Profession of Faith.

Human capacity for God.

The Catholic Church teaches that "The desire for God is written in the human heart, because man is created by God and for God; and God never ceases to draw man to himself." While man may turn away from God, God never stops calling man back to him. Because man is created in the image and likeness of God, man can know with certainty of God's

God comes to meet humanity.

The Church teaches God revealed himself gradually, beginning in the Old Testament, and completing this revelation by sending his son, Jesus Christ, to Earth as a man. This revelation started with Adam and Eve, and was not broken

Creeds.

Creeds (from Latin "credo" meaning "I believe") are concise doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They began as baptismal formulas and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.  The Apostles Creed ("Symbolum Apostolorum") was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. It is the most popular creed used in worship by Western Christians. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal

Scriptures.

Christianity regards the Bible, a collection of canonical books in two parts (the Old Testament and the New Testament), as authoritative. It is believed by Christians to have been written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and therefore for many it is held to be the inerrant Word of God. Protestants believe the Bible contains all revealed truth necessary for salvation. This concept is known as Sola scriptura. The books that are considered canonical vary depending upon the denomination using or defining it. These variations are a reflection of the range of traditions and councils that have convened on the subject.

Celebration of the Christian mystery.

Sacraments.

There are seven sacraments of the Church, of which the source and summit is the Eucharist. According to the "Catechism", the sacraments were instituted by Christ and entrusted to the Church. They are vehicles through which God's grace flows into the person who receives them with the proper disposition. In order to obtain the proper disposition, people are encouraged, and in some cases required, to undergo sufficient preparation before being

Liturgy.

Sunday is a holy day of obligation, and Catholics are required to attend Mass. At Mass, Catholics believe that they respond to Jesus' command at the Last Supper to "do this in remembrance of me." In 1570 at the Council of Trent, Pope Pius V codified a standard book for the celebration of Mass for the Roman Rite. Everything in this decree pertained to the priest celebrant and his action at the altar. The participation of the people was devotional rather than liturgical. The Mass text was in Latin, as this was the universal language of the Church. This liturgy was called the Tridentine Mass and endured universally until the Second Vatican

Eastern Catholic.

In the Eastern Catholic Churches, the term "Divine Liturgy" is used in place of "Mass", and various Eastern rites are used in place of the Roman Rite. These rites have remained more constant than has the Roman Rite, going back to early church times. Eastern Catholic and Orthodox liturgies are generally quite similar.  The liturgical action is seen as transcending time and uniting the

Liturgical calendar.

In the Latin Church, the annual calendar begins with Advent, a time of hope-filled preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth and his Second Coming at the end of time. Readings from "Ordinary Time" follow the Christmas Season, but are interrupted by the celebration of Easter in Spring, preceded by 40 days of Lenten preparation and followed by 50 days of Easter celebration.  The Easter (or Paschal) Triduum splits the Easter vigil of the early church into three days of celebration, of Jesusthe Lord's Supper, of Good Friday (Jesus' passion and death on the cross), and of Jesus' resurrection. The season of Eastertide follows the Triduum and climaxes on Pentecost, recalling the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples in the upper room.

Holy Trinity.

The "Trinity" refers to the belief in one God, in three distinct persons or hypostases. Trinity is from Latin Word (Tris Unitas) English (Three in One/One in Three)IJohn 5:7 KJV. These are referred to as 'the Father' (the creator and source of all life), 'the Son' (the word or expression of the Father, who also became incarnate in Jesus Christ), and 'the Holy Spirit' (the bond of love between Father and Son, present in the hearts of humankind). Together, these three persons form a single Godhead. The word "trias", from which "trinity" is derived, is first seen in the works of Theophilus of Antioch. He wrote of "the Trinity of God (the Father), His Word (the Son) and His Wisdom (Holy Spirit)". The term may have been in use before this time. Afterwards it appears in Tertullian. In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.  According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being eternal yet begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit 'proceeding' from Father and (in Western theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference in their origins, the three 'persons' are each eternal and omnipotent. This is thought by Trinitarian Christians to be the revelation regarding God's nature which Jesus Christ came to deliver to the world, and is the foundation of their belief system. According to a prominent Catholic theologian of the 20th century: "In God’s self communication to his creation through grace and Incarnation, God really gives himself, and really appears as he is in himself." This would lead to the conclusion that we come to a knowledge of the immanent Trinity through the study of God's work in the "Economy" of creation and salvation.

God the Father.

The central statement of Catholic faith, the Nicene Creed, begins, "I believe in one God, the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible." Thus,

God the Son.

Catholics believe that Jesus is God incarnate, "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered our pain, finally succumbed to his injuries and gave up his spirit he said, "it is finished." temptations, but did not sin. As true God, he defeated death and rose to life again. According to the New Testament, "God raised him from the dead," he ascended to heaven, is

God the Holy Spirit.

Jesus told his apostles that after his death and resurrection he would send them the "Advocate" (; ), the "Holy Spirit", who "will teach you everything and remind you of all that I told you". In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus tells his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!" The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus); thus, for Catholics, receiving the Holy Spirit is receiving God,

Soteriology.

Sin and salvation.

Soteriology is the branch of doctrinal theology that deals with salvation through Christ. Eternal life, divine life, cannot be merited but is a free gift of God. The crucifixion of Jesus is explained as an atoning sacrifice, which, in the words of the Gospel of John, "takes away the sins of the world." One's reception of salvation is related to justification.

Fall of Man.

According to Church teaching, in an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of angels chose to rebel against God and his reign. The leader of this rebellion has been given many names including

Sin.

Christians classify certain behaviors and acts to be "sinful," which means that these certain acts are a violation of conscience or divine law. Catholics make a distinction between two types of sin. Mortal sin is a "grave violation of God's law" that "turns man away

Jesus Christ as savior.

In the Old Testament, God promised to send his people a savior. The church believes that this savior was Jesus whom John the Baptist called "the lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world". The Nicene Creed refers to Jesus as "the only begotten son of God,... begotten, not made, consubstantial with the Father. Through him all things were made." In a supernatural event called the Incarnation, Catholics believe God came down from heaven for our salvation, became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named Mary. They believe Jesus' mission on earth included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four Gospels. The Church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to grow more like him, and therefore to true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.  The focus of a Christian's life is a firm belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the "Messiah" or "Christ". The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ ("māšiáħ") meaning "anointed one". The Greek translation ("Christos") is the source of the English word "Christ".  Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans (which

Penance and conversion.

Grace and free will.

The operation and effects of grace are understood differently by different traditions. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the necessity of the free will to cooperate with grace. This does not mean we can come to God on our own and then cooperate with grace, as Semipelagianism, an early church heresy, postulates. Human nature is not evil, since God creates no

Forgiveness of sins.

According to Catholicism, forgiveness of sins and purification can occur during life – for example, in the sacraments of Baptism and Reconciliation. However, if this purification is not achieved in life, venial

Baptism and second conversion.

People can be cleansed from all personal sins through Baptism. This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.  The Catholic Church considers baptism so important "parents are obliged to see that their infants are baptised within the first few weeks" and, "if the infant is in danger of death, it is to be baptised without any delay." It declares: "The practice

Penance and Reconciliation.

Since Baptism can only be received once, the sacrament of Penance or Reconciliation is the principal means by which Catholics obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. This is based on Jesus' words to his disciples in the "Gospel of John" 20:21–23. A penitent confesses his sins to a priest who may then offer advice or impose a particular penance to be performed. The penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person's sins. A priest is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any matter heard under the seal of the confessional. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can validly receive the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Confirmation (Chrismation) and the Eucharist.

Afterlife.

"Eschaton".

The Nicene Creed ends with, "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come." Accordingly, the Church teaches each person will appear before the judgment seat of Christ immediately after death and receive a particular judgment based on the deeds of their earthly life. Chapter 25:35–46 of the "Gospel of Matthew" underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all humankind. The final judgment will bring an end to human history. It will also mark the beginning of a new heaven and earth in which righteousness dwells and God will reign forever.  There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Heaven is a time of glorious

Prayer for the dead and indulgences.

The Catholic Church teaches that the fate of those in purgatory can be affected by the actions of the living.  In the same context there is mention of the practice of indulgences. An indulgence is a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven. Indulgences may be obtained for oneself, or on behalf of Christians who have died.  Prayers for the dead and indulgences have been envisioned as decreasing the "duration" of time the dead would spend in purgatory. Traditionally, most indulgences were measured in term of days, "quarantines" (i.e. 40-day periods as for Lent), or years, meaning that they were equivalent to

Salvation outside the Church.

