Description.

The garfish is a long and slender fish with a laterally compressed body, and grows to about in length. The jaws are elongated and armed with sharp teeth. The pectoral, dorsal, and anal fins are situated well back on the body and the latter two are similar in appearance. Positioning the fins so far back gives greater flexibility to the body. The lateral line is set low on the flanks. The colour of the body is bluish green with a silvery grey belly and the bones are green.

Behaviour.

Garfish are pelagic fish which live close to the water surface. They eat small fish and have a migratory pattern similar to that of the mackerel, arriving a short time before the latter to spawn. Their association with mackerel has led to some older common names such as "mackerel guide" and "mackerel guardian". They move into shallow waters in April and May and spawn in areas with eelgrass in May and June. In the autumn, they return to the open sea, including the Atlantic west of Ireland and Great Britain. Garfish are oviparous and the eggs are often found attached to objects in the water by tendrils on the egg's surface. Spawning occurs in May and June among seagrass beds with the long sticky tendrils on the chorion adhereing to the blades of the sea grasses. The juveniles remain in shallower waters until such time as they attain sexual maturity.  The garfish is a predator which hunts in the open sea seeking out shoals of small fish such as Atlantic herring, sprats, sand eels, and even three-spined sticklebacks. They also feed on free-swimming crustaceans. They frequently forage near to the shore and will hunt in and around natural or manmade features which interrupt tidal flows.

Subspecies.

The following subspecies of "Belone belone" have been recognised:  "B.b. euxini" is treated as a valid species "Belone euxini" by FishBase while other authorities treat "B.B. acus" as the species "Belone acus", which is synonymous with "B.b. gracilis".

Use as food.

Garfish are sometimes caught as bycatch, mainly in fixed nets along the coast in shallow waters. If caught with rod and line, they tend to leap out of the water when hooked. Garfish are eaten boiled, fried, baked, grilled, or smoked. They have unusual green bones (due to the presence of biliverdin) which discourages many people from eating them, but the green colour is harmless.

The garfish ("Belone belone"), also known as the garpike or sea needle, is a pelagic, oceanodromous needlefish found in brackish and marine waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean and the Mediterranean, Caribbean, Black, and Baltic Seas.

L'Orphie, Poisson cornu, Aiguillette ou Aiguille de mer (Belone belone) est une espèce de poissons d'eau de mer ou saumâtre du genre "Belone", famille des Belonidae, ordre des Béloniformes.


Revolt.

According to Ctesias, who is not especially reliable but is often our only source, Amytis, wife of Megabyzus and daughter of Xerxes, was accused of adultery shortly afterwards. As such, Megabyzus took part in the conspiracy of Artabanus to assassinate the emperor, but betrayed him before he could kill the new emperor Artaxerxes as well. In a battle, Artabanus' sons were killed and Megabyzus was wounded, but Amytis interceded on his behalf and he was cured.

Egyptian campaign.

After this Megabyzus became satrap of Syria. Together with Artabazus, satrap of Phrygia, he had command of the Persian armies sent to put down the revolt of Inarus in Egypt. They arrived in 456 BC, and within two years had put down the revolt, capturing Inarus and various Athenians supporting him.

Origin of the Egyptian campaign.

When Xerxes I was assassinated in 465 BCE, he was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I, but several parts of the Achaemenid empire soon revolted, foremost of which were Bactria and Egypt. The Egyptian Inarus defeated the Persian satrap of Egypt Achaemenes, a brother of Artaxerxes, and took control of Lower Egypt. He contacted the Greeks, who were also officially still at war with Persia, and in 460 BCE, Athens sent an expeditionary force of 200 ships and 6000 heavy infantry to support Inarus. The Egyptian and Athenian troops defeated the local Persian troops of Egypt, and captured the city of Memphis, except for the Persian citadel which they besieged for several years.

Siege of Memphis (459-455 BCE).

The Athenians and Egyptians had settled down to besiege the local Persian troops in Egypt, at the White Castle. The siege evidently did not progress well, and probably lasted for at least four years, since Thucydides says that their whole expedition lasted 6 years, and of this time the final 18 months was occupied with the Siege of Prosoptis.  According to Thucydides, at first Artaxerxes sent Megabazus to try and bribe the Spartans into invading Attica, to draw off the Athenian forces from Egypt. When this failed, he instead assembled a large army under Megabyzus, and dispatched it to Egypt. Diodorus has more or less the same story, with more detail; after the attempt at bribery failed, Artaxerxes put Megabyzus and Artabazus in charge of 300,000 men, with instructions to quell the revolt. They went first from Persia to Cilicia and gathered a fleet of 300 triremes from the Cilicians, Phoenicians and Cypriots, and spent a year training their men. Then they finally headed to Egypt. Modern estimates, however, place the number of Persian troops at the considerably lower figure of 25,000 men given that it would have been highly impractical to deprive the already strained satrapies of any more man power than that. Thucydides does not mention Artabazus, who is reported by Herodotus to have taken part in the second Persian invasion; Diodorus may be mistaken about his presence in this campaign. It is clearly possible that the Persian forces did spend some prolonged time in training, since it took four years for them to respond to the Egyptian victory at Pampremis. Although neither author gives many details, it is clear that when Megabyzus finally arrived in Egypt, he was able to quickly lift the Siege of Memphis, defeating the Egyptians in battle, and driving the Athenians from Memphis.

Siege of Prosopitis (455 BCE).

The Athenians now fell back to the island of Prosopitis in the Nile delta, where their ships were moored. There, Megabyzus laid siege to them for 18 months, until finally he was able to drain the river from around the island by digging canals, thus "joining the island to the mainland". In Thucydides's account the Persians then crossed over to the former island, and captured it. Only a few of the Athenian force, marching through Libya to Cyrene survived to return to Athens. In Diodorus's version, however, the draining of the river prompted the Egyptians (whom Thucydides does not mention) to defect and surrender to the Persians. The Persians, not wanting to sustain heavy casualties in attacking the Athenians, instead allowed them to depart freely to Cyrene, whence they returned to Athens. Since the defeat of the Egyptian expedition caused a genuine panic in Athens, including the relocation of the Delian treasury to Athens, Thucydides's version is probably more likely to be correct.

Cyprus campaign.

They then turned their attention to Cyprus, which was under attack by the Athenians, led by Cimon. Shortly afterwards hostilities between Persia and Athens ceased, called the peace of Callias.

Revolt.

Some time later Megabyzus himself revolted. Ctesias tells us the reason was that Amestris had the captives from the Egyptian revolt executed, though Megabyzus had given his word that they would not be harmed.  Armies under Usiris of Egypt and then prince Menostanes, a nephew of the king, were sent against him, both foregoing battle for (non-fatal) duels between the generals, and in both cases Megabyzus was victorious. The king resolved to send his brother Artarius, the eunuch Artoxares and Amytis in a peace embassy. His honour restored, Megabyzus agreed to surrender and was pardoned, retaining his position. Some time later, Megabyzus saved Artaxerxes from a lion in a hunt and was subsequently exiled to Cyrtae for violating the royal prerogative to make the first kill, but he returned to Susa by pretending to be a leper and was pardoned.  Megabyzus died shortly afterwards, at age 76. His son Zopyrus II is known to have lived as an exile in Athens, and aided in its assault on Caunus during his father's exile, where he was killed by a rock.

Megabyzus (, a folk-etymological alteration of Old Persian Bagabuxša, meaning "God saved") was an Achaemenid Persian general, son of Zopyrus, satrap of Babylonia, and grandson of Megabyzus I, one of the seven conspirators who had put Darius I on the throne. His father was killed when the satrapy rebelled in 482 BCE, and Megabyzus led the forces that recaptured the city, after which the statue of the god Marduk was destroyed to prevent future revolts. Megabyzus subsequently took part in the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BCE). Herodotus claims that he refused to act on orders to pillage Delphi, but it is doubtful such orders were ever given.

Mégabaze est l'un des deux généraux perses de Xerxès I avec Préxaspe, qui dirige l'aile droite de la flotte battue par Thémistocle à la bataille de Salamine en 480 av. J.-C..


Definition.

Let be an integral domain. A Euclidean function on is a function from } to the non-negative integers satisfying the following fundamental division-with-remainder property:  A Euclidean domain is an integral domain which can be endowed with at least one Euclidean function. It is important to note that a particular Euclidean function is "not" part of the structure of a Euclidean domain; in general, a Euclidean domain will admit many different Euclidean functions.  Most algebra texts require a Euclidean function to have the following additional property:  However, one can show that (EF1) alone suffices to define a Euclidean domain, since any domain which can be endowed with a function satisfying (EF1) can also be endowed with a proper Euclidean function; that is, a function satisfying (EF1) and (EF2). Indeed, for }, one can define as follows:  In words, one may define to be the minimum value attained by on the set of all non-zero elements of the principal ideal generated by.  A multiplicative Euclidean function is a Euclidean function such that and is never zero. It follows that. More generally, if and only if is a unit.

Notes on the definition.

