Plot.

Wendall Rohr and his team of tort lawyers have filed suit on behalf of plaintiff Celeste Wood, whose husband died of lung cancer, against the tobacco company Pynex. The trial is to be held in Biloxi, Mississippi, a state thought to have favorable tort laws and sympathetic juries. Before the jury in the Pynex trial has been sworn in, a stealth juror, Nicholas Easter, has begun to quietly connive behind the scenes, in concert with a mysterious woman known only as Marlee.  Rankin Fitch, a shady "consultant" who has directed eight successful trials for the tobacco industry, has placed a camera in the courtroom in order to observe the proceedings in his office nearby, plotting many schemes to reach to the jury. He plans to get to Millie Dupree through blackmailing her husband through a tape that has him trying to bribe an official. He gets to Lonnie Shaver by convincing a company to buy his employer and convince him through orientation. He also tries to reach Rikki Coleman through blackmail of revealing her abortion to her husband. As the case continues, Fitch is approached by Marlee with a proposal to "buy" the verdict.  Meanwhile, Easter works from the inside to gain control of the jury – being warm-hearted, sympathetic and helpful to jurors who might be won over, and rather ruthless to those who prove impervious to his efforts. Eventually, he becomes jury foreman after the previous one falls ill (resulting from Nicholas spiking his coffee). He also manages to hoodwink and repeatedly manipulate the judge. Meanwhile, Marlee Easter's partner/lover acts as his agent on the outside, increasingly convincing Fitch that, indeed, Easter is in control of the jury and in a position to deliver any verdict on demand.  Marlee gives Fitch the impression that the pair's objective is purely mercenary – to sell the verdict to highest bidder. Still, he makes a great effort to discover her true name and antecedents. This turns out to be extremely difficult, and the detectives employed by Fitch express their grudging respect for her skill in hiding her tracks. As the trial reaches its climax, Fitch – still in the dark about Marlee's past – agrees to her proposal to pay $10 million for a favorable verdict. Only after the money is irrevocably transferred to an offshore account do the detectives discover the truth: Marlee is in fact an anti-smoking activist whose parents both died from smoking. Thus, Fitch realizes that he lost Pynex's $10 million in addition to having lost the trial.  Inside the closed jury room, Easter convinces the jury to find for the plaintiff and make a large monetary award – $2 million in compensatory damages, and $400 million in punitive damages. While not able to sway the entire jury, Easter gets nine out of twelve jurors to back him – sufficient for a valid verdict in a civil case. Pynex and its defense lawyers are devastated. In the Cayman Islands, Marlee short-sells the tobacco companies' stocks and makes an enormous gain on the original $10 million. Easter quickly disappears from Biloxi and leaves the US. While Easter and Marlee are now wealthy and satisfied that they served justice, the tobacco industry, once undefeatable, are now vulnerable to an avalanche of additional lawsuits.  The book closes with Marlee returning the initial $10 million bribe to Fitch, having almost doubled the money on the derivatives market, and warning Fitch that she and Easter will always be watching. She explains that she had no intention to steal or lie, and that she cheated only because, "That was all your client understood."

List of major characters.

Wendall Rohr: A successful tort lawyer who sues big corporations. He tried the case in his home state of Mississippi.  Durwood Cable: The main defense lawyer. Rival and sometimes friend of Wendall Rohr.  Rankin Fitch: A "consultant" for the "Big Four" tobacco companies. Directed eight trials, engineered two mistrials. Known for using unethical schemes to win the trials.  Nicholas Easter: The decisive juror of the trial. Real name is Jeff Kerr. Also had identifications of David Lancaster and Perry Hirsch; used to try to enter previous cases, but failed. Had two years of law school before he met Marlee.  Marlee: The girlfriend and outside contact of Nicholas Easter. Real name is Gabrielle Brant. Parents died due to smoking. Has since meeting Jeff Kerr, schemed to follow and benefit from tobacco litigation.  Frederick Harkin: The judge in the case "Wood v. Pynex"  Loreen Duke: Black female juror. Divorced with two children. Voted for plaintiff.  Angel Weese: Fellow black female juror. Boyfriend is Derrick Maples, who was bribed by Rohr to try to convince Angel to vote for plaintiff. Although this attempt was unsuccessful, she nevertheless voted for plaintiff.  Lonnie Shaver: Black male juror. Manager of supermarket, later convinced by new employer to vote for defense. Employer was friend of one of the tobacco companies.  Stella Hulic: Obnoxious white female social climber. Later got removed due to being followed by tobacco company. However, it was actually Marlee who phoned Stella and stated that the tobacco companies followed her.  Frank Herrera: Retired white male colonel. Later removed for having unauthorized materials. Those materials were actually planted by Nicholas secretly to have Herrera, a pro-defense juror and very antagonistic to Nicholas, removed.  Herman Grimes: The previous white blind male foreman. Very neutral, follows judge's orders very devotedly. Removed due to a sudden illness on the final morning of the trial. This illness was secretly created by Nicholas through drugging Herman.

The Runaway Jury is a legal thriller novel written by American author John Grisham. It was Grisham's seventh novel. The hardcover first edition was published by Doubleday Books in 1996 (). Pearson Longman released the graded reader edition in 2001 (). The novel was published again in 2003 to coincide with the release of "Runaway Jury", a movie adaptation of the novel starring Gene Hackman, Dustin Hoffman, John Cusack and Rachel Weisz. The third printing () bears a movie-themed cover, in place of the covers used on the first and second printings.

Le Maître du Jeu (titre original : ) est un roman policier judiciaire de l'écrivain américain John Grisham, publié en 1996.


James Murray (British Army officer, born 1721)

Early life.

He was a younger son of Alexander Murray, 4th Lord Elibank, and his wife Elizabeth(Betty) Stirling. His cousin with two children was Alexander Murray who served in Nova Scotia. Educated in Haddington and Selkirk, he began his military career in 1736 in the 3rd Scots Regiment in Dutch service. In 1740 he served as a second lieutenant in Wynyard’s Marines, under his brother Patrick Murray, 5th Lord Elibank, in the unsuccessful attack on Cartagena. He returned as a captain in 1742. He served as Captain of the grenadier company of the 15th Regiment of Foot during the War of the Austrian Succession, being severely wounded during the Siege of Ostend in 1745, and distinguishing himself in the Raid on Lorient in 1746. In December 1748, he married Cordelia Collier, of Hastings.

Canada.

James Murray purchased his majority in the 15th Regiment of Foot in 1749, and the lieutenant-colonelcy in 1751. He commanded his regiment in the Raid on Rochefort, 1757, defending Sir John Mordaunt in his subsequent court-martial. He commanded a battalion in the 1758 Siege of Louisbourg along with his brother Alexander.  When Louisbourg was taken, Murray accompanied General Wolfe on a raiding expedition northwards in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758). While Wolfe destroyed French settlements along the Gaspe Peninsula, Murray harried the French fishing settlements along Miramichi Bay. Part of the destruction included the homes and church at St. Anne's, now called Burnt Church.  Murray served under General James Wolfe at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759. Murray believed Wolfe's plan to land the army at Anse au Foulon was foolish and absurd, and succeeded "only by Providence". He was the military commander of Quebec City after it fell to the British. Lévis managed to defeat Murray and the British in the Battle of Sainte-Foy in 1760. As a result the French managed to lay siege to Quebec but this had to abandoned due to a lack of supplies and the arrival of a British relief fleet.  He encouraged his favourite nephew Patrick Ferguson to follow him in a military career. Patrick was the son of Murray's sister Anne who was married to Lord Pitfour. He also assisted another nephew, Patrick Murray, illegitimate son of his brother, George.  Murray's successful part in the British advance on Montreal in which he pacified many of the French Canadians, showed his true worth as a military commander and a negotiator. On 5 September 1760, Murray signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Huron Nation, then residing at Lorette, near Quebec City. In 1990, that treaty was found by the Supreme Court of Canada to still be valid and binding on the Crown.

Governor of Quebec.

In October 1760, he became military governor of the district of Quebec and became the first civil governor of the Province of Quebec on 4 October 1763. He was promoted Major-General on 26 March 1765. As governor he was sympathetic to the French-Canadians, favouring them over British merchants who came to settle in the wake of the conquest. He allowed the continuance of French civil law because at the time the French outnumbered the British 25:1 and he needed to be careful not to incite discontent or rebellion. The dissatisfaction of British settlers led to his recall in 1766 (although he remained governor in name until 1768), but his precedents were preserved in the Quebec Act of 1774. Murray successfully argued for the Quebec Act to continue slavery in Quebec as it had existed under the French; an advertisement appeared in the "Quebec Gazette" in 1769 for a "negro woman, aged 25 years, with a mulatto male child... formerly the property of General Murray".  On his return to Great Britain he was appointed Colonel of the 13th Regiment of Foot, a post he held from 1767 to 1789.

Minorca.

Murray was lieutenant-governor from 1774 to 1778 and then governor of Minorca from 1778 to 1782. In 1780, he married, as his second wife, Ann Witham, daughter of the Consul-General there. During the American War of Independence, he defended Fort St. Philip, at Port Mahon, against a Franco-Spanish siege for seven months (1781–82), until forced to surrender. He was known as ‘Old Minorca’ Murray as a result.  He then returned to his home, Beauport Park, in Hollington, Sussex, where he died. Further honours came to him in his last years: he was appointed General, and Governor of Kingston-upon-Hull in 1783, and Colonel of the 21st (Royal North British) Fusiliers in 1789. His body was laid to rest in the apse of the now ruined Old St Helen's Church, Hastings.

Family.

His first marriage had been childless, but by his second, he had six children (two of whom died in infancy):  He and his wife also brought up his older brother Patrick, Lord Elibank’s illegitimate daughter Maria Murray.

Popular culture.

