Etymology.

In Hindu tradition, the theonym "Váruṇa" (Devanagari: वरुण) is described as a derivation from the verbal root "vṛ" ("to surround, to cover" or "to restrain, bind") by means of a suffixal "-uṇa-", for an interpretation of the name as "he who covers or binds", in reference to the cosmological ocean or river encircling the world, but also in reference to the "binding" by universal law or "Ṛta".  Georges Dumézil (1934) made a cautious case for the identity of Varuna and the Greek god "Ouranos" at the earliest Indo-European cultural level. The etymological identification of the name "Ouranos" with the Sanskrit "Varuṇa" is based in the derivation of both names from the PIE root "*ŭer" with a sense of "binding" – the Indic king-god "Varuṇa" binds the wicked, the Greek king-god "Ouranos" binds the Cyclopes. While the derivation of the name "Varuṇa" from this root is undisputed, this derivation of the Greek name is now widely rejected in favour of derivation from the root *"wers-" "to moisten, drip" (Sanskrit vṛṣ "to rain, pour").

Texts.

Upanishads.

Varuna, addressed as Varuni explained Brahman in Taittiriya Upanishad to sage Bhrigu. First six anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli are called "Bhargavi Varuni Vidya", which means "the knowledge Bhrigu got from (his father) Varuni". It is in these anuvakas that sage Varuni advises Bhrigu with one of the oft-cited definition of Brahman, as "that from which beings originate, through which they live, and in which they re-enter after death, explore that because that is Brahman". This thematic, all encompassing, eternal nature of reality and existence develops as the basis for Bhrigu's emphasis on introspection and inwardization, to help peel off the outer husks of knowledge, in order to reach and realize the innermost kernel of spiritual Self-knowledge.

Vedas.

In the earliest layer of the "Rigveda", Varuna is the guardian of moral law, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. He is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, such as 7.86–88, 1.25, 2.27–30, 8.8, 9.73 and others. His relationship with waters, rivers and oceans is mentioned in the Vedas. Vedic poets describe him as an aspect and one of the plural perspectives of the Agni, one of the Primary deity For example, hymn 5.3 of the "Rigveda" states:  Varuna and Mitra are the gods of the societal affairs including the oath, and are often twinned "Mitra-Varuna". Both Mitra and Varuna are classified as Asuras in the Rigveda (e.g. RV 5.63.3), although they are also addressed as Devas as well (e.g. RV 7.60.12). Varuna, being the king of the Asuras, was adopted or made the change to a Deva after the structuring of the primordial cosmos, imposed by Indra after he defeats Vrtra. According to Doris Srinivasan, a professor of Indology focusing on religion, Varuna-Mitra pair is an ambiguous deity just like Rudra-Shiva pair. Both have wrathful-gracious aspects in Indian mythology. Both Varuna and Rudra are synonymous with "all comprehensive sight, knowledge", both were the guardian deity of the north in the Vedic texts (Varuna later gets associated with west), both can be offered "injured, ill offerings", all of which suggest that Varuna may have been conceptually overlapping with Rudra. Further, the Rigvedic hymn 5.70 calls Mitra-Varuna pair as "rudra", states Srinivasan. According to Samuel Macey and other scholars, Varuna had been the more ancient Indo-Aryan deity in 2nd millennium BCE, who gave way to Rudra in the Hindu pantheon, and Rudra-Shiva became both "timeless and the god of time".  In "Vajasaneyi Samhita" 21.40 ("Yajurveda"), Varuna is called the patron deity of physicians, one who has "a hundred, a thousand remedies". His capacity and association with "all comprehensive knowledge" is also found in the "Atharvaveda" (~1000 BCE). Varuna also finds a mention in the early Upanishads, where his role evolves. In verse 3.9.26 of the "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad" (~800 BCE), for example, he is stated to be the god of the western quarter, but one who is founded on "water" and dependent ultimately on "the heart" and the fire of soul. In the "Katha Upanishad", Aditi is identified to be same as the goddess earth. She is stated in the Vedic texts to be the mother of Varuna and Mitra along with other Vedic gods, and in later Hindu mythology she as mother earth is stated to be mother of all gods.  In Yajurveda it is said: "In fact Varuna is Vishnu and Vishnu is Varuna and hence the auspicious offering is to be made to these deities." || 8.59 ||

Ramayana.

Rama interacts with Varuna in the Hindu epic "Ramayana". For example, faced with the dilemma of how to cross the ocean to Lanka, where his abducted wife Sita is held captive by the demon king Ravana, Rama (an Avatar of Vishnu) performs a "pravpavesha" (prayer, tapasya) to Varuna, the Lord of Oceans, for three days and three nights, states Ramesh Menon. Varuna does not respond, and Rama arises on the fourth morning, enraged. He states to his brother Lakshamana that "even lords of the elements listen only to violence, Varuna does not respect gentleness, and peaceful prayers go unheard".  With his bow and arrow, Rama prepares to attack the oceans to dry up the waters and create a bed of sand for his army of monkeys to cross and thus confront Ravana. Lakshmana appeals to Rama, translates Menon, that he should return to "peaceful paths of our fathers, you can win this war without laying waste the sea". Rama shoots his weapon sending the ocean into flames. As Rama increases the ferocity of his weapons, Varuna arises out of the oceans. He bows to Rama, stating that he himself did not know how to help Rama because the sea is deep, vast and he cannot change the nature of sea. Varuna asked Rama to remember that he is "the soul of peace and love, wrath does not suit him". Varuna promised to Rama that he will not disturb him or his army as they build a bridge and cross over to Lanka.

In Tolkappiyam.

The Tolkāppiyam, a Tamil grammar work from 3rd century BCE divides the people of ancient Tamilakam into 5 Sangam landscape divisions: "kurinji, mullai, paalai, marutham" and "neithal". Each landscape are designated with different gods. "Neithal" is described as a seashore landscape occupied by fishermen and seatraders, with the god of sea and rain, "Varunan" or "Kadalōn". "Varuna" means water which denotes the ocean in the Tamil language.

Sindhi Hindus.

Jhulelal is believed by Sindhi Hindus to be an incarnation of Varuna. They celebrate the festival of Cheti Chand in his honor. The festival marks the arrival of spring and harvest, but in Sindhi community it also marks the mythical birth of Uderolal in year 1007, after they prayed to Hindu god Varuna to save them from the persecution by tyrannical Muslim ruler named Mirkhshah. Uderolal morphed into a warrior and old man who preached and reprimanded Mirkhshah that Muslims and Hindus deserve the same religious freedoms. He, as Jhulelal, became the champion of the people in Sindh, from both religions. Among his Sufi Muslim followers, Jhulelal is known as "Khwaja Khizir" or "Sheikh Tahit". The Hindu Sindhi, according to this legend, celebrate the new year as Uderolal's birthday.

Buddhism.

Theravada.

The Pali Canon of the Theravada school recognizes Varuṇa (Sanskrit; Pali: Varuna) as a king of the devas and companion of Sakka, Pajāpati and Isāna. In the battle against the Asuras, the devas of Tāvatiṃsa were asked to look upon the banner of Varuna in order to have all their fears dispelled (S.i.219).  The Tevijja Sutta mentions him among Indra, Soma, Isāna, Pajāpati, Yama and Mahiddhi as gods that are invoked by the brahmins.  The Ātānātiya Sutta lists him among the Yakkha chiefs.  Buddhaghosa states (SA.i.262) that Varuna is equal in age and glory (vanna) with Sakka and takes the third seat in the assembly of devas.

Mahayana.

In East Asian Buddhism, Varuna is a dharmapāla and often classed as one of the Twelve Devas (Japanese:, 十二天). He presides over the western direction.  In Japan, he is called "Suiten" (水天 lit. "water deva"). He is included with the other eleven devas, which include Taishakuten (Śakra/Indra), Fūten(Vāyu), Emmaten (Yama), Rasetsuten (Nirṛti/Rākṣasa), Ishanaten (Īśāna), Bishamonten (Vaiśravaṇa/Kubera), Katen (Agni) Bonten (Brahmā), Jiten (Pṛthivī), Nitten (Sūrya/Āditya), and Gatten (Candra).

Shinto.

Varuna is also worshipped in Japan's Shinto religion. One of the Shinto shrines dedicated to him is the "Suitengū" ("Palace of Suiten") in Tokyo. After the Japanese emperor issued the "Shinbutsu bunri", the separation of Shinto and Buddhist practices as part of the Meiji Restoration, Varuna/Suiten was identified with the Japanese supreme God, Amenominakanushi.

Varuna (;,, Malay: "Baruna") is a Vedic deity associated initially with the sky, later also with the seas as well as Ṛta (justice) and Satya (truth). He is found in the oldest layer of Vedic literature of Hinduism, such as hymn 7.86 of the "Rigveda". He is also mentioned in the Tamil grammar work "Tolkāppiyam", as the god of sea and rain. He is said to be the son of Kashyapa (one of the seven ancient sages).

Varuna (devanāgarī वरुण [ʋəruɳə]) est l'une des divinités les plus importantes du panthéon du védisme en tant que dieu du ciel, du « serment » et de l'ordre du monde, le rita. Il devient dans l'hindouisme le dieu de l'océan, le gardien de l'orient (lokapala) de l'ouest.


Geography.

The Sahel extends inland to the hills which protect the low plains of the coast and are covered in olive plantations; the region's low rainfall is compensated for by the atmospheric humidity.  Since antiquity, it has formed a clear geographic unity with its own unique demographic and economic characteristics. Today it consists of the governorates of Sousse, Monastir and Mahdia.  Its geographic area is quite large: about 140 km from north to south and varying between twenty and sixty kilometres east to west. The total area is around, 4.02% of the total surface area of Tunisia.

History.

Long inhabited, the area of the modern Tunisian Sahel seems to have been a distinct region dominated by urban settlements on the sea since antiquity; this tradition predates the region's conversion to Islam and Arabisation, but its continuity with region's Arab history is clear.

Phoenician settlement.

Most of the cities of the Sahel were founded by the Phoenicians. Thus Hadrumetum was founded at the beginning of the 9th century BC by Tyre - even before Carthage. It gained importance in the following centuries, becoming one of the main Phoenician ports in the Western Mediterranean. The area was a key part of the Carthaginian empire, but after the Second Punic War it came under increasing Numidian influence. In 146 BC, after the Third Punic War, it became part of the new Roman province of Africa.

Rome and Byzantium.