Many authors use other terms in place of "Euclidean function", such as "degree function", "valuation function", "gauge function" or "norm function". Some authors also require the domain of the Euclidean function to be the entire ring ; however this does not essentially affect the definition, since (EF1) does not involve the value of. The definition is sometimes generalized by allowing the Euclidean function to take its values in any well-ordered set; this weakening does not affect the most important implications of the Euclidean property.  The property (EF1) can be restated as follows: for any principal ideal of with nonzero generator, all nonzero classes of the quotient ring have a representative with. Since the possible values of are well-ordered, this property can be established by proving that for any with minimal value of in its class. Note that, for a Euclidean function that is so established, there need not exist an effective method to determine and in (EF1).

Examples.

Examples of Euclidean domains include:  Examples of domains that are "not" Euclidean domains include:

Properties.

Let "R" be a domain and "f" a Euclidean function on "R". Then:  However, in many finite extensions of Q with trivial class group, the ring of integers is Euclidean (not necessarily with respect to the absolute value of the field norm; see below). Assuming the extended Riemann hypothesis, if "K" is a finite extension of Q and the ring of integers of "K" is a PID with an infinite number of units, then the ring of integers is Euclidean. In particular this applies to the case of totally real quadratic number fields with trivial class group. In addition (and without assuming ERH), if the field "K" is a Galois extension of Q, has trivial class group and unit rank strictly greater than three, then the ring of integers is Euclidean. An immediate corollary of this is that if the number field is Galois over Q, its class group is trivial and the extension has degree greater than 8 then the ring of integers is necessarily Euclidean.

Norm-Euclidean fields.

Algebraic number fields "K" come with a canonical norm function on them: the absolute value of the field norm "N" that takes an algebraic element "α" to the product of all the conjugates of "α". This norm maps the ring of integers of a number field "K", say "O", to the nonnegative rational integers, so it is a candidate to be a Euclidean norm on this ring. If this norm satisfies the axioms of a Euclidean function then the number field "K" is called "norm-Euclidean" or simply "Euclidean". Strictly speaking it is the ring of integers that is Euclidean since fields are trivially Euclidean domains, but the terminology is standard.  If a field is not norm-Euclidean then that does not mean the ring of integers is not Euclidean, just that the field norm does not satisfy the axioms of a Euclidean function. In fact, the rings of integers of number fields may be divided in several classes:  The norm-Euclidean quadratic fields have been fully classified; they are formula_8, where "d" takes the values  Every Euclidean imaginary quadratic field is norm-Euclidean and is one of the five first fields in the preceding list.

In mathematics, more specifically in ring theory, a Euclidean domain (also called a Euclidean ring) is an integral domain that can be endowed with a Euclidean function which allows a suitable generalization of the Euclidean division of the integers. This generalized Euclidean algorithm can be put to many of the same uses as Euclid's original algorithm in the ring of integers: in any Euclidean domain, one can apply the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of any two elements. In particular, the greatest common divisor of any two elements exists and can be written as a linear combination of them (Bézout's identity). Also every ideal in a Euclidean domain is principal, which implies a suitable generalization of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic: every Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain.

En mathématiques et plus précisément en algèbre, dans le cadre de la théorie des anneaux, un anneau euclidien est un type particulier d'anneau commutatif intègre (voir aussi l'article anneau euclidien non commutatif).


History.

Early history (1853–1900).

Washington University was conceived by 17 St. Louis business, political, and religious leaders concerned by the lack of institutions of higher learning in the Midwest. Missouri State Senator Wayman Crow and Unitarian minister William Greenleaf Eliot, grandfather of the poet T.S. Eliot, led the effort.  The university's first chancellor was Joseph Gibson Hoyt. Crow secured the university charter from the Missouri General Assembly in 1853, and Eliot was named President of the Board of Trustees. Early on, Eliot solicited support from members of the local business community, including John O'Fallon, but Eliot

Modern era (1900–1955).

Washington University spent its first half century in downtown St. Louis bounded by Washington Ave., Lucas Place, and Locust Street. By the 1890s, owing to the dramatic expansion of the Manual School and a new benefactor in Robert Brookings, the university began to move west. The university board of directors began a process to find suitable ground and hired the landscape architecture firm Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot of Boston. A committee of Robert S. Brookings, Henry Ware Eliot, and William Huse found a site of just beyond Forest Park, located west of the city limits in St. Louis County. The elevation of the land

Recent history (1955–present).

During the latter half of the 20th century, Washington University transitioned from a strong regional university to a national research institution. In 1957, planning began for the construction of the "South 40," a complex of modern residential halls which primarily house Freshmen and some Sophomore students. With the additional on-campus housing, Washington University, which had been predominantly a "streetcar college" of commuter students, began to attract a more national pool of applicants. By 1964, over two-thirds of incoming students came from outside the

U.S. presidential and vice-presidential debates.

Washington University has been selected by the Commission on Presidential Debates to host more presidential and vice-presidential debates than any other institution in history. United States presidential election debates were held at the Washington University Athletic Complex in 1992, 2000, 2004, and 2016. A presidential debate was planned to occur in 1996, but owing to scheduling difficulties between the candidates, the debate was canceled. The university hosted the only 2008 vice presidential debate, between Republican Sarah Palin and Democrat Joe Biden, on October 2, 2008, also at the Washington University

Rankings and reputation.

Washington University's undergraduate program is ranked 19th in the nation in the 2020 "U.S. News & World Report" National Universities ranking, and 11th by "The Wall Street Journal" in their 2018 rankings. The university is ranked 22nd in the world for 2019 by the "Academic Ranking of World Universities". Undergraduate admission to Washington University is characterized by the Carnegie Foundation and "U.S. News & World Report" as "most selective". The "Princeton Review", in its 2020 edition, gave the university an admissions selectivity rating of 98 out of 99. The acceptance rate for the class of 2024 (those entering in the fall of 2020) was 12.8%, with students selected from more than 27,900 applications. Of students admitted, 92 percent were in the top 10 percent of their class."The Princeton Review" ranked Washington University 1st for "best college dorms", and 3rd for "best college food", "best-run colleges", and "best financial aid" in its 2020 edition. "Niche" ranked the university as the #1 best college for architecture, and #2 best college campus in the United States in 2020. The

Geography and campuses.

Danforth Campus.

The main, or Danforth Campus (formerly known as the Hilltop Campus) is mostly between Forest Park Parkway, Wydown Boulevard, North Big Bend Boulevard, and North Skinker Boulevard.  Although the school includes "St. Louis" in its name, the majority of the school's main campus (including Brookings Hall) is located in unincorporated St. Louis County and suburban Clayton.  Danforth Campus includes  In 2019, a $360 million renovation project, the "East End Transformation", was unveiled on the Danforth Campus, building on the original 1895 campus plan by Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot. The project included the creation of the Gary M. Sumers Welcome Center, which now houses

Medical Campus.

Washington University Medical Center comprises spread over approximately 12 city blocks, located along the eastern edge of Forest Park within the Central West End neighborhood of St. Louis. The campus is home to the Washington University School of Medicine and its associated teaching hospitals, Barnes-Jewish Hospital and St. Louis Children's Hospital. Many of the buildings are connected via a series of skyways and corridors.  The School's 2,100 employed and volunteer faculty physicians also serve as the medical staff of Barnes-Jewish and St. Louis Children's hospitals, which are part of BJC HealthCare. Washington University and BJC have taken

North and West Campuses.

Washington University's North Campus and West Campus principally house administrative functions that are not student focused. North Campus lies in St. Louis City near the Delmar Loop. The university acquired the building and adjacent property in 2004, formerly home to the Angelica Uniform Factory. Several university administrative departments are located at the North Campus location, including offices for Quadrangle Housing, Accounting and Treasury Services, Parking and Transportation Services, Army ROTC, and Network Technology Services. The North Campus location also provides off-site storage space for the Performing arts Department. Renovations are still ongoing; recent additions to the North Campus space include a small eatery operated by Bon Appétit Management Company, the university's on-campus food provider, completed during spring semester 2007, as well as

Tyson Research Center.

Tyson Research Center is a field station located west of St. Louis on the Meramec River. Washington University obtained Tyson as surplus property from the federal government in 1963. It is used

Academics.

Arts and Sciences.

Arts & Sciences at Washington University comprises three divisions: the College of Arts & Sciences, the Graduate School of Arts &

Business.

Founded as the School of Commerce and Finance in 1917, the Olin Business School was named after entrepreneur John M. Olin in 1988. The school's academic programs include BSBA, MBA, Professional MBA (PMBA), Executive MBA (EMBA), MS in Finance, MS in Supply Chain Management, MS in Customer Analytics, Master of Accounting, Global Master of Finance Dual Degree program, and Doctorate programs, as well as non-degree Executive Education. In 2002, an Executive MBA program was established in Shanghai, in cooperation with Fudan University.  Olin has a network of more than 16,000 alumni worldwide. Over the last several years, the school's endowment has increased to $213 million

School of Design and Visual Arts.

The Sam Fox School of Design & Visual Arts was created in 2005 by merging the existing Colleges of Art and Architecture. The School comprises: Architecture offers BS and BA degrees as well as MArch and MUD. There is a combined six-year BS and MArch degree program as well as joint MArch programs with most of the other schools in the university. The Graduate School of Architecture and Urban design was ranked 5th in the nation by the journal "DesignIntelligence" in its 2008 edition of "America's Best Architecture & Design Schools."  Art offers the BFA and MFA

McKelvey School of Engineering.

