Background and recording.

Following a short-living dancing career on television shows such as MTV's "Club MTV" and work as a backup dancer in music videos, including rap group Salt-N-Pepa's clip for "Get Up Everybody (Get Up)", in 1993, Anastacia relocated from New York to Los Angeles in hopes of launching a singing career. Soon after, she signed a production deal with Cece Peniston manager O.G. Pearce, but failed to arrange a recording contract. In 1997, Anastacia met San Diego-based music executive Lisa Braudé, who signed her with Braudé Management and encouraged her to join MTV's "The Cut", a talent series for unsigned acts, the following year. Her appearance on the show led to a meeting with Epic Records A&R executive David Massey who offered a recording contract with his own label Daylight, a custom label of Sony Music Entertainment's Epic company, in March 1999.  For the sound of her debut album "Not That Kind", Anastacia envisioned "something in a funky, Sly and the Family Stone" style. While Massey felt that it would be hard to find a song that stood up to her massive voice, he consulted Sam Watters from Epic's R&B group Color Me Badd to work on "a great song for a big voice, kind of "I Will Survive" but with a little more substance." Within three or four days, Watters presented a demo of "I'm Outta Love" in its earliest form. After listening to the demo, Anastacia agreed to further work on it alongside Watters and co-producer Louis Biancaniello. In an interview discussing the development of the song, Anastacia revealed that they had adopted Massey's approach while writing it, aiming for a song "like "It's Raining Men" and "I Will Survive", one that makes you move and makes you happy." Answering a question on British music show "Later... with Jools Holland" regarding if this song was about anybody in particular, Anastacia later replied, "It's about a lot of people in particular, not just one but probably many in my life who I wanted to have a love thing with but it wasn't there."

Critical reception.

"I'm Outta Love" has been lauded by contemporary music critics. William Ruhlmann of AllMusic called the song an "aggressive dancefloor item," and added: "The minute she opens her mouth she starts reminding you of other singers, especially Aretha Franklin." Michel Paoletta, editor for "Billboard" magazine, declared "I'm Outta Love" a "sonic joyride [...] which moves and grooves with a spirit all its own." Less impressed, MTVAsia.com editor Tricia Boey wrote that this song "could very well have been sung by Jennifer Lopez or a whole "Billboard" chart-full of other divas."

Chart performance.

"I'm Outta Love" was first released in the United States, where a promo-only 12 inch single was issued to club DJs in November 1999. Officially released to radio and retailers by February 2000, the song debuted in the week of April 1, 2000 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. It spent three weeks on the chart, peaking at number ninety-two. As of 2016, the single remains Anastacia's only entry on the chart. "I'm Outta Love" fared better on many of the "Billboard" component charts, including number eleven on the Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart, and number two for eight consecutive weeks on both the Hot Dance Club Play and Hot Dance Airplay charts. "I'm Outta Love" also reached number eleven on the Canadian Singles Chart.  The single was released to greater international success in Australia and Europe, where Daylight Records and the Epic label had planned to develop a platform first and promotion through affiliates took off much quicker than in North America. In Australia, the track debuted at number six on the Australian Singles Chart, a month later reached number one and stayed there for five consecutive weeks. The song eventually became the highest-selling single of the year, and was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for selling over 140,000 copies. In New Zealand, the single spent seven consecutive weeks at the top of the charts and after shipping over 15,000 units to retailers the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) certified it platinum. Like in Australia, the song ended up the highest-selling single of the year in New Zealand.  The track reached the top ten in most European countries in which it charted. "I'm Outta Love" spent three consecutive weeks at number-one in the Wallonian region of Belgium and was ranked eighth on national year-end chart. It also reached the top five in Austria, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, and Switzerland, and entered the top ten in Denmark, Germany, Spain, and the Flemish part of Belgium. In the United Kingdom, "I'm Outta Love" sold a total of 292,000 copies and was eventually certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on October 1, 2000.

Music video.

The music video for "I'm Outta Love", directed by Nigel Dick and choreographed by Robin Antin, was filmed on location at the Park Plaza Hotel in Los Angeles, California. Dick had previously shot the video for Guns N' Roses's "Welcome to the Jungle" (1987) at the same location. In 1999, "I'm Outta Love" earned Anastacia her first MTV Europe Music Award nomination in the Best New Act category at the 2000 awards ceremony. The song also spawned an official remix video for the Hex Hector Radio Mix, which included some new and extended scenes.

Synopsis.

The video starts out with Anastacia walking through a tunnel with her coat on as we cut to a dressing room where she and her singers are preparing for a performance on stage. Intercut scenes of her female singers are shown in-between alongside Anastacia singing in the crowd. When she sings the song on a microphone, there is a backstory where the girlfriend and boyfriend (proving to be Anastacia's ex) are dating together. When he glances at Anastacia singing, the girlfriend confronts him and slaps him. He then writes a letter. After the performance, the ex boyfriend gives the letter to Anastacia—upon opening it, she walks away from the hotel and out of the tunnel ripping up the letter in pieces.

Credits and personnel.

Credits adapted from the "Not That Kind" linear notes.

"I'm Outta Love" is the debut single by American recording artist Anastacia. Written by Anastacia, Sam Watters, and Louis Biancaniello and produced by the latter of two, it was released on February 29, 2000 as the lead single from her debut album, "Not That Kind" (2000). The song became a major hit in Europe and Australia, reaching number one in Walloon Belgium, Australia and New Zealand; it was the most successful song of 2000 in the latter two regions. It additionally reached the top five in several others, including France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands and Switzerland.

L'industrie chimique est le secteur industriel dont l'activité consiste à fabriquer des produits par synthèse chimique contrôlée. Ce secteur regroupe entre autres la pétrochimie, la chimie phytosanitaire, l'industrie pharmaceutique, la fabrication de polymères, de peintures et l'oléochimie. Cette industrie est de type process.


History.

Middle Ages.

By 1283, the last Sudovian Prussian leader, Skomand (Lithuanian: Skalmantas), capitulated to the Teutonic Knights in the area. After 1323, the northern part of the region was administered by the Komturship of Brandenburg, while the larger part with the later town belonged to Komturship Balga. A former Old Prussian settlement, the town was first documented in 1398 around a castle built by the Teutonic Knights. The town's name has various postulated origins. Its German version "Lyck" is postulated to be derived from its Old Prussian name, "Luks" (from the word for waterlily, "luka"), while another theory holds that the name comes from Polish word "łęg" meaning meadow. It received its town rights in 1445.  After the outbreak of the Thirteen Years' War in 1454, the town sided with the Prussian Confederation, at whose request the Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon announced the incorporation of the region into the Kingdom of Poland, which resulted in Lyck becoming part of the Polish state. The town was briefly captured by the Teutonic Knights in 1455, and later on, it was conquered alternately by the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1466 it came under Polish suzerainty as a fief.

Modern era.

In 1537, Duke Albert of Prussia donated an estate to Jan Malecki, a Polish printer from Kraków who had either fled or moved to Ducal Prussia for material reasons, to establish a printing house. After converting to Lutheranism, Malecki translated and published Martin Luther's Small Catechism in Polish In 1546 the first school for secondary education in Masuria was founded in the city, where Polish nobles from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as Poles and Germans from Ducal Prussia were taught in Polish; the position of a Polish teacher remained in place until 1819. Polish pastor, translator, publisher and co-creator of the literary Polish language, Hieronim Malecki, was the school's first rector. In the mid-16th century Lyck was one of the most thriving centers of Polish-language printing. In 1639 the King of Poland Władysław IV Vasa visited the town. It remained under Polish suzerainty until 1660.  In 1709-10, the plague claimed 1,300 victims. In 1831, 300 people, about 10 percent of the populace, died of the cholera, in 1837 another 80 and 333 in 1852.  In 1825, Lyck was inhabited by 1,748 Germans and 1,394 Poles. At the beginning of the 19th century, a Polish-language school was organised in the city by Tymoteusz Gizewiusz In 1820, Fryderyk Tymoteusz Krieger became the superintendent of the school and actively defended the rights of local Poles to use the Polish language. Kireger also prepared Polish educational programs, in opposition to attempts at Germanization by Prussian authorities.  In 1840, the German-language newspaper ""Lycker gemeinnütziges Unterhaltungsblatt"", later called ""Lycker Zeitung"", was founded. Between 1842 and 1845, a Masurian newspaper ""Przyjaciel Ludu Łecki"" (Łek's Friend of the People) was printed in the city, whose aim was to resist Germanisation and cultivate Polish folk traditions as well as educate the local rural population.  In May 1845, a Polish resistance movement in the city was organized by Kazmierz Szulc, whose aim was to prepare local Polish youth for an uprising.  In 1885 Lyck was named capital of Masuria by the "Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland". In the late 19th century it was the largest town of the region (according to data from 1880 and 1890), before being surpassed by Osterode (Ostróda) (according to data from 1905 and 1925).  From 1896 to 1902, ""Gazeta Ludowa"", a Polish-language newspaper, heavily subsidised by banks from Greater Poland representing the Polish national movement in Masuria, was published in the city. It soon faced repression and discrimination from the German authorities which led to its demise; its paid circulation dropped from 357 copies in 1896 to less than 250 at the turn-of-the-century. According to German-American author, Richard Blanke, the "demise marked the end of the second major effort by Polish nationalists to establish a journalistic foothold in Masuria".  In 1896, Polish and Masurian activists founded the Masurian People's Party in the city, which sought to resist efforts of German authorities at forced Germanization. The co-founder of the party was poet Michał Kajka, today honoured in Ełk with a monument in the centre of the city. From the start, the party was subject to severe repressions and attacks by Prussian authorities. In the German federal elections, the MPL received 229 votes in 1898 and 20 in 1912 in the Lyck constituency.  In 1910, Lyck had more than 13,000 inhabitants. Mateusz Siuchniński gives the percentage of Poles in 1900 as 35.7% but warns that the numbers come from lowered German estimates. Many citizens fled during World War I, when Imperial Russian troops attacked the region, but returned after the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. English and Italian troops were deployed in the town after the Treaty of Versailles to supervise the East Prussian plebiscite, which resulted in 8,339 votes for Germany and 8 for Poland.  It was in Lyck that the first-ever weekly newspaper in the Hebrew language, Ha-Magid ("the preacher") was founded in 1856 by Eliezer Lipmann Silbermann, a local rabbi. The paper was eventually moved to Berlin. In Weimar Germany anti-Semitism became prevalent, which led to persecution of the local Jewish population even before the Nazis took power. An anti-Semitic publication, "Die jüdische Überlegenheit" ("The Jewish Supremacy") attacking the Jews circulated in 1927 at a local gathering of fascist sympathizers In 1932, the local pharmacist Leo Frankenstein was attacked; a hand grenade was thrown into his home. The wave of anti-Semitic repressions intensified after Nazis gained power in Germany in 1933 and many local merchants and intellectuals of Jewish descent were arrested. During Kristallnacht, Jewish shops and synagogue were plundered and devastated in the town. Facing these events, several Jews of Lyck decided to escape, some abroad, some to Berlin, others as far as Shanghai Of those Jews who remained, 80 were murdered in various Nazi concentration and death camps.  The city also was the site of German prison camps for Norwegian and Soviet PoWs during World War II. It was heavily damaged by bombardments. The county of Lyck had 53,000 inhabitants when the Soviet Army approached in January 1945. The town was placed under Polish administration in April 1945 and its German inhabitants were dispossessed and forcibly expelled. It was rebuilt and renamed Ełk (before 1939, Polish names for the town included "Łek", "Łęg" and "Łęk"). In 1999, Ełk was visited by Pope John Paul II. About 300,000 people attended a papal Mass.  In 2017, the anti-Muslim Ełk riots occurred. Several hundred men surrounded the "Prince Kebab" restaurant, tossing firecrackers, stones, and Molotov cocktails at the shop. Police initially stood by and did not intervene for several hours; however, when they did intervene the crowd turned against them as well. Following the riots in Ełk, other attacks on kebab restaurants took place throughout Poland.  In 2018, on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Poland's independence, a monument to Józef Piłsudski was erected in front of the town hall. The Marshal of Poland was also honored with a mural on one of the townhouses in the city center.

