2000, 2001, 2004), two Olympic gold medals (both in 1998), and three World Championship titles (1999: 2, and 2005). His 54 World Cup race victories – 24 super-G, 15 downhills, 14 giant slaloms, and 1 combined – rank third on the men's all-time list behind Ingemar Stenmark's 86 victories and Marcel Hirscher's 68 victories., he holds the record for the most points in one season by a male alpine skier, with 2000 points from the 2000 season. From 2000–2013 he also held the title of most points in one season by any alpine skier, until Tina Maze scored 2414 points in the 2013 season.

Hermann Maier, né le à Altenmarkt im Pongau, est un skieur alpin autrichien. Il remporte au cours de sa carrière deux titres olympiques, quatre classement général de Coupe du monde et trois titres de champion du monde. Il s'illustre notamment dans les disciplines du super G, descente, slalom géant et combiné. Au cours de sa carrière, il a notamment remporté deux titres olympiques en super G et slalom géant lors des Jeux olympiques de 1998 à Nagano (ainsi que deux autres médailles olympiques en 2006), il fut également à trois reprises champion du monde (en descente et super G en 1999 et en slalom géant en 2005), enfin il a conquis quatre gros globes de cristal en coupe du monde (1998, 2000, 2001 et 2004) ainsi que dix autres petits globes de cristal (cinq en super G, trois en géant et deux en descente) et est le troisième skieur le plus victorieux en coupe du monde avec 54 victoires derrière le Suédois Ingemar Stenmark qui a remporté 86 victoires et l'Autrichien Marcel Hirscher auteur de 67 succès. Ses 24 victoires en Super G restent à ce jour le record masculin en Coupe du monde. Il aussi été le premier skieur à atteindre la barre des 2000 points au classement général en 1999-2000 ce qui reste également le plus haut total atteint chez les hommes.


History.