The McKelvey School of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis (WashU Engineering) is a school with 88 tenured and tenure-track professors, 40 additional full-time faculty, 1,300 undergraduate students, 560 master's students, 380 PhD students, and more than 20,000 alumni. Aaron Bobick serves as dean of the school.  With approximately $27 million in annual research awards, the school focuses intellectual efforts on medicine and health,

School of Law.

Washington University School of Law offers joint-degree programs with the Olin Business School, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Medicine, and the School of Social Work. It also offers an LLM in Intellectual Property and Technology Law, an LLM in Taxation, an LLM in US Law for Foreign Lawyers, a Master of Juridical

Medicine.

The Washington University School of Medicine was founded in 1891. In the 2021 "U.S. News & World Report" rankings of U.S. medical schools, it was ranked 6th for research and tied for 31st for primary care. The McDonnell Genome Institute (directed by Richard K. Wilson) is housed within the Washington

Social Work and Public Health.

With roots dating back to 1909 in the university's School of Social Economy, the George Warren Brown School of Social Work (commonly called GWB, the Brown School, or Brown) was founded in 1925. Brown's academic degree offerings include a Master of Social Work (MSW), a Master of Public Health (MPH), a PhD in Social Work, and

Former dental school.

Founded as the Missouri Dental College in 1866, the Washington University School of Dental Medicine

Museums and library system.

With 14 libraries, the Washington University library system is the largest in the state of Missouri, containing over 4.2 million volumes. The main library, Olin Library, is centrally located on the Danforth Campus. In 2020, the Princeton Review ranked the Olin Library among the top 10 "Best College Libraries" in the United States. Other libraries in the system include:  The Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum, established in 1881, is

Research, research centers, and institutes.

Virtually all faculty members at Washington University engage in academic research, offering opportunities for both undergraduate and graduate students across the university's seven schools. Known for its interdisciplinarity and departmental collaboration, many of Washington University's research centers and institutes are collaborative efforts between many areas on campus. More than 60% of undergraduates are involved in faculty research across all areas; it is an institutional priority for undergraduates to be allowed to participate in advanced research. According to the Center for Measuring University Performance, it is considered to be one of the top 10 private research universities in the nation. A dedicated Office of Undergraduate Research is located on the Danforth Campus and serves as a resource to post research opportunities, advise students in finding appropriate positions matching their interests, publish undergraduate research journals, and award research grants to make it financially possible to perform research.  During fiscal year 2007, $537.5 million was received in total research support, including $444 million in federal obligations. The university has over 150 National Institutes of Health funded inventions, with many of them licensed to private companies. Governmental agencies and non-profit foundations such as the NIH, United States Department of Defense, National Science Foundation, and NASA provide the majority of research grant funding, with Washington University being one of the top

Campus life.

Student organizations.

Washington University has over 300 undergraduate student organizations on campus. Most are funded by the Washington University Student Union, which, as of fiscal year 2020, has an annual budget of $3.6 million that is completely student-controlled and is one of the largest student government budgets in the country. Known as SU for short, the Student Union sponsors large-scale campus programs including WILD (a semesterly concert in the quad) and free copies of the "New York Times", "USA Today", and the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" through The Collegiate Readership Program; it also funds the campus television station, WUTV, and the radio station, KWUR. KWUR was named best radio station in St. Louis of 2003 by the Riverfront Times despite the fact that its signal reaches only a few blocks beyond the boundaries of the campus. There are 11 fraternities and 9 sororities, with approximately 35% of the student body being involved in Greek life. The Congress of the South 40 (CS40) is a Residential Life and Events Programming Board, which operates outside of the SU sphere. CS40's funding comes from the Housing Activities Fee of each student living on the South 40.  Many of these organizations and other campus life amenities are housed in the $43 million Danforth University Center on the Danforth Campus, also dedicated in honor

Greek life.

Washington University has eleven fraternities and nine sororities on campus. Approximately 45% of women and 30% of men participate

Residences.

Washington University is number one on the Princeton Review's "Best College Dorms" list for 2020.  Over 50% of undergraduate students live on campus. Most of the residence halls on campus are located on the South 40, named because of its adjacent location on the south side of the Danforth Campus and its size of. It is the location of all the freshman buildings as well as several sophomore buildings, which are set up in the traditional residential college system. All of the residential halls are co-ed. The dormitories on the South 40 have grown national recognition for their large size and large number of amenities. The South 40 is organized as a pedestrian-friendly environment wherein residences surround a central recreational lawn known as the Swamp. Bear's Den (the

Student media.

Washington University supports four major student-run media outlets. The university's student newspaper, "Student Life", is available for students. KWUR (90.3 FM) serves as the students' official radio station; the station also attracts an audience in the immediately surrounding community due to its eclectic and free-form musical programming.

Athletics.

Washington University's sports teams are called the Bears. They are members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and participate in the University Athletic Association at the Division III level. The Bears have won 19 NCAA Division III Championships— one in women's cross country (2011), one in men's tennis (2008), two in men's basketball (2008, 2009), five in women's basketball (1998–2001, 2010), and ten in women's volleyball (1989, 1991–1996, 2003, 2007, 2009) – and 144 UAA titles in 15 different sports. The Athletic Department was headed by John Schael for 34 years, who served as director of athletics in the period 1978–2014. The 2000 Division III Central Region winner of the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics/Continental Airlines Athletics Director of the Year award, Schael helped orchestrate the Bears athletics transformation into one of the top departments in Division III. Schael was succeeded by Josh Whitman, 2014–2016. The department is now led by Anthony J. Azama.  Washington University also has an extensive club sports program, with teams ranging from men's volleyball to women's Ultimate Frisbee. The

Washington University in St. Louis (WashU, or WUSTL) is a private research university in Greater St. Louis with its main campus (Danforth) mostly in unincorporated St. Louis County, Missouri and Clayton, Missouri. It also has a West Campus in Clayton, North Campus in the West End neighborhood of St. Louis, Missouri, and Medical Campus in the Central West End neighborhood of St. Louis, Missouri.

L'université Washington de Saint-Louis ("Washington University in St. Louis", en anglais) est une université américaine fondée il y a plus de 160 ans en 1853.


History.

In March 1881, at the request of state senator Reginaldo Francisco del Valle, the California State Legislature authorized the creation of a southern branch of the California State Normal School (now San José State University) in downtown Los Angeles to train teachers for the growing population of Southern California. The Los Angeles branch of the California State Normal School opened on August 29, 1882, on what is now the site of the Central Library of the Los Angeles Public Library system. The facility included an elementary school where teachers-in-training could practice their technique with children. That elementary school is related to the present day UCLA Lab School. In 1887, the branch campus became independent and changed its name to Los Angeles State Normal School.  In 1914, the school moved to a new campus on Vermont Avenue (now the site of Los Angeles City College) in East Hollywood. In 1917, UC Regent Edward Augustus Dickson, the only regent representing the Southland at the time, and Ernest Carroll Moore, Director of the Normal School, began to lobby the State Legislature to enable the school to become the second University of California campus, after UC Berkeley. They met resistance from UC Berkeley alumni, Northern California members of the state legislature, and Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University of California from 1899 to 1919, who were all vigorously opposed to the idea of a southern campus. However, David Prescott Barrows, the new President of the University of California, did not share Wheeler's objections.  On May 23, 1919, the Southern Californians' efforts were rewarded when Governor William D. Stephens signed Assembly Bill 626 into law, which acquired the land and buildings and transformed the Los Angeles Normal School into the Southern Branch of the University of California. The same legislation added its general undergraduate program, the College of Letters and Science. The Southern Branch campus opened on September 15 of that year, offering two-year undergraduate programs to 250 Letters and Science students and 1,250 students in the Teachers College, under Moore's continued direction.  Under University of California President William Wallace Campbell, enrollment at the Southern Branch expanded so rapidly that by the mid-1920s the institution was outgrowing the 25 acre Vermont Avenue location. The Regents searched for a new location and announced their selection of the so-called "Beverly Site"—just west of Beverly Hills—on March 21, 1925, edging out the panoramic hills of the still-empty Palos Verdes Peninsula. After the athletic teams entered the Pacific Coast conference in 1926, the Southern Branch student council adopted the nickname "Bruins", a name offered by the student council at UC Berkeley. In 1927, the Regents renamed the Southern Branch the University of California at Los Angeles (the word "at" was officially replaced by a comma in 1958, in line with other UC campuses). In the same year, the state broke ground in Westwood on land sold for $1 million, less than one-third its value, by real estate developers Edwin and Harold Janss, for whom the Janss Steps are named. The campus in Westwood opened to students in 1929.  The original four buildings were the College Library (now Powell Library), Royce Hall, the Physics-Biology Building (which became the Humanities Building and is now the Renee and David Kaplan Hall), and the Chemistry Building (now Haines Hall), arrayed around a quadrangular courtyard on the 400 acre (1.6 km) campus. The first undergraduate classes on the new campus were held in 1929 with 5,500 students. After lobbying by alumni, faculty, administration and community leaders, UCLA was permitted to award the master's degree in 1933, and the doctorate in 1936, against continued resistance from UC Berkeley.

Campus.