Murray appears in the 2004 film "Battle of the Brave (Nouvelle-France)" in his role as Governor of the new-captured Quebec. He is portrayed by Michael Maloney.

General James Murray (21 January 1721, Ballencrieff, East Lothian, Scotland – 18 June 1794, Battle, East Sussex) was a Scottish army officer, whose lengthy career included service as colonial administrator and governor of the Province of Quebec and later as Governor of Minorca from 1778 to 1782. His term in Quebec was notably successful, and marked with excellent relationships with the conquered French-Canadians, who were reassured of their traditional rights and customs.

James Murray ( – ), officier de l'armée britannique et administrateur colonial, fut le premier gouverneur civil de la province de Québec.


Name.

The scientific name of the common species is "Cavia porcellus", with "" being Latin for "little pig". "Cavia" is New Latin; it is derived from "cabiai", the animal's name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana. "Cabiai" may be an adaptation of the Portuguese "çavia" (now "savia"), which is itself derived from the Tupi word "saujá", meaning rat. Guinea pigs are called "quwi" or "jaca" in Quechua and "cuy" or "cuyo" (plural "cuyes, cuyos") in the Spanish of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Ironically, breeders tend to use the more formal "cavy" to describe the animal, while in scientific and laboratory contexts, it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial "guinea pig".  How the animals came to be called "pigs" is not clear. They are built somewhat like pigs, with large heads relative to their bodies, stout necks, and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs, and they also spend a large amount of time eating. They can survive for long periods in small quarters, like a 'pig pen', and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe.  The animal's name alludes to pigs in many European languages. The German word for them is "Meerschweinchen", literally "little sea pig", which has been translated into Polish as "świnka morska", into Hungarian as "tengerimalac", and into Russian as "морская свинка". This derives from the Middle High

History.

The guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America (the present-day southern part of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia), some thousands of years after the domestication of the South American camelids. Statues dating from "circa" 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art. From about 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532, selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs, which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds. They continue to be a food source in the region; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal, which subsists on the family's vegetable scraps.  Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous; they are exchanged as gifts, used in customary social and religious ceremonies, and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors. They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, or "curanderos", who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus. They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick, and

Characteristics.

Guinea pigs are large for rodents; the common pet breeds weigh between when full grown and measure between in length. Some livestock breeds weigh when full grown. Pet breeds live an average of four to five years, but may live as long as eight. According to the 2006 "Guinness World Records", the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years, 10.5 months. Most guinea pigs have fur, but one laboratory breed adopted by some pet owners, the skinny pig, is a mostly furless breed. Some breeds are longfur breeds such as the Peruvian, the Silkie, and the Texel.  In the 1990s, a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs, such as guinea pigs, chinchillas, and degus, are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals (similar to lagomorphs). Subsequent research using wider sampling restored the consensus among mammalian biologists regarding the current classification of rodents as monophyletic.

Behavior.

Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food, and can accurately remember a learned path for months. Their strongest problem-solving strategy is motion. While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles, most of them are poor climbers, and are not particularly agile. They startle extremely easily, and either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid, darting motions when they sense danger. Larger groups of startled guinea pigs "stampede", running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators. When happily excited, guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air (known

Vocalization.

Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members

Environment.

Natural habitat.

"C. porcellus" is not found naturally in the wild; it is likely descended from closely related species of cavies, such as "C. aperea", "C. fulgida", and "C. tschudii", which are still commonly found in various regions of South America. Studies from 2007–2010 applied molecular markers and studied the skull and skeletal morphology of current and mummified animals, thereby revealing the ancestor to most likely be "Cavia tschudii". Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century, such as "C. anolaimae" and "C. guianae", may be domestic

Domestic habitat.

Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more; groups of sows, or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations, but boars can sometimes live together. Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual pigs, and testing of boars shows their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females. Groups of boars may also get along, provided their

Diet.

The guinea pig's natural diet is grass; their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter and grow continuously throughout their life. Most mammals that graze are large and have a long digestive tract; guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents, but they must also supplement their diet by eating their feces (coprophagy). However, they do not consume all their feces indiscriminately, but produce special soft pellets, called cecotropes (or caecal pellets), which recycle B vitamins, fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion. The cecotropes are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese. They share this behaviour with rabbits. In geriatric boars or sows (rarely in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus can become weak. This creates a condition known as "anal impaction", which prevents the animal from redigesting cecotropes even though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass. The condition may be temporarily alleviated by a human carefully removing the impacted feces from the anus.  Guinea pigs benefit from a diet of fresh grass hay, such as timothy hay, in addition to food pellets which are often based on timothy hay. Alfalfa hay is also a popular food choice and most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it, though some controversy exists over offering alfalfa to adult guinea pigs. Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that, as a legume rather than a grass hay, alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity,

Reproduction.

Males reach sexual maturity in 3–5 weeks, while females can be fertile as early as 4 weeks old, and can carry litters before they are adults. The female guinea pig is able to breed year-round, with spring being the peak. A sow can have as many as five litters in a year, but six is theoretically possible. Unlike the offspring of most rodents, which are altricial at birth, newborn cavy pups are precocial, and are well-developed with hair, teeth, claws, and partial eyesight. The pups are immediately mobile and begin eating solid food immediately, though they continue to suckle. Females can once again become pregnant 6–48 hours after giving birth, but it is not healthy for a female to be constantly pregnant.  The gestation period lasts from to, with an average of 63–68 days. Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups, pregnant females may become large and eggplant-shaped, although the change in size and shape varies depending upon the size of the litter. Litter size ranges from one to six, with three being the average; the largest recorded litter size is 17. The guinea pig mother only has two nipples, but she can readily raise the more average-sized litters of 2 to 4 pups. In smaller litters, difficulties may occur during labour due to oversized pups. Large

Health problems.

Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory tract infections, diarrhea, scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, typically characterized by sluggishness), abscesses due to infection (often in the neck, due to hay embedded in the throat, or from external scratches), and infections by lice, mites, or fungus.  Mange mites ("Trixacarus caviae") are a common cause of hair loss, and other symptoms may also include excessive scratching, unusually aggressive behavior when touched (due to pain), and, in some instances, seizures. Guinea pigs may also suffer from "running lice" ("Gliricola porcelli"), a small, white insect which can be seen moving through the hair; their eggs, which appear as black or white specks attached to the hair, are sometimes referred to as "static lice". Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts.  Foreign bodies, especially small pieces of hay or straw, can become lodged in the eyes of guinea pigs, resulting in excessive blinking, tearing, and in some cases an opaque film over the eye due to corneal ulcer.

As pets.

Handling, temperament and socialization.

If handled correctly early in life, guinea pigs become amenable to being picked up and carried, and seldom bite or scratch. They are timid explorers and often hesitate to attempt an escape from their cage even when an opportunity presents itself. Still, they show considerable curiosity

Appearance, coat and grooming.

Domesticated guinea pigs occur in many breeds, which have been developed since their introduction to Europe and North America. These varieties vary in hair and color composition. The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair (also known as the

Clubs and associations.

Cavy clubs and associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide. The American Cavy Breeders Association, an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders' Association, is the governing

Allergies to guinea pigs.

Allergic symptoms, including rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and asthma, have been documented in laboratory animal workers who come into contact with guinea pigs. Allergic reactions following direct exposure to guinea pigs in domestic settings have also been reported. Two major

In popular culture and media.

As a result of their widespread popularity, especially in households with children, guinea pigs have shown a presence in culture and media. Some noted appearances of the animal in literature include the short story "Pigs Is Pigs" by Ellis Parker Butler, which is a tale of bureaucratic incompetence. Two guinea pigs held at a railway station breed unchecked while humans argue as to whether they are "pigs" or "pets" for the purpose of determining freight charges. Butler's story, in turn, inspired the "" episode "The Trouble with Tribbles", written by David Gerrold. In the Golden Hamster Saga books, two guinea pigs named Enrico and Caruso are modern-day thespians (named after Enrico Caruso) who serve as secondary characters, and often irritate the main character, Freddy Auratus, who strongly dislikes their acting antics.

In children's literature.

"The Fairy Caravan", a novel by Beatrix Potter, and Michael Bond's Olga da Polga series for children, both feature guinea pigs as the protagonist. Another appearance is in "The Magician's Nephew" by C. S. Lewis: in the first (chronologically) of his "The Chronicles

In film and television.

Guinea pigs have also been featured in film and television. In the TV movie "Shredderman Rules", the main character and the main character's crush both have guinea pigs which play a minor part in the plot. A guinea pig named Rodney, voiced by Chris Rock, was a prominent character in the 1998 film "Dr. Dolittle", and Linny the Guinea pig is a co-star on Nick Jr.'s "Wonder Pets". Guinea pigs were used in some major advertising campaigns in the 1990s and 2000s, notably for Egg Banking plc,

As food.

South America.

Guinea pigs (called "cuy", "cuye", or "curí") were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes. Traditionally, the animal was reserved for ceremonial meals and as a delicacy by indigenous people in the Andean highlands, but since the 1960s, it has become more socially acceptable for consumption by all people. It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia, particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador (mainly in the Sierra) and in Colombia, exclusively in highland locations in the

Breeding program.

Peruvian research universities, especially La Molina National Agrarian University, began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger-sized guinea pigs. Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America, to make the raising of

Western world.

Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat, and some South American restaurants in major cities in the United States serve

Sub-Saharan Africa.

Many efforts have also been made to promote guinea pig husbandry in developing countries of West Africa, where they occur more widely than generally known because they are usually not covered by livestock statistics. However, it has not

In scientific research.

