Description.

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a motor scooter is a motorcycle similar to a kick scooter with a seat, a floorboard, and small or low wheels. The US Department of Transportation defines a scooter as a motorcycle that has a platform for the operator's feet or has integrated footrests, and has a step-through architecture.  The classic scooter design features a step-through frame and a flat floorboard for the rider's feet. This design is possible because most scooter engines and drive systems are attached to the rear axle or under the seat. Unlike a conventional motorcycle, in which the engine is mounted on the frame, most modern scooters allow the engine to swing with the rear wheel, while most vintage scooters and some newer retro models have an axle-mounted engine. Modern scooters starting from late-1980s generally use a continuously variable transmission (CVT), while older ones use a manual transmission with the gearshift and clutch control built into the left handlebar.  Scooters usually feature bodywork, including a front leg shield and body that conceals all or most of the mechanicals. There is often some integral storage space, either under the seat, built into the front leg shield, or both. Scooters have varying engine displacements and configurations ranging from 50 cc single-cylinder to 850 cc twin-cylinder models.  Traditionally, scooter wheels are smaller than conventional motorcycle wheels and are made of pressed steel or cast aluminum alloy, bolt on easily, and often are interchangeable between front and rear. Some scooters carry a spare wheel. Many recent scooters use conventional front forks with the front axle fastened at both ends.

Regulatory classification.

Most jurisdictions do not differentiate between scooters and motorcycles. For all legal purposes in the United States of America, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) recommends using the term motorcycle for all of these vehicles. However, while NHTSA excludes the term "motor scooter" from legal definition, it proceeds, in the same document, to give detailed instructions on how to import a small motor scooter.

California.

the US state of California has a highly complex regulatory system for 2- and 3-wheeled vehicles. It classifies vehicles with fewer than four wheels into the following categories:

Emissions.

The emissions of mopeds and scooters have been the subject of multiple studies. Studies have found that two-stroke 50 cc mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emit ten to thirty times more hydrocarbons and particulate emissions than the outdated Euro 3 automobile standards. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, emitted three to eight times more hydrocarbons and particulate emissions than the Euro 3 automobile standards. Approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a g/km basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. the United States Environmental Protection Agency allowed motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds with engine displacements less than 280 cc to emit ten times the NOx and six times the CO than the median Tier II bin 5 automobile regulations. An additional air quality challenge can also arise from the use of moped and scooter transportation over automobiles, as a higher density of two-wheeled vehicles can be supported by existing transportation infrastructure.  In Genoa, the home of the Vespa scooter, 2-stroke engine scooters made before 1999 are banned since 2019.  In some cities, such as Shanghai, petrol scooters/mopeds are banned and only LPG scooters are allowed to be used in the city due to air pollution.

History.

Predecessors.

Scooter-like traits began to develop in motorcycle designs around the 1900s. In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller in Munich, Germany produced the first motorcycle that was available for purchase. Their motorcycle had a step-through frame, with its fuel tank mounted on the down tube, its parallel two-cylinder engine mounted low on the frame, and its cylinders mounted in line with the frame. It was water-cooled and had a radiator built into the top of the rear fender. It became the first mass-produced and publicly sold powered two-wheel vehicle, and among the first powered mainly by its engine rather than foot pedals. Maximum speed was. The rear wheel was driven directly by rods from the pistons in a manner similar to the drive wheels of steam locomotives. Only a few hundred such bikes were built, and the high price and technical difficulties made the venture a financial failure for both Wolfmüller and his financial backer, Hildebrand.  In France, the Auto-Fauteuil was introduced in 1902. This was basically a step-through motorcycle with an armchair instead of a traditional saddle. Production continued until 1922.

First generation (1915–1930).