The new UCLA campus in 1929 had four buildings: Royce Hall and Haines Hall on the north, and Powell Library and Kinsey Hall (now called Renee And David Kaplan Hall) on the south. The Janss Steps were the original 87-step entrance to the university that lead to the quad of these four buildings. Today, the campus includes 163 buildings across 419 acres (1.7 km) in the western part of Los Angeles, north of the Westwood shopping district and just south of Sunset Boulevard. In terms of acreage, it is the second-smallest of the ten UC campuses. The campus is approximately 1 mile east of the I-405 San Diego Freeway.  The campus is in the residential area of Westwood and bordered by Bel-Air to the north, Beverly Hills to the east, and Brentwood to the west. The campus is informally divided into North Campus and South Campus, which are both on the eastern half of the university's land. North Campus is the original campus core; its buildings are more traditional in appearance and clad in imported Italian brick. North Campus is home to the arts, humanities, social sciences, law, history, and business programs and is centered around ficus and sycamore-lined Dickson Court, also known as the "Sunken Garden". South Campus is home to the physical sciences, life sciences, engineering, mathematical sciences, health-related fields, and the UCLA Medical Center. The campus includes sculpture gardens, fountains, museums, and a mix of architectural styles.  Ackerman Union, the John Wooden Center, the Arthur Ashe Health and Wellness Center, the Student Activities Center, Kerckhoff Hall, the J.D. Morgan Center, the James West Alumni Center, and Pauley Pavilion stand at the center of the campus, bordering Wilson Plaza. The campus is bisected by Bruin Walk, a heavily traveled pathway from the residential hill to the main campus. At the intersection of Bruin Walk and Westwood Plaza is Bruin Plaza, featuring an outdoor performing arts stage and a bronze statue of the Bruin bear.  During the 2028 Summer Olympics, wrestling and judo will be held at Pauley Pavilion. The campus will also be the location of the Olympic Village for the Olympic and Paralympic Games.

Architecture.

The first buildings were designed by the local firm Allison & Allison. The Romanesque Revival style of these first four structures remained the predominant building style until the 1950s, when architect Welton Becket was hired to supervise the expansion of the campus over the next two decades. Becket greatly streamlined its general appearance, adding several rows of minimalist, slab–shaped brick buildings to the southern half, the largest of these being the UCLA Medical Center. Architects such as A. Quincy Jones, William Pereira, and Paul Williams designed many subsequent structures on the campus during the mid-20th century. More recent additions include buildings designed by architects I.M. Pei, Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates, Richard Meier, Cesar Pelli, and Rafael Vinoly. To accommodate UCLA's rapidly growing student population, multiple construction and renovation projects are in progress,

Filming.

UCLA has attracted filmmakers for decades with its proximity to Hollywood. Much of the film "Gotcha!" (1985) was shot at UCLA, as well as John Singleton's "Higher Learning" (1995). "Legally Blonde" (2001), "Old School" (2003), "The Nutty Professor" (1995), "Erin Brockovich" (2000), "How High" (2001), "National Lampoon's Van Wilder" (2002), "American Pie 2" (2001), and "Bring It On Again" (2004) were all mainly shot around campus. In January 2009, the Bollywood movie "My Name is Khan" (2010) was shot on campus. UCLA is also often

Transportation and parking.

The campus maintains 24,000 parking spaces, and operates an award-winning sustainable transportation program. Elements of the sustainable transportation program include vanpools, a campus shuttle system called BruinBus, discounted carpool permits, and subsidized transit passes.

Academics.

Healthcare.

The David Geffen School of Medicine, School of Nursing, School of Dentistry and Fielding School of Public Health constitute the professional schools of health science.  The UCLA Health System operates the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, a hospital in Santa Monica and twelve primary care clinics throughout Los Angeles County. In addition, the UCLA David Geffen School of Medicine uses two Los Angeles County public hospitals as teaching hospitals—Harbor–UCLA Medical Center and Olive View–UCLA Medical Center—as well as the largest private nonprofit hospital on the west coast, Cedars-Sinai Medical

Rankings.

Global.

The "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" for 2017–2018 ranks UCLA 15th in the world for academics, No.1 US Public University for academics, and 13th in the world for reputation. In 2019, it ranked 14th among the universities around the world by "SCImago Institutions Rankings". UCLA was ranked 33rd in the "QS World University Rankings" in 2017 and 12th in the world (10th in North America) by the "Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU)" in 2017. In 2017, the Center for World

National.

The 2018 "U.S. News & World Report" Best Colleges report ranked UCLA first (tie) among public universities. "The Washington Monthly" ranked UCLA 8th among national universities in 2016, with criteria based on research, community service, and social mobility. The "Money Magazine" Best Colleges ranking for 2015 ranked UCLA 26th in the United States, based on educational quality, affordability and alumni earnings. In 2014, "The Daily Beast"s Best Colleges report ranked UCLA 10th in the country. The "Kiplinger" Best College Values report for 2015 ranked

Graduate school.

, the "U.S. News & World Report" Best Graduate Schools report ranked the Graduate School of Education and Information Studies (GSEIS) 11th, the Anderson School of Management 15th, the David Geffen School of Medicine tied for 6th for Primary Care and 14th for Research, the School of Law 17th, the Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science (HSSEAS) tied for 14th, the Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health 19th, and the School of Nursing 12th. The QS Global 200 MBA Rankings report for 2015 ranks the Anderson School of Management 9th among North American business schools. The 2014 "Economist" ranking of Full-time MBA programs ranks

Departmental.

Departments ranked in the national top ten by the 2016 "U.S. News & World Report" Best Graduate Schools report are Clinical Psychology (1st), Fine Arts (2nd), Psychology (2nd), Medical School: Primary Care (6th), Math (7th), History (9th), Sociology (9th), English (10th), Political Science (10th), and Public Health (10th).  Departments ranked in the global top ten by the 2016 "U.S. News & World Report" Best Global Universities report

Academic field.

Academic field rankings in the global top ten according to the "Academic Ranking of World Universities" (ARWU) for 2015 are Clinical Medicine and Pharmacy (10th).  Academic field rankings in the global top ten according to the "Times

Student body.

The Institute of International Education ranked UCLA the American university with the seventh-most international students in 2016 (behind NYU, USC, Arizona State, Columbia University, The University of Illinois, and Northeastern University). In 2014, "Business Insider" ranked UCLA 5th in the world for the number of alumni working at Google (behind Stanford, Berkeley, Carnegie Mellon, and MIT). In 2015, "Business Insider" ranked UCLA 10th among American universities with the most students hired by Silicon Valley companies. In 2015, research firm PitchBook ranked UCLA 9th in the world for venture capital raised by undergraduate alumni, and 11th in the world for producing the most MBA graduate alumni who are entrepreneurs backed by venture capital.

Library system.

UCLA's library system has over nine million books and 70,000 serials spread over twelve libraries and eleven other archives, reading rooms, and research centers. It is the United States' 12th largest library in number of volumes.  The first library, University Library (presently Powell Library), was founded in 1884. In 1910, Elizabeth Fargo became the university's first librarian. Lawrence Powell became librarian in 1944, and began

Medical school admissions.

According to the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), UCLA supplies the most undergraduate applicants to U.S. medical schools among all American universities. In 2015, UCLA supplied 961

Admissions.

Undergraduate.

"U.S. News & World Report" rates UCLA "Most Selective" and The Princeton Review rates its admissions selectivity of 97 out of 99. 102,242 prospective freshmen applied for Fall 2017, the most of any four-year university in the United States.  Admission rates vary according to the residency of applicants. For Fall 2019, California residents had an admission rate of 12.0%, while out-of-state U.S. residents had an admission rate of 16.4% and internationals had an admission rate of 8.4%. UCLA's overall freshman admit rate for the Fall 2019 term was 12.3%.  Enrolled freshman for Fall 2019 had an unweighted GPA of 3.90, an SAT interquartile range of 1280–1510, and an ACT interquartile range of 27–34. The SAT

Graduate.

For Fall 2014, the David Geffen School of Medicine admitted 3.2% of its applicants, making it the 9th most selective U.S. medical school. The School of Law had a median undergraduate GPA of 3.74 and median Law School Admission Test (LSAT) score of 166 for the enrolled class of 2018. The Anderson School of Management had a middle-80% GPA

Economic impact.

The university has a significant impact in the Los Angeles economy. It is the fifth largest employer in the county (after Los Angeles County, the Los Angeles Unified School District, the federal government and the City of Los Angeles) and the seventh largest in the region.

Trademarks and licensing.

The UCLA trademark "is the exclusive property of the Regents of the University of California", but it is managed, protected, and licensed through UCLA Trademarks and Licensing, a division of the Associated Students UCLA, the largest student employer on campus. As such, the ASUCLA also has a share in the profits.  Due to UCLA's academic and athletic prestige, as well as the name, being

Commerce on campus.

UCLA has various store locations around campus, with the main store in Ackerman Union. In addition, UCLA-themed products are sold at the gift shop of Fowler Museum on campus.  Due to licensing and trademarks, products with UCLA logos and insignia are usually higher priced than their unlicensed counterparts. These products

Athletics.