The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the 17th century, when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures. In 1780, Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter, a device used to measure heat production. The heat from the guinea pig's respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter, showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, similar to a candle burning. Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late 19th century, through the experiments of Louis Pasteur, Émile Roux, and Robert Koch. Guinea pigs have been launched into orbital space flight several times, first by the USSR on the Sputnik 9 biosatellite of March 9, 1961 – with a successful recovery. China also launched and recovered a biosatellite in 1990 which included guinea pigs as passengers.  In English, the term "guinea pig" is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation, or any experiment or test in modern times. This dates back to the early 20th century; the "Oxford English Dictionary" notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913. In 1933, Consumers Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled "100,000,000 Guinea Pigs", extending the metaphor to consumer society. The book became a national bestseller in the United States, thus further popularizing the term, and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement. During World War II, the plastic surgeon Archibald McIndoe established the Guinea Pig Club at Queen Victoria Hospital, East Grinstead, Sussex, England as a social club and mutual support network for his patients, who were undergoing previously-untested reconstruction procedures. The negative connotation of the term was later employed in the novel "The Guinea Pigs" (1970) by Czech author Ludvík Vaculík as an allegory for Soviet totalitarianism.  Guinea pigs remained popular laboratory animals until the later 20th century: about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s, but that total decreased to about 375,000 by the mid-1990s. As of 2007, they constitute about 2% of the current total of laboratory animals. In the past, they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions, or anaphylaxis. Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation. Since the middle 20th century, they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats. This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents, although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study, especially regarding coat color. In 2004, the U.S.'s National Human Genome Research Institute announced plans to sequence the genome of the domestic guinea pig.  The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases. Common uses included identification of brucellosis, Chagas disease, cholera, diphtheria, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and various strains of typhus. They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis, since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria. Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which, like humans and other primates, cannot synthesize vitamin C, but must obtain it from their diet, they are ideal for researching scurvy. From the accidental discovery in 1907 that scurvy could be induced in guinea pigs, to their use to prove the chemical structure of the "ascorbutic factor" in 1932, the guinea pig model proved a crucial part of vitamin C research.  Complement, an important component for serology, was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig. Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation, and are a suitable species for the generation of anti-insulin antibodies. Present at a level 10 times that found in other mammals, the insulin in guinea pigs may be important in growth regulation, a role usually played by growth hormone. Additionally, guinea pigs have been identified as model organisms for the study of juvenile diabetes and, because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia, of pre-eclampsia in human females. Their placental structure is similar to that of humans, and their gestation period can be divided into trimesters that resemble the stages of fetal development in humans.  Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains. Aside from the common American or English stock, the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin-Hartley; these English strains are albino, although pigmented strains are also available. Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research, such as immune system molecular biology. Of the inbred strains that have been created, the two still used with any frequency are, following Sewall Wright's designations, "Strain 2" and "Strain 13".  Hairless breeds of guinea pigs have been used in scientific research since the 1980s, particularly for dermatological studies. A hairless and immunodeficient breed was the result of a spontaneous genetic mutation in inbred laboratory strains from the Hartley stock at the Eastman Kodak Company in 1979. An immunocompetent hairless breed was also identified by the Institute Armand Frappier in 1978, and Charles River Laboratories has reproduced this breed for research since 1982. Cavy fanciers then began acquiring hairless breeds, and the pet hairless varieties are referred to as "skinny pigs".

The guinea pig or domestic guinea pig ("Cavia porcellus"), also known as cavy or domestic cavy (), is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus "Cavia". Despite their common name, guinea pigs are not native to Guinea, nor are they closely biologically related to pigs, and the origin of the name is still unclear. They originated in the Andes of South America, and studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domesticated descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as "C. tschudii", and therefore do not exist naturally in the wild. They were originally domesticated as livestock, as a source of food, and continue to be. In Western society, the domestic guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a pocket pet, a type of household pet, since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century. Their docile nature, friendly responsiveness to handling and feeding, and the relative ease of caring for them have made and continue to make guinea pigs a popular choice of pet. Organizations devoted to the competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide, and many specialized breeds with varying coat colors and textures are selected by breeders. The domestic guinea pig plays an important role in folk culture for many indigenous Andean groups, especially as a food source, but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies. The animals are used for meat and are a culinary staple in the Andes Mountains, where they are known as "cuy". A modern breeding program was started in the 1960s in Peru that resulted in large breeds known as "cuy mejorados" ("improved cuy") and prompted efforts to increase consumption of the animal outside South America. Biological experimentation on domestic guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century. The animals were so frequently used as model organisms in the 19th and 20th centuries that the epithet "guinea pig" came into use to describe a human test subject. Since that time, they have been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats. However, they are still used in research, primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes, tuberculosis, scurvy (like humans, they require dietary intake of vitamin C), and pregnancy complications.

Le cochon d'Inde () est un rongeur de taille moyenne, appartenant à la famille des Caviidae et originaire d’Amérique Latine. C'est l'espèce domestiquée issue du cobaye sauvage appelé "Cavia aperea". D'abord élevé pour sa chair dans les pays andins, puis comme animal de laboratoire, le cobaye est aussi souvent adopté comme animal de compagnie par ceux qui apprécient son caractère calme et sa facilité d'élevage.


Gameplay.

"Galaxian" is a fixed shooter video game. The player controls a starship called the "Galaxip", the objective being to clear each round of aliens. The enemies appear in formation towards the top of the screen, with two escort ships, labeled the "Galaxian Flagship" or "Galboss". Enemies will make a divebomb towards the bottom of the screen while shooting projectiles in an attempt to hit the player. The Galaxip can only fire a single shot on-screen, and must wait for it to hit the top before being able to fire another, due to limitations of the hardware.  Flagships will make a divebomb with two red escort ships - shooting all three of these will award the player bonus points, with extra points awarded to the destruction of the flagship. Enemy movement will increase as the game progresses alongside the number of shots that the enemies fire. Rounds are indicated by small flags at the bottom of the screen. The game's attract mode featured a slim scenario, reading "WE ARE THE GALAXIANS. MISSION: DESTROY ALIENS" which could be read either and the enemies as the "Galaxians" and the player as the 'aliens" or vice versa..

Development and release.

"Galaxian" was designed by Kazunori Sawano, who had previously worked on many of Namco's electro-mechanical shooting gallery arcade games, notably "Shoot Away" (1977). Early in the game's development, Taito had released "Space Invaders" in Japan, which swept the country by storm and helped turn the video game industry into a highly-profitable business. To help capitalize on the game's success, Namco president Masaya Nakamura ordered Sawano to make the best "post-Invaders" game they could, which put a vast amount of pressure on the development team. Although development of the game lasted six months, Sawano had made several ideas half a year before production began.  Sawano and his team set out to make a game anybody could play, using a "simple is best" motto during production — this helped trim away large-scale ideas in favor of a game that could loop endlessly, and be able to use only two enemy types. Alongside "Space Invaders", a large portion of the game was inspired by "Star Wars", specifically its large-scale space battles. Sawano had wanted to replicate the feeling of a space war, specifically with the game's sound effects. Several back-and-forth sound effects were made, many being rejected by Sawano for not matching his vision. The game was Namco's first arcade game to be composed with a synthesizer.  Game balance was an important part of the game, as Sawano did not want to make the game suddenly spike in difficulty with no build-up or warning; the development team made the number of enemies on-screen the same and gradually increased the difficulty as the player progresses, becoming more noticeable in later stages. The enemies themselves were designed to have a personality of their own, programmed to monitor the player's movements and make attacks based on them - early in development, Sawano had envisioned the enemies to resemble TIE Fighters from "Star Wars". To save up on hardware memory and processing, programmers created a tilemap hardware model, which created a set of 8x8 pixel tiles — this reduced processing and memory requirements upwards of 64 times, compared to the framebuffer model used in "Space Invaders".  "Galaxian" was released by Namco in Japan in November 1979. Following its large success, Namco approached Midway Games in terms of releasing the game overseas. Midway, who had previously lost their license with Taito the success of "Space Invaders" in the west, was in the midst of trying to find a new partner for releasing games. They agreed to the deal and released the game in North America in early 1980 — this move helped strengthen Midway and challenged Atari's leadership in the market. To help keep up demand for the game in Japan, Namco would license the game to other companies for manufacturing cabinets, including Taito and Irem.

Reception.

"Galaxian" was a critical and commercial success upon release. By 1982, it sold over 40,000 arcade units in North America, while in Japan it would outperform "Pac-Man" for a short while. Critics applauded the game's use of true color graphics and for improving the formula established in "Space Invaders".  The April 5, 1980 issue of "Cashbox" noted of the game's colorful and attractive cabinet design, while the April 26 issue called it an "earthshaking hit", referring to it as a true followup to "Space Invaders". In a 2007 retrospective review, Sir Clive of "Eurogamer" labeled it a masterpiece, praising its "beautifully drawn" game graphics and intense gameplay, and for being a historically important game for the industry.  Home versions and ports of the game (see Ports below) received mixed responses by platforms. "Video" magazine in 1982 reviewed the Astrocade version of "Galaxian" (named "Galactic Invasion"), noting that the graphics were inferior to the coin-op and PC versions, but praising the play-action as "magnificent" compared to other console versions. The Astrocade version would later be awarded a Certificate of Merit for "Best Arcade-to-Home Video Game Translation" at the 4th annual Arkie Awards. "Home Computing Weekly" in 1983 gave the Spectrum version of "Galaxian" 3/5 stars describing it as a well-written version and praising the graphics as fast although flickery. "Softline" in 1983 criticized the Atari 8-bit version of the game, stating that "this game becomes tedious very quickly".

Ports.

