Club career.

Costanzo started playing professionally with Buenos Aires giants Club Atlético River Plate in 2000 and made his first-team debut in 2001. He had become the first choice goalkeeper by 2002 and was looked upon by many as one of the most talented goalkeepers in South America. However, injury started to plague him and when he returned from the sidelines, Germán Lux had established himself as River Plate's Number 1. His search for first-team action then took him to Spain's La Liga as he transferred to Deportivo Alavés in 2005. He was first choice at Alavés straight away, but when they were relegated into the Segunda División, he asked the manager, José María Salmerón, to be put on the transfer list.  Swiss side FC Basel acquired his services in July 2006 for £1.4 million after the departure of veteran goalkeeper Pascal Zuberbühler. His Basel career did not get off to a great start; he made a blunder in his first match against FC St. Gallen on 30 July 2006 in the 3–2 away defeat. However, he played excellent in the second half of the 2006–07 season and was voted the "FCB Player of the Year". He earned much praise during the 2007–08 season for his form as Basel became Champions and especially for his part in helping the team earn a valuable UEFA Cup away point against NK Dinamo Zagreb in the hostile atmosphere of the Maksimir Stadium on 8 November 2007.  On 17 July 2008, the day before the 2008–09 Swiss Super League season kicked off, he was named Basel captain and he signed a new contract until 2011. His first game as captain was on 18 July 2008, in a 2–1 win over BSC Young Boys at the Stade de Suisse, Wankdorf, in which he was named Man of the Match.  On 9 August 2009, Costanzo and teammate Beg Ferati were involved in a scuffle after a 1–1 with FC Zürich. The pair began arguing on the pitch, and then Ferati shoved Costanzo who responded by pulling Ferati's hair. Other players then pulled them apart before the situation escalated. Costanzo was fined by the club and given a three match ban by the Swiss Football Association.  Costanzo played for FC Basel for five years, in which time they won the Swiss Cup three times and the national Championship also three times. He also played twice in the Champions League group-stages in the 2008–09 season and the 2010/–11 season where FC Basel did a couple of huge sensations like the draw in the Nou Camp in Barcelona where they tied 1–1 or in the Stadio Olimpico in Rome where they beat AS Roma 3–1. During this period he played 141 league games, including cup and international games he had over 200 club appearances. He played his last match for the team on 25 May 2011 and was substituted out in the 87th minute to a standing ovation. He was replaced by his designated successor Yann Sommer.  On 9 June 2011, it was revealed that Costanzo came to an agreement with Greek champions Olympiacos FC for a three-year contract. Six months later, on 26 January 2012, Costanzo's contract was terminated by mutual consent.  On 21 May 2012, Costanzo retired from professional football without saying clearly the reason of his decision.  On 29 June 2013, Costanzo returned to football signing for Universidad Católica a one-and-a-half-year contract.

International career.

Costanzo was an Argentine international at Under-20 level, and was part of the Argentina squad that took part at the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship. At senior level, he made his only main team appearance in Argentina's 4–2 2006 World Cup Qualifying win over Uruguay at the River Plate Stadium on 9 October 2004.

Personal life.

Costanzo is married to Carla. The couple have three children. Their two daughters are named Emma and Zoe and their son named Ciro was born on 24 May 2011. All three children were born in Basel.

Franco Costanzo Geymonat (born 5 September 1980) is an Argentine football goalkeeper who plays for Chilean club Universidad Católica of the Primera División.

Franco Costanzo, surnommé « le Mage Blanc » (né le 5 septembre 1980 à Río Cuarto), est un footballeur argentin. Il évolue au poste de gardien de but.


History.

Crews started building the base in November 1942 and the new field officially opened on 7 August 1943. Shortly thereafter, airmen at the field began training U.S. Army Air Forces crews for World War II. The 396th Bombardment Group (Heavy) was the first unit assigned and its planned mission was to train crews for the B-17 Flying Fortress. However, before the first B-17s arrived, plans for the field changed and the 396th was transferred to Moses Lake AAF, Washington.  Instead of training B-17 crews, Mountain Home airmen began training crews for the B-24 Liberator. The first group to do so was the 470th Bombardment Group (Heavy), which trained at Mountain Home from May 1943 until January 1944, when the unit moved to Tonopah AAF Nevada. The 490th Bombardment Group (Heavy) replaced the 470th and trained B-24 crews until it deployed to RAF Eye England in April 1944. The 494th Bombardment Group then replaced the 490th, once more training Liberator crews.  The base was placed in inactive status in October 1945.

Postwar era.

The base remained inactive for over three years, until December 1948, when the newly independent U.S. Air Force reopened the base. The 4205th Air Base Group, was activated on 12 December to prepare the newly re-designated Mountain Home Air Force Base for operational use.  Three wings of the Air Resupply and Communications Service used the base in the early 1950s.  In 1953, the base was transferred to Strategic Air Command which assigned its 9th Bombardment Wing to Mountain Home. The 9th relocated to Mountain Home AFB in May 1953, and began flying B-29 bombers and KB-29H refueling aircraft. The 9th began converting to the new B-47 Stratojet bomber and the KC-97 tanker in September 1954, keeping alert bombers ready for war at a moments notice and continuing its mission as a deterrent force throughout the Cold War years of the 1950s and early 1960s.  In 1959, construction of three SM-68 Titan missile sites began in the local area. The 569th Strategic Missile Squadron controlled these sites and was assigned to the 9th Bombardment Wing in August 1962. To prepare for the addition of missiles to its bomber forces, the U.S. Air Force redesignated the wing as the 9th Strategic Aerospace Wing in April 1962.  A few years later, the Strategic Air Command mission at Mountain Home began to wind down, and in November 1964, the U.S. Air Force announced that the missile sites would be closed. In late 1965, the U.S. Air Force also began phasing out the aging B-47 bomber and announced plans to bring the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing to Mountain Home.

366th Fighter Wing.

The 366th Fighter Wing (in various designations) has been the host unit at Mountain Home for over 35 years, following its return from the Vietnam War in late 1972.  Before the 366th Tactical Fighter Wing's arrival at Mountain Home, the 389th, 390th, and 391st Tactical Fighter Squadrons had returned from South Vietnam, joined the 347th, and began converting to F-111A aircraft. For the first time since it left for Vietnam, the wing once again had its three original flying units.  During 1969, a tenant unit began operating at the south end of the base, using part of the original SAC alert area, and about half of the Mole Hole alert facility, sharing the other half with an NCO leadership school from the main base. Det. 1, 320 BW carried out an alert mission with two B-52 bombers and two KC-135 tankers. The unit disbanded in the spring of 1975 and returned to Mather AFB.  Operations continued unchanged for several years. The wing tested its readiness in August 1976 when a border incident in Korea prompted the U.S. to augment its military contingent in South Korea as a show of force. The 366th deployed a squadron of 20 F-111 fighters, which reached Korea only 31 hours after receiving launch notification. Tensions eased shortly afterward and the detachment returned home.In early 1991, the Air Force announced that the 366th would become the Air Force's premier "air intervention" composite wing. The wing would grow with the addition of a squadron of EF-111A Raven electronic warfare aircraft and a squadron of B-1B Lancer bombers to become a dynamic, five squadron wing with the ability to deploy rapidly and deliver integrated combat airpower.  The air intervention composite wing's rapid transition from concept to reality began in October 1991 when Air Force redesignated the wing as the 366th Wing. The wing's newly reactivated "fighter squadrons" became part of the composite wing in March 1992. The 389th Fighter Squadron began flying the dual-role F-16C Fighting Falcon, while the 391st Fighter Squadron was equipped with the new F-15E Strike Eagle. These two squadrons provide Gunfighters round-the-clock precision strike capability.  Following the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001, the resultant initiation of Operation ENDURING FREEDOM (OEF), the 366th Wing once again got the call. While the 34th Bomb Squadron deployed to Diego Garcia as the B-1 component of the 28th Air Expeditionary Wing, the wing sent a Base Operations Support package to Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar, to transform the bare base into a fully functional airfield for large-scale combat operations. In October 2001, the 391st Fighter Squadron deployed to Al Jaber Air Base, Kuwait, while the 389th Fighter Squadron went to Al Udeid in November.  Following the wing's return from Southwest Asia, the Air Force began consolidating its B-1 Lancer and KC-135 Stratotanker forces. This led to the reallocation of the wing's bombers and tankers. The 22 ARS' aircraft began transferring to McConnell AFB, Kansas, in May 2002 and the squadron inactivated the following August. The 34 BS' B-1Bs began moving to Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota, in June and the squadron officially moved in September. Following the departure of these assets, the Air Force re-designated the 366th as a Fighter Wing. With these changes, the wing's 10-year mission as the Air Force's only standing air expeditionary wing came to an end. A continued reconstruction of the 366 Fighter Wing was official with the 2005 base realignment, coinciding with the large scale integration of the 150+ F-22 Raptors. After the F-16 departure, Mountain Home AFB was chosen to become an F-15E installation because of its ideal training terrain range that is suited for air-to-ground, and air-to-air training missions.

Thunderbirds crash.

The base was the site of a Thunderbirds crash on 14 September 2003 in which no one was killed. Captain Chris Stricklin, flying Thunderbird 6 (opposing solo, serial #87-0327), attempted a "Split S" maneuver (which he had performed over 200 times) immediately after takeoff based on an incorrect mean-sea-level elevation. Similar in desert appearance, MHAFB is higher than the Thunderbirds' home at Nellis AFB near Las Vegas, Nevada.  Climbing to only above ground level (AGL) instead of, Stricklin had insufficient altitude to complete the descending half-loop maneuver. He guided the F-16C aircraft down runway 30, away from the spectators and ejected less than one second before impact. His parachute deployed when he was just above the ground and Stricklin survived with only minor injuries. No one on the ground was injured, but the $20 million aircraft was destroyed.  Official procedure for demonstration "Split-S" maneuvers was changed, and the USAF now requires Thunderbird pilots and airshow ground controllers to both work in above mean-sea-level (AMSL) altitudes, as opposed to ground control working in AGL and pilots in AMSL, which led to two sets of numbers that had to be reconciled by the pilot. Thunderbird pilots now also climb an extra before performing the Split S maneuver.