The school's sports teams are called the Bruins, represented by the colors true blue and gold. The Bruins participate in NCAA Division I as part of the Pac-12 Conference. Two notable sports facilities serve as home venues for UCLA sports. The Bruin men's football team plays home games at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena; the team won a national title in 1954. The basketball and volleyball teams, and the women's gymnastics team compete at Pauley Pavilion on campus. The school also sponsors cross country, soccer, women's rowing, golf, tennis, water polo, track and field, and women's softball.  The mascots are Joe and Josephine Bruin, and the fight songs are "Sons of Westwood" and "Mighty Bruins". The alma mater is "Hail to the Hills of Westwood".  When Henry "Red" Sanders came to UCLA to coach football in 1949, the uniforms were redesigned. Sanders added a gold loop on the shoulders—the UCLA Stripe. The navy blue was changed to a lighter shade of blue. Sanders figured that the baby blue would look better on the field and in film. He dubbed the uniform "Powder Keg Blue", a powder blue with an explosive kick. This would also differentiate UCLA from all other UC teams, whose official colors are blue and gold.  UCLA competes in all major Division I sports and has won 128 national championships, including 118 NCAA championships. Only Stanford University has more NCAA team championships, with 126. On April 21, 2018, UCLA's women's gymnastics team defeated Oklahoma Sooners to win its 7th NCAA National Championship as well as UCLA's 115th overall team title. Most recently, UCLA's women's soccer team defeated Florida State to win its first NCAA National Championship along with women's tennis who defeated North Carolina to win its second NCAA National title ever. UCLA's softball program is also outstanding. Women's softball won their NCAA-leading 12th National Championship, on June 4, 2019. The women's water polo team is also dominant, with a record 7 NCAA championships. Notably, the team helped UCLA become the first school to win 100 NCAA championships overall when they won their fifth on May 13, 2007.  The men's water polo team won UCLA's 112th, 113th, and 114th national championships, defeating USC in the championship game three times: on December 7, 2014, on December 6, 2015, and on December 3, 2017. On October 9, 2016, the top-ranked men's water polo team broke the NCAA record for consecutive wins when they defeated UC Davis for their 52nd straight win. This toppled Stanford's previous record of 51 consecutive wins set in 1985–87. The men's water polo team has become a dominant sport on campus with a total of 11 national championships.  Among UCLA's 118 championship titles, some of the more notable victories are in men's basketball. Under legendary coach John Wooden, UCLA men's basketball teams won 10 NCAA championships, including a record seven consecutive, in 1964, 1965, 1967–1973, and 1975, and an 11th was added under then-coach Jim Harrick in 1995 (through 2008, the most consecutive by any other team is two). From 1971 to 1974, UCLA men's basketball won an unprecedented 88 consecutive games. UCLA has also shown dominance in men's volleyball, with 19 national championships. All 19 teams were led by former coach Al Scates, which ties him with John McDonnell of the University of Arkansas as NCAA leader for national championships in a single sport.  Former UCLA basketball player and former NBA player Earl Watson commented, "Eleven national championships, the best coach (Wooden) to coach the game says a lot. I take offense to those who act like UCLA is just another school compared with Duke. Duke is a great school in the east, but UCLA is worldwide."  UCLA is one of only six universities (Michigan, Stanford, Ohio State, California, and Florida being the others) to have won national championships in all three major men's sports (baseball, basketball, and football).

Student life.

The campus is located near prominent entertainment venues such as the Getty Center, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) and the Santa Monica Pier. UCLA offers classical orchestras, intramural sports, and over 800 student organizations. UCLA is also home to more than 70 fraternities and sororities, which represent 13% of the undergraduate population. Phrateres, a non-exclusive social-service club for women was founded here in 1924 by the Dean of Women, Helen Matthewson Laughlin. Students and staff participate in dinghy sailing, surfing, windsurfing, rowing, and kayaking at the UCLA Marina Aquatic Center in Marina del Rey.  UCLA's first contemporary a cappella group, Awaken A Cappella, was founded in 1992. The all-male group, Bruin Harmony, has enjoyed a successful career since its inception in 2006, portraying a collegiate a cappella group in "The Social Network" (2010), while the ScatterTones finished in second-place in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella in 2011–2013. Other a cappella groups include Signature, Random Voices, Medleys, YOUTHphonics, Resonance, Deviant Voices, Awechords and Cadenza. YOUTHphonics and Medleys are UCLA's only nonprofit service-oriented a cappella groups.  There are also a variety of cultural organizations on campus, such as Nikkei Student Union (NSU), Japanese Student Association (JSA), Association of Chinese Americans (ACA), Chinese Students and Scholars Association (CSSA), Chinese Music Ensemble (CME), Chinese Cultural Dance Club (CCDC), Taiwanese American Union (TAU), Taiwanese Student Association (TSA), Hong Kong Student Society (HKSS), Hanoolim Korean Cultural Awareness Group, Samahang Pilipino, Vietnamese Student Union (VSU), and Thai Smakom. Many of these organizations have an annual "culture night" consisting of drama and dance which raises awareness of culture and history to the campus and community.  UCLA operates on a quarter calendar with the exception of the UCLA School of Law and the UCLA School of Medicine, which operate on a semester calendar.

Greek life.

There are more than 65 inter/national and local Greek-letter organizations at UCLA in six governing councils; Asian Greek Council (AGC), Interfraternity Greek Council (IFC), Latinx Greek Council (LGC), Multi-Interest Greek Council (MIGC), National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), and Panhellenic Council (Panhel). Approximately 3,800 undergraduate students

Traditions.

UCLA's official charity is UniCamp, founded in 1934. It is a week-long summer camp for under-served children from the greater Los Angeles area, with UCLA volunteer counselors. UniCamp runs for seven weeks throughout the summer at Camp River Glen in the San Bernardino National Forest. Because UniCamp is a non-profit organization, student volunteers from UCLA also fundraise money throughout the year to allow these children to attend summer camp.  True Bruin Welcome begins the fall quarter to introduce new students to clubs and activities. The week includes the Day of Service for all freshmen, the Enormous Activities Fair, and the Sports Fair. At the end of

Student government.

The Associated Students UCLA (ASUCLA) encompasses the student government and student-led enterprises at UCLA. ASUCLA has four major components: the Undergraduate Students Association, the Graduate Students Association, Student Media, and Services & Enterprises. However, in common practice, the term ASUCLA refers to the services and enterprises component. This includes the Student Store, Bookstore, Food Services, Student Union, etc. These commercial enterprises generate approximately $40 million in annual revenues. As a nonprofit corporation, the financial goal of ASUCLA is to provide quality services and programs for students. ASUCLA is governed by a student-majority Board of Directors. The Undergraduate Students Association and Graduate Students Association each appoint three members plus one alternative. In addition to the student members, there are representatives appointed by the administration, the academic senate, and the alumni association. The "services and enterprises" portion of ASUCLA is run by a professional executive director who oversees some 300 staff and 2,000 student employees.  The Graduate Students Association is the governing body for approximately 13,000 graduate and professional students at UCLA.  The Undergraduate Students Association Council (USAC) is the governing body of the Undergraduate Students Association (USA) whose membership

Media publications.

UCLA Student Media is the home of UCLA's newspaper, magazines, and radio station. Most student media publications are governed by the ASUCLA Communications Board.  The "Daily Bruin" is UCLA's most prominent student publication. Founded in 1919 under the name "Cub Californian", it has since then developed into Los Angeles' third-most circulated newspaper. It has won dozens of national awards, and is regularly commended for layout and content. In 2016, the paper won two National Pacemaker Awards – one for the best college newspaper in the country, and another for

Housing.

UCLA provides housing to over 10,000 undergraduate and 2,900 graduate students.  Most undergraduate students are housed in 14 complexes on the western side of campus, referred to by students as "The Hill". Students can live in halls, plazas, suites, or university apartments, which vary in pricing and privacy. Housing plans also offer students access to dining facilities, which have been ranked by the "Princeton Review" as some of the best in the United States. Dining halls are located in Covel Commons, Rieber Hall, Carnesale Commons and De Neve Plaza. In winter 2012, a dining hall called The Feast at Rieber opened to students. The newest dining hall (as of Winter Quarter 2014) is Bruin Plate, located in the Carnesale Commons (commonly referred

Hospitality.

Hospitality constituents of the university include departments not directly related to student life or administration. The Hospitality department manages the university's two on-campus hotels, the UCLA Guest House and the Meyer and Renee Luskin Conference

Chabad House.

The UCLA Chabad House is a community center for Jewish students operated by the Orthodox Jewish Chabad movement. Established in 1969, it was the first Chabad House at a university. In 1980, three students died in a fire in the original building of

Healthy Campus Initiative.

In January 2013, Chancellor Gene Block launched the UCLA Healthy Campus Initiative (HCI), envisioned and supported by Jane and Terry Semel. The Semel HCI prioritizes the health and wellness of UCLA students, staff, and faculty by "making the healthy choice the easy choice." The goal of the initiative is to make UCLA the healthiest campus in the country, and to share best practices and research with other communities, locally and beyond.  The initiative is a campuswide, multi-year effort that champions programs such as the tobacco-free policy, expansion of campus gardens, stairwell makeovers,

Faculty and alumni.