The Catholic Church teaches that it is the one, holy, Catholic, and apostolic Church founded by Jesus. Concerning non-Catholics, the "Catechism of the Catholic Church" states:"Outside the Church there is no salvation."Reformulated positively, this statement means that all salvation comes from Christ the Head through the Church which is his Body:Basing itself on Scripture and Tradition, the Council teaches that the Church, a pilgrim now on earth, is necessary for salvation: the one Christ is the mediator and the way of salvation; he is present to us in his body which is the Church. He himself explicitly asserted the necessity of faith and Baptism, and thereby affirmed at the same time

Ecclesiology.

Church as the Mystical Body of Christ.

Catholics believe the Catholic Church is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth. Jesus told his disciples "Abide in me, and I in you.... I am the vine, you are the branches". Thus, for Catholics, the term "Church" refers not merely to a building or exclusively to the ecclesiastical hierarchy, but first and

One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic.

Section 8 of the Second Vatican Council's Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, "Lumen gentium," states "this Church constituted and organized in the world as a society, subsists in the Catholic Church,

Faith of the church.

Faith of the Church (Latin: "fides ecclesiae") is a basic concept of Catholic theology which implies that not the faithful individual but the Catholic Church as a whole is considered to be the primary carrier of Christian faith. This refers to the act of believing ("fides qua creditur") as well as to the matters of doctrine ("fides quae creditur").  According to Catholic teaching, the Church has received the complete faith by Jesus Christ through the apostles ("depositum fidei"). Led by the Holy Spirit, as promised by Christ (John 16:12-14), the

Devotion to the Virgin Mary and the saints.

Catholics believe that the Church (community of Christians) exists both on earth and in heaven simultaneously, and thus the Virgin Mary and the Saints are alive and part of the living Church. Prayers and devotions to Mary and the saints are common practices in Catholic life. These devotions are not worship, since only God is worshiped. The Church teaches the Saints "do not cease to intercede with the Father for us.... So by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."  Catholics venerate Mary with many titles such as "Blessed Virgin", "Mother of God", "Help of Christians", "Mother of the

Ordained ministry: Bishops, priests, and deacons.

Men become bishops, priests or deacons through the sacrament of Holy Orders. Candidates to the priesthood must have a college degree in addition to another four years of theological training, including pastoral theology. The Catholic Church, following the example of Christ and Apostolic tradition, ordains only males. The Church teaches that, apart from ministry reserved for priests, women should participate in all aspects in the Church's life and leadership  The bishops are believed to possess the fullness of Catholic priesthood; priests and deacons participate in the ministry of the bishop. As a body, the College of Bishops are considered the successors of the Apostles. The pope, cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans are all bishops and members of the Catholic Church episcopate or College of Bishops. Only bishops canperform the sacrament of holy orders.  Many bishops head a diocese, which is divided into parishes. A parish is usually staffed by at least one priest. Beyond their pastoral activity, a priest may perform other functions, including study, research, teaching or office work. They may also be rectors or chaplains. Other titles or functions held by priests include those of Archimandrite, Canon Secular or Regular, Chancellor, Chorbishop, Confessor, Dean of a Cathedral Chapter, Hieromonk, Prebendary, Precentor, etc.  Permanent deacons, those who do not seek priestly ordination, preach and teach. They may also baptize, lead the faithful in prayer, witness marriages, and conduct wake and funeral services. Candidates for the diaconate go through a diaconate formation program and must meet minimum standards set by the bishops' conference in their home country. Upon completion of their formation program and acceptance by their local bishop, candidates receive the sacrament of Holy Orders. In August 2016 Pope Francis established the Study Commission on the Women's Diaconate, to determine whether ordaining women as deacons should be revived. This would include the deacon's role of preaching at the Eucharist.  While deacons may be married, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Church. Protestant clergy who have converted to the Catholic Church are sometimes excepted from this rule. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. A married priest whose wife dies may not remarry. Men with "transitory" homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but men with "deeply rooted homosexual tendencies" who are sexually active cannot be ordained.

Contemporary issues.

Catholic social teaching.

Catholic social teaching is based on the teaching of Jesus and commits Catholics to the welfare of all others. Although the Catholic Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world, individual Catholics are also required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy.

Creation and evolution.

Today, the Church's official position remains a focus of controversy and is non-specific, stating only that faith and scientific findings regarding human evolution are not in conflict, specifically: the Church allows for the possibility that the

Comparison of traditions.

Latin and Eastern Catholicism.

The Eastern Catholic Churches have as their theological, spiritual, and liturgical patrimony the traditions of Eastern Christianity. Thus, there are differences in emphasis, tone, and articulation of various aspects of Catholic theology between the Eastern and Latin churches, as in Mariology. Likewise, medieval Western scholasticism, that of Thomas Aquinas in particular, has had little reception in the East.  While Eastern Catholics respect papal authority, and largely

Orthodox and Protestant.

The beliefs of other Christian denominations differ from those of Catholics to varying degrees. Eastern Orthodox belief differs mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause, and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, but is otherwise

References and notes.

NOTA BENE:

Catholic theology is the understanding of Catholic doctrine or teachings, and results from the studies of theologians. It is based on canonical scripture, and sacred tradition, as interpreted authoritatively by the magisterium of the Catholic Church. This article serves as an introduction to various topics in Catholic theology, with links to where fuller coverage is found.

La théologie catholique est l'écoute, l'analyse, l'interprétation, l'explicitation et l'étude méthodique de l'auto-Révélation de Dieu en Jésus-Christ, par un sujet croyant catholique qui, d’une manière rationnelle, veut approfondir l’intelligence de la foi chrétienne.


Early life.

Born to a Jewish family, Bergman graduated from Binghamton University and earned a Ph.D. in American history from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.  His dissertation, a study of Depression-era Hollywood films, was published in 1971 by NYU Press under the title "We're in the Money: Depression America and Its Films". He wrote "James Cagney: The Pictorial Treasury of Film Stars".

Career.

Screenwriting.

Bergman broke into the film industry by writing the original screenplay (titled "Tex X") that served as the basis for Mel Brooks's classic "Blazing Saddles" (1974), and was among the co-writers who adapted it into its final state.  He wrote a gangster film "Rhapsody in Crime" that was never made. Warner Bros approached him to write a sequel to "Freebie and the Bean" with Peter Falk and Alan Arkin. Instead Bergman came up with "The In-Laws" (1979).

Director.

"The In Laws" was a success, so Bergman could direct his next script, "So Fine" (1981) starring Ryan O'Neal. It was a box office disappointment.  Bergman wrote "Oh, God! You Devil" (1984) and "Fletch" (1985) starring Chevy Chase. The latter was a big hit. Less successful was "Big Trouble" (1986).  He wrote and directed "The Freshman" (1990) starring Marlon Brando and Matthew Broderick and did a rewrite on "Soapdish" (1991). He executive produced a number of movies including "Chances Are" (1989), "White Fang" (1991), "Undercover Blues" (1993) and "Little Big League" (1994).  Bergman wrote and directed "Honeymoon in Vegas" (1992) starring Nicolas Cage, James Caan and Sarah Jessica Parker ; and "It Could Happen To You" (1994) starring Nicolas Cage and Bridget Fonda.  He wrote "The Scout" although he says the resulting film is different from his version.  Bergman wrote and directed "Striptease" (1996) starring Demi Moore; and directed the Jacqueline Susann biopic "Isn't She Great" (2000) starring Bette Midler and Nathan Lane.  He has written four novels: "The Big Kiss-Off of 1944", "Hollywood and LeVine", "Tender Is LeVine", and "Sleepless Nights". He also wrote the Broadway comedy, "Social Security", and "Working Title".  The Andrew Bergman History Writing Prize is awarded by the University of Wisconsin.

Awards.

In 2007, Bergman received the Ian McLellan Hunter Award for Lifetime Achievement in Writing from the Writers Guild of America.

Personal life.

He lives in New York City with his wife. He has two grown sons.

Andrew Bergman (born February 20, 1945) is an American screenwriter, film director, and novelist. "New York" magazine in 1985 dubbed him "The Unknown King of Comedy". His best known films include "Blazing Saddles", "The In-Laws", and "The Freshman".

Andrew Bergman, né le dans le quartier du Queens à New York, est un producteur, un réalisateur, un scénariste et un écrivain américain. Il est principalement connu pour son activité cinématographique, notamment comme réalisateur des comédies "Premiers pas dans la mafia", "Lune de miel à Las Vegas", "Striptease" ou "Milliardaire malgré lui".


Production.

Development.

