Composition.

According to Mill in his autobiography, "On Liberty" was first conceived as a short essay in 1854. As the ideas developed, the essay was expanded, rewritten and "sedulously" corrected by Mill and his wife, Harriet Taylor. Mill, after suffering a mental breakdown and eventually meeting and subsequently marrying Harriet, changed many of his beliefs on moral life and women's rights. Mill states that "On Liberty" "was more directly and literally our joint production than anything else which bears my name."  The final draft was nearly complete when his wife died suddenly in 1858. Mill suggests that he made no alterations to the text at this point and that one of his first acts after her death was to publish it and to "consecrate it to her memory." The composition of this work was also indebted to the work of the German thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt, especially his essay "On the Limits of State Action". Finally published in 1859, "On Liberty" was one of Mill's two most influential books (the other being "Utilitarianism").

Overview.

Introduction.

John Stuart Mill opens his essay by discussing the historical "struggle between authority and liberty," describing the tyranny of government, which, in his view, needs to be controlled by the liberty of the citizens. He divides this control of authority into two mechanisms: necessary rights belonging to citizens, and the "establishment of constitutional checks by which the consent of the community, or of a body of some sort, supposed to represent its interests, was made a necessary condition to some of the more important acts of the governing power." Because society was—in its early stages—subjected to such turbulent conditions (i.e. small population and constant war), it was forced to accept rule "by a master." However, as mankind progressed, it became conceivable for the people to rule themselves. Mill admits that this new form of society seemed immune to tyranny because "there was no fear of tyrannizing over self." Despite the high hopes of the Enlightenment, Mill argues that the democratic ideals were not as easily met as expected. First, even in democracy, the rulers were not always the same sort of people as the ruled. Second, there is a risk of a "tyranny of the majority" in which the many oppress the few who, according to democratic ideals, have just as much a right to pursue their legitimate ends.  In Mill's view, tyranny of the majority is worse than tyranny of government because it is not limited to a political function. Where one can be protected from a tyrant, it is much harder to be protected "against the tyranny of the prevailing opinion and feeling." The prevailing opinions within society will be the basis of all rules of conduct within society; thus there can be no safeguard in law against the tyranny of the majority. Mill's proof goes as follows: the majority opinion may not be the correct opinion. The only justification for a person's preference for a particular moral belief is that it is that person's preference. On a particular issue, people will align themselves either for or against that issue; the side of greatest volume will prevail, but is not necessarily correct. In conclusion to this analysis of past governments, Mill proposes a single standard for which a person's liberty may be restricted:  That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant... Over himself, over his body and mind, the individual is sovereign.  Mill clarifies that this standard is solely based on utility. Therefore, when it is not useful, it may be ignored. For example, according to Mill, children and "barbarian" nations are benefited by limited freedom. Just despots, such as Charlemagne and Akbar the Great, were historically beneficial to people not yet fit to rule themselves.  J. S. Mill concludes the Introduction by discussing what he claimed were the three basic liberties in order of importance:  While Mill admits that these freedoms could—in certain situations—be pushed aside, he claims that in contemporary and civilised societies there is no justification for their removal.

Of the liberty of thought and discussion.

In the second chapter, J. S. Mill attempts to prove his claim from the first chapter that opinions ought never to be suppressed. Looking to the consequences of suppressing opinions, he concludes that opinions ought never to be suppressed, stating, "Such prejudice, or oversight, when it [i.e. false belief] occurs, is altogether an evil; but it is one from which we cannot hope to be always exempt, and must be regarded as the price paid for an inestimable good." He claims that there are three sorts of beliefs that can be had—wholly false, partly true, and wholly true—all of which, according to Mill, benefit the common good:  Mill spends a large portion of the chapter discussing implications of and objections to the policy of never suppressing opinions. In doing so, Mill explains his opinion of Christian ethics, arguing that, while they are praiseworthy, they are incomplete on their own. Therefore, Mill concludes that suppression of opinion based on belief in infallible doctrine is dangerous. Among the other objections Mill answers is the objection that the truth will necessarily survive persecution and that society need only teach the grounds for truth, not the objections to it. Near the end of Chapter 2, Mill states that "unmeasured vituperation, enforced on the side of prevailing opinion, deters people from expressing contrary opinion, and from listening to those who express them."

On individuality as one of the elements of well-being.

In the third chapter, J. S. Mill points out the inherent value of individuality since individuality is "ex vi termini" (i.e. by definition) the thriving of the human person through the higher pleasures. He argues that a society ought to attempt to promote individuality as it is a prerequisite for creativity and diversity. With this in mind, Mill believes that conformity is dangerous. He states that he fears that Western civilization approaches this well-intentioned conformity to praiseworthy maxims characterized by the Chinese civilization. Therefore, Mill concludes that actions in themselves do not matter. Rather, the person behind the action and the action together are valuable. He writes:

On the limits to the authority of society over the individual.

In the fourth chapter, J. S. Mill explains a system in which a person can discern what aspects of life should be governed by the individual and which by society. Generally, he holds that a person should be left as free to pursue his own interests as long as this does not harm the interests of others. In such a situation, "society has jurisdiction over [the person's conduct]." He rejects the idea that this liberty is simply for the purpose of allowing selfish indifference. Rather, he argues that this liberal system will bring people to the good more effectively than physical or emotional coercion. This principle leads him to conclude that a person may, without fear of just punishment, do harm to himself through vice. Governments, he claims, should only punish a person for neglecting to fulfill a duty to others (or causing harm to others), not the vice that brought about the neglect.  J. S. Mill spends the rest of the chapter responding to objections to his maxim. He notes the objection that he contradicts himself in granting societal interference with youth because they are irrational but denying societal interference with certain adults though they act irrationally. Mill first responds by restating the claim that society ought to punish the harmful consequences of the irrational conduct, but not the irrational conduct itself which is a personal matter. Furthermore, he notes the societal obligation is not to ensure that each individual is moral throughout adulthood. Rather, he states that, by educating youth, society has the opportunity and duty to ensure that a generation, as a whole, is generally moral.  Where some may object that there is justification for certain religious prohibitions in a society dominated by that religion, he argues that members of the majority ought make rules that they would accept should they have been the minority. He states, "unless we are willing to adopt the logic of persecutors, and say that we may persecute others because we are right, and that they must not persecute us because they are wrong, we must beware of admitting a principle of which we should resent as a gross injustice the application to ourselves." In saying this, he references an earlier claim that morals and religion cannot be treated in the same light as mathematics because morals and religion are vastly more complex. Just as with living in a society which contains immoral people, Mill points out that agents who find another's conduct depraved do not have to socialise with the other, merely refrain from impeding their personal decisions. While Mill generally opposes the religiously motivated societal interference, he admits that it is conceivably permissible for religiously motivated laws to prohibit the use of what no religion obligates. For example, a Muslim state could feasibly prohibit pork. However, Mill still prefers a policy of society minding its own business.

Applications.

This last chapter applies the principles laid out in the previous sections. He begins by summarising these principles:

Economy.

Mill first applies these principles to the economy. He concludes that free markets are preferable to those controlled by governments. While it may seem, because "trade is a social act," that the government ought intervene in the economy, Mill argues that economies function best when left to their own devices. Therefore, government intervention, though theoretically permissible, would be counterproductive. Later, he attacks government-run economies as "despotic." He believes that if the government ran the economy, then all people would aspire to be part of a bureaucracy that had no incentive to further the interests of any but itself.

Preventing harm.

Next Mill investigates in what ways a person may try to prevent harm. He first admits that a person should not wait for injury to happen, but ought try to prevent it. Second, he states that agents must consider whether that which can cause injury can cause injury exclusively. He gives the example of selling poison. Poison can cause harm. However, he points out that poison can also be used for good. Therefore, selling poison is permissible. Yet, due to the risk entailed in selling poison or like products (e.g. alcohol), he sees no danger to liberty to require warning labels on the product. Again, Mill applies his principle. He considers the right course of action when an agent sees a person about to cross a condemned bridge without being aware of the risk. Mill states that because the agent presumably has interest in not crossing a dangerous bridge (i.e. if he knew the facts concerned with crossing the bridge, he would not desire to cross the bridge), it is permissible to forcibly stop the person from crossing the bridge. He qualifies the assertion stating that, if the means are available, it is better to warn the unaware person.  With regard to taxing to deter agents from buying dangerous products, he makes a distinction. He states that to tax solely to deter purchases is impermissible because prohibiting personal actions is impermissible and "[e]very increase of cost is a prohibition, to those whose means do not come up to the augmented price." However, because a government must tax to some extent in order to survive, it may choose to take its taxes from what it deems most dangerous.

Repeat offences to public through private action.

Mill expands upon his principle of punishing the consequences rather than the personal action. He argues that a person who is empirically prone to act violently (i.e. harm society) from drunkenness (i.e. a personal act) should be uniquely restricted from the drinking. He further stipulates that repeat offenders should be punished more than first time offenders.

Encouraging vice.