When psychiatrists and pediatricians first began to recognize and discuss childhood psychiatric disorders in the 19th century, they were largely influenced by literary works of the Victorian era. Authors like the Brontë sisters, George Eliot, and Charles Dickens, introduced new ways of thinking about the child mind and the potential influence early childhood experiences could have on child development and the subsequent adult mind. When the "Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology", the first psychiatric journal in English, was published in 1848, child psychiatry didn't exist as its own field yet. However, some of the earliest works on the possibility of nervous disorders and "insanity" in children were published in the Journal and several medical writers directly referenced works such as "Jane Eyre" (1847), "Wuthering Heights" (1847), "Dombey and Son" (1848), and "David Copperfield" (1850), to illustrate this new conceptualization of the child mind. Until that time, it was generally accepted that children were free from nervous disorders and the "passions" that affected the adult mind.  As early as 1899, the term "child psychiatry" (in French) was used as a subtitle in Manheimer's monograph "Les Troubles Mentaux de l'Enfance". However, the Swiss psychiatrist Moritz Tramer (1882–1963) was probably the first to define the parameters of child psychiatry in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis within the discipline of medicine, in 1933. In 1934, Tramer founded the "Zeitschrift für Kinderpsychiatrie (Journal of Child Psychiatry)", which later became "Acta Paedopsychiatria". The first academic child psychiatry department in the world was founded in 1930 by Leo Kanner (1894–1981), an Austrian émigré and medical graduate of the University of Berlin, under the direction of Adolf Meyer at the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. Kanner was the first physician to be identified as a child psychiatrist in the US and his textbook, "Child Psychiatry" (1935), is credited with introducing both the specialty and the term to the anglophone academic community. In 1936, Kanner established the first formal elective course in child psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. In 1944 he provided the first clinical description of early infantile autism, otherwise known as Kanner Syndrome.  Maria Montessori together with and Clodomiro Bonfigli, two distinguished child psychiatrists, created in 1901 in Italy the "Lega Nazionale per la Protezione del Fanciullo" (National League for the Protection of Children). She gradually developed her own pedagogic method, initially based on the "intuition that the question of the'mentally deficient' was more pedagogic than medical". In 1909, Jane Addams and her female colleagues established the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute (JPI) in Chicago, later renamed as the Institute for Juvenile Research (IJR), the world's first child guidance clinic. Neurologist William Healy, M.D., its first director, was charged with not only studying the delinquent's biological aspects of brain functioning and IQ, but also the delinquent's social factors, attitudes, and motivations, thus it was the birthplace of American child psychiatry.  From its establishment in February 1923, the Maudsley Hospital, a South London-based postgraduate teaching and research psychiatric hospital, contained a small children's department. Similar overall early developments took place in many other countries during the late 1920s and 1930s. In the United States, child and adolescent psychiatry was established as a recognized medical speciality in 1953 with the founding of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, but was not established as a legitimate, board-certifiable medical speciality until 1959.  The use of medication in the treatment of children also began in the 1930s, when Charles Bradley opened a neuropsychiatric unit and was the first to use amphetamine for brain-damaged and hyperactive children. But it was not until the 1960s that the first NIH grant to study paediatric psychopharmacology was awarded. It went to one of Kanner's students, Leon Eisenberg, the second director of the division.  The discipline has relatively flourished since the 1980s, in large part, because of contributions made in the 1970s, even if the outcomes for patients have been disappointing at times. It was a decade during which child psychiatry witnessed a major evolution as a result of the work carried out by, Eva Frommer, Douglas Haldane, Michael Rutter, Robin Skynner and Sula Wolff, among others. The first comprehensive population survey of 9- to 11-year-olds, carried out in London and the Isle of Wight, which appeared in 1970, addressed questions that have continued to be of importance for child psychiatry; for example, rates of psychiatric disorders, the role of intellectual development and physical impairment, and specific concern for potential social influences on children's adjustment. This work was influential, especially since the investigators demonstrated specific continuities of psychopathology over time, and the influence of social and contextual factors in children's mental health, in their subsequent re-evaluation of the original cohort of children. These studies described the prevalence of ADHD (relatively low as compared to the US), identified the onset and prevalence of depression in mid-adolescence and the frequent co-morbidity with conduct disorder, and explored the relationship between various mental disorders and scholastic achievement.  It was paralleled similarly by work on the epidemiology of autism that was to enormously increase the number of children diagnosed with autism in future years. Although attention had been given in the 1960s and '70s to the classification of childhood psychiatric disorders, and some issues had then been delineated, such as the distinction between neurotic and conduct disorders, the nomenclature did not parallel the growing clinical knowledge. It was claimed that this situation was altered in the late 1970s with the development of the DSM-III system of classification, although research has shown that this system of classification has problems of validity and reliability. Since then, the DSM-IV and DSM-IVR have altered some of the parsing of psychiatric disorders into "childhood" and "adult" disorders, on the basis that while many psychiatric disorders are not diagnosed until adulthood, they may present in childhood or adolescence (DSM-IV).  People in the field are sometimes referred to as "neurodevelopmentalists". As of 2005 there was debate in the field as to whether "neurodevelopmentalist" should be made a new speciality.  In terms of patient outcomes, there is evidence that, in the United Kingdom at least on the 70th anniversary of the NHS, mental health remains a medical "Cinderella" (low priority) and the more so Child and Adolescent Health services which have been through repeated reorganisations and underinvestment all of which leads to disruption and loss of adequate provision. "Modern neuroscience, genetics, epigenetics, and public health research has presented the tantalizing possibility that it can now be said with relative certainty that much (certainly not all) is understood about why some children struggle and others soar. Although it is an oversimplification, it can now be suggested that it is possible to understand how environmental factors, both negative and positive, influence the genome or epigenome, which in turn influence the structure and function of the brain and thus human thoughts, actions, and behaviors."

Classification of disorders.

Developmental disorders  Disorders of attention and behaviour  Psychotic disorders  Mood disorders  Anxiety disorders  Eating disorders  Gender identity disorder  Disorders can be comorbid (for example an adolescent can be diagnosed with both mood and anxiety disorders). The prevalence of psychiatric comorbidities during adolescence may vary by race and ethnicity.

Clinical practice.

Assessment.

