Early career.

As an adolescent, Pedernera displayed talent for football. The first club he joined was Cruceros de la Plata, but he soon joined the professional Club Atlético Huracán. In 1933, he joined the Club Atlético River Plate. In 1935, at the age of 16, he debuted with this club.  During his time at River Plate he was part of five Primera División winning squads in 1936, 1937, 1941, 1942 and 1945.  With the Argentina national team he won the Copa America 1941 and 1945.  The Second World War kept Pedernera away from the game as he could not participate in a World Cup, but afterwards, his career continued to progress. Still with the Club Atlético River Plate, he played with the likes of Ángel Labruna, José Manuel Moreno, Félix Loustau, and Juan Carlos Muñoz. He also collaborated with Hugo Reyes, Antonio "El Maestrico" Báez, Néstor Rossi, and Alfredo Di Stéfano who he would later be teammates with them for CD Los Millonarios in Colombia, but first, in 1947, he was offered a million pesos to play for Atlanta of Buenos Aires.  Pedernera's time with Atlanta was short. After the club was relegated for the first time, he returned in 1948 to Huracán where he started his career. However, Carlos Aldabe, the trainer of Millonarios, visited Pedernera in Buenos Aires and convinced him to come to Bogotá, Colombia. There, Pedernera joined the Millonarios on 8 June 1949. He arrived in Bogotá on 10 June and was greeted at the Aeropuerto de Techo by 5,000 fans transported by 200 cars and 25 buses.

Joining Millonarios.

Pedernera settled in the north of Bogotá after being received into the club. On 11 June, he attended his first game with the Millonarios, in which they defeated the Club Atlético Municipal (now the Atlético Nacional) with a score of 6-0. On 25 June, Pedernera played for the first time with the club, helping them defeat the Club Deportes Caldas with a score of 3-0. The press of Bogotá received Pedernera well and commented the next day that ""El Maestro"" (""The Teacher"") was "a phenomenon, an artist, a master of passing, and a show of intelligence. After the debut of El Maestro, everything is possible."  Along with Alfredo Di Stéfano and Nestor Rossi, Pedernera helped the Millonarios to their Colombian championship title in 1949. According to Di Stéfano, the team played with the "5 and dance" strategy, in which they would try to not humiliate their opponents by scoring when they were leading by five goals. This strategy was employed in nine consecutive victories. In championship play, Pedernera scored the two decisive goals in the championship deciding play-off matches against Deportivo Cali in 1949.  After Carlos Aldabe retired as coach from Millonarios Pedernera took over as player-manager and was in this position instrumental in winning the three consecutive championships from 1951 to 1953 and the Copa Colombia of 1953.  In this era the Millonarios defeated such other strong teams at the time as Argentina's Huracán, Bolivia's Bolívar, Austria's Rapid Wien, and even his old team, Argentina's River Plate, which had won Primera División championships in 1952 and 1953.  In March 1952, when Pedernera was 33 years old, he was part of the Millonarios tour of Europe. On this trip, they achieved an outstanding win over Real Madrid 4–2 at Chamartín Stadium. The Spanish club asked for a rematch, playing two games else that were also won by Millonarios.  Pedernera also led his team to victory in the Small Club World Cup ("Pequeña Copa del Mundo", an international club tournament held in Venezuela) in 1953. He, along with Don Alfonso and Mauro Mórtola, were placed on a list of noted Millonarios players. The team credits him with establishing their mark on Colombia football.  In 1954, the Lima Pact forced all "illegal" players to return to their clubs of origin, so Pedernera returned briefly to Huracán.

Coaching career.

In later years Pedernera also coached Nacional in Uruguay, Gimnasia y Esgrima (LP), Huracán, Independiente, Boca Juniors, América de Cali and River Plate  Pedernera also coached Colombia and Argentina national teams. He is remembered in Colombia for helping the national team qualify for its first FIFA World Cup, the 1962 edition in Chile, where Colombia had a good participation. On the other hand, under his coaching Argentina failed to qualify to the 1970 World Cup when the team tied 2–2 with Peru in "La Bombonera". This was the first time that Argentina failed to qualify to a World Cup tournament.

Later years.

In 1993, he published his autobiography named ""El fútbol que viví... y que yo siento"" (the football I lived... and I feel), assisted by journalist Alejandro Yebra.  In 1994, Pedernera was reunited for the last time with his lifelong friends Alfredo Di Stéfano and Pipo Rossi at the Feria Internacional del Libro in Bogotá. Pedernera died the next year.

Adolfo Alfredo Pedernera (15 November 1918 – 12 May 1995), born in Avellaneda, Argentina, was a football player and coach. Nicknamed ""El Maestro"" (""The Teacher"" or ""The Master""), He was widely considered to be one of the greatest world football players in the 1940s, as well as one of the Argentine players of all-time. Pedernera was the natural conductor of both famous River Plate team known as La Máquina (spanish for "The Machine"), with whom he won several Argentine and South American titles, and Millonarios team called Ballet Azul (Blue Ballet), with which won the Small Club World Cup in 1953 among many others colombian titles. Playing for the Argentine Team he won three times the Copa América in 1941, 1945 and 1946, being awarded as the "Best Player" of the latter. He also was elected the 12th best South american footballer of the 20th century in a poll by the IFFHS in 2000, and his name appears in the list of the 100 greatest all-time footballers selected from the magazine "FourFourTwo" in 2017, in which he holds the 58th place.

Adolfo Alfredo Pedernera, né le à Avellaneda, décédé le, était un footballeur et entraîneur de football argentin. Il jouait au poste d'attaquant notamment pour le club de Club Atlético River Plate, une équipe surnommée "La Máquina" (« La Machine ») et pour la sélection argentine.


History.

The original concept of toe socks may be attributed to Ethel Russell (also known as Ethel Wynhym) of Pennsylvania. On June 14, 1969, she filed a copyright with the United States Copyright Office for two drawings of footwear which she termed, "mitten toe socks" and "glove socks". She was unable to maintain the exclusive rights for their manufacture, however, because copyright law of the United States does not afford this protection – patent law does.  Toe socks became popular in the United States during the 1970s and made a comeback in the 1990s as a novelty item worn by adolescents. During the 1970s, it was fashionable for girls to wear clogs or buffalo sandals with toe socks. In colder weather, they may be worn with flip-flops. During this time, such socks were typically knee high in length with bright stripes and glittery threads in their design. They also had a practical value in keeping the feet warm, including the spots between the toes.  By 2004, toe socks were available in plain colors and being adopted as normal footwear. They have even been worn in outer space – notably by astronaut Sandra Magnus on the International Space Station during the STS-135 mission in 2011.

Variants.

One of the earliest variants of toe socks is the Japanese tabi, dating back to the 16th Century. These are split-toed socks with two compartments – one smaller compartment for the big toe, and a larger compartment for the four remaining toes. This allows them to be worn with Zōri or geta sandals.  Modern variants of toe socks are designed primarily for either comfort or athletics. In 2004, a patent was filed with the Intellectual Property Office in the United Kingdom for a product called "toe socks"; however, their description differs: "A half sock which covers the toes to provide comfort under footwear. Preferably the socks are unseen when worn with mules or slingback shoes."  Variants have also evolved to include compression socks and other specialty performance models for professional sports as well as uses which require high durability. In sports, athletic versions of toe socks may be useful to triathletes who suffer from frequent interdigital friction blisters. One version of sock referred to as "toe socks" is actually a reverse version – this is a covering for the foot and ankle with the toes cut out, leaving them bare. This provides a non-slip surface and provides for a more complete range of motion for form-fitting yoga, pilates, or Wii Fit exercises.

Toe socks (also known as fingersocks, glove socks, 5-toe socks or digital socks) are socks that have been knitted so that each toe is individually encased the same way as fingers within a glove.

La chaussette à orteils (ou chaussette-gant ou chaussette à doigts) est un type de chaussette dont la pointe est divisée pour que les orteils soient chacun enveloppés séparément, tel un gant sur une main.


History.

Establishment.