The Sahel was the location of one of the key battles of the War between Pompey and Caesar. Julius Caesar landed at Ruspina on 28 December 47 BC, marched to Thapsus and put it under siege at the end of February 46 BC. The Battle of Thapsus took place on 6 April and was a massive victory for Caesar and the city surrendered to him shortly after. Then he proceeded to take control of northern Tunisia.  Around 293 AD the Romans divided the province of Africa and the Sahel became its own province, named Byzacena, which was among the provinces ceded to the Vandals in 442. It was recaptured by the Eastern Roman Empire in the Vandalic War and then formed one of the seven provinces of the Exarchate of Africa, which stretched west to the Atlantic.

Caliphates.

With the arrival of Islam and the establishment of the capital of Ifriqiya, Kairouan, in the region, the Sahel's maritime ports became the key to its security. This explains the construction of several ribats in the region, which served defensive, religious and Maraboutic purposes. The most important ribats are those of Monastir, built by governor Harthama ibn A'yun in 796, and of Sousse, built by the Aghlabid emirs.

African Emirates.

The city of Sousse received a shipyard which played an important role in the conquest of Sicily, which was launched from it.  The foundation of Mahdia by the Fatamids in 916 gave the Sahel a key political role which continued under the Zirids. Kairouan lost some of its religious role to Monastir, where the Zirid princes and other luminaries, such as the Imam Mezri, were buried. Mahdia became the seat of a splendid court which drew poets from across the Maghreb, Al-Andalus and Sicily. However, the invasion of Banu Hilal plunged the region into chaos and Tunisia fractured into numerous taifas; only the Sahel remained under Zirid control. Even Sousse broke away from their power, adopting a republican government. The invasion led to the further urbanisation of the region, with the establishment of many villages which still exist today. A little later the region suffered from Norman attacks – Mahdia was taken in 1148 by troops of Roger II of Sicily – until the arrival of the Almohads in 1160. After this period the Sahel experienced a decline in importance following the transfer of the capital to Tunis.

Ottoman Beylik.

In the 19th century, the Sahel was divided into two qaidates, one based at Sousse and the other at Monastir, which occupied approximately the same area as the modern Tunisian governorates of Monastir and Mahdia. They were alternatively called "awtan" (plural of "watan", meaning "district"), individually "watan Susah" and "watan al'Munastir". The two qaidates were awarded only to individuals close to the beys. Often both positions were controlled by a single individual, as was the case with the grand viziers Shakir al-Taba'a (1836) and Mohammed Khaznadar (1851), who was also named "Mohammed governor of the Sahel" ("Mohammed 'amil as-Sahil"). The majority of the cities and villages of the Sahel revolted against the Bey in 1864. After this, the general Ahmed Zarrouk imposed a heavy tribute (financed by the sail of goods and property) and confiscated large areas of olive plantation.

French occupation.

After the establishment of a French protectorate, the new power established the qaidate of Jemmal (which took part of modern Monastir and Mahdia governorates) and centralised the region at Sousse which became the seat of civil government, contributing to the weakening of the other regional centres.

After Independence.

After independence, the government of Neo Destour ended the Sahel's administrative union during the abolition of the qaidates and establishment of the modern system of governorates. The whole region was under the control of the governor of Sousse from 1956 to 1974, when the governorates of Monastir and Mahdia were created.

Demographics.

The Sahel has long been characterised by a large population; its three governorates contain inhabitants of 1,634,611 million peoples The region is thus the Third most populous in Tunisia after North East Tunisia region and South East Tunisia.

Economy.

The Sahel occupies a central position on the Mediterranean Sea and is one of the country's most important areas for bathing and tourism on account of the large number of beaches. The cities of Monastir and Sousse are key tourist centres and Mahdia has been attempting to develop its tourist industry since the 1990s. It is home to the Monastir Habib Bourguiba International Airport, which is the busiest airport in the country in terms of passenger numbers and has the most charter flights of any airport in Africa. There is a commercial port at Sousse, numerous fishing ports and two marinas (Port El Kantaoui and Cap Monastir).  The A1 crosses the region from north to south and there are two railways (national and regional).

Transport.

The public transport authority for bus travel within and between the cities of the Sahel is the Société de transport du Sahel (STS), which has its headquarters at Sousse and is divided into three regional branches corresponding to the three governorates. The Sahel Metro is the regional railway line, making several trips daily between Mahdia and Sousse.  The Sahel is an important part of the Tunisian autoroute network, with a major node of the A1 at M'saken, which continues north for 140 km to Tunis and south for 98 km to Sfax. A parallel route runs along the coast.

Sport.

The region's name is used by the omnisports club of Sousse, the Étoile sportive du Sahel. The club is supported throughout the region and is one of the most popular sporting clubs in the country. The football club Étoile Sportive du Sahel has achieved several continental victories. The second famous and historical omnisports team in the region is US Monastir located in Monastir since 1923 under the name of Ruspina Sports that was changed in 1942 by Union Sportive Monastirienne. The club was known as the club of the first president of Tunisia native from Monastir Habib Bourguiba who was seen present in Mustapha Ben Jannet stadium for many times. The football club plays in the first division of Tunisian league and has no national and continental title, and the basketball team has won several Tunisian titles and one continental title.  The region is also known for handball, the second most popular sport in Tunisia. The region is home to several handball clubs, of which the most important are the Étoile Sportive du Sahel H.C., El Makarem de Mahdia and SC Moknine.

The Tunisian Sahel () or more precisely the Central East Tunisia Region is an area of central eastern Tunisia and one of the Six Tunisian Regions. It stretches along the eastern shore, from Hammamet in the north to Mahdia in the south, including the governorates of Monastir, Mahdia, Sfax, and Sousse. Its name derives from the Arabic word "sāḥil" (ساحل), meaning "shore" or "coast". The regions' economy is based especially on tourism and it contains the second biggest airport in Tunisia: Monastir Habib Bourguiba International Airport.

Le Sahel tunisien () est une région de l'est de la Tunisie s'étendant du golfe d'Hammamet au nord à Chebba au sud. Son nom vient du mot arabe "sahel" signifiant « littoral ».


Background.

Jackson's sixth solo album, "Thriller", was released in 1982, and by 1984 it was certified 20× platinum for sales of 20 million copies in the United States alone. Jackson was widely considered the most powerful African American in the history of the entertainment industry, whose popularity was comparable only to Elvis Presley in the 1950s and the Beatles in the 1960s.  The four years following "Thriller" were marred by Jackson's rifts with his family and the Jehovah's Witnesses, broken friendships with celebrities, and the pressure of celebrity. Jackson aimed to sell 100 million copies with his next album. According to some associates, Jackson was nervous about completing his next album. Reports spread of eccentric behavior and changing appearance, including a more chiselled face, fairer complexion, a perkier nose, and a cleft chin. In 1987, "Spin" wrote that "in record time, [Jackson] has gone from being one of the most admired of celebrities to one of the most absurd. And the pressure to restore himself in the public eye is paralyzing him."  Jackson wanted to move in a new musical direction, with a harder edge and fiercer sound. According to guitarist Steve Stevens, who featured on "Bad", Jackson asked about rock bands including Mötley Crüe. After Jackson had written a handful of the tracks on "Off the Wall" and "Thriller", producer Quincy Jones encouraged him to write more for his followup. Jones recalled: "All the turmoil [in Jackson's life] was starting to mount up, so I said I thought it was time for him to do a very honest album."

Production.

"Bad" was Jackson's final collaboration with co-producer Quincy Jones, who had produced "Off the Wall" and "Thriller". Jackson began recording demos for the anticipated follow-up to "Thriller" in November 1983 while recording "Victory" with the Jacksons. He spent much of 1985 to 1987 out of the public eye, writing and recording at his home studio in Encino, Los Angeles, with a group of musicians and engineers including Bill Bottrell known as the "B team". The demos were brought to Westlake Studio to be finished by the "A team", with Jones and engineer Bruce Swedien. Jones said the team would stay up for days on end when they "were on a roll": "They were carrying second engineers out on stretchers. I was smoking 180 cigarettes a day."  Jackson was eager to find innovative sounds and was interested in new music technology. The team made extensive use of new digital synthesizers, including FM synthesis and the Fairlight CMI and Synclavier PSMT synthesizers. They sometimes combined synthesizers to create new sounds. Jackson hired Synclavier expert and sound designer Denny Jaeger to create sounds used on "Dirty Diana" and "Smooth Criminal". Drum programming resulted in a sleeker and a more aggressive, sinister sound."" Other instruments include guitars, organs, drums, bass, percussion and saxophones, washboard and digital guitars.  Work was disrupted in July 1984, when Jackson embarked on the Victory Tour with his brothers. Work resumed in January 1985 after the tour ended and after Jackson had recorded "We Are the World". In mid-1985, work was disrupted again so Jackson could prepare for Disney's 4D film experience Captain EO, which featured an early version of the "Bad" song "Another Part of Me." Studio work resumed in August that same year and continued until November 1986, when Jackson filmed the "Bad" music video. Recording resumed in January 1987, and the album was completed in July.  Jackson wrote a reported 60 songs, and recorded 30, wanting to use them all on a three-disc set. Jones suggested that the album be cut down to a ten-track single LP. Jackson is credited for writing all but three songs; other writing credits include Terry Britten and Graham Lyle for "Just Good Friends" and Siedah Garrett and Glen Ballard for "Man in the Mirror".

Composition and lyrics.

"Bad" is musically a heavier and more "aggressive" record than "Thriller", with Jackson moving away from the heavy-groove sound and high-pitched vocals which featured on both "Off the Wall" and "Thriller". "Bad" primarily incorporates pop, rock, funk and R&B, but also explores other genres such as soul and hard rock. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic noted that "Bad" moved Jackson "deeper into hard rock, deeper into schmaltzy adult contemporary, deeper into hard dance – essentially taking each portion of "Thriller" to an extreme, while increasing the quotient of immaculate studiocraft."  "Liberian Girl"'s lyrics were viewed as "glistening" with "gratitude" for the "existence of a loved one". "Smooth Criminal"'s recalled "the popcorn-chomping manner" of "Thriller". The track was thought of as an example of "Jackson's free-form language" that keeps people "aware that we are on the edge of several realities: the film, the dream it inspires, the waking world it illuminates". The music in "I Just Can't Stop Loving You", a duet with Siedah Garrett, consisted mainly of finger snaps and timpani. "Just Good Friends" is a duet with Stevie Wonder; Jones said later: "I made a mistake with ['Just Good Friends']. That didn't work."  Jackson's mother, Katherine Jackson, wanted him to write an R&B song with a shuffle rhythm for the album, which came to be "The Way You Make Me Feel". The song consists of blues harmonies and a jazz-like tone, comparable to the classic Motown sound of the 1960s. The lyrics of "Another Part of Me" deal with being united, as "we". Critics Richard Cromelin (from the "Los Angeles Times") and Richard Harrington (from "The Washington Post") associated the song's lyrics with the Harmonic Convergence phenomenon that occurred around the time of the album's release, with Harrington highlighting the verse: "The planets are lining up / We're bringing brighter days / They're all in line / Waiting for you / Can't you see? / You're just another part of me".