The Motoped entered production in 1915, and is believed to be the first motor scooter. They were followed that year by the Autoped, whose engine was engaged by pushing the handlebar column forward and whose brake was engaged by pulling the column back. Autopeds were made in Long Island, New York from 1915 to 1921, and were also made under licence by Krupp in Germany from 1919 to 1922, following World War I.  The number of scooter manufacturers and designs increased after World War I. The British - ABC Motors Skootamota, the Kenilworth, and the Reynolds Runabout debuted in 1919, with Gloucestershire Aircraft Company following with its Unibus in 1920. The Skootamota was noted for being practical, popular, and economical, the Kenilworth for its electric lights, and the Reynolds Runabout for its advanced specifications, including front suspension, a two-speed gearbox, leg shields, and a seat sprung with leaf springs and coil springs. The Unibus also had a two-speed gearbox, but it is more notable for its full bodywork, similar to that which would appear of second- and third-generation scooters.  The reputation of first-generation scooters was damaged by a glut of unstable machines with flexible frames, and more substantial examples like the Reynolds Runabout and the Unibus were too expensive to be competitive. The first generation had ended by the mid-1920s.

Second generation (1936–1968).

E. Foster Salsbury and Austin Elmore developed the Salsbury Motor Glide, which was a division of Northrop Aircraft, a scooter with a seat above an enclosed drivetrain, and began production in 1936 in California. In 1938, Salsbury introduced a more powerful scooter with a continuously variable transmission (CVT). This was the first use of a CVT on a scooter. It was such a success that Salsbury attempted to license the design to several European manufacturers including Piaggio. The Motor Glide set the standards for all later models. It inspired production of motor scooters by Powell, Moto-scoot, Cushman, Rock-Ola, and others.  The Cushman Company produced motor scooters from 1936 to 1965. Cushman was an engine manufacturer that started making scooters after Salsbury found their offer to supply engines to be unacceptable. Cushman and Salsbury competed against each other, with both companies advertising the economy of their scooters. Cushman claimed an efficiency of at. Cushman introduced a centrifugal clutch to their scooters in 1940. The Cushman Auto Glide Model 53 was designed to be dropped by parachute with Army Airborne troops, and was eventually called the "Cushman Airborne". Cushman scooters were also used around military bases for messenger service.  Salsbury continued manufacturing scooters until 1948, while Cushman continued until 1965.  Small numbers of the Harley-Davidson Topper scooter were produced from 1960 to 1965 using the engine from their line of light motorcycles based on the DKW RT 125. It had a fiberglass body, a continuously variable transmission, and a pull-cord starting mechanism.

Early postwar Japan.

After World War II, wartime aircraft manufacturers were forbidden from making aircraft, and had to find other products to make in order to stay in business. Fuji Sangyo, a part of the former Nakajima Aircraft Company, began production of the Fuji Rabbit S-1 scooter in June 1946. Inspired by Powell scooters used by American servicemen, the S1 was designed to use surplus military parts, including the tailwheel of a Nakajima bomber, re-purposed as the front wheel of the S1. Later that year, Mitsubishi introduced the C10, the first of its line of Silver Pigeon scooters. This was inspired by a Salsbury Motor Glide that had been brought to Japan by a Japanese man who had lived in the United States.  Production of the Mitsubishi Silver Pigeon and the Fuji Rabbit continued through several series until the 1960s. Some series of the Fuji Rabbit were developed to a high level of technological content; the S-601 Rabbit Superflow had an automatic transmission with a torque converter, an electric starter, and pneumatic suspension. Mitsubishi ended scooter production with the C140 Silver Pigeon, while Fuji continued production of the Rabbit until the last of the S-211 series was built in June 1968.

Third generation (1946–1964) and beyond.

Italy - Vespa and Lambretta.

In post-World War II Italy the Piaggio Vespa became the standard for scooters, and has remained so for over 60 years. Patented in April 1946, it used aircraft design and materials. D'Ascanio's scooter had various new design concepts, including a stress-bearing structure. The gear shift lever was moved to the handlebars for easier riding. The engine was placed near the rear wheel, eliminating the belt drive. The typical fork support was replaced by an arm similar to an aircraft carriage for easier tire-changing. The body design protected the driver from wind and road dirt. The smaller wheels and shorter wheelbase provide improved maneuverability through narrow streets and congested traffic. The name originated when Piaggio's president, upon seeing the prototype, remarked ""Sembra una vespa"", "It looks like a wasp".  Months after the Vespa, in 1947, Innocenti introduced the Lambretta, beginning a rivalry with Vespa. The scooter was designed by Innocenti, his General Director Giuseppe Lauro and engineer Pierluigi Torre. The Lambretta was named after Lambrate, the Milanese neighborhood where the factory stood. It debuted in 1947 at the Paris Motor Show. The Lambretta 'A' went on sale on December 23, 1947, and sold 9,000 units in one year. It was efficient, at a time when fuel was severely rationed. It had a top speed of from a fan-cooled engine of. The first Lambretta designs had shaft drive and no rear suspension, later designs used various drive and suspension systems until Lambretta settled on a swingarm-mounted engine with chain drive.  Also other Italian firms manufactured scooters in 1950s and 1960s, like Italjet and Iso.