Valdosta was incorporated on December 7, 1860, when it was designated by the state legislature as the new county seat, formerly at nearby Troupville. The railroad was built to Valdosta that year, rather than Troupville, stimulating development in the new county seat. Many citizens of Troupville had already relocated to Valdosta when the Atlantic and Gulf Railroad was built away. On July 4, 1860, the engine known as Satilla No. 3 pulled the first train into Valdosta on the Atlantic and Gulf Railroad. Valdosta is located on the Gulf Coastal Plain of Georgia and has a virtually flat landscape. It was once the center of long-staple cotton growing in the United States, a lucrative crop both before and after the Civil War. The county had a majority-white population well before the war with a substantial black population, as the cotton plantations were dependent on masses of enslaved field laborers.  The of railway between Valdosta and Waycross were once the longest straight stretch of railroad in the world. Today highways stretch through the county for miles with hardly a curve, rise, or fall.  After being bypassed by the railroad and losing the county seat, Troupville was virtually abandoned. It had been named after Governor George Troup, for whom Troup County, Georgia, was also named. Valdosta was named after Troup's plantation, Valdosta (occasionally the "Val d'Osta" spelling was used for the plantation). Troup had named it after the Aosta Valley () in Italy. The name Aosta (Latin: "Augusta"), refers to Emperor Augustus. A long-standing rumor held that the city's name meant "vale of beauty."

1861 to 1899.

The American Civil War erupted just months after the establishment of Valdosta. During the war, Valdosta was far away from battles and became a refuge for those fleeing areas of Georgia where the war was being actively fought.  After the Civil War, during the Reconstruction era, more than 100 freedmen, families of farmers, craftsmen, and laborers, emigrated from Lowndes County to Arithington, Liberia, in 1871 and 1872, looking for a better life. Since before the war, the American Colonization Society had supported the relocation of free blacks to Liberia, an American colony in West Africa established for this purpose. The first group from Lowndes County left in 1871, and were led by Jefferson Bracewell; the second group was led in 1872 by Aaron Miller. Many freedmen ended up working as sharecroppers and tenant farmers on area plantations in Lowndes County, as cotton agriculture continued well into the 20th century. One notable event during Reconstruction was at a political meeting in front of the courthouse. A carpetbagger named J. W. Clift was running for Congress and was looking for support from former slaves. During Clift's speech he verbally attacked whites of Valdosta. In response five men planted explosives at the courthouse, planning on setting them off at Clift's next political rally. When other whites arrived at the courthouse unaware of the explosives the five men decided to stop the explosives but some still managed to go off. The explosion was small and no injuries occurred. The five men were arrested and were going to go on trial, but federal soldiers took them to Savannah for trial, which was seen by residents as an overreach of authority and an endangerment for self-government.  As mechanization was introduced, the number of agricultural jobs decreased and Valdosta became more industrialized by the 20th century. The world's second Coca-Cola bottling plant began bottling Coca-Cola in Valdosta in 1897. In 1899, the cotton mill town of Remerton was established from the center of Valdosta. It has since become an enclave to the growth of Valdosta around Remerton.

1900 to 1939.

A new courthouse was planned in 1900 to replace the smaller courthouse. Construction began in 1904 for around $75,000. The old courthouse was torn down in March 1904. The new courthouse was completed in 1904, and on April 14, 1905, the first session of court took place in the new courthouse.  In November 1902, the Harris Nickel-Plate Circus' prize elephant, Gypsy, went on a rampage and killed her trainer James O'Rourke. After terrorizing the town for a couple of hours, she ran off to Cherry Creek, north of Valdosta. Gypsy was chased by Police Chief Calvin Dampier and a posse. Gypsy was shot and killed and buried on site. James O'Rourke was buried in Sunset Hill Cemetery in Valdosta.  On July 28, 1907, Valdosta voted to become a dry city; a record $10,000 worth of whiskey was sold on the last day. The city had been wet since its founding.  In 1910, cotton was still important to the economy, and "Fortune" magazine ranked Valdosta as the richest city in America by per capita income. Soon after that, the boll weevil invaded the South, moving east through the states and killing much of the cotton crop in this area in 1917. Agriculture in this area turned to tobacco and pine timber. In January 1913, the South Georgia State Normal College opened in Valdosta on the edge of town. Over the course of the following century, it evolved into Valdosta State University. The school gradually became a regional center of higher education that has drawn many to the city. On May 16, 1918, a white planter named Hampton Smith was shot and killed at his house near Morven, Georgia, by a black farm worker named Sidney Johnson who was routinely mistreated by Smith. Johnson also shot Smith's wife but she later recovered. Johnson hid for several days in Valdosta without discovery. Lynch mobs formed in Valdosta ransacking Lowndes and Brooks counties for a week looking for Johnson and his alleged accomplices. These mobs lynched at least 13 African Americans, among them Mary Turner and her unborn eight-month-old baby who was cut from her body and murdered. Mary Turner's husband Hazel Turner was also lynched the day before.  Sidney Johnson was turned in by an acquaintance, and on May 22 Police Chief Calvin Dampier led a shootout at the Valdosta house where he was hiding. Following his death, a crowd of more than 700 castrated Johnson's body, then dragged it behind a vehicle down Patterson Street and all the way to Morven, Georgia, near the site of Smith's murder. There the body of Johnson was hanged and burned on a tree. That afternoon, Governor Hugh Dorsey ordered the state militia to be dispatched to Valdosta to halt the lynch mobs, but they arrived too late for many victims. Dorsey later denounced the lynchings, but none of the participants were ever prosecuted.  Following the violence, more than 500 African Americans fled from Lowndes and Brooks counties to escape such oppressive conditions and violence. From 1880 to 1930, Brooks County had the highest number of lynchings in the state of Georgia. By 1922 local chapters of the Ku Klux Klan, which had been revived starting in 1915, were holding rallies openly in Valdosta.

1940 to present.

On June 26, 1941, Moody Army Airfield opened northeast of town as part of the United States' preparation for the country's potential involvement in World War II. Moody Air Force Base's role in World War II and the postwar era has influenced the growth of Valdosta.  The local economy received an important boost in the mid-20th century when Interstate 75 was routed and built through the area. Many vacationers on their way to Florida found Valdosta a convenient "last stop" on their way to Walt Disney World and the Orlando area. The Interstate's route to the west of the city has contributed to its commercial district shifting from the historic downtown area to near the Interstate. Valdosta State College was integrated in September 1963. In 1969, Valdosta High School (the formerly all-white school) and Pinevale High School (the formerly all-black school) were merged into one system. Integration had begun at Valdosta High School about 1966.  During the Vietnam War, future president George W. Bush entered the National Guard, receiving flight training at Valdosta's Moody Air Force Base in November 1968.  In 1994 Kent and Dawn Buescher opened Liberty Farms Animal Park with a playground, entertainment venue and a collection of animals. An amusement park was added, and in 1996 Liberty Farms Animal Park was renamed Wild Adventures. Wild Adventures expanded with Splash Island Water Park in 2002. The Buescher family purchased a botanical garden and theme park called Cypress Gardens in 2004. Due to damage from three hurricanes and a financial struggle in repairing Cypress Gardens the Buescher family were forced to sell Wild Adventures to Herschend Family Entertainment in 2007.  According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' "Monthly Labor Review", the first automated teller machine (ATM) was installed at a C&S Bank in Valdosta in 1971. That ATM was preceded by one installed in Rockville Centre, New York, in 1969.  Valdosta was named as one of 2003's "Top 100 U.S. Small Towns" by "Site Selection" magazine. In 2010 Valdosta was named one of the "Best Small Places For Business and Careers" by "Forbes".

Geography.

Valdosta is located in central Lowndes County at (30.846661, -83.283101), north of the Florida state line. It is about south of Atlanta, east of Dothan, Alabama, and northwest of Jacksonville, Florida.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which are land and, or 1.26%, are water. The Withlacoochee River, a tributary of the Suwannee River, runs along part of the western edge of the city, while the eastern side of the city drains to Mud Creek, flowing southeast to the Alapahoochee River, also part of the Suwannee River watershed.

Climate.

Valdosta has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification "Cfa"), with mild, dry/wet winters and hot, humid summers. Temperatures frequently go over, but in extreme heatwaves, temperatures occasionally go over. Snowfall is rare but not unknown. Snow fell in Valdosta most recently on January 3, 2018, but the last significant snowfall happened in 1989. However, light frosts regularly occur between December and February. Valdosta can experience Indian summers in the winter, where temperatures can get quite warm. Very rarely do winter lows go below.

Transportation.

Intercity rail.

For several decades the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern Railway ran regular passenger trains on a Chicago to Florida circuit, making stops in Valdosta, albeit at different stations. The Atlantic Coast Line ran the "South Wind" through Valdosta, and the Southern operated the "Ponce de Leon" and the "Royal Palm" through the town.  After Amtrak assumed passenger rail operations in the United States in 1971 it operated the "Floridian" from Chicago to St. Petersburg and Miami. In a group of several train disestablishments in 1979, Amtrak discontinued the "Floridian", thus marking the last time that passenger trains served south Georgia (excepting the New York-Florida service in eastern Georgia).