24 Nobel laureates are associated with UCLA: 10 professors, 7 alumni and 10 researchers.  Two other faculty members winning the Nobel Prize were Bertrand Russell and Al Gore, who each had a short stay at UCLA.  The alumni Nobel laureates include Richard Heck (Chemistry, 2010); Elinor Ostrom (Economic Sciences, 2009); and Randy Schekman (Physiology or Medicine, 2013). Fifty-two UCLA professors have been awarded Guggenheim Fellowships, and eleven are MacArthur Foundation Fellows. Mathematics professor Terence Tao was awarded the 2006 Fields Medal.  Geography professor Jared Diamond won the 1998 Pulitzer Prize for his book "Guns, Germs, and Steel". Two UCLA history professors have each won 2008 Pulitzer Prizes for general nonfiction and history. Saul Friedländer, noted scholar of the Nazi Holocaust, won the prize for general nonfiction for his 2006 book, "The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945", and Daniel Walker Howe for his 2007 book, "What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848".  A number of UCLA alumni are notable politicians. In the State of Hawaii, Ben Cayetano ('68), became the first Filipino American to be elected Governor of a U.S state. In the U.S. House of Representatives, Henry Waxman ('61, '64) represented California's 30th congressional district and was Chairman of the House Energy and Commerce Committee. U.S. Representative Judy Chu ('74) represents California's 32nd congressional district and became the first Chinese American woman elected to the U.S. Congress in 2009. Kirsten Gillibrand ('91) is U.S. Senator from the State of New York and former U.S. Representative for New York's 20th congressional district. UCLA boasts two Mayors of Los Angeles: Tom Bradley (1937–1940), the city's only African-American mayor, and Antonio Villaraigosa ('77), who served as mayor from 2005 to 2013. Nao Takasugi was the mayor of Oxnard, California and the first Asian-American California assemblyman.  H. R. Haldeman ('48) and John Ehrlichman ('48) are among the most infamous alumni because of their activities during the 1972 Watergate Scandal.  Ben Shapiro (BA '04) is an American conservative political commentator, nationally syndicated columnist, author, radio talk show host, and attorney. He is the editor-in-chief at "The Daily Wire".  Michael Morhaime (BA '90), Allen Adham (BA '90) and Frank Pearce (BA '90) are the founders of Blizzard Entertainment, developer of the award-winning "Warcraft", "StarCraft" and "Diablo" computer game franchises. Tom Anderson (MA '00) is a co-founder of the social networking website Myspace. Computer scientist Vint Cerf ('70, '72) is Vice President and Chief Internet Evangelist at Google and the person most widely considered the "father of the Internet." Henry Samueli ('75) is co-founder of Broadcom Corporation and owner of the Anaheim Ducks. Susan Wojcicki (MBA '98) is the CEO of YouTube. Travis Kalanick is one of the founders of Uber. Guy Kawasaki (MBA '79) is one of the earliest employees at Apple. Nathan Myhrvold is the founder of Microsoft Research.  Bill Gross (MBA '71) co-founded Pacific Investment Management (PIMCO). Laurence Fink (BA '74, MBA '76) is chairman and CEO of the world's largest money-management firm BlackRock. Donald Prell (BA '48) is a venture capitalist and founder of "Datamation" computer magazine. Ben Horowitz (MS '90) is a co-founder of the Silicon Valley venture capital firm Andreessen Horowitz.  UCLA alumni have also achieved prominence in the arts and entertainment. John Williams is laureate conductor at the Boston Pops Orchestra and Academy Award-winning composer of the "Star Wars" film score. Martin Sherwin ('71) was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for "American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer". Actors Ben Stiller, Tim Robbins, James Franco, George Takei, Mayim Bialik, Sean Astin, Holland Roden, Danielle Panabaker, and Milo Ventimiglia are also UCLA alumni. Popular music artists Sara Bareilles, The Doors, Linkin Park, and Maroon 5 all attended UCLA. Ryan Dusick of Maroon 5 majored in English. Giada De Laurentiis is a program host at Food Network and former chef at Spago. Greg Graffin, lead singer of punk rock band Bad Religion, earned a master's degree in Geology at UCLA, and used to teach a course on evolution there. Carol Burnett was the winner of the Mark Twain Prize for American Humor in 2013 (also winner of Emmys, a Peabody and a Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005). Francis Ford Coppola ('67) was the director of the gangster film trilogy "The Godfather", "The Outsiders" starring Tom Cruise, and the Vietnam War film "Apocalypse Now" and Dustin Lance Black is the Academy Award-winning screenwriter of the film "Milk".  Meb Keflezighi ('98) is the winner of the 2014 Boston Marathon and the 2004 Olympic silver medalist in the marathon.  UCLA also boasts an excellent military background, with hundreds of alumni serving their nation. Carlton Skinner was a U.S. Navy Commander who racially integrated the service at the end of World War II on the. He was also the first civilian governor of Guam. Francis B. Wai is, to date, the only Chinese-American and the first Asian-American to be awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for his actions in World War II. UCLA also lost an alumnus in early 2007 when Second Lieutenant Mark Daily was killed in Mosul, Iraq after his HMMWV was hit by an IED. Lieutenant Daily's service is marked by a plaque located on the northern face of the Student Activities Center (SAC), where the ROTC halls are currently located.  UCLA's faculty and alumni have won a number of awards including:, the top three places where UCLA alumni work are Kaiser Permanente with 1,459+ alumni, UCLA Health with 1,127+ alumni, and Google with 1,058+ alumni.

The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public research university in Los Angeles. UCLA traces its early origins back to 1882 as the southern branch of the California State Normal School (now San Jose State University). It became the Southern Branch of the University of California in 1919, making it the second-oldest (after UC Berkeley) of the 10-campus University of California system and oldest of the campuses in Southern California. It offers 337 undergraduate and graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines. UCLA enrolls about 31,500 undergraduate and 12,800 graduate students and had 119,000 applicants for Fall 2016, including transfer applicants, making the school the most applied-to of any American university.

L'université de Californie à Los Angeles (communément désignée par l'acronyme UCLA, ou "University of California, Los Angeles") est une université publique de renommée mondiale pour l'éducation et la recherche située dans le quartier de Westwood à Los Angeles. Avec plus de 40 000 étudiants, c'est le plus important des dix campus de l'Université de Californie en termes de nombre d'étudiants et de professeurs.


Characteristics.

In general form, most spiny rats resemble rats, although they are more closely related to guinea pigs and chinchillas. Most species have stiff, pointed hairs, or spines, that presumably serve for protection from predators.  Many echimyids can break off their tails when attacked. This action may confuse predators long enough for the spiny rat to escape. Unlike the tails of some species of lizards, however, the tails of spiny rats do not regenerate. Therefore, the tactic can only be used once in an individual's lifetime.  Most spiny rats are rare and poorly known, but a few are extremely abundant. Various species are respectively terrestrial, arboreal, or fossorial. In general, the arboreal forms are most rat-like in appearance, whilst the burrowing species are more gopher-like, with stocky bodies and short tails. Most species do poorly in conditions of high heat and aridity and are restricted to regions with abundant water. They are almost exclusively herbivorous.

Systematics.

The current taxonomic content of the family Echimyidae has been reshaped over time, and its organization into coherent units stems from two realizations. The first is that cladistic approaches applied to morphological characters showed that many traits used to define taxa were plesiomorphic or homoplastic. The second realization came from the advent of phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence and protein sequence data with probability methods — maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference — leading to the identification of robust clades and the recognition of higher categorical ranks (see Phylogeny section). The following table recapitulates and compares the taxonomic content of taxa recognized on molecular and traditional basis: the two families Capromyidae and Myocastoridae, the five subfamilies Echimyinae, Euryzygomatomyinae, Capromyinae, Dactylomyinae, Eumysopinae, and the four tribes Echimyini, Myocastorini, Capromyini, and Plagiodontini.

About "Chaetomys".

The bristle-spined rat, "Chaetomys subspinosus", has sometimes been classified in Echimyidae, although traditionally considered a member of the New World porcupine family Erethizontidae. The classification with Echimyidae is supported by similarities in the cheek teeth structure. Like all living caviomorphs except erethizontids, "Chaetomys" seems to lack posterior carotid foramina, and together with all echimyids and in contrast to all other caviomorphs, "Chaetomys" seems to retain the otherwise deciduous premolars (dP4). Some of these characters have been, however, reinterpreted as evidence for affinities between "Chaetomys" and the Erethizontidae. A molecular phylogeny based on the mitochondrial gene coding for cytochrome "b" combined to karyological evidence actually suggests "Chaetomys" is more closely related to the Erethizontidae than to the Echimyidae, although it branches as the sister group to the rest of the Erethizontidae.

Phylogeny.

The phylogenetic tree of the Echimyidae shows a major split between the subfamily Echimyinae and an assemblage containing the Euryzygomatomyinae, "Carterodon", and the Capromyidae. The first major clade contains a majority of arboreal genera (e.g., "Phyllomys", "Dactylomys", and "Mesomys"), a few terrestrial taxa (e.g., "Proechimys"), and a subaquatic one ("Myocastor"). The second major clade includes fossorial genera (e.g., "Euryzygomatomys" or "Carterodon"), a terrestrial one ("Trinomys"), and members inhabiting the Caribbean islands (Capromyidae).

Echimyidae is the family of neotropical spiny rats and their fossil relatives. This is the most species-rich family of hystricognath rodents. It is probably also the most ecologically diverse, with members ranging from fully arboreal to terrestrial to fossorial habits. They presently exist mainly in South America; three members of the family also range into Central America. Species of the extinct subfamily Heteropsomyinae formerly lived on Cuba, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico in the Antilles, probably until the arrival of Europeans. Some authorities consider the nutria from southern and central South America to be a part of this family.