Release.

"Bad" was released on August 31, 1987. Described as "the most anticipated album in history" by the "Miami Herald", it debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 and remained there for six consecutive weeks. "Bad" sold at least 2 million copies in its first week of sales in the US and was eventually certified diamond for shipping 10 million copies in the US alone, however, it failed to match the sales of "Thriller" in the US, causing some in the media to label the album a disappointment. Michael Goldberg and David Handelman had predicted that "If "Bad" sells 'only' 10 million copies, that will be more than virtually any other record but could be viewed as a failure for Michael Jackson".  In the UK, "Bad" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, selling 500,000 copies in its first five days. It was the country's best-selling album of 1987. The album peaked at number one in 25 countries in total including Austria, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK. It also charted at No. 13 in Mexico and at No. 22 in Portugal. "Bad" sold 7 million copies worldwide in its first week and 18 million copies in its first year. By 1991, it was become the second-best-selling album of all time, behind "Thriller", having sold 25 million copies worldwide.  In the UK, "Bad" certified 13 times platinum with sales of 3.9 million, making it Jackson's second best-selling album there. It was certified seven times platinum for the shipment of over 700,000 copies in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. In Europe, the 2001 reissue was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for the sales of one million units. The album was also certified platinum by the IFPI for the shipment of over 20,000 copies in Hong Kong. Globally, "Bad" is Jackson's second best-selling album behind "Thriller", with sales of 35 million copies.

Promotion.

The marketing strategy for "Bad" was modeled on that for "Thriller". Similarly to the first "Thriller" single, "The Girl Is Mine", the first "Bad" single, "I Just Can't Stop Loving You", was a ballad duet, followed by two "more obvious modern pop knockouts" backed by music videos.  A commemorative special on Jackson's life, "The Magic Returns", aired on CBS during prime time on the day of the release of "Bad". At the end of the documentary, the channel debuted the short film for "Bad", directed by Martin Scorsese and featuring Wesley Snipes. The marketing strategy, mastered by Frank DiLeo among others, also included Jackson producing another mini-movie around the time of the Bad world tour. That film, "Moonwalker" (1988), included performances of songs from "Bad", including "Speed Demon", "Leave Me Alone", "Man in the Mirror" and "Smooth Criminal", the latter two released as sole videos at the end of the film. The film also included the music video for "Come Together", with the song featuring seven years later on "". It became the best-selling home video of all time.  Sponsored by Pepsi, the Bad tour began in Japan, marking Jackson's first performances there since 1972 with the Jackson 5. Attendance figures for the first 14 dates in Japan totalled a record-breaking 450,000. Jackson performed seven sold out shows at Wembley Stadium, beating the previous record held by Madonna, Bruce Springsteen and Genesis. The third concert on July 16, 1988 was attended by Diana, Princess of Wales and Prince Charles. Jackson was entered into the "Guinness World Records" three times from the tour alone. The Bad tour was a major financial success, grossing $125 million. Jackson performed 132 concerts in 15 countries to an audience of 4.4 million.  For the "Bad" era, Jackson wore black outfits decorated with zippers and buckles, similar to his outfit on the "Bad" album cover. Stevens recalled that when he met Jackson, "I was wearing patent leather, he [Jackson] was wearing penny loafers. I turned him [Jackson] onto the guy who did my clothes." Jackson also grew out his jheri curl over shoulder-length and began wearing eye liner.

Singles.

"I Just Can't Stop Loving You", a duet with Siedah Garrett, was the lead single. It peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and also reached number one in Belgium, Canada, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, the UK and Zimbabwe.  "Bad" reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and remained there for two weeks, becoming the album's second number-one single, and Jackson's eighth number one entry on the chart. It also peaked at number one on the Hot R&B Singles, Hot Dance Club Play and Rhythmic chart. Internationally, the song was also commercially successful, charting at the top of the charts in seven other countries including Ireland, Italy, Norway, Spain, and the Netherlands.  "The Way You Make Me Feel" was the third consecutive "Billboard" Hot 100 number one hit and also hit number one in Ireland and Spain. Jackson performed the song at the 1988 Grammy Awards.  "Man in the Mirror" charted at number one on "Billboard"s Hot 100. It hit number one in Canada and Italy too. Jackson performed the song at the 1988 Grammy Awards. It was nominated for Record of the Year at the next year's 1989 Grammy Awards.  "Dirty Diana" was the record-breaking fifth "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one single from "Bad". Before the start of the Wembley Stadium show during the Bad tour in 1988, Diana, Princess of Wales, who was in attendance, informed Jackson that it was one of her personal favorite songs  "Another Part of Me" achieved less success, reaching number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but topped the R&B Singles Chart. Like Jackson's earlier songs in his career such as "Can You Feel It" and "We Are the World", the lyrics of the song emphasize global unity, love and outreach.  "Smooth Criminal" became the sixth top 10 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, peaking at number seven. The song reached number one in Belgium, Iceland, the Netherlands and Spain. Though it was not one of the "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one singles, in retrospective reviews it has been regarded as one of the best songs on "Bad" and one of Jackson's signature songs.  Released outside the United States and Canada, "Leave Me Alone" topped the Irish charts and reached the top ten in five other countries. "Leave Me Alone" was Jackson's response to negative and exaggerated rumors about Jackson that frequently appeared in the tabloids post-1985 after the success of "Thriller." The music video was the recipient of Best Music Video at the 1990 Grammy Awards.  The album's final single, "Liberian Girl", did not chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but reached the top 20 in various countries and reached number one in Ireland. The song has been sampled and covered by various artists including Chico Freeman, 2Pac and MC Lyte.  "Bad" became the first album to have five consecutive singles peak at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In 2011, the record was tied by American singer Katy Perry's "Teenage Dream". In the UK, seven of the "Bad" singles reached the UK top ten which was a record for any studio album for over 20 years.

Covers.

In 1988, "Weird Al" Yankovic recorded "Fat", a parody of "Bad", which won a Grammy Award for Best Concept Music Video at the 1989 Grammy Awards.

Critical reception.

Davitt Sigerson from "Rolling Stone" wrote that "even without a milestone recording like 'Billie Jean', "Bad" is still a better record than "Thriller"." He believed the filler, such as "Speed Demon", "Dirty Diana" and "Liberian Girl", made "Bad" "richer, sexier and better than "Thriller's" forgettables." In a contemporary review for "The New York Times", Jon Pareles called "Bad" "a well-made, catchy dance record by an enigmatic pop star". He said while nothing on the record compared to "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'", the music's "concocted synthesizer-driven arrangements" were "clear" and carried "a solid kick". In "USA Today", Edna Gundersen called it Jackson's "most polished effort to date," that is "calculated but not sterile."  "The Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau was also critical. While he felt album's "studio mastery" and Jackson's "rhythmic and vocal power" made for "the strongest and most consistent black pop album in years", he lamented its lack of "genius" in the vein of "Beat It" or "Billie Jean" and panned the lyrical themes: "He's against burglary, speeding, and sex ('Dirty Diana' is as misogynistic as any piece of metal suck-my-cock), in favor of harmonic convergence and changing the world by changing the man in the mirror. His ideal African comes from Liberia. And he claims moonwalking makes him a righteous brother. Like shit."  "The Daily Telegraph" commented that while "Bad" was another worldwide commercial success, the album "inevitably failed to match the success of "Thriller" despite Jackson's massive and grueling world tour", though "Rolling Stone" commented that "the best way to view" "Bad" was not as "the sequel to "Thriller". Richard Harrington of "The Washington Post" felt that while the album could not live up to post-"Thriller" expectations, it would be "considerably fairer to compare" "Bad" with "Off the Wall". His overall opinion on "Bad" was that it was "a very good record" that is "immaculately produced and with some scintillating vocal performances from Jackson". Richard Cromelin of the "Los Angeles Times" called "Bad" "a fair-to-strong array of soul and rock blends", commenting that the record was "not bad" and was more "reminiscent of "Off the Wall"s uniform strength than "Thriller"s peaks and valleys". Cromelin felt that it would be "disappointing" if this album's "creative level" is where Jackson wants to stay.  In 1988, "Bad" was nominated for Grammy Awards for Album of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Performance – Male, Best R&B Vocal Performance – Male, and won for Best Engineered Recording – Non Classical. The following year, it was nominated for Record of the Year for "Man in the Mirror", and in 1990 won for Best Music Video – Short Form (for "Leave Me Alone"). "Bad" won an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Song at the 1988 American Music Awards. At the 1988 Soul Train Music Awards, the album won Best R&B/Soul Album – Male and "Bad" won Best R&B/Soul Single – Male. The following year, "Man in the Mirror" also won Best R&B/Soul Single – Male. At the 1989 Brit Awards, "Smooth Criminal" won British Video of the Year. At the 1989 "Billboard" Music Awards, "Bad" won Album of the Year. Following the appraisal of the music videos of the singles from "Bad," along with his previous music videos throughout the 1980s, Jackson was awarded the MTV Video Vanguard Artist of the Decade Award.

Legacy and influence.

Reappraisals.