The burning of Vala in "Avalon (Part 2)" was a challenging sequence for safety reasons and for still making it believable. Stunt people stood in for the fire scenes that Claudia Black couldn't film. Locked-off cameras and different "plates" were later combined to so-called VisFX compshots. The episode "Crusade" was Robert C. Cooper's first time directing on the show. All of Vala's voiceovers in that episode were filmed beforehand so that the director could pick which parts would be voiceover and which parts would be shown.  Since the environment of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, where "SG-1" and "Atlantis" were primarily filmed, was being developed, shooting locations were getting rarer for new offworld stories. The producers countered this with a new reusable village set, with almost 280 feet (85m) in length and 12000 sqfoot (1100 m2) in area, the biggest they ever built. It was an interior and exterior practical set on an effects stage. Three weeks passed between initial conception until building began, although portions had already been built the previous year. Two further weeks passed before filming began. The inspiration for the set were medieval villages, Japanese homes, and Italian structures and buildings. "The Ties That Bind" marks the first appearance of the "Atlantis"-style wormhole effect on the actual series, rather than in just the opening credits.

Cast.

Ben Browder and Beau Bridges joined the main cast in Season 9, as Cameron Mitchell and Hank Landry, respectively. Richard Dean Anderson had left the main cast after Season 8 due to the personal wish to spend more time with his young daughter in Los Angeles. Despite being listed in the cast credits for the whole season and short scenes in "Avalon (Part 1)", Amanda Tapping as Samantha Carter is absent during the first five episodes as she was in the last stages of pregnancy at that time. Her empty spot was filled by guest star Claudia Black, who would leave in "Beachhead" and return for the last two episodes of Season 9, which involved her real-life pregnancy. Another new recurring actor was Lexa Doig as Carolyn Lam, Landry's daughter and the new doctor at Stargate Command.

Writing.

After writing the end of Season 8 as the third series finale in a row and having a positive creative experience with the first season of "Stargate Atlantis", the producers considered starting a new spin-off show called "Stargate Command", but the Sci Fi Channel chose to renew the series into a ninth season. With the departure of Richard Dean Anderson, the producers then decided to start a new chapter and introduced new elements into the series. A major change was the departure from Egyptian mythology and the Goa'uld Empire which had found its climax in the season 8 episode "Threads", and the introduction of Arthurian mythology. "Avalon" was treated like a pilot film, consisting of originally two episodes, but a long script resulted in the extension of the story into the episode "Origin", in which the Ori make their first appearance as new antagonistic race.  The title of the episode "Ex Deus Machina" is a hyperbaton of "deus ex machina" (literally "God out of a Machine", meaning "God appearing on a crane", a literary device for a kind of turn of events) after he jokingly suggested to his writing partners a plot about Ba'al working undercover as a mechanic on Earth. The title also makes a reference to Ba'al as an ex-deus (a former god).  The episode "Ripple Effect" was overly long and had many scenes edited and cut for time. Writer Joseph Mallozzi later posted script sections of all cut scenes online. Asked what the cryptic remark by Black Mitchell meant when he left through the gate at the end of the episode, Mallozzi answered the meaning of this remark will not be revealed in the series but might come up in the "Stargate SG-1" sequels, "" and "". "Camelot" was the first "Stargate SG-1" season finale since "Revelations" that was not intended to be the "SG-1" series finale, and the first one since "Exodus" that was a cliffhanger. The episode was written without the knowledge that "Stargate SG-1" would be picked up for a tenth season.

Release and reception.

The Sci Fi Channel cut the opening sequences of the first ten episodes of the season from sixty to ten seconds for the original broadcast. The sequence only displayed the "Stargate SG-1" logo and a "Created by" credit, main cast credits were displayed during the teaser. Fans had been very negative about this move. British Sky One only aired the first part of "Avalon" with the short opening sequence.  The highest rated Season 9 episode was the season premier two-parter "Avalon" with a household rating of 2.1 each, and held steady between 1.8 and 2.0 until the midseason finale "The Fourth Horseman", which finished with 1.8. The second part of the season oscillated between 1.6 and 1.9 and finished with a household rating of 1.9. The season rating average was 1.8. A review in "TV Guide Special #67" considered Mitchell's introduction in "Avalon" still too reminiscent of the production team's own efforts to turn around the Season Eight finale. Although the review embraced Black's "sparky, sarky characterization of Vala" during Amanda Tapping's absence, the renewed encounter between former "Farscape" cast members Ben Browder and Claudia Black was "oddly... underplayed". The review found a strong similarity of the last ten minutes of "Avalon" (Part 1) to "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade", and the set of the beginning of Part 2 as a "god-awful Merrie Olde England pastiche straight out of "Monty Python and the Holy Grail"." Plotting and technobabble were mentioned as other detrimental facets of Part 2.  The ninth season of "Stargate SG-1" was nominated for several awards in 2006, but won none. "Origin" was nomininated for a Gemini Award in the category "Best Achievement in Make-Up", while both "Beachhead" and "Camelot" were nominated for "Best Visual Effects". "Camelot" was also nominated for a Gemini for "Best Sound in a Dramatic Series". Director of Photography Jim Menard was nominated for a Leo Award in the category "Best Cinematography in a Dramatic Series". Ben Browder and Claudia Black were nominated for a Saturn Award in the categories "Best Actor on Television" and "Best Supporting Actress on Television", respectively. "Stargate SG-1" was also nominated in the Saturn category "Best Syndicated/Cable Television Series", but lost to "Battlestar Galactica", then in its second season.

Episodes.

Episodes in bold are continuous episodes, where the story spans over 2 or more episodes. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude

The ninth season of "Stargate SG-1", an American-Canadian television series, began airing on July 15, 2005 on SCI FI. The ninth season concluded on March 10, 2006, after 20 episodes on the same channel. The series was originally developed by Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner, and Brad Wright, Robert C. Cooper, Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie served as executive producers. The season arc centers on the new threat of the Ori, a race who Daniel Jackson (Michael Shanks) and Vala Mal Doran (Claudia Black) unleash in an unknown galaxy, and who are threatening to prepare for a crusade into the Milky Way galaxy to convert the beings to their religion called Origin.

Cet article présente le guide des épisodes de la neuvième saison de la série télévisée Stargate SG-1 qui se déroule parallèlement à l'action de la Saison 2 de "Stargate Atlantis".


History.

Founded in 1911 by national-syndicalist disciples of Georges Sorel, Georges Valois and Édouard Berth, the group was described as "founded by nationalists, and initially addressed only to them". The organisation began as informal meetings consisting of about twenty people on average, mainly monarchists and syndicalists who were associated with the right-wing monarchist group Action Française. The main speakers at these meetings were Valois, Berth, monarchist militant Henri Lagrange and nationalist philosopher Gilbert Mayor. French historian Géraud Poumarède describes the Circle's ambition as to "convert trade unionists to the monarchy".  Despite the group's close association to Sorel he was initially hostile to the group stating that he feared the Circle would make "young people less able to understand Proudhon". Charles Maurras was also wary of the group describing them in his book, "L’Action française et la religion catholique" (1913): "The French who met to found the Circle Proudhon are all nationalists. The boss they chose for their assembly made them meet other French, who are not nationalists, who are not royalists, and who join them to participate in the life of the Circle and the writing of Cahiers. The initial group includes men of different origins, different conditions, who have no political aspirations in common, and who will freely expose their views in the Cahiers."  The Circle published a bulletin entitled "Cahiers du Cercle Proudhon", and operated a bookstore owned by Valois named the La Nouvelle Librairie which is still open to this day.

Ideology.

The first issue of "Cahiers du cercle Proudhon" appeared in January – February 1912 and included a "Déclaration":  Berth and Valois had been brought together by Georges Sorel when he was planning a Nationalist and socialist-leaning journal "La Cité française" in 1910. This journal never appeared, except as heralded in a flyer entitled "Déclaration de la Cité francaise" signed by Sorel, Valois, Berth, Jean Variot, and Pierre Gilbert. However Variot quarrelled with Valois and went on to publish material with Sorel's support in "L'Indépendence".  A controversial but influential book by Zeev Sternhell, "Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France", points to the Cercle Proudhon as a pre-existing laboratory for fascist ideas that would provide a bulwark for Nazi collaboration in Vichy.  Many anarchists rejected the Cercle Proudhon interpretation of Proudhon's works. For example, American mutualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker argued that Cercle Proudhon purposely misrepresented Proudhon's views,

References.

Partial bibliography.

Partial bibliography of "Cahiers du Cercle Proudhon"

Cercle Proudhon (; French for Proudhon Circle) was a National-syndicalist political group founded in France on December 16, 1911 by Georges Valois and Édouard Berth. The group was inspired by Georges Sorel, Charles Maurras and a selective reading of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.