Germany.

Germany's aviation industry was also dismantled after World War II. Heinkel stayed in business by making bicycles and mopeds, while Messerschmitt made sewing machines and automobile parts. Messerschmitt took over the German licence to manufacture Vespa scooters from Hoffman in 1954 and built Vespas under from 1954 to 1964. Heinkel designed and built its own scooters. The Heinkel Tourist was a large and relatively heavy touring scooter produced in the 1960s. It provided good weather protection with a full fairing, and the front wheel turned under a fixed nose extension. It had effective streamlining, perhaps thanks to its aircraft ancestry. Although it had only a four stroke motor, it could sustain speeds of. Heinkel scooters were known for their reliability.  Glas, a manufacturer of agricultural machinery, made the Goggo scooter from 1951 to 1955. Glas discontinued scooter production to concentrate on its Goggomobil microcar.  Several manufacturers in the German motorcycle industry made scooters. NSU made Lambrettas under licence from 1950 to 1955, during which they developed their Prima scooter. Production of the Prima began when NSU's licence to build Lambrettas ran out. Zündapp made the popular Bella scooter in the 1950s and 1960s. It was in production for about ten years, in three engine sizes,, and. They could perform all day at a steady speed of. Extremely reliable and very well made, many of these scooters still exist today. Maico built the large Maicoletta scooter in the 1950s. It had a single cylinder piston-port two-stroke engine, with four foot-operated gears and centrifugal fan cooling. The Maicoletta had a choice of engine sizes, approximately,, or, The tubular frame was built on motorcycle principles, with long-travel telescopic forks and wheels. The Maicoletta had a top speed of which was comparable with most motorcycles of the time. Other German scooters made by motorcycle manufacturers included the DKW Hobby, the Dürkopp Diana, and the TWN Contessa.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, Douglas manufactured the Vespa under licence from 1951 to 1961 and assembled them from 1961 to 1965. BSA and Triumph made several models of scooter including the BSA Dandy 70, the Triumph Tina, and the Triumph Tigress. The Tigress was made from 1959 to 1964 and was sold with a 175 cc 2-stroke single engine or a 250 cc 4-stroke twin; both versions used a foot-operated four-speed gearbox. The 250 twin had a top speed of. The BSA Sunbeam was a badge engineered version of the Tigress.

Eastern Bloc.

In Eastern Bloc countries scooters also became popular in the second half of 1950s, but their production was a result of planned economy rather than market competition. The Soviet Union started in 1957 with producing reverse engineered copies of 150 cc Vespa and 200 cc Glas Goggo as Vyatka and Tula T-200 respectively. They and their developments were manufactured in big numbers into the 1980s. In East Germany, IWL manufactured several own design 125 cc and 150 cc scooters (most notably SR 59 Berlin) from 1955 to 1964, when the authorities decided to switch the production to trucks. There were also produced small 50 cc Simson scooters, manufactured into the 1990s. From 1959 until 1965 there was produced the only Polish scooter, 150 cc to 175 cc WFM Osa. In Czechoslovakia, there was produced a unique 175 cc scooter Čezeta at the outbreak of 1950s/1960s, then there remained only small 50 cc Jawa scooter-style mopeds.

India.

In India, Bajaj Auto manufactured its line of scooters from 1972 to 2009, which included the Chetak, Legend, Super and Priya. The Chetak and Legend were based on the Italian Vespa Sprint. It was discontinued in 2009.  Another Vespa partner in India was LML Motors. Beginning as a joint-venture with Piaggio in 1983, LML, in addition to being a large parts supplier for Piaggio, produced the P-Series scooters for the Indian market. In 1999, after protracted dispute with Piaggio, LML bought back Piaggio's stake in the company and the partnership ceased. LML continues to produce (and also exports) the P-Series variant known as the Stella in the U.S. market and by other names in different markets.