Demographics.

MSA.

According to the Bureau of Census, the Valdosta, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) had an estimated population of 135,804 and ranked #281 in the U.S. in 2009. (The MSA consists of Lowndes, Brooks, Lanier and Echols counties.)

City.

As of the census of 2010 and estimates from 2005 to 2009, there were 54,518 people, 20,280 households, and 11,876 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,521.7 people per square mile (563.9/km2). There were 22,709 housing units available in Valdosta. The racial makeup of the city was 51.2% African American, 41.5% White, 0.3% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.2% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.0% of the population.  According to the census of 2000 the largest self-reported ancestry groups in Valdosta were: · Black or African American - 51% · English - 9% · Irish - 7% · German - 6% · Scotch-Irish - 2% · Italian - 2%  There were 20,280 households out of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 35.5% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.4% were non-families. 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.93. In the city, the population was spread out with 30% 19 years of age and younger, 19.3% from 20 to 24, 23.2% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25.5 years. 53.1% of the population of Valdosta was female and 46.9% was male. Females 18 and over made up 54.4% of the population compared to 45.6% male.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,940, and the median income for a family was $39,295. Males had a median income of $33,230 versus $25,689 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,003. About 20.3% of families and 28.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.3% of those under age 18 and 13.1% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Located in the far southern portion of the state, near the Florida line along the Interstate 75 corridor, it is a commercial center of South Georgia with numerous manufacturing plants. The surrounding area produces tobacco, naval stores, particularly turpentine, as well as pine lumber and pulpwood. According to the Georgia Department of Community Affairs, Valdosta is called the "Naval Stores Capital of the World" because it supplies 80% of the world demand for naval stores.  In the retailing field, Valdosta has one major regional mall, Valdosta Mall, which features national chain anchor stores like JCPenney, Bed, Bath & Beyond, Buckle, PetSmart, Belk, Old Navy, and Ross Stores. Several large stores surround the mall or are near the mall, including Best Buy, Home Depot, Kohl's, Lowe's, Office Max, Target, and Publix. Valdosta has other notable shopping areas such as the Historic Downtown area with many local businesses, and the Five Points area which has a Big Lots, Winn-Dixie, and numerous national franchise and local restaurants.  Moody Air Force Base is located about northeast of Valdosta in northern Lowndes County.  Wild Adventures, a theme and water park, is located south of the center of Valdosta in rural Lowndes County. Wild Adventures is owned by Herschend Family Entertainment.

Education.

Public schools.

The Valdosta City School District holds grades pre-school to grade twelve, consisting of five elementary schools, two middle schools, and two high schools. The school district serves the city of Valdosta and the surrounding communities of Lowndes County. the district has 447 full-time teachers and over 7,178 students.  The Lowndes County School District serves communities of Lowndes County outside of the Valdosta city limits.  Scintilla Charter Academy is a free public school of choice open to any student who resides in Lowndes county or the city of Valdosta. SCA holds grades kindergarten to grade five.

Private schools.

Valwood School is an independent college preparatory school enrolling students in Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade. Several Christian schools offering grades K-12 also operate in and near Valdosta, including Georgia Christian School, Lighthouse Christian School, Open Bible Christian School, Highland Christian Academy, St. John Catholic School, and Victory Christian School.

Higher education.

Valdosta is the home of Valdosta State University (VSU), founded in 1906 as South Georgia State Normal College for Women. It became part of the University System of Georgia in 1950 as Valdosta State College. It achieved university status and became VSU in 1993 and is one of two regional universities in Georgia. VSU has seen substantial growth in the past decade and currently has an enrollment of over 13,000 students. VSU is also the site of the Georgia Governor's Honors Program (GHP), a yearly four-week gathering of meritorious high school students in subjects ranging from standard academic subjects (i.e. math, languages, social studies, etc.) to broader intellectual enterprises (i.e. dance, theater, agricultural sciences.)  An extension of Georgia Military College is in the city limits, and Wiregrass Georgia Technical College is located a mile outside of the city limits off Interstate 75.  Also located in Valdosta is Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University-Worldwide: Moody Campus.

Public libraries.

The South Georgia Regional Library operates two libraries in Valdosta: Valdosta Lowndes County Library and Mae Wisenbaker McMullen Memorial Southside Library. Valdosta Lowndes County Library, with over of space, houses the administrative offices of the library system. Built for $450,000, it first opened in 1968. The Mae Wisenbaker McMullen Memorial Southside Library opened on May 31, 1992. An area businessperson, J.C. McMullen, donated the land used for the Southside Library, which was built as part of a larger library construction program; it was named after Mae Wisenbaker McMullen, the mother of J.C. McMullen.  The first library for African-Americans in Lowndes County began operations in the Walton Building on January 21, 1935, closed in February 1939, and reopened in 1955. In 1963 all libraries became available to patrons of all races.

Museum.

The Lowndes County Historical Society & Museum is located at the Carnegie Library of Valdosta, a National Register of Historic Places listed building and Carnegie library, one of 24 Carnegie libraries in Georgia.

Civic center.

The Lowndes County Civic Center is a 120-seat multi-purpose arena that can be rented by the public and is often used to host community sporting events. The arena was also an occasional venue for Southern Championship Wrestling and Spinebusters Championship Wrestling.

LGBTQ community.

The South Georgia Pride Festival is held every third Saturday in September. This festival is for the LGBTQ community and their allies in the Valdosta and surrounding counties. The first festival was held in 2008 on the front lawn of Valdosta State University, hosted by the VSU Gay Straight Alliance, as a day to celebrate diversity. In 2009 the festival became South Georgia Pride and held its festival at the John W. Saunders Park in Valdosta in 2010. Valdosta Mayor John J. Fretti proclaimed September 17, 2011, as South Georgia Pride Day. In 2011 the organization became a 501(c)(3) non-profit. Since 2010 the festival has grown to over 3,000 people attending. The day is filled with music, entertainment, free HIV testing, and vendors. In July 2012 Mayor John Gayle refused to give a proclamation to South Georgia Pride, the only one he has refused.

Sports.

High school football.

Valdosta has a strong high school football tradition. The Valdosta High School Wildcats have one of the most successful high school football programs in the country with 913 wins, six national championships (1962, 1969, 1971, 1984, 1986, 1992), 24 Georgia state championships between 1920 and 2016, and 41 regional titles.  Cross-town rival Lowndes High School have also built a strong program, winning five state titles since 1980 (including 1999, 2004, 2005 and 2007).  The annual matchup between the two public high schools, Lowndes and Valdosta High, is known as the Winnersville Classic. Valdosta leads the overall series 34-16 and 19-12 since 1981 when the annual match was named the Winnersville Classic.  Local private Valwood School has won six GISA state football titles in Class A (1985, 1986, 1999), Class AA (2012) and Class AAA (2015, 2017).

Valdosta State University.

Football.

The Valdosta State University Blazers have won a total of four Division II National Championship titles (2004, 2007, 2012 and 2018) and have also have won seven Gulf South Conference football championships (1996, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2010, 2018).

Tennis.

Valdosta State University's men's tennis team won the 2006 and 2011 NCAA Division II national championships. The team has also appeared in the national title game in 2004, 2007, and 2010.  Valdosta State's men's tennis team leads the Gulf South Conference with nine conference championships (1996, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011). In 2011 the men's team became the first to win five consecutive GSC championships in tennis.

Baseball.

The first baseball team at Valdosta State was formed in 1954 and had its first official season of intercollegiate competition in 1955. Tommy Thomas, became coach in 1967 and served as coach until 2007. Under Thomas, the Blazers saw 34 winning seasons, two conference titles, three Divisional titles, eight trips to the national tournament, and a Division II national championship in 1979. Thomas is the all-time wins leader in NCAA Division II baseball with 1302 wins. Greg Guilliams became VSU's head baseball coach in 2008 and won a Gulf South Conference East Division title in his first year and led Valdosta State to its first postseason appearance in seven years.  In 1915 the Newark Peppers of the now defunct Federal League held spring training in Valdosta.

Minor league baseball.

Valdosta hosted several different minor league baseball teams during the twentieth century, and was one of six cities in the Georgia State League which began play in 1906, with the team known as the Valdosta Stars. From 1946 to 1958, the Valdosta Tigers were a "Class-D" minor league team. Valdosta was also home to the Valdosta Trojans which was a "farm" team for the Brooklyn Dodgers.