On the subject of fornication and gambling, Mill has no conclusive answer, stating, "[t]here are arguments on both sides." He suggests that while the actions might be "tolerated" in private, promoting the actions (i.e. being a pimp or keeping a gambling house) "should not be permitted." He reaches a similar conclusion with acts of indecency, concluding that public indecency is condemnable.

Suicide and divorce.

Mill continues by addressing the question of social interference in suicide. He states that the purpose of liberty is to allow a person to pursue their interest. Therefore, when a person intends to terminate their ability to have interests it is permissible for society to step in. In other words, a person does not have the freedom to surrender their freedom. To the question of divorce, Mill argues that marriages are one of the most important structures within society; however, if a couple mutually agrees to terminate their marriage, they are permitted to do so because society has no grounds to intervene in such a deeply personal contract.

Education.

Mill believes that government run education is an evil because it would destroy diversity of opinion for all people to be taught the curriculum developed by a few. The less evil version of state run schooling, according to Mill, is that which competes against other privately run schools. In contrast, Mill believes that governments ought to require and fund private education. He states that they should enforce mandatory education through minor fines and annual standardised testing that tested only uncontroversial fact. He goes on to emphasise the importance of a diverse education that teaches opposing views (e.g. Kant and Locke). He concludes by stating that it is legitimate for states to forbid marriages unless the couple can prove that they have "means of supporting a family" through education and other basic necessities.

Conclusion.

J. S. Mill concludes by stating three general reasons to object to governmental interference:  He summarises his thesis, stating:

Reception.

"On Liberty" was enormously popular in the years following its publication. Thomas Hardy recalled later in life that undergraduates in the 1860s knew the book almost by heart. Criticisms of the book in the 19th century came chiefly from thinkers who felt that Mill's concept of liberty left the door open for barbarism, such as James Fitzjames Stephen and Matthew Arnold.  In more recent times, although "On Liberty" garnered adverse criticism, it has been largely received as an important classic of political thought for its ideas and accessibly lucid style. Denise Evans and Mary L. Onorato summarise the modern reception of "On Liberty", stating: "[c]ritics regard his essay "On Liberty" as a seminal work in the development of British liberalism. Enhanced by his powerful, lucid, and accessible prose style, Mill's writings on government, economics, and logic suggest a model for society that remains compelling and relevant." As one sign of the book's importance, a copy of "On Liberty" is the symbol of office for the president of the Liberal Democrat Party in England.

Contradiction to utilitarianism.

Mill makes it clear throughout "On Liberty" that he "regard[s] utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions", a standard he inherited from his father, a follower of Jeremy Bentham. Though J. S. Mill claims that all of his principles on liberty appeal to the ultimate authority of utilitarianism, according to Nigel Warburton, much of the essay can seem divorced from his supposed final court of appeals. Mill seems to idealize liberty and rights at the cost of utility. For instance, Mill writes:  This claim seems to go against the principle of utilitarianism, that it is permissible that one should be harmed so that the majority could benefit.  Warburton argues that Mill is too optimistic about the outcome of free speech. Warburton suggests that there are situations in which it would cause more happiness to suppress truth than to permit it. For example, if a scientist discovered a comet about to kill the planet in a matter of weeks, it may cause more happiness to suppress the truth than to allow society to discover the impending danger.  While David Brink concedes that Mill's apparently categorical appeal to rights seems to contradict utilitarianism, he points out that Mill does not believe rights are truly categorical because Mill opposes unrestrained liberty (e.g. offensive public exposure).  Furthermore, David Brink tries to reconcile Mill's system of rights with utilitarianism in three ways:

Narrow focus.

Some thinkers have criticised Mill's writing for its apparent narrow or unclear focus in several areas. Mill makes clear that he only considers adults in his writing, failing to account for how irrational members of society, such as children, ought to be treated. Yet Mill's theory relies upon the proper upbringing of children. Plank has asserted that Mill fails to account for physical harm, solely concerning himself with spiritual wellbeing. He also argues that, while much of Mill's theory depends upon a distinction between private and public harm, Mill seems not to have provided a clear focus on or distinction between the private and public realms.

Religious criticism.

Nigel Warburton states that though Mill encourages religious tolerance, because he does not speak from the perspective of a specific religion, some claim that he does not account for what certain religious beliefs would entail when governing a society. Some religions believe that they have a God given duty to enforce religious norms. For them, it seems impossible for their religious beliefs to be wrong, i.e. the beliefs are infallible. Therefore, according to Warburton, Mill's principle of total freedom of speech may not apply.

Conception of harm.

The harm principle is central to the principles in "On Liberty". Nigel Warburton says that Mill appears unclear about what constitutes harm. Early in the book, he claims that simply being offensive does not constitute harm. Later, he writes that certain acts which are permissible and harmless in private are worthy of being prohibited in public. This seems to contradict his earlier claim that merely offensive acts do not warrant prohibition because, presumably, the only harm done by a public act which is harmless in private is that it is offensive.  Warburton notes that some people argue that morality is the basis of society, and that society is the basis of individual happiness. Therefore, if morality is undermined, so is individual happiness. Hence, since Mill claims that governments ought to protect the individual's ability to seek happiness, governments ought to intervene in the private realm to enforce moral codes.

Charges of racism and colonialism.

Mill is clear that his concern for liberty does not extend to all individuals and all societies. He states that "Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians". Contemporary philosophers Domenico Losurdo and David Theo Goldberg have strongly criticised Mill as a racist and an apologist for colonialism. However, during his term as a Member of Parliament, he chaired the extraparliamentary Jamaica Committee, which for two years unsuccessfully sought the prosecution of Governor Eyre and his subordinates for military violence against Jamaican Blacks.

On Liberty is a philosophical essay by the English philosopher John Stuart Mill. Published in 1859, it applies Mill's ethical system of utilitarianism to society and state. Mill suggests standards for the relationship between authority and liberty. He emphasizes the importance of individuality, which he considers prerequisite to the higher pleasures—the "summum bonum" of utilitarianism. Furthermore, Mill asserts that democratic ideals may result in the "tyranny of the majority". Among the standards proposed are Mill's three basic liberties of individuals, his three legitimate objections to government intervention, and his two maxims regarding the relationship of the individual to society.

De la liberté (') est un essai de philosophie de John Stuart Mill paru en 1859. Défendant un libéralisme vigoureux fondé sur le ', le livre a eu une postérité importante dans la tradition libérale. Il a été influencé par les écrits d'auteurs allemands comme Goethe et Humboldt. Comptant indubitablement parmi les œuvres majeures de Mill, le livre pose toutefois certaines questions de cohérence avec un autre ouvrage de l'auteur : "L'Utilitarisme". La première traduction française est due à Charles Brook Dupont-White, en 1860.


Etymology and names.

The word "Vlach"/"Wallachian" (and other variants such as "Vlah", "Valah", "Valach", "Voloh", "Blac", "oláh", "Vlas", "Ilac", "Ulah", etc.) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, adopted into Proto-Germanic "*Walhaz", which meant "stranger", from "*Wolkā-" (Caesar's, Strabo and Ptolemy's ). Via Latin, in Gothic, as "*walhs", the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker", and was adopted into Greek "Vláhi" (), Slavic "Vlah", Hungarian "oláh" and "olasz", etc. The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (), and in Poland "Włochy" or in Hungary "olasz" became an exonym for Italians.  Historically, the term was used primarily for the Romanians. Testimonies from the 13th to 14th centuries show that, although in the European (and even extra-European) space they were called "Vlachs" or "Wallachians" ("oláh" in Hungarian, "Vláchoi" (βλάχοι) in Greek, "Volóxi" (воло́хи) in Russian, "Walachen" in German, "Valacchi" in Italian, "Valaques" in French, "Valacos" in Spanish), the Romanians used for themselves the endonym "Rumân/Român", from the Latin "Romanus" (in memory of Rome). Vlachs are referred in late Byzantine documents as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs ("Bulgaralbanitoblahos"), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs  Via both Germanic and Latin, the term started to signify "stranger, foreigner" also in the Balkans, where it in its early form was used for Romance-speakers, but the term eventually took on the meaning of "shepherd, nomad". The Romance-speaking communities themselves however used the endonym (they called themselves) "Romans".  During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a social class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and had the same rights as Muslims. In Croatia, the term became derogatory, and "Vlasi" was used for the ethnic Serb community who, despite being Slavic, were given the term due to the Orthodox faith which they shared with the Vlachs.  Romanian scholars have suggested that the term "Vlach" appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).  Nowadays, the term "Vlachs" (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia. In Serbia the term "Vlach" (Serbian "Vlah", plural "Vlasi") is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia. Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form "Vla" (plural "Vlaš") in their own language.

Medieval usage.

The "Hellenic chronicle" could possibly qualify to the first testimony of Vlachs in Pannonia and Eastern Europe during the time of Attila.

6th century.

Byzantine historians used the term "Vlachs" for Latin speakers.  The 7th century Byzantine historiographer Theophylact Simocatta wrote about “Blachernae” in connection with some historical data of the 6th century, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Maurice.

8th century.