The psychiatric assessment of a child or adolescent starts with obtaining a psychiatric history by interviewing the young person and his/her parents or caregivers. The assessment includes a detailed exploration of the current concerns about the child's emotional or behavioral problems, the child's physical health and development, history of parental care (including possible abuse and neglect), family relationships and history of parental mental illness. It is regarded as desirable to obtain information from multiple sources (for example both parents, or a parent and a grandparent) as informants may give widely differing accounts of the child's problems. Collateral information is usually obtained from the child's school with regards to academic performance, peer relationships, and behavior in the school environment.  Psychiatric assessment always includes a mental state examination of the child or adolescent which consists of a careful behavioral observation and a first-hand account of the young person's subjective experiences. The assessment also includes an observation of the interactions within the family, especially the interactions between the child and his/her parents.  The assessment may be supplemented by the use of behavior or symptom rating scales such as the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist or CBCL, the Behavioral Assessment System for Children or BASC, Connors Rating Scales (used for diagnosis of ADHD), Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory or MACI, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire or SDQ. These instruments bring a degree of objectivity and consistency to the clinical assessment. More specialized psychometric testing may be carried out by a psychologist, for example using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, to detect intellectual impairment or other cognitive problems which may be contributing to the child's difficulties.

Diagnosis and formulation.

The child and adolescent psychiatrist makes a diagnosis based on the pattern of behavior and emotional symptoms, using a standardized set of diagnostic criteria such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). While the DSM system is widely used, it may not adequately take into account social, cultural and contextual factors and it has been suggested that an individualized clinical formulation may be more useful. A case formulation is standard practice for child and adolescent psychiatrists and can be defined as a process of integrating and summarizing all the relevant factors implicated in the development of the patient's problem, including biological, psychological, social and cultural perspectives (the "biopsychosocial model"). The applicability of DSM diagnoses have also been questioned with regard to the assessment of very young children: it is argued that very young children are developing too rapidly to be adequately described by a fixed diagnosis, and furthermore that a diagnosis unhelpfully locates the problem within the child when the parent-child relationship is a more appropriate focus of assessment.  The child and adolescent psychiatrist then designs a treatment plan which considers all the components and discusses these recommendations with the child or adolescent and family.

Treatment.

Treatment will usually involve one or more of the following elements: behavior therapy, cognitive-behavior therapy, problem-solving therapies, psychodynamic therapy, parent training programs, family therapy, and/or the use of medication. The intervention can also include consultation with pediatricians, primary care physicians or professionals from schools, juvenile courts, social agencies or other community organizations.  In a review of existing meta-analyses and disorders on the four most frequent childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders (anxiety disorder, depression, ADHD, conduct disorder), only for ADHD was the use of medication (stimulants) considered to be the most efficacious treatment option available. For the remaining three disorders, psychotherapy is recommended as the most effective treatment of choice. A combination of psychological and pharmacological treatments is an important option in ADHD and depressive disorders. Treatments for ADHD and anxiety disorders produce higher effect-sizes than do interventions for depressive and conduct disorders.

Training.

In the United States, Child and adolescent psychiatric training requires 4 years of medical school, at least 4 years of approved residency training in medicine, neurology, and general psychiatry with adults, and 2 years of additional specialized training in psychiatric work with children, adolescents, and their families in an accredited residency in child and adolescent psychiatry. Child and adolescent sub-speciality training is similar in other Western countries (such as the UK, New Zealand, and Australia), in that trainees must generally demonstrate competency in general adult psychiatry prior to commencing sub-speciality training.

Certification and continuing education.

In the US, having completed the child and adolescent psychiatry residency, the child and adolescent psychiatrist is eligible to take the additional certification examination in the subspecialty of child and adolescent psychiatry from the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN) or the American Osteopathic Board of Neurology and Psychiatry (AOBNP). Although the ABPN and AOBNP examinations are not required for practice, they are a further assurance that the child and adolescent psychiatrist with these certifications can be expected to diagnose and treat all psychiatric conditions in patients of any age competently. Training requirements are listed on the web site of The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.

Shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists.

The demand for child and adolescent psychiatrists continues to far outstrip the supply worldwide. There is also a severe maldistribution of child and adolescent psychiatrists, especially in rural and poor, urban areas where access is significantly reduced. As of 2016, there are 7991 child and adolescent psychiatrists in the United States. A report by the US Bureau of Health Professions (2000) projected a need by the year 2020 for 12,624 child and adolescent psychiatrists, but a supply of only 8,312. In its 1998 report, the Center for Mental Health Services estimated that 9-13% of 9- to 17-year-olds had serious emotional disturbances, and 5-9% had extreme functional impairments. In 1999, however, the Surgeon General reported that "there is a dearth of child psychiatrists." Only 20% of emotionally disturbed children and adolescents received any mental health treatment, a small percentage of which was performed by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Furthermore, the US Bureau of Health Professions projects that the demand for child and adolescent psychiatry services will increase by 100% between 1995 and 2020.