ESPN's Titletown, USA.

TitleTown USA was a month-long segment on ESPN that started in the spring of 2008 and continued through July. Fans nominated towns and cities across the country based on their championship pedigree. A panel reviewed the nominees, and fan voting in May determined the 20th finalist. SportsCenter visited each city in July, and fan voting July 23–27 determined the winner.  Due to the Valdosta High School football team's record as well as multiple championships in many sports by Valdosta State University, Lowndes High School, Valwood School, Georgia Christian School, and other academic institutions in the town, Valdosta was nominated as a finalist in 2008 for ESPN's "Titletown USA" contest. On July 28, 2008, with 29.2% of fan votes on ESPN's website poll, Valdosta was named TitleTown USA.

Wakeboarding.

Valdosta is known for its wakeboard facility, Valdosta Wake Compound, established 2012. The compound is home to international events such as the world's biggest wakeboard event, the Valdosta Yard Sale, a WWA pro athlete event. It also hosts an annual grassroots music festival, Wake Up Fest.

Media.

Radio.

AM:  FM: W295AO 106.9 Rock (repeater of 1450AM)

Television.

Valdosta and Lowndes County is part of the Tallahassee, Florida, television market and receives most channels from that city; it also receives some channels from the neighboring Albany market. See and.

Valdosta is a city in and the county seat of Lowndes County, Georgia, United States. As of 2019, Valdosta had an estimated population of 56,457.

Valdosta est une ville des États-Unis, siège du comté de Lowndes en Géorgie. Selon le recensement de 2000, la population de la ville était de alors qu'en 2006 la population était estimée à. La population de l'aire métropolitaine de Valdosta (qui réunit les comtés de Brooks, Echols, Lanier, et Lowndes) était peuplée en 2006 de.


Description.

"Dacryodes edulis" is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 18–40 meters in the forest but not exceeding 12 meters in plantations. It has a relatively short trunk and a deep, dense crown. The bark is pale gray and rough with droplets of resin. The leaves are a compound with 5-8 pairs of leaflets. The upper surface of the leaves is glossy. The flowers are yellow and about 5 mm across. They are arranged in a large inflorescence. The fruit is an ellipsoidal drupe which varies in length from 4 to 12 cm. The skin of the fruit is dark blue or violet, whereas the flesh is pale to light green. The tree flowers at the beginning of the rainy season and bears fruits during 2 to 5 months after flowering. There are two variants of "Dacryodes edulis": "D. e. var. edulis" and "D. e. var. parvicarpa". The fruit of "D. e. var. edulis" is larger and the tree has stout, ascending branches. "D. e. var. parvicarpa" has smaller fruit and slender, drooping branches.

Habitat and ranges.

The preferential habitat of "D. edulis" (Safou)is a shady, humid tropical forest. However, it adapts well to variations in soil type, humidity, temperature and day length. The natural range extends from Angola in the South, Nigeria and Sierra Leone in the West and Uganda in the East. It is also cultivated in Malaysia.

Oil composition from fruits of two cultivars of African pear in Cameroon.

The oil of fruits of "D. edulis" is a rich source of fatty acids and triglycerides. The fatty acid compositions of fruit pulp oil of 2 cultivars of "D. edulis" (cultivars 1 and 2, grown in Cameroon) were determined. Fruits significantly differed in mass, length, thickness of pulp and mass of kernel, but contained similar amounts of oil (64.7 and 62% in cultivars 1 and 2, respectively, with ratios of oil:fruit of 1.4 and 1.54, respectively). The fatty acids (palmitic, oleic, stearic, linolenic and linoleic acids) and triglycerides compositions of oils of both cultivars were similar (although cultivar 1 was richer in palmitolino-olein (18.5 compared with 14.1%) and cultivar 2 was richer in dipalmito-olein (24.6 compared with 16.2%)).

Uses.

"D. edulis" has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare.

Fruit.

The main use of "D. edulis" is its fruit, which can be eaten either raw, cooked in salt water or roasted. Cooked flesh of the fruit has a texture similar to butter. The pulp contains 48% oil and a plantation can produce 7-8 tons of oil per hectare. The fat content of this fruit is much higher compared to fruits such as apple, guava, and pawpaw. It is also rich in vitamins. The kernel can be used as fodder for sheep or goats. The flowers are useful in apiculture.

Timber.

The wood of "D. edulis" is elastic, greyish-white to pinkish. The wood has general use for tool handles, and occasionally for mortars, and is suitable for carpentry.

Seed.

The seed of "Dacryodes edulis" is rich in different proportion of carbohydrates, proteins, crude fibres, appreciable amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. It is also rich in essential amino acids such as Lysine, Phenylalanine, Leucine, Isoleucine. It contain a considerable amount of fatty acids such as palmitic acids, oleic acids, and linoleic acids. Physicochemical analysis suggested that the seed have valuable functional attributes of industrial interest. The important natural product, gallic acid, is found in significant quantity in the seed of "Dacryodes edulis".

Medicinal uses.

The tree is also a source of many herbal medicines. It has long been used in the traditional medicine of some African countries to treat various ailments such as wounds, skin diseases, dysentery, and fever. The extracts and secondary metabolites have been found to show antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. A wide range of chemical constituents such as terpenes, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, and saponins have been isolated from the plant.

Other uses.

The resin is sometimes burnt for lighting or used as a glue. The tree is used as an ornamental plant and is known to improve soil quality by providing large quantities of biomass.

Nomenclature.

The name of the genus comes from the Greek word for tear, "dakruon". This is a reference to the resin droplets on bark surface of its members. The species name "edulis" means edible.

Dacryodes edulis is a fruit tree native to Africa, sometimes called safou (Cameroon), atanga (Gabon), ube (Nigeria), African or bush pear or plum, nsafu, bush butter tree, or butterfruit.

Le safoutier (Dacryodes edulis) est un arbre fruitier oléifère de la famille des "Burseraceae". Le fruit comestible est le safou. Il est cultivé en Afrique dans les zones équatoriales, tropicale humide et tropicale d’altitude, du Nigéria jusqu'en Ouganda à l'Est, et jusqu'en Angola au Sud. C'est l'un des seuls arbres d'origine africaine cultivé par les populations d’Afrique centrale.


Early life and family.

Hervart's father Daniel Herwart was a Protestant banker from Augsburg who moved to Lyon.  Hervart was married to Esther Vimar in 1697 with whom he had three children: Jean-Antoine Hervart, Anne Hervart, who converted to Catholicism, and Esther Hervart. Esther married, and moved to England after he died where she acquired citizenship, remarried, and had five children.  Other Herwart or Hervart family included Barthélemy's ancestor Georg Herwart who was mayor of Augsburg from 1539 to 1548, Georg's son Ulrich, who moved to Lyon, and Ulrich's son Daniel who married Anne Erlin in 1599 and had four children, including Barthélemy.

Career.

Military related.

Initially an arms dealer, Herwart was Army paymaster for Bernard de Saxe-Weimar, a general in the Thirty Years War. When the general died in 1639, Hervart was put in charge of negotiating with Cardinal Richelieu for the reincorporation of Bernard's troops into the service of. This culminated in the signing of the Treaty of Breisach on 9 October 1639, which in turn allowed Barthélemy and his brother Jean Henry to acquire French nationality and land in Alsace at Huningue, as well as the estate at Landser.

Banking.

Following that, the brothers became bankers in Paris. Barthélemy was Councillor of State in 1649. His financial support permitted Cardinal Mazarin to overcome his opponents. Hervart was named Intendant des finances in 1650, and, even though he was Protestant, obtained the post of Controller-General of Finances in 1657. He retained that position until 12 December 1665. After the arrest of Nicolas Fouquet, gave exclusive authority over his finances to Colbert, as he was already "a member of our council and Intendant of Finances" and made Colbert his Controller-General of Finances a position previously carried out collectively by Louis Nicolas le Tonnelier de Breteuil and Barthélemy Hervart. Breteuil and Hervart were duly compensated for the loss of position.  When Fouquet fell out of favor, Hervart was sued like many financiers, and sentenced to pay a token fine. He was also an investor in salt marshes, in a company for the drainage of the marshes of Arles and Baux, and of the French East India Company.

Marsh project funding.