Intercontinental ballistic missile facilities.

The 569th Strategic Missile Squadron Operated three HGM-25A Titan I ICBM sites: (1 Jun 1961 – 25 Jun 1965)

Role and operations.

Mountain Home AFB is the home of the 366th Fighter Wing (366 FW), which reports to Air Combat Command (ACC). The mission of the 366 FW is to prepare Airmen and their families, professionally and personally, for expeditionary operations and foster an environment that promotes integration of all facets of wing operations.  The wing comprises three operational fighter squadrons:  In addition, the 726th Air Control Squadron gives an air picture to the aircraft as they train. An active Idaho Air National Guard unit, the 266th Range Squadron, controls and maintains emitter sites within the operational training range in southwestern Idaho.

Based units.

Flying and notable non-flying units based at Mountain Home Air Force Base.  Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Mountain Home, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.

United States Air Force.

Air Combat Command (ACC)  Air National Guard (ANG)

Geography.

Mountain Home AFB is located at (43.049511, −115.866452), at an elevation of above sea level. It is in the western portion of the Snake River Plain, about north of C. J. Strike Reservoir, an impoundment of the Snake River (and Bruneau River).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, and 0.10% is water.  It is connected to the city of Mountain Home by State Highway 67.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 8,894 people, 1,476 households, and 1,452 families residing in the CDP. The population density was. There were 1,590 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the CDP was 83.2% White, 6.9% Black or African American, 0.8% Native American, 2.5% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 2.7% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.5% of the population.  There were 1,476 households out of which 76.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 91.9% were married couples living together, 4.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 1.6% were non-families. 1.4% of all households were made up of individuals and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.40 and the average family size was 3.43.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 24.4% from 18 to 24, 49.7% from 25 to 44, 1.8% from 45 to 64, and 0.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 180.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 219.5 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $31,634, and the median income for a family was $31,377. Males had a median income of $24,865 versus $20,664 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,671. About 6.5% of families and 7.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.1% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.  Fighter Wing Tom Clancy

Mountain Home Air Force Base is a United States Air Force installation in the western United States. Located in southwestern Idaho in Elmore County, the base is southwest of Mountain Home, which is southeast of Boise via Interstate 84. The base is also used by the Republic of Singapore Air Force, which has a detachment of F-15SG fighters on long term assignment to the base. They undergo training in combat tactics by U.S. airmen.

Mountain Home Air Force Base est une base de l'United States Air Force située près de la ville de Mountain Home, à 80 km au sud-est de Boise dand l'Idaho. La base abrite de nos jours le 366th Fighter Wing.


Taxonomy.

The eastern towhee was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" and given the binomial name "Fringilla erythrophthalma". This species is now placed in the genus "Pipilo" that was introduced by the French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816. The specific name "erythrophthalmus/erythrophthalma" combines the Ancient Greek words ερυθρος "eruthros" "red" and οφθαλμος "ophthalmos" "eye".  Four subspecies are recognised:

Description.

The eastern towhee is a large and striking species of sparrow. The total length ranges from and the wingspan is. The body of mass of this species ranges from, with an average of. Adults have rufous sides, a white belly, and a long dark tail with white edges. The eyes are red, white for birds in the southeast. Males have a black head, upper body, and tail; these parts are brown in the female. Juveniles are brown overall. Eastern towhees of all ages and both sexes generally are unmistakable and are not known to co-exist with the similar western spotted towhee.

Distribution.

The eastern towhee occurs throughout the eastern United States and southeast Canada. Occurrences from southern Saskatchewan, southwest Ontario and Quebec south to Florida, and west to eastern Texas are noted in a literature review. Populations north of southern New England through northern Indiana and Illinois to southern Iowa primarily are summer residents.  "Pipilo e. erythrophthalmus" occurs in the most northerly part of the eastern towhee's distribution in the summer, and in winter migrates to the southern and eastern portion of the range of the species. The other subspecies are largely residents. "Pipilo e. canaster" occurs from south-central Louisiana, north to northeastern Louisiana east through Mississippi, extreme southwestern Tennessee, northern Alabama and Georgia, central South Carolina to western North Carolina, and south to northwestern Florida and east along the Gulf Coast. The range of "P. e. rileyi" extends from northern Florida through southern Georgia and coastal South Carolina to east-central North Carolina. "Pipilo e. alleni" occurs in peninsular Florida.  The eastern towhee occurs in vegetation of disturbed areas, such as old-field successional vegetation and shrubby areas of power line right-of-ways. In northwestern Arkansas, eastern towhees occurred in old-field vegetation where dwarf sumac ("Rhus copallina") occurred at a frequency of 28.6%, winged elm ("Ulmus alata") at a frequency of 21%, and black cherry ("Prunus serotina") at a frequency of 19.2%. Shrubby vegetation along power lines is commonly used by eastern towhees. For example, in Maryland, eastern towhee territories along a power line right-of-way corresponded with shrubby areas containing species such as Allegheny blackberry ("Rubus allegheniensis") and blueberry ("Vaccinium" spp.). Other species included hawthorn ("Crataegus" spp.), red maple ("Acer rubrum"), black cherry, and black locust ("Robinia pseudoacacia").

Timing of major life events.

Arrival and departure of eastern towhees into summer breeding grounds varies with location. According to a literature review, eastern towhees typically arrive in New York in early April and leave by the middle of November. A review of eastern towhees in New Hampshire describes arrival in late April to May with the majority departing in September. Further south, on the border of Tennessee and North Carolina, migration to high-elevation areas within the Great Smoky Mountains begins as early as March. Eastern towhees typically leave these sites in October. The "Pipilo e. erythrophthalmus" subspecies is the most migratory of the subspecies.  Breeding begins in spring and continues to late summer. Reports of eastern towhees nesting as early as late March in Florida and Georgia, in mid- to late April in some midwestern states, and as late as mid-May in northern New England were summarized in a literature review. Literature reviews also report nest construction by the female, which takes about three to five days. Egg laying typically occurs until August. For example, a review of eastern towhees in Indiana notes nesting from 15 April to 20 August. However, a literature review of eastern towhees in Florida included a report of a nest observed on 2 September 1983 that contained two eggs. According to several literature reviews, eastern towhees may renest after failed nesting attempts and can raise two, and in the south sometimes three, broods per season.  In a literature review, Greenlaw reports mean breeding territory size of (range, n=24) in a mesic oak ("Quercus" species) forest where eastern towhees occurred at a density of 21 males/40 ha. In a xeric pine ("Pinus" species)-oak woodland where the eastern towhee density was 32 males/40 ha, mean eastern towhee territory size was (range, n=20). In Massachusetts, mean male eastern towhee territory size was about, and female eastern towhee territory size was. Territory size changed over the course of the breeding season and was not significantly (p>0.05) affected by reductions in food availability of 30% or less. During the winter eastern towhees are not as territorial and may be seen in mixed species flocks. Daily movement of eastern towhees in loblolly (P. taeda) and longleaf pine (P. palustris) forests and clearcuts in South Carolina averaged per day. Only 2 females, out of 11 females and 9 males, stayed within the stand where they were captured for the duration of a 10-week study.  Eastern towhees have fairly strong fidelity to breeding territories. In an oak forest in New Jersey, adult eastern towhee return rates were 20% the 1st year after banding and 43% in subsequent years. Between 1960 and 1967, the maximum number of eastern towhee returns to the site was 5. In a Pennsylvania woodlot observed between 1962 and 1967, an eastern towhee returned to the site for 4 consecutive years.  Several reviews report eastern towhee clutch sizes from 2 to 6 eggs, with means ranging from 2.45 to 3.6 eggs per nest. All 5 eastern towhee nests on Sanibel Island, Florida, contained 3 eggs. Eastern towhees in 2 pitch pine ("P. rigida") barrens sites in New Jersey and New York had a later median egg laying date (mid-June) and significantly (p<0.05) smaller average early nest clutch sizes (NJ=2.67, NY=3.25) than those in an oak-hickory ("Carya" spp.) site, which had a median egg-laying date in early June and an average early nest clutch size of 3.88. Food availability likely explains at least some of the differences between the 2 habitat types. Eggs are incubated by the female for 12 or 13 days. After hatching both parents feed the young, which fledge 10 to 12 days later and are dependent on parental care for about another month.  A wide range of eastern towhee nest success values have been reported. On Sanibel Island, 1 of the 5 eastern towhee nests observed was successful. In Louisiana, average daily nest success rate was 95.3% on a bottomland hardwood forest site. The same study found a 92.6% average daily nest success rate in a 6-year-old managed cottonwood ("Populus" spp.) plantation in Alabama. Average eastern towhee nest success across mixed bigtooth ("P. grandidentata") and quaking aspen ("P. tremuloides") stands of varying ages in Pennsylvania was 48.1%. In South Carolina, only 1 of 10 nests was successful, and the mean daily nest survival rate was 62.9%. This low value was explained by high levels of predation. Due to lower nest success rates of Bachman's sparrow ("Aimophila aestivalis") than the previous year, it is suggested that eastern towhee nest success may have been measured during a comparatively poor year.  Compared to nests, adult towhee survival rates are high. Average weekly adult survival rate of eastern towhees in a South Carolina study area was 99.3%. This rate was obtained from radio-marked eastern towhees and represented the pooled survival of both sexes and from 2 South Carolina sites, young and mature stands of loblolly and longleaf pine. Between 1962 and 1967 in Pennsylvania, annual survival of breeding eastern towhees calculated from mistnetting recaptures was 58%. According to a literature review, both males and females become reproductively mature in their second year. Eastern towhees of over 12 years old have been reported in the wild.

Preferred habitat.