Les Echimyidae sont une famille de rongeurs divisée en sous-familles toutes originaires d'Amérique latine, comprenant des « », terrestres, arboricoles ou aquatiques.


Name.

When the subway opened, it was given the name "Sheppard line" and the official name "4 Sheppard Subway". In October 2013, the TTC announced plans to give the lines official numbers to help riders and visitors navigate the system. The Sheppard line is numbered as Line 4 and new signage reflecting this began being gradually implemented in March 2014. The Toronto Rocket trains also use the numerical system for interchange station announcements, such as announcing "Change for Line 1" when the trains arrive at Sheppard–Yonge station.

History.

Origins.

The TTC proposed the Sheppard Line as part of the Network 2011 transportation plan, unveiled in 1985, which called for a line from Yonge Street to Victoria Park Avenue. The plan was approved by Metropolitan Toronto, but funding was delayed by the provincial government of David Peterson's Liberal Party.  In 1993, the governing New Democratic Party (NDP) under Bob Rae proposed provincial funding for four subway/LRT projects for the TTC. Included in these four proposals were plans to build new subway lines along Eglinton and Sheppard Avenues and work was begun on both projects. The NDP was defeated in the 1995 provincial election, and the Progressive Conservatives under Mike Harris were elected. Harris cancelled the Eglinton subway in York but continued work on the Sheppard Line.  Funding for the Sheppard Line was initially rejected by city council. However, after a number of votes on different alterations to the project (including only building the subway line as far as Leslie Street), the proposal to build the Sheppard Line tunnels only, without tracks, was passed by a narrow margin. After this vote passed city council, a re-vote was taken on the entire Sheppard line project to Don Mills, which then passed by a very narrow margin. James Bow, a Toronto transit reporter, has documented that the political clout of North York Mayor Mel Lastman (he was later elected Mayor of the amalgamated City of Toronto in 1998) was crucial to the Sheppard Line proposal being implemented. Councillor Joe Pantalone strongly supported the line, arguing it was a matter of civic equity and that the suburbs deserved good transit, which would – in his opinion – bring development. David L. Gunn, who was general manager of the TTC, opposed the Sheppard line, saying that it "made no sense to build an expensive new subway when the existing system was strapped for cash to make basic repairs" and "if the city wanted to expand transit, it would be better to do it downtown, easing congestion in the busiest parts of the system".

Completion and opening.

The Sheppard line was opened on November 22, 2002. It was the city's first new subway line since the opening of the Bloor–Danforth line in 1966. It remained the newest subway infrastructure in Toronto for 15 years until the opening of the Toronto–York Spadina Subway Extension in 2017. It is shorter than had been planned, running from Yonge Street (at the former Sheppard station, renamed Sheppard–Yonge when the Sheppard line opened) east to Don Mills Road rather than further west to Downsview station and southeast to Scarborough Centre station. Downsview (renamed Sheppard West in May 2017) had been built in 1996, ostensibly with the intention of being the western terminus of the Sheppard Line prior to the latter's truncation.  The Sheppard line cost just under C$1billion and took eight years to build. It is the first subway line in Canada that had plain tunnel sections built entirely by tunnel boring machine. The Sheppard line is the only subway line in Toronto that does not have any open sections. All stations on the line are in cut-and-cover sections with the expansion of Sheppard station having required an S-shaped diversion of Yonge Street. Just east of Leslie station, there is an enclosed bridge over the east branch of the Don River.  It is the first line to have accessibility elevators at every station. The automated system to announce each stop was installed in January 2006.  Stations are built to accommodate the TTC's standard subway trains of six cars, but part of each platform has been blocked off since only four-car trains are needed to carry the amount of traffic on the line. The line was designed so that it can be extended at both ends, allowing for the construction of the westward and eastward branches that had been planned. Likewise, the Sheppard line level of Sheppard–Yonge station is constructed as a roughed-in Spanish solution station in anticipation of increased ridership.  Platform screen doors were proposed for the Sheppard line. Installed at the edge of the platforms, platform screen doors would align themselves with the subway-car doors when in station for safety and suicide prevention. The system was dropped because of the financial cost.

Rolling stock.

From its opening in November 2002 to May 2016, the line was operated solely with four-car T1 subway trains with two staff members operating the trains – one driver and one guard who operates the doors. On May 30, 2016, new four-car Toronto Rocket (TR) subway trains were introduced on this line. They replaced the older T1 subway trains, which were moved to Line 2 Bloor–Danforth. The TRs are based on Bombardier Transportation's Movia-styled train sets and are the first TTC trains which have no separators between the cars. This allows passengers to walk freely from one end to the other, unlike Toronto's previous subway cars. The change to TR trains was necessary because Line 4 trains are based in Davisville Yard, which is accessed via Line 1 Yonge–University. That line will operate using an automatic train control system, which is scheduled to go online in phases between 2017 and 2020, and the T1 trains are not compatible with this system. Since October 9, 2016, Line 4 is serviced entirely by four-car TR trains, which are operated by one staff member who both drives the train and operates the doors (similar to the model already in place on Line 3 Scarborough).

Residential development.

From its opening in 2002 to 2014, the Sheppard line spurred over $1billion of construction of new housing, including several high-rise condominium towers, along its route as transit-oriented developments. Since 2000, condominium towers have been built around all five stations on the line, with the most new development being centred around Bayview and Bessarion. The Daniels Corporation built a six-tower development, called NY Towers, north of Highway 401 between Bayview and Bessarion; Arc Condominiums on the northeast corner of Bayview/Sheppard; and terraced condos just east of their NY Towers. Shane Baghai built a multi-tower development in the area.  In 2007, the Leslie and Bessarion stations were the least used stations in the system; in 2015, four of twenty planned buildings of Concord Adex Investments' new condominium complex, Concord Park Place, located between these two stations, have been completed. The complex is being developed on the site of a former Canadian Tire warehouse/distribution centre, though Canadian Tire retains a retail location there. There is also development around Swedish furniture chain IKEA in the immediate area.

Ridership.

From late 2002 to 2011, ridership on the Sheppard subway rose from about 10.7million riders annually to a peak of 15.9million. However, in 2014, ridership on the line dropped by five percent to 15.1million. (The TTC does not consider that a statistically significant decline.)  The following list shows the typical number of customer-trips made on the Sheppard subway on an average weekday:  Note: 2017 figures are unavailable.

Station art.

Line 4 features artwork in each station, such as the scenic mural at Sheppard–Yonge station, Bayview station's trompe-l'œil and Leslie station's individual tiles each containing the words "Sheppard & Leslie".

Criticism.

The line has been derided as a "subway to nowhere", a "stubway", or a "white elephant"., the total ridership on the Sheppard subway line is approximately 50,000 per average weekday, similar to a few of the TTC's busiest streetcar and bus routes, though these routes are generally much longer than Sheppard's length. The Sheppard line feeds passengers into the Yonge segment of Line 1 Yonge–University. During the City of Toronto's 2008 budget crisis, the TTC considered shutting the line down on weekends or entirely.  Jarrett Walker, a transportation consultant and the author of the book "Human Transit", says "Sheppard's technology makes it both expensive to abandon and expensive to extend; that's the trap."  Councillor Josh Colle, who chaired the TTC from December 2014 to December 2018, said in May 2015 that, given the existing Sheppard subway's performance, he cannot rationalize spending more money to expand it east from Don Mills or west from Sheppard–Yonge. He estimates that the Sheppard subway receives a subsidy of more than $10 per ride.  According to the "Metro" commuter newspaper, between the opening of the Sheppard line in 2002 and December 2014, there was over $1billion in development along that corridor, much of it in the vicinity of Bayview, Bessarion and Don Mills stations. The latter station has a density suitable for a subway at 10,182 people per square kilometre. Yet, despite this, a majority of commuters along the Sheppard subway drive to work rather than using public transit. According to Royson James of the "Toronto Star", residents in the area are commuting to jobs throughout the Greater Toronto Area where driving is almost always more effective than taking public transit. James states that subways are designed for corridors with four to eight times the ridership along Sheppard.

Future expansion.

Several informal proposals have been made to extend the line in both directions. The original proposal for the Sheppard line was for a major subway line running from Sheppard West station on the University portion of Line 1 to Scarborough Centre station. Instead, funding was only approved for a truncated line with several phased expansions.

Eastward extension.

The TTC considered the eastward extension of the Sheppard line to Scarborough Centre station as one of its top priorities for rapid-transit expansion, which would expand rapid transit in Scarborough for the first time since the completion of Line 3 Scarborough. The eastward extension would include new stations at Consumers Road, Victoria Park Avenue, Warden Avenue, Kennedy Road, Agincourt GO Station, and Progress Avenue, terminating at the existing Scarborough Centre Station on Line 3 Scarborough. The expansion proposal also included the possible addition of a station at Willowdale Avenue between Sheppard–Yonge and Bayview stations on the existing portion of the line.  The TTC estimates that a Sheppard subway to Scarborough Centre would have 7,800 riders per hour while 10,000 per hour is the minimum number of riders per hour considered appropriate for a subway. The maximum capacity of the subway is about 30,000 riders per hour, approximately the load the Yonge line carries in the morning rush.