Historical population.

In year 1832, the county of Ełk (including the town) had 32663 inhabitants, including (by mother tongue): 29246 (~90%) Polish, 3413 (~10%) German and 4 Lithuanian.

Population.

Number of inhabitants by year.

Note that the above table is based on primary, possibly biased, sources:

Districts.

The city of Ełk is divided into 13 administrative units, known in Polish as "osiedla"

Religion.

Before World War II, the town and its surroundings were almost entirely (>95%) Lutheran. After the German populace fled or was expelled, the main religion in Ełk became Roman Catholicism, although a number of Protestant churches are also represented and play an important role in the religious life of the population. These include the Methodist, Baptist, Pentecostal (Assemblies of God - "Kościół Zielonoświątkowy") and other churches. Ełk is the center of the Catholic Diocese of Ełk with its bishop Jerzy Mazur.

International relations.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Ełk is twinned with:

Coat of arms.

The current coat of arms of Ełk were adopted in 1999, after the town was visited by the Pope John Paul II. The colors have been changed (from green to yellow), the deer is different than in the former emblem. Lastly is the addition of the insignia of the Papacy.  Until 1967, a different emblem with the two-faced head of the god Janus was used, but its origin is unknown.

Ełk (; former ; ; Old Prussian: "Luks"; ), also spelled Elk in English, is a small city in northeastern Poland with 61,156 inhabitants (). It was assigned to Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship in 1999, after belonging to Suwałki Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998. Ełk is the seat of Ełk County. It lies on the shore of Ełk Lake, which was formed by a glacier, and is surrounded by extensive forests. It is the largest city and unofficial capital of historical Masuria. One of the principal attractions in the area is legal hunting.

Ełk ou Łęk est une ville de Pologne. Elle se nommait antérieurement Lyck et se trouvait alors en Prusse-Orientale. Elle appartient à la voïvodie de Varmie-Mazurie depuis 1999 après avoir été dans la voïvodie de Suwałki de 1975 à 1998. Ełk est la capitale du powiat d'Ełk.


Performance history.

The two-act French libretto was written by Louis-Adolphe Jaime and Étienne Tréfeu, and the opera was first staged at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens, Paris, on 19 November 1859. A new three-act version (in which the "Gendarmes' Duet" first appeared), revised by Hector-Jonathan Crémieux, was first given at the Théâtre des Menus-Plaisirs, Paris, on 26 December 1867. An expanded five-act version was devised for a production at the Théâtre de la Gaîté on 25 February 1875. A Paris revival in 1908 at the Théâtre des Variétés with Geneviève Vix in the title role ran for 58 nights.  "Geneviève de Brabant" was first performed in Vienna ("Die schöne Magellone") and Berlin in 1861 and Brussels and Madrid in 1869. The New York premiere was on 22 October 1868, and Farnie's version was first seen in London at the Philharmonic Theatre in Islington, produced by and starring Emily Soldene as Drogan, with Selina Dolaro in the title role, on 11 November 1871. The production ran for a year and a half, and revivals took place over the following decade with Soldene repeating her Drogan.

Synopsis (1867).

Act 1.

At evening in the main square, the burgomaster Van der Prout announces the imminent return from a pilgrimage to the monastery of Mount Poupard of Duke Sifroid’s party. The Duke, married to the beautiful Geneviève of Brabant, has fallen under a curse which prevents them from having any children. To find a cure, a competition is organized and is won by Drogan, a young baker, offering a magic pie. Secretly in love with Geneviève, Drogan asks for his reward to be made the page of Geneviève. Upon his return, the Duke tastes the magic pie, and feels good (Couplets de la poule).  In Geneviève’s apartments, Drogan implores her to allow him to accept him as her page, and confesses that it is he who has been singing beneath her window each night. He leaves as the Duke joins Geneviève, but after an interruption announcing the imminent arrival of Charles Martel, the effects of the pie on the Duke begin, in the form of a terrible bout of indigestion. As the Duke tries to assuage his digestion with a cup of tea, his counsellor Golo and his poet Narcisse arrive to carry out a plot to seize the crown. Golo and Narcisse tell him that Geneviève and Drogan have been witnessed in an embrace: the Duchess and the page must be put to death. But then Charles Martel demands entry to the palace (Boléro), asking Sifroid and his knights to catch the 8.05 train and join his crusade to Palestine. Sifroid condemns Geneviève, then sets off with his soldiers, by the northern railway.

Act 2.

With the help of her servant Brigitte, Geneviève has escaped, along with Drogan, and they find themselves seven months later in a forest. As two men-at-arms approach, they hide. The Gascon and Flemish men-at-arms tell how they have been tasked by Golo to kill a noble lady. Golo and Van der Prout come on the scene and after despatching the men-at-arms to hunt down Geneviève (Golo having put about the story that Sifroid has been killed in the crusades) he calls up the hermit of the ravine. Drogan appears disguised as the statue of the hermit, and warns the men to abandon their pursuit as Sifroid is at the Château d'Asnières with Charles Martel. Even though he was married many years before, Golo threatens Geneviève with marriage. The statue of the hermit comes to life (Drogan) and sends the men-at-arms packing. Geneviève decides to feign death, Drogan takes a lock of her hair, and rushes off to reach the Duke.  Meanwhile, Charles Martel and Sifroid have ended their trip at the Château d'Asnières, where they make merry. Sifroid is taken with a masked lady, Isoline, who explains how her husband left her. Drogan arrives and announces the death of Geneviève. Sifroid decides to set off again with his retinue back to Curaçao to meet Golo – who, Isoline reveals, is the husband who abandoned her.

Act 3.

Geneviève and Brigitte are still in the forest with only a young hind for company. Drogan returns with four huntsmen, looking for Golo. Passing by on the way back from their 'crusade', Sifroid and Martel are stopped by the men-at-arms, but Geneviève recognises and vouches for her husband’s identity. Van der Prout swaps sides again and tells Sifroid that the treacherous Golo is planning to be crowned at a quarter to three. All continue back to Curaçao.  At the appointed hour Golo claims the crown, but he is denounced by Drogan and Sifroid has his crown restored. Isoline promises to punish her errant husband, and all ends well.

Recordings.

These include a radio broadcast from 1956 reissued on INA Mémoire vive conducted by Marcel Cariven featuring Denise Duval, Deva Dassy, Michel Hamel, Jean Giraudeau, Robert Massard and André Balbon, and one from 1970 also conducted by Cariven on Bourg with Annick Simon, Monique Stiot, Bernard Plantey and Jean-Christophe Benoît among the cast.

References.

Notes  Sources

Geneviève de Brabant is an opéra bouffe, or operetta, by Jacques Offenbach, first performed in Paris in 1859. The plot is based on the medieval legend of Genevieve of Brabant.

Geneviève de Brabant est un opéra bouffe en 2 actes et 7 tableaux de Jacques Offenbach, livret d'Adolphe Jaime fils et Étienne Tréfeu d'après la légende de Geneviève de Brabant, créé le au théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens.


History.

Origin of the name.

The group have a friend named Antònia Font and liked the idea of giving a band composed of five men a woman's name. 'Font' is a common surname and 'Antònia' a common female given name in Catalan.

Trajectory.