Eastern towhees range from near sea level to as high as along the border of Tennessee and North Carolina during the summer. A literature review reports eastern towhees up to in New Hampshire.  Eastern towhees spend the majority of their time near the ground. For instance, in Pennsylvania in spring, observations of eastern towhees below from the ground occurred significantly (p<0.05) more than expected based on random spatial distribution, and observations above occurred significantly (p<0.05) less than would be expected. In a Louisiana bottomland forest 62% of eastern towhee observations were within of the ground, and only 4% were observed above. In the spring this changed, with detections of eastern towhees below declining from 70% to 65% and detections in the canopy (>) increasing from 4% to 7%.  Eastern towhees occur in many habitats, from tallgrass prairies and marshes to mature forests. However, eastern towhees are most common in early successional stands, habitat edges, and areas with similar vegetation structure throughout eastern forests.  In most communities eastern towhees are more abundant in young successional stands. Several studies found increased eastern towhee abundance on early successional sites compared to later-successional sites. Mean number of breeding eastern towhees (0.70 bird/50-m radius) and nest success rate (58%) were higher in a 15-year-old clearcut in West Virginia, than in other treatments, including a stand of yellow-poplar ("Liriodendron tulipifera"), black cherry, red maple, sugar maple ("Acer saccharum"), and white ash ("Fraxinus americana") that was not harvested. In a southern Missouri oak-hickory forest, eastern towhees were not present before clearcutting or in the nearby uncut forest after cutting, but occurred at a mean density of 9.3 birds/10 ha in a 3-year-old clearcut. A study of stands of varying ages in central New York found that eastern towhee density peaked in early successional stands.  Although eastern towhees generally prefer young successional sites, variation between habitat types and years has been observed. Krementz and Powell found higher relative abundance of eastern towhee in young (2–6 years old) stands of loblolly and longleaf pine than mature (32–98 years old) stands when investigated in 1995. However, in stands compared in 1996, the 95% confidence intervals of eastern towhee relative abundance on the 2 sites had a substantial degree of overlap. The degree to which eastern towhee responds to succession is influenced by habitat. For example, in Pennsylvania there was a significant (p<0.05) difference between eastern towhee densities (number/10 ha) between mature mixed-oak forest and stands that had been clearcut about 5 years previously. However, eastern towhee densities did not differ significantly between a 1-year old mixed aspen ("Populus tremuloides, P. grandidentata") clearcut, a 5-year old aspen clearcut, and a mature aspen stand. Eastern towhee abundance has been shown to peak at different times in different habitats. For instance, although in central hardwood forests eastern towhees were most abundant in regenerating stands, in loblolly and shortleaf pine forest they were most common in pole timber and mature stands. In addition, Bell and Whitmore concluded that early successional is likely too broad of a term for describing optimal towhee habitat, since high density of small trees was negatively associated with eastern towhee density in the eastern panhandle of West Virginia.  Eastern towhees seem to prefer sites with characteristics generally associated with early successional vegetation, such as low canopy cover and dense understory. Negative correlations between eastern towhee abundance and various measurements of overstory density have been found in several studies. Average density of eastern towhees across 6 habitat types in Pennsylvania was significantly (p<0.05) negatively correlated with density of overstory trees and basal area of overstory trees. Number of eastern towhees in a western Virginia hardwood forest was also significantly (p<0.05) inversely correlated with total percent canopy cover. In a loblolly pine forest in South Carolina, the average number of eastern towhee breeding territories per experimental unit was significantly (p≤0.008) negatively correlated with mid-story () pine ("Pinus" spp.) and deciduous volume.  Many studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between eastern towhee abundance and understory density. In a loblolly pine forest in South Carolina, understory () pine volume was significantly (p<0.001) positively correlated with the average number of eastern towhee territories per experimental unit. Yahner found the average density of eastern towhees over 6 habitat types was significantly (p<0.05) positively correlated with density of short (2–5-foot (0.5–1.5 m)) shrubs. In east-central Florida slash pine ("P. elliottii") flatwoods with understories dominated by myrtle oak ("Q. myrtifolia") and sand live oak ("Q. geminata") and in scrub sites with scattered slash pine and cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto), eastern towhee densities were significantly (p=0.01) negatively correlated with mean shrub height.  Eastern towhees may associate with and avoid certain plants. In Nevada, Towhees seem to prefer a habitat in which they are camouflaged such as flowering quince which matches their rufous coloration. In riparian vegetation in Iowa, eastern towhee density was significantly (p≤0.01) positively associated with total plant and vine species richness and negatively correlated with forb and deciduous tree species richness. In West Virginia, eastern towhees were associated with plant species that occurred on drier ridgetops, such as blackberry (p<0.02), black cherry (p<0.002), and black locust (p<0.04). These sites tended to have open canopies and low tree density. Eastern towhee density was negatively associated with plants of the moister parts of this study area, such as black tupelo ("Nyssa sylvatica", p<0.006), red maple (p<0.001), and witch hazel (p<0.03). In central New Jersey eastern towhees were significantly (p=0.03) more abundant in gray dogwood ("Cornus racemosa") shrubland than either eastern redcedar ("Juniperus virginiana") or multiflora rose ("Rosa multiflora") shrublands.  Nesting habitat: Eastern towhees typically nest on or near the ground. Several literature reviews note the predominance of eastern towhee nests below. In a study of cowbird parasitism on Sanibel Island, all 5 eastern towhee nests located were within of the ground. Nests as high as have been reported in literature reviews. Nests higher off the ground in mixed aspen stands of varying ages in Pennsylvania had significantly (p<0.001) lower nest success. Of 13 unsuccessful eastern towhee nests, 11 were greater than above the ground.  In West Virginia, there were no significant (p>0.05) differences in habitat surrounding successful and unsuccessful nests. Large snags (≥9 inches diameter at breast height (≥22.9 cm)) did not have an effect on nesting success. Nesting success was not significantly (p>0.05) affected by stand age or distance to edge in even-aged mixed-aspen stands in Pennsylvania.  Eastern towhees nest in a variety of species including grape and blueberry ("Vaccinium" spp.). The majority of nests observed in South Carolina loblolly and longleaf pine forests and clearcuts were located in grape, tree sparkleberry ("V. arboreum"), and oak ("Quercus" spp.). On an oak-hickory site in West Virginia, 27% of 41 eastern towhee nests were found in grape, 17% in blackberry ("Rubus" spp.), 12% in greenbrier ("Smilax" spp.), and 12% in mountain-laurel ("Kalmia latifolia"). Nests also occurred in Virginia creeper ("Parthenocissus quinquefolia"), spice bush ("Lindera benzoin"), and azalea ("Rhododendron" spp.). In a power line right-of-way in Pennsylvania, the 6 eastern towhee nests observed occurred in Allegheny blackberry, witch-hazel ("Hamamelis virginiana"), blueberry ("Vaccinium" spp.), white oak ("Q. alba"), eastern hayscented fern ("Dennstaedtia punctilobula") and sweetfern ("Comptonia peregrina") combined, and on ground level. According to literature reviews, eastern towhee nests located on the ground are embedded in litter in dry areas and typically occur at the base of grasses, forbs, low shrubs, or small trees.  Foraging habitat: Selection of foraging habitat by eastern towhees has been investigated in Massachusetts and New Jersey. When gleaning in a southeastern Massachusetts pitch pine barren, eastern towhees preferred species such as pitch pine, bear oak ("Q. ilicifolia"), and other deciduous trees, mainly oaks. Ericaceous species were avoided. Use differed significantly (p<0.001) from availability. On 2 New Jersey sites, eastern towhee foraging preference switched over the course of the breeding season. On a site dominated by oaks, primarily black oak ("Q. velutina"), eastern towhees used oaks in May, as would be expected due to their density. However, in June and July, as relative arthropod biomass declined in oaks, use of oaks was less than would be expected. On a pitch pine-dominated site, use of oaks (primarily bear oak and blackjack oak ("Q. marilandica")) was greater than would be expected in May, but was proportionate to availability in June and July. These negative correlations between date and oak use were significant (p<0.025) for both sites. Use of the oak-dominated site also decreased significantly (p<0.05) through the summer.  Effects of spatial area: Eastern towhees appear to prefer edge habitats in many areas. For instance, the mean abundance of eastern towhees in a baldcypress ("Taxodium distichum") in northern Florida was 18, while eastern towhees did not occur in either the baldcypress forest or the clearcut. At the interface of the baldcypress stand and a 13-year-old planted slash pine stand, mean abundance of eastern towhees was 22 breeding birds, while in the planted slash pine stand the average abundance was 15 breeding birds. Density of eastern towhees was found to decline with distance from the edge of a power line right-of-way and an oak-hickory forest in eastern Tennessee. At the edge, eastern towhees occurred at a density of just over 10 pairs/40 ha, while from the edge eastern towhee density had dropped to 1 pair/40 ha. In addition, in experimentally clearcut Pennsylvanian forests composed of white oak, northern red oak ("Q. rubra"), chestnut oak ("Q. prinus"), scarlet oak ("Q. coccinea"), red maple, quaking aspen, bigtooth aspen, and pitch pine, male towhees were detected significantly (p<0.05) more often than expected in the areas where the spatial arrangement of clearcuts was most patchy.  Several studies have addressed the effect of the size of habitat patches on eastern towhees. In mixed-oak forest in New Jersey, eastern towhee frequency generally increased with patch size, although eastern towhees were detected in all plot sizes () except 0.02–acre (0.01 ha) plots. On a site in South Carolina, eastern towhee frequency of occurrence increased as clearcut size increased from < to clearcut sizes from 21 to about 32 acres (8.5–12.8 ha). On another site eastern towhee frequency declined as clearcut size increased from. Eastern towhees only bred in riparian vegetation patches in Iowa that were at least wide. In southern and eastern Pennsylvania eastern towhee nest success was not significantly (p≥0.10) different on sites with gradual edges and those with more distinct edges between "wildlife habitat openings" and oak-hickory forest.

Food habits.