Atari, Inc. published ports of "Galaxian" for its own systems—Atari 8-bit family, Atari 2600, Atari 5200— in 1982–3, three or more years after "Galaxian" appeared in arcades and a year or more after "Galaga". Additional ports were published under the Atarisoft label: Apple II, ColecoVision, Commodore 64, VIC-20, IBM PC, and ZX Spectrum. Ports from other companies were sold for MSX (Europe and Japan only), NEC PC-8801, Famicom (Japan only) and Sharp X1.  A Bally Astrocade version was published as "Galaxian", but the name was later changed to "Galactic Invasion".  Coleco released a stand-alone Mini-Arcade tabletop version of "Galaxian" in 1981, which, along with "Pac-Man", "Donkey Kong", and "Frogger", sold three million units combined. Entex released a handheld electronic game called "Galaxian 2" in 1981. The game is called "Galaxian 2" because it has a two-player mode. It is not a sequel, as there is no "Entex Galaxian".

Legacy.

Sequels.

"Galaxian" would spawn a long series of sequels and spin-offs for multiple game platforms, including arcade hardware and home video game systems. The first of these, "Galaga", was released a year later in 1981, usurping the original in popularity and be cited as one of the greatest video games of all time, becoming a popular game during the golden age of arcade video games in North America. It was followed by "Gaplus" in 1984, which added power-up items and juggling-based bonus stages. "Galaga '88" was released in 1987, published in North America by Atari Games, which featured branching level paths, new enemy types and multiple endings.  In 1990, Namco produced a theme-park attraction based on the series, "". Originally presented at Expo '90 and moved to Namco's Wonder Eggs theme park two years later, it was a rail shooter where up to 28 players used lightguns to shoot down enemies and projectiles. A smaller version for arcades was released in 1992, followed by a 1996 PlayStation release in Japan and Europe. In 1995, an arcade remake of "Galaga" was released for the "Namco Classic Collection Vol. 1" compilation, "Galaga Arrangement". This game added two-player co-operative play and boss fights, alongside new enemy and weapon types. It was ported to the Xbox, PlayStation 2 and GameCube in 2002 as part of the compilation disk "Namco Museum".  A Japan-only medal game spin-off, "Galaxian Fever", was released in 2000 as part of Namco's "Shooting Medal" series. The following year, Hasbro Interactive released "" for the PlayStation and Game Boy Color, adding side-scrolling and third-person stages to the core gameplay. The 2005 PlayStation Portable compilation "Namco Museum Battle Collection" includes a remake of "Galaga" titled "Galaga Arrangement", having no relation to the one featured in "Namco Classic Collection Vol. 1". This game was later ported to iOS devices in 2009, renamed "Galaga Remix". In 2008, Namco Bandai Games released a downloadable game for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, "Galaga Legions" — this game was instead a twin-stick shooter game with score attack modes and multiple stages. It was followed by a 2011 sequel, "Galaga Legions DX", branded under the now-defunct Namco Generations label.

Re-releases.

"Galaxian" is included in the "Namco Museum" series of collections across several platforms.  "Galaxian" and "Galaga" were bundled together for a Game Boy release as "Arcade Classic 3".  "Galaxian" was released on Microsoft Windows in 1995 as part of "Microsoft Return of Arcade".  The game was also released as part of the "Pac-Man's Arcade Party" 30th Anniversary arcade machine.  The game has also been seen in Jakks Pacific's "Plug It In & Play" TV game controllers.  "Galaxian", along with "Galaga", "Gaplus", and "Galaga '88", was "redesigned and modernized" for an iPhone app compilation called the "Galaga 30th Anniversary Collection", released in commemoration of the event by Namco Bandai.  Super Impulse also released a stand-alone "Tiny Arcade" version of "Galaxian".

In the competitive arena.

The Galaxian world record has been the focus of many competitive gamers since its release. The most famous Galaxian rivalry has been between British player Gary Whelan and American Perry Rodgers, who faced off at Apollo Amusements in Pompano Beach, Florida, USA, on 6–9 April 2006. Whelan held the world record with 1,114,550 points, until beaten by newcomer Aart van Vliet, of the Netherlands, who scored 1,653,270 points on 27 May 2009 at the Funspot Family Fun Center in Weirs Beach, New Hampshire, USA.

Designed by company engineer Kazunori Sawano, "Galaxian" was Namco's answer to "Space Invaders", a similar space shooter released the previous year by rival developer Taito. "Space Invaders" was a sensation in Japan, and Namco wanted a game that could compete against it. Sawano strived to make the game simplistic and easy to understand. He was inspired by the cinematic space combat scenes in "Star Wars", with enemies originally being in the shape of the film's TIE Fighters. "Galaxian" is one of the first video games to feature RGB color graphics, and the first ever to use a tile-based hardware system.

Galaxian est un jeu vidéo de type "shoot 'em up" de Namco, sorti en 1979 sur borne d'arcade Galaxian. Inspiré de "Space Invaders", le jeu a été adapté sur de nombreux ordinateurs personnels et consoles de jeux.


Description.

The plant consists of one or more slender stems bearing alternate thin, curved or curly, heavily scaled leaves long and broad, that grow vegetatively in chain-like fashion (pendant), forming hanging structures up to in length. The plant has no aerial roots and its brown, green, yellow, or grey flowers are tiny and inconspicuous. It propagates both by seed and vegetatively by fragments that blow on the wind and stick to tree limbs or are carried by birds as nesting material.

Ecology.

Spanish moss is an epiphyte which absorbs nutrients and water through its leaves from the air and rainfall.  While it rarely kills the tree upon which it grows, it can occasionally become so thick that it shades the tree's leaves and lowers its growth rate.  In the southern U.S., the plant seems to show a preference for growth on southern live oak ("Quercus virginiana") and bald cypress ("Taxodium distichum") because of these trees' high rates of foliar mineral leaching (calcium, magnesium, potassium, and phosphorus) providing an abundant supply of nutrients to the plant, but it can also colonize other tree species such as sweetgum ("Liquidambar styraciflua"), crepe-myrtles ("Lagerstroemia" spp.), other oaks, and even pines.  Spanish moss shelters a number of creatures, including rat snakes and three species of bats. One species of jumping spider, "Pelegrina tillandsiae", has been found only on Spanish moss. Chiggers, though widely assumed to infest Spanish moss, were not present among thousands of other arthropods identified in one study.

Culture and folklore.

Due to its propensity for growing in subtropical humid southern locales like Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, east and south Texas, and extreme southern Virginia, the plant is often associated with Southern Gothic imagery and Deep South culture.  One story of the origin of Spanish moss is called "The Meanest Man Who Ever Lived". The man's white hair grew very long and got caught on trees.  Spanish moss was introduced to Hawaii in the 19th century, and became a popular ornamental and lei plant. On Hawai'i it is often called "Pele's hair" after Pele the Hawaiian goddess. The term "Pele's hair" is also used to refer to a type of filamentous volcanic glass.

Human uses.

Spanish moss has been used for various purposes, including building insulation, mulch, packing material, mattress stuffing, and fiber. In the early 1900s it was used commercially in the padding of car seats. In 1939 over 10,000 tons of processed Spanish-moss was produced. It is still collected today in smaller quantities for use in arts and crafts, or for beddings for flower gardens, and as an ingredient in the traditional wall covering material bousillage. In some parts of Latin America and Louisiana Spanish moss is used in Nativity scenes.  In the desert regions of the southwestern United States, dried Spanish moss plants are sometimes used in the manufacture of evaporative coolers, colloquially known as swamp coolers (and in some areas as "desert coolers"). These are used to cool homes and offices much less expensively than using air conditioners. A pump squirts water onto a pad made of Spanish moss plants. A fan then pulls air through the pad and into the building. Evaporation of the water on the pads serves to reduce the air temperature, thus cooling the building.

Spanish moss ("Tillandsia usneoides") is an epiphytic flowering plant that often grows upon larger trees in tropical and subtropical climates, native to much of Mexico, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Central America, South America, the Southern United States, West Indies and is also naturalized in Queensland (Australia). It is known as "grandpas beard" in French Polynesia. In the United States from where it is most known, it is commonly found on the southern live oak ("Quercus virginiana") and bald-cypress ("Taxodium distichum") in the lowlands, swamps, and savannas of the southeastern United States from southeastern Virginia to Florida and west to Texas and southern Arkansas.

Tillandsia usneoides, aussi appelée mousse espagnole, fille de l'air ou barbe de vieillard, est une espèce de plantes épiphytes de la famille des Broméliacées. Elle se développe sur le continent américain où elle pend aux branches d'arbres, aux fils téléphoniques et à tout autre support aérien où elle capte l'humidité de l'air et les éléments nutritifs sous forme de poussières. Elle est parfois confondue avec l'usnée barbue, une forme de lichen. Cependant la mousse espagnole ne fait pas partie biologiquement des lichens ou des mousses.


Series overview.

Kate Columbo (later renamed Kate Callahan after an off-screen divorce) is the wife of Lieutenant Columbo, the title character from the television series "Columbo". Kate is a news reporter who solves crimes while raising her daughter.

Production.

Development.

Shortly after the "Columbo" series ended its original run on NBC in 1978, despite objections from "Columbo" producers Richard Levinson and William Link, NBC executive Fred Silverman went forward in producing "Mrs. Columbo" as a spin-off to the original series. The information NBC released about the show was unambiguous about the fact that Mrs. Columbo in the new series was in fact the previously unseen wife frequently mentioned on "Columbo."

Retooling.

The show received poor ratings, however, and as part of efforts to revamp it, the linkage between this Kate Columbo and the Mrs. Columbo of the original television series was reduced. The name of the character was changed to Kate Callahan after an off-screen divorce, and the series was renamed "Kate the Detective", followed by "Kate Loves a Mystery" by November 1979 according to an opening posted on YouTube..  In this ultimate incarnation, the producers completed their retreat from the show's original premise, and Kate Callahan was then regarded as being a completely different character from Mrs. Columbo of "Columbo", Kate's ex-husband now named Philip. None of the changes aided the new show's ratings, however, and it was pulled from the air in 1980, after 13 episodes.