In 1997 Antònia Font recorded a demo with the tracks "Cibernauta Joan", "l'Univers és una festa", "Rumba" and "Es xifon és un aparato". Their first concert took place the same year in Bunyola.  In 1999 they recorded their eponymous first album, "Antònia Font", at TJ So studios in Bunyola with producer Tomeu Janer.  Two years later, on 17 February 2001, they presented their second album in Barcelona: "A Rússia". According to Pau Debon, the group's vocalist, the band opted for stylistic continuity with their first album because the style adopted had worked well and they were pleased with it. The album received the 2001 "Disc català de l'any" ("Catalan album of the year") prize awarded by Ràdio 4.  Their subsequent album, "Alegria", appeared one year later. Without abandoning their style, the tone and rhythm of the songs underwent a much greater change between the second album and this one than between the first and second albums.  "Taxi", Antònia Font's fourth album, came out in 2004. The CD was released with an accompanying DVD and text. "Taxi" was named album of the year at the Mercat de Música Viva de Vic and by the Catalan music magazines Enderrock and Rock'n'clàssic.  In 2006 "Batiscafo Katiuscas" was released. This album saw the group incorporate sounds and rhythms inspired by music from the 1980s.  On the 2007 album "Coser i cantar", Antònia Font reinterpreted twenty of their songs with orchestral accompaniment. The album was recorded in Bratislava, Slovakia at Studio 2 of Slovak National Radio, with fifty string and wind musicians from the Bratislava Symphony Orchestra performing arrangements by the Majorcan composer Miquel Àngel Aguiló. For this work they received the 2008 Academia de la Música award for "Best Pop Album", becoming the first artist to win a general category (one open to work performed in any language) at the Premios de la Música with a Catalan-language album. In July 2008, Antònia Font were awarded the annual Premi Nacional de Música from the Generalitat de Catalunya for "Coser i cantar".  In April 2011, the group released their seventh album, "Lamparetes", on their own label, Robot Innocent Companyia Discogràfica. It debuted at number three on the Spanish albums chart, becoming the band's highest-charting album to date.  On August 2010, during the music festival of Cardedeu, some fans made a lipdub with their song "Extraterrestres".  In November 2013, the group announced they would be disbanding at the end of the year. A final concert was planned for 27 December in Palma. Due to high demand, two additional shows were added. Antònia Font played three consecutive farewell concerts in Palma on 26, 27, and 28 December.

Antònia Font () was a Majorcan band, formed in 1997. They are characterized by their festive music and their humorous and fantastic lyrics. The group's creative universe includes elements such as outer space and astronautics, combined with themes from everyday life. Their lyrics are written in the Catalan variant spoken in Mallorca. They are generally classified as a pop group, though they have stated that they do not have any "stylistic prejudices" when composing songs.

Antònia Font est un groupe majorquin né en 1997 qui se caractérise par sa musique festive et ses textes humoristiques et fantastiques. Dans l'univers créatif d'Antònia Font on retrouve particulièrement l'espace, l'astronomie et tout ce qui touche à l'astronautique mais aussi l'entourage plus quotidien et personnel du groupe. Il établit un jeu constant entre les perspectives locale, globale et universelle ou cosmique du monde dans lequel nous évoluons.


Origins.

The Hindu Chhinnamasta appears as a significant deity in Tantric and Tibetan Buddhism, where she is called Chinnamunda ("she with the severed head") or Trikaya-vajrayogini ("triple-bodied Vajrayogini"). Chinnamunda is the severed-head form of goddess Vajrayogini (or Vajravarahi, a ferocious form of Vajrayogini), who is depicted similar to Chhinnamasta.  Buddhist texts recount the birth of the Buddhist Chinnamunda. One tale tells of Krishnacharya's disciples, two "Mahasiddha" ("great perfected ones") sisters, Mekhala and Kanakhala, who cut their heads, offered them to their guru, and then danced. The goddess Vajrayogini also appeared in this form and danced with them. Another story recalls how the "Mahasiddha" princess Lakshminkara, cut off her head as a punishment from the king and roamed with it in the city, where citizens extolled her as Chinnamunda-Vajravarahi.  In the early decades of the 20th century, Benoytosh Bhattacharya – an expert on Tantra and the then director of the Oriental Institute of Baroda – studied various texts such as the Buddhist "Sadhanamala" (1156CE), the Hindu "Chhinnamastakalpa" (uncertain date), and the "Tantrasara" by Krishnananda Agamavagisha (late 16th century). He determined that the Hindu Chhinnamasta and the Buddhist Chinnamunda were the same goddess, in spite of the fact that the former wears a serpent as a sacred thread and has an added copulating couple in the icon. In the "Sadhanamala", the goddess is called Sarvabuddha ("all-awakened"), and is attended by Vajravaironi and Vajravarnini; in the Hindu "Tantrasara", she is called "Sarvasiddhi" ("all-accomplished"), and is accompanied by attendants Dakini, Vaironi, and Varnini. In the "Chhinnamastakalpa", she is called Sarvabuddhi ("all-enlightened"); her attendants retain their Buddhist names. Bhattacharyya concluded that the Hindu Chhinnamasta originated from the Buddhist Chinnamunda, who was worshipped by at least the 7th century. While Bhattacharyya's view is mostly undisputed, some scholars such as S. Shankaranarayanan – the author of "The Ten Great Cosmic Powers" – attribute Chhinnamasta to Vedic (ancient Hindu) antecedents. Sukumari Bhattacharji, the author of "The Indian Theogony", says that the Vedic goddess Nirrti's functions

Legends and textual references.

Chhinnamasta is often named as the fifth or sixth Mahavidya (Mahavidyas are a group of ten fearsome goddesses from the Hindu esoteric tradition of Tantra), with hymns identifying her as a fierce aspect of Devi, the Hindu Mother goddess. Kinsley says that three Mahavidyas – Kali, Tara, and Chhinnamasta – are prominent among Mahavidya depictions and lists, but that Chhinnamasta barely has an independent existence outside the group. The "Guhyatiguhya-Tantra" (c. 9th century) equates the god Vishnu's ten avatars with the ten Mahavidyas; the man-lion avatar Narasimha is described to have arisen from Chhinnamasta. A similar list in "Mundamala Tantra" (pre-16th century) equates Chhinnamasta with the avatar Parshurama.  Chhinnamasta appears in two distinct set of legends: the origin myths of Mahavidyas as a group and those explaining the genesis of Chhinnamasta as an individual goddess.

Mahavidyas as a group.

A story from the "Shakta Maha-Bhagavata Purana" and the "Brihaddharma Purana" (13th century) narrates the creation of all Mahavidyas, including Chhinnamasta. The story is as follows: Sati, the daughter of Daksha, is the first wife of the god Shiva. When she and Shiva are not invited to the fire sacrifice organized by her father, she is insulted and insists on attending, despite Shiva's protests. After futile attempts to convince Shiva to grant his consent for her to attend, the enraged Sati assumes a fierce form, transforming into the Mahavidyas, who surround Shiva from the ten cardinal directions. As per the "Shakta Maha-bhagavata Purana", Chhinnamasta stands to the right of

Chhinnamasta as an individual goddess.

The "Pranatoshini Tantra" (18th century) narrates two tales of Chhinnamasta's birth. One legend, attributed to the "Narada-pancharatra", tells how once, while bathing in Mandakini river, Parvati becomes excited, and turns black. At the same time, her two female attendants Dakini and Varnini (also called Jaya and Vijaya) become extremely hungry and beg for food. Though Parvati initially promises to give them food once they return home, the merciful goddess beheads herself with her nails and gives her blood to satisfy their hunger. Later, they return home after Parvati rejoins her head.  The other version, from the "Pranatoshini Tantra" and attributed to "Svatantra Tantra", is narrated by Shiva. He recounts that his consort Chandika (identified with Parvati) was engrossed in coitus with him in reverse posture, but became enraged at his seminal emission. Her attendants Dakini and Varnini rose from her body. The rest of the tale is similar to

Iconography.

The iconography of Chhinnamasta is described in the "Trishakti Tantra" (pre-16th century), the "Tantrasara" ("Prachandachandika" section), the "Shakta Pramoda" ("Chinnamastatantra" section), and the "Mantra-mahodadhih" (1589CE).  Chhinnamasta is described as being as red as the hibiscus flower or as bright as a million suns. She is usually depicted as red or orange in complexion and sometimes as black. She is depicted mostly nude; however, she is so posed that her genitals are generally hidden or a multi-hooded cobra or jewellery around the waist covers them. She is depicted as being young and slim. She is described as a sixteen-year-old girl with full breasts, adorned with lotuses or having a single blue lotus near her heart. Sometimes, she is partially or fully clothed.  The goddess carries her own severed head – sometimes on a platter or in a skull-bowl – in her left hand. Though no legend mentions a specific weapon for the beheading, she holds a scimitar, a knife or a scissor-like object in her right hand. Though generally depicted with two arms, manifestations of the goddess with four arms also exist. While her own severed head and the sword appear in two of her hands, the implements in the remaining arms vary: a scissor-like object, a skull-bowl collecting the dripping blood from her head or blood stream from her neck, or a severed head, sometimes identified as that of the god Brahma.  Chhinnamasta may have a lolling tongue. Her hair is loose and dishevelled and sometimes decorated with flowers. Alternately, in some images, her hair is tied. Additionally, she is described as having a third eye on her forehead and a jewel on her forehead, which is tied to a snake or a crown on the severed head. The crescent moon may also adorn her head. Chhinnamasta is depicted wearing a serpent as the sacred thread and a "mundamala" (garland of skulls or severed heads and

Symbolism and associations.

Goddess of paradoxes.