Eastern towhees primarily eat on the ground, although they also glean from vegetation. In a southeastern Massachusetts pitch pine barren, 73.5% of male and 80.4% of female foraging observations were on the ground. When foraging on the ground eastern towhees use a scratching technique where both feet kick back simultaneously. In a laboratory study 4 eastern towhees used this method to successfully obtain seed buried almost deep. When foraging above ground the majority of time is spent gleaning foliage. In Massachusetts, 22.5% of male and 16.3% of female foraging observations were of food being gleaned from foliage. Eastern towhees were also observed gleaning from twigs, branches, and trunks. When gleaning, eastern towhees occurred significantly (p<0.01) more often on the distal half of tree branches compared to using distal and proximal portions equally. In 0.5% of male and 0.3% of female foraging observations, eastern towhees hovered. Eastern towhees were never observed catching food out of the air.  Eastern towhees eat a variety of plant and animal matter. In literature reviews, eastern towhees are reported to eat seeds and fruits, several invertebrates, and occasionally small amphibians, snakes, and lizards. Reviews report eastern towhees foraging at feeders. Reviews show that animal matter makes up a larger proportion of the diet in the breeding season. In fall and winter, plants make up 79% and 85% of the diet, respectively. This drops to 53% in spring and 43% in summer. Insects such as beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), ants, wasps, and bees (Hymenoptera), and moths and caterpillars (Lepidoptera) are common prey items. Eastern towhees eat other invertebrates such as spiders (Araneae), millipedes (Diplopoda), centipedes (Chilopoda), and snails (Gastropoda) to a lesser extent. Plants that comprise at least 5% of the eastern towhee diet include ragweed ("Ambrosia" spp.), oak, smartweed ("Polygonum" spp.), and corn (Zea mays) in the Northeast and blackberry, oak, panicgrass ("Panicum" spp.), ragweed, and wax-myrtle ("Morella cerifera") in the Southeast.

Predators.

Many animals prey on eastern towhees and their eggs, including reptiles, mammals, and birds. A literature review summarizes several reports demonstrating that predators are a major cause of nest failure. The highest nest predation rate noted was 88% in a New York study. Mammals that are likely nest predators include northern raccoons ("Procyon lotor"), domestic cats ("Felis catus"), and eastern chipmunks ("Tamias striatus"). Snakes such as bullsnakes ("Pituophis catenifer"), rat snakes ("Elaphe" spp.) and garter snakes ("Thamnophis" spp.) have been reported eating eastern towhee eggs. Weasels ("Mustela" spp.) and blue jays ("Cyanocitta cristata") are also likely nest predators. Several birds are known to prey on both young and adult eastern towhees, including northern goshawk ("Accipiter gentilis"), Broad-winged ("Buteo platypterus"), short-tailed ("Buteo brachyurus"), sharp-shinned ("Accipiter striatus") and Cooper's hawks ("Accipiter cooperii"). Other predators include barred ("Strix varia"), short-eared ("Asio flammeus") and eastern screech-owls ("Megascops asio") and even the loggerhead shrike ("Lanius ludovicianus"), which is scarcely larger than a towhee. At least some mammals also feed on adult eastern towhees. In Maryland, an eastern towhee was found in the stomach contents of a red fox ("Vulpes vulpes").  Brown-headed cowbirds ("Molothrus ater") parasitize eastern towhee nests. In a South Carolina old field, 5 of 19 eastern towhee nests were parasitized. Each parasitized nest contained 1 Brown-headed Cowbird egg. The desertion rate for parasitized nests was 20%, which was similar to nests that had not been parasitized (21%). Two of the five Brown-headed Cowbird eggs produced fledglings. The study did not determine if there was a difference in nest success between parasitized and nonparasitized nests. In West Virginia, only 3 of 41 eastern towhee nests were parasitized by the Brown-headed Cowbird. Average number of fledged young in nonparasitized nests was 2.8, which was similar to the average of 2.7 fledglings per parasitized nest. In a Pennsylvania study site, only 2 of 36 nests were parasitized and both produced eastern towhee fledglings. In a study of nest parasitism on Sanibel Island, none of 5 eastern towhee nests found were parasitized.

The eastern towhee ("Pipilo erythrophthalmus") is a large New World sparrow. The taxonomy of the towhees has been under debate in recent decades, and formerly this bird and the spotted towhee were considered a single species, the rufous-sided towhee.

Le Tohi à flancs roux ("Pipilo erythrophthalmus" (Linnaeus, 1758) est une espèce de passereau appartenant à la famille des Passerellidae.


Life and career.

Guilbert was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the daughter of Dr. Gerald Guilbert, a physician, and his wife, Cornelia (née Morgan). Her paternal grandfather, Lionel Guilbert, was an immigrant from England.  She attended Solomon Juneau High School and after moving to San Francisco studied theater arts at Stanford University. She began her career as a featured performer and singer in the "Billy Barnes Revues" of the 1950s and 1960s.  After "The Dick Van Dyke Show", she made guest appearances in many other television shows, including "Adam-12" (the premiere episode), as well as "The Andy Griffith Show", "Love, American Style", "That Girl", "Dragnet", "Picket Fences", "Seinfeld", "Curb Your Enthusiasm" and "". From 1993 to 1999, she appeared as Yetta Rosenberg on "The Nanny". In December 2004, she appeared in the reunion of "The Nanny" titled "" with Fran Drescher and other cast members of "The Nanny".  She appeared in such feature films as "A Guide for the Married Man", "Viva Max!", "Grumpier Old Men" (as the mother of Sophia Loren's character), and "Please Give", for which she received the CFA for Best Supporting Actress.

Personal life.

Guilbert was married to writer and producer George Eckstein from 1951 until their divorce in 1966. They had two children together, actress Hallie Todd and acting coach Nora Eckstein. Her second marriage, to Guy Raymond, lasted from 1967 until his death in 1997.

Death.

Guilbert died in Los Angeles on June 14, 2016, aged 87. An episode of "Life in Pieces" was dedicated in her memory.

Ann Morgan Guilbert (October 16, 1928 – June 14, 2016), sometimes credited as Ann Guilbert, was an American television and film actress and comedian who portrayed a number of roles from the 1950s on, most notably as Millie Helper in 61 episodes of the early 1960s sitcom "The Dick Van Dyke Show", and later Yetta Rosenberg, Fran Fine's doddering grandmother, in 56 episodes of the 1990s sitcom "The Nanny".

Ann Morgan Guilbert est une actrice américaine née le à Minneapolis (Minnesota) et morte le à Los Angeles (Californie). Époux :


Biography.

Early life and education.

Khwaja Ahmad Abbas was born in Panipat, Undivided Punjab. He was born in the home of celebrated Urdu poet, Khwaja Altaf Hussain Hali, a student of Mirza Ghalib. His grandfather Khwaja Gulam Abbas was one of the chief rebels of the 1857 Rebellion movement, and the first martyr of Panipat to be blown from the mouth of a cannon. Abbas's father Ghulam-Us-Sibtain graduated from Aligarh Muslim University, was a tutor of a prince and a prosperous businessman, who modernised the preparation of Unani medicines. Abbas's mother, 'Masroor Khatoon', was the daughter of Sajjad Husain, an enlightened educationist. Abbas took his early education in 'Hali Muslim High School', which was established by his great grand father Hali. He had his early education till 7th in Panipat. He was instructed to read the Arabic text of the Quran and his childhood dreams swung at the compulsive behest of his father. Abbas completed his matriculation at the age of fifteen. He did his B.A. with English literature in 1933 and LL.B. in 1935 from Aligarh Muslim University.

Career.

Abbas began his career as a journalist, when he joined 'National Call', a New Delhi based newspaper after finishing his B.A.. Later while studying law in 1934, started 'Aligarh Opinion', India's first university students' weekly during the pre-independence period.  After completing his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Abbas joined "The Bombay Chronicle" in 1935. He occasionally served a film critic, but after the film critic of the paper died, he was made the editor of the film section.  He entered films as a part-time publicist for Bombay Talkies in 1936, a production house owned by Himanshu Rai and Devika Rani, to whom he sold his first screenplay "Naya Sansar" (1941).  While at "The Bombay Chronicle", (1935–1947), he started a weekly column called 'Last Page', which he continued when he joined the Blitz magazine. "The Last Page", (‘Azad Kalam’ in the Urdu edition), thus became the longest-running political column in India's history (1935–87). A collection of these columns was later published as two books. He continued to write for The Blitz and Mirror till his last days.  Meanwhile, he had started writing scripts for other directors, "Neecha Nagar" for Chetan Anand and "Dr. Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani" for V. Shantaram.  In 1945, he made his directorial debut with a film based on the Bengal famine of 1943, "Dharti Ke Lal" ("Children of the Earth") for the Indian People's Theatre Association (IPTA). In 1951, he founded his own production company called Naya Sansar, which consistently produced films that were socially relevant including, "Anhonee", "Munna", "Rahi" (1953), based on a Mulk Raj Anand story, was on the plight of workers on tea plantations, the National Film Award winner, "Shehar Aur Sapna" (1964) and "Saat Hindustani" (1969), which won the Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration and is also remembered as Bollywood icon Amitabh Bachchan's debut film.  A prolific writer, and novelist, during his illustrious career spanning five decades, Abbas wrote over 73 books in English, Hindi and Urdu. Abbas was considered a leading light of the Urdu short story. His best known fictional work remains 'Inquilab', based Communal violence, which made him a household name in Indian literature. Like Inquilab, many of his works were translated into many Indian, and foreign languages, like Russian, German, Italian, French and Arabic.  Abbas interviewed several renowned personalities in literary and non-literary fields, including the Russian Prime Minister Khrushchov, American President Roosevelt, Charlie Chaplin, Mao-Tse-Tung and Yuri Gagarin.  He went on to write scripts for Jagte Raho, and most of the prominent Raj Kapoor films including "Awaara, Shri 420, Mera Naam Joker, Bobby" and "Henna".  His autobiography, "I Am not an Island: An Experiment in Autobiography", was first published in 1977 and later released in 2010.

Censorship case.