Le Cercle Proudhon (ainsi baptisé d'après Pierre-Joseph Proudhon) est un groupe de réflexion issu du mouvement nationaliste et monarchiste (l'Action française présidée par Charles Maurras). L'ambition était de. La première réunion se tient le 17 novembre 1911. Cette expérience éphémère fut d'après l'historien Géraud Poumarède un.


Geography.

The population is 3,225 (census of 2018), of which 1,950 reside in Alo district and 1,275 in Sigave. Futuna's highest point is Mont Puke at above sea level, and the island has an area of, with in Sigave and in Alo.

History.

Futuna and Alofi were put on the European maps by Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire during their famous circumnavigation of the globe with the ship "Eendracht" in 1616. After having come from Niuafoou, they suddenly changed their course from west to northwest and so stumbled on this island pair. They called it "Hoorn Eylanden", after the city of Hoorn, Schouten's birthplace, which became "Horne" in both French and English. Wise from their earlier experiences, they started with a show of force to the natives who approached them, which resulted in a peaceful barter with coconuts, yams and hogs from one side and iron nails, beads and knives from the other. They found a beautiful bay, a natural harbour along the southwest coast of Futuna, which they called after the ship the "Eendrachts baai" (Unity bay). This must be the "Anse de Sigave" near Leava of today. They went ashore on to get water and met the king, who told his subjects that their guests were not to be disturbed by petty thieving. In this amiable way the Dutch were able to replenish their stocks. A few days later the king of the other island, Alofi, came to visit with 300 men. The two kings were extremely courteous to each other, and a big feast was prepared. A kava ceremony and umu were organised. Schouten and LeMaire were probably the first Europeans ever to witness these, and the description they gave still rings familiar tones nowadays.  Not having been bothered by thieving and hostilities, Schouten and LeMaire had the opportunity to study Futuna a little bit more carefully than the Niua islands. (They did not go to Alofi). But their description of the islanders is not flattering. Although they praise the men for being well proportioned, the women they found ugly, ill-shaped with breasts hanging down to their bellies as empty satchels. They all went naked and copulated in public, even in front of their revered king.  Whaling ships from America and elsewhere called at Futuna in the 19th century for water, wood and food. The first such vessel known to have called was the Independence in 1827.

Culture.

Two kings, elected from the local nobility every few years, rule the population in conjunction with French authorities. They are the king of Sigave, the western province, and the king of Alo, the eastern province including Alofi. Except for Poi all villages are along the southwest coast, and they are from west to east: Toloke, Fiua, Vaisei, Nuku, and Leava (capital with the wharf) in Sigave, and Taoa, Malae, Ono, Kolia and Vele (at the airstrip) in Alo.  As on Uvea, all Futunans are deeply religious Catholics and the number of churches, chapels and oratories is overwhelming. Although the island is closer to Tonga and farther from Samoa than Uvea, the vernacular and culture are more Samoan. The languages spoken are Futunan and French.

Education.

There are six primary schools on Futuna. The island also has two junior high schools ("collèges"): Fiua de Sigave and Sisia d'Ono. Residents are served by a senior high school/sixth-form college, Lycée d'Etat de Wallis et Futuna, on Wallis.

Futuna (; ) is an island with a population of 3,225 and a maximum elevation of in the Pacific Ocean, belonging to the French overseas collectivity ("collectivité d'outre-mer", or "COM") of Wallis and Futuna. It is one of the Hoorn Islands or Îles Horne, nearby Alofi being the other. They are both a remnant of an old extinct volcano, now bordered with a fringing reef.

Futuna () est une île située en Polynésie occidentale, au nord-est des Îles Fidji, au nord-ouest des Tonga et à l'ouest des îles Samoa, formant avec Alofi au sud-est l'archipel des îles Horn. Futuna est divisée en deux royaumes coutumiers : Alo au sud-est et Sigave au nord-ouest.


History.

Early history.

The Clackamas Indians once occupied the land that later became Lake Oswego, but diseases transmitted by European explorers and traders killed most of the natives. Before the influx of non-native people via the Oregon Trail, the area between the Willamette River and Tualatin River had a scattering of early pioneer homesteads and farms.

19th century.

As settlers arrived, encouraged by the Donation Land Claim Act of 1850 and the subsequent Homestead Act, they found the land underoccupied.  Albert Alonzo Durham founded the town of Oswego in 1847, naming it after Oswego, New York. He built a sawmill on Sucker Creek (now Oswego Creek), the town's first industry.  In 1855, the federal government forcibly relocated the remaining Clackamas Indians to the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation in nearby Yamhill County.  During this early period in Oregon history, most trade proceeded from Portland to Oregon City via the Willamette River, and up the Tualatin River Valley through Tualatin, Scholls, and Hillsboro. The thick woods and rain-muddied roads were major obstacles to traveling by land. The vestiges of river landings, ferry stops, and covered bridges of this period can still be seen along this area. A landing in the city's present-day George Rogers Park is thought to have been developed by Durham around 1850 for lumber transport; another landing was near the Tryon Creek outlet into the Willamette.  In 1865, prompted by the earlier discovery of iron ore in the Tualatin Valley, the Oregon Iron Company was incorporated. Within two years, the first blast furnace on the West Coast was built, patterned after the arched furnaces common in northwestern Connecticut, and the company set out to make Oswego into the "Pittsburgh of the West". In 1878, the company was sold off to out-of-state owners and renamed the Oswego Iron Company, and in 1882, Portland financiers Simeon Gannett Reed and Henry Villard purchased the business and renamed it the Oregon Iron and Steel Company.  The railroad arrived in Oswego in 1886, in the form of the Portland and Willamette Valley Railway. A seven-mile-long line provided Oswego with a direct link to Portland. Prior to this, access to the town was limited to primitive roads and riverboats. The railroad's arrival was a mixed blessing; locally, it promoted residential development along its path, which enabled Oswego to grow beyond its industrial roots, but nationally, the continued expansion of freight railroad system gave easy local access to cheaper and higher quality iron from the Great Lakes region. This ultimately led to the local industry's demise.  By 1890, the industry produced 12,305 tons of pig iron, and at its peak provided employment to around 300 men. The success of this industry greatly stimulated the development of Oswego, which by this time had four general stores, a bank, two barber shops, two hotels, three churches, nine saloons, a drugstore, and even an opera house.  The iron industry was a vital part of a strategy designed by a few Portland financiers who strove to control all related entrepreneurial ventures in the late 19th century. Control of shipping and railroads was held under the Oregon Steam Navigation Company, later to become the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. This local monopoly responded to the area's increasing demand for iron and steel, and grew to play a key role in economic history throughout the area.

20th and 21st centuries.

The Oregon Iron and Steel Company adapted to the new century by undertaking programs in land development, selling large tracts of the of land it owned, and power, building a plant on Oswego Creek starting in 1905, and erecting power poles in subsequent years to supply power to Oswego citizens. With the water needs of the smelters tailing off, the recreational potential of the lake and town was freed to develop rapidly.  In 1910, the town of Oswego was incorporated. The Southern Pacific Railroad, which had acquired the P&WVR line at the end of the 19th century, widened it from narrow to standard gauge and in 1914, electrified it, providing rapid, clean, and quiet service between Oswego and Portland. The service was known as the Red Electric.  Passenger traffic hit its peak in 1920 with 64 trains to and from Portland daily. Within nine years of the peak, passenger service ended and the line was used for intermittent freight service to Portland's south waterfront until its abandonment in 1984. The line was preserved, however, and the Willamette Shore Trolley provides tourist rides on the line today.  One of the land developers benefiting from sales by OI&S was Paul Murphy, whose Oswego Lake Country Club helped promote the new city as a place to "live where you play." Murphy was instrumental in developing the first water system to supply the western reaches of the city, and also played a key role in encouraging the design of fine homes in the 1930s and 1940s that ultimately established Oswego as an attractive place to live. In the 1940s and 1950s, continued development helped spread Oswego's residential areas.  Mass transit service after the end of electric interurban service was provided by Oregon Motor Stages, but that company suspended all operations following a drivers strike in 1954. In 1955, a newly formed private company, Intercity Buses, Inc., began operating bus service connecting Oswego with downtown Portland and Oregon City. This service was taken over by TriMet in 1970.  In 1960, Oswego was renamed Lake Oswego when it annexed part of neighboring Lake Grove. The city has some nicknames including Lake No-Negro, Lake Big Ego, Fake Oswego and Fake Lost Ego. Additionally, it was spoken of as Nimbyville during a planning-related seminar on 2008 by Dennis Egner. A 2012 article in the Daily Journal of Commerce identified Egner as a long-range planning director for the City of Lake Oswego.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, are land and is covered by water. That area does not include more than of unincorporated land within the urban services boundary as defined by Clackamas County.  Oswego Lake is a lake, originally named "Waluga" (wild swan) by Clackamas Indians, which has been expanded is and currently managed by the Lake Oswego Corporation. The lake supports watercraft, and a dock floats at the lake's east end, where boaters can disembark and walk to the nearby businesses. The main canal from the Tualatin River was dug in 1872.  Every three years, the water level in the lake is lowered several feet by opening the gates on the dam and allowing water to flow into Oswego Creek and on to the Willamette River, enabling lakefront property owners to conduct repairs on docks and boathouses. In 2010, the lake was lowered about to allow for construction of a new sewer line, the lowest lake level since 1962, when the original sewer line was installed.  The city extends up Mount Sylvania and through Lake Grove towards Tualatin.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 36,619 people, 15,893 households, and 10,079 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 16,995 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 89.3% White, 0.7% African American, 0.4% Native American, 5.6% Asian, 1.0% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 3.7% of the population.  Of the 15,893 households, 28.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.1% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 36.6% were not families. About 30.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.88.  The median age in the city was 45.8 years; 22.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21% were from 25 to 44; 35.1% were from 45 to 64; and 16.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.3% male and 52.7% female. In the city, the population was distributed as 24.8% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 31.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males. The median income for a household in the city was $71,597, and for a family was $94,587 ( Males had a median income of $66,380 versus $41,038 for females. The per capita income for the city was $42,166, and 3.4% of the population and 2.3% of families were below the poverty line. Of the total population, 2.0% of those under the age of 18 and 4.0% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