Chhinnamasta is a goddess of contradictions: she "is both the food and the eater of food, thereby symbolizing the whole world by this act of being devoured and the devourer. The dichotomy of receiver and giver or object and subject collapses into one." Most of her epithets listed in her "nama-stotra" (name-hymn, which enlists the names of a deity) convey marvel and fury; few names are erotic or peaceful, which are contrary to Chhinnamasta's fierce nature and appearance. Her "sahasranama" (thousand name-hymn) echoes paradoxes; she is Prachanda Chandika ("the powerfully fierce one") as well as Sarvananda-pradayini ("the prime giver of all ananda or bliss"). Her names convey the idea that

Destruction, transformation and recreation.

The scholars Pratapaditya Pal, an expert on South Asian art and H. Bhattacharya, author of "Hinduder Debdebi" on the subject of Hindu deities, equate Chhinnamasta with the concepts of sacrifice and the renewal of creation. Chhinnamasta sacrifices herself, and her blood – drunk by her attendants – nourishes the universe. One invocation to her calls her the sacrifice, the sacrificer, and the recipient of the sacrifice, with the severed head treated as an offering. This paradox signifies the entire sacrificial process, and thus the cycle of

Self-realization and awakening of kundalini.

The head is celebrated as a mark of identity as well as source of the seed. Thus, the self-decapitation represents removal of "maya" (illusion or delusion), physical attachment, false notions, ignorance, and egoism. The scimitar also signifies severance of these obstacles to "moksha" (emancipation), "jnana" (wisdom), and self-realization. The goddess also denotes discriminating perception. Chhinnamasta allows the devotee to gain a consciousness that transcends the bonds of physical attachment, the body, and the mind by her self-sacrifice. One interpretation suggests that her three eyes represent the sun, the moon, and fire while another links the third eye to transcendental knowledge. Unlike other Hindu deities who are depicted facing the devotee, Chhinnamasta generally looks at herself, prompting the devotee to look within him- or herself.  The Chhinnamasta icon is also understood as a representation of the awakening of the kundalini – spiritual energy. The copulating couple represent the awakening in the Muladhara chakra, which corresponds to the

Control over or embodiment of sexual desire.

There are two contrasting interpretations of Chhinnamasta with regard to sexual desire. The image of Chhinnamasta standing on a copulating couple of Kamadeva (literally, "sexual desire") and Rati ("sexual intercourse") is interpreted by some scholars as a symbol of a person's "control" over sexual desire, while others interpret the goddess as being the "embodiment" of sexual energy.  Her names, such as "Yogini" and "Madanatura" ("one who has control of Kama"), convey her yogic control over sexual energy. Her triumphant stance trampling the love-deity couple denotes victory over desire and "samsara" (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth). Her subjugation of the amorous couple suggests that her worship will grant control over sexual urge and

Other symbolism and associations.

Chhinnamasta's nudity and headlessness symbolise her integrity and "heedlessness". Her names like "Ranjaitri" ("victorious in war") celebrate her as the slayer of various demons and her prowess in battle. Her nakedness and free-flowing hair denote rejection of societal stereotypes and her rebellious freedom, as well as her sensual aspect.  The triad of the goddess and the two yoginis is also philosophically cognate to the triad of patterns, "which creative energy is felt to adopt". Besides the nadis, Chhinnamasta, Varnini and Dakini also represent the "guna" trinity: "sattva" (purity), "rajas" (energy), and "tamas" (ignorance). While discussing

Worship.

Chhinnamasta's individual cult is not widespread, but she is well known and important among "Tantrika"s (a type of Tantric practitioner) and is worshipped and depicted as part of the Mahavidya group in goddess temples. Temples and public worship of Chhinnamasta are rare, and her private worship by lay worshippers is probably uncommon.  Within the esoteric Tantric tradition, Chhinnamasta is a significant deity. She enjoys "active worship" in eastern India and Nepal; her temples are found in Nepal as well as in the Indian states of Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand and the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. Benard remarks that she could not visit any Chhinnamasta temples in Bengal, however was "assured" that Chhinnamasta is a popular goddess in Bengal.  The goddess is venerated in the ("family of Kali") sect of Shaktism, the Goddess-centric sect of Hinduism. Her individual worship is mainly restricted to heroic "Tantrika"s, and those who worship her say only yogis and world renouncers have the ability to meditate on her using her icon. The lack of worship of Chhinnamasta by lay worshippers is attributed by Kinsley to her ferocious nature and her reputation for being dangerous to approach and worship.

Goals of worship.

Tantric practitioners worship Chhinnamasta for acquiring siddhis or supernatural powers. Chhinnamasta's mantra (a sacred chant that is repeated by a devotee) "Srim hrim klim aim Vajravairocaniye hum hum phat svaha" is to be invoked to attract and subjugate women. Her mantra associates her with syllables denoting beauty, light, fire, spiritual self-realization, and destruction of delusion. The "Shakta Pramoda" and the "Rudrayamala" recommend the use of her mantra to obtain wealth and auspiciousness.  Another goal of Chhinnamasta's worship is to cast spells and cause

Modes of worship.

The Tantric texts "Tantrasara", "Shakta Pramoda" and "Mantra-mahodadhih" give details about the worship of Chhinnamasta and other Mahavidyas, including her yantra, mantra and her "dhyanas ("meditative or iconographic forms). The "Sri Chhinnamasta Nityarcana" by Shri Swamiji (1979) details the rituals for the daily worship of Chhinnamasta.  In her puja, Chhinnamasta's image or her yantra is worshipped, along with her attendants. The heterodox offerings of "Panchamakara" – wine, meat, fish, parched grain, and coitus – along with mainstream offerings such as flowers, light, incense, etc., are prescribed for her worship. A fire sacrifice and repetition of her "stotra" (hymn of praise) or her "nama-stotra" (name-hymn) are also prescribed in her worship. The "Shakta Pramoda" has her "sahasranama" (thousand name-hymn) as well as a compilation of her 108 names in a hymn.  Tantric texts tell the worshipper to imagine a red sun orb – signifying a yoni triangle – in his own navel. The popular form of Chhinnamasta is imagined to reside in the orb. The "Tantrasara" cautions a householder-man to invoke the

Temples.

The Chintpurni ("She who fulfills one's wishes"), Himachal Pradesh temple of Chhinnamastika, is one of the Shakti Peethas (considered the holiest goddess temples) and is where the goddess Sati's forehead ("mastaka") fell. Here, Chhinnamasta is interpreted as the severed-headed one as well as the foreheaded-one. The central icon is a "pindi", an abstract form of Devi. While householders worship the goddess as a form of the goddess Durga, ascetic sadhus view her as the Tantric severed-headed goddess.  Another important shrine is the Chhinnamasta Temple near Rajrappa in Jharkhand, where a natural rock covered with an "ashtadhatu" (eight-metal alloy) "kavacha" (cover) is worshipped as the goddess. Though well-established as a centre of Chhinnamasta by the 18th century, the site is

Chhinnamasta (,, "She whose head is severed"), often spelled Chinnamasta, and also called Ch(h)innamastika and Prachanda Chandika and Jogani Maa (in western states of India), is a Hindu goddess. She is one of the Mahavidyas, ten goddesses from the esoteric tradition of Tantra, and a ferocious aspect of Devi, the Hindu Mother goddess. The self-decapitated nude goddess, usually standing or seated on a divine copulating couple, holds her own severed head in one hand and a scimitar in another. Three jets of blood spurt out of her bleeding neck and are drunk by her severed head and two attendants.

Chinnamastâ, la décapitée, est une déesse hindoue, faisant partie des dix "Mahâvidyâ", les dix sagesses, qui symbolise l'univers envisagé comme un rituel, un sacrifice. Pour d'autres théologiens elle offre son sang en nourriture aux seules yoginîs (et pour en priver les démons, Asuras, vampires, etc.), prête à boire sa propre énergie divine par sa conscience indestructible, et à ressusciter concentrée en sa puissance pour sauver les univers des maux, des vices, des égoïsmes. Elle symbolise aussi l'autosatisfaction méditative et sexuelle (masturbation féminine), se régénérant et se nourrissant de son propre sacrifice (d'où la présence du coït du dieu Kâma/Désir avec la déesse Rati/Luxure, qui lui sert de socle). Une littérature religieuse spécifique existe pour Chinnamasta.


History of the Royal Australian Air Force

Histoire de l'armée de l'air australienne

Formation, 1912.

In 1911, the Imperial Conference that was held in London determined that the armed forces of the British Empire needed to develop an aviation branch. At the time, aircraft were a newly emerging technology, but nevertheless Australia implemented the decision, the only country to do so. The first step taken by the government was to approve the establishment of the Central Flying School (CFS) in 1912. Initially, it had been proposed to establish the school at Duntroon, in the Australian Capital Territory, where the Royal Military College had been established in 1911, but in July 1913 it was determined that Point Cook, Victoria, was the preferred location. The Australian Flying Corps (AFC) was subsequently formed as a Militia unit, with staff and students to be selected from the Citizen Forces, and the first flights by CFS aircraft took place in March 1914.

World War I and the Inter-war years.