Arles and Les Baux-de-Provence are located in southwestern Provence just north and east of the marshy Camargue region along the Mediterranean.  On 16 August 1642, a contract to drain the marshes was agreed to between the group of Protestant financiers represented by Dutch engineer : first, the Arles marsh located between Arles and Tarascon, and second, the marsh at Les Baux. Van Ens was the engineer in charge of the project. In order to finance the labor, the "Company for the Drainage of the Marshes of Arles and Baux" ("Société de dessèchement des marais d'Arles et des Baux") was founded. Funds were obtained by financiers close to Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin, including the Hervart brothers Barthélemy and Jean Henry, and Jean Hoeufft. Other partners included Madame Van Ens (heir of her husband), Octavio de Strada of Dutch origin, Michel Lucas, and Jean François Genoyer. Jean Henry Hervart took charge of the company at Arles.  On 31 October 1653, articles were drawn up concerning the rules and regulations concerning the drainage operation and covered the management of the work and the responsibility of the associates. It also imposed a requirement to meet yearly on 16 August to "advise and organize the affairs of the company, and to proceed with the nomination of a Director."  Over time, the membership declined. Van Ens died in 1652. Lucas abandoned his shares to the heirs of Jean Hoeufft, who died before Van Ens, and to the Hervarts in 1659. Stada died in 1655. By 1659, the company only included the Hervarts, and the Hoeufft heirs. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1598, the Hervarts' goods were seized by the King, as they were considered to be "religionnaires". Their goods were only returned in 1692 and only to Catholic heirs residing in France. Property of Hoeufft's heirs were not affected as he was Dutch, but they were confiscated during the war with Holland, and eventually returned in 1713. Descendants of Hervart and Hoeufft thus remained the owners of the company during the 18th century.

Death.

Hervart died extremely rich in Paris in 1676, without having been unduly affected because of his Protestant faith.

Barthélemy Hervart or Herwart (16 August 1607 - 22 October 1676) was a Huguenot banker. He saved the French monarchy on several occasions during the Fronde, the series of civil wars in France in the mid-17th century, by means of important loans, and during the period of the fall of Louis XIV's Superintendent of Finance Nicolas Fouquet.

Barthélemy Hervart ou Herwart, né à Augsbourg le -, fils de Daniel Herwart, banquier huguenot qui, à plusieurs reprises sauva la monarchie française, par des prêts importants durant la Fronde et au moment de l'arrestation de Fouquet.


History.

The village was known from 1511 as (The Mill on the Black Ford). In 1807 a cloth mill was added to the original corn mill by William Kelly. The new company was called Flail and Fleece United, and card money was issued by the company with the inscription "I promise to pay the Bearer on demand Five Shillings British. (Wm. Kelly) Union Mills (4 Sept. 1811)." Only a few walls remain of the original mill, but the millhouse still stands in the village. There is a Memorial Hall in the village and also the Snugborough Trading Estate. The Memorial Hall is dedicated to John Dalrymple Maitland who fell on a battlefield in France on 21 February 1916 during World War I. He was the son of Dalrymple Maitland who was Speaker of the House of Keys from 1909 to 1919 and who died at his home Brook Mooar in the village on 25 March 1919.

Snaefell Mountain course location.

Union Mills village is situated between the second and third milestones of the Snaefell Mountain Course road-racing circuit, used for both the Isle of Man TT course since 1911 and the Manx Grand Prix since 1923.

Railway.

The Union Mills station was one of the original stations on the Isle of Man Railway's Douglas to Peel line. It was located at the east side of the A1 just south of the junction with the A22. The station was opened on 1 July 1873. The line was a single track, but at Union Mills it had a passing loop. The line closed on 13 November 1965 due to the poor condition of the track. It reopened on 3 June 1967, but after further financial problems the line and the Union Mills station were finally closed on 7 September 1968.

Douglas to Peel Railway Lines Mountain Bike & Heritage Trail.

The trackbed through Union Mills now forms part of a long distance footpath and cycleway. A short section of the track has been reinstated where the station once stood, together with a rail-mounted crane, a memorial to the Douglas to Peel line.

Facilities.

The Railway Inn is located on Main Road in the village. There is also a former Methodist Church. There are two campsites, at Glenlough Farm and also at Union Mills Football Club. The Wesleyan Methodist Chapel foundation stone was laid on 6 March 1930. The previous chapel also still stands.

Sport.

Union Mills F.C. football club are located at Garey Mooar, Ballaotes Road. They compete in the Isle of Man Football League. Union Mills cricket club is located at the cricket ground, Ballaoates. In 2008 they competed in the Standard Bank Twenty20 Division Two.

Union Mills () is a village in the parish of Braddan on the A1, the primary road which connects Douglas and Peel in the Isle of Man, close to the River Dhoo.

Union Mills est un bourg de la paroisse de Braddan situé sur la route entre Douglas et Peel, sur l'île de Man.


Background.

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was an early supporter of Augustus (then "Octavius") during the Final War of the Roman Republic that ensued as a result of the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. His father was a key general in Augustus' armies, commanding troops in pivotal battles against Mark Antony and Sextus Pompeius. From early in the emperor's reign, Agrippa was trusted to handle affairs in the eastern provinces and was even given the signet ring of Augustus, who was seemingly on his deathbed in 23 BC, a sign that he would become "princeps" were Augustus to die. It is probable that he was to rule until the emperor's nephew, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, came of age. However, Marcellus died of an illness that had spread throughout the city of Rome that year.  With Marcellus gone, Augustus arranged for the marriage of Agrippa to his daughter Julia the Elder, who was previously the wife of Marcellus. Agrippa was given "tribunicia potestas" ("the tribunician power") in 18 BC, a power that only the emperor and his immediate heir could hope to attain. The tribunician power allowed him to control the Senate, and it was first given to Julius Caesar. Agrippa acted as tribune in the Senate to pass important legislation and, though he lacked some of the emperor's power and authority, he was approaching the position of co-regent.

Early life and family.

Lucius was born in Rome in 17 BC to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia. He was part of the imperial family of Augustus, known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and was related to all the Julio-Claudian emperors. On his mother's side, he was the second oldest grandson of emperor Augustus after his brother Gaius. He was the brother-in-law of Tiberius by his half-sister Vipsania Agrippina, and Claudius by his sister Agrippina the Elder's marriage to Germanicus. Lucius' nephew was the future emperor Caligula, who was Germanicus' son.  Having no heir since the death of Marcellus, Augustus immediately adopted Lucius and his brother from their father by a symbolic sale following Lucius' birth, and named the two boys his heirs. It is unknown what their father thought of the adoption. Shortly after their adoption in the summer, Augustus held the fifth ever "Ludi Saeculares" ("Secular Games"). The adoption of the boys coupled with the games served to introduce a new era of peace – the "Pax Augusta". Augustus, mostly by himself, taught Gaius and Lucius how to read and swim, as well as how to imitate his own handwriting. He insisted that they earn the applause of people, instead of allowing them to receive it freely. Their adoptive father initiated them into administrative life when they were still young, and sent them to the provinces as consuls-elect.  That year (17 BC) Lucius' family left for the province of Syria, because his father was given command of the eastern provinces with proconsular authority ("imperium maius"). In 13 BC, his father returned to Rome and was promptly sent to Pannonia to suppress a rebellion. Agrippa arrived there that winter (in 12 BC), but the Pannonians gave up their plans. Agrippa returned to Campania in Italy, where he fell ill and died soon after. The death of Lucius' father made succession a pressing issue. The "aurei" and "denarii" issued in 13–12 BC made clear the Emperor's dynastic plans for Lucius and Gaius. Their father was no longer available to assume the reins of power if the Emperor were to die, and Augustus had to make it clear who his intended heirs were in case anything should happen.

Career.

Augustus brought Lucius to the Forum Romanum in 2 BC to enroll him as a citizen. The event was made into a ceremony the same as Gaius' enrollment had been three years prior. Lucius assumed the "toga virilis" ("toga of manhood"), marking the beginning of his adulthood, and he too was made "princeps iuventutis" ("leader of the youth"). Like Gaius, he was elected consul "designatus", with the intent that he assume the consulship at the age of nineteen. There was only one difference in his titles from those of Gaius: that he was made a member of the college of augurs whereas Gaius was made a "pontifex" ("pontiff"). Augustus distributed 60 denarii to each Roman citizen to mark the occasion.  That same year, before his brother Gaius left for the east, Lucius and Gaius were given the authority to consecrate buildings, and they did, with their management of the games held to celebrate the dedication of the Temple of Mars Ultor (1 August 2 BC). Their younger brother, Postumus, participated in the Trojan games with the rest of the equestrian youth. 260 lions were slaughtered in the Circus Maximus, there was gladiatorial combat, a naval battle between the "Persians" and the "Athenians", and 36 crocodiles were slaughtered in the Circus Flaminius.  While Gaius was in Armenia, Lucius had been sent by Augustus to complete his military training in Hispania. While on the way to his post, he fell ill and died on 20 August AD 2 in Massalia, Gaul. His death was followed by that of Gaius on 21 February AD 4. In the span of 18 months, the succession of Rome was shaken. The death of both Gaius and Lucius, the Emperor's two most favored heirs, led Augustus to adopt his stepson, Tiberius, and his sole remaining grandson, Postumus Agrippa as his new heirs on 26 June AD 4.