Reception.

Peter Falk expressed his disapproval of the spin-off, calling it a "bad idea" and "disgraceful". When "Columbo" returned to the air in 1989 on ABC, it was further established that Lt. Columbo and his wife Mrs. Columbo were still happily married and the existence of the series "Mrs. Columbo" was effectively ignored, however in one episode Columbo commented "A woman's been going around saying she's my wife, but that isn't her..."

Home media.

DVD release.

The "Mrs. Columbo" episode "A Riddle for Puppets" was included as a bonus feature in the Region 1 DVD release of the fourth season of "Columbo", released in August 2005. The episode "Murder Is a Parlor Game" was included in the third season of "Columbo". The episode "Caviar with Everything" was included in the fifth season of "Columbo". Both seasons of Mrs. Columbo were released as a 5-Disc Set called "Madame Columbo - Saisons 1 & 2" in France on October 22, 2014 by Universal and Elephant Films.

Mrs. Columbo, later known as Kate Columbo, followed by Kate the Detective and then ultimately Kate Loves a Mystery is an American crime drama television series initially based on the wife of Lieutenant Columbo, the title character from the television series "Columbo". It was created and produced by Richard Alan Simmons and Universal Television for NBC, and stars Kate Mulgrew as a news reporter helping to solve crimes while raising her daughter.

Madame Columbo (Titre original: "Mrs. Columbo" puis "Kate Columbo" puis'puis ') est une série télévisée américaine en un pilote de 90 minutes et 12 épisodes de 47 minutes, créée par Richard Alan Simmons d'après les personnages de Richard Levinson et William Link et diffusée entre le 26 février et le sur le réseau NBC.


History.

Vantaa has a rich history that dates back to the Stone Age. The area was inhabited by Tavastians and Finns proper until the so-called second crusade to Finland and Swedish colonisation of the area.  Prior to the name "Vantaa" being taken into use in 1974, the area was known as "Helsingin Pitäjä" (; "Socken of Helsinki"). The earliest record of the area is as "Helsinge" in 1351 when king Magnus II of Sweden granted salmon fishing rights on the river Vantaa to the Estonian Padise monastery. The rapids of river Vantaa were known as "Helsingfors", from which the current Swedish name of Helsinki derives. Early settlement in Vantaa was centered around the river, in Helsingin pitäjän kirkonkylä, and from it the city's current coat of arms derived its imagery.  Since the 14th century, the road between Turku and Vyborg, King's Road, has run through Vantaa. The road brought significant attention to the city, and its location on the salmon rich river led to a permanent population.  Ore deposits in "Helsingin Pitäjä" had been discovered in the 1700s, but weren't utilized until Finland transferred to Russian control in the early 1800s. Ore extraction and processing lead to rapid industrialization in the area, with communities forming around locations like Tikkurila and Kerava. The industrial community in Tikkurila included an expeller pressing plant, which currently operates in the area as the paint manufacturer Tikkurila Oyj.  In 1862, the railway between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna was constructed, and one of its seven stations was built in Tikkurila, on its intersection with King's Road. The Swedish architect Carl Albert Edelfelt designed a Renaissance Revival styled station building, which is the oldest extant station building in Finland and (as of 1978) has been adapted into the Vantaa City Museum. The railway brought industry and induced population growth.  "Helsingin Pitäjä" gained municipality rights in 1865, after which it was named "Helsingin maalaiskunta/Helsinge kommun" ("Rural Municipality of Helsinki").  In 1952, the new international airport of Helsinki opened in Vantaa for the 1952 Summer Olympics.  In 1972, the municipality was renamed "Vantaa" () and promoted to a köping (market town) (i.e. "Vantaan kauppala/Vanda köping"). In 1974, the town got full city rights as "Vantaan kaupunki/Vanda stad" or "City of Vantaa".  The city grew rapidly starting from 1960's and a railway line was built to the western side of the city in 1970's.  In 2015, an extension to the existing railway line, the Ring Rail Line opened, providing service to the airport and new residential and working districts. Along the ring road, new residential were constructed. The largest of these developments is the Kivistö suburb followed by the residential districts of Leinelä and Aviapolis.  To connect the municipality on the west–east, a new tramway is planned to open in 2030. This tramway will run from the Helsinki-Vantaa airport through districts of Pakkala, Aviapolis and Koivuhaka to the administrative centre of Tikkurila and further onward to Hakkila and Länsimäki in the east. The tram will also provide a link to the Helsinki metro at Mellunmäki station. This tramline will be the first tram in Vantaa.

Geography.

Location.

Vantaa is located in southern Finland, in the region of Uusimaa and the Helsinki sub-region. It is separated from the Gulf of Finland by Helsinki. Prior to the abolition of Finnish provinces in 2009, Vantaa was a part of the Southern Finland Province.  The city borders Helsinki, the Finnish capital, which is to the south and southwest. Other neighbouring municipalities are Espoo to the west; Nurmijärvi, Kerava, and Tuusula to the north; and Sipoo to the east. Vantaa is a part of the Finnish Capital Region, which is the inner core of the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area.

Subdivision.

Vantaa is divided into seven major regions (, ): Tikkurila "(Dickursby)", Hakunila "(Håkansböle)", Koivukylä "(Björkby)", Korso, Aviapolis, Myyrmäki "(Myrbacka)", and Kivistö. These major regions are then divided into a total of 60 city districts, the most populated of which are Myyrmäki, Martinlaakso, Hakunila, and Pakkala.

Features.

Vantaa encompasses, of which is water. The city is mostly suburban and urban area with some rural landscape, notably in the districts of Sotunki and Seutula. Average population density is, which rises above in concentrated urban districts like Myyrmäki and Tikkurila.  The river Vantaa runs through western Vantaa, and its tributary Keravanjoki runs through eastern Vantaa.  For its area, Vantaa has relatively few lakes. The city encompasses two natural lakes: "Kuusijärvi" in Kuninkaanmäki and "Lammaslampi" Pähkinärinne, Hämeenkylä. In addition to these, there is an artificial lake, "Silvolan tekojärvi". Vantaa shares two lakes with Espoo: "Odilampi" and "Pitkäjärvi".  Vantaa exhibits frequent exposed granite bedrock ground, which is common in Finland. Resulting from erosion in the last glacial period (about 10,000 years ago), elevated surfaces often lack soil (superficial deposits), revealing bare stone unsuitable for most plant life. Other geological impacts of the last Ice Age include a series of eskers running through central Vantaa.

Climate.

Vantaa has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb), slightly above the threshold for subarctic classification. Although the city no longer (since 2009) has a coastline along the Baltic Sea, it is close enough to experience the mitigating influence of the sea and the Gulf Stream. The record low temperature in Vantaa is and the record high is.

Demographics.

The city is bilingual, both Finnish and Swedish being official languages. A majority (78.7%) of the population are Finnish speakers while 2.4% speak Swedish as their first language. Vantaa's residents that speak a native language other than Finnish or Swedish stand at 18.9% of the population. Vantaa is home to a significant Estonian population.  In 2011, 199,236 of the municipality's 203,001 residents lived in officially recognized urban areas (; ). The remaining population lives in the few rural sections of Vantaa, such as those in Sotunki and Seutula.  In 2018, 56.1% of the population were members of the Lutheran Church of Finland.

Population.

In 2017, there were 40,200 people with a foreign background residing in Vantaa. Most immigrants come from Estonia.  The number of foreign speakers is projected to grow to 95,556 by 2035, which would be 34.3% of Vantaa's population in 2035.

Economy.

Of those employed, two thirds are in the private sector. The most common industries in Vantaa include the food, architectural engineering, and machine industries. In 2007, the unemployment rate was 6.3%.  Companies that have their headquarters in Vantaa (at the Helsinki Airport, in Aviapolis) include Finnair, Finavia and Nordic Regional Airlines. Companies with headquarters in Vantaa outside of Aviapolis include R-kioski, Tikkurila Oyj, Veikkaus Oy, and Metsähallitus. Fujifilm Finland has its headquarters in Vantaa.  The City of Vantaa has been in increasing debt since the early 2000s, due to a decrease in state funding and an increase in investments. A contributing factor to its situation is the high concentration of families with children, leading to comparatively larger social expenditure. According to the former mayor Juhani Paajanen, the worst expenditures have ended, and the city's gains are increasing.

Arts and culture.

Music.

There are about 20 choirs in Vantaa, like Vantaan Laulu and Vantaa Chamber Choir. Three actively performing concert bands Tikkurilan Soittokunta, Lumon Puhaltajat and Puhallinorkesteri Louhi exist at the east, north and west corners of the city respectively. Vantaa Pops (Vantaan Viihdeorkesteri in Finnish), conducted by a Welshman Nick Davies, is the only professional full symphonic pops orchestra in Finland.  Ankkarock was a rock music festival held every summer in Korso between 1989–2010.

Museums.

Tikkurila is home of the major science centre in Finland, Heureka. In addition there is the city museum next to the railway station in Tikkurila which has exhibitions with various themes on local history. The museum is housed in the oldest station building in Finland, designed by Carl Albert Edelfelt and completed in 1861. The Finnish Aviation Museum is located in Vantaa, near Helsinki Airport.

Politics.

Vantaa's city council has 67 seats. Following the 2017 municipal election the council seats are allocated in the following way: Social Democrats 18 seats, National Coalition Party 17, Greens 12, True Finns 8, Left Alliance 5, Centre Party 3, Christian Democrats 2, Swedish People's Party 2.

Infrastructure.

Services.

Vantaa has two hospitals, Peijas Hospital in Asola and Katriina Hospital in Seutula. Peijas is responsible for emergency and short-term health services, while Katriina specializes in long-term care and elderly care. The Vantaa branch of the HelMet library network has 10 libraries in Vantaa, with a total of 518,117 books in 2005. The main library is in Tikkurila.  For sports, the city has five swimming halls, four sports halls, two gyms, six tennis courts, 69 hockey and skating rinks, 19 lit-up running tracks, and 14 skateparks. Additionally, Vantaa has two golf courses, in Hiekkaharju and Keimola.