East Asia.

Since the 1980s Japan, and latterly China and Taiwan, have become world leaders in the mass production of plastic bodied scooters, a popular early model being the Honda Spree/Nifty Fifty. Advertising campaigns in the USA featured stars like Michael Jackson (Suzuki), and Grace Jones and Lou Reed (Honda), and sales peaked there in the 1980s. Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke plastic bodied scooters have been mass-produced, with engine designs being both local or licence built. A popular 4-stroke engine in Chinese production is the GY6 engine, but electric motor-scooters are constantly increasing in the Chinese home market share.

Developments.

Trends around the world have seen new developments of the classic scooter, some with larger engines and tires. High-end scooter models now include comprehensive technological features, including cast aluminium frames, engines with integral counterbalancing, and cross-linked brake systems. Some of these scooters have comfort features such as an alarm, start button, radio, windshield, heated hand grips and full instrumentation (including clock or outside temperature gauge).

Three-wheeled scooter.

During World War II, Cushman made the Model 39, a three-wheeled utility scooter with a large storage bin between the front wheels. They sold 606 to the US military during the war.  The Piaggio MP3 is a modern tilting three-wheeled scooter. Unlike most motorcycle trikes, it is a reverse trike, with two front wheels which steer, and a single driven rear wheel. The front suspension allows both front wheels to tilt independently, so that all three wheels remain in contact with the ground as it leans when cornering.

Maxi-scooter.

A maxi-scooter or touring scooter is a large scooter, with engines ranging in size from, and using larger frames than normal scooters with longer wheelbases. Typically, the dash is fixed & is not mounted on the handlebars  The trend toward maxi-scooters began in 1986 when Honda introduced the CN250 Helix / Fusion / Spazio. Many years later, Suzuki launched the Burgman 400 and 650 models. Honda (), Aprilia/Gilera (), Yamaha (), Kymco () and others have also introduced scooters with engine displacements ranging from. Honda's PS250 (also known as Big Ruckus) features a motorcycle-like exoskeleton instead of bodywork.  A new direction in maxi-scooters has the engine fixed to the frame. This arrangement improves handling by allowing bigger wheels and less unsprung weight, also tending to move the centre of gravity forwards. The trend toward larger, more powerful scooters with fully automatic transmissions converges with an emerging trend in motorcycle design that foreshadows automatic transmission motorcycles with on-board storage. Examples include the Aprilia Mana 850 automatic-transmission motorcycle and the Honda NC700D Integra, which is a scooter built on a motorcycle platform.

Enclosed scooter.

Some scooters, including the BMW C1 and the Honda Gyro Canopy, have a windscreen and a roof. The Piaggio MP3 offered a tall windscreen with roof as an option.

Four-stroke engines and fuel-injection.

With increasingly strict environmental laws, including United States emission standards and European emission standards, more scooters are using four-stroke engines again. In 2001, Aprilia released the SR50 Ditech with direct injection. The SR50 has a listed fuel consumption of and meets the Euro 3 standard with a two-stroke engine. Later on, more brands, including Derbi and Peugeot, started using direct injection systems for their scooters. Catalytic converters are now common in two-stroke and four-stroke engines sold in the E.U. and the U.S.

Electric scooter.

Generally, the source of power for the electric motor has been batteries, but development in fuel cell technology has created several prototypes. Some examples are: the ENV from Intelligent Energy, Honda's scooter using the Honda FC Stack, and the Yamaha FC-AQEL. Also, petroleum hybrid-electric motorcycles are available. Some examples are the Ecycle, and Yamaha's Gen-RYU. Electric motorcycles and scooters are rising in popularity because of higher gasoline prices. Battery technology is gradually improving making this form of transportation more practical.

Underbone.