First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river; the original document containing the information is from the Konstamonitou monastery.

9th century.

During the late 9th century the Hungarians invaded the Carpathian Basin, where the province of Pannonia was inhabited by the "Slavs [Sclavi], Bulgarians [Bulgarii] and Vlachs [Blachii], and the shepherds of the Romans [pastores Romanorum]" ("sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum" —according to the "Gesta Hungarorum", written around 1200 by the anonymous chancellor of King Béla III of Hungary.

10th century.

Chroniclers John Skylitzes and George Kedrenos wrote that in 971, during battles between Romans and Varangians led by Sveinald (Sviatoslav), the dwellers of North side of Danube came to Emperor John I Tzimiskes and they handed over their fortresses and the Emperor sent troops to guard the fortresses. During those times, Northern part of Danube were dwelled by sedentary Vlachs and tribes of nomad Pechenegs who lived in tents.  George Kedrenos mentioned about Vlachs in 976. The Vlachs were guides and guards of Roman caravans in Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.  Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, "Waladj", Alans, Greeks and many other peoples."  Ibn al-Nadīm published in 938 the work “Kitāb al-Fihrist” mentioning “Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs” (using Blagha for Vlachs)

11th century.

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the "Strategikon" (1078), described a 1066 revolt against the emperor in Northern Greece led by Nicolitzas Delphinas and other Vlachs.  The names "Blakumen" or "Blökumenn" is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th–13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the "Vlachs".

12th century.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written in ca. 1113, wrote when the Volochi (Vlachs) attacked the Slavs of the Danube and settled among them and oppressed them, the Slavs departed and settled on the Vistula, under the name of Leshi. The Hungarians drove away the Vlachs and took the land and settled there.  Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word "Vlachs" for a Romance-speaking population.  Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.  The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

13th century.

In 1213 an army of Romans (Vlachs), Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin. After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.  At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Kéza wrote about the "Blacki people" and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns. Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, and the last region defended by the Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between the Olt River and the Carpathians.  Shortly after the fall of the Olt region, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region. In the "Diploma Andreanum" issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, ""silva blacorum et bissenorum"" was given to the settlers. The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under "Ius Vlachonicum" (Walachian law).  In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River. A town, Baia (near the said river), was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons (see also Foundation of Moldavia). In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia).

14th century.

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on August 9, 1428 where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.

Toponymy.

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia. In search of better pasture, they were called "Vlasi" or "Valaši" by the Slavs. States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:  Regions and places are:

Shepherd culture.

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the pastoral groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.  Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times. The archaeological and anthropological researches of skeleton remains from the graves under stećci could offer some insight into origin of remains found.

Vlachs ( or, or rarely ), also Wallachians (and many other variants), is a historical term from the Middle Ages that designates an exonym, mostly for the Romanians who lived north and south of the Danube.

Valaques est un terme polysémique qui peut désigner en français : Géographiquement, désigne les habitants de la Valachie (région méridionale de la Roumanie) et, dans la péninsule des Balkans, les populations de langue romane soit les Aroumains, les Mégléno-Roumains et les Istro-roumains (certains linguistes y incluaient jadis les Dalmates). Il est parfois employé en Serbie et en Bulgarie pour désigner aussi les Roumains locaux.


Mission.

The mission of the Coast Guard Investigative Service (CGIS) is to conduct professional criminal investigations, engage in law enforcement information and intelligence collection, provide protective services, and establish and maintain law enforcement liaison directed at preserving the integrity of the Coast Guard, protecting the welfare of Coast Guard personnel, and supporting Coast Guard and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) maritime law enforcement and counter-terrorism missions worldwide.

Authority.

The Coast Guard Investigative Service is a federal law enforcement agency whose law enforcement authority is derived from. This authority provides for Coast Guard special agents to conduct investigations of actual, alleged or suspected criminal activity; carry firearms; execute and serve warrants; and make arrests for all crimes under the jurisdiction of the United States. The criminal investigative function of the Coast Guard Investigative Service is similar to that of a major crimes unit at a large metropolitan police department, investigating crimes such as those "internal" to the Coast Guard, including fraud, larceny, homicide and rape, as well as "external" investigations of maritime-related crimes ranging from migrant and drug smuggling, homicide, rape, false distress calls, and violations of the environmental laws. The Coast Guard Investigative Service is a centralized directorship managed by a professional criminal investigator who reports directly to the Coast Guard's Vice Commandant of the Coast Guard. It is located outside the Coast Guard's operational chain of command.

CGIS Special Agents.

The CGIS special agent workforce is composed of active duty military, reserve, and civilian personnel. All CGIS Special Agents are sworn personnel with powers of arrest and warrant service. All CGIS Special Agents have full arrest powers under Title 14 section 95 of the United States Code.  The active duty military component is composed of enlisted personnel, chief warrant officer and commissioned officer investigator positions. The civilian component is composed of to SES criminal investigator positions.

Firearms.

The Coast Guard Investigative Service's standard issue firearm is the SIG Sauer P229R DAK or SIG Sauer P239 DAK in.40 S&W.

The Coast Guard Investigative Service (CGIS) is a division of the United States Coast Guard that investigates crimes where the U.S. Coast Guard has an interest. It is composed of civilian (GS-1811), active duty, reserve enlisted, and warrant officer special agents.

Le Coast Guard Investigative Service (CGIS) est la division des garde-côtes américains chargée des enquêtes sur les crimes où des garde-côtes sont impliqués. Il se compose de civils comme de militaires d'active et de réserve, ainsi que d'agents spéciaux.


Early life.

Justin Randall Timberlake was born on January 31, 1981 in Memphis, Tennessee to Lynn (Bomar) Harless and Charles Randall Timberlake, a Baptist church choir director. Timberlake grew up in Shelby Forest, a small community between Memphis and Millington. He has two half-brothers, Jonathan (born September 12, 1993) and Stephen (born August 14, 1998), from Charles' second marriage to Lisa Perry. His half-sister Laura Katherine died shortly after birth on May 12, 1997, and is mentioned in his acknowledgments in the album "NSYNC" as "My Angel in Heaven". His family circle includes a number of musicians; his grandfather introduced

Career.

1995–2002: NSYNC.

The boy band NSYNC formed in 1995, and began their career in 1996 in Europe; Timberlake and Chasez served as its two lead singers. In 1998, the group rose to prominence in the United States with the release of their self-titled debut studio album, which sold 11 million copies and included the single "Tearin' Up My Heart". Their second album "No Strings Attached" (2000) sold 2.4 million copies in the first week, and included a number one single, "It's Gonna Be Me". NSYNC's third album "Celebrity" (2001) was also financially successful. The group's second and third studio albums spawned top-five singles such as "Bye Bye Bye", "Girlfriend" and "This I Promise You". Upon the completion of the Celebrity Tour, the group went into hiatus in 2002. In its lifetime, NSYNC was internationally famous and performed at the Academy Awards, the Olympics, and

2002–2004: "Justified" and Super Bowl XXXVIII.

In August 2002, Timberlake performed at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards, where he premiered his debut solo single "Like I Love You"; it peaked at number 11 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number two on the UK Singles Chart. His debut solo studio album "Justified" was released in November and debuted at number two on the "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 439,000 copies, fewer than previous 'N Sync releases. It went on to sell over three million copies in the U.S. and more than ten million copies worldwide. Its R&B influence,

2004–2007: Acting and "FutureSex/LoveSounds".

After the Super Bowl incident, Timberlake put his recording career on hold to act in several films, having starred in a few feature films earlier in his career. The first role he took during this time was as a journalist in "Edison Force", filmed in 2004 and received a direct-to-video release on July 18, 2006. He also appeared in the films "Alpha Dog", "Black Snake Moan", Richard Kelly's "Southland Tales", and voiced Prince Artie Pendragon in the animated film "Shrek the Third", released on May 18, 2007. He also appeared as a young Elton John, in the video for John's song "This Train Don't Stop There Anymore". Timberlake was considered to play the

2008–2012: Musical hiatus and focus on acting.

The song "4 Minutes", was first played by Timbaland at Philadelphia's Jingle Ball on December 17, 2007. When released on March 17, 2008, "4 Minutes" was revealed to be a duet between Timberlake and Madonna, with backing vocals by Timbaland. It was lead single from Madonna's eleventh studio album "Hard Candy", which featured four other song-writing collaborations with Timberlake, being also one of the executive producers. The single was an international hit, topping the charts in over 21 countries worldwide. Timberlake also appears in the music video, which was directed by Jonas & François. On March 30, 2008, Timberlake performed the song at Madonna's Hard Candy Promo Show at Roseland Ballroom in New York City. On November 6, 2008, Timberlake performed the song with Madonna on the Los Angeles stop of her Sticky & Sweet Tour.  In June 2007,

2013–2017: "The 20/20 Experience", "2 of 2", and "Trolls".