Cross-cultural considerations.

Steady growth in migration of immigrants to higher-income regions and countries has contributed to the growth and interest in cross-cultural psychiatry. Families of immigrants whose child has a psychiatric illness must come to understand the disorder while navigating an unfamiliar health care system.

Criticisms.

Subjective diagnoses.

One criticism against psychiatry is that psychiatric diagnoses lack "objectivity", particularly when compared with diagnosis in other medical specialties. However, for several major psychiatric disorders interrater reliability, which shows the degree to which psychiatrists agree on the diagnosis, is generally similar to those in other medical specialties. In 2013, Allen Frances said that "psychiatric diagnosis still relies exclusively on fallible subjective judgments rather than objective biological tests".  Traditional deficit and disease models of child psychiatry have been criticized as rooted in the medical model which conceptualizes adjustment problems in terms of disease states. It is said by these critics that these normative models explicitly characterize problematic behavior as representing a disorder within the child or young person and these commentators assert that the role of environmental influences on behavior has become increasingly neglected, leading to a decrease in the popularity of, for example, family therapy. There are criticisms of the medical model approach from within and without the psychiatric profession (see references): it is said to neglect the role of environmental, family, and cultural influences, to discount the psychological meaning of behavior and symptoms, to promote a view of the "patient" as dependent and needing to be cured or cared for and therefore undermines a sense of personal responsibility for conduct and behavior, to promote a normative conception based on adaptation to the norms of society (the ill person must adapt to society), and to be based on the shaky foundations of reliance on a classificatory system that has been shown to have problems of validity and reliability (Boorse, 1976; Jensen, 2003; Sadler et al. 1994; Timimi, 2006).

Over-prescription of psychoactive drugs.

Since the late 1990s, use of psychiatric medication has become increasibly common for children and adolescents. In 2004 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued the Black Box Warning on antidepressant prescriptions to alert patients of a research link between use of medication and apparent increased risk of suicidal thoughts, hostility, and agitation in pediatric patients. The most common diagnoses for which children receive psychiatric medication are ADHD, ODD, and conduct disorder.  Some research suggests that children and adolescents are sometimes given antipsychotic drugs as a first-line treatment for mental health problems or behavioral issues other than a psychotic disorder, which is not the ideal treatment approach for these drugs. In the United States, the usage of these drugs in young people has greatly increased since 2000, especially among children from low-income families. More research is needed to specifically assess the efficacy and tolerability of antipsychotic medications in pediatric populations. Because of the risk of weight gain, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular changes with antipsychotic use, the use of the drugs in pediatric populations is highly scrutinized and their use recommended only in combination with effective parent-training interventions.

Electroconvulsive therapy.

In 1947, child neuropsychiatrist Lauretta Bender published a study on 98 children aged between four and eleven years old who had been treated in the previous five years with intensive courses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). These children received ECT daily for a typical course of approximately twenty treatments. This formed part of an experimental trend amongst a cadre of psychiatrists to explore the therapeutic impact of intensive regimes of ECT, which is also known as either regressive ECT or annihilation therapy. In the 1950s Bender abandoned ECT as a therapeutic practice for the treatment of children. In the same decade the results of her published work on the use of ECT in children was discredited after a study showing that the condition of the children so treated had either not improved or deteriorated. Commenting on his experience as part of Bender's therapeutic program, Ted Chabasinski said that, "It really made a mess of me... I went from being a shy kid who read a lot to a terrified kid who cried all the time." Following his treatment, he spent ten years as an inmate of Rockland State Hospital, a psychiatric facility now known as the Rockland Psychiatric Center.

Child and adolescent psychiatry or pediatric psychiatry is a branch of psychiatry that focuses on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders in children, adolescents, and their families. It investigates the biopsychosocial factors that influence the development and course of these psychiatric disorders and treatment responses to various interventions.

La pédopsychiatrie est la branche de la psychiatrie consacrée aux enfants, de la naissance jusqu'à l'entrée dans la vie adulte. Elle recouvre l'étude, le diagnostic, le traitement et la prévention des troubles psychiques qui les affectent et entretient des liens étroits avec la médecine, la psychologie du développement, la biologie, la sociologie, et les sciences de l'éducation.