Westward extension.

A separate westward extension to Sheppard West station considered the creation of stations at Senlac Road, Bathurst Street, and Faywood Boulevard. Lower population density made this expansion a much lower priority, as the minimal increase in ridership was insufficient to justify the costs. The approval of the Spadina subway extension to the Vaughan Metropolitan Centre in York Region renewed interest in this phase, as a subway connection between Sheppard West and Sheppard–Yonge stations would significantly lower commuting times for York University students. The tunnel from Sheppard–Yonge to Welbeck Road (east of Senlac Road) was built for train storage at the time of original construction.  In 2013, this extension was listed as being considered as a "Unfunded Future Rapid Transit Project" in the City of Toronto's "Feeling Congested?" report.

Transit City.

In March 2007, the City of Toronto and the TTC released the Transit City proposal to begin a new round of transit expansion using light rail technology on dedicated rights-of-way instead of subway technology. Under this plan, the Sheppard East subway extension had been replaced by a light rail line running from Don Mills Station along Sheppard Avenue East to Meadowvale Road, where it would meet the northern terminus of an extended Line 3 Scarborough. Under this proposal, there would be no direct connection between North York City Centre and Scarborough City Centre.  In 2009, a westward extension was again considered by the TTC to link the line to Wilson Subway Yard. It was immediately dismissed due to cost.

Rob Ford era.

As a result of the election of Rob Ford as mayor of Toronto in 2010, the western extension of the Sheppard subway to Sheppard West Station and the eastern extension to Scarborough Centre were considered a priority again. Ford indicated in a December 2010 interview with "The Globe and Mail" newspaper that all other transit projects would come second to completing the Sheppard line. Ford stated "I'm just focusing on doing the Sheppard subway underground".  On March 31, 2011, Toronto Mayor Rob Ford announced that the proposed Sheppard East LRT line would be replaced by western and eastern extensions for the Sheppard Subway so that the completed line would run from Sheppard West Station to Scarborough Centre. The Province of Ontario approved this plan, which is estimated to cost $4.2billion. The City of Toronto will assume complete financial responsibility for the project, which is proposed to be funded through a public–private partnership, as well as surplus funds from the proposed Eglinton Crosstown line, if there will be any. Massive redevelopment along the route would be needed to generate these funds, as the current population density and projected ridership is too low to support the cost of the expansion by itself.  Metrolinx estimates that the Sheppard West extension to Sheppard West would be long, add two stations, and cost $1.48billion. The Sheppard East extension would be long, add seven stations, and cost $2.75billion.  Gordon Chong, head of the TTC agency tasked with analyzing the new subway plans, has said it is possible that no new transit development will occur along Sheppard.

Stintz's alternative.

On January 23, 2012, TTC chair Karen Stintz suggested a plan to extend the line two stops eastwards funded by making the eastern portion of Line 5 Eglinton at street level. This motion was defeated by the TTC board. She then got 24 councillors (a majority) to sign a petition calling for a special council meeting for February 8 of that year.  In the meeting, council voted to build the Eglinton project according to the original Transit City plan (partly underground and partly at grade), build an at-grade Finch LRT, and to appoint a panel to recommend whether to pursue the eastward extension of the Sheppard subway or construct the Sheppard East LRT instead. The panel reported back to council on March 31, 2012. At this council meeting, council approved light rail rather than a subway extension for Sheppard. On April 26 of that year, the motion to build the LRT was announced by the Minister of Transportation after being approved unanimously by Metrolinx. The plan still needs to be approved by Ontario's cabinet, though on June 29, 2012, the Board of Directors of Metrolinx unanimously approved the same motion approved by Metrolinx in April.

Tory era and beyond.

During the 2014 Toronto mayoral election, incumbent mayor Rob Ford (and his brother Doug Ford after the prior's withdrawal) were the only major candidates who supported completing the Sheppard Line east to McCowan (phase-one project) and west to Sheppard West station (phase-two project). John Tory, who won the election, did not include anything on the Sheppard corridor in his maps; instead, he favoured SmartTrack. However, he did say that he would proceed with the LRT, although the project would not be a priority for him.  On April 27, 2015, Steven Del Duca, the Ontario Minister of Transportation, said that the LRT project would not start until at least 2021. In July 2016, Toronto City Council approved a one-stop subway extension on Line 2 Bloor–Danforth to Scarborough Centre Station. During this vote, city council also approved putting an extension of Line 4 into Scarborough back into consideration.  In April 2019, Doug Ford, who had since become Premier of Ontario, unveiled a plan for new subways in Toronto, including the new Ontario Line to replace the proposed Relief Line, an extension of Line 1 to Richmond Hill, an eastward extension of Line 2 with new stops, a westward extension of Line 5 Eglinton to Toronto Pearson International Airport and an extension of Line 4 Sheppard east to McCowan Avenue, where it would intersect with the Line 2 extension. However, money was not set aside in the government's budget for the extension.

Service frequency.

The frequency for this line is 5–6 minutes at all times.  On September 4, 2005, an overnight service on Sheppard Avenue East was introduced. The 385 Sheppard East Blue Night bus route provides late-night service when the subway is not in operation with the frequency of 30 minutes. This service terminates at Sheppard–Yonge station and follows Sheppard Avenue to Meadowvale.

Line 4 Sheppard is the newest and shortest subway line of the Toronto subway system, operated by the Toronto Transit Commission (TTC). It opened on November 22, 2002, and has five stations along of track, which is built entirely underground in the district of North York along Sheppard Avenue East between Yonge Street and Don Mills Road. All stations are wheelchair accessible and are decorated with unique public art, such as the scenic mural at and the illusionary trompe-l'œil sketches at. The Government of Ontario has announced plans to extend the line east to Sheppard Avenue and McCowan Road.

La ligne 4, ou ligne Sheppard, est la plus récente et la plus courte du métro de Toronto, entre la station Sheppard-Yonge (sur la ligne Yonge) et. Cette ligne est la seule qui soit entièrement souterraine.


Origins.

In July 1940, after the Fall of France, the pro-German Breton nationalists François Debeauvais and Olier Mordrel called the Congress of Pontivy, at which they created the Breton National Committee to coordinate Breton nationalist projects. The committee decided to found the weekly newspaper "L'Heure Bretonne". The first issue was symbolically dated 14 July (Bastille Day) 1940. The paper was in practice a continuation of the nationalists' earlier journal "Breiz Atao".

Publication.

The newspaper was published in Rennes in the headquarters of the Breton National Committee. 201 issues were published between July 1940 and June 1944. Morvan Lebesque was its first editor, for two months in 1940. He later said he left when it became obvious that the Committee wanted the paper to pursue a pro-Nazi line. He was followed as editor by Jean Merrien, a close associate of Olier Mordrel, who left when Mordrel was ousted from the leadership of the Breton National Party.  By 1942 "L'Heure Bretonne" had a circulation of about 25,000 and employed fifty members of staff at its offices in Rennes.  In August 1940, some nationalists selling "L'Heure Bretonne" were detained at Quimper by the Germans, but after this incident, the paper was published and circulated without problems until June 4, 1944. Its editorial line was consistent with German propaganda. It attacked Jews, leftist "Jacobins" and the English. However, it also attacked the French in general, on behalf of the "Breton race ", and new "Aryan" Europe in which the Bretons would take an active role.

Content.

The content of the newspaper reflects its intransigent separatist politics and repeated challenge to the Vichy government. The newspaper took particular care to avoid offending the German occupying forces. However it did not adopt explicitly Nazi ideological rhetoric, despite its solidarity with Germany's war effort, with weekly articles recounting the exploits of the Wehrmacht in Russia. The attitude of the paper was expressed by former communist Abeozen in November 1940:  I would rather clasp vigorously the hand of the passers-by, singing their conquest song, and stare right into their eyes without the least hatred. Because I have sound reasons for believing that the conquerors of the West will not hinder us in the slightest in the success of our task : to build a New Brittany on the ruins of the old World.  The main themes addressed by the newspaper are the history of Brittany, the misdeeds of Vichy France and a repeated and extreme Anglophobia. It also covered daily life in Brittany, with articles on the peasantry, crafts, modern Breton design, and so on.

Antisemitism.

Following the mass arrest of Jews in Paris known as the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup on 16 and 17 July 1942, "L'Heure Bretonne" published a front page article entitled "À la porte les juifs et les enjuivés" ("Show Jews and the Judaized the Door") under the signature "DR" (No. 105, July 18, 1942).  In the same vein, Job Jaffré, under his pseudonym "Tug", published a denunciation of the bombings committed by the forces of "youtre-Atlantique", a wordplay on ""outre-Atlantique"" ("over the Atlantic") and ""youtre"", a derogatory term for "Jew" (April 1943, No. 142). Later in the same year, he wrote that he expected a "reversal of alliance... when the Jewish problem has been eliminated" (October 1943, No. 171, under the initials St. K.)

L'Heure Bretonne ("The Breton Times") was a Breton nationalist weekly newspaper which was published from June 1940 to June 1944. It was the organ of the Breton National Party and was strongly associated with collaborationist politics during World War II.

L'Heure bretonne est un journal hebdomadaire nationaliste breton qui paraît en format in-plano de juillet 1940 à juin 1944 pendant l'occupation allemande de la Bretagne.