Transportation.

Vantaa infrastructurally serves as the transportational hub of the Helsinki metropolitan area. Several key freeways and highways, such as Ring III, Tuusulanväylä and Porvoonväylä, originate in or pass through the municipality. Additionally, two of the three railway lines exiting Helsinki pass through Vantaa, connecting the city's 14 stations. All long-distance trains exiting Helsinki stop at Tikkurila railway station in Vantaa, with the exception of train D.  Public transport in Vantaa consists of a bus network and commuter rail, provided by HSL/HRT and VR. Since the introduction of the Ring Rail Line in 2015, Vantaa has had a total of 14 stations. Key railway stations also act as central bus stations. The Ring Rail Line is speeding up the development in Western parts of Vantaa. For example, the Vantaankoski area is foreseen to double the number of jobs in the future. Planning ideas are sought through an ideas competition.  The largest airport in Finland, and the primary airport of Greater Helsinki, Helsinki Airport, is located in Vantaa. In 2016, it attracted a total of 17.1 million passengers.

Education.

Vantaa has a total of 50 Finnish-speaking, five Swedish-speaking, and one English-speaking primary and junior high schools. The city has five upper secondary schools, including Tikkurila Upper Secondary, the largest upper secondary school in the Nordic Countries. For vocational education, Vantaa has two vocational schools and two universities of applied sciences: Metropolia and Laurea.

International relations.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Vantaa is twinned with:

Vantaa (;,, ) is a city and municipality in Finland. It is part of the inner core of the Finnish Capital Region along with Helsinki, Espoo, and Kauniainen. With a population of (), Vantaa is the fourth most populated city in Finland.

Vantaa ("Vanda" en suédois) est l'une des villes constituant l'agglomération d'Helsinki en Finlande, formant avec Espoo et Kauniainen, le Grand Helsinki. La commune borde la capitale finlandaise au nord.


History.

The Phoenicians established a settlement called Sala, later the site of a Roman colony, Sala Colonia, on the south side of the Bou Regreg estuary.  It is sometimes confused with Salé, on the opposite north bank. Salé was founded in about 1030 by Arabic-speaking Berbers who apparently cultivated the legend that the name was derived from that of Salah, son of Ham, son of Noah.  The Banu Ifran Berber dynasty began construction of a mosque about the time the city was founded. The present-day Great Mosque of Salé was built during the 12th-century reign of the Almohad sultan Abu Yaqub Yusuf, although not completed until 1196. During the 17th century, Rabat was known as New Salé, or "Salé la neuve" (in French), as it expanded beyond the ancient city walls to include the Chellah, which had become a fortified royal necropolis under the rule of Abu Yaqub Yusuf's son, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur.  In September 1260, Salé was raided and occupied by warriors sent in a fleet of ships by King Alfonso X of Castile. After the victory of the Marinid dynasty, the historic Bab el-Mrissa was constructed by the Sultan Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd Al-Haqq which remains as a landmark of the city.

Republic of Salé.

In the 17th century, Salé became a haven for Barbary pirates, among them Moriscos turned corsair, who formed an independent Republic of Salé. Salé pirates (the well-known "Salé Rovers") roamed the seas, and cruised the shipping routes between Atlantic colonial ports and Europe, seizing ships from the Americas and Europe for goods and captives. They sold their crews and sometimes passengers into slavery in the Arabic world. Despite the legendary reputation of the Salé corsairs, their ships were based across the river in Rabat, called "New Salé" by the English.  The European powers took action to try to subdue the threat from the Barbary Coast. On 20 July 1629, the city of Salé was bombarded by French Admiral Isaac de Razilly with a fleet composed of the ships "Licorne", "Saint-Louis", "Griffon", "Catherine", "Hambourg", "Sainte-Anne", "Saint-Jean"; his forces destroyed three corsair ships.

20th-century socio-political development.

During the decades preceding the independence of Morocco, Salé was the stronghold of some "national movement" activists. The reading of the "Latif" (a politically charged prayer to God, read in mosques in loud unison) was launched in Salé and became popular in some cities of Morocco.  A petition against the so-called "Berber Dahir" (a decree that allowed some Berber-speaking areas of Morocco to continue using Berber Law, as opposed to Sharia Law) was given to Sultan Mohamed V and the Resident General of France. The petition and the "Latif" prayer led to the withdrawal and adjustment of the so-called "Berber Decree" of May 1930. The activists who opposed the "Berber Decree" apparently feared that the explicit recognition of the Berber Customary Law (a very secular-minded Berber tradition) would threaten the position of Islam and its Sharia law system. Others believed that opposing the French-engineered "Berber Decree" was a means to turn the table against the French occupation of Morocco.  The widespread storm that was created by the "Berber Dahir" controversy created a somewhat popular Moroccan nationalist elite based in Salé and Fez; it had strong anti-Berber, anti-West, anti-secular, and pro Arab-Islamic inclinations. This period helped develop the political awareness and activism that would lead fourteen years later to the signing of the Manifest of Independence of Morocco on 11 January 1944 by many "Slawi" activists and leaders. Salé has been deemed to have been the stronghold of the Moroccan left for many decades, where many leaders have resided.

Culture.

Salé has played a rich and important part in Moroccan history. The first demonstrations for independence against the French, for example, began in Salé. Numerous government officials, decision makers, and royal advisers of Morocco have been from Salé. Salé people, the Slawis, have always had a "tribal" sense of belonging, a sense of pride that developed into a feeling of superiority towards the ""berranis"", i.e. Outsiders.

Subdivisions.

The prefecture is divided administratively into the following:

Climate.

Salé features a Mediterranean climate ("Csa") with warm to hot dry summers and mild damp winters. Located along the Atlantic Ocean, Salé has a mild, temperate climate, shifting from cool in winter to warm days in the summer months. The nights are always cool (or cold in winter, it can reach Sub sometimes), with daytime temperatures generally rising about +7/8 C° (+15/18 F°). The winter highs typically reach only in December–February. Summer daytime highs usually hover around, but may occasionally exceed, especially during heat waves. Summer nights are usually pleasant and cool, ranging between and and rarely exceeding. Rabat belongs to the sub-humid bioclimatic zone with an average annual precipitation of 560 mm.  Salé's climate resembles the southwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula and the coast of SoCal.

Modern city.

Recent developments, including the new bridge connecting to Rabat, the new Rabat-Salé tramway, marina and coastal development demonstrate government investment. Private development companies such as Emaar Properties are also investing in the area. High unemployment used to be a serious issue to the Salé area, with the numerous textile factories located in this area being the only real source of work, this is recently diversing into other areas such as international call centres, electronics and recently a new "techno park" was opened, which was modeled on the Casablanca techno centre success.  Water supply and wastewater collection in Salé was irregular, with poorer and illegal housing units suffering the highest costs and most acute scarcities. Much of the city used to rely upon communal standpipes, which were often shut down, depriving some neighbourhoods of safe drinking water for indefinite periods of time. Nevertheless, Salé fared better than inland Moroccan locations, where water scarcity was even more acute. Improvements from the government, local businesses and the water distribution companies of "Regie de distribution d'Eau & d'Electricite de Rabat-Salé" (REDAL) have meant that this situation has improved drastically.

Sports.

In December 2017, AS Salé became Africa's basketball club Champion. It was the first continental crown in the club's history.  The A.S.S. is the football club of the city, and the president is Abderrahmane Chokri.

Transport.

Air.

Salé's main airport is Rabat–Salé Airport, it's located in Salé also serving Rabat the capital city of Morocco

Trains.

Salé is served by two principal railway stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF. These stations are Salé-Tabriquet and Salé-City.  Salé-Ville is the main inter-city station, from which trains run south to Rabat, Casablanca, Marrakech and El Jadida, north to Tanger, or east to Meknes, Fes, Taza and Oujda.

Tram.

The Rabat-Salé tramway is a tram system which was put into service on May 23, 2011 in the Moroccan cities of Rabat and Salé. The network has two lines for a total length of and 31 stops. It is operated by Veolia Transdev with Alstom Citadis trams.

In popular culture.

The film "Black Hawk Down" was partially filmed in Salé, in particular the wide angle aerial shots with helicopters flying down the coastline.  The character Robinson Crusoe, in Daniel Defoe's novel by the same name, spends time in captivity of the local pirates, the Salé Rovers, and at last sails off to liberty from the mouth of the Salé river.

Salé (;, Berber ⵙⵍⴰ "Sla") is a city in north-western Morocco, on the right bank of the Bou Regreg river, opposite the national capital Rabat, for which it serves as a commuter town. Founded in about 1030 by Arabic-speaking Berbers, the Banu Ifran, it later became a haven for pirates in the 17th century as an independent republic before being incorporated into Alaouite Morocco.

Salé (en ; en ) est une ville et commune du Maroc, chef-lieu de la préfecture de Salé, au sein de la région de Rabat-Salé-Kénitra. Elle est située au bord de l'océan Atlantique, sur la rive droite (nord) de l'embouchure du Bouregreg, en face de la capitale nationale Rabat. Ceci explique que les deux villes soient parfois qualifiées de « villes jumelles », mais chacune dispose de ses traditions et de son histoire propres. En 2014, la commune comptait. Salé est reliée à Rabat par plusieurs ponts dont le pont Hassan II est le plus utilisé.


Plot.