Post mortem.

The two heirs received many honours by citizens and city officials of the Empire, including "Colonia Obsequens Iulia Pisana" (Pisa), where it was decreed that proper rites must be observed by matrons to lament their passing. Temples, public baths, and shops shut their doors as women wept inconsolably. Posthumously the Senate voted honours for the young Caesars, and arranged for the golden spears and shields the boys had received on achieving the age of military service to be hung in the Senate House. The caskets containing their ashes were stored in the Mausoleum of Augustus alongside those of their father Agrippa and other members of the imperial family.  Tacitus and Cassius Dio both suggested that there may have been foul play involved in the death of Gaius and Lucius and that Lucius's step-grandmother Livia may have had a hand in their deaths. Livia's presumed motive may have been to orchestrate the accession of her own son Tiberius as heir to Augustus. Tiberius was named the heir of Augustus in AD 4.

Lucius Caesar (Latin: "Lucius Julius Caesar"; 17 BC – 20 August AD 2) was the grandson of Augustus. The son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, Augustus' only daughter, Lucius was adopted by his grandfather along with his older brother, Gaius Caesar. As the emperor's adopted sons and joint-heirs to the Roman Empire, Lucius and Gaius had promising political and military careers. However, Lucius died of a sudden illness on 20 August AD 2, in Massilia, Gaul, while traveling to meet the Roman army in Hispania. His brother Gaius also died at a relatively young age on 21 February, AD 4. The untimely loss of both heirs compelled Augustus to redraw the line of succession by adopting Lucius' younger brother, Agrippa Postumus as well as his stepson, Tiberius on 26 June AD 4.

Lucius Caesar (juin 17 av. J.-C. - 2 ap. J.-C.), en latin "Lucius Julius Caesar Vipsanianus" après son adoption par Auguste, est le fils de Julia et de Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Il naît en juin -17, lors des jeux séculaires présidés par son grand-père maternel Auguste qui l'adoptera dès sa naissance, en même temps que son frère aîné Caius Caesar (Caius Julius Caesar Vipsanianus). En effet, Auguste souhaite pérenniser le principat qu'il a créé par l'intermédiaire de sa descendance.


Background.

Eze was born to Nigerian parents, Daniel and Rebecca (who are Igbo and devout Catholics), in Agbokete, in what was Northern Region of Nigeria. Because of his parents' ethnicity and religion they fled the North during the Nigerian Civil War to Nsukka, in the eastern part of the country.

Education and teaching.

Eze was educated by Jesuits in colleges in Benin City, Nigeria and Kimwenza, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo). He attended St. Patrick's Elementary School in Iheakpu-Awka from 1970 to 1976. In 1982 he graduated from Igbo-Eze Secondary School. From September of the same year he worked as Clerk at the Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture in Funtua.  In 1983 Eze resigned the job and enrolled at St. Ignatius Jesuit Novitiate in Benin City. From 1985 to 1987 he studied at S. Pierre Canisius College in Kimwenza, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. He then taught French language at Bishop Kelly College in Benin City for an academic year before moving to New York. He received his Masters (1989) and Ph.D. (1993) from Fordham University. His doctoral thesis was on "Rationality and the Debates about African Philosophy."  Eze taught at Bucknell University and at Mount Holyoke College. In addition, he was a post-doctoral visiting scholar at Cambridge University (1996–1997, where he designed the M. Phil. program in African Studies), a visiting professor at the New School for Social Research (1997) and at the University of Cape Town (2003).

Further reading.

"On “Achieving our Humanity: The Idea of the Postracial Future”"  "On “Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader”":  "On “Postcolonial African Philosophy: A Critical Reader”":  "On “African Philosophy: An Anthology”":

Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (18 January 196330 December 2007) was a Nigerian-born American philosopher. Eze was a specialist in postcolonial philosophy. He wrote as well as edited influential postcolonial histories of philosophy in Africa, Europe, and the Americas. He brought Immanuel Kant's racism to light among Western thinkers in the 1990s, an area of Kant's life that Western philosophers often gloss over. Influences in his own work include Paulin Hountondji, Richard Rorty, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant.

Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, né le au Nigéria et mort le en Pennsylvanie, est un enseignant en philosophie américain, expert en philosophie postcoloniale.


History.

United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) is a United Nations peacekeeping force that was established under United Nations Security Council Resolution 186 in 1964 to prevent a recurrence of fighting following intercommunal violence between the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, to contribute to the maintenance and restoration of law and order and to facilitate a return to normal conditions.  Following the 1974 Greek Cypriot coup d'état and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) extended and expanded the mission to prevent the dispute turning into war, and UNFICYP was redeployed to patrol the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus and assist in the maintenance of the military status quo. Since its establishment, the force has also worked in concert with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and representatives of the two communities to seek an amicable diplomatic solution to the Cyprus dispute.  On 5 December 2006, the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan recommended a further six-month extension in the mandate of the UN mission that has been deployed on the island for over four decades. Mr. Annan said that while the situation remained "calm and stable with no major violations of the ceasefire lines," he regretted the continued stalemate in the political process and the "missed opportunities" over the past 10 years.

Fatalities.

Up to and including 30 June 2017, UNFICYP has suffered 183 fatalities:

Deployment.

UNFICYP is headquartered from the Blue Beret Camp next to the abandoned airport of Nicosia. The current force commander is Major General Cheryl Pearce, AM (Australia), (UNFICYP) Force Commander of United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus.

Prior to 1974.

Upon UNFICYP's arrival on the island, the national contingents were each assigned a sector, which mostly coincided with the boundaries of the civil districts: When, in October 1973, the Irish contingent was withdrawn from Cyprus in support of the United Nations Emergency Force during the Yom Kippur War, the Austrian contingent was relocated from Paphos District (which was subsequently absorbed by the British contingent) to Larnaca District to replace them, with the Western half, which had previously been patrolled by the British contingent, absorbed into the Austrian sector.  Canada in UNFICYP – From 15 March 1964 to 15 June 1993, Canada maintained a battalion-sized contingent of peace-support troops in UNFICYP. During this period, the Canadian contingent went through 59 rotations and some 25,000 CAF personnel completed six-month tours on the island. With Denmark, Ireland and Finland, Canada was one of the four original contributors of troops to UNFICYP, committed by the government of Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson on 12 March 1964. The lead elements of the initial rotation of the Canadian contingent arrived on 15 March 1964, followed by a brigade headquarters, the 1st Battalion, Royal 22e Régiment, and a Reconnaissance Squadron from The Royal Canadian Dragoons mounted in Ferret scout cars that were transported to Cyprus by. By 1993, when Canada withdrew its combat arms contingent from UNFICYP, every infantry battalion of the Regular Force had deployed to Cyprus at least once, and Regular Force artillery and armoured regiments had reorganized for infantry duties to take their turns. The current contribution are small numbers of staff officers on one-year rotations. The operation name “Snowgoose” dates from July 1974, when the Canadian contingent in UNFICYP — originally made up of 1 Commando, Canadian Airborne Regiment, and the Airborne Field Squadron (the combat engineer element of the Canadian Airborne Regiment) — was rapidly augmented by 2 Commando and 3 Commando in response to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus that began on 20 July 1974.

Since 1993.

As of 31 May 2012, the total strength (military personnel and civilian police) of UNFICYP is 926 individuals. The 858 military personnel are from Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Hungary, Paraguay, Peru, Serbia, Slovakia and the United Kingdom.  On 31 October 2019, Ghana began contributing to the peacekeeping forces in Cyprus.  UNFICYP's military personnel are mostly divided up into national contingents, with each major contingent being responsible for one of the buffer zone's three remaining sectors. The Argentine contingent includes soldiers from the Argentine military forces, including the Argentine Army and the Argentine Marines, as well as from Brazil, Paraguay and Chile; whereas the Slovak contingent includes soldiers from Croatia.  In addition to the main sector contingents, there are several other military units under UNFICYP command, including:  There are 69 civilian police officers supplied by Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, El Salvador, India, Ireland, Italy, Montenegro, the Netherlands and Ukraine. In addition, UNFICYP has 147 civilian staff members, 39 of whom were internationally recruited and 108 locally recruited.