Soon after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the AFC sent aircraft to assist the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force in capturing German colonies in what is now north-west New Guinea. These colonies surrendered quickly however, before the planes were even unpacked. The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915, when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq. The corps later saw action in Egypt, Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of World War I. By the end of the war, four squadrons – Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 – had seen active service; another four squadrons – Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 – had also been raised to provide training in the United Kingdom. The AFC was disbanded along with the rest of the Australian Imperial Force in 1919, following the end of hostilities. Although the Central Flying School continued to operate at Point Cook, military flying virtually ceased until 1920, when the Australian Air Corps was formed. The following year, this was separated from the Army on 31 March 1921, when the Australian Air Force was formed as an independent service; in June that year King George V gave his assent for the service to use the prefix "Royal" and this came into effect on 31 August 1921.  Upon formation, the RAAF had more aircraft than personnel, with 21 officers and 128 other ranks, and just 170 aircraft. Initially, it had been planned to expand the force to 1,500 personnel – three-quarters permanent staff and one quarter reserves – who would serve in six squadrons: two of fighter aircraft, two of reconnaissance aircraft, and two squadrons of seaplanes. These plans were scuttled a year after formation due to budget constraints and until 1924, the service's strength remained steady at just 50 officers and 300 other ranks; of the six planned squadrons, only five had been raised, albeit cadre strength, and these were subsequently merged into a single mixed squadron until 1925. A slightly improved economic situation in 1925 allowed the re-raising of Nos. 1 and 3 Squadrons, which were initially composite units equipped with fighters and bombers. Later in the decade, they were reorganised with No. 1 Squadron becoming a solely bomber formation, while No. 3 focused on army co-operation roles; smaller squadrons – in reality only flights – of fighters and seaplanes were formed within the RAAF's flying training unit, No. 1 Flying Training School, which had been raised at Point Cook.  Throughout the inter-war years the fledgling RAAF focused on local defence and providing training opportunities to Australia's naval and military forces. It also undertook aerial survey missions, meteorological flights, public displays, and provision of defence aid to the civil community, undertaking search and rescue missions and bush fire patrols. In the late 1930s, the force was expanded amidst concerns about a future war in Europe. Additional squadrons were raised and bases established away from the south-east coast, including airbases in Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory. This expansion saw the RAAF increase its personnel from under 1,000 in 1935 to around 3,500 in 1939, and the establishment of a force of 12 squadrons, with plans for a further six, by the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.

World War II.

Shortly after the declaration of war in Europe, although Australia's air force was small – consisting of just 246 aircraft – the Australian government offered to send six squadrons to Britain to fight, in addition to the 450 Australians who were already serving in the ranks of the Royal Air Force at the time. The RAAF already had one squadron in the United Kingdom, No. 10 Squadron RAAF, which had been dispatched earlier in the year to take ownership of nine Short Sunderland flying boats and return them to Australia. They subsequently took place in their first operational mission on 10 October 1939, when they carried out a sortie to Tunisia. To rapidly expand, Australia joined the Empire Air Training Scheme, under which flight crews received basic training in Australia before travelling to Canada or Rhodesia for advanced training. These crews were then posted to operational units. A total of 17 RAAF bomber, fighter, reconnaissance and other squadrons served initially in Britain, and/or with the Desert Air Force, in North Africa and the Mediterranean.  With British manufacturing targeted by the "Luftwaffe", the Australian government created the Department of Aircraft Production (DAP), which was later known as the Government Aircraft Factories, to supply Commonwealth air forces and the RAAF was eventually provided with large numbers of locally-built versions of British designs like the Beaufort torpedo bomber. In the European Theatre of World War II, RAAF personnel were especially notable in RAF Bomber Command: although they represented only two percent of all RAAF personnel during the war, they accounted for 23% of the total number killed in action. This statistic is further illustrated by the fact that No. 460 Squadron RAAF, mostly flying Avro Lancasters, had an official establishment of about 200 aircrew and yet had 1,018 combat deaths. The squadron was therefore effectively wiped out five times over.  The beginning of the Pacific War—and the rapid advance of Japanese forces—threatened the Australian mainland for the first time. The RAAF was quite unprepared for the emergency, and initially had negligible forces available for service in the Pacific. Its four squadrons based in Malaya – Nos. 1, 8, 21 and 453 – equipped with a mixture of Hudsons, Wirraways and Buffalos, were the first to go into combat, but they suffered heavily against Japanese during the Malayan Campaign and the subsequent fighting on Singapore, highlighting the fact that the Japanese held the upper hand in the air. The devastating air raids on Darwin on 19 February 1942 – launched from four aircraft carriers stationed in the Timor Sea – drove the point home. Defended by a small force of just 18 Wirraways and 14 Hudsons from two squadrons – Nos. 12 and 13 – the town was heavily damaged with the loss of 10 ships, 23 aircraft and a death toll of several hundred. In response, some RAAF squadrons – such as No. 452 Squadron. – were transferred from the northern hemisphere—although 15 remained there until the end of the war. Shortages of fighter and ground attack planes led to the acquisition of US-built P-40 Kittyhawks, and the rapid design and manufacture of the first Australian fighter, the CAC Boomerang. RAAF Kittyhawks, such as those operated by Nos. 75, 76 and 77 Squadrons, came to play a crucial role in the New Guinea and Solomon Islands campaigns, especially in the Battle of Milne Bay and in the Kokoda Track campaign.  In the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, imported Bristol Beaufighters proved to be highly effective ground attack and maritime strike aircraft. Beaufighters were later made locally by the DAP. Although it was much bigger than Japanese fighters, the Beaufighter had the speed to outrun them. The RAAF's heavy bomber force predominantly comprised 287 B-24 Liberators, which could bomb Japanese targets as far away as Borneo and the Philippines from airfields in Australia and New Guinea.  In September 1942 most Australian squadrons were grouped under RAAF Command. The only Australian air combat units in the SWPA not under RAAF Command were those based in New Guinea as No. 9 Operational Group RAAF, which was controlled by Fifth Air Force. RAAF Command was charged with defending Australia, except in the north-east, protecting the sea lanes to New Guinea, and conducting operations against Japanese shipping, airfields and other installations in the Dutch East Indies. Its role was thus "mainly defensive" at the outset, with the expectation that "in the event of developments in the North and North-West of Australia, this would be altered". Bostock was to exercise control of air operations through the RAAF area command system, comprising North-Western, Western, Southern, Eastern, and North-Eastern Area Commands.  By late 1945, the RAAF had received or ordered about 500 P-51 Mustangs, for fighter/ground attack purposes. The Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation initially assembled US-made Mustangs, but later manufactured most of those used. The RAAF's main operational formation, the First Tactical Air Force, comprised more than 18,000 personnel and 20 squadrons; it had taken part in the Philippines and Borneo campaigns and was scheduled to participate in the invasion of the Japanese mainland, Operation Downfall. So too were the RAAF bomber squadrons in Europe, as part of the proposed Tiger Force. However, the war was brought to a sudden end by the US nuclear attacks on Japan. As a result of the Empire Air Training Scheme, about 20,000 Australian personnel had served with other Commonwealth air forces in Europe during World War II. A total of 216,900 men and women served in the RAAF, of whom 9,780 lost their lives. At war's end, a total of 53 RAAF squadrons were serving in the Pacific and a further 17 in Europe. With over 152,000 personnel operating nearly 6,000 aircraft it was the world's fourth largest air force, after those of the USA, the USSR and the UK.

Post-World War II service.

Korean War.

In the Korean War, Mustangs from No. 77 Squadron (77 Sqn), stationed in Japan with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, were among the first United Nations aircraft to be deployed, in ground support, combat air patrol, and escort missions. When the UN planes were confronted by MiG-15 jet fighters, 77 Sqn acquired Gloster Meteors, which enabled some success against the Soviet pilots flying for North Korea. However, the MiGs were superior aircraft and the Meteors were relegated to ground support missions, as the North Koreans gained experience. The air force also operated transport aircraft during the conflict.

Vietnam War.

During the Vietnam War, from 1966–1972, the RAAF contributed squadrons of Caribou STOL transport aircraft (No. 35 Squadron), UH-1 Iroquois helicopters (No. 9 Squadron) and English Electric Canberra bombers (No. 2 Squadron).  The Canberras flew a large number of bombing sorties, two were lost (in 1970 and 1971). Two crew members were killed, two squadron members died of disease, and three from accidents during the war. One of the Canberras lost ("A84-228") was brought down by a surface-to-air missile from which the crew (including the squadron commander, W/C Frank Downing) safely ejected and were rescued by helicopter. The other ("A84-231") was lost near Da Nang, during a bombing run. Its exact location and fate of its crew (FlgOff. Michael Herbert and Plt Off. Robert Carver) were unknown for 28 years, when it was located and their remains were returned to Australia.)  RAAF transport aircraft also supported anti-communist ground forces. The UH-1 helicopters were used in many roles including Dustoff (medical evacuation) and Bushranger Gunships for armed support.

Peacekeeping and Iraq.

Military airlifts were conducted for a number of purposes in the intervening decades, such as the peacekeeping operations in East Timor from 1999. Australia's combat aircraft were not used again in anger until the Iraq War in 2003, when F/A-18s from No. 75 Squadron operated in the escort and ground attack roles.

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) traces its history back to the Imperial Conference held in London in 1911, where it was decided aviation should be developed within the Armed Forces of the British Empire. Australia implemented this decision, the only country to do so, by approving the establishment of the Central Flying School (CFS) in 1912. The location for the proposed school was initially to be at Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory, but in July 1913 Point Cook, Victoria, was announced as the preferred location. The first flights by CFS aircraft took place there in March 1914.

L'histoire de la Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) remonte à la Conférence Impériale tenue à Londres en 1911, où il fut décidé que l'aviation devrait être développée dans les Forces armées de l'Empire britannique. L'Australie a mis en œuvre cette décision, et fut le seul pays du Commonwealth à faire ainsi, en approuvant l'établissement de l'école d'aviation centrale, à Point Cook, Victoria en 1912.


Background.

Following the publication of the well-regarded novels "White Noise" (1985), "Libra" (1988), and "Mao II" (1991), DeLillo made few public appearances and published little for several years while writing "Underworld", besides the folio short story "Pafko at the Wall" which was incorporated into the prologue of "Underworld" with minor changes.  According to DeLillo, the novel's title came to him as he thought about radioactive waste buried deep underground and about Pluto, god of death.