"Bad" has been credited as defining the sound of "late-80s' pop". The album further set the standard for innovation in music videos following the success of the music videos for "Bad", "Smooth Criminal", "The Way You Make Me Feel" and "Leave Me Alone". A writer for the "Miami Herald" reflected back on the anticipation for "Bad", describing the album's release as being the "most hotly anticipated album in history". In a retrospective review for BBC Music, Mike Diver regarded "Bad" as a landmark factor of 1980s pop culture: "A multi-million-unit-shifter, "Bad" was (and remains) as important to 1980s pop culture as the rise of the Walkman, the Back to the Future movies, and the shooting of JR. Like 1982’s "Thriller", it’s an album that appeared to easily find a home within the record collection of rockers and poppers, punks and poets alike." Diver also praised the album for being the "best of the best [of its time]" and an "essential pop masterpiece". Writing for "Billboard", Gail Mitchell wrote that "Bad" is "one of the most important pop albums of the late '80s, and one of the most successful albums in "Billboard" chart history".  In 2009, VH1 said of the album:In 2009, Jim Farber of the "Daily News" wrote that "Bad" "streamlined the quirks" of Jackson's two previous albums to "create his most smooth work of pop to date." Writing for "The Root", Matthew Allen claimed that "Bad" was the start of Jackson's three-year "prime" in his "vocals, songwriting, producing, performing and video output". Allen also regarded the album as "[doubling] down on the edge" of "Thriller" in both subject matter and instrumental arrangement. Writing for Albumism, Chris Lacy considered "Bad" possibly being superior to "Off the Wall" and "Thriller:" "Comparisons with "Off the Wall" and "Thriller" are unimportant, except for this one: "Bad" is a pure pop masterpiece that stands parallel with—and, at times, eclipses—its classic predecessors." Lacy also stated that "Bad" set a "new gold standard for pop music and entertainment".  Joseph Vogel was also enthusiastic about the record. "On "Bad", Jackson's music is largely about creating moods, visceral emotions, and fantastical scenarios...[with] each song work[ing] as a dream capsule, inviting the listener into a vivid new sound, story, space." He called "Bad" "a compelling, phantasmagorical album, which a handful of critics recognized from the beginning." According to Jayson Rodriguez of MTV, "following the twin cannons that were "Off the Wall" and "Thriller" wouldn't be an easy task for most, but Jackson's follow-up, 1987's "Bad", was formidable by all accounts." Rodriguez also felt that "Bad" was "wrongfully dismissed by critics because it wasn't the sales blockbuster that "Thriller" was" and that during the "Bad" era, Jackson's vocal hiccups and stammered "shamone" would become staples in his music that were "heightening and highlighting the emotion of his lyrics." Erika Ramirez of "Billboard" highlighted "Another Part of Me" and "Man in the Mirror" for showcasing Jackson as a "caring humanitarian" and emphasizing world unity.

21st century appeal.

25 years after its release, film director Spike Lee claimed that "Bad" sounds the 'freshest' today compared to other "Billboard" 200 number-one albums which were released in 1987, such as U2's "The Joshua Tree", Bruce Springsteen's "Tunnel of Love" and Whitney Houston's "Whitney": "Go to the charts... and see what were the top albums 25 years ago, play those albums now and then play "Bad", and then see which one still sounds fresh and doesn't sound dated." Following the 30th anniversary of the album's release, Kendall Fisher of "E! Online" regarded it as having an impact on contemporary artists; "Essentially, ["Bad"] epitomized the massive influence [Jackson] had on many of today's biggest artists."  American rapper Kanye West claimed that Jackson's outfit in the "Bad" video is "far more influential" than Jackson's outfit in the "Thriller" video. West also said "I almost dress like that [Jackson's outfit in the "Bad" video] today." American rapper Ludacris, who was featured on Canadian singer Justin Bieber's "Baby", said that the music video for the song is "like a 2010 version" of "The Way You Make Me Feel". After the video was released in 2010, MTV said that the video is "the new version" of "The Way You Make Me Feel", also noting that the choreography "uses a few of Jackson's less-suggestive moves."

Rankings.

In 2003, "Bad" was ranked number 202 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and 203 in a 2012 revised list. In "NME"s The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list, "Bad" was ranked number 204. It was also included in the book titled "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". In 2009, VH1 listed "Bad" at number 43 on their list of 100 Greatest Albums of All Time of the MTV Generation. In 2012, "Slant Magazine" ranked the album at number 48 on its list of The 100 Best Albums of the 1980s. "Billboard" ranked "Bad" at number 138 on its list of the Greatest of All Time "Billboard" 200 Albums. It was ranked number 30 in "Billboard"s list of the Greatest of All Time R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, out of 100 albums. On "Billboard"s list of All 92 Diamond-Certified Albums Ranked From Worst to Best: Critic's Take, it was ranked number 41.

"Bad 25".

It was announced on May 3, 2012, that the Estate of Michael Jackson and Epic Records would be releasing a 25th anniversary album of "Bad". The album was named "Bad 25" and was released on September 18, 2012. Since the release of "Bad 25", there has been a discontinuation of the 2001 special edition.

Track listing.

All tracks written by Michael Jackson, except where noted; all tracks produced by Quincy Jones and co-produced by Jackson.  Re-issues of "Bad" feature a number of changes when compared to the original 1987 release:

Personnel.

Personnel as listed in the album's liner notes are:

Bad is the seventh studio album by American singer Michael Jackson. It was released on August 31, 1987 by Epic Records, nearly five years after Jackson's previous album, "Thriller". "Bad" was written and recorded in nearly a year, and was the final collaboration between Jackson and producer Quincy Jones. Jackson co-produced it and composed all but two tracks. The album features appearances from Siedah Garrett and Stevie Wonder. Incorporating pop, rock, funk, R&B, dance, soul and hard rock, Jackson experimented with modern technology, including digital synthesizers and drum machines, resulting in a sleeker and more aggressive sound on "Bad." The lyrical themes include media bias, paranoia, racial profiling, romance, self-improvement, and world peace.

Ce disque fut probablement le plus attendu des années 1980, car il devait succéder à l'album le plus vendu des tous les temps, son prédécesseur "Thriller".


Early life.

Rockefeller was the fifth and last child of Standard Oil co-founder John Davison Rockefeller Sr. and schoolteacher Laura Celestia "Cettie" Spelman. His four older sisters were Elizabeth (Bessie), Alice (who died an infant), Alta, and Edith. Living in his father's mansion at 4 West 54th Street, he attended Park Avenue Baptist Church at 64th Street (now Central Presbyterian Church) and the Browning School, a tutorial establishment set up for him and other children of associates of the family; it was located in a brownstone owned by the Rockefellers, on West 55th Street. His father John Sr. and uncle William Avery Rockefeller Jr. co-founded Standard Oil together.  Initially he had intended to go to Yale University but was encouraged by William Rainey Harper, president of the University of Chicago, among others, to enter the Baptist-oriented Brown University instead. Nicknamed "Johnny Rock" by his roommates, he joined both the Glee and the Mandolin clubs, taught a Bible class, and was elected junior class president. Scrupulously careful with money, he stood out as different from other rich men's sons.  In 1897, he graduated with the degree of Bachelor of Arts, after taking nearly a dozen courses in the social sciences, including a study of Karl Marx's "Das Kapital". He joined the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa.

Business career.

After graduation from Brown, Rockefeller joined his father's business in October 1897, setting up operations in the newly formed family office at 26 Broadway where he became a director of Standard Oil. He later also became a director at J. P. Morgan's U.S. Steel company, which had been formed in 1901. Junior resigned from both companies in 1910 in an attempt to "purify" his ongoing philanthropy from commercial and financial interests after the Hearst media empire unearthed a bribery scandal involving John Dustin Archbold (the successor to Senior as head of Standard Oil) and two prominent members of Congress.  In September 1913, the United Mine Workers of America declared a strike against the Colorado Fuel and Iron (CF&I) company in what would become the Colorado Coalfield War. Junior owned a controlling interest in CF&I (40% of its stock) and sat on the board as an absentee director. In April 1914, after a long period of industrial unrest, the Ludlow Massacre occurred at a tent camp occupied by striking miners. At least 20 men, women, and children died in the slaughter. This was followed by nine days of violence between miners and the Colorado National Guard. Although he did not order the attack that began this unrest, there are accounts to suggest Junior was mostly to blame for the violence, with the awful working conditions, death ratio, and no paid dead work which included securing unstable ceilings, workers were forced into working in unsafe conditions just to make ends meet. In January 1915, Junior was called to testify before the Commission on Industrial Relations. Many critics blamed Rockefeller for ordering the massacre. Margaret Sanger wrote an attack piece in her magazine "The Woman Rebel", declaring, "But remember Ludlow! Remember the men and women and children who were sacrificed in order that John D. Rockefeller Jr., might continue his noble career of charity and philanthropy as a supporter of the Christian faith."  He was at the time being advised by William Lyon Mackenzie King and the pioneer public relations expert, Ivy Lee. Lee warned that the Rockefellers were losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it. It was necessary for Junior to overcome his shyness, go personally to Colorado to meet with the miners and their families, inspect the conditions of the homes and the factories, attend social events, and especially to listen closely to the grievances. This was novel advice, and attracted widespread media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict, and present a more humanized version of the Rockefellers. Mackenzie King said Rockefeller's testimony was the turning point in Junior's life, restoring the reputation of the family name; it also heralded a new era of industrial relations in the country  During the Great Depression, he was involved in the financing, development, and construction of the Rockefeller Center, a vast office complex in midtown Manhattan, and as a result became one of the largest real estate holders in New York City. He was influential in attracting leading blue-chip corporations as tenants in the complex, including GE and its then affiliates RCA, NBC and RKO, as well as Standard Oil of New Jersey (now ExxonMobil), Associated Press, Time Inc, and branches of Chase National Bank (now JP Morgan Chase).  The family office, of which he was in charge, shifted from 26 Broadway to the 56th floor of the landmark 30 Rockefeller Plaza upon its completion in 1933. The office formally became "Rockefeller Family and Associates" (and informally, "Room 5600").  In 1921, Junior received about 10% of the shares of the Equitable Trust Company from his father, making him the bank's largest shareholder. Subsequently, in 1930, Equitable merged with Chase National Bank, making Chase the largest bank in the world at the time. Although his stockholding was reduced to about 4% following this merger, he was still the largest shareholder in what became known as "the Rockefeller bank." As late as the 1960s, the family still retained about 1% of the bank's shares, by which time his son David had become the bank's president.  In the late 1920s, Rockefeller founded the Dunbar National Bank in Harlem. The financial institution was located within the Paul Laurence Dunbar Apartments at 2824 Eighth Avenue near 150th Street, servicing a primarily African-American clientele. It was unique among New York City financial institutions in that it employed African Americans as tellers, clerks and bookkeepers as well as in key management positions. However, the bank folded after only a few years of operation.

Philanthropy and social causes.