City government.

The city has a council-manager form of government, which vests policy-making authority in an elected, volunteer city council. The council consists of a mayor and six councilors, all of whom are elected at-large and serve four-year terms.  Day-to-day operations are handled by an appointed, professional city manager. Almost all of the city's employees, which include part-time staff amounting to about 342 full-time equivalents, report to the city manager. This includes the police chief, fire chief, one assistant city manager, and the community development director. The biggest groups are:

Civic involvement.

Neighborhood associations play a formal role for citizen involvement in the city government's land-use planning and other activities. A neighborhood association's role is governed by state and city law. As of September 2013, the 21 recognized neighborhood associations (associations including lakefront property are marked with a ¤ symbol) include: Birdshill, Blue Heron ¤, Bryant ¤, North Shore-Country Club ¤, Evergreen ¤, First Addition, Forest Highlands, Glenmorrie, Hallinan Heights, Holly Orchard, Lake Grove, Lakewood ¤, McVey-South Shore ¤, Old Town, Palisades ¤, Rosewood, Skylands, Uplands, Waluga, Westlake, and Westridge.  These statistics summarize other aspects of civic involvement:

Oswego Lake.

Oswego Lake has been a subject of controversy over whether it is a private lake or a public navigable water. A lawsuit against the city charges that they are preventing people from using a public stairway in a public park to swim in a public lake. The City of Lake Oswego does not allow public access. Two recreational users of the lake who were barred from using the lake filed a lawsuit in 2012. On August 1, 2019, the Oregon Supreme Court ruled that a 2012 Lake Oswego ordinance will need to be reviewed. The Supreme Court recognized public right to enter the body of water from public land and that the City of Lake Oswego cannot interfere with this right.

Public schools.

The Lake Oswego School District is within the city boundaries and serves the city's roughly 7,000 students, with a ratio of 23 students per instructor. The two high schools in the district are Lake Oswego High School and Lakeridge High School. The six elementary schools and two junior high schools serve students in grades 1 through 8. The junior high schools are Lakeridge Junior High and Lake Oswego Junior High. Lakeridge Junior High was known as Waluga Junior High until 2012 when it was merged with Bryant Elementary.

Cultural and recreational facilities.

The city maintains of parks and open spaces including George Rogers Park and Millennium Plaza Park.  Lake Oswego has one public library, part of the Library Information Network of Clackamas County. From 2002 to 2006, the library was rated among the top 10 libraries serving similar population sizes in the United States.

Economy.

Largest employers.

According to Lake Oswego's 2018 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers in the city are:

Notable people.

The following is a partial list of notable residents, past and present, of Lake Oswego:

Sister cities.

Lake Oswego has two sister cities:

Lake Oswego is a city in the State of Oregon, primarily in Clackamas County with small portions extending into neighboring Multnomah and Washington Counties. Located about south of Portland and surrounding the Oswego Lake, the town was founded in 1847 and incorporated as Oswego in 1910. The city was the hub of Oregon's brief iron industry in the late 19th century, and is today a suburb of Portland. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 36,619, a 3.8% increase over the 2000 population of 35,278.

Lake Oswego est une ville du nord-ouest de l'Oregon (comté de Clackamas), qui se trouve autour d'un petit lac de 1,6 km, le lac Oswego. En 2000, la ville avait une population de 35 278 habitants. La superficie de la ville est de 26,9 km et la densité de population est de 1316 hab./km.


Introduction.

A description logic (DL) models "concepts", "roles" and "individuals", and their relationships.  The fundamental modeling concept of a DL is the "axiom"—a logical statement relating roles and/or concepts. This is a key difference from the frames paradigm where a "frame specification" declares and completely defines a class.

Nomenclature.

Terminology compared to FOL and OWL.

The description logic community uses different terminology than the first-order logic (FOL) community for operationally equivalent notions; some examples are given below. The Web Ontology Language (OWL) uses again a different terminology, also given in the table below.

Naming convention.

There are many varieties of description logics and there is an informal naming convention, roughly describing the operators allowed. The expressivity is encoded in the label for a logic starting with one of the following basic logics:  Followed by any of the following extensions:

Exceptions.

Some canonical DLs that do not exactly fit this convention are:

Examples.

As an example, formula_1 is a centrally important description logic from which comparisons with other varieties can be made. formula_1 is simply formula_3 with complement of any concept allowed, not just atomic concepts. formula_1 is used instead of the equivalent formula_5.  A further example, the description logic formula_6 is the logic formula_1 plus extended cardinality restrictions, and transitive and inverse roles. The naming conventions aren't purely systematic so that the logic formula_8 might be referred to as formula_9 and other abbreviations are also made where possible.  The Protégé ontology editor supports formula_10. Three major biomedical informatics terminology bases, SNOMED CT, GALEN, and GO, are expressible in formula_11 (with additional role properties).  OWL 2 provides the expressiveness of formula_12, OWL-DL is based on formula_10, and for OWL-Lite it is formula_14.

History.

Description logic was given its current name in the 1980s. Previous to this it was called (chronologically): "terminological systems", and "concept languages".

Knowledge representation.

Frames and semantic networks lack formal (logic-based) semantics. DL was first introduced into knowledge representation (KR) systems to overcome this deficiency.  The first DL-based KR system was KL-ONE (by Ronald J. Brachman and Schmolze, 1985). During the '80s other DL-based systems using "structural subsumption algorithms" were developed including KRYPTON (1983), LOOM (1987), BACK (1988), K-REP (1991) and CLASSIC (1991). This approach featured DL with limited expressiveness but relatively efficient (polynomial time) reasoning.  In the early '90s, the introduction of a new "tableau based algorithm" paradigm allowed efficient reasoning on more expressive DL. DL-based systems using these algorithms — such as KRIS (1991) — show acceptable reasoning performance on typical inference problems even though the worst case complexity is no longer polynomial.  From the mid '90s, reasoners were created with good practical performance on very expressive DL with high worst case complexity. Examples from this period include FaCT, RACER (2001), CEL (2005), and KAON 2 (2005).  DL reasoners, such as FaCT, FaCT++, RACER, DLP and Pellet, implement the method of analytic tableaux. KAON2 is implemented by algorithms which reduce a SHIQ(D) knowledge base to a disjunctive datalog program.

Semantic web.

The DARPA Agent Markup Language (DAML) and Ontology Inference Layer (OIL) ontology languages for the Semantic Web can be viewed as syntactic variants of DL. In particular, the formal semantics and reasoning in OIL use the formula_6 DL. The DAML+OIL DL was developed as a submission to—and formed the starting point of—the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Web Ontology Working Group. In 2004, the Web Ontology Working Group completed its work by issuing the OWL recommendation. The design of OWL is based on the formula_16 family of DL with OWL DL and OWL Lite based on formula_10 and formula_14 respectively.  The W3C OWL Working Group began work in 2007 on a refinement of - and extension to - OWL. In 2009, this was completed by the issuance of the OWL2 recommendation. OWL2 is based on the description logic formula_12. Practical experience demonstrated that OWL DL lacked several key features necessary to model complex domains.