Plot summary.

The prologue is a fictionalized account of The Shot Heard 'Round the World, a home run by Bobby Thomson on October 3, 1951, that won the National League pennant for the New York Giants against their cross-town rivals, the Brooklyn Dodgers. In DeLillo's account, the game-winning ball is caught by a young black fan named Cotter Martin, while J. Edgar Hoover, watching in the stands, is informed in the middle of the game of the first Soviet test of the hydrogen bomb.  The remainder of the novel, comprising six parts and an epilogue, is a reverse chronological account of the life of Nick Shay, the man who ultimately ends up with the baseball, from his undirected existence as an executive of a waste management company in Arizona in the 1990s back to his childhood in the Bronx in the 1950s, though the non-linear narrative includes a large number of digressions and ancillary subplots.  Part 1 takes place in 1992. Nick Shay lives in Arizona with his wife, Marian, who is having an affair with his colleague, Brian Glassic. Nick visits an art installation of painted B-52 aircraft in the desert by Klara Sax, with whom Nick is later revealed to have had an affair forty years earlier. It is revealed that Nick killed a man when he was a teenager, and that Nick's father disappeared when Nick was a child after going out to get a pack of Lucky Strikes. Nick prefers to imagine that he was killed by the Mafia. In a flashback to 1953, Cotter Martin's father takes the baseball from his son with the intention of selling it.  In Part 2, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Marian begins her affair with Brian, while Nick acquires the baseball from an avid baseball memorabilia collector named Marvin Lundy after Brian meets Lundy on a trip to New York City to see the Fresh Kills Landfill. Elsewhere, in the Bronx, a pessimistic, germophobic nun named Sister Edgar, who was Nick Shay's Catholic school teacher in the 1950s, works among the unbelieving poor and sick. A videotape of a serial killer nicknamed the Texas Highway Killer is described.  In Part 3, in the spring of 1978, Nick attends a waste management conference in the Mojave Desert and meets a swinger named Donna, while Marvin Lundy traces the baseball to San Francisco.  Part 4, in the summer of 1974, mainly concerns Klara Sax, who is working as an artist in New York City, and Matt Shay, Nick's brother, a former chess prodigy, who is a scientist in the nuclear weapons program in New Mexico.  Part 5 encompasses the 1950s and 1960s, beginning with Nick Shay in juvenile detention, following Nick's relationship with a woman named Amy and later with his future wife Marian, and Matt's courtship of his wife Janet. Lenny Bruce's comedy routines on the Cuban Missile Crisis are mentioned several times. In another flashback, Cotter Martin's father sells his baseball to Charles Wainright, a white fan standing in line with his son outside of Yankee Stadium.  Part 6, from the fall of 1951 to the summer of 1952, relates how Nick Shay, running loose after his father left his family, accidentally kills his friend George Manza.  In the epilogue, Nick and Brian travel to Kazakhstan to watch a demo of a new waste disposal system that incinerates the waste with a nuclear explosion. Nick confronts Brian about his affair with Marian, but decides to stay with Marian. Esmeralda, a feral girl in the Bronx whom the Catholic nuns were trying to save, is raped and murdered. Her image then miraculously appears on a billboard. Sister Edgar dies shortly after witnessing the miracle.

Literary significance and reception.

"Underworld" received high acclaim from literary critics, particularly for DeLillo's prose and ambition. David Wiegand of the "San Francisco Chronicle" declaring it DeLillo's “best novel and perhaps that most elusive of creatures, a Great American Novel." Many have described the book as emotionally powerful. David Foster Wallace wrote Delillo a letter in 1997, praising the novel and Delillo's talent. He described "the book as an organic thing" and stated that This novel is (1) a great and significant piece of art fiction; (1a) not like any novel I've read; (2) your best work ever, so far; (3) a huge reward for someone who's read all your previous stuff because it seems to be at once a synthesis and a transfiguration – a transcendence – of your previous stuff; (4) a book in which nothing is skimped or shirked or tossed off or played for the easy laugh, and where (it seems to me) you've taken some truly ballsy personal risks and exposed parts of yourself and hit a level of emotion you've never even tried for elsewhere (at least as I've read your work).He also remarked on the phonetics of the novel, telling Delillo "you use these Saxonic devices heavily and over and over and yet the prose never seems heavy or straining; in fact just the opposite: it always seems exquisitely controlled, sober, poised rather than lunging."  Other critics, however, praised DeLillo's prose but found the novel overlong and argued it could have benefited from more editing. On Salon.com, Laura Miller wrote that “Nick's secret, the one that supposedly provides the book's suspense, proves anticlimactic."  In May 2006, "The New York Times Book Review" named "Underworld" as a runner up for the best work of American fiction of the previous 25 years. It garnered 11 of 125 votes, losing to Toni Morrison's "Beloved" by four votes.  The literary critic Harold Bloom, although also expressing reservations about the book's length, has said "Underworld" is "the culmination of what [DeLillo] can do" and one of the few contemporary American works of fiction that "touched what I would call the sublime," along with works by Cormac McCarthy ("Blood Meridian"), Philip Roth ("American Pastoral" and "Sabbath's Theater"), and Thomas Pynchon ("Mason & Dixon", "Gravity's Rainbow" and "The Crying of Lot 49").  "Underworld" was a finalist for the 1997 National Book Award, as well as for the 1998 Pulitzer Prize. The novel won the 2000 William Dean Howells Medal.

Allusions and references.

The novel has J. Edgar Hoover utterly intrigued by "The Triumph of Death", a painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder. Hoover first sees the painting while at the baseball game; the painting was reproduced in "Life" and pieces of it fall on him when someone in the stands above tears up the magazine and tosses the pieces. Later in the book he obtains a print of the painting.  Several segments of the novel are named in homage to other works. "Das Kapital" is Karl Marx's magnum opus, "Long Tall Sally" is a song by Little Richard also famous as a cover by The Beatles, and "Cocksucker Blues" is an infamous unreleased Rolling Stones song and film. "Better Things for Better Living Through Chemistry" was an advertising slogan for DuPont, while "The Cloud of Unknowing" is an anonymous work of Christian mysticism written in Middle English in the latter half of the 14th century.  The novel incorporates a number of historical events. The prologue is about "The Shot Heard 'Round the World" and the whereabouts of the ball hit by Thomson are a recurrent element of the book. The book also employs Lenny Bruce’s reaction to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Soviet Union's atomic weapons program (including their testing grounds in Kazakhstan).  DeLillo has said that the front page of "The New York Times" on October 4, 1951, inspired "Underworld".

Adaptation.

The novel was at one point optioned by producer Scott Rudin for a film adaptation before it lapsed. In 2002 Robert Greenwald held the rights and was in discussions for turning it into a television miniseries.

Underworld is a 1997 novel by the American writer Don DeLillo. The novel is centered on the efforts of Nick Shay, a waste management executive who grew up in the Bronx, to trace the history of the baseball struck in The Shot Heard 'Round the World, and encompasses numerous subplots drawn from American history in the second half of the twentieth century. Described as both postmodernist and a reaction to postmodernism, it examines themes of nuclear proliferation, waste, and the contribution of individual lives to the course of history.

Outremonde (titre original : "Underworld") est un roman postmoderne de Don DeLillo, paru en anglais en 1997. Nommé au National Book Award, couronné par l'American Book Awards, il s'agit d'un des livres les plus connus et les plus lus de son auteur. Une enquête du New York Times conduite en 2006 auprès d'auteurs et de critiques a placé "Outremonde" en deuxième position du classement des meilleurs livres de fiction des 25 années précédentes (11 votes sur 125, contre 15 pour "Beloved" de Toni Morrison).


Games.

Original trilogy.

The first game in the series, titled "The Prince", was created by Jordan Mechner after the success of "Karateka". Drawing from multiple general sources of inspiration, including the "One Thousand and One Nights" stories, and films like "Raiders of the Lost Ark" and "The Adventures of Robin Hood", the protagonist's character animation was created using a technique called rotoscoping, with Mechner using his brother as the model for the titular prince. The original "Prince of Persia", with its more than 20 platform ports, is one of the most ported games in video game history. Despite the success of the game, Mechner enrolled in New York University's film department, producing an award-winning short film during his time there, before returning to design and direct a sequel to the original game. The sequel, "Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame", was developed internally at Broderbund with Mechner's supervision. The game, like its predecessor, received critical acclaim and high sales. Broderbund was subsequently purchased by The Learning Company, which was later acquired by US game company Mattel Interactive. In 1999, a new Prince of Persia title, "Prince of Persia 3D", was developed and released under Broderbund's Red Orb label. Released for PC only, and criticized by many users as being buggy, it was a critical and commercial disappointment. The Broderbund/Learning Company's games division, the assets of which included the "Prince of Persia" franchise, was subsequently sold to Ubisoft.

"The Sands of Time" series.

Mechner, who owned the "Prince of Persia" intellectual property, was brought in to work with Ubisoft on a reboot of the franchise, titled "Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time", although he was originally wary after the failure of "Prince of Persia 3D". The team they worked with were also working on "Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell": their aim with the new "Prince of Persia" was to breathe new life into the action-adventure genre. "The Sands of Time" was a success. Mechner did not take part in the production of the next game, "Warrior Within", and he commented on finding the dark atmosphere and heightened level of violence unappealing. The changes also provoked mixed reactions from critics, but sales were strong and a third game, eventually titled "The Two Thrones", went into production. For "The Two Thrones", the developers and artists tried to strike a balance between the light, cartoon-like tones of "The Sands of Time", and the grittier mediums of "Warrior Within". In November 2008, Ubisoft revealed that they were working on a new entry in the franchise, which turned out to be "The Forgotten Sands", which filled in some of the narrative gap between "The Sands of Time" and "Warrior Within". The game was released in May 2010, timed to tie in with the film adaptation of the first game in "The Sands of Time" subseries, also titled "".