In 1968, Abbas made a documentary film called "Char Shaher Ek Kahani" (A Tale of Four Cities). The film depicted the contrast between the luxurious life of the rich in the four cities of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi and that of the squalor and poverty of the poor. He approached the Central Board of Film Certification to obtain a 'U' (Unrestricted Public Exhibition) certificate. Abbas was however informed by the regional office of the Board that film was not eligible to be granted a 'U' certificate but was suitable for exhibition only for adults. His appeal to the revising committee of the Central Board of Film Certification led to the decision of the censors being upheld.  Khwaja Ahmad Abbas further appealed to the Central Government but the government decided to grant the film a 'U' certificate provided certain scenes were cut. Following this, Abbas approached the Supreme Court of India by filing a writ petition under Article 19(1) of the Indian Constitution. He claimed that his fundamental right of free speech and expression was denied by the Central Government's refusal to grant the film a 'U' certificate. Abbas also challenged the constitutional validity of pre-censorship on films.  However the Supreme Court of India upheld the constitutional validity pre-censorship on films.

Awards and honours.

Literary.

Haryana State Robe of Honour for literary achievements in 1969, the prestigious Ghalib Award for his contribution to Urdu prose literature in 1983  Vorosky Literary Award of the Soviet Union in 1984, Urdu Akademi Delhi Special Award 1984, Maharashtra State Urdu Akademi Award in 1985 and the Soviet Award for his contribution to the cause of Indo-Soviet Friendship in 1985.

Books.

He "published more than seventy books in English, Urdu and Hindi", including: "For detailed listing" :

Khwaja Ahmad Abbas (7 June 1914 – 1 June 1987), popularly known as K. A. Abbas, was an Indian film director, screenwriter, novelist, and a journalist in the Urdu, Hindi and English languages. He won four National Film Awards in India, and internationally his films won the Palme d'Or (Grand Prize) at the Cannes Film Festival (out of three Palme d'Or nominations) and the Crystal Globe at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. As a director and screenwriter, Khwaja Ahmad Abbas is considered one of the pioneers of Indian parallel or neo-realistic cinema, and as a screenwriter he is also known for writing Raj Kapoor's best films.

Khwaja Ahmad Abbas est un réalisateur, scénariste et producteur indien né le à Panipat, Inde et décédé le. Membre du jury au Festival de Berlin en 1966.


Frontière entre la Finlande et la Russie

History.

Sweden-Russia border.

The first border treaty concerning this border was signed in Nöteborg in 1323, between Sweden (to which Finland belonged) and the Novgorod Republic. The Treaty of Teusina in 1595 moved the border eastward. In conclusion to the Ingrian War, Sweden gained a large tract of land through the acquisition of the Nöteborg fortress, the Kexholm and its large province, southwest Karelia and the province of Ingria in the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617). The Treaty of Nystad in 1721 and the Treaty of Åbo in 1743 moved the border westward.  The main difference between the different sides of the border at the time was religion. The Russian side was Russian Orthodox, the Swedish side was Catholic, later Lutheran Protestant. Generally the native population was ethnically Finnish and Finnish-speaking immediately on both sides of the border. However, after the peace of Stolbovo in 1617, the Orthodox population was persecuted and either fled to Tver or converted to Lutheranism and started speaking Finnish instead of the closely related Karelian. The population was largely replaced by immigrants from Finland, most of which were Savonians.

Internal Russian border.

After the Finnish War, the Treaty of Fredrikshamn converted all of Finland from Swedish territory to a Russian possession, the Grand Duchy of Finland. The Finnish–Russian border was moved back to the pre-1721 location, so that the Grand Duchy gained the so-called "Old Finland", territories previously held by Sweden, in 1812.

Finland-Soviet Russia border.

After Finland became independent in 1917, there was the Finnish Civil War in 1918, and even after this war, the Russian Civil War continued. Finnish activists often crossed the border into Soviet territory in order to fight in the "heimosodat", wars aiming at Finnish ethnic self-determination and possible annexation into Finland. However, this came to an end in 1920, when the Russian/Finnish Treaty of Tartu in 1920 defined Finland as independent and demarcated the countries' common border. However, Finnish fighters would still take part in the East Karelian uprising and Soviet–Finnish conflict of 1921–22. Finally, the Finnish government closed the border from the volunteers and food and munitions shipments in 1922.

Changes to borders with World War II.

During World War II, Stalin severely suppressed the native Finnish-speaking population (Ingrian Finns) by population transfers, collectivization and purges, such that border zones were to be free of Finnish peoples.  The land border was later demarcated in the Treaty of Paris (1947) following the Continuation War (1941–44), in which Finnish Karelia, including Finland's second-largest city Vyborg, parts of Salla and Petsamo were ceded to the Soviet Union. The new border cut through Finnish territory proper, severing many rail lines and isolating many Karelian towns from Finland. The Soviet Union demanded emptying the territories first. Finns were evacuated from the area and resettled elsewhere in Finland; almost nobody was willing to stay. The areas were resettled by Soviet immigrants. The Porkkala naval base was leased by the Soviet Union, but returned to the Finnish government in 1956. The naval border was established in 1940 and more accurately defined in 1965.  The border is uncontroversial and clearly defined by law. Both states verified the inviolability of borders and territorial integrity in the first Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe in 1975.

Soviet-Finnish border during the Cold War.

During the Cold War, the border constituted part of the perimeter of the Iron Curtain. Crossing the border was not possible for much of its length. Only a very limited number of border crossing points existed, and the Soviet government permitted only escorted trips to select cities; border zones were off limits to tourists. There was little contact between cities that were relatively close to each other on opposite sides of the border, such as Imatra and Svetogorsk. On the Finnish side, there was a border zone where entry was allowed only with a permit, but habitation was permitted and residents could continue living in the area. The Soviet side had extensive electronic systems and patrols to prevent escapes. Soviet border surveillance began at a great distance from the actual border, and was as extensive as elsewhere along the Iron Curtain. The first surveillance was already in railway stations in cities, where the "militsiya" monitored potentially suspicious traffic. The border zone began at from the border. A special permit was required for entry, and the first line of control had electronic alarms. At, there was a raked sand strip (to detect footprints) and a thin alarmed tripwire. At, there was a tall barbed wire fence, with a top that curved inwards towards Soviet territory. The fence had an electronic alarm system. However, it was not protected underground and tunnelling under it was possible. Finally, at the international border, there was a border vista. In the north, this was followed by a Finnish reindeer fence. Unlike other Western countries, the government of Finland did not protect illegal border crossers but returned them to the Soviet authorities if captured. Illegal border crossers had to get through Finland to e.g. Sweden in order to defect to the West.  In the Moscow Armistice signed on 1944 between Finland, Soviet Union and United Kingdom, a small peninsula towards the Gulf of Finland, Porkkala, was rented to Soviet Union as a military base. This created in effect a southern border crossing to the Soviet exclave, operating all the way to 1956. Border crossings were in and. In 1947, Finnish trains were allowed to pass through the base, but the passenger car windows were blinded and locomotive replaced while crossing through. Earlier between 1940–41, Soviet Union had rented Hanko Peninsula as a military base. Apparently there was also a border crossing to the exclave at the time.

Traffic.

In 2015, 9.1 million individuals crossed the border, half of which through Vaalimaa and Nuijamaa.  Finland is the country that issues the most Schengen visas to Russians.

Incidents.

On 26 November 1939, the Soviet Union's Red Army shelled the Russian village of Mainila, and blamed Finland. The Soviets used this false flag operation as the pretext to provoke the Winter War a few days later.  According to a Russian media report, Finland closed its border crossing with Russia, a counterpart to the Russian border post, on 4 December 2015, an hour and a half before the day's scheduled closing time and thus prevented fifteen people of Mid-East origin from crossing the border. According to the same source, some Finnish border officials confirmed that Raja-Jooseppi had closed early that day while a spokesman for the same department said the checkpoint closed at its regular time of 2100 hours. Note the time zone difference between the checkpoints (Eastern European Time and Moscow Time), one hour in winter.  On 27 December 2015, Finland blocked access for people to cross over Russian border on bicycles via and Salla. According to the Finnish Border Guard, this measure was to limit illegal immigration and ensure safety on slippery roads. The Finnish Border Guard stated that organized traffickers had their clients cross the border by biking in order to avoid being captured on the Finnish side and prosecuted for organizing illegal immigration, which is a felony in Finnish law. In response, asylum seekers started to cross the border by car.  On 23 January 2016, Finnish Foreign Minister Timo Soini, member of the Finns Party was reported discussing at the northern border of Salla about inward "people smuggling", and noting that the conclusion that somebody at the Russian side was organizing and regulating the inflow of immigrants was in his mind apparently true. He further noted, that it is imminent that the process is an act of procession. Furthermore, a communal representative of the same Finns Party noted, that the inflow of immigrants causes disturbance for Finns driving to the Russian side to purchase petrol, as the border stays stuck due to immigration proceedings.  In March 2016, Finland and Russia temporarily closed the Raja-Jooseppi border crossing at Inari and the Salla border crossing from third country nationals. Only Finnish, Russian and Belarusian citizens were allowed to use these crossings for a period of six months. The measure proved temporary.

List of border checkpoints.

From north to south.  In addition, there are provisional border crossing points: Of these, only Inari and Parikkala were actually used in 2015-2018.

Passport stamps.

The following are Finnish ink passport stamps issued at the Finnish–Russian border.

The Finnish–Russian border is the roughly north/south international border between the Republic of Finland (European Union member) and the Russian Federation. Some long, it runs mostly through uninhabited taiga forests and sparsely populated rural areas, not following any particular natural feature or river. It is also part of the external border of both the political and economic union; European Union (EU) and the loose confederation; Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).

La frontière terrestre entre la Finlande et la Russie est une frontière internationale d'une longueur de qui sépare la Finlande de son seul voisin oriental, la Fédération de Russie.


Équipe des États-Unis de football américain

Player eligibility.

The national team was selected to encompass a cross-section of amateur football in the United States, and as such USA Football used strict criteria to select team members. This does not permit the top American football players in the United States to compete as the restrictions include:  These criteria are applied to make international tournaments more competitive.

IFAF World Championship.

2007.