In a celebrated letter to Nicholas Murray Butler in June 1932, subsequently printed on the front page of "The New York Times", Rockefeller, a lifelong teetotaler, argued against the continuation of the Eighteenth Amendment on the principal grounds of an increase in disrespect for the law. This letter became an important event in pushing the nation to repeal Prohibition.  Rockefeller was known for his philanthropy, giving over $537 million to myriad causes over his lifetime compared to $240 million to his own family. He created the Sealantic Fund in 1938 to channel gifts to his favorite causes; previously his main philanthropic organization had been the Davison Fund. He had become the Rockefeller Foundation's inaugural president in May 1913 and proceeded to dramatically expand the scope of this institution, founded by his father. Later he would become involved in other organizations set up by Senior: Rockefeller University and the International Education Board.  In the social sciences, he founded the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial in 1918, which was subsequently folded into the Rockefeller Foundation in 1929. A committed internationalist, he financially supported programs of the League of Nations and crucially funded the formation and ongoing expenses of the Council on Foreign Relations and its initial headquarters building in New York in 1921.  He established the Bureau of Social Hygiene in 1913, a major initiative that investigated such social issues as prostitution and venereal disease, as well as studies in police administration and support for birth control clinics and research. In 1924, at the instigation of his wife, he provided crucial funding for Margaret Sanger (who ironically had previously been an opponent of his because of his mistreatment of workers) in her work on birth control and involvement in population issues. He donated five thousand dollars to her American Birth Control League in 1924 and a second time in 1925.  In the arts, he gave extensive property he owned on West 54th Street in Manhattan for the site of the Museum of Modern Art, which had been co-founded by his wife in 1929.  In 1925, he purchased the George Grey Barnard collection of medieval art and cloister fragments for the Metropolitan Museum of Art. He also purchased land north of the original site, now Fort Tryon Park, for a new building, The Cloisters.  In November 1926, Rockefeller came to the College of William and Mary for the dedication of an auditorium built in memory of the organizers of Phi Beta Kappa, the honorary scholastic fraternity founded in Williamsburg in 1776. Rockefeller was a member of the society and had helped pay for the auditorium. He had visited Williamsburg the previous March, when the Reverend Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin escorted him — along with his wife Abby, and their sons, David, Laurance, and Winthrop — on a quick tour of the city. The upshot of his visit was that he approved the plans already developed by Goodwin and launched the massive historical restoration of Colonial Williamsburg on November 22, 1927. Amongst many other buildings restored through his largesse was The College of William & Mary's Wren Building.  In 1940, Rockefeller hosted Bill Wilson, one of the original founders of Alcoholics Anonymous, and others at a dinner to tell their stories. "News of this got out on the world wires; inquiries poured in again and many people went to the bookstores to get the book, "Alcoholics Anonymous." Rockefeller offered to pay for the publication of the book, but in keeping with AA traditions of being self-supporting, AA rejected the money.  Through negotiations by his son Nelson, in 1946 he bought for $8.5 million - from the major New York real estate developer William Zeckendorf - the land along the East River in Manhattan which he later donated for the United Nations headquarters. This was after he had vetoed the family estate at Pocantico as a prospective site for the headquarters (see Kykuit). Another UN connection was his early financial support for its predecessor, the League of Nations; this included a gift to endow a major library for the League in Geneva which today still remains a resource for the UN.  A confirmed ecumenicist, over the years he gave substantial sums to Protestant and Baptist institutions, ranging from the Interchurch World Movement, the Federal Council of Churches, the Union Theological Seminary, the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York's Riverside Church, and the World Council of Churches. He was also instrumental in the development of the research that led to Robert and Helen Lynd's famous Middletown studies work that was conducted in the city of Muncie, Indiana, that arose out of the financially supported Institute of Social and Religious Research.  As a follow on to his involvement in the Ludlow Massacre, Rockefeller was a major initiator with his close friend and advisor William Lyon Mackenzie King in the nascent industrial relations movement; along with major chief executives of the time, he incorporated Industrial Relations Counselors (IRC) in 1926, a consulting firm whose main goal was to establish industrial relations as a recognized academic discipline at Princeton University and other institutions. It succeeded through the support of prominent corporate chieftains of the time, such as Owen D. Young and Gerard Swope of General Electric.

Overseas philanthropy.

In the 1920s, he also donated a substantial amount towards the restoration and rehabilitation of major buildings in France after World War I, such as the Reims Cathedral, the Château de Fontainebleau and the Château de Versailles, for which in 1936 he was awarded France's highest decoration, the Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur, which was awarded decades later to his son David Rockefeller.  He also liberally funded the notable early excavations at Luxor in Egypt, and the American School of Classical Studies for excavation of the Agora and the reconstruction of the Stoa of Attalos, both in Athens; the American Academy in Rome; Lingnan University in China; St. Luke's International Hospital in Tokyo; the library of the Imperial University in Tokyo; and the Shakespeare Memorial Endowment at Stratford-on-Avon.  In addition, he provided the funding for the construction of the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem – the Rockefeller Museum – which today houses many antiquities and was the home of many of the Dead Sea Scrolls until they were moved to the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum.

Conservation.

He had a special interest in conservation, and purchased and donated land for many American National Parks, including Grand Teton (hiding his involvement and intentions behind the Snake River Land Company), Mesa Verde National Park, Acadia, Great Smoky Mountains, Yosemite, and Shenandoah. In the case of Acadia National Park, he financed and engineered an extensive Carriage Road network throughout the park. Both the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Memorial Parkway that connects Yellowstone National Park to the Grand Teton National Park and the Rockefeller Memorial in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park were named after him. He was also active in the movement to save redwood trees, making a significant contribution to Save the Redwoods League in the 1920s to enable the purchase of what would become the Rockefeller Forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park.  In 1951, he established "Sleepy Hollow Restorations", which brought together under one administrative body the management and operation of two historic sites he had acquired: Philipsburg Manor House in North Tarrytown, now called Sleepy Hollow (acquired in 1940 and donated to the Tarrytown Historical Society), and "Sunnyside", Washington Irving's home, acquired in 1945. He bought Van Cortland Manor in Croton-on-Hudson in 1953 and in 1959 donated it to Sleepy Hollow Restorations. In all, he invested more than $12 million in the acquisition and restoration of the three properties that were the core of the organization's holdings. In 1986, Sleepy Hollow Restorations became "Historic Hudson Valley", which also operates the current guided tours of the Rockefeller family estate of Kykuit in Pocantico Hills.  He is the author of the noted life principle, among others, inscribed on a tablet facing his famed Rockefeller Center: ""I believe that every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty"".  In 1935, Rockefeller received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award, "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York." He was awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences in 1943.

Family.

In August 1900, Rockefeller was invited by the powerful Senator Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich of Rhode Island to join a party aboard President William McKinley's yacht, the USS "Dolphin", on a cruise to Cuba. Although the outing was of a political nature, Rockefeller's future wife, philanthropist/socialite Abigail Greene "Abby" Aldrich, was included in the large party; the two had first met in the fall of 1894 and had been courting for over four years.  Rockefeller married Abby on October 9, 1901, in what was seen at the time as the consummate marriage of capitalism and politics. She was a daughter of Senator Aldrich and Abigail Pearce Truman "Abby" Chapman. Moreover, their wedding was the major social event of its time - one of the most lavish of the Gilded Age. It was held at the Aldrich Mansion at Warwick Neck, Rhode Island, and attended by executives of Standard Oil and other companies.  The couple had six children; Abby in 1903, John III in 1906, Nelson in 1908, Laurance in 1910, Winthrop in 1912, and David in 1915.  Abby died of a heart attack at the family apartment at 740 Park Avenue in April 1948. Junior remarried in 1951, to Martha Baird, the widow of his old college classmate Arthur Allen. Rockefeller died of pneumonia on May 11, 1960, at the age of 86 in Tucson, Arizona, and was interred in the family cemetery in Tarrytown, with 40 family members present.  His sons, the five Rockefeller brothers, established an extensive network of social connections and institutional power over time, based on the foundations that Junior - and before him Senior - had laid down. David became a prominent banker, philanthropist and world statesman. Abby and John III became philanthropists. Laurance became a venture capitalist and conservationist. Nelson and Winthrop Rockefeller later became state governors; Nelson went on to become Vice President of the United States under President Gerald Ford.

Residences.

Junior's principal residence in New York was the 9-story mansion at 10 West 54th Street, but he owned a group of properties in this vicinity, including Nos. 4, 12, 14 and 16 (some of these properties had been previously acquired by his father, John D. Rockefeller). After he vacated No. 10 in 1936, these properties were razed and subsequently all the land was gifted to his wife's Museum of Modern Art. In that year he moved into a luxurious 40-room triplex apartment at 740 Park Avenue. In 1953, the real estate developer William Zeckendorf bought the 740 Park Avenue apartment complex and then sold it to Rockefeller, who quickly turned the building into a cooperative, selling it on to his rich neighbors in the building.  Years later, just after his son Nelson become Governor of New York, Rockefeller helped foil a bid by greenmailer Saul Steinberg to take over Chemical Bank. Steinberg bought Junior's apartment for $225,000, $25,000 less than it had cost new in 1929. It has since been called the greatest trophy apartment in New York, in the world's richest apartment building.

Honors and legacy.

In 1929, Junior was elected an honorary member of the Georgia Society of the Cincinnati. In 1935, he received The Hundred Year Association of New York's Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York." In 1939, he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society under statute 12.  The John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library at Brown University, completed in 1964, is named in his honor.

John Davison Rockefeller Jr. (January 29, 1874 – May 11, 1960) was an American financier and philanthropist who was a prominent member of the Rockefeller family. He was the only son among the five children of Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller and the father of the five famous Rockefeller brothers. In biographies, he is commonly referred to as "Junior" to distinguish him from his father, "Senior". His sons included Nelson Rockefeller, the 41st Vice President of the United States; Winthrop Rockefeller, the 37th Governor of Arkansas; and banker David Rockefeller.

John Davison Rockefeller Junior, né le à Cleveland et mort le à Tucson, est un financier et philanthrope américain, et un membre important de la famille Rockefeller.


Etymology.

The earliest attestation of Brighton's name is "Bristelmestune", recorded in the "Domesday Book". Although more than 40 variations have been documented, "Brighthelmstone" (or "Brighthelmston") was the standard rendering between the 14th and 18th centuries.  "Brighton" was originally an informal shortened form, first seen in 1660; it gradually supplanted the longer name and was in general use from the late 18th century, although "Brighthelmstone" remained the town's official name until 1810. The name is of Anglo-Saxon origin. Most scholars believe that it derives from "Beorthelm" + "tūn"—the homestead of Beorthelm, a common Old English name associated with villages elsewhere in England. The "tūn" element is common in Sussex, especially on the coast, although it occurs infrequently in combination with a personal name. An alternative etymology taken from the Old English words for "stony

History.