Modeling.

In DL, a distinction is drawn between the so-called TBox (terminological box) and the ABox (assertional box). In general, the TBox contains sentences describing concept hierarchies (i.e., relations between concepts) while the ABox contains ground sentences stating where in the hierarchy, individuals belong (i.e., relations between individuals and concepts). For example, the statement:  belongs in the TBox, while the statement:  belongs in the ABox.  Note that the TBox/ABox distinction is not significant, in the same sense that the two "kinds" of sentences are not treated differently in first-order logic (which subsumes most DL). When translated into first-order logic, a subsumption axiom like () is simply a conditional restriction to unary predicates (concepts) with only variables appearing in it. Clearly, a sentence of this form is not privileged or special over sentences in which only constants ("grounded" values) appear like ().  So why was the distinction introduced? The primary reason is that the separation can be useful when describing and formulating decision-procedures for various DL. For example, a reasoner might process the TBox and ABox separately, in part because certain key inference problems are tied to one but not the other one ('classification' is related to the TBox, 'instance checking' to the ABox). Another example is that the complexity of the TBox can greatly affect the performance of a given decision-procedure for a certain DL, independently of the ABox. Thus, it is useful to have a way to talk about that specific part of the knowledge base.  The secondary reason is that the distinction can make sense from the knowledge base modeler's perspective. It is plausible to distinguish between our conception of terms/concepts in the world (class axioms in the TBox) and particular manifestations of those terms/concepts (instance assertions in the ABox). In the above example: when the hierarchy within a company is the same in every branch but the assignment to employees is different in every department (because there are other people working there), it makes sense to reuse the TBox for different branches that do not use the same ABox.  There are two features of description logic that are not shared by most other data description formalisms: DL does not make the unique name assumption (UNA) or the closed-world assumption (CWA). Not having UNA means that two concepts with different names may be allowed by some inference to be shown to be equivalent. Not having CWA, or rather having the open world assumption (OWA) means that lack of knowledge of a fact does not immediately imply knowledge of the negation of a fact.

Formal description.

Like first-order logic (FOL), a syntax defines which collections of symbols are legal expressions in a description logic, and semantics determine meaning. Unlike FOL, a DL may have several well known syntactic variants.

Syntax.

The syntax of a member of the description logic family is characterized by its recursive definition, in which the constructors that can be used to form concept terms are stated. Some constructors are related to logical constructors in first-order logic (FOL) such as "intersection" or "conjunction" of concepts, "union" or "disjunction" of concepts, "negation" or "complement" of concepts, "universal restriction" and "existential restriction". Other constructors have no corresponding construction in FOL including restrictions on roles for example, inverse, transitivity and functionality.

Notation.

Let C and D be concepts, a and b be individuals, and R be a role.  If a is R-related to b, then b is called an R-successor of a.

The description logic ALC.

The prototypical DL "Attributive Concept Language with Complements" (formula_1) was introduced by Manfred Schmidt-Schauß and Gert Smolka in 1991, and is the basis of many more expressive DLs. The following definitions follow the treatment in Baader et al.  Let formula_21, formula_22 and formula_23 be (respectively) sets of "concept names" (also known as "atomic concepts"), "role names" and "individual names" (also known as "individuals", "nominals" or "objects"). Then the ordered triple (formula_21, formula_22, formula_23) is the "signature".

Concepts.

The set of formula_1 "concepts" is the smallest set such that:

Terminological axioms.

A "general concept inclusion" (GCI) has the form formula_39 where formula_31 and formula_32 are "concepts". Write formula_42 when formula_39 and formula_44. A "TBox" is any finite set of GCIs.

Assertional axioms.

An "ABox" is a finite set of assertional axioms.

Knowledge base.

A "knowledge base" (KB) is an ordered pair formula_49 for TBox formula_50 and ABox formula_51.

Semantics.

The semantics of description logics are defined by interpreting concepts as sets of individuals and roles as sets of ordered pairs of individuals. Those individuals are typically assumed from a given domain. The semantics of non-atomic concepts and roles is then defined in terms of atomic concepts and roles. This is done by using a recursive definition similar to the syntax.

The description logic ALC.

The following definitions follow the treatment in Baader et al.  A "terminological interpretation" formula_52 over a "signature" formula_53 consists of such that  Define formula_67 (read "in I holds") as follows

Knowledge base.

Let formula_80 be a knowledge base.

Inference.

Decision problems.

In addition to the ability to describe concepts formally, one also would like to employ the description of a set of concepts to ask questions about the concepts and instances described. The most common decision problems are basic database-query-like questions like "instance checking" (is a particular instance (member of an ABox) a member of a given concept) and "relation checking" (does a relation/role hold between two instances, in other words does a have property b), and the more global-database-questions like "subsumption" (is a concept a subset of another concept), and "concept consistency" (is there no contradiction among the definitions or chain of definitions). The more operators one includes in a logic and the more complicated the TBox (having cycles, allowing non-atomic concepts to include each other), usually the higher the computational complexity is for each of these problems (see Description Logic Complexity Navigator for examples).

Relationship with other logics.

First-order logic.

Many DLs are decidable fragments of first-order logic (FOL) and are usually fragments of two-variable logic or guarded logic. In addition, some DLs have features that are not covered in FOL; this includes "concrete domains" (such as integer or strings, which can be used as ranges for roles such as "hasAge" or "hasName") or an operator on roles for the transitive closure of that role.

Fuzzy description logic.

Fuzzy description logics combines fuzzy logic with DLs. Since many concepts that are needed for intelligent systems lack well defined boundaries, or precisely defined criteria of membership, fuzzy logic is needed to deal with notions of vagueness and imprecision. This offers a motivation for a generalization of description logic towards dealing with imprecise and vague concepts.

Modal logic.

Description logic is related to—but developed independently of—modal logic (ML). Many—but not all—DLs are syntactic variants of ML.  In general, an object corresponds to a possible world, a concept corresponds to a modal proposition, and a role-bounded quantifier to a modal operator with that role as its accessibility relation.  Operations on roles (such as composition, inversion, etc.) correspond to the modal operations used in dynamic logic.

Temporal description logic.

Temporal description logic represents—and allows reasoning about—time dependent concepts and many different approaches to this problem exist. For example, a description logic might be combined with a modal temporal logic such as linear temporal logic.

External links.

Reasoners.

There are some semantic reasoners that deal with OWL and DL. These are some of the most popular:

Description logics (DL) are a family of formal knowledge representation languages. Many DLs are more expressive than propositional logic but less expressive than first-order logic. In contrast to the latter, the core reasoning problems for DLs are (usually) decidable, and efficient decision procedures have been designed and implemented for these problems. There are general, spatial, temporal, spatiotemporal, and fuzzy description logics, and each description logic features a different balance between expressive power and reasoning complexity by supporting different sets of mathematical constructors.

Les logiques de description aussi appelé logiques descriptives (LD) sont une famille de langages de représentation de connaissance qui peuvent être utilisés pour représenter la connaissance terminologique d'un domaine d'application d'une manière formelle et structurée. Le nom de logique de description se rapporte, d'une part à la description de concepts utilisée pour décrire un domaine et d'autre part à la sémantique basée sur la logique qui peut être donnée par une transcription en logique des prédicats du premier ordre. La logique de description a été développée comme une extension des "langages à cadres", une famille de langage de programmation pour l'intelligence artificielle, et des réseaux sémantiques, qui ne possédaient pas de sémantique formelle basée sur la logique.


Succession conflicts.

Peter was born at Balaguer, the eldest son and heir of Alfons IV, then Count of Urgell, and his first wife, Teresa d'Entença. Peter was designated to inherit all of his father's title save that of Urgell, which went to his younger brother James.  Upon succeeding his father he called a "corts" in Zaragoza for his coronation. He crowned himself, disappointing the Archbishop of Zaragoza and thus rejecting the surrender Peter II had made to the Papacy, in an otherwise traditional ceremony. According to his own later reports, this act caused him some "distress". He did, however, affirm the liberties and privileges of Aragon. Also while he was at Zaragoza an embassy from Castile had met him and asked that he promise to uphold the donations of land his father had made to his stepmother Eleanor, but he refused to give a clear answer as to the legitimacy of the donations.  After the festivities in Zaragoza, Peter began on his way to Valencia to receive coronation there. En route he stopped at Lleida to affirm the Usatges and Constitutions of Catalonia and receive the homage of his Catalan subjects. This offended Barcelona, at which the ceremony had usually been performed, and the citizens of that city complained to the king, who claimed that Lleida was on his way to Valencia. While in Valencia he decided on the case of his stepmother's inheritance, depriving her of income and outlawing her Castilian protector, Peter Ponce of León and Jérica. However, Jérica had enough supporters within Peter's domains that Peter was unable to maintain his position and in 1338, through papal mediation, Jérica was reconciled to the king and Eleanor received her land and jurisdictional rights. Peter was largely forced to capitulate by a new invasion from Morocco aimed at Castile and Valencia.  In 1338 he married Maria, second daughter of Philip III and Joan II of Navarre. In May 1339 he allied with Alfonso XI of Castile against Morocco, but his contribution of a fleet had no effect at the pivotal Battle of Río Salado (October 1340).