The United States competed for the first time in the 2007 IFAF World Cup. The team's first ever game was a 77–0 smashing of South Korea in the first round of the tournament. The Team USA defense set an IFAF all-time tournament record in holding South Korea to minus-31 yards in total offense, as well as the record for fewest rushing yards allowed with minus-47. In the second round the USA defeated Germany 33–7. They played Japan on July 15 for the championship. Japan was making their third appearance in the finals, winning the previous two World Championships. Japan took a 17–10 lead with seven minutes and seven seconds left in regulation. University of Arizona quarterback Adam Austin guided Team USA with an 11-play, 80-yard drive that ended with the second 5-yard touchdown run by RB Kyle Kasperbauer, to tie the game at 17. IFAF follows the overtime system used by the NCAA, and both teams scored field goals with their first possession. In the second overtime, Japan got the ball first but missed a 34-yard field goal attempt. Team USA then reached Japan's 6-yard line. On 4th and one, Craig Coffin kicked the game winning 22-yard field goal, with the final score at 23–20. University of Nebraska-Omaha running back Kyle Kasperbauer was named MVP of the game after scoring two touchdowns and running for 54 yards on 15 carries. Austin finished 12 of 25 for 109 yards, with no TD's, and one interception. Former Williams player Jon Drenckhahn was the top receiver, catching 5 passes for 40 yards.  The team included players representing all levels of college football, with 13 from NCAA Division I FBS, 12 from NCAA Division I FCS, 10 from NCAA Division II, 9 from NCAA Division III and 1 former NAIA player.

2011.

The head coach of Team USA was Mel Tjeerdsma of Northwest Missouri State University, with Larry Kehres the offensive coordinator and Lou Tepper the defensive coordinator. Players on the team were announced on the official Team USA Facebook on April 28, 2011. On July 8, Team USA played its 1st game, defeating Australia 61–0. After beating Mexico on July 11, the team qualified for its 2nd consecutive World Cup gold medal game. On July 16, USA defeated Canada 50–7 to claim its 2nd consecutive World Championship.  The United States routed Canada 50–7 in the Gold Medal game of the 2011 IFAF Senior World Championship. The 20,000 fans in attendance at Ernst Happel Stadium in Vienna, Austria, set a record for an IFAF Championship game. The game was never close, with Team USA leading 37–7 at halftime. Team USA dominated the rushing game, outgaining Canada 247–48, with four players scoring touchdowns on the ground. While Henry Harris led the way for the Americans on the ground, with 114 yards on 15 carries and a TD, Mount Union RB Nate Kmic was the only American to score two touchdowns on the day. University of Colorado quarterback Cody Hawkins was 13 of 21 for 161 yards and 2 TD passes. Ricardo Lenhart (Otterbein) led the receivers, with 3 catches for 63 yards. The U.S. defense recorded four sacks, and Jordan Lake caught two interceptions.

2015.

The U.S. Men's National Team is led by former Boise State and Colorado head football coach Dan Hawkins. Hawkins was 53–11 at Boise State from 2001–05, winning four consecutive Western Athletic Conference titles. His teams compiled a 31-game WAC winning streak, the longest in conference history. The U.S. Men's National Team includes athletes from 24 states.

World Games.

2017.

During the 2015 split between IFAF Paris and IFAF New York, in which IFAF Paris expelled USA Football in 2017. USA Football was replaced by the United States Federation of American Football in Paris, while New York retained USA Football as their active member. Since IFAF New York was recognized by the International Olympic Committee at the time, the United States Federation of American Football was permitted to organize the United States national American football team for the 2017 World Games  Players, mainly semi-professional or Americans playing in Europe, were chosen for the team on May 31, 2017. Players were promised full funding from the United States Federation of American Football, however, the funding was withdrawn just days before the competition and players had to provide their own transportation to Wroclaw. As a result, most of the team withdrew from the competition and were instead replaced by volunteers who were already in Europe at the time. Most of the team arrived the day before their opening match vs the Germany national American football team. The Americans lost to Germany 13–14, in which was the first loss ever for a United States national American football team in international competition.  The United States were able to rebound two days later and defeat the Poland national American football team 14-7 en route to a bronze medal at the 2017 World Games.

The United States national American football team represents the United States in international men's American football competitions. It is currently ranked no.1 in the IFAF. It is currently controlled by USA Football and is recognized by the International Federation of American Football (IFAF).

L'équipe des États-Unis de football américain représente la Fédération des États-Unis de football américain ("") lors des compétitions internationales, telle la Coupe du monde de football américain depuis 2007.


Synopsis.

Maxi (Nathan Lopez) is a 12-year-old effeminate gay boy who lives in the slums with his father and brothers who are petty thieves. The story primarily revolves around the conflict between his love for handsome young police officer Victor (JR Valentin), and his family's illegal livelihood. Neo-realist in orientation, the film is a tale of lost innocence and redemption amidst the poverty of Manila's slums.  Maxi behaves like a girl, wearing clips or hairband in his hair and bangles on his wrists and even wearing lipstick. He is teased by neighbors and former school friends. His sexuality is, however, fully accepted by his two brothers and by his father. One night, he is accosted by two men who attempt to molest him, but is saved by the appearance of Victor. Victor does not have a girlfriend and his sexuality is kept ambiguous. However, he does rebuff Maxi's advances. In a key event, Maxi's father, his brother Bogs, and Bogs' friends hatch a plan to teach Victor a lesson for his behaviour towards Maxi. They leave him bloodied and beat up. Just as Victor saved him, it was Maxi who arrived to rescue Victor and stopped the beating. He then went on to clean Victor's wounds and cook breakfast for him. Maxi felt sorry and felt somehow responsible for his injuries. Victor then affectionately stroked Maxi's hair and Maxi stole a kiss.  After Maxi's father is killed by Victor's boss, Maxi resists Victor's attempts to renew their friendship. The closing scene shows Maxi walking past Victor who has parked by the roadside on Maxi's way to school. He ignores Victor as he passes him, hesitates momentarily as he crosses the road, then goes on his way. This last scene is a homage to the final scene of "The Third Man".

The Blossoming of Maximo Oliveros () is a 2005 Filipino coming-of-age film about a gay teen who is torn between his love for a young cop and his loyalty to his family. The film competed under 1st Cinemalaya Film Festival in 2005. The film was the official entry of the Philippines to the 79th Academy Awards. It is one of the few digital films released in 2005 to do well at the tills. It also made the rounds of international film festivals.

L'Éveil de Maximo Oliveros (en filipino "") est un film philippin réalisé par Auraeus Solito, sur un scénario de Michiko Yamamoto, sorti en 2005.


Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus (consul en -347)

Career.

His father Lucius was appointed dictator in 363 BC in order to fulfil religious duties, but instead undertook preparations for war. This resulted in strong opposition from the plebeian tribunes and he was brought to trial at the beginning of the next year, after he had resigned the dictatorship. Amongst the charges against him was that he had banished Titus from Rome on account of his speaking difficulties and made him work as a labourer. Upon hearing of these accusations against his father, Titus went to the home of the tribune Marcus Pomponius, where he was expected by the latter to provide further charges and was thus promptly admitted. However, once they were alone, he drew his hidden knife and threatened to stab the tribune unless he made a public oath not to hold an assembly to accuse Lucius Manlius, which Pomponius agreed to and duly performed. Titus Manlius' reputation grew on account of his filially pious actions, which helped him to be elected as a military tribune later in the year.  In 361 BC, Titus Manlius fought in the army of Titus Quinctius Poenus Capitolinus Crispinus against the Gauls during the Battle of the Anio River. When a Gaul of enormous size and strength challenged the Romans to single combat, Manlius accepted the challenge with the approval of Poenus after the rest of the army had held back from responding for a long period of time. Despite being physically inferior, he killed the Gaul with blows to the belly and groin, after which he stripped the corpse of a torc and placed it around his own neck. From this, he gained the agnomen Torquatus, a title that was passed down also to his descendants. In 353 BC, he was named dictator and prepared to attack Caere, but they responded by sending envoys and were granted peace. The campaign was then directed towards the Falisci, but the Roman army found on arrival that the Falisci had disappeared. They ravaged the land but spared the cities before returning to Rome. He was appointed dictator again in 348 BC to oversee elections. A year later, he was elected to his first consulship. His second consulship came in 345 BC.  In 340 BC, when Manlius was consul for the third time, Rome had leadership over the Latin League. It received a delegation from member states headed by Lucius Annius, demanding coequal status in Roman government, such as a place in the senate and a consulship, but Manlius, appealing to Jupiter, refused them. Roundly abusing the Roman Jupiter, Annius fell down the steps of the public assembly, senseless. Manlius said he would strike down Rome's enemies as Jupiter struck down Annius. The Latin embassy required a Safe conduct and an escort of magistrates to leave Rome unmolested. Rome realigned itself with the Samnites against the Latins.  During the conduct of the war, Manlius and his co-consul, Publius Decius Mus, decided that the old military discipline would be reinstated, and no man was allowed to leave his post, under penalty of death. Manlius's son, seeing an opportunity for glory, forgot this stricture, left his post with his friends, and defeated several Latin skirmishers in battle. Having the spoils brought to him, the father cried out in a loud voice and called the legion to assemble. Berating his son, he then handed him over for execution to the horror of all his men. Thus, "Manlian discipline."  After Decius Mus sacrificed himself to achieve victory at the battle of Vesuvius, Manlius was able to crush the Latin allies and pursue them into Campania. He defeated them again at Trifanum, bringing the war to an end, and returned to Rome. He was unable on account of ill health to conduct a further campaign against the Antiates and appointed Lucius Papirius Crassus as dictator to fulfil this role instead.

Legacy.

In painting.

Sacrifice to the state was one of the favourite themes of French Neoclassical painters at the end of the 18th century and especially during the French Revolution. The story of Torquatus' execution of his son was logically used by several of them.

"Stemma" of the Manlii Torquati.

"Stemma" taken from Münzer until "A. Manlius Torquatus, d. 208", and then Mitchell, with corrections. All dates are BC.

Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus was a famous politician and general of the Roman Republic. He had an outstanding career, being consul three times in 347, 344, and 340 BC, and dictator three times 353, 349, and 320 BC. He was one of the early heroes of the Republic, alongside Cincinnatus, Cornelius Cossus, Furius Camillus, or Valerius Corvus. As a young military tribune, he defeated a giant Gaul in single combat in one of the most famous duels of the Republic, which earned him the cognomen Torquatus after the torque he took from the Gaul's body. He was also known for his moral virtues, especially his severity as he killed his own son after he had disobeyed his orders in a battle. His life was seen as a model for his descendants, who tried to emulate his heroic deeds, even centuries after his death.

Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus est un homme politique romain qui assuma trois consulats en 347, 344 et 340 av. J.-C. et deux charges de dictateur en 353 et 349 av. J.-C..


Career.

Urban Dance Squad first got together in 1986, at a jam session in De Vrije Vloer, a club in Utrecht, a jam which resulted in the first Dutch rock band with a rapper (they borrowed the name from Parliament-Funkadelic's "Urban Dancefloor Guerillas"); a song, "Struggle for Jive"; and the blending of white and black music in the Netherlands, at the same time that Fishbone, Living Colour, and the Red Hot Chili Peppers were doing the same in the United States. The band recorded its first album, "Mental Floss for the Globe", in Brussels in 1989 (produced by Jean-Marie Aerts, of TC Matic), and came to instant success. It won an Edison Award, and the single "Deeper Shade of Soul" was a hit in Europe, and in the United States, where it charted at number 21 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Two more singles were released from the album, and Urban Dance Squad toured the US in 1991, opening for Living Colour--"The Pittsburgh Press" described their music as "refried Zeppelin riffs and neo-Hendrix guitar solos complete with sound effects and old soul records to produce an exceedingly loud, densely packed, dissonant garage-rock stew." The UDS had always been a volatile unit with the band members frequently arguing, and this came to a head while touring as the opening act for U2, after the release of "Life 'n Perspectives of a Genuine Crossover", when DJ DNA quit abruptly.  In the middle of the band's career, to capitalize on the success of grunge and alternative rock, Urban Dance Squad released "Persona Non Grata" in January 1994. All of the tracks feature heavy use of distortion and guitar. The singles "No Honestly" and "Candy Strip Exp." were released, the latter single being released as a radio edit that cuts most of the pre-song noise.  "Artantica" saw release in 1999, and was a return to the band's hip-hop roots, and received critical acclaim. Urban Dance Squad disbanded the following year, though they did perform together again as late as 2006.

Urban Dance Squad was a Dutch rap rock band formed after what was originally intended as a one-time jam-session at a festival in Utrecht on December 20, 1986. The band consisted of a guitarist, bassist, drummer, rapper, and DJ. Their music is described as a blend of genres including funk, soul, heavy metal, hip hop, reggae, jazz and ska. Urban Dance Squad was one of the most successful Dutch bands of the nineties, releasing five studio albums.

Urban Dance Squad, aussi abrégé UDS, est un groupe de rap rock néerlandais, originaire d'Utrecht. Actif durant les années 1980 et 1990, Urban Dance Squad a inspiré des groupes tels que Rage Against the Machine.


Definition.

In Islam, "predestination" is the usual English language rendering of a belief that Sunni Muslims call "" ( ). As per the Sunni understanding, the phrase means "the divine decree and the predestination"; "al-qadr" more closely means "(divine) power", deriving from the root ق د ر ("q-d-r"), which denotes concepts related to "measuring out, aiming, calculating, preparing, being able, and having power".

Concept.

"Qadar" is one of the aspects of "aqidah". Muslims believe that the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet ("al-lawh al-mahfooz") (several other spellings are used for this in English) all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written. According to this belief, a person's action is not caused by what is written in the preserved tablet, but rather the action is written in the tablet because God already knows all occurrences without the restrictions of time. On the other hand, the causal relationships are also part of "Qadar", since human acts affect what is stated in the Preserved Tablet. The phrase reflects a Muslim doctrine that Allah has measured out the span of every person's life, their lot of good or ill fortune, and the fruits of their efforts. Again Allah does not need to force anyone to do good or evil by interfering with his will, and nobody will bear witness that Allah did so. When referring to the future, Muslims frequently qualify any predictions of what will come to pass with the phrase "Insha'Allah", Arabic for "if God willed [it]." The phrase recognizes that human knowledge of the future is limited, and that all that may or may not come to pass is under the control and knowledge of God.  However, people are not predestined by Allah to enter Hell. Rather, people will only bear their own sins that they themselves committed with free will and no one will be responsible for another person's deeds. The Quran holds that no man will be treated unjustly and everything will be judged by Allah. The Quran says this in the following verse:  A hadith reports that Muhammad said about Qadr: However, it is made clear that no person has the power to benefit or harm himself or others, and that guidance is only given by Allah, no one else has the power to give guidance. The Quran says:

History.

There are only two groups who represent the extremes regarding Qadar. Jabariyah are of the opinion that humans have no control over their actions and everything is dictated by God. The other group is Qadariyah (not to be confused with the Sufi order, Qadiriyya) and they are of the opinion of humans having complete control over their destiny, to the extent that God does not even know what humans will choose to do. The Sunni view is a synthesis of these two views, where they believe that God has knowledge of everything that will be, but that humans have freedom of choice. Among the historical proponents of the Sunni view of the doctrine were:  Among those who criticized the Sunni view of the doctrine were:

Sunni view.

Sunni enumerate Qadar as one aspect of their creed (). They believe that the divine destiny is when God wrote down in the Preserved Tablet ("al-Lawhu 'l-Mahfuz") all that has happened and will happen, which will come to pass as written. However, this should not be considered within the limitations of time as human beings understand. In the Quran, God explicitly states that He will "write" the good for those who do righteous deeds.  According to this belief, a person's action is not caused by what is written in the Preserved Tablet but, rather, the action is written in the Preserved Tablet because God already knows all occurrences without the restrictions of time.  An individual has power to choose, but since God created time and space he knows what will happen. God is without any bond of time and space. Therefore, what will happen has meaning only to humans, who are limited in time and space. An analogy is someone who watches a movie for the second time, who knows what will happen next, while for the first time watcher the next move is unknown.  According to Maturidi belief, all active possibilities are created by God and humans act in accordance with their free intention to choose which action they follow. In this way, the intention precedes the created action and capacity by which actions are acquired ("kasb" in Arabic).

Stages of "Taqdeer" (fate).

There are five stages where Qadar is determined and prescribed/sent to creation:  An example of how these categorizations help clear the idea of destiny is as follows: It is possible that Allah sends a daily/yearly decree dictating that a person will get a profit. However, due to that person's good deeds (for instance, fulfilling the ties of kinship [being good to your relatives and maintaining the relationship]), Allah sends another decree increasing that person's profit. The reversal of the two decrees is all within Allah's knowledge and is recorded in the Preserved Tablet. The person himself knows nothing of his own destiny or of Allah's decrees, but what he does know is that if he performs certain good deeds, then He will increase his profit (as in the example above) more than if he does not do that deed.  In the light of the above the following may be derived:

Shi'a view.

Twelvers, along with other Shia sects such as the Zaydis, reject predestination. This belief is further emphasized by the Shia concept of Bada', which states that God has not set a definite course for human history. Instead, God may alter the course of human history as he sees fit.  To show that there is no contradiction between being predestined, and free will, Shiites state that matters relating to human destiny are of two kinds: definite and indefinite. To explain the definitive one, Shiites argue that God has definite power over the whole of existence, however, so whenever He wills, He can replace a given destiny with another one; and that is what is called indefinite destiny. Some of these changes of destiny, thus, are brought about by man himself, who can through his free will, his decisions, and his way of life lay the groundwork for a change in his destiny as has been pointed out in the verse: "Truly, God will not change the condition of a people as long as they do not change Their state themselves." Both types of destinies, however, are contained within God's foreknowledge, Shiites argue, so that there could be no sort of change (Bada) concerning His knowledge. So the first type of destiny does not mean a limitation of God's power; since God, in contrast to the belief of Jews who said "the hand of God is tied’" asserts: "Nay, His hands are spread out wide...". So God has the power to change everything he wills and God's creativity is continuous. Accordingly, as Sobhani puts it, "all groups in Islam regard "bada" as a tenet of the faith, even if not all actually use the term."

Qadar (, transliterated "qadar", meaning "fate", "divine fore-ordainment", "predestination," but literally "power") is the concept of divine destiny in Islam. It is one of Islam's six articles of faith, along with belief in the Oneness of Allah, the Revealed Books, the Prophets of Islam, the Day of Resurrection and Angels. This concept has also been mentioned in the Quran as the "Decree" of Allah.

La notion de qadar (arabe : al-qaḍāʾ wa al-qadar,, "la fatalité ; la volonté de Dieu") est un terme utilisé dans l'islam pour désigner la destinée. Il suppose un certain libre arbitre et s'oppose au djab", le fatalisme.


Life.

Early life.

Józef Marian Franciszek hrabia Hutten-Czapski of Leliwa, as was his full name, was born on 3 April 1896 in Prague, to an aristocratic family. Among his relatives were hr. Emeryk Hutten-Czapski, hr. Karol Hutten-Czapski, hr. Emeryk August Hutten-Czapski, his sister Maria Czapska, as well as Georgy Chicherin. Czapski spent most of his childhood in his family's manor of Przyłuki near Minsk. In 1915 he graduated from a gymnasium in St. Petersburg and joined the cadet corps. Czapski graduated from the law faculty of the University of Saint Petersburg, and in 1917 both joined and later resigned from the 1st Krechowce Uhlan Regiment, a Polish cavalry unit formed in Russia as part of the Polish I Corps. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917 he moved to newly-renascent Poland and in 1918 entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw. There he started his studies in the class of Stanisław Lentz. However, already in 1920 he quit the academy and volunteered for the Polish Army.

Polish-Soviet War.