The first settlement in the Brighton area was Whitehawk Camp, a Neolithic encampment on Whitehawk Hill which has been dated to between 3500 BC and 2700 BC. It is one of six causewayed enclosures in Sussex. Archaeologists have only partially explored it, but have found numerous burial mounds, tools and bones, suggesting it was a place of some importance. There was also a Bronze Age settlement at Coldean. Brythonic Celts arrived in Britain in the 7th century BC, and an important Brythonic settlement existed at Hollingbury Castle on Hollingbury Hill. This Celtic Iron Age encampment dates from the 3rd or 2nd century BC and is circumscribed by substantial earthwork outer walls with a diameter of. Cissbury Ring, roughly from Hollingbury, is suggested to have been the tribal "capital".  Later, there was a Roman villa at Preston Village, a Roman road from London ran nearby, and much physical evidence of Roman occupation has been discovered locally. From the 1st century AD, the Romans built a number of villas in Brighton and Romano-British Brythonic Celts formed farming settlements in the area. After the Romans left in the early 4th century AD, the Brighton area returned to the control of the native Celts. Anglo-Saxons then invaded in the late 5th century AD, and the region became part of the Kingdom of Sussex, founded in 477 AD by king Ælle.  Anthony Seldon identified five phases of development in pre-20th century Brighton. The village of "Bristelmestune" was founded by these Anglo-Saxon invaders, probably in the early Saxon period. They were attracted by the easy access for boats, sheltered areas of raised land for building and better conditions compared to the damp, cold and misty Weald to the north. By the time of the Domesday survey in 1086 it was a fishing and agricultural settlement, a rent of 4,000 herring was established, and its population was about 400. Its importance grew from the Norman era onwards. By the 14th century there was a parish church, a market and rudimentary law enforcement (the first town constable was elected in 1285). Sacked and burnt by French invaders in the early 16th century—the earliest depiction of Brighton, a painting of 1520, shows Admiral Pregent de Bidoux's attack of June 1514—the town recovered strongly based on a thriving mackerel-fishing industry. The grid of streets in the Old Town (the present Lanes area) were well developed and the town grew quickly: the population rose from 1,500 in 1600 to 4,000 in the 1640s. By that time Brighton was Sussex's most populous and important town. Having lost the Battle

Demography.

, the Brighton and Hove district, of which Brighton is the largest area, has an estimated resident population of residents. It is ranked the most populous district in England. Compared to the national average, Brighton has fewer children and old residents but a large proportion of adults aged 20–44.  Brighton has long had an LGBT-friendly history. In a 2014 estimate, 11–15 per cent of the city's population aged 16 or over is thought to be lesbian, gay or bisexual. The city also had the highest percentage of same-sex households in the UK in 2004 and the largest number of civil partnership registrations outside London in 2013.  Brighton has become known as one of the least religious places in the UK, based upon analysis of the 2011 census which revealed that 42 percent of the population profess no religion, far higher than the national average of 25 percent. As part of the Jedi census phenomenon, 2.6 per cent claimed their religion was Jedi Knight, the largest percentage in the country.

Homelessness.

In 2016, Government figures analysed by the charity Shelter revealed that Brighton and Hove had the worst rate for homelessness outside London and is worse than some boroughs in the capital. Based on the Freedom of Information data there are 4,095 people sleeping rough or in emergency or temporary accommodation in the city, suggesting that one in 69 people in Brighton and Hove was homeless. In a charity report issued in November 2016, three areas in Brighton & Hove, East Brighton, Queen's Park, and Moulsecoomb & Bevendean ranked in the top ten per cent nationally for deprivation. Although deprivation in Brighton is distributed across the whole of the city it is more concentrated in some areas than

Geography.

Brighton lies between the South Downs and the English Channel to the north and south, respectively. The Sussex coast forms a wide, shallow bay between the headlands of Selsey Bill and Beachy Head; Brighton developed near the centre of this bay around a seasonal river, the Wellesbourne (or Whalesbone), which flowed from the South Downs above Patcham. This emptied into the English Channel at the beach near the East Cliff, forming "the natural drainage point for Brighton".  Behind the estuary was a stagnant pond called the Pool or Poole, so named since the medieval era. This was built over with houses and shops from 1793, when the Wellesbourne was culverted to prevent flooding, and only the name of the road (Pool Valley, originally Pool Lane) marks its site. One original house survives from the time of the pool's enclosure. Behind Pool Valley is Old Steine (historically "The Steyne"), originally a flat and marshy area where fishermen dried their nets. The Wellesbourne occasionally reappears during times of prolonged heavy rain; author Mark Antony Lower referred to an early 19th-century drawing of the Royal Pavilion showing "quite a pool of water across the Steyne".  Despite 16th-century writer Andrew Boorde's claim that "Bryght-Hempston [is] among the noble ports and havens of the realm", Brighton never developed as a significant port: rather, it was considered as part of Shoreham. Nevertheless, the descriptions "Port of Brighthelmston" or "Port of Brighton" were sometimes used between the 14th and 19th centuries, as for example in 1766 when its notional limits were defined for customs purposes.  The East Cliff runs for several miles from Pool Valley towards Rottingdean and Saltdean, reaching above sea level. The soil beneath it, a mixture of alluvium and clay with some flint and chalk rubble, has experienced erosion for many years. The cliff itself, like the rest of Brighton's soil, is chalk. Below this are thin layers of Upper and Lower Greensand separated by a thicker band of Gault clay. The land slopes upwards gradually from south to north towards the top of the Downs.  Main transport links developed along the floor of the Wellesbourne valley, from which the land climbs steeply—particularly on the east side. The earliest settlement was by the beach at the bottom of the valley, which was partly protected from erosion by an underwater shale-bar. Changes in sea level affected the foreshore several times: disappeared in the first half of the 14th century, and the Great Storm of 1703 caused widespread destruction. The first sea defences were erected in 1723, and a century later a long sea-wall was built.

Governance and politics.

Brighton is covered by two constituencies in the Parliament of the United Kingdom: Brighton Kemptown and Brighton Pavilion. Both are marginal constituencies which were held by Labour from 1997 to 2010. In the 2017 general election, Brighton Kemptown elected the Labour MP Lloyd Russell-Moyle, replacing a Conservative MP. In the 2010 general election Brighton Pavilion elected Caroline Lucas, the first Green Party MP; she was re-elected in 2015, 2017 and again at the 2019 general election.  As of, there are 21 wards in the city of Brighton and Hove, of which 12 are in Brighton. Regency, St Peter's & North Laine, Preston Park, Withdean, Patcham, Hollingdean & Stanmer and Hanover & Elm Grove are part of the Brighton Pavilion constituency; Moulsecoomb & Bevendean, Queen's Park, East Brighton, Woodingdean and Rottingdean Coastal are covered by the Brighton Kemptown constituency.  The newly created Borough of Brighton consisted of six wards in 1854: St Nicholas, St Peter, Pier, Park, Pavilion and West. When the territory was extended to include part of Preston parish in 1873, the new area became a seventh ward named Preston. The seven were split into 14 in 1894: Hanover, Kemp Town (renamed King's Cliff in 1908), Lewes Road, Montpelier, Pavilion, Pier, Preston, Preston Park, Queen's Park, Regency, St John, St Nicholas,

Economy.

In 1985, the Borough Council described three "myths" about Brighton's economy. Common beliefs were that most of the working population commuted to London every day; that tourism provided most of Brighton's jobs and income; or that the borough's residents were "composed entirely of wealthy theatricals and retired businesspeople" rather than workers. Brighton has been an important centre for commerce and employment since the 18th century. It is home to several major companies, some of which employ thousands of people locally; as a retail centre it is of regional importance; creative, digital and new media businesses are increasingly significant; and, although Brighton was never a major industrial centre, its railway works contributed to Britain's rail industry in the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the manufacture of steam locomotives.  Since the amalgamation of Brighton and Hove, economic and retail data has been produced at a citywide level only. Examples of statistics include: Brighton and Hove's tourism industry contributes £380m to the economy and employs 20,000 people directly or indirectly; the city has 9,600 registered companies; and a 2001 report identified it as one of five "supercities for the future". In the past couple of years tourists to Brighton and Hove have fallen in numbers. Over 2016, day visitors to Brighton and Hove dropped by an average of 2,400 per day. In August 2017, new figures for the year showed Brighton's tourism had fallen by a further 1% on the previous year.

Commerce and industry.

Brighton's largest private sector employer is American Express, whose European headquarters are at John Street. As of 2012, about 3,000 people work there. Planning permission to demolish the old Amex offices and build a replacement was granted in 2009, and work started in March 2010. Other major employers include Lloyds Bank, Legal & General, Asda (which has hypermarkets at Hollingbury and Brighton Marina), Brighton & Hove Bus and Coach Company and call-centre operator Inkfish. In 2012, it was reported that about 1,500 of Gatwick Airport's 21,000 workers lived in

Retail.

The Lanes form a retail, leisure and residential area near the seafront, characterised by narrow alleyways following the street pattern of the original fishing village. The Lanes contain predominantly clothing stores, jewellers, antique shops, restaurants and pubs. The North Laine area is a retail, leisure and residential area immediately north of the Lanes. Its name derives from the Anglo-Saxon "Laine" meaning "fields", although the misnomer "North

Landmarks.

The Royal Pavilion, a Grade I listed building, is a former royal palace built as a home for the Prince Regent during the early 19th century, under the direction of the architect John Nash. It is notable for its Indo-Saracenic architecture and Oriental interior. Other Indo-Saracenic buildings in Brighton include the Sassoon Mausoleum, now, with the bodies reburied elsewhere, in use as a chic supper club.  Brighton Marine Palace and Pier (long known as the Palace Pier) opened in 1899; it features a funfair, restaurants and arcade halls. The West Pier was built in 1866 and is one of only two Grade I listed piers in the United Kingdom; it has been closed since 1975. For some time it was under consideration for restoration, but two fires in 2003, and other setbacks, led to these plans being abandoned. Nevertheless, publicity material presented in question-and-answer form during the building of the British Airways i360 observation tower (see below) maintained that the building of the tower would not prove prejudicial to the eventual restoration of the pier.  The observation tower, located at the shore end of the West Pier, opened on 4 August 2016. At 162 metres (531.49 feet) high, and with an observation pod rising to 138 metres (452.75 feet), the i360 is Britain's highest observation tower outside London – taller even than the London Eye.  Brighton Clock Tower, built in 1888 for Queen Victoria's jubilee, stands at the intersection of Brighton's busiest thoroughfares.  Volk's Electric Railway runs along the inland edge of the beach from Palace Pier to Black Rock and Brighton Marina. It was created in 1883 and is the world's oldest operating electric railway.  The Grand Hotel was built in 1864. The Brighton hotel bombing occurred there. Its nighttime blue lighting is particularly prominent along the foreshore.