Timberlake began work on his third studio album "The 20/20 Experience" in June 2012, with "no rules and/or end goal in mind". He publicly announced his return to the music industry in January 2013, releasing the album's lead single "Suit & Tie" featuring Jay-Z later that month, which would eventually peak at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100. After four years not performing in concert, Timberlake appeared the night before the 2013 Super Bowl and performed during the "DirecTV Super Saturday Night", on February 2, 2013 in New Orleans. On February 10, 2013, he performed "Suit & Tie" with sepia-toned lighting at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards, with Jay-Z joining him from the audience. On February 11, 2013, "Mirrors" was released as the second single from "The

2018–present: "Man of the Woods" and Super Bowl LII halftime show.

Speaking of his fifth studio album in 2016, Timberlake stated, "I think where I grew up in America has a lot of influence. Growing up in Tennessee—very central of the country—Memphis is known as the birthplace of rock & roll, but also the home of the blues, but Nashville's right down the street so there's a lot of country music." In following interviews, Timberlake confirmed working with producers Timbaland and Pharrell Williams, while stating, "It sounds more like where I've come from than any

Personal life.

In early 1999, Timberlake began dating fellow former "The All-New Mickey Mouse Club" cast member and singer Britney Spears. Their relationship ended abruptly in March 2002. Both Spears and Timberlake graduated high school via distance learning from the University of Nebraska High School; Timberlake received his diploma onstage during a concert in Memphis in 2000. In 2003, he was briefly linked to British singer Emma Bunton. In April 2003, he began dating actress Cameron Diaz soon after they met at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. After much speculation of breakups throughout their relationship, the couple split in December 2006 shortly after she introduced him as a musical guest on "Saturday Night Live".

Artistry.

Timberlake has a lyric tenor vocal range. Primarily an R&B album, his debut "Justified" also contains influences of dance-pop, funk and soul music. During the production of "FutureSex/LoveSounds", Timberlake was interested in rock music. This inspiration was used in his approach in recording the songs, rather than in composing them. Timberlake reveals, "I wanted to sing the song like a rock and roll singer, not an R&B singer." On the influences he drew from, he said that if "Justified" was "characterized" by Michael Jackson and Stevie Wonder, "FutureSex/LoveSounds" is more like David Bowie and Prince. Other influences include late INXS-frontman Michael Hutchence, Arcade Fire, David Byrne, The Killers, The Strokes, and Radiohead. He began including beatboxing in his records near the end of his boyband era and into his emergence as a solo act, this includes songs from "Justified" and "FutureSex/LoveSounds".  Unlike his previous record primarily focused on R&B and pop genres, "FutureSex/LoveSounds" is less concentrated on one particular sound, thus representing a wider range. Timberlake explains, "It's more broad as far as the styles I wanted to mix in to my own type of thing." A musically "complex" album, "FutureSex/LoveSounds" is a fusion of rap, rock, funk, soul, gospel, new wave, opera, and world music, characterized by preludes and interludes interspersed on the album's tracks. "Entertainment Weekly" noted that the album's sound is a "sonic departure" from both NSYNC and "Justified". Although "What Goes Around" sounds similar to "Justified", Timberlake admitted that it is the only song in the

Public image.

Timberlake's fashion and style evolution, from "boy-band synchronized wardrobe days" to "a notable source of fashion inspiration to men all over," has been noticed by the media. As noted by a "Billboard" editor, "Since his solo career began with the 2002 release of debut album "Justified", Timberlake has honed his unique sense of style," while citing Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis and Frank Sinatra, as style influences: "guys who were just really never trying to be that [stylish], they just were that." According to American fashion designer Tom Ford, who has dressed Timberlake since 2011 and created more than 600 exclusive pieces for The 20/20 Experience World Tour, Timberlake "has a kind of effortless cool that makes classic menswear tailoring modern."  "The New York Times"' editor Sia Michel wrote in 2007, "Since his last tour, for 2002's multiplatinum "Justified", he has learned how to project sex-symbol edge" adding "he's a rock star who can commit." Napster's founder Sean Parker, portrayed by Timberlake in "The Social Network", stated "I don't think I look anything like Timberlake, but it's not so

Legacy.

Timberlake has been referred to as the "President of Pop" and "Prince of Pop" by contemporary journalists. In a 2016 article of "The Hollywood Reporter", editor Scott Feinberg stated Timberlake is "widely regarded as one of the greatest all-around entertainers in the history of show business."  In 2003, "Rolling Stone" named him the biggest pop star of the year and featured him on the magazine's cover, commenting that he "attained the one thing most pop stars don't, and the one thing he wanted more than anything else: credibility." For "Entertainment Weekly" his second studio album, "FutureSex/LoveSounds", "redefined pop's cutting edge"; for "Vibe" it "pushed boundaries more forcefully" than works by his male contemporaries. Fuse TV's editor Jason Lipshutz stated it "changed the game. [The album] was steely and sweaty, a universal dance opus that made room for intimacy. It had the best first half of any pop album in 25 years. You have to go back to 1979 for "Off the Wall", to find a pop album with a first half that matches up." He was ranked 66th on the VH1 100 Greatest Artists of All-Time. Timberlake appeared for the first time on the "Time" 100 list of most influential people in 2007. In 2013, he made his second appearance on the 100 list, with Stevie Wonder writing "Justin has accomplished a lot at a young age, taking advantage of all the possibilities, and yet he's found time to give of himself too—he gets and gives back. He has a spirit. He does God's work through using the most of his talent."  "Justified"'s single "Cry Me a River,"

Achievements.

Throughout his solo career, Timberlake has sold over 32 million albums and 56 million singles globally, and a further 70 million records with NSYNC, making him one of the world's best-selling music artists. Timberlake has won ten Grammy Awards, four Emmy Awards, seven American Music Awards, three Brit Awards, nine "Billboard" Music Awards, and eleven MTV Video Music Awards. His Grammy wins include categories on the pop, dance and R&B genres; while his Emmy wins consist of two Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics and two Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. Timberlake received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, and the Innovator Award at the 2015 iHeartRadio Music Awards. Among other awards, he won the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year for "Mirrors" in 2013 and the "Billboard" Music Awards for Top Artist with the Top Billboard 200 Album for "The 20/20 Experience" in 2014. Timberlake received the inaugural Decade Award at the 2016 Teen Choice Awards for his continuous achievements since the release of "FutureSex/LoveSounds" (2006).  In October 2015, he was inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame, becoming its youngest member. On April 30, 2018, Timberlake reunited with his NSYNC bandmates to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2019, Timberlake received a Contemporary

Other ventures.

Business ventures.

Timberlake has co-owned or provided celebrity endorsement for three restaurants in the United States: "Chi" opened in West Hollywood, California in 2003, and "Destino" and "Southern Hospitality" in New York opened in 2006 and 2007, respectively. In 2005, Timberlake launched the William Rast clothing line with childhood friend Juan ("Trace") Ayala. The 2007 line contained cord jackets, cashmere sweaters, jeans, and polo shirts. The pair reports inspiration from fellow Memphis native Elvis Presley: "Elvis is the perfect mixture of Justin and I," Ayala says. "You can go back and see pictures of him in cowboy boots and a cowboy hat and a nice button-down shirt, but then again you can see him in a tux and a collared shirt with rhinestones on it and slacks. We like to think 'If he was alive today, what would he be wearing?'" Target has announced that a William Rast collection, including denim, outerwear and sportswear for men and women, would launch in

Philanthropy.

Timberlake has been active in several charitable pursuits, initially through NSYNC's "Challenge for the Children" aimed at a range of charities, and since 2001 through his "Justin Timberlake Foundation," which initially funded music education programs in schools, but now has a much broader agenda. In October 2005, the Grammy Association presented Timberlake with an award for his humanitarian efforts in Tennessee, alongside writer/director Craig Brewer, also a Memphis native.  In November 2007, he donated $100,000 from takings from his Australian tour to Wildlife Warriors founded by Steve Irwin. On March 23, 2008, he donated $100,000 to the Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum and another $100,000 to the Memphis Music Foundation.  On November 12, 2007, the PGA Tour announced that Timberlake, an avid golfer who plays to a six handicap, would become the host of the tour's Las Vegas tournament starting in 2008. With Timberlake's agreement to host the tournament, its name was changed to the Justin Timberlake Shriners Hospitals for Children Open. He played in the celebrity pro-am on the day before the competitive tournament

Book.

On August 10, 2018, the cover page of his book "Hindsight & All the Things I Can't See In Front of Me" was revealed. The book,

Discography.

Studio albums

Justin Randall Timberlake (born January 31, 1981), occasionally known by his initials JT, is an American singer, songwriter, actor, and record producer. Raised in Tennessee, he appeared on the television shows "Star Search" and "The All-New Mickey Mouse Club" as a child. In the late 1990s, Timberlake rose to prominence as one of the two lead vocalists and youngest member of NSYNC, which eventually became one of the best-selling boy bands of all time. Timberlake won two Grammy Awards for his R&B-focused debut solo album "Justified" (2002) and its single "Cry Me a River". Another single from the album, "Rock Your Body", was also successful.