Buffer Zone.

The United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus is a demilitarised zone, patrolled by UNFICYP, that was established in 1974 following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, and "de facto" partitions the island into the area controlled by the Government of Cyprus (which is the "de jure" government for the entire island save for the British Sovereign Base Areas) in the South and that under the administration of the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus in the North. The zone runs for more than along what is colloquially known as the Green Line and has an area of.  The zone stretches for 180 km from the western part of near Kato Pyrgos to the east just south of Famagusta. It cuts through the center of the old town of Nicosia, separating the city into southern and northern sections. There is also a buffer zone around the Kokkina exclave in western Cyprus. The width of the zone ranges from in central Nicosia, to at the village of Athienou. There is no buffer zone along the common border between the eastern British Sovereign Base Area and the area under Greek Cypriot or Turkish Cypriot control.  The buffer zone is home to some 10,000 people and there are several villages and farms located within. The village of Pyla is famous for being the only village on Cyprus where Greeks and Turks live side by side. Other villages are Dhenia, Mammari, Athienou and Troulli while Lymbia lies partially within the zone.  Turkish forces built a barrier on the zone's northern side, consisting mainly of barbed-wire fencing, concrete wall segments, watchtowers, anti-tank ditches, and minefields. This line is also referred to as the Attila Line on some maps, named after the Turkish code-name for the 1974 military intervention: Operation Atilla. The closed off zone has become a haven for Cyprus' wildlife, an example of an involuntary park.

Finances.

The annual cost for maintaining UNFICYP is estimated at $57,390,000. This includes the voluntary contribution by the Government of Cyprus of one third of the cost of the force and the annual amount of $6,500,000 contributed by the Government of Greece. Turkey does not directly contribute to the force's budget. The operational cost of UNFICYP just during the period from 16 June 1993 to 31 October 2010 was US$2.91 billion.

Removal of UNFICYP from Cyprus.

UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon reported in 2011 that "Preliminary internal discussions about the UN presence in Cyprus had been initiated" and hinted that "UNFICYP's continued presence on the island could not be taken for granted".

The United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) is a United Nations peacekeeping force that was established under United Nations Security Council Resolution 186 in 1964 to prevent a recurrence of fighting following intercommunal violence between the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, to contribute to the maintenance and restoration of law and order and to facilitate a return to normal conditions.<ref name="S/RES/186"> Major General Cheryl Pearce (Australia) is the current Force Commander of UNFICYP, appointed in 2018, and preceded by Major General Mohammad Humayun Kabir (Bangladesh).

La Force des Nations unies chargée du maintien de la paix à Chypre (UNFICYP pour United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus) a été créée en 1964.


Definition.

There are (at least) three slightly different methods called Borel summation. They differ in which series they can sum, but are consistent, meaning that if two of the methods sum the same series they give the same answer.  Throughout let "A"("z") denote a formal power series  and define the Borel transform of "A" to be its equivalent exponential series

Borel's exponential summation method.

Let "A"("z") denote the partial sum  A weak form of Borel's summation method defines the Borel sum of "A" to be  If this converges at "z" ∈ C to some "a"("z"), we say that the weak Borel sum of "A" converges at "z", and write formula_5.

Borel's integral summation method.

Suppose that the Borel transform converges for all positive real numbers to a function growing sufficiently slowly that the following integral is well defined (as an improper integral), the Borel sum of "A" is given by  If the integral converges at "z" ∈ C to some "a"("z"), we say that the Borel sum of "A" converges at "z", and write formula_7.

Borel's integral summation method with analytic continuation.

This is similar to Borel's integral summation method, except that the Borel transform need not converge for all "t", but converges to an analytic function of "t" near 0 that can be analytically continued along the positive real axis.

Basic properties.

Regularity.

The methods (B) and (wB) are both regular summation methods, meaning that whenever "A"("z") converges (in the standard sense), then the Borel sum and weak Borel sum also converge, and do so to the same value. i.e.  Regularity of (B) is easily seen by a change in order of integration, which is valid due to absolute convergence: if "A"("z") is convergent at "z", then  where the rightmost expression is exactly the Borel sum at "z".  Regularity of (B) and (wB) imply that these methods provide analytic extensions to "A"("z").

Nonequivalence of Borel and weak Borel summation.

Any series "A"("z") that is weak Borel summable at "z" ∈ "C" is also Borel summable at "z". However, one can construct examples of series which are divergent under weak Borel summation, but which are Borel summable. The following theorem characterises the equivalence of the two methods.

Uniqueness theorems.

There are always many different functions with any given asymptotic expansion. However, there is sometimes a best possible function, in the sense that the errors in the finite-dimensional approximations are as small as possible in some region. Watson's theorem and Carleman's theorem show that Borel summation produces such a best possible sum of the series.

Watson's theorem.

Watson's theorem gives conditions for a function to be the Borel sum of its asymptotic series. Suppose that "f" is a function satisfying the following conditions: is bounded by for all "z" in the region (for some positive constant "C").  Then Watson's theorem says that in this region "f" is given by the Borel sum of its asymptotic series. More precisely, the series for the Borel transform converges in a neighborhood of the origin, and can be analytically continued to the positive real axis, and the integral defining the Borel sum converges to "f"("z") for "z" in the region above.  Slightly more generally, "f" is still determined by its asymptotic series if the "n"! in the error estimate above is replaced by "kn"! provided the condition |arg("z")| < /2 + "ε" is replaced by |arg("z")| < "k"/2 + "ε". This is in some sense best possible, as there are counterexamples if the number "k"/2 is replaced by any smaller number.

Carleman's theorem.

Carleman's theorem shows that a function is uniquely determined by an asymptotic series in a sector provided the errors in the finite order approximations do not grow too fast. More precisely it states that if "f" is analytic in the interior of the sector |"z"| < "C", Re("z") > 0 and |"f"("z")| < |"b""z"| in this region for all "n", then "f" is zero provided that the series 1/"b" + 1/"b" +... diverges.  Carleman's theorem gives a summation method for any asymptotic series whose terms do not grow too fast, as the sum can be defined to be the unique function with this asymptotic series in a suitable sector if it exists. Borel summation is slightly weaker than special case of this when "b" ="cn" for some constant "c". More generally one can define summation methods slightly stronger than Borel's by taking the numbers "b" to be slightly larger, for example "b" = "cn"log "n" or "b" ="cn"log "n" log log "n". In practice this generalization is of little use, as there are almost no natural examples of series summable by this method that cannot also be summed by Borel's method.

Example.

The function "f"("z") = exp(–1/"z") has the asymptotic series 0 + 0"z"+... with an error bound of the form above in the region |arg("z")| < "θ" for any "θ" < /2, but is not given by the Borel sum of its asymptotic series. This shows that the number /2 in Watson's theorem cannot be replaced by any smaller number (unless the bound on the error is made smaller).

Examples.

The geometric series.

Consider the geometric series  which converges (in the standard sense) to 1/(1 − "z") for |"z"| < 1. The Borel transform is  from which we obtain the Borel sum  which converges in the larger region Re("z") < 1, giving an analytic continuation of the original series.  Considering instead the weak Borel transform, the partial sums are given by "A"("z") = (1 − z)/(1 − "z"), and so the weak Borel sum is  where, again, convergence is on Re("z") < 1. Alternatively this can be seen by appealing to part 2 of the equivalence theorem, since for Re("z") < 1

An alternating factorial series.

Consider the series  then "A"("z") does not converge for any nonzero "z" ∈ C. The Borel transform is  for |"t"| < 1, which can be analytically continued to all "t" ≥ 0. So the Borel sum is  (where Γ is the incomplete gamma function).  This integral converges for all "z" ≥ 0, so the original divergent series is Borel summable for all such "z". This function has an asymptotic expansion as "z" tends to 0 that is given by the original divergent series. This is a typical example of the fact that Borel summation will sometimes "correctly" sum divergent asymptotic expansions.  Again, since  for all "z", the equivalence theorem ensures that weak Borel summation has the same domain of convergence, "z" ≥ 0.

An example in which equivalence fails.

The following example extends on that given in. Consider  After changing the order of summation, the Borel transform is given by  At "z" = 2 the Borel sum is given by  where "S"("x") is the Fresnel integral. Via the convergence theorem along chords, the Borel integral converges for all "z" ≤ 2 (clearly the integral diverges for "z" > 2).  For the weak Borel sum we note that  holds only for "z" < 1, and so the weak Borel sum converges on this smaller domain.