Churches and other places of worship.

The 11th century (1086) St Nicholas Church is the oldest building in Brighton, commonly known as "The Mother Church". Other notable Anglican churches include the very tall (the highest church interior in Britain) brick-built St Bartholomew's (1874) designed by the architect Edmund Scott; St Peter's (1828); and St Martin's (1875), noted for its ornate interior. Brighton's Quakers run the Friends Meeting House in the Lanes.

Beaches.

Brighton has a expanse of shingle beach, part of the unbroken section within the city limits. Neighbouring Hove is known for its hundreds of painted timber beach huts, but brick-walled chalets are also available on Brighton seafront, especially towards Rottingdean and Saltdean. Especially east of the Palace Pier, a flat sandy foreshore is exposed at low tide. The Palace Pier section of the beach has been awarded blue flag status. Part of the beach adjoining Madeira Drive, to the east of the city centre, has been redeveloped into a sports complex and opened to the public in March 2007, with courts for pursuits such as beach volleyball and ultimate Frisbee among others.  The city council owns all the beaches, which are divided into named sections by groynes—the first of which were completed

Culture.

Cafes and restaurants.

Brighton is characterised by small dining

Cinema.

Brighton featured in a number of popular movies including "Carry on at Your Convenience" (1971), "Quadrophenia" (1979), "The End of the Affair" (1999), "Wimbledon" (2004), "MirrorMask" (2005), "Angus, Thongs and Perfect Snogging" (2008), "The Young Victoria" (2009), "Brighton Rock" (2010 and 1947) and "The Boat that Rocked" (2009).  The Duke

Festivals and rallies.

Each May the city hosts the Brighton Festival and Brighton Fringe, the second largest arts festival in the UK (after Edinburgh). This includes processions such as the Children's Parade, outdoor spectaculars often involving pyrotechnics, and theatre, music and visual arts in venues throughout the city, some brought into this use exclusively for the festival. The earliest feature of the festival, the Artists' Open Houses, are homes of artists and craftspeople opened to the public as galleries, and usually selling the work of the occupants. Since 2002, these have been organised independently of the official Festival and Fringe.  Brighton Fringe runs alongside Brighton Festival, and has grown to be one of the largest fringe festivals in the world. Together with the street performers from Brighton Festival's "Streets of Brighton" events, and the Royal Mile-esque outdoor performances that make up "Fringe City", outdoor spectacles and events more than double during May.  Other festivals include The Great Escape, featuring three nights of live music in venues across the city; the Soundwaves Festival in June, which shows classical music composed in the 21st Century, and involves both amateur and professional performers; Paddle Round

LGBT community.

The lesbian, gay, bisexual and trans (LGBT) community in Brighton is one of the largest and most prominent in the UK, and Brighton has been described as the "gay capital of the UK". There is record of

Museums.

Brighton museums include Brighton Museum & Art Gallery, Preston Manor, Booth Museum of Natural History, Brighton Toy and Model Museum, and Brighton

Night-life and popular music.

Brighton has many night-life hotspots and is associated with popular musicians including Fatboy Slim, Kirk Brandon, Tim Booth, Nick Cave, David Van Day from Dollar, Adam Freeland, Orbital (band), and Robert Smith. Live music venues include the Concorde2, Brighton Centre and the Brighton Dome, where ABBA received a substantial boost to their career when they won the Eurovision

Theatre.

Theatres include the Brighton Dome and associated Pavilion Theatre, the expanded Komedia (primarily a comedy and music venue but also a theatre), the Old Market which was renovated and re-opened in 2010 and the Theatre Royal which celebrated its

Parks.

Stanmer Park sits on the northern edge of Brighton and extends into the South Downs. The

Education.

The University of Sussex, established in 1961 as the first of the plate-glass universities, is a campus research intensive university between Stanmer Park and Falmer, four miles (6 km) from the city centre. The university is home to the Institute of Development Studies and the Science Policy Research Unit, amongst over 40 other established research centres, and has been ranked first in the world for Development studies by the World University Rankings. Served by trains (to Falmer railway station) and 24-hour buses, it has a student population of around 17,000 students of which about a quarter are postgraduates. The university has been ranked 32nd in the UK and 246th in the world by the World University Rankings.  The University of Brighton, the former Brighton Polytechnic, had a student population of 20,968 in 2005/2006 of which 79% were undergraduates and 63% female. The university is on several sites with additional buildings in Falmer, Moulsecoomb, Eastbourne and Hastings.  In 2001 the music college BIMM (British and Irish Modern Music Institute) opened in Brighton under the name The Brighton Institute of Modern Music. The college has approximately 1500 students across Brighton, its degree courses at BIMM are validated by The University of Sussex and diploma courses are taught at the Brighton Aldridge Community Academy. Notable alumni have included James Bay, The Kooks and Tom Odell. Since the college opened it has expanded to become Europe's

Sport.

Brighton & Hove Albion Football Club is the city's professional association football team. After playing at the Goldstone Ground for 95 years, the club spent 2 years ground-sharing 70 miles away at Gillingham F.C. before returning to the town as tenants of the Withdean Stadium. At the start of the 2011–12 season the club moved permanently to Falmer Stadium, a Premier League level stadium colloquially known as 'the Amex'. Notable achievements include winning promotion to the Football League First Division in 1979 and staying there for 4 seasons. They reached the 1983 FA Cup Final drawing 2–2 with Manchester United before losing in the replay 5 days later. The 2017–18 football season saw Brighton's debut in the Premier League after a win against Wigan Athletic guaranteed automatic promotion to the top flight.  Whitehawk Football Club is a semi-professional association football club based in a suburb in east Brighton. They play in the Conference South league having won promotion three times in the space four years between 2009–13. Games are played at The Enclosed Ground, which is set into the South Downs close to Brighton Marina.  Brighton Football Club (RFU) is one of the oldest Rugby Clubs in England. Brighton was chosen as one of the 13 Rugby World Cup 2015 host cities, with two games being played at the 30,750 capacity Falmer Stadium. (Although it was named the "Brighton Community Stadium" throughout the tournament for sponsorship reasons.) One of the two games played was one of the biggest shocks in the history of Rugby Union, with Japan defeating

Transport.

Brighton has several railway stations, many bus routes, coach services and taxis. A Rapid Transport System has been under consideration for some years. Trolleybuses, trams, ferries and hydrofoil services have operated in the past.  Brighton is connected to the national road network by the A23 (London Road) northwards, and by two east–west routes: the A259 along the coast and the A27 trunk route inland. The A23 joins the M23 motorway at Pease Pottage near Gatwick Airport. The A27 originally ran through the urban area along Old Shoreham Road and Lewes Road, but it now follows the route of the Brighton Bypass (opened in 1990) and the old alignment has become the A270.  A bypass was first proposed in 1932, six routes were submitted for approval in 1973, and the Department of the Environment published its recommended route in 1980. Public enquiries took place in 1983 and 1987, construction started in 1989 and the first section—between London Road at Patcham and the road to Devil's Dyke—opened in summer 1991. By 1985 there were about 5,000 parking spaces in central Brighton. The largest car parks are at London Road, King Street, and the Churchill Square/Regency Road/Russell Road complex. In 1969, a 520-space multi-storey car park was built beneath the central gardens of Regency Square.  Frequent trains operate from Brighton railway station. Many Brighton residents commute to work in London and destinations include London Victoria, London Bridge and St Pancras International. Most trains serve Gatwick Airport, and those operated by Thameslink continue to St Albans, Luton, Luton Airport Parkway and Bedford. The fastest service from London Victoria takes 51 minutes. The West Coastway Line serves stations to Hove, Worthing, Portsmouth and Southampton; and the East Coastway Line runs via Lewes to Newhaven, Eastbourne, Hastings and Ashford, Kent, crossing the landmark London Road viaduct en route and providing "a dramatic high-level view" of Brighton. A wider range of long-distance destinations was served until 2007–08 when rationalisation caused the ending of InterCity services via Kensington (Olympia) and Reading to Birmingham, Manchester and Edinburgh. Twice-daily long-distance services to Bristol and Great Malvern are operated by Great Western Railway via the West Coastway Line.  Until deregulation in 1986, bus services in Brighton were provided by Southdown Motor Services and Brighton Borough Transport under a joint arrangement called "Brighton Area Transport Services". Southdown were part of the nationalised NBC group and were based at Freshfield Road in the Kemptown area; Brighton Borough Transport were owned by the council and used the former tram depot at Lewes Road as their headquarters. Joint tickets were available and revenue was shared. The Brighton & Hove Bus Company, owned by the Go-Ahead Group since 1993, now runs most bus services in Brighton. Its fleet has about 280 buses. Compass Travel, The Big Lemon, Metrobus, Stagecoach South operate services to central Brighton. The city had 1,184 bus stops in 2012, 456 of which had a shelter. Real-time travel information displays are provided at many stops.  The only park and ride facility in Brighton is based at the Withdean Stadium. It does not offer a dedicated shuttle bus service: intending passengers must join the Brighton & Hove Bus Company's route 27 service to Saltdean—which travels via Brighton railway station, the Clock Tower and Old Steine—and pay standard fares. The 20-year City Plan released in January 2013 ruled out an official park-and-ride facility, stating it would be an "inefficient use of public money, particularly in an era of declining car use". Councillors and residents in Woodingdean and Rottingdean have claimed that streets and car parks in those areas have become unofficial park-and-ride sites: drivers park for free and take buses into the city centre.  Brighton Airport is west of Brighton near the town of Shoreham-by-Sea.

Brighton () is a seaside resort in the county of East Sussex. It is a constituent part of the city of Brighton and Hove, created from the formerly separate towns of Brighton and Hove. Brighton is located on the south coast of England, positioned south of London.

Brighton est une ville britannique du Sussex de l'Est, dans la région d'Angleterre du Sud-Est. Elle dépend depuis 1997 de l’autorité unitaire de Brighton et Hove.


Types of file servers.