Trilogy collection.

The "Prince of Persia Trilogy" (known as "Prince of Persia Trilogy 3D" on the remastered collection's title screen) is a collection of "The Sands of Time" trilogy released on PlayStation 2 and subsequently on PlayStation 3 as part of the Classics HD range. The collection includes "The Sands of Time", "Warrior Within" and "The Two Thrones", all previously released on PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows. The games were remastered in high-definition for the PlayStation 3 with 3D and PlayStation Network Trophy support on one Blu-ray Disc. The PlayStation 2 collection was released on October 27, 2006 in Europe, while the remastered collection was released on November 19, 2010 on Blu-ray in PAL regions. The release marks the first Classics HD title to not be published by Sony Computer Entertainment.  In North America, the three games were originally released separately as downloadable only titles on the PlayStation Store. The first, "The Sands of Time", was released on November 16, 2010 while the other two games followed in December 2010. The Blu-ray version was to be released in North America on March 22, 2011 but the collection ended up being delayed until April 19, 2011.

Spin-offs, remakes and mobile games.

The first spin-off of the series was developed alongside and released in the same year as "The Two Thrones" for the Nintendo DS. "Battles of Prince of Persia" is a real-time strategy game, set between "The Sands of Time" and "Warrior Within". It received mediocre reviews from critics.  In 2006, concept designs surfaced hinting at another entry in the franchise. The game, "Prince of Persia", was unveiled in 2008, with Ubisoft marketing it as a reboot of the franchise, with its level and combat design harking back to the original 1989 game. The game came out in December 2008, receiving positive reviews from most video game outlets and decent sales. Alongside the main game, Ubisoft's Casablanca branch developed a direct sequel and spin-off to the reboot for the Nintendo DS, titled "Prince of Persia: The Fallen King". The game was released alongside the main game, and received fair reviews.  In 2007 Gameloft and Ubisoft released "Prince of Persia Classic", an enhanced remake of the original "Prince of Persia" for Xbox 360 (XBLA), PlayStation 3 (PSN), iOS and Android. The visual style has been upgraded to resemble, and the Prince himself has acquired some additional moves, such as the ability to roll, backflip, wall jump and stop time briefly during combat. However, the core gameplay remains the same as the original - defeat Jaffar within one hour, watching out for the many traps and defeating the guards you encounter.  There have been a number of Java ME mobile games developed by Gameloft, some based on older PC or console titles with 2D graphics and others loosely based on contemporary games but with 2D graphics and different gameplay due to technology constraints. Gameloft has also developed some ports for both the iPhone and the iPad. The first spin-off by Gameloft was called Prince of Persia:Harem Adventures which was released for JavaME in 2003. Specifically, the company has developed HD remakes of the original "Prince of Persia" in 2007, and its sequel "The Shadow and the Flame" in July 2013.

"Prince of Persia: Escape".

In 27 September 2018, Ubisoft under the banner of its entity Ketchapp released "Prince of Persia: Escape", a mobile game for iOS and Android. It is a "runner" game, made up of different levels, and the player can customize the protagonist with outfits from past games. Reviewing for "Pocket Gamer", Cameron Bald calls "Prince of Persia: Escape" a "mundane game crushed under the weight of excessive greed".

Future.

In 2012, leaked images from a project entitled "Osiris" were assumed to be the next "Prince of Persia" title. Jordan Mechner even commented on his Twitter account that the images were not from a "Prince of Persia" game. A year later, in 2013, Yannis Mallat, CEO of Ubisoft Montreal, said that the franchise was being "paused", saying that "As soon as we have something to show, we will". In the following months, Ubisoft confirmed that they were either planning or considering next-gen entries in multiple franchises, including "Prince of Persia". A video uploaded by a Ubisoft Montreal artist in 2012 but only discovered in 2020 showed a gameplay trailer for "Prince of Persia Redemption" which would have been released for Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. According to Jonathan Cooper, a former Ubisoft animator at the time, said the trailer was a mockup of the planned gameplay for the title created by Khai Nguyen, used to pitch the game concept. The game never developed beyond that point, though the work on the pitch trailer was used to prepare a similar trailer for "Assassin's Creed III" for Ubisoft.

Adaptations.

Graphic novel.

Jordan Mechner finished writing the story for a graphic novel in 2007. The novel was written by A.B. Sina, and illustrated by Alex Puvilland and LeUyen Pham. It was released by First Second Books in autumn 2008. The story follows two Princes, jumping between the 9th and 13th centuries. Although it belongs to the franchise the plot is not related to any of the game continuities or that of the 2010 film.

"Prince of Persia: Before the Sandstorm".

"Before the Sandstorm" is a 2010 one-shot comic book that serves as both a direct prequel and sequel to the feature film and explains the motives and backgrounds of some characters. It was published by Disney press and written by Jordan Mechner with illustrations by Todd McFarlane, Nico Henrichon, David Lopez and Bernard Chang.

Reception.

Awards.

The success of the "Prince of Persia" series resulted in Guinness World Records awarding the series 6 world records in the "Guinness World Records: Gamer's Edition 2008". These records include First Motion-Capture Animation in a Video Game and Highest Rated Platformer on PS2 and Xbox.

Impact and legacy.

South Korean singer-songwriter Kim Kwang-Jin released the song "Magic Castle", with lyrics inspired from the storyline of the original "Prince of Persia".  In 1992, Russian author Victor Pelevin wrote a book called "A Werewolf Problem in Central Russia and Other Stories", in which there is a short story called "Prince of Gosplan". The story is greatly influenced by the game; the main hero of the story lives in a mixed reality of real world and video games and identifies himself as Prince of Persia. He tries to understand if his life is real or is he just seeing it on a computer display.  The feel of the gameplay in "Tomb Raider" was intended to evoke that of the original "Prince of Persia".  The "Assassin's Creed" series originated out of ideas for a sequel for "Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time". Its critical and financial success led Ubisoft to request Ubisoft Montreal to develop a sequel, aiming for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. The Ubisoft Montreal team decided on taking the gameplay from "The Sands of Time" into an open world approach, taking advantage of the improved processing power to render larger spaces and crowds. Narratively, the team wanted to move away from the Prince being someone next in line for the throne but to have to work for it; combined with research into secret societies led them to focus on the Assassins, heavily borrowing from the novel "Alamut". They developed a narrative where the player would control an Assassin that served as a bodyguard for a non-playable Prince, leading them to call this game "Prince of Persia: Assassin". The "Animus" device allowed them to explain certain facets of gameplay, such as accounting when the player fails a mission, in the same way they had done in "The Sands of Time".

Prince of Persia is a video game franchise created by Jordan Mechner. The franchise is built around a series of action-adventure games focused on various incarnations of the eponymous Prince. The games have been developed and published by several different companies. The first two games in the series, "Prince of Persia" and "", were published by Brøderbund. "Prince of Persia 3D", the first to use 3D computer graphics, was developed by Red Orb Entertainment and published by The Learning Company on PC, and developed by Avalanche Software and published by Mattel Interactive on Sega Dreamcast. Ubisoft began developing and publishing the series in 2003 with "".

Prince of Persia est une série de jeux vidéo d'action/plates-formes commencée en 1989 avec "Prince of Persia", développé par Jordan Mechner pour Brøderbund. Avec le succès du jeu, Brøderbund produit une suite qui parait en 1993, puis Red Orb Entertainment développe le premier opus en 3D qui sort en 1999 mais qui reçoit de mauvaises critiques. En 2003, alors que la licence est destinée à être abandonnée, Ubisoft et son studio de Montréal sortent "" qui connaît un fort succès, notamment sur consoles de salon. Ce jeu ouvre la voie à la trilogie dite des « Sables du temps » développée sous la direction de Yannis Mallat. D'autres jeux suivront par la suite, le dernier jeu majeur étant "" (2010).


Composition and release.

"The Pleasure Principle" has been described as featuring synth-pop and new wave throughout. Numan completely abandoned electric guitar on the album. This change, coupled with frequent use of synthetic percussion, produced the most purely electronic and robotic sound of his career. In addition to the Minimoog synthesizer employed on his previous album, Numan made liberal use of the Polymoog keyboard, particularly its distinctive "Vox Humana" preset. Other production tricks included copious amounts of flanging, phasing and reverb, plus the unusual move of including solo viola and violin parts in the arrangements. Numan was also influenced by Kraftwerk; the track "Cars" had the same musical "glides" as "Autobahn" and both songs used the same synthesizers.  Notable tracks included "Airlane", the lead-off instrumental; "Metal", sung from the perspective of an android longing to be human (covered by Nine Inch Nails on "Things Falling Apart", Thought Industry on "Recruited to Do Good Deeds for the Devil" and Afrika Bambaataa on "Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light", and used as backing for Planet Funk's "Who Said"); "Films", acknowledged by Bambaataa as an important influence on the U.S. hip hop scene; "M.E.", told from the perspective of the last machine on Earth (later used as backing for Basement Jaxx’s "Where’s Your Head At?"); the electronic ballad "Complex", a UK number 6 single; and "Cars", a worldwide synthpop hit. "Cars" reached number 9 in the U.S. and number 1 in Canada, helping make "The Pleasure Principle" Numan's strongest North American showing, but lack of a strong commercial follow-up resulted in him being tagged as a one-hit wonder there. The album was #49 in the Canadian Top 100 of the year.

Tour.