An underbone is a motorcycle built on a chassis consisting mostly of a single large diameter tube. An underbone differs from a conventional motorcycle mainly by not having a structural member connecting the head stock to the structure under the front of the seat and by not having a fuel tank or similarly styled appendage in the space between the riders knees. Underbones are commonly referred to as "step-throughs" and appeal to both genders in much the same way as scooters.  Underbones are often mistaken for scooters and are sometimes marketed as such. However, an underbone does not have a footboard, and is therefore not a scooter.  The engine of an underbone is usually fixed to the chassis under the downtube, while a scooter usually has its engine mounted on its swingarm. As a result, underbone engines are usually further forwards than those of scooters. A typical underbone therefore has a more central centre of gravity than a typical scooter. Furthermore, having an engine mounted on the swingarm gives a typical scooter more unsprung mass than a typical underbone. These factors give a typical underbone better handling than a typical scooter.  The engine of an underbone typically drives the rear wheel by a chain of the kind used on a conventional motorcycle. This final drive is often concealed by a chain enclosure to keep the chain clean and reduce wear. The final drive of a scooter with a swingarm-mounted engine runs in a sealed oil bath and is shorter.  An underbone is usually fitted with near full-size motorcycle wheels, which are often spoked. Scooter wheels are usually small, and made from pressed steel. In both cases, more recent examples often have cast alloy wheels. The bigger wheels of an underbone allow more ventilation and better cooling for the brakes than the smaller wheels of a scooter.  While the engine and suspension layouts described here for scooters and underbones are typical, they are not rigid definitions. There have been scooters with fixed engines and chain drive, and there have been underbones with swingarm-mounted engines. A twenty-first century example of variance from the typical scooter layout is the Suzuki Choinori, which had both its engine and its rear axle rigidly bolted to its frame.

Popularity.

Motor scooters are popular in most parts of the first world, Europe (particularly Italy and the Mediterranean), Japan and Taiwan, but not the US. They are even more popular in most parts of the developing world, particularly in countries such as India, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, and China where there is local manufacture. Parking, storage, and traffic issues in crowded cities, along with the easy driving position make them a popular form of urban transportation. In many nations, scooter (and other small motorcycle) sales exceed those of automobiles, and a motor scooter is often the family transport.  In Taiwan, road infrastructure has been built specifically with two wheelers in mind, with separate lanes and intersection turn boxes. In Thailand, scooters are used for street to door taxi services, as well as for navigating through heavy traffic. The extensive range of cycle tracks in the Netherlands extends into parts of Belgium and Germany and is open to all small powered two-wheelers. Motor scooters are popular because of their size, fuel-efficiency, weight, and typically larger storage room than a motorcycle. In many localities, certain road motor scooters are considered by law to be in the same class as mopeds or small motorcycles and therefore they have fewer restrictions than do larger motorcycles.  According to the Motorcycle Industry Council, sales of motor scooters in the United States have more than doubled since 2000. The motorcycle industry as a whole has seen 13 years of consecutive growth. According to council figures, 42,000 scooters were sold in 2000. By 2004, that number increased to 97,000. Scooter sales in 2008 in the United States were up 41% on 2007, and represented 9% of all powered two-wheeler sales. However, there was a decrease in US scooter sales in 2009 of 59% against 2008, compared with a 41% fall for all powered two-wheelers, while the scooter's contribution to total US powered two-wheeler sales in 2009 fell to 6%. After a two-year slump, scooter sales in the US rebounded in the first quarter of 2011.

In popular culture.

A common reference for the glamorous image of scooters is "Roman Holiday", a 1953 romantic comedy in which Gregory Peck carries Audrey Hepburn around Rome on a Vespa.  In the 1960s mod subculture, some members of this British youth cult used motorscooters for transportation, usually Vespas or Lambrettas. Scooters had provided inexpensive transportation for decades before the development of the mod subculture, but the mods stood out in the way that they treated the vehicle as a fashion accessory, expressed through clubs such as the Ace of Herts. Italian scooters were preferred for their cleanlined, curving shapes and gleaming chrome. For young mods, Italian scooters were the "embodiment of continental style and a way to escape the working-class row houses of their upbringing". They customized their scooters by painting them in "two-tone and candyflake and overaccessorized [them] with luggage racks, crash bars, and scores of mirrors and fog lights", and they often put their names on the small windscreen. Engine side panels and front bumpers were taken to local electroplating workshops and plated with highly reflective chrome.  Scooters were also a practical and accessible form of transportation for 1960s teens. In the early 1960s, public transport stopped relatively early in the night, and so having scooters allowed mods to stay out all night at dance clubs. To keep their expensive suits clean and keep warm while riding, mods often wore long army parkas. For teens with low-end jobs, scooters were cheaper than cars, and they could be bought on a payment plan through newly available hire purchase plans. After a law was passed requiring at least one mirror be attached to every motorcycle, mods were known to add four, ten, or as many as 30 mirrors to their scooters. The cover of The Who's album "Quadrophenia", which includes themes related to mods and rockers, depicts a young man on a Vespa GS with four mirrors attached. The album spawned a 1979 motion picture of the same name.  Scooterboy magazines include the British monthly magazine "Scootering" and the American quarterly magazine "Scoot!".