A file server may be dedicated or non-dedicated. A dedicated server is designed specifically for use as a file server, with workstations attached for reading and writing files and databases.  File servers may also be categorized by the method of access: Internet file servers are frequently accessed by File Transfer Protocol or by HTTP (but are different from, that often provide dynamic web content in addition to static files). Servers on a LAN are usually accessed by SMB/CIFS protocol (Windows and Unix-like) or NFS protocol (Unix-like systems).  Database servers, that provide access to a shared database via a database device driver, are not regarded as file servers as they may require.

Design of file servers.

In modern businesses, the design of file servers is complicated by competing demands for storage space, access speed, recoverability, ease of administration, security, and budget. This is further complicated by a constantly changing environment, where new hardware and technology rapidly obsolesces old equipment, and yet must seamlessly come online in a fashion compatible with the older machinery. To manage throughput, peak loads, and response time, vendors may utilize queuing theory to model how the combination of hardware and software will respond over various levels of demand. Servers may also employ dynamic load balancing scheme to distribute requests across various pieces of hardware.  The primary piece of hardware equipment for servers over the last couple of decades has proven to be the hard disk drive. Although other forms of storage are viable (such as magnetic tape and solid-state drives) disk drives have continued to offer the best fit for cost, performance, and capacity.

Storage.

Since the crucial function of a file server is storage, technology has been developed to operate multiple disk drives together as a team, forming a disk array. A disk array typically has cache (temporary memory storage that is faster than the magnetic disks), as well as advanced functions like RAID and storage virtualization. Typically disk arrays increase level of availability by using redundant components other than RAID, such as power supplies. Disk arrays may be consolidated or virtualized in a SAN.

Network-attached storage.

Network-attached storage (NAS) is file-level computer data storage connected to a computer network providing data access to a heterogeneous group of clients. NAS devices specifically are distinguished from file servers generally in a NAS being a computer appliance – a specialized computer built from the ground up for serving files – rather than a general purpose computer being used for serving files (possibly with other functions). In discussions of NASs, the term "file server" generally stands for a contrasting term, referring to general purpose computers only.  NAS systems are networked appliances containing one or more hard drives, often arranged into logical, redundant storage containers or RAID arrays. Network Attached Storage removes the responsibility of file serving from other servers on the network. They typically provide access to files using network file sharing protocols such as NFS, SMB/CIFS (Server Message Block/Common Internet File System), or AFP.

Security.

File servers generally offer some form of system security to limit access to files to specific users or groups. In large organizations, this is a task usually delegated to directory services, such as openLDAP, Novell's eDirectory or Microsoft's Active Directory.  These servers work within the hierarchical computing environment which treat users, computers, applications and files as distinct but related entities on the network and grant access based on user or group credentials. In many cases, the directory service spans many file servers, potentially hundreds for large organizations. In the past, and in smaller organizations, authentication could take place directly at the server itself.

The term server highlights the role of the machine in the traditional client–server scheme, where the clients are the workstations using the storage. A file server does not normally perform computational tasks or run programs on behalf of its client workstations.

Un serveur de fichiers permet de partager des données à travers un réseau. Le terme désigne souvent l'ordinateur (serveur) hébergeant le service applicatif. Il possède généralement une grande quantité d'espace disque où sont déposés des fichiers. Les utilisateurs peuvent ensuite les récupérer au moyen d'un protocole de partage de fichier.


Usage.

While XFree86 was widely used by most UNIX-like computer operating systems before its license change with version 4.4.0, it has since then been superseded by X.org and is used rarely nowadays. The last remaining operating system distribution to use it was NetBSD, which shipped some platforms with 4.5.0 by default until removing it as obsolete in 2015.<ref name=n/cvsweb></ref><ref name=m/2015/07/23></ref> and later releases use X.org by default on various ports (including i386 and amd64), and X.org is available through NetBSD pkgsrc for architectures for which XFree86 remains the default because of better support. , the codice_1 branch and release were the last to potentially contain XFree86, and XFree86 was completely removed before codice_2 branch and release in 2018.

Architecture.

The XFree86 server communicates with the host operating system's kernel to drive input and output devices, with the exception of graphics cards. These are generally managed directly by XFree86, so it includes its own drivers for all graphic cards a user might have. Some cards are supported by vendors themselves via binary-only drivers.  Since version 4.0, XFree86 has supported certain accelerated 3D graphics cards via the GLX and DRI extensions. Also in the version 4.0, XFree86 moved to a new driver model, from one X server binary per driver to a unique X server capable of loading several drivers at a time.  Because the server usually needs low level access to graphics hardware, on many configurations it needs to run as the superuser, or a user with UID 0. However, on some systems and configurations it is possible to run the server as a normal user.  It is also possible to use XFree86 in a framebuffer device, which in turn uses a kernel graphics card driver.  On a typical POSIX-system, the directory /etc/X11 includes the configuration files. The basic configuration file is /etc/X11/XF86Config (or XF86Config-4) that includes variables about the screen (monitor), keyboard and graphics card. The program "xf86config" is often used, although "xf86cfg" also comes with the XFree86 server and is certainly friendlier. Many Linux distributions used to include a configuration tool that was easier to use (such as Debian's debconf) or autodetected most (if not all) settings (Red Hat Linux and Fedora's "Anaconda", SuSE's "YaST" and Mandrake Linux used to choose this path).

History.

Early history and naming.

The project began in 1992 when David Wexelblat, Glenn Lai, David Dawes and Jim Tsillas joined forces addressing bugs in the source code of the X386 X display server (written by Thomas Roell), as contributed to X11R5. This version was initially called X386 1.2E. As newer versions of the (originally freeware) X386 were being sold under a proprietary software license by SGCS (of which Roell was a partner), confusion existed between the projects. After discussion, the project was renamed X"Free"86, as a pun (compare X-three-eighty-six to X-free-eighty-six). Roell has continued to sell proprietary X servers, most recently under the name "Accelerated-X".

Rise with Linux.

As Linux grew in popularity, XFree86 rose with it, as the main X project with drivers for PC video cards.  By the late 1990s, official X development was moribund. Most technical advancement was happening in the XFree86 project. In 1999, XFree86 was sponsored onto X.Org (the official industry consortium) by various hardware companies interested in its use with Linux and its status as the most popular version of X.

2002: growing dissent within the project.

By 2002, while Linux's popularity, and hence the installed base of X, surged, X.Org was all but inactive; active development was largely carried out by XFree86. However, there was considerable dissent within XFree86.  XFree86 used to have a "Core Team" which was made up of experienced developers, selected by other Core Team members for their merits. Only the members of this Core Team were allowed to commit to CVS. This was perceived as far too cathedral-like in its development model: developers were unable to get commit rights quickly and vendors ended up maintaining extensive patches.  A key event was Keith Packard losing his commit rights. Hours before the feature freeze window for XFree86 4.3.0 started, he committed the XFIXES extension, without prior discussion or without review within the Core Team. The Core Team decided to remove Keith's commit access, but without removing him from the Core Team itself, and the XFIXES extension was backed out 6 weeks later.

2003: The fork and the disbanding of the Core Team.

In March, the Core Team claimed that Keith Packard had been trying to fork the XFree86 project by working inside the project while trying to attract core developers to a new X Server project of his own making. Packard denied this had been his aim, but some emails were provided as evidence otherwise. Keith Packard was subsequently expelled from the Core Team.  A short time later, Keith Packard created xwin.org, which mainly served as a meeting point for cultivating the XFree86 fork. The rest of the year, many of the developers that were still active at XFree86 went over to the project that was being set up at the freedesktop.org and X.org domains.  By the end of the year, due to dwindling active membership and limited remaining development capacity, the XFree86 Core Team voted to disband itself.

2004: Licensing controversy.

Versions of XFree86 up to and including some release candidates for 4.4.0 were under the MIT License, a permissive, non-copyleft free software license. In February 2004, XFree86 4.4 was released with a change to the XFree86 license, by adding a credit clause, similar to that in the original BSD license, but broader in scope. The newer terms are referred to as the XFree86 License 1.1. Many projects relying on XFree86 found the new license unacceptable, and the Free Software Foundation considers it incompatible with the version 2 of the GNU General Public License, though compatible with version 3. The XFree86 Project states that the license is "as GPL compatible as any and all previous versions were", but does not mention which version or versions of the GPL this is valid for.  Some projects made releases (notably OpenBSD 3.5 and 3.6, and Debian 3.1 "Sarge") based on XFree86 version 4.4 RC2, the last version under the old license. Most operating systems incorporating XFree86 (including later versions of OpenBSD and Debian) migrated to the X.Org Server.  The last code commit was in 2009; the project was confirmed dormant in 2011.

Forks of XFree86.

Xwin.

Shortly after he was expelled from the XFree86 Core Team, Keith Packard started setting up xwin.org. While this was claimed to be the fork of XFree86, Keith Packard later refined this to "a forum for community participation in X". Xwin saw a lot of activity in the first two months after the announcements, but most of the activity was happening behind the scenes, and Keith moved his own development to freedesktop.org.

Xouvert.

Xouvert was later also hailed as the first XFree86 fork in August 2003. Even though releases were announced for October 2003 and April 2004, no releases were made. The last status change was made in March 2004 and it was communicated that there were delays in setting up a revision control system.

X.Org.

The X.Org Server became the official reference implementation of X11. The first version, X11R6.7.0, was forked from XFree86 version 4.4 RC2 to avoid the XFree86 license changes, with X11R6.6 changes merged in. Version X11R6.8 added many new extensions, drivers and fixes. It is hosted by and works closely with corporate-sponsored freedesktop.org.  Most of the open-source Unix-like operating systems have adopted the X.Org Server in place of XFree86, and most of the XFree86 developers have moved to X.Org.

XFree86 is an implementation of the X Window System. It was originally written for Unix-like operating systems on IBM PC compatibles and was available for many other operating systems and platforms. It is free and open source software under the XFree86 License version 1.1. It was developed by the XFree86 Project, Inc. The lead developer was David Dawes. The last released version was 4.8.0, released December 2008. The last XFree86 CVS commit was made on May 18, 2009; the project was confirmed dormant in December 2011.

XFree86 est une implémentation libre du système graphique X Window System. XFree86 fonctionne sur la plupart des systèmes d'exploitation de type Unix et également sur Windows en utilisant Cygwin (il s'agit alors de Cygwin/X). Il a été pendant plusieurs années le système graphique utilisé par la plupart des distributions Linux et systèmes BSD, jusqu'au fork de X.Org en 2004.