Justin Timberlake, né le à Memphis (Tennessee, États-Unis), est un chanteur, compositeur, danseur, producteur et acteur américain. Il est considéré comme l'un des plus grands artistes polyvalents de l'histoire du spectacle par le rédacteur en chef Scott Feinberg. Surnommée président et prince de la pop par les journalistes contemporains, il engendre les surnoms honorifiques dans la musique populaire.


Early years.

Henri Tomasi was born in a working-class neighborhood of Marseille, France, on 17 August 1901. His father Xavier Tomasi and mother Josephine Vincensi were originally from La Casinca, Corsica. At the age of five, the family moved to Mazarques, France where Xavier Tomasi worked as a postal worker. There, he enrolled his son in music theory and piano lessons. At the age of seven, Tomasi entered the Conservatoire de Musique de Marseille. Pressured by his father, he played for upper-class families, where he felt "humiliated to be on show like a trained animal."  In 1913, the family moved back to Marseille. Tomasi had dreams of becoming a sailor and skipped many of his music classes. During the summer, he stayed with his grandmother in Corsica and learned traditional Corsican songs. In 1916, he won first prize in harmony, along with his friend Zino Francescatti, the celebrated violinist. World War I delayed his entrance into the Paris Conservatoire, so he played piano in Marseille to earn money. He performed in diverse venues such as upscale hotels, restaurants, brothels, and movie houses. His gift for composition was developed during this time as he excelled in improvisation at the keyboard. The early Charlie Chaplin films also intrigued him and influenced his works.

The 1920s.

In 1921, he commenced his studies at the Conservatoire de Paris with a scholarship from the municipality of Marseille and a stipend from a lawyer, Maitre Levy Oulman. He still performed at cafes and in the cinemas to earn money. His friend Maurice Franck described Tomasi as a hard worker: "He showed up with a fugue a week, he was indefatigable - an inveterate workaholic." In 1925, his first piece, a wind quintet called 'Variations sur un Theme Corse', won the Prix Halphen. His teachers at the Paris Conservatoire included Gaubert, Vincent d'Indy, Georges Caussade, and Paul Vidal. In 1927, he won the second Grand Prix de Rome for his cantata, 'Coriolan', and a First Prize for Orchestral Conducting, which were both awarded unanimously. That same year, he met his future wife, Odette Camp, at the Opéra-Comique. They wed in 1929. Tomasi began his career as a conductor for Concerts du Journal.

The 1930s.

From 1930 to 1935 Tomasi served as the music director of the Radio Colonial Orchestra in French Indochina, which was founded by Julien Maigret during the 1931 Colonial Exhibition in Paris. Tomasi became one of the first radio conductors and a pioneer of "radiophonic" music. During the 1930s he was one of the founders of a contemporary music group in Paris entitled Triton along with Prokofiev, Milhaud, Honegger, and Poulenc. He spent equal time composing and conducting. He was one of the conductors for studio broadcasts of the Orchestre Radio Symphonique de la Radiodiffusion Francaise. He made his most memorable recording in 1936 with the extraordinary French mezzo-soprano Alice Raveau in Gluck's "Orfeo", which was awarded the Grand Prix du Disque. In 1939 Tomasi was drafted into the French Army and was named marching-band conductor at the Villefranche sur Mer fort.

The 1940s.

In 1940 he was discharged and took up the baton at the Orchestre national de la Radiodiffusion française. As a composer, his orchestral music is important, but above all he was attracted to the theater. In the realm of instrumental music, he preferred composing for wind instruments. He composed concerti for flute, oboe, clarinet, saxophone, bassoon, trumpet, horn, and trombone. He also composed concerti for violin and viola. In 1944, his son Claude was born and Tomasi started composing a Requiem dedicated to "the martyrs of the resistance movement and all those who have died for France." Tomasi was disillusioned by the events of World War II and subsequently rejected all faith in God. His Requiem was set aside and was not discovered again and recorded until 1996. In 1946, Tomasi assumed the post of conductor of the Opera de Monte Carlo. He became extremely sought-after as a guest conductor all over Europe. In 1948, he wrote what would become his most popular composition, the "Concerto for Trumpet". In 1949 the "Concerto for Saxophone" was performed by Marcel Mule.  An hour-long documentary film about the composer produced by Jacques Sapiega was made in 2001.

His later Life.

In 1956 he composed the Concerto for Clarinet and the Concerto for Trombone. This same year brought the long-awaited world premiere of his opera "Don Juan de Mañara" based on a text by poet O. V. de L. Milosc. This opera, "L'Atlantide", and the comic opera "Le Testament di Pere Gaucher" collectively established his reputation as an opera composer.  In May 1956 at Bordeaux, his opera "Sampiero Corso" was premiered, with the Australian tenor Kenneth Neate in the title role. It was repeated at the Holland Festival in June.  In 1957, Tomasi stopped conducting because of physical problems, including advancing deafness in his right ear. In 1966 Jean-Pierre Rampal played his Concerto for Flute with the Orchestre des Concerts Classiques in Marseille. His last piece for the theater, "In Praise of Madness (the nuclear era)", is a cross between opera and ballet and contains references to Nazism and napalm. It reflects Tomasi's postwar disillusionment with mankind. During his last period of composition he was motivated by political events and wrote pieces such as the "Third World Symphony" and "Chant pour le Vietnam". In 1969, he held a series of interviews with his son, Claude, called "Autobiography with a Tape Recorder." (Tomasi assoc.) As his health deteriorated, he began working on an operatic version of Hamlet. On 13 January 1971 he died peacefully in his apartment in Montmartre, Paris. He was buried in his wife's family tomb in Avignon. Later, to celebrate the centennial of his birth, his ashes were moved to the village of his ancestors in Penta di Casinca, Corsica.

His music.