Existence results and the domain of convergence.

Summability on chords.

If a formal series "A"("z") is Borel summable at "z" ∈ C, then it is also Borel summable at all points on the chord O"z" connecting "z" to the origin. Moreover, there exists a function "a"("z") analytic throughout the disk with radius O"z" such that  for all "z" = θ"z", θ ∈ [0,1].  An immediate consequence is that the domain of convergence of the Borel sum is a star domain in C. More can be said about the domain of convergence of the Borel sum, than that it is a star domain, which is referred to as the Borel polygon, and is determined by the singularities of the series "A"("z").

The Borel polygon.

Suppose that "A"("z") has strictly positive radius of convergence, so that it is analytic in a non-trivial region containing the origin, and let "S" denote the set of singularities of "A". This means that "P" ∈ "S" if and only if "A" can be continued analytically along the open chord from 0 to "P", but not to "P" itself. For "P" ∈ "S", let "L" denote the line passing through "P" which is perpendicular to the chord "OP". Define the sets  the set of points which lie on the same side of "L" as the origin. The Borel polygon of "A" is the set  An alternative definition was used by Borel and Phragmén. Let formula_33 denote the largest star domain on which there is an analytic extension of "A", then formula_34 is the largest subset of formula_35 such that for all formula_36 the interior of the circle with diameter "OP" is contained in formula_37. Referring to the set formula_34 as a polygon is somewhat of a misnomer, since the set need not be polygonal at all; if, however, "A"("z") has only finitely many singularities then formula_34 will in fact be a polygon.  The following theorem, due to Borel and Phragmén provides convergence criteria for Borel summation.  Note that (B) summability for formula_42 depends on the nature of the point.

Example 1.

Let ω ∈ C denote the "m"-th roots of unity, "i" = 1,..., "m", and consider  which converges on "B"(0,1) ⊂ C. Seen as a function on C, "A"("z") has singularities at "S" = {"ω" : "i" = 1,..., "m"}, and consequently the Borel polygon formula_44 is given by the regular "m"-gon centred at the origin, and such that 1 ∈ C is a midpoint of an edge.

Example 2.

The formal series  converges for all formula_46 (for instance, by the comparison test with the geometric series). It can however be shown that "A" does not converge for any point "z" ∈ C such that "z" = 1 for some "n". Since the set of such "z" is dense in the unit circle, there can be no analytic extension of "A" outside of "B"(0,1). Subsequently the largest star domain to which "A" can be analytically extended is "S" = "B"(0,1) from which (via the second definition) one obtains formula_47. In particular one sees that the Borel polygon is not polygonal.

A Tauberian theorem.

A Tauberian theorem provides conditions under which convergence of one summation method implies convergence under another method. The principal Tauberian theorem for Borel summation provides conditions under which the weak Borel method implies convergence of the series.

Applications.

Borel summation finds application in perturbation expansions in quantum field theory. In particular in 2-dimensional Euclidean field theory the Schwinger functions can often be recovered from their perturbation series using Borel summation. Some of the singularities of the Borel transform are related to instantons and renormalons in quantum field theory.

Generalizations.

Borel summation requires that the coefficients do not grow too fast: more precisely, "a" has to be bounded by "n"!"C" for some "C". There is a variation of Borel summation that replaces factorials "n"! with ("kn")! for some positive integer "k", which allows the summation of some series with "a" bounded by ("kn")!"C" for some "C". This generalization is given by Mittag-Leffler summation.  In the most general case, Borel summation is generalized by Nachbin resummation, which can be used when the bounding function is of some general type (psi-type), instead of being exponential type.

In mathematics, Borel summation is a summation method for divergent series, introduced by. It is particularly useful for summing divergent asymptotic series, and in some sense gives the best possible sum for such series. There are several variations of this method that are also called Borel summation, and a generalization of it called Mittag-Leffler summation.

En mathématiques, la sommation de Borel est une généralisation de la notion usuelle de sommation d'une série. En particulier, elle donne une définition d'une grandeur qui se comporte en de nombreux aspects comme la somme, "même lorsque la série est divergente". Ce concept est notamment très utile en théorie des perturbations, une branche des mathématiques très utilisée dans les calculs de physique. Ce procédé de sommation fut d'abord étudié par le mathématicien Émile Borel.


History.

Shanghai International Circuit is a no-expense-spared facility, conceived by the Shanghai authorities as a way to showcase the city to the world. A 5.3 sq km site was chosen in the Jiading District in the north west of the city, close to major car parts manufacturing facilities and a budget of 2.6 billion yuan ($450 million) raised through a government-funded joint-venture company, the Shanghai Jiushi Group.  Herman Tilke was chosen to design the track and associated buildings, and between April and May 2003, engineers visited the site to draw up their plans. The site was actually a swampland, previously used as rice paddy fields, and extensive groundworks had to be completed to construct the circuit. For 18 months some 3,000 workers were on site daily to complete the facility – a remarkable feat of both engineering and logistics.  When it opened, visitors found a vast complex, dominated by the main grandstand and pit complex, which featured wing-like viewing platforms crossing the circuit at either end. This can hold 30,000 spectators alone, and others around the circuit take the total capacity to 200,000. Paddock facilities were also unique – each of the F1 teams had its own building, arranged like pavilions in a lake to resemble the ancient Yu Garden in Shanghai.

Layout.

The track layout was inspired from the Chinese character shang (上), the first character in the name of the city Shanghai, meaning "above" or "ascend".  There’s a unique start to the lap as the drivers fly into the ever-tightening Turns 1 and 2, before they dart left through 3 and 4. The super-high g force Turns 7 and 8 are loved by the drivers, while the circuit also features one of the longest straights on the calendar, the 1.2km stretch that separates turns 13 and 14.

Motorsport events.

The Shanghai International Circuit is the first in China to be purpose-built for Formula One and it hosts FIA Formula One World Championship Chinese Grand Prix every year since 2004. The circuit also holds a number of global high-profile series, including the FIA World Endurance Championship and the Blancpain GT Series Asia.  In the past, the circuit has hosted the MotoGP world championship, and an one-off V8 Supercars China Round of the Australian-based V8 Supercar championship in 2005, and also the final round of the A1 Grand Prix in 2006/2007.

A lap in a Formula One car.

The first two bends make a 185km/h right-hand curve which leads immediately into turns 3 and 4 taken at 105 km/h. One and two are far more difficult – a lift on entry followed by various taps of the throttle and brakes are needed so the car maintains balance throughout. It also becomes blind towards the middle of the corner. Three and four are nowhere near as difficult but a good exit is needed to gain speed down the following straight and through turn 5. The complex of turns 1–4 makes up the first of two "snails" on the circuit, the other being turns 11–13. Turn 6 is a second gear, right-handed hairpin with plentiful run-off. Turns 7 and 8 make up a high speed chicane – the left-right complex sees a constant G-force of 3 and a minimum speed of about 160 km/h. Turns 9 and 10 immediately follow – two slow left-handers which require a good exit to gain speed down the next straight. Turns 11 and 12 effectively make up a slow left-right chicane where the use of kerbs are important but traction is low. Turn 13 is a very long right-hander which becomes less and less tight, and a very good exit is important as DRS is available down the following straight. At 1170m, it is the equivalent to 11 football pitches laid end to end, or the same length as three and a half of the world's biggest aircraft carriers Turn 14 is a hairpin at the end of the straight – the second gear corner is a prime overtaking spot as DRS is available in the run up to the corner. Turn 16 is the last corner – a fourth-gear left-hander which requires a quick tap on the brakes – braking early can be more effective as you can then carry more speed through the corner and then down the pit straight.  The total length of the circuit is 5.451 km (3.387 mi), which is about average for a Formula One circuit. Michael Schumacher's lap record of 1:32.238 at the circuit was broken after 13 years in 2017 by Mercedes-AMG driver Lewis Hamilton, who completed one lap of the circuit in 1:31.678. Hamilton's record was broken the following year by Scuderia Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel, who completed one lap of the circuit in 1:31.095.

The Shanghai International Circuit () is a motorsport race track, situated in the Jiading District, Shanghai. The circuit is best known as the venue for the annual Formula 1 Chinese Grand Prix which has been hosted since 2004.

Le circuit international de Shanghai () est un circuit permanent de sports mécaniques localisé à Shanghai (district de Jiading) en Chine, il a été inauguré le. Le Grand Prix de Chine de Formule 1 s'y déroule depuis 2004.