An ardent pacifist, Czapski asked for any service that would not involve active struggle. His plea was accepted and he was sent to Russia with a mission of finding the whereabouts of the officers of Czapski's former regiment, taken captive by the Bolsheviks in the course of the Russian Civil War. He reached St. Petersburg, where he met, among others, Dmitry Filosofov, Zinaida Gippius, Aleksey Remizov and Dmitry Merezhkovsky who later became his long-time friend. His mission was concluded when he found out that the officers had been executed by the Bolsheviks. Under Merezhkovsky's influence Czapski gave up his pacifist ideals and, upon his return to Poland, joined the ranks of the Polish Army and fought as a NCO in the crew of one of the armoured trains on the fronts of the Polish-Soviet War. For his merits he was awarded the Virtuti Militari, the highest Polish military decoration.

Paris Committee and Second World War.

In 1921, Czapski entered the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków, where he was taught by Wojciech Weiss and Józef Pankiewicz. Moving away from the classical tradition, he moved to Paris in 1924 where he helped to develop the Komitet Paryski (Paris Committee, subsequently abbreviated to the 'Kapist' movement). Czapski began to hold exhibitions of his work but, encouraged by Ludwik Hering, increasingly moved to becoming a critic, writing essays on art, literature, and philosophy. He returned to Poland in 1932, re-enlisting in 1939. He was subsequently captured by the Russians and held in prison and labour camps; he was one of 395 who avoided the fate of more than 20,000 murdered at Katyn and similar massacres.  After the 1941 German invasion of Russia and signing the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement, Czapski joined the Polish II Corps under the command of General Anders. Between 1941 and 1942, Czapski was tasked with investigating the disappearance of Poles who had been in the captivity of the NKVD and subsequently massacred. He never received any satisfactory answers as to the fate of these men, but wrote about his experiences in two books, "Reminiscences of Starobyelsk" (1944) and "The Inhuman Land" (1949). During that period Czapski also met Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy and Anna Akhmatova who is said to have dedicated one of her poems to him.  Anders subsequently removed his army through the Persian Corridor, and in Baghdad Czapski began writing for the Polish army newspapers "Orzeł Biały" ('White Eagle') and "Kurier Polski" ('Polish Courier').

Emigration.

Czapski ended the war in Rome, and moved to France in 1946. Together with Maria Czapska, Gustaw Herling-Grudziński and Jerzy Giedroyc, he established the Instytut Literacki (Literary Institute) at Maisons-Laffitte, where he lived until his death, and contributed to the Polish émigré literary journal 'Kultura'.He published also in the French press, including „Le Figaro Littéraire”, „Preuves”, „Gavroche”, „Nova et Vettera”, „Carrefour”. He co-organized Congress for Cultural Freedomy in Berlin (1950).  His paintings were exhibited in [[France], [[Switzerland]], [[Great Britain]], [[Brazil]] and [[Belgium]]. His works were virtually inaccessible in [[Poland]] – after [[Polish October]] he had 1957 exhibitions in [[National Museum in Poznań]] and [[Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Arts]], but the next one was held only in 1986 in [[Warsaw]].  He signed a letter of Polish émigré writers who supported the [[Letter of 59]]. [[Polish People's Republic]] censored information about Czapski and had his name on a list of the people completely banned from publication. His literary and artistic works were popularized in Poland only after 1989.  Czapski died 12 January 1993, and three days later was buried on a cemetery in [[Le Mesnil-le-Roi]], by the side of his sister Maria, who died in 1981.  Czapski was awarded the Silver Cross of the [[Order of Virtuti Militari]] (1918–1920) and the Commander's Cross of the [[Order of Polonia Restituta]] (1990).

Private life.

Czapski was deeply Catholic, and his faith influenced his works and personal philosophy, but also his struggles with sexuality. In the years 1924-1926 he entered a relationship with a poet Sergei Nabokov, younger brother of [[Vladimir Nabokov]]; it was ended by Czapski's departure to London, in order to cure his [[typhoid fever]]. Returning to Poland, Czapski met the writer Ludwik Hering. The pair lived together for a few years in [[Józefów]], and despite the fact that they were separated by World War 2 and subsequent emigration of Czapski, they maintained the love and friendship for years by exchanging letters.

English translation.

"The Inhuman Land" is the first work of Czapski's translated into English and was published in London in 1951. Because it is a first-hand account of contemporaneous negotiations with the Soviets over the missing Polish officers it became an important document until Russian guilt for the massacres was acknowledged. In the post-war period Czapski was also among the eyewitnesses of the situation of Polish prisoners in Soviet captivity and testified on the matter before the [[United States Congress]]. His "Lost Time: Lectures on Proust in a Soviet Prison Camp" is translated into English in 2018.

The Jozef Czapski Pavilion.

In 2016, The National Museum of Krakow inaugurated the Jozef Czapski Pavilion on the grounds of the [[Emeryk Hutten-Czapski Museum]]. The pavilion is dedicated to the grandson of the most important numismatic collector in Poland, and the permanent exhibition is about his life and work. The exhibition displays some of his diaries and paintings, as well as various multimedia presentations on his work and life. One of the exhibitions is an exact recreation of the room he lived in at the [[Kultura]] house in [[Maisons-Laffitte]] in [[France]]. The pavilion was designed by [[Krystyna Zachwatowicz]] and her husband, the film director, [[Andrzej Wajda]].

Further reading.

[[Category:1896 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:Artists from Prague]] [[Category:Polish memoirists]] [[Category:Polish literary critics]] [[Category:Polish essayists]] [[Category:Polish male writers]] [[Category:Male essayists]] [[Category:20th-century Polish painters]] [[Category:Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari]] [[Category:Commanders of the Order of Polonia Restituta]] [[Category:Polish Army officers]] [[Category:Katyn massacre]] [[Category:Polish people of World War II]] [[Category:Polish military personnel of World War II]] [[Category:Polish prisoners and detainees]] [[Category:Polish prisoners of war]] [[Category:World War II prisoners of war held by the Soviet Union]] [[Category:Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw alumni]] [[Category:Writers from Prague]] [[Category:20th-century essayists]] [[Category:LGBT artists from Poland]] [[Category:LGBT writers from Poland]]

Józef Czapski (3 April 1896 – 12 January 1993) was a Polish artist, author, and critic, as well as an officer of the Polish Army. As a painter, he is notable for his membership in the Kapist movement, which was heavily influenced by Cézanne. Following the Polish Defensive War, he was made a prisoner of war by the Soviets and was among the very few officers to survive the Katyn massacre of 1940. Following the Sikorski-Mayski Agreement, he was an official envoy of the Polish government searching for the missing Polish officers in Russia. After World War II, he remained in exile in the Paris suburb of Maisons-Laffitte, where he was among the founders of "Kultura" monthly, one of the most influential Polish cultural journals of the 20th century.

Józef Czapski (né le à Prague, Autriche-Hongrie - mort le à Maisons-Laffitte, France) est un intellectuel, écrivain, peintre et critique d’art polonais appartenant au cercle du célèbre mensuel de la dissidence polonaise Kultura édité en France.


History.

While the Aubin Codex may have been first written in 1576, the date on its frontispiece, various Nahuatl-speaking authors worked on it at least until 1608, the last recorded date in the manuscript. Its 17th-century history is unknown. By the mid-18th century, it was in the hands of Lorenzo Boturini-Benaducci. The codex was named after J.M.A Aubin, who owned it in the mid-1800s. He published a lithographic reproduction in 1893. The last person to own the original was Jules Desportes. It now resides in the British Museum.

Contents.

The Aubin Codex is actually two manuscripts, bound together as one. The first is an annals account of the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, beginning with their migration out of Aztlan in the year 1 Flint, correlated to 1168 in the manuscript. It includes the foundation of Tenochtitlan, and the cataclysmic events of the conquest-era, including the smallpox epidemic after the arrival of the conquistadors, and the massacre at the temple in Tenochtitlan in 1520. James Lockhart has published an English translation of the Codex Aubin's Nahuatl account of the conquest of Mexico. According to Lockhart, internal evidence suggests that the main author was a man from the Mexico-Tenochtitlan sector of San Juan Moyotlan, who drew on existing material, including oral sources, for his account of the earlier era, and then began an eyewitness account of the events of the late sixteenth century. Unlike the account of the conquest of Mexico in the Florentine Codex, which is primarily from the Tlatelocan viewpoint and denigrates the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, Codex Aubin offers the Mexica perspective and makes no reference to events in Tlatelolco.

Style.

The Codex Aubin is written in mixed pictographic-alphabetic format, and a number of painters and writers worked on it. The first part of the Codex Aubin, consisting of the Mexica migration history from Aztlan to Tenochtitlan, is written in clustered annals structure. Years, represented by hieroglyphs in square cartouches, are grouped in rows or columns, these year blocks allowing more space for a longer alphabetic text. The years are written from left to right and top to bottom.The next part of the codex, covering the period after the foundation of Tenochtitlan, is written in a more conventional annals structure, with a vertical block of five years on each page, and a record of corresponding events, rendered with images and alphabetic text. From 1553 to 1591 (fol. 48v-67v), each page is devoted to the events of a single year. The last part of the codex was originally an entirely separate manuscript, and lists the native rulers of Tenochtitlan from its founding until 1608.

Today.

As of 2015, Fordham University has been hosting a project to translate the codex into English and further decipher its images and pictographs. Also called " (“The Manuscript of 1576”), this codex is held by the British Museum in London. A copy of the original is held at the Princeton University library in the Robert Garrett Collection.

The Aubin Codex is a textual and pictorial history of the Aztecs from their departure from Aztlán through the Spanish conquest to the early Spanish colonial period from 1519-1521, ending in 1608. Consisting of 81 leaves, the codex is written in alphabetic Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec empire, on European paper.

Le Codex Aubin est un codex indigène du Mexique central. Appelé aussi « Manuscrit de 1576 », parce qu'il porte cette date sur la page titre, il est constitué de 79 feuilles de 15 × sur papier européen. Si l'on pense qu'il a été rédigé à San Juan Tenochtitlan, certains éléments du texte laissent penser que les sources sont tlaxcaltèques. Selon María Castañeda de la Paz, il serait, comme le Codex Boturini, une retranscription d'un hypothétique codex perdu, qu'elle a appelé le Codex X, en référence à l'hypothèse de la Chronique X.