Tomasi's music is fundamentally lyrical. Diatonic and chromatic melodic lines predominate, supported by tertian and polychordal harmonies. His music is highly colorful and one can hear the influence of his French contemporaries. Exotic sounds and colors of Corsica, Provence, Cambodia, Laos, the Sahara and Tahiti are used. He also wrote music inspired by medieval religious songs. He utilized many styles including Oriental recitative and twelve tone techniques but they were always personal and unique to him.  Tomasi said: ""Although I haven't shirked from using the most modern forms of expression, I've always been a melodist at heart. I can't stand systems and sectarianism. I write for the public at large. Music that doesn't come from the heart isn't music."" (Tomasi assoc.)  His earliest influence stemmed from a performance his mother took him to of the opera "La bohème". He wept over the tribulations of the main character, Mimi. In fact, he felt that "La bohème" was responsible for his musical destiny. It gave him a great passion for lyrical theater. Later he heard Bizet's "Carmen" and learned about Mussorgsky through "Boris Godunov", and Debussy through "Pelléas et Mélisande". He was influenced by Ravel, and later by Richard Strauss. Richard Wagner was never an influence on him. His harmonic inspiration derived from Debussy and Ravel. He felt that his experience from conducting enabled him to orchestrate with more skill. He felt that dodecaphonic music could be used occasionally when needed or called for. He thought that the inherent danger in electronic music was that it was devoid of the human factor: "...the end of the heart -a world filled with nothing more than the sound of machines!" (Tomasi assoc.) Tomasi frequently based his works on a text of some sort, even if words were not actually used. To translate Tomasi's views on his own music: "My musical knowledge is not based on any system. The sensibility expresses itself and the mind controls. What good is it to invent new forms of speech? Everything has been said and everything has been done." (Tomasi assoc.) Tomasi was primarily interested in "man and his passionate style." (Tomasi assoc.)  Nocturne was first published in 1954 by Pierre Noel. The copyright was later taken over by Gerard Billaudot in 1999. It is marked Lent and has a surreal quality. It is intensely lyrical and expressive. There are polychords present. There is constant eighth-note movement. The slow section evolves to a poco pui agitato interlude followed by a short cadenza marked a piacere (freely). The initial tempo returns and the song ends in calm repose with an unusual closing chord: the C minor seventh. Complainte du Jeune Indien was composed in 1949 and published the same year by Alphonse Leduc. It is cordially dedicated to Monsieur Beaucamp. The French word Complainte refers to a lament or plaint. Perhaps one can conjecture that the jeune (young) Indian is expressing nostalgia for his homeland. (Gordon) It is marked tristamente (sadly) in a slow Andante tempo. The harmonic motion is very slow with only a G minor chord until rehearsal #2. The chords move in parallel motion similar to Debussy. Before the brief cadenza at rehearsal #4, there is a "B" eleventh chord. This cadenza is optional; another optional cut is between rehearsal #8 to #11, which eliminates the second brief cadenza. These cuts will not be taken in this performance. The initial theme returns, and it closes even more slowly and sadly.  The "Danse Nuptiale (Wedding Dance)" was originally composed as a work for chamber orchestra and soloists in 1961. It was published by Alphonse Leduc in 1962 and dedicated to Andre Boutard. The original instrumentation was for oboe, clarinet, bassoon, French horn, tuba, tympani, a battery of percussion, piano, and string quintet. The first movement, Danse Agreste (Rustic Dance) in the original work features the oboe. The second movement, Danse Profane has the French horn as soloist. The Danse Sacree (Sacred Dance) features a tuba soloist, and the fifth movement, Danse Guerriere (War Dance), highlights the bassoon. There is a woodwind quintet version of this entire work dating from 1963. The transcription was dedicated to the Rejeliovo Decliove Quintet from Prague. In the third movement of the quintet, the bassoon is the soloist instead of the tuba. The marking at the beginning is Bien scande, which refers to placing much stress or accent when indicated. (Gordon) There are a plethora of accents sprinkled throughout this brief movement. It opens with a quick two bar ostinato in 3/8. The changing meters give it impetus. It is in ABA form with the interior section marked Lent and fantasque This is punctuated by a figure marked brusquement and counteracted with three bars marked tendrement. The "A" section returns briefly with the main theme ostinato.  "Introduction et Danse" was composed in 1949 and dedicated to the clarinetist Louis Cahuzac. It was published in 1949 by Alphonse Leduc. It can be performed with clarinet and piano or clarinet and orchestra. It is a stylish handling of different dance moods. The entire range of the clarinet with respect to pitch and dynamics is utilized. A polychord opens the Andantino introduction. This fantasia like beginning has a short clarinet cadenza with a descending arpeggiated figure that will later appear in the dance. This is followed by a section in serial form that is soft and brooding in mood. The dance starts with an ostinato in the piano and cascading arpeggios in the clarinet. The dance is a play with freedom and constraint. There are numerous markings indicating slight fluctuations in tempo. The wealth of tone color and motivic work are reminiscent of Ravel. Chords move in parallel motion as in Debussy's writing, but are more dissonant, The work concludes with assai lento marked con malinconia.  "Sonatine Attique" is for solo clarinet and is, reputedly, a "poetic recollection of a night spent by Henri Tomasi under the Greek sky near the Parthenon in Athens." (Woodwind.org) It was composed in 1966 and published in 1967 by Alphonse Leduc. It is dedicated to the foremost French clarinetist of the time, Ulysse Delecluse, who premiered it in Rennes, France. His "Evocations" for solo oboe or solo saxophone are written in a similar guise and call on the music of Peru, Cambodia, Nigeria and Scotland. Tomasi is referring to Ancient Greece's Attica (L'Attique) whose capital is Athens. The adjective attique refers to Attica, characteristic of the Athenians and their language, art, and literature. It has a connotation of delicacy, refinement, and gracefulness. The Ancient Greek Attica dialect was closely related to the refined Ionic language of the great Greek writers such as Aescchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. (Gordon) The first and third movements of the work are senza misura (without meter). It is improvisatory in nature and Tomasi uses motives and develops them like his French compatriot, Jolivet. The first movement is marked Giocoso (playfully) and Tomasi makes chords out of the arpeggiated figures in the clarinet. This movement is in sonata form with a sostenuto section framed by the giocoso sections featuring complex rhythms and large leaps in register. The second movement is marked Mysterieux. A cadenza connects this to a Scherzando that is independent in form and fluctuates between 3/8 and 2/8. The soft motif in the low register returns to close the movement. The last movement uses rhythm and accents as a cohesive force. There is a brief slow interlude before the first tempo returns. The movement pulsates with perpetual motion until the end.  The Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra was also dedicated to Ulysse Delecluse and was published by Alphonse Leduc in 1953. Unfortunately, there is no commercial CD recording available with clarinet and orchestra and only one recording with piano reduction (Actually, the clarinet concerto was recorded with orchestra and released on the CD "20th Century Clarinet Concertos" by the Koch Schwann label). Undoubtedly the orchestration is colorful, although it retains its charm with piano. Tomasi composed in an economical manner, deriving thematic material from motivic cells. The first movement was chosen to be the Paris Conservatory Examination Solo in 1953. Later, the second and third movements were the Contest Solo at the Paris Conservatory in 1966. Delecluse observed that "the concerto had gained enormous popularity throughout Europe; many critics consider it a masterpiece." (qtd. in Gee 20) It deserves to have greater notoriety today. The first movement is in sonata form and starts with an E flat/D Major polychord. Usually a conventional concerto has an exposition in the orchestra, but here the clarinet starts unaccompanied with a similar figure to Bach's E Major Partita for Solo Violin (Lerner 7). The second theme is stated in the piano at rehearsal #11. A long cadenza connects back to the original theme and ends with rhythmic material in 7/8. There are traditional key centers in a flexible framework. The nontraditional elements include polychords, chords with added notes, clusters, and dissonance. The clarinet exhibits a freedom of key relationships and tonal centers. The second movement opens with a motive from the first movement. This introduction is followed with ternary form with return above an ostinato of Sicilian rhythm. The short development at rehearsal #10 is followed by a recapitulation at rehearsal #15. The virtuoso Scherzo finale is in a sonata rondo construction. A combination of meters is used: 4/4 12/8, 3/4 9/8, 2/4 6/8. The concerto comes to a blazing conclusion after the final statement of theme "A". Henri Tomasi wrote his own notes on the concerto in 1957 and they are printed on the Tomasi Association of France website. He says of the first movement, "of odd and burlesque pace, the principal topic must be interpreted like an improvisation, with some lyric and dark abandonments rather discrete. A significant rate of frightening difficulty will bring us back little by little to a tempo first more stressed, to lead to final giocoso..." He says of the Nocturne (Night): "Mysterious recalls of the first principal theme will be like a romantic daydream. The dialogue between soloist and orchestra will be increasingly pressing, to go towards a lyrical and impassioned exultation. The conclusion will be melancholy." He describes the Scherzo-finale, "Furious accents will disturb this quietude. Suddenly, it will be a romantic and fantastic escape; rides through landscapes of dream, continuations, etc. Then, a song of extreme softness, pointing out the atmosphere of night will rise out of this tumult to create an idyllic environment. The furious agreements of the beginning will bring back to reality soloist and orchestra for an increasingly disheveled final conclusion." (Tomasi assoc.)  There is other worthy chamber music by Tomasi utilizing the clarinet to explore. He composed two woodwind quintets (1925 and 1952) in addition to the 1963 reduction of the Cinq Danses Profanes et Sacrees. There are Trois Divertissements for four clarinets, a Corsican Song that may be performed on clarinet (the instrument is not specified), wind trios, and a piece for clarinet, flute and harp. The works for clarinet by Tomasi have been relegated to the background of this oeuvre but they deserve to be performed with more regularity.

Mbanza-Kongo (,,, known as São Salvador in Portuguese from 1570 to 1975), is the capital of Angola's northwestern Zaire Province with a population of 145,000 (2014). Mbanza Kongo (properly Mbanza Koongo or Kôngo in most acceptable orthographies) was founded some time before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1483 and was the capital of the Kilukeni dynasty ruling at that time. The site was temporarily abandoned during civil wars in the 17th century. It lies close to Angola's border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is located at around and sits on top of an impressive flat-topped mountain, sometimes called Mongo a Kaila (mountain of division) because recent legends recall that the king created the clans of the kingdom and sent them out from there. In the valley to the south runs the Luezi River. In 2017, Mbanza Kongo was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Mbanza Kongo est une ville de la province du Zaïre, en Angola. Située aux environs des sources de la rivière M'pozo, elle compte aujourd'hui près de habitants. La ville fut autrefois la capitale du royaume Kongo et fut appelée "São Salvador du Congo" jusqu'en 1975.


Etymology.

The name Yaxha derives from the Mayan "yaxa"', which means "blue-green water". Yaxha is notable for the survival of its toponym from the Classic period, when it was a thriving city. David Stuart first proposed that the emblem glyph of the site should be read "Yax-ha" and that the name of the city (and the lake) is of ancient origin.

Location.

Located in the modern-day department of Petén, northern Guatemala, it is approximately southeast of Tikal; Yaxha is situated on the north shore of Lake Yaxha; the ruins extend roughly along a hilltop parallel to the lake shore. The ruins fall within the borders of the Yaxha-Nakum-Naranjo National Park, which encompasses an area of and incorporates the remains of four ancient Maya cities: Yaxha, Topoxte, Nakum and Naranjo, as well as 10 intermediate sites and more than 280 smaller settlements.

Known rulers.

All dates A.D.

History.

Preclassic.

Yaxha was already significant in the Late Preclassic (c. 350 BC – AD 250), and was a large site as far back as the Middle Preclassic (c. 1000–350 BC). Archaeological investigations indicate that the earliest, Middle Preclassic, settlement was in what developed into the southern and western sectors of the city. In the Late Preclassic the city became the largest settlement in the Yaxha-Sacnab basin, with a marked increase in population and in construction activity.

Early Classic.

The city reached the height of its power during the Early Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology (c. AD 250–600), during which period the city expanded enormously. The city's Early Classic monuments are poorly preserved, meaning that the history of its period of maximum power is poorly understood. The influence of the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico is evident in Early Classic imagery following Teotihuacan's decisive intervention at Tikal in AD 378. At the end of the Early Classic, seismic activity caused movement of the Yaxha Fault, resulting in damage to buildings in the East Acropolis. The same earthquake appears to have caused damage across the city and at neighbouring Nakum. The earthquake may have resulted in the temporary abandonment of the East Acropolis.  During this period the city established itself as an important centre on the trade routes that crossed the Petén lakes region.