A scooter or motor scooter is a type of motorcycle with a step-through frame and a platform for the rider's feet. Elements of scooter design were present in some of the earliest motorcycles, and scooters have been made since at least 1914. Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars.

Un scooter (du verbe anglais «'» signifiant « démarrer brusquement, filer ») ou scouteur (Québec) est un véhicule routier motorisé à deux ou trois roues, caractérisé par des roues de faible diamètre, un cadre ouvert formant plancher (un large espace entre les roues permet d’y placer les pieds et éventuellement des bagages) et un carénage.


Biography.

Early life.

Cheng was born in Fujian in November 18, 1906 and grew up with an interest in the local birds. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was very young and he was taken care of mostly by his grandmother. His father was one of the few Chinese with a higher education and knew English. His father taught him to speak English. As a young boy he was weak and his father encouraged the boy to take up sports. Cheng hiked in the mountains, played tennis and even became a champion 100 m sprinter. His early naturalist interests were in the nature of culinary objects. He collected fish, wild fruit and vegetables which his grandmother cooked. He went to the high school at Fuzhou and sought admission to the Fujian Christian University at the age of 15 which required him to undergo a special test. The English professor of biology there asked the applicants about which vegetable had the highest vitamins and he was the only one to come up with the answer as tomato. Tomatoes were then unheard of in China but Cheng had read about them, leading to his being admitted. He graduated in 1926 after seven semesters after which he wished to move to the United States.

USA.

An uncle who was a doctor in Fuzhou funded Cheng's travel and he chose the University of Michigan as a cousin studied there. He studied under Peter Olas Okkelberg and received a doctorate in 1930 for his thesis on "The Germ Cell history of "Rana cantabrigensis" Baird". He also received a Sigma Xi golden Key award. While in the US he had visited the natural history of the museum and had wondered about a golden pheasant specimen. He wondered why all the species in China in recent times were described by non-Chinese. He also knew of 3000 year old classical Chinese literature which had described a 100 bird species. He chose to return to China and rejected offers to work in the United States.

China.

Returning to China in 1930 he joined the Fujian Christian University and later founded the China Zoological Society and headed the department of biology at Fuzhou. In 1938 his university moved to Shao-wu due to the threat of the Japanese invasion. He moved to the US in April 1945 to work on Chinese ornithology, examining specimens in museums and universities across America. He returned to Fuzhou in September 1946. In 1947 he was forced to move to Nanjing due to civil war between Maoists and the Kuomintang. In 1948 many university staff fled to Taiwan and Cheng also considered it. He however asked around and was told that the communist party needed scientists. He then remained and joined the Communist Party. In 1950 he moved to Beijing and became a curator of birds at the Academia Sinica and founded the Peking Natural History Museum in 1951. He was the first director of the scientific publications office. He translated Joachim Steinbacher's book on bird migration and ornithology into Chinese. From 1955 to 1957 he worked along with Soviet and East German ornithologists in expeditions and studies in southern Yunnan and northeastern China.

Cultural Revolution.