Gomez Addams laments the 25-year absence of his brother Fester, who disappeared after the two had a falling-out. Gomez's lawyer Tully Alford owes money to loan shark/con artist Abigail Craven, and notices that her adopted son Gordon closely resembles Fester. Tully proposes that Gordon pose as Fester to infiltrate the Addams household and find the hidden vault where they keep their vast riches. Tully and his wife Margaret attend a séance at the Addams home led by Grandmama in which the family tries to contact Fester's spirit. Gordon arrives, posing as Fester, while Abigail poses as a German psychiatrist named Dr. Greta Pinder-Schloss and tells the family that Fester had been lost in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 25 years.  Gomez, overjoyed to have Fester back, takes him to the family vault to view home movies from their childhood. Gordon learns the reason for the brothers' falling-out: Gomez was jealous of Fester's success with women, and wooed the conjoined twins Flora and Fauna Amor away from him out of envy. Gomez starts to suspect that "Fester" is an impostor when he is unable to recall important details about their past. Gordon attempts to return to the vault, but is unable to get past a booby trap. Gomez's wife Morticia reminds "Fester" of the importance of family among the Addamses and of their vengeance against those who cross them. Fearing that the family is getting wise to their con, Abigail (under the guise of Dr. Pinder-Schloss) convinces Gomez that his suspicions are due to displacement.  Gordon grows closer to the Addams family, particularly the children Wednesday and Pugsley, whom he helps to prepare a swordplay sequence for a school play. Abigail had insisted that Gordon not attend the play, but after feeling deeply saddened by this, he attends anyway. After the play, Dr. Pinder-Schloss insists that Fester must once again leave, so the Addamses throw a large party with their extended family and friends, during which Abigail plans to break into the vault. Wednesday overhears Abigail and Gordon discussing the plan, and escapes them by hiding in the family cemetery. Tully learns that as the elder brother, Fester is the executor of the Addams estate and therefore technically owns the entire property. With help from the Addamses' neighbor Judge George Womack, whom Gomez has repeatedly infuriated by hitting golf balls into his house, Tully procures a restraining order against the family, banning them from the estate. Gomez attempts to fight the order in court, but Judge Womack rules against him out of spite.  While Abigail, Gordon, and Tully try repeatedly and unsuccessfully to get past the booby trap blocking access to the vault, the Addams family is forced to move into a motel and find jobs. Morticia tries to be a preschool teacher, Wednesday and Pugsley sell toxic lemonade, and Thing—the family's animate disembodied hand—becomes a courier. Despondent, Gomez sinks into depression and lethargy.  Morticia returns to the Addams home to confront Fester and is captured by Abigail and Tully, who torture her in an attempt to learn how to access the vault. Thing observes this and informs Gomez using Morse code; Gomez gathers the family and rushes to Morticia's rescue. Abigail threatens Morticia's life if Gomez does not surrender the family fortune. Fed up with his mother's behavior and constant berating, Gordon turns against her. Using a magical book which projects its contents into reality, he unleashes a hurricane into the house, which strikes his own head with lightning and launches Tully and Abigail out of a window and into open graves dug for them by Wednesday and Pugsley.  The lightning strike restores Gordon's memory, and it turns out he was Fester all along, suffering amnesia after being lost in the Bermuda Triangle and turning up in Miami, where Abigail took him in. The family enthusiastically welcomes him back into the Addams household on Halloween. With the family whole again as they play "Wake the Dead," Morticia informs Gomez that she is pregnant.

Cast.

Barry Sonnenfeld makes an uncredited cameo as a passenger on Gomez' train.

Production.

Pre-production.

Scott Rudin, a development executive at 20th Century Fox, pitched to the studio an adaptation of Charles Addams' "The Addams Family" comic strips, and the studio enthusiastically agreed that the comics would make a good film, and set out to purchase the rights. However, Fox would ultimately not make the film, as Orion Pictures, who owned the film rights to "The Addams Family", would not sell the property, as they were planning on producing a rebooted TV series. Further crucial property rights were owned by Charles Addams' widow. Another difficulty in getting the film produced was the obscurity of "The Addams Family" 1964 TV series, as the show had not achieved the syndicated popularity of the similarly-toned comedy "The Munsters". However, production finally moved forward when Addams' widow sold the remaining rights to Orion, who put the film in production with Rudin producing.

Casting.

Anjelica Huston said she based aspects of her performance on her friend Jerry Hall to give the character more warmth. Huston said she would have expected the role to go to Cher but was a longtime fan of Morticia.

Writing.

Caroline Thompson and Larry Wilson wrote the first draft of the screenplay, which was extensively rewritten later by other writers, including Paul Rudnick, who later wrote "Addams Family Values". In a 2012 interview, Sonnenfeld stated that he originally intended that it be unclear whether Fester really was an imposter or not, but all the other actors rebelled and chose 10-year-old Christina Ricci to speak on their behalf, who "gave this really impassioned plea that Fester shouldn't be an imposter... so we ended up totally changing that plot point to make the actors happy. And they were right — it was the better way to go."

Special effects.

Makeup and animatronic effects for the film were handled by Tony Gardner and his company Alterian, Inc.

Filming.

After Tim Burton passed on directing the film, Barry Sonnenfeld took the job. His first directing job after previously serving as director of photography for several major films, Sonnenfeld experienced much stress during filming. Most of the film was shot on Stage 3/8 at the Hollywood Center Studios in Los Angeles, the same studio where the original TV series was filmed. In the last three months of production, director of photography Owen Roizman quit, and was replaced by Gale Tattersall. Filming resumed, but within weeks Tattersall was rushed to the hospital, halting production while Sonnenfeld took over cinematography, while simultaneously directing the film. Further delays occurred when a blood vessel in actor Raul Julia's eye burst, leading the production to film around Julia until he recovered, and Sonnenfeld's wife became sick, halting production.  In her 2014 memoir "Watch Me", Anjelica Huston described the filming of the "Addams Family" as "long and arduous." It was decided that the character of Morticia should have eyes which slanted upwards at the sides, an effect which was achieved by attaching an elastic strap to the back of Huston's head via fabric tabs glued at her temples, which pulled the corners of her eyes upwards. A second strap was added to balance the appearance of the lower part of her face with the upper. The bands caused extended discomfort to Huston, and, unless she removed them at lunchtime, she would suffer severe headaches and rashes later in the day. Removing the bands for a break entailed hours of extra work in both removing and then re-applying her makeup and wig. On top of this, the bands would snap at the slightest turn of Huston's head, causing yet more grueling repair time. Eventually, she learned to pivot and turn on her feet without moving her upper body or head. According to Huston, actress Judith Malina's way of enduring being "embedded in latex for over twelve hours a day" was to "smoke an endless series of joints in her trailer throughout filming."  Another production difficulty was the financial decline of original production studio Orion Pictures, who, while having recently made the big hits "The Silence of the Lambs" and "Dances with Wolves", had also produced several major flops which ate up the studios' funds, leading Orion to sell "The Addams Family", while still in production, to Paramount Pictures. In exchange, Paramount would own the domestic rights, as Orion had pre-sold the foreign rights to Columbia. Part of Orion's motivation to sell the film was that the film, originally budgeted at $25 million, had gone $5 million over budget due to newly added material as a result of the film's numerous rewrites. With the projected release date competing with Steven Spielberg's "Hook", Orion feared that "The Addams Family" would be another expensive flop, and decided to cut its losses. Ultimately, "The Addams Family" was not only a nationwide hit, but it performed significantly better than "Hook" at the box office. As the sale occurred late in production, the filmmakers were unaware that Paramount had taken over production, learning of the sale from a journalist rather than either of the studios.

Musical score.

"The Addams Family Soundtrack" was produced by Hummie Mann and Marc Shaiman. It was orchestrated by Hummie Mann and composed by Duke Ellington, Irving Mills, Marc Shaiman and Saxie Dowell. It was released on December 3, 1991 by Capitol Records. "Addams Groove" by MC Hammer was the theme song for the movie and the music video was played prior to the film.

Post-production.

The film was further shaped by test screenings. The Mamushka sequence, a musical dance number, was significantly longer in the original cut, but was shortened following negative responses from test audiences.

Release.

Another obstacle in releasing the film occurred when, as the studios prepared the film for release, David Levy, the producer of the 1964 Addams Family TV series, filed a lawsuit against Paramount Pictures, claiming that the film infringed on his property rights. The suit was eventually settled out of court, after the film's release, due to Paramount wanting to quickly film a sequel due to the film's success.

Box office.

"The Addams Family" grossed $113,502,246 in the United States and $191,502,246 worldwide, turning a "Fievel Goes West" significant profit against the $30 million production costs.

Home media.

In 2014, Den of Geek reported that the ownership issues surrounding the film (with domestic rights being handled by Paramount and foreign being held by Orion's successor-in-interest MGM), kept the film out of print overseas after its initial VHS release, and would not be resolved until 2013. In 1993, McDonald's sold low-cost, exclusive VHS editions of "The Addams Family" and "Wayne's World" to coincide with the theatrical releases of "Addams Family Values" and "Wayne's World 2", as part of an exclusive distribution deal with Paramount Home Entertainment. Paramount Home Entertainment released the film on DVD in 2000; this release contained only two trailers as bonus features. The movie was reissued in a double feature with "Addams Family Values" in 2006. On September 9, 2014, Warner Home Video released the film on Blu-ray in the United States; Twentieth Century Fox Home Entertainment (through Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment) (under license from MGM) also released the film on Blu-Ray internationally. On October 1, 2019, Paramount Pictures released a double-feature Blu-ray of "The Addams Family" and "Addams Family Values", along with single releases of each film.

Reception.

Critical response.

While "The Addams Family" was a box office hit, it received mixed reviews. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 64% based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 5.78/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "The movie is peppered with amusing sight gags and one-liners, but the disjointed script doesn't cohere into a successful whole." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 57 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B. Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying it was mildly entertaining but did not add up to much. Jonathan Rosenbaum of the "Chicago Reader" called the film a "collection of one-liners and not much more". "Variety" magazine wrote, "Despite inspired casting and nifty visual trappings, the eagerly awaited "Addams Family" figures a major disappointment."