Late Classic.

In the Late Classic (c. AD 600–900) the city developed with major construction projects taking place across the city centre, especially during the 8th century; the twin pyramid complex is an example of one of the major construction projects undertaken at this time. At this time the city became an important trading centre to the southeast of the great city of Tikal. During the Late Classic the city fought several wars against the neighbouring city of Naranjo, which had eclipsed Yaxha in power but was never able to complete dominate it. In 710, king K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak of Naranjo sacked Yaxha, captured its king and sacrificed him.  In the latter 8th century, king K'ak' Ukalaw Chan Chaak of Naranjo took a Yaxha princess as his wife; Lady Shell Star provided the king with his heir. This heir was unable to maintain peace between the cities and Itzamnaaj K'awiil of Naranjo went to war against Yaxha and its allies in AD 799, launching assaults against his mother's city in July and September of that year, some months after defeating a number of Yaxha's satellites. He managed to capture K'inich Lakamtuun, Yaxha's king.

Terminal Classic.

There is no evidence of the rapid collapse of the Yaxha polity in the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) as took place at other cities in the vicinity. Instead there is evidence of renewed and widespread construction activity. It is apparent that the local elite made every effort to prolong the city's Late Classic political system. Some entry controls to the city were removed in order to encourage the flow of visitors to Yaxha from surrounding areas that were more immediately affected by the Classic Maya collapse.

Postclassic.

During the Postclassic (c. 900–1525) there is some evidence of activity at the site associated with the inhabited islands of Lake Yaxha but these were not in any way associated with occupation of the city itself, rather consisting of pieces of ceramic and food refuse left at the city by the islanders.

Modern history.

Teoberto Maler first reported Yaxha's existence after visiting the ruins in 1904. The Carnegie Institution of Washington mapped the ruins in the 1930s and the site was again mapped in the early 1970s, at which time test excavations were undertaken. The Proyecto Nacional Tikal ("National Tikal Project") carried out a survey of architectural damage at Yaxha in 1987 and in 1988 the first work was undertaken in order to stabilise some of the structures. Archaeological excavations have continued into the 21st century; The South Acropolis was excavated from 2005 through to 2007. The early 21st century excavations of Yaxha formed a part of the Peten Sustainable Development Programme ("Programa de Desarrollo Sostenible de Petén") funded by the Banco Interamericano de Desarollo (Inter-American Development Bank).

Site description.

Yaxha is the third largest ruin in Guatemala, with only Tikal and El Mirador being larger. The centre of the city consisted of a number of plazas and architectural groups, with outlying groups and the lake shore linked by causeways. The main architectural groups are the Maler Group to the north, linked to the central area by the Blom Causeway; the South (or Main) Acropolis, the West Group, the Northeast Acropolis, the East Acropolis and a number of plazas and lesser groups make up the site core. The city was linked to the shore of Lake Yaxha by the Lake Causeway. Plaza A is a twin pyramid complex. Ten main communication routes have been identified in the city, with the four principal routes having been classified as causeways by archaeologists, with the remainder classed as "vias". Yaxha was more densely occupied than most other Maya cities.  The site has more than 500 structures, including about 40 stelae, 13 Altars, 9 temple pyramids, 2 Mesoamerican ballcourts, and a network of "sacbeob" (causeways) that connect the central, northern (Maler), and eastern 'acropoleis', and the Lake causeway that was the main entrance in the past. The top of Temple 216 (restored) provides a view of the two lakes on one side and the jungle and the stepped-pyramids on the other.  Yaxha possesses one of very few twin pyramid complexes outside of Tikal; the fact that the site holds a twin-pyramid complex provides a visible insight into the political alliances that eventually influenced the architectural style of the city at its peak, although it appears that the complex at Yaxha was unfinished.

Architectural groups.

Plaza A is a twin pyramid complex to the north of the East Acropolis. It was built during the 8th century AD.  Plaza B is on the west side of the East Acropolis.  Plaza C is an E-Group astronomical complex to the southeast of the site core, linked to the city centre by the Lincloln Causeway. Three Early Classic stelae were erected on the east side of the plaza.  Plaza D is in the site core, at the northwest end of the Lincoln Causeway and immediately north of the South Acropolis. It is bordered to the north by the Northeast Acropolis.  Plaza E is situated in the site core, on the north side of the South Acropolis and linked to it via a stairway rising from the plaza.  The East Acropolis is on the east side of the city centre, to the south of the Twin Pyramid Complex. It occupies the highest area of the city and is surrounded by Plazas A, B and C. The area that was to become occupied by the East Acropolis was first levelled from the limestone bedrock in the Middle Preclassic. In the Preclassic the East Acropolis was laid out as a triadic pyramid complex but was radically modified during the Early Classic. In its final form the East Acropolis formed a closed complex with twelve structures covering a total area of. The main buildings of the East Acropolis were Structure 216, a pyramid-temple, and Structure 218, a palace. The East Acropolis plaza featured a west-facing monumental stairway built in the Late Preclassic and remodelled in the Late Classic. The first version of the temple was built in the Late Preclassic, while the earliest version of the palace dates to the Early Classic. The East Acropolis appears to have been temporarily abandoned at the end of the Early Classic due to destruction caused by an earthquake, but was reoccupied and developed during the course of the Late Classic. During the Terminal Classic (9th century AD) great quantities of ash and domestic ceramics were deposited in the East Acropolis. At this time a small platform was built against Structure 219, which blocked access to the southwestern terrace of the complex.  The Northeast Acropolis dates back to the Late Preclassic and incorporates an arrangement that includes a triadic pyramid forming a part of an E-Group astronomical complex.  The South Acropolis, sometimes referred to as the Main Acropolis, was built upon a high karstic hill. It had a long history, with construction starting at the end of the Middle Preclassic period and continuing through to the Terminal Classic. The acropolis is a complex consisting of six patio groups upon an artificial platform and includes a Mesoamerican ballcourt (Ballcourt 1). The patios are separated by corbel-vaulted structures that were probably elite residences; the exception is Structure 363, which is a temple between Patio 5 and Patio 6. The South Acropolis is located in the southern portion of the site core near the junction of various causeways and vias. The acropolis is bordered on the north side by the ballcourt and plazas D and E. It is bordered on the western side by Via 5 and on the southern side by Via 6. In its final form during the Terminal Classic the basal platform formed an irregular rectangle measuring east-west by north-south. The platform had stepped levels and rounded corners; the principal access appears to have been a stairway on the west half of the north side, which linked Plaza E with Patios 5 and 6 of the acropolis. Excavations of the acropolis took place in 1996 and 2006; excavators found evidence of earlier archaeological investigation that had not been recorded and suggested professional investigation in the 1970s.  The Maler Group is located to the north of the site core, linked to it by the Blom Causeway.

Structures.