Numan toured throughout the world in support of the album with a huge stage set including banks of neon lights and twin pyramids which moved across the stage via radio control. The live show was captured on record as "Living Ornaments ’79" and on video as "The Touring Principle". The support act on the UK leg of the tour was Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark. An expanded version of "Living Ornaments '79" was issued on CD in 2005, and the final show of "The Touring Principle" was captured on the CD "Engineers" (released exclusively through Numan's official website) in 2008.  Numan performed a 16-date mini-tour dedicated to the album across the UK and Ireland during November and December of 2009, similar to Numan's previous tours for "Replicas" and "Telekon", performing the album in its entirety. Numan had been scheduled to play the 2010 Coachella Festival in Indio, California but was forced to cancel, due to the Icelandic volcano eruption that disrupted air travel. To make up for this, Numan embarked upon another 16-date mini-tour of the U.S. that August, in which he again performed "The Pleasure Principle" in its entirety.

Reissue.

Of the bonus tracks later included on CD reissues, "Random" and "Oceans" were instrumental outtakes from "The Pleasure Principle" sessions, originally issued on vinyl with other previously unreleased tracks in 1985, while "Asylum" was the instrumental B-side of the "Cars" vinyl single. The live versions of "Me! I Disconnect From You" and "Bombers", which appeared as B-sides of "Complex", were recorded on tour and later made available in their original context on the expanded "Living Ornaments '79" CD, along with "Remember I Was Vapour" and "On Broadway". The latter two tracks were first released as a promotional single shipped with early pressings of the album "Telekon" in 1980; Numan's cover version of the classic "On Broadway" was dominated by a characteristic synthesizer solo by then-former (and soon-to-be-again) Ultravox band member Billy Currie.

Reception.

AllMusic's Greg Prato rated "The Pleasure Principle" 4.5 of 5 stars. He explained that "there is not a single weak moment on the disc" and that "the quality of the songs gets stronger and stronger as the album progresses". He concluded: "If you had to own just one Gary Numan album, "The Pleasure Principle" would be it." Robert Christgau rated the album a B, saying that it was where "metal machine music goes easy-listening." He also stated, "This time he's singing about robots, engineers, and isolation. In such a slight artist, these things make all the difference."

Track listing.

All tracks written by Gary Numan, except where noted.

30th Anniversary Edition.

To coincide with "The Pleasure Principle" 30th Anniversary Tour, a special edition of the album was released on 21 September 2009.  Disc three (Bonus tracks only available on the 3CD version available from the Numan website)

40th Anniversary Edition.

To celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the release of "The Pleasure Principle", a special edition of the album, "The Pleasure Principle: The First Recordings" was released on 11 October 2019. Released on 2 LP coloured vinyl and 2 CD editions.

The Pleasure Principle is the debut solo studio album by English musician Gary Numan. Released about six months after "Replicas" (1979), the second album with his band Tubeway Army, "The Pleasure Principle" peaked at number 1 in the United Kingdom.

The Pleasure Principle est le troisième album studio, et premier album sous son propre nom, du pionnier de la musique électronique Gary Numan sorti le. Il s’est classé en première place des ventes en Angleterre.


Life.

Giovanni Tolomei was born at Siena in Tuscany on the May 10, 1272. He was educated by his uncle, Christopher Tolomeo, a Dominican, and desired to enter the religious life, but his father's opposition prevented him from doing so, and he continued his studies in secular surroundings. After a course in philosophy and mathematics he devoted himself to the study of civil and canon law, and of theology. While studying law in Siena, he joined the Confraternity of the Disciplinati di Santa Maria della Notte dedicated to aiding the sick at the Hospital della Scala. Tolomei became a professor of law at the University of Siena. For a time Bernardo served as a knight in the armies of Rudolph I of Germany. After his return to Siena he was appointed by his fellow citizens to the highest positions in the town government. While thus occupied he was struck with blindness. He is said to have vowed himself to religion in gratitude for the recovery of his eyesight through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin.  In 1313, Giovanni, together with two companions, Patrizio di Francesco Patrizi and Ambrogio di Nino Piccolomini, noble Sienese merchants and members of the same Confraternity, retired to Accona on a property belonging to his family. He had taken the name of "Bernard" (in its Italian form "Bernardo") out of admiration for the Abbot of Clairvaux. Here they lived a hermitic penitential life characterised by prayer, manual work and silence.  Towards the end of 1318, or the beginning of 1319, while deep in prayer, he is said to have seen a ladder on which monks in white habits ascended, helped by angels, and awaited by Jesus and Mary. Tolomei founded the Congregation of the Blessed Virgin of Monte Oliveto (the Olivetans), giving it the Rule of St. Benedict. The purpose of the new religious institute was a special devotion to the Blessed Virgin. Bishop Guido Tarlati of Arezzo, within whose diocese the congregation was formed, confirmed its constitution in (1319), and many favours were granted by Popes John XXII, Clement VI (1344), and Gregory XI. Since the Benedictine rule did not prescribe the colour of monastic dress, the Olivetans wore white habits.  Through the generosity of a merchant a monastery was erected at Siena; Bishop Tarlati built another at Arezzo; a third sprang up at Florence; and within a very few years there were establishments at Camprena, Volterra, San Geminiano, Eugubio, Foligno, and Rome.  During the Plague of 1348 Bernardo left the solitude of Monte Oliveto for the monastery of San Benedetto a Porta Tufi in Siena. The disease was particularly virulent in the city. Bernardo and his monks devoted themselves to the care of the sick. On 20 August 1348, while helping his plague-stricken monks, he himself, fell victim of the Plague. Eighty-two monks likewise succumbed to the plague.  His last days were depicted in a painting by the 18th-century Italian painter Giuseppe Maria Crespi. His work was entitled: 'The Blessed Bernard Tolomei Interceding for the Cessation of the Plague in Siena' (1735).  After having ruled the religious body he had founded for 27 years Bernardo died, at the age of 76. Tolomei was canonized in 2009.

Saint Bernardo Tolomei (10 May 1272 – 20 August 1348) was an Italian Roman Catholic theologian and the founder of the Congregation of the Blessed Virgin of Monte Oliveto. In the Roman Martyrology he is commemorated on August 20, but in the Benedictine calendar his optional memorial is celebrated on the previous day.

Bernard Tolomei (Sienne, - Sienne, 20 août 1348) est un moine italien fondateur de l'ordre du Mont-Olivet reconnu saint de l'Église catholique. Il est issu de la grande famille des Tolomei, active notamment dans la finance en Europe.


Application to price index theory.

The United States Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a price index that is based on the idea of a cost-of-living index. The U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) explains the differences: The CPI frequently is called a cost-of-living index, but it differs in important ways from a complete cost-of-living measure. BLS has for some time used a cost-of-living framework in making practical decisions about questions that arise in constructing the CPI. A cost-of-living index is a conceptual measurement goal, however, not a straightforward alternative to the CPI. A cost-of-living index would measure changes over time in the amount that consumers need to spend to reach a certain utility level or standard of living. Both the CPI and a cost-of-living index would reflect changes in the prices of goods and services, such as food and clothing that are directly purchased in the marketplace; but a complete cost-of-living index would go beyond this to also take into account changes in other governmental or environmental factors that affect consumers' well-being. It is very difficult to determine the proper treatment of public goods, such as safety and education, and other broad concerns, such as health, water quality, and crime that would constitute a complete cost-of-living framework.

Economic theory.

The basis for the theory behind the cost-of-living index is attributed to Russian economist A. A. Konüs. The theory assumes that consumers are optimizers and get as much utility as possible from the money that they have to spend. These assumptions can be shown to lead to a "consumer's cost function", "C"("u","p"), the cost of achieving utility level "u" given a set of prices "p". Assuming that the cost function holds across time (i.e., people get the same amount of utility from one set of purchases in year as they would have buying the same set in a different year) leads to a "true cost of living index". The general form for Konüs's true cost-of-living index compares the consumer's cost function given the prices in one year with the consumer's cost function given the prices in a different year:  Since "u" can be defined as the utility received from a set of goods measured in quantity, "q", "u" can be replaced with "f"("q") to produce a version of the true cost of living index that is based on price and quantities like most other price indices:  In simpler terms, the true cost-of-living index is the cost of achieving a certain level of utility (or standard of living) in one year relative to the cost of achieving the same level the next year.  Utility is not directly measurable, so the true cost of living index only serves as a theoretical ideal, not a practical price index formula. However, more practical formulas can be evaluated based on their relationship to the true cost of living index. One of the most commonly used formulas for consumer price indices, the Laspeyres price index, compares the cost of what a consumer bought in one time period (q) with how much it would have cost to buy the same set of goods and services in a later period. Since the utility from q in the first year should be equal to the utility from q in the next year, Laspeyres gives the upper bound for the true cost-of-living index. Laspeyres only serves as an upper bound, because consumers could turn to substitute goods for those goods that have gotten more expensive and achieved the same level of utility from q for a lower cost. In contrast, a Paasche price index uses the cost of a set of goods purchased in one time period with the cost it would have taken to buy the same set of goods in an earlier time period. It can be shown that the Paasche is a lower bound for true cost of living index. Since upper and lower bounds of the true cost of living index can be found, respectively, through the Laspeyres and Paasche indices, the geometric average of the two, known as the Fisher price index, is a close approximation of the true cost of living index if the upper and lower bounds are not too far apart.

A cost-of-living index is a theoretical price index that measures relative cost of living over time or regions. It is an index that measures differences in the price of goods and services, and allows for substitutions with other items as prices vary.

Un indice du coût de la vie est un indice de prix qui sert à mesurer la variation du coût de la vie dans un pays. Il y a deux catégories principales d’indices du coût de la vie : des indices statistiques et des indices économiques.