Accolades.

"The Addams Family" was awarded "Best Horror Film of the Year" in 1991 by the Horror Hall of Fame. Carel Struycken appeared at the award ceremony to receive the award on behalf of the cast. Huston was nominated for the 1992 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for her performance as Morticia. Additionally, the pinball machine based on the film is the best-selling and the highest produced pinball machine of all time. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for achievement in costume design. The film won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song for the song "Addams Groove" by MC Hammer.

In other media.

Television.

A documentary, "The Making of The Addams Family", was produced to promote the film in 1991.

Video game.

A game based on the film was released for various handheld and home computer platforms.

Pinball machine.

The Addams Family pinball machine was a commercial arcade pinball machine made by Bally/Williams and was released in March 1992. It became the best selling pinball machine of all time, with more than 20,000 units sold.

The Addams Family is a 1991 American supernatural black comedy film based on the characters from the cartoon created by cartoonist Charles Addams and the 1964 TV series produced by David Levy. Directed by former cinematographer Barry Sonnenfeld in his screen directing debut, the film stars Anjelica Huston, who was nominated for a Golden Globe for her performance as Morticia Addams, Raul Julia as Gomez Addams, and Christopher Lloyd as Uncle Fester. The film focuses on a bizarre, macabre, aristocratic family who reconnect with who they believe to be a long-lost relative, Gomez's brother Fester Addams, who is actually the adopted son of a loan shark intending to swindle the Addams clan out of their vast wealth and fortune.

La Famille Addams ("The Addams Family") est un film américain réalisé par Barry Sonnenfeld, sorti en 1991. Il s'agit d'une adaptation cinématographique des personnages de bandes dessinées créés par Charles Addams et popularisés par la série télévisée du même nom de 1964.


Musical approach.

An extension of the jazz field, jazz-funk exhibits several distinctive characteristics.  A first is the departure from ternary rhythm (near-triplet), i.e. the "swing" (see swing rhythm), to the more danceable and unfamiliar binary rhythm, known as the "groove". Hence this new jazz with funk, a genre that created this groovy rhythm, which was played by James Brown's funky drummers Clyde Stubblefield and John "Jabo" Starks.  A second characteristic of jazz-funk music was the use of electric instruments, such as the Rhodes Piano or the electric bass guitar, particularly in jazz fusion (or electro-jazz), and the first use of analogue electronic instruments notably by Herbie Hancock, whose jazz-funk period saw him surrounded on stage or in the studio by several Moog synthesizers. The ARP Odyssey(synthe), ARP String Ensemble(synthe) and Hohner D6 Clavinet also became popular at the time.  A third feature is the shift of proportions between composition and improvisation. Arrangements, melody, and overall writing were heavily emphasised. In a nutshell this is a departure from funky jazz and free jazz back to the street funk movement of the era.

Ambivalence towards the genre.

At its conception, the jazz-funk genre was occasionally looked down upon by jazz hard-liners as a sell-out, or "jazz for the dancehalls." It was unsubstantially presumed by these to be not intellectual or elite enough, which led to controversy about the music crossing over, but it was making jazz much more popular and mainstream.  The jazz-funk (as well as a proportion of the jazz) community absorbed the street sound of the funk rhythm, which gave the genre a dance-able rhythm and gained influences from the electric and some new analog electronic sound of fusion.  From a jazz perspective, the ambivalence towards the jazz-funk genre arose – despite commercial success – because it was "too jazzy" and therefore too complex. Arrangements and instrumental tracks in pop or R&B music requires less initiation and allows the lead singer to relate to the audience, but jazz-funk was more focused on specific notes and overall music writing, so it seldom offered this same interaction with the audience.  Disdained by a part of the jazz community and its inability to top the pop charts, jazz-funk had a long hard time to establish itself. In the UK's nightclubs of the mid to late 1970s, DJs like Colin Curtis in Manchester, Birmingham's Graham Warr and Shaun Williams, and Leeds-based Ian Dewhirst and Paul Schofield championed the genre, along with Chris Hill and Bob Jones in the South.  In the late 1980s, the work of rare groove crate diggers–DJs in England who were interested in looking back into the past and re-discovering old tunes, such as Norman Jay and Gilles Peterson and hip hop DJ's such as Marley Marl in the US, have both the jazz community and the pop professionals beginning to understand the value of the genre. Eddie Henderson, Donald Byrd and Herbie Hancock are seldom challenged as major influences on jazz. The Mizell Brothers have received official accolades from the industry and are being listened to widely. Their work has also been sampled in more modern music.  It is also worth noting that the more famous acid jazz movement is often seen as a rediscovery of 1970s jazz-funk, interpreted or produced by contemporary artists of the 1990s. One of the most blatant examples is the band US3, who were signed to Acid Jazz Records founded by Peterson and Eddie Piller. US3 covered Cantaloupe Island, originally recorded by Herbie Hancock, and reissue of rare grooves from the era, led by DJ Peterson and Patrick Forge in the United Kingdom.  Examples of artists that explored jazz-funk, soul jazz, or jazz rock are Miles Davis, Jimmy Smith (1972), Herbie Mann, The Headhunters, Herbie Hancock, Funk Inc., Lalo Schifrin("Enter the Dragon"), Pleasure, Quincy Jones("GetaWay","Stuff Like That"), Michael Henderson, Monk Higgins, David Axelrod, Sun Ra, Roy Ayers, Gary Bartz NTU Troop, Gil Scott-Heron, The Brecker Bros., Tom Browne, Ramsey Lewis, Hubert Laws, the Mizell Brothers, Billy Cobham, Last Poets, T.S.Monk, The Crusaders, Deodato, George Duke, Victor Wooten, Charles Earland, Johnny Hammond, Paul Humphrey, Kool & The Gang, Rebirth Brass Band, Mass Production, Brass Construction, The Average White Band, Light of the World, Patrice Rushen, Bill Summers, Tower of Power, Soul Rebels Brass Band, Miroslav Vitous, Dexter Wansel, Buddy Rich, and Leon Ware.  Herbie Hancock was dedicated to jazz-funk on some albums including "Head Hunters", "Thrust", and "Flood" albums. Post jazz-funk era, later in the early 1980s, he threw electronic influences into the jazz-funk mix when he created "Future Shock" album.  The genre is also widely incorporated and sampled in R&B and hip hop, with a number of the aforementioned artists' works appearing as loops within these recordings.

Role of producers.

Many mainstream artists in jazz used the talents of a few producers who were specialists in the genre and generated great commercial success. The Mizell Brothers - Larry and Fonce - were responsible for a lot of the jazz-funk wave as they single-handedly produced many of the major jazz-funk artists (Donald Byrd, Johnny "Hammond" Smith, Gary Bartz, and more).  Other producers included Dexter Wansel, Bob James and Dave Grusin, generally acclaimed musicians (especially arrangers) themselves who tried their hand at sound-engineer, arranger, or composer. The Mizell Brothers produced most of Byrd's and Johnny "Hammond" Smith's jazz-funk. It was typically during this era - the mid-1970s - that the producers gained their arms and paved the way for others later, such as super R&B producers Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards from Chic in the early 1980s.

Focus on the UK.

While the vast majority of jazz-funk bands are American, several British jazz-funk artists and bands emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s who broke away from the disco and commercial scene, encouraged by club DJs like Chris Hill, Robbie Vincent who was then on BBC Radio London, and Greg Edwards who had a Saturday evening show on London's first ever commercial radio station Capital Radio, and Norman Jay. This type of music was also heavily played on Europe's first soul radio station, Radio Invicta. The first of these self-contained bands to establish a real UK identity was Light of the World formed by Breeze McKrieth, Kenny Wellington, Jean-Paul 'Bluey' Maunick, Paul 'Tubbs' Williams, Peter Hinds and David Baptiste. Offshoots of the band also formed Beggar & Co and Incognito.

Jazz-funk today.

Some heavy producers (Jazzanova), some of whom are trained in classical music and jazz, are taking the elements of jazz-funk and using them in the full-electronic and computer assisted era. These movements are called nu jazz, and broken beat and are however heavily dominated not by instrumentalists, but rather by DJs.  Yet some (including those quoted) are outstanding achieved arrangers and producers, heavily influenced by jazz-funk, and therefore full musicians taking the jazz-funk genre into the 21st Century. The hard-liners will without a doubt complain again about the movement which often does not use session musicians, but uses computers to play some of the music. The more open-to-change liners will call this notes, rhythms, arrangements, improvisation, harmony, production, melodies, themes, and therefore composition, writing and jazz just the same. The UK (e.g. Mike Holland), Germany (e.g. Jazzanova), and Japan (e.g. Kyoto Jazz Massive) dominate today's production of broken beat which is however starting to take-off in the USA.

Jazz-funk is a subgenre of jazz music characterized by a strong back beat (groove), electrified sounds and an early prevalence of analog synthesizers. The integration of funk, soul, and R&B music and styles into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is quite wide and ranges from strong jazz improvisation to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz riffs, and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.

Le jazz-funk est le style musical apparu aux États-Unis dans les années 1960 et dans la lignée du hard bop, en général purement instrumental, mêlant la structure des morceaux de jazz (thème, succession de solos, thème) avec les rythmes syncopés et l'instrumentation du funk (percussions et batterie électroniques, piano électrique Fender Rhodes ou Wurlitzer, orgue Hammond B3, synthétiseurs analogiques Mellotron, ARP Odyssey, Oberheim, Moog ou Hohner D6 Clavinet, cuivres, basse électrique, parfois guitare électrique comme chez ) et des effets d'instrumentation très employés tels le "slap" à la basse électrique ou l'usage de cordes frottées au synthétiseurs.