Conquest of Majorca.

Early on in his reign, a thorn in Peter's side had been James III of Majorca, his brother-in-law, the husband of his sister Constance. James had twice postponed performing the ceremony of homage to Peter, his feudal overlord, and when he finally performed it in 1339 it was on his terms. The rising economic star of Majorca, whose merchants were establishing independent markets and gaining trading privileges in the western Mediterranean, threatened the supremacy of Barcelona. The gold coinage of Majorca and the diplomatic equality granted it by the powers of France and Italy irked Peter further, while James also allied with Abu Al-Hassan, the king of Morocco and Peter's enemy. Peter's outrage, however, was given no outlet until 1341, when James, threatened with invasion by the French over disputed rights to the Lordship of Montpellier, called on his suzerain Aragon for aid. In order not to offend France nor to support James, Peter summoned the king of Majorca to a "cort" at Barcelona, to which he knew he would not come, and when James or a representative of his failed to appear, Peter declared himself free from the obligations of an overlord to James.  Peter then opened a legal process against James, with the intent of dispossessing him of his kingdom. He alleged that the circulation of James' coinage in the Counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne to be an infringement on the royal right of monopoly of coinage. This was open to question, considering the ancient customs of Roussillon and Cerdagne, but Peter was prepared to move forward anyway. The interference of Pope Clement VI, however, granted James a hearing in Barcelona in front of papal delegates. Peter, for his part, spread rumours that James was seeking to capture him. James, fearing that Peter would stoop to invading Majorca and seizing it by force, returned to the island to prepare its defence. In February 1343 Peter declared James a contumacious vassal and his kingdom and lands forfeit.  The legal process being terminated, Peter went to war, on the advice that the islanders were burdened by taxes and would readily rise in his support. In May a fleet which had been blockading Algeciras landed at Majorca and quickly defeated James' army at the Battle of Santa Ponça. Peter received the submission of all the Balearics and confirmed the privileges of the islands as they had been under James I. Though James sued for peace and Pope Clement attempted to mediate it, Peter returned to Barcelona prepared to invade Roussillon and Cerdagne. After these were finally conquered in 1344 James surrendered on a safe conduct, only to find himself ignominiously reduced to the status of a petty lord. In March Peter had declared his realm incorporated into the Crown of Aragon in perpetuity and ceremoniously had himself crowned its king.

Military career.

By the Pact of Madrid, Peter was constrained to aid Alfonso XI of Castile in his successful attack on Algeciras (1344) and his failed attempt on Gibraltar (1349) by defending against a Moroccan counterattack.  As Peter had no male issue, his brother Count James of Urgell was the presumptive heir to the Aragonese throne. Peter grew to mistrust the intentions of James over time. Peter decided that he would instead name his daughter Constance as his heir presumptive notwithstanding the precedents established by James I and Alfonso IV to exclude females from the throne. To this end, he demanded that James cede his post as procurator general, a position which, by tradition, was reserved for the second in line to the Aragonese throne. James fled to Zaragoza where he gained the favor of certain nobles who wished to reassert their powers vis the monarch. Peter eventually succumbed to the pressure to hold a cortes in Zaragoza where he made numerous concessions of royal authority to quell a rebellion he was not yet in a position to crush. One of such concessions was to revoke his attempt to name Constance as heir, and to restore James as procurator general. To avert additional damage, Peter dissolved the corts on the premise that he had to address a crisis developing in Sardinia. Not long thereafter, while Peter was in Catalonia, James suddenly died. Many suspected Peter of having arranged to have James poisoned. Deprived of their leader, the Union of Aragon was greatly weakened.  Venturing next to Valencia, Peter encountered the nascent Valencian Union which had taken its cue from its counterpart in Aragon. At Murviedro (Sagunt), Peter was forced to name his stepbrother Ferran as the new procurator general. Additional concessions of royal authority were made to appease the Unionists. This time when he attempted to leave a bad situation, Peter was held under guard in Valencia as a prisoner of the Union. Suffering perhaps his greatest humility, he and his queen were forced to dance with the common folk to show his subservience. Ironically, his salvation was the Black Death. Valencia was felled by this plague in May 1348, enabling Peter to escape amid the confusion. Assembling an army of increasingly powerful royalists in Aragon, Peter attacked the unionist forces at the Battle of Epila on 21 July 1348. Peter won a complete victory. Proceeding to Saragossa, Peter executed only thirteen Union leaders. By fourteenth century standards, this was a great display of magnanimity. Not the same can be said for the fate of Valencia. After being persuaded not to burn the entire city and sow it with salt, many were executed. Of particular note, he had the bell that the Valencian Union rang to summon its meetings melted down. The molten metal from the bell was then poured down the throats of the Union leaders so that they "should taste its liquor."  In 1356, he engaged with Peter I of Castile in what was called the "War of the Two Peters". It ended in 1375 with the Treaty of Almazan, without a winner due to the Black Death and several natural disasters.  He conquered Sicily in 1377 but the possession was given to his son Martin.  Throughout his reign, Peter IV had frequent conflicts with the inquisitor general of Aragon, Nicolas Eymerich.  In 1349, James invaded Majorca, but was soundly defeated by Peter's troops at the Battle of Llucmajor, in which he died. After James' death, Peter allowed James IV, his successor, to retain his royal title on purely formal terms until his death in 1375. After that date, Peter assumed the title. Majorca remained one of the component crowns of the Crown of Aragon until the Nova Planta decrees.  Peter died in Barcelona, aged 67.

Generalitat.

At a corts celebrated at Barcelona, Vilafranca del Penedès and Cervera in 1358–1359, Peter instituted the Generalitat. Castile had recently invaded Aragon and Valencia and the cortes decided to streamline the government by designating a dozen deputies to oversee the fiscal and material policies of the Crown. The first "President of the Generalitat" was Berenguer de Cruïlles, Bishop of Girona (1359).  Toward the end of his reign (c. 1370) Peter ordered the compilation of the "Chronicle of Sant Joan de la Penya" to record the historical basis for the authority of the crown.

Relationship with Jews.

According to historical record, Peter IV of Aragon and his Jewish physician had a friendly disputation regarding the question of why the Jews were not allowed to drink kosher wine touched by a Christian. Thereupon the physician had water brought to wash the king's feet, of which he then drank to demonstrate that the fear of impurity was not the reason of the prohibition.

Marriage and children.

His first marriage, on 23 July 1338 in Alagón, was to Maria (1329 – 29 April 1347), daughter of Philip III of Navarre and Joan II of Navarre. They had four children:  His second marriage, on 15 November 1347 in Barcelona, was to Eleanor (1328 – 29 October 1348), daughter of Afonso IV of Portugal. She died one year later of the Black Death.  His third marriage, on 27 August 1349 in Valencia, was to Eleanor (1325 – 20 April 1375), daughter of Peter II of Sicily. They had four children:  His last marriage, on 11 October 1377 in Barcelona, was to Sibila (? – 4 or 24 November 1406), daughter of Bernat of Fortià and widow of Artal of Foces, who was previously his mistress. They had three children:

Peter IV (Catalan: "Pere IV"; 5 September 1319 – 6 January 1387), called the Ceremonious (Catalan: "el Cerimoniós"), was from 1336 until his death the King of Aragon and also King of Sardinia and Corsica (as Peter I), King of Valencia (as Peter II), and Count of Barcelona (and the rest of the Principality of Catalonia as Peter III). In 1344, he deposed James III of Majorca and made himself King of Majorca.

Pierre IV d'Aragon dit "le Cérémonieux" ou "el del punyalet" (« "celui avec une petite dague" ») (en catalan Pere "el Cerimoniós", en castillan Pedro "el Ceremonioso"), né le à Balaguer et mort le à Barcelone, est le fils aîné d'Alphonse IV "le Débonnaire". Il est roi d'Aragon sous le nom de "Pierre IV", comte de Barcelone sous le nom de "Pierre III", roi de Valence sous le nom de "Pierre II", roi de Sardaigne et de Corse sous le nom de "Pierre " de 1336 à 1387. Après une guerre contre Jacques III, il devient roi de Majorque et comte de Roussillon et de Cerdagne de 1343/1349 à 1387. Enfin il est duc d'Athènes et de Néopatrie de 1381 à 1387.