Structure 216 is a large pyramid on the east side of Plaza A upon the East Acropolis. The remains of the temple shrine still stand upon the pyramidal base and the total height of the structure is over, making it the tallest structure at Yaxha. The earliest structure on the site was the plaza platform raised in the Late Preclassic, which consisted of a five-stepped platform with "talud" walls and an inset wide west-facing monumental stairway, consisting of 32 steps, each with a tread and a riser. This Late Preclassic phase stood about high. In the Early Classic a new version of the structure was built (Structure 216 sub 1). It was a stepped platform, like its predecessor, although the stairway of the new version projected westwards, possibly flanked by balustrades. The maximum height of this construction phase was. In the 8th century AD a new version of Structure 216 was built, rising to a height of. The pyramid base had eight stepped levels with rounded corners and featured a projecting stairway. The summit shrine had three doorways and two inner chambers. Stela 41 was raised at the base of the stairway. An offering was found in the fill under the first chamber of the temple that consisted of seven eccentrics, five of them crafted from obsidian and two from flint, and a piece of mother of pearl.  Structure 217 is a palace-type structure at the north end of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The first phase of construction dates to the Early Classic. In the 8th century the structure was redesigned. It stood upon a basal platform with slightly inclined walls. The structure had two vaulted chambers and was accessed via an east-facing stairway. In the 9th century the base of the structure was dressed with masonry.  Structure 218 is a palace-type structure in the East Acropolis. The earliest version of the building dates to the Early Classic period (Structure 218 sub 1A) and had a long room with a corbel-vaulted roof. The structure had multiple east-facing doorways, possibly five, and two narrow doorways in the centre of the western facade. Traces of red pigment survive on the cornice. The location and characteristic of this Early Classic phase lead archaeologists to believe that it was built slightly after the Early Classic phase of Structure 216 (sub 1). The building was remodelled a number of times in the Early Classic. Stage 1B consisted in the division of the room into three chambers, the addition of a bench inside the north chamber and the addition of small zoomorphic masks to the sunken panels of the cornice. Phase 1C consisted of the addition of a small platform to the western facade. The Early Classic substructure has suffered subsidence at the southern end due to movement of a geological fault. Stage 2A dates to the Late Classic, during the 8th century AD. The western facade became the main facade, the height of the corbel vaulting was reduced and the previous structure was filled. Structure 218 Sub 2A measured long and was raised upon a high platform. Like the earlier version, it had a long room with a vaulted ceiling; the walls were thick and the interior vaulting was high. The building featured decorated cornices. The total heigh of the building as measured from the plaza floor may have been over. The rear, east, side of Stage 2A consisted of three plain, stepped levels. Two benches were built against the corners, possibly to disguise the subsidence that occurred as a result of the earlier earthquake. An offering was deposited underneath the central chamber; it consisted of 9 grey obsidian eccentrics, 14 flint eccentrics, a "spondylus" shell, a small fragment of greenstone and carbon remains mixed with unidentified vegetable fibres. The following stage, denominated 2B by archaeologists, also dates to the 8th century and consisted of the unification of Structure 218 with the neighbouring structures 217 and 219, creating a new facade with nine doorways. Three vaulted chambers were added to the east facade, with spacing between them; the north and south chambers (A and B) were built over the earlier benches. The central chamber (Chamber C) had flanking stairways. The "talud" wall between chambers A and C had the remains of a giant mask but the upper section of the wall was demolished by the Terminal Classic occupants of the city. The remains of painted murals were discovered in the interior of the central chamber of the palace, using red, blue, black and yellow pigments. The murals were badly damaged but apparently depicted human figures performing actions near a palace and a ballcourt. A high status Late Classic burial (Burial YX-08) was also found in Structure 218, buried in a cist in front of the main entrance. Four individuals were interred to the south of this principal burial during the Terminal Classic. They were not buried in cists and were unaccompanied by offerings. The bones belonged to individuals of varying ages and gender. At this time, during the 9th century AD, a three-chambered building with a perishable roof was built upon the upper platform of the structure; the chambers were linked by doorways. The only access to the building was via a narrow, sunken stairway built directly over the earthquake fissure. In its final form Structure 218 stood high, with four stepped platforms supporting the superstructure. The final remodelling of the building resulted in the blocking of the top of the stairway with a wall.  Structure 219 is another palace-type structure at the south end of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The first phase of construction dates to the Early Classic. In the 8th century Structure 219 was rebuilt in a very similar manner to Structure 217, with two vaulted chambers upon a basal platform and an east-facing stairway. During the 9th century, in the Terminal Classic, the base of the structure was dressed with masonry and two small platforms were added to the southeastern portion of the building, one against the north side and the other against the southeastern corner.  Structure 363 is a temple located between Patio 5 and Patio 6 of the South Acropolis. A stone monument was placed in front of the west facade of the temple; the placement of such a monument within an acropolis complex is unusual.

Causeways.

The Lake Causeway ("Calzada del Lago" in Spanish) runs north from the lake shore to the city centre, where it continues as Via 5. The total length of the causeway and the via is around. The Lake Causeway was designed to allow the rapid movement of goods and people between the city and the lake, and easy access to water. The Lake Causeway probably developed from a Middle Preclassic pathway that ran between the shore and the early settlement. The earliest version of the Lake Causeway was built in the Late Preclassic; it was about wide and was raised above natural ground level. The Via 5 continuation did not exist in the Late Preclassic, when the later city centre had not yet developed. During the Late Classic the causeway was further developed and extended with the formal construction of Via 5 running across the site core. The point where the two met was deliberately narrowed with the construction of flanking buildings and is likely to have been a guardpost where access to the site core was controlled. It is likely that travellers and goods arriving at the city were inspected and taxed at this control point. At its narrowest point the entrance from the causeway to Via 5 was just wide. Parapets were erected flanking the Lake Causeway; they stood approximately high and varied from wide. The southern extreme of the causeway was modified with the construction of a stucco-covered platform with masonry walls defining the east and south sides. From the southern end of the causeway to the union with Via 5 there is an approximate difference in altitude of more than. There is some evidence that steps were carved from the limestone bedrock where the southern platform met the Lake Causeway. During a second phase of construction in the Late Classic, the southern platform was enlarged to measure east-west by north-south. The platform was supported on the south and east sides by refurbished "talud" walls coated in stucco. The causeway itself was redesigned as a long ramp that joined the southern platform with the city centre and the junction with Via 5. In the Terminal Classic (c. AD 800–900) the southern end of the Lake Causeway was re-dressed with limestone fill. The stepped sides of the southern platform were filled in and covered with stone to form ramps. At about this time Stela A, a plain monument, was erected on the platform. Also in the Terminal Classic the restrictions at the north end of the causeway where it met Via 5 were removed; the whole area was levelled with finely dressed stone and mortar that left the access free for the entire width of the causeway. Ceramic remains recovered from the Lake Causeway are scarce and poorly preserved due to the strong waterflow along the incline caused during the rain season, resulting in artefacts being eroded and washed downhill towards the lake.  The Blom Causeway ("Calzada Blom" in Spanish) runs north from the city centre to the Maler Group.  The Galindo Causeway ("Calzada Galindo" in Spanish) runs north-south between the East Acropolis (at the north end) and Plaza C (at the south end).  The Lincoln Causeway ("Calzada Lincoln" in Spanish) runs southeast from the city centre to Plaza C.

Monuments.

Approximately 40 Maya stelae have been recovered at Yaxha, half of which were plain monuments without sculpted faces.  Stela A is a plain stela that was raised upon the platform at the southern (lake-side) end of the Lake Causeway during the Terminal Classic.  Stela 3 is the northernmost of the three stelae erected on the east side of Plaza C. It dates to the Early Classic period and is stylistically related to the Izapan culture of the Pacific coast. It is poorly preserved and only the lower panel survives; it bears a similarity to the equivalent panel on Stela 4.  Stela 4 is the central stela on the east side of Plaza C and is the best preserved of the three Early Classic monuments. It bears the sculpted image of a standing figure with left-facing feet standing upon a grotesque head. Two hieroglyphs are carved to the left of the figure's knees. One of the glyphs preserved on Stela 4 is the Emblem Glyph of Yaxha.  Stela 5 is the southern stela of the three on the east side of Plaza C. It is badly eroded but has been dated to AD 357, making it the earliest dated monument at the city.  Stela 8 is found in the Maler Group. It dates to the Early Classic and is poorly preserved with only the lower portion surviving.  Stela 10 is situated in the Maler Group. It is badly damaged with only the lower portion surviving. It has been dated to the Early Classic.  Stela 11 is a well preserved Early Classic monument on the east side of Plaza B, at the base of Structure 218 in the East Acropolis. The style of the stela is that of Teotihuacan, with the sculpted figure of a warrior with the attributes of Tlaloc, the central Mexican rain deity. The figure bears characteristic eye rings, and a butterfly ornament over the mouth, and wears a feathered headdress. The warrior carries a spear and a shield. The monument is very similar to Stela 32 from Tikal and is associated with the intervention of Teotihuacan in the Petén region during the Early Classic period.  Stela 13 was a sculpted monument but it has been broken into fragments, although much of the sculpture is preserved. The text on the stela includes a date in 793, the latest recorded date at the city. The stela was erected at the base of the West Pyramid of the Twin Pyramid Complex. Stela 13 bears the image of a king of Yaxha together with a text describing the celebration of an equinox.  Stela 30 is the northernmost of two stelae found in Plaza E. It is broken in two pieces. It dates to the Early Classic.  Stela 31 is located in Plaza E. It dates to the Late Classic and depicts an ornate figure with a large headdress. The monument is badly damaged and broken into several pieces.  Stela 36 is a badly eroded monument on the west side of Plaza B.  Stela 41 was raised at the base of the access stairway of Temple 216 in the 8th century AD. The monument is missing its butt, and may not be in its original location; all four sides are sculpted in an Early Classic iconographic style. The front face of the stela has two masks facing to the left and an anthropomorphic figure wearing a bracelet of a type used from the end of the Late Preclassic through to the Early Classic. The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the north and south faces of the stela are eroded but include a glyph that could be the Emblem Glyph of Yaxha.

Burials.

Burial YX-08 was excavated from in front of the main entrance to Structure 218, a palace-type building in the East Acropolis. The remains were deposited in a cist and possibly belonged to a member of the city's elite. The remains were those of a young adult male in his early twenties, interred lying upon his back with his skull towards the north. The skull was deformed and the upper incisors were artificially modified with jade incrustations. Two pieces of sculpted jade were found near the neck, one of them a square plaque inscribed with an anthropomorphic figure. Both of the jade pieces had traces of red pigment.

Yaxha (or Yaxhá in Spanish orthography) is a Mesoamerican archaeological site in the northeast of the Petén Basin region, and a former ceremonial centre and city of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. Yaxha was the third largest city in the region and experienced its maximum power during the Early Classic period (c. AD 250–600).

Yaxha (ou Yaxhá) est un site archéologique maya situé sur les rives du lac Yaxha dans le département du Petén au Guatemala, à une trentaine de kilomètres au sud-est de Tikal.