Features of One-Design.

As manufacturing technologies became more efficient and effective over the course of the 20th century, racers in a number of sports realized that there was an important need to equalize the design of the equipment that they were competing in. One-Design racing is the ultimate result of this. Most often, the members of a One-Design class are near identical as a direct consequence of all deriving from the same production line. Sometimes they are checked or measured at stages in their use to guarantee continuing conformity to the standard design. The important factors being measured in One-Design racing help to equalize the vehicles and put more emphasis on the skill of the competitors.  One-Design is utilized in a variety of racing sports.  It is heavily used in sailboat racing. All competitors in a One-Design race are judged simply on a 'first to the finish' basis using a single start time. Other approaches to racing involve either a handicapping process (adjusting each competitor's elapsed time over the course by a factor based on the handicap figure for their boat), or restricting participants to using boats of some recognised class or type, or allowing only boats which conform to some formula or other specification. In the United States, the One-Design Class Council creates, monitors, and enforces the rules that define what classes of sailboats are One-Design boats.  It can additionally refer to airplanes or motor vehicles, such as IndyCars, where teams are required to meet certain specifications such as vehicle weight, engine displacement, weight, fuel capacity, and a variety of other factors are measured and regulated, or classes limited to a single make, such as the Yamaha RD Cup.  In motorsport, this term is commonly known as one-make racing and this term is predominantly given to series for production based cars such as the Porsche Supercup.

Sailing.

There are two primary methods of competition in sailboat racing: One-Design and handicap (see: Portsmouth Yardstick, PHRF and LYS (Leading Yard Stick)). One-design refers to a racing class that consists of just one model or design of sailboat. In one-design racing, the first boat to finish wins the race. This is contrasted with handicap racing, where time is added or subtracted from the finishing times based on design factors and mathematical formulas to determine the winner.  In between One-Design and handicap racing, a number of other approaches exist. One-Design can be contrasted with a development class, the classic example being the America's Cup 12-metre class, or to the Box Rule used, for example, in the TP 52 class.  A further category, the formula based class setup, is sometimes confused with one-design. The Mini Transat 6.50, the Volvo Open 70 monohull, the large ORMA trimaran, and the Formula 18 racing beach catamaran are the exponents of the formula approach. Class-legal boats race each other without any handicap calculations in both setups. However, under one-design the boats are virtually identical except in details, while the Formula setup allows the boats to differ much more in design while keeping a few important specifications the same. As a result, the identifier "One-Design" has been used more and more exclusively to denote a class that races only identical boats.  Having a rigid one-design specification keeps design experimentation to a minimum and reduces cost of ownership. The popularity of one-design increased in the 1970s with the introduction of laminate construction using fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) and mold building technology. This process allowed the mass production of identical hulls of virtually any size at a lower price.  The one-design design idea was created by Thomas Middleton of the Shankill Corinthian Club located south of Dublin, Ireland in 1887. He proposed a class of double ended open dinghies of simple clincher construction in pine with a lifting boiler plate capable of being lifted. The boat was called The Water Wag. The idea was quickly adopted by sailors in Ireland, England, India and South America. The Water Wag Club still thrives in Dun Laoghaire, Co. Dublin. The Solent One Design Class was one of the earliest O.D. classes formed after discussions took place in 1893 and subsequent years. It quickly became popular, and was patronised by some of the most energetic and best known yacht owners in the Solent, Portsmouth and Southampton waters including Sir Philip Hunloke, the King's yachtmaster. Formed under the auspices of the Solent Sailing Club, the class was adopted by the Royal Yacht Squadron and the Island Sailing Club in 1895. The dimensions of the boats were length overall, 33 ft 3 in; Waterline length, 25 ft; Beam, 7 ft 9 in; Draft, 5 ft; Sail area, 750 sq ft.; Displacement, 5 tons with 2 tons 13 cwt. of lead in the keel. Cutter rig with 6 ft bowsprit. Designed by H.W. White, ten were built in 1895/6 by Messrs. White Brothers of Itchen Ferry, Southampton and another twelve were built in the following year. The class enjoyed ten years of keen racing but the Metre Rule, which was introduced in 1907 effectively killed the class. The only boat still afloat is Rosenn, formally Eilun, sail number 6. Now, fully restored, she has been identified as meriting inclusion in the National Register of Historic Vessels of the United Kingdom. She is kept in Lymington where she is still racing and winning on the Solent.  As a general rule, the tolerances are strictest in smaller boats like dinghy classes and small keelboats. In some cases the tolerances are specified in a confidential Building Specification and often everything is designed and produced at the same factory or a very few factories. Examples are the Laser, Melges 24, and several small keelboats designed by Nathanael Greene Herreshoff, such as the 121⁄2. In others the specification is published but the boats may only be produced by licensed manufacturers with usually only one builder in any country or region. Examples are the Olympic Finn and 470 but in both these classes a single manufacturer has succeeded in building faster boats than all other manufacturers. In yet others, for example the Optimist anyone may manufacture but tight controls of measurement result in strict one-design.  In medium- to large-sized boat classes, One-Design would refer to conformance to a standard specification, with the possibility of alterations being allowed as long as they remained within certain tolerances. Examples of this are the Dragon, J/24, Santana 20, Tartan 10, Etchells, J105, Schock 35, C&C Mega 30 One Design and the Farr 40. After the hull length overall (LOA) exceeds, people generally refer to the boat as an offshore one-design boat or yacht.  In other classes, the one-design class may have organized around an existing fleet of similar boats that traditionally existed together often for commercial purposes such as sailing canoes, dhows, and skipjacks, or boats that developed a common hull form over the years (such as A-Scows).  In contrast to 'one-design', other sailboats race under a variety of handicapping rules and formulas developed to allow different type boats to compete against one another. Formula rules include the Square Metre Rule, the Ton class, the Universal Rule, and the Metre Rule. Handicap rules include Portsmouth Yardstick, PHRF, IOR, IMS, IRC, Americap and LYS.

Motor racing.

One-make racing series (also known as spec racing series) are racing series in which all competitors race with identical or very similar vehicles from the same manufacturer and suppliers. Typically, this means the same type of chassis, tyres, brakes, fuel, and powertrain are used by all drivers. One-make racing series may allow some non-spec parts, for example, Formula E allows teams to develop their own powertrains, and IndyCar teams have a choice of engine manufacturer. Conversely, series such as Formula One are not considered one-make racing series however may mandate some spec parts, such as tyres and sensors.  The idea behind one-make racing is that success will be based more on driver skill and car setup, instead of engineering skill and budget. One-make series are popular at an amateur level as they are affordable, due to the use of a common engine and chassis.  Examples of one-make racing series from around the world include the Porsche Carrera Cup and Supercup, Radical European Masters, Power Maxed (formerly John Cooper Works) Mini Challenge and Commodore Cup. There are also various formula categories that utilize one-make racing, such as Formula 2, Super Formula, Formula Renault, Formula Mazda and the Formula Car Challenge.

Soaring.

There have been several attempts to bring the advantages of one-design to the sport of competitive glider racing. The most successful of these has been the Schweizer 1–26 class with 700 aircraft completed and flown between 1954–1981.  Schweizer Aircraft principal Paul A Schweizer was a proponent of the One-Design concept. He intended the company's 1–26 to be the aircraft to establish a one-design class in the United States. He wrote:  "The true measure of pilot ability and experience is usually shown by his final standing in a contest. What could be more indicative of this when pilots are flying identical sailplanes with identical performance. One-design competition is the sure test of soaring skill."  Other one-design gliders have included those made in Russia by Aviastroitel, in Poland by Warsztaty Szybowcowe Orlik, and Germany, where for example the DFS Olympia Meise was planned for the 1940 Olympic championships.

One-Design is a racing method which may be adopted in sports which use complex equipment, whereby all vehicles have identical or very similar designs or models. In motor racing, it is also known as one-make racing and spec racing.

Un monotype est un modèle de voilier dont tous les exemplaires sont construits suivant les mêmes plans de coque, de gréement et respectant des spécifications précises sur les échantillonnages, afin d'obtenir des bateaux identiques. La monotypie est principalement destinée à faire courir des régates où le classement d'un équipage n'est fonction que de ses propres qualités et non pas de celles du bateau, donc ni de l'architecte, ni du constructeur. La monotypie a aussi été développée à des fins d'économie, la réduction du coût de construction par la fabrication en série permettant une démocratisation de la compétition à voile.