In 1958 Cheng's work in China was interrupted by a campaign to eradicate sparrows (along with mice, flies and mosquitoes). Cheng was, for ecological reasons, against the campaign from the start but it was only in 1959 that he could influence a decision against the killing of sparrows. He travelled to East Germany in May 1957 and worked with Erwin Stresemann examining specimens from the Chinese region. He was also able to meet other ornithologist like L A Portenko, Charles Vaurie, and Gunther Niethammer in meetings that Stresemann called as the "Atlantic Pacific Conference". He was however not allowed to attend evening parties at Stresemann's home in West Berlin due to instructions from the Chinese embassy in East Germany. Cheng was made a foreign correspondent of the German Ornithologists' Society through the nomination of Stresemann. Cheng returned to China with stays in Leningrad and Moscow. Returning to China he was faced by Mao's Cultural Revolution.  Scientific work came to a halt and a slogan was that "the more knowledge you possess, the more you are a revolutionary". Cheng was declared a criminal as he had opposed Chairman Mao's campaign against sparrows. He was told that "birds are public animals of capitalism" and had to wear a badge that read "reactionary" and made to undergo an examination of his supposed ornithological training apart from being forced to sweep the corridors and clean toilets. The test was given by a committee and he was asked to identify a bird made up of parts from multiple species. After failing the "test", his salary was reduced to a bare minimum. In August 1966 he was kept in isolation in a cowshed for six months and his house was searched by Red Guards who confiscated all his belongings including a typewriter that he valued the most. The Academia Sinica was occupied by the Red Guards from 1967 until 1968 when Mao ordered their removal. Peace returned only in the 1970s and his work on the birds of China was sent for publication after having been rejected once earlier. It was published in 1978, but dated as 1976, and he was forced to include a long quotation from Mao, who had since died. After Mao's death, Cheng was invited to an international symposium of the World Pheasant Association in November 1978. He also spent two months in England during which time he met Sir Peter Scott and G.V.T.Matthews. He served as a professor at the Beijing Normal University and in 1987 he and his colleagues published a "Synopsis of the Avifauna of China". He also edited the "Fauna Sinica", "Aves" volumes from 1970 to 1980. He worked on bird conservation and worked on international collaboration for the protection of migratory species.

Personal life.

Cheng met Chen Jia-jang (Lydia) while playing tennis and married her in 1942. In 1992 the couple celebrated their golden anniversary with Cheng gifting the golden key from Michigan to his wife and receiving in turn a gift of a golden pencil.

Honours.

Cheng died from a heart attack in 1998. Several species have been named in his honour including Cheng's jird ("Meriones chengi") Wang, 1964. Pamela Rasmussen named the Sichuan bush warbler ("Locustella chengi") discovered in 2015 after Professor Cheng.

Tso-hsin Cheng (郑作新 also transcribed as Zheng Zuoxin) (18 November 1906 – 27 June 1998) was a Chinese ornithologist known for his seminal work on the birds of China and mentoring a generation of researchers. Educated in the United States, he chose to stay in China after the Second World War though many of his academic colleagues moved to Taiwan. He was severely punished during the Cultural Revolution despite being a member of the Communist Party.

Zheng Zuoxin (郑作新, en chinois) est un ornithologue chinois, né le à Fuzhou et mort le à Pékin. Il est considéré comme le père de l’ornithologie chinoise.


Playing career.

1946–1956.

During his youth, Jonquet played in the surrounding countryside of southern Paris in Châtenay-Malabry, and afterwards for the "Société Sportive Voltaire". In 1946/47, he played his first season at Reims in the division 1. He became a first-team player, and in the spring 1947, he was called up for the first time to the French national team. Jonquet was relatively short (1.76 m) for his playing position, but as a "libero", played with elegance and talent in the number 5 shirt, rather than in the mould of a typical centre-back "destroyer".  In the 1948/49 season he won his first French championship, 1950 the Coupe de France, followed in 1953 by his second French championship and the Latin Cup. In the year after he participated with Les Bleus in its first World Cup finals in Switzerland; in 1955 he won the French championship again, the French Supercup, was finalist in the Latin Cup and the following year (1956) reached with Reims the final of the newly born European Cup, losing to Real Madrid 3:4. Two further high points of these years took place on international fields: in October 1951 with the France he played in London against England (which included Alf Ramsey and Billy Wright). Jonquet's superb game helped France obtain a 2:2 draw, and on the next morning a newspaper headline referred to him as "The Hero of Highbury". The "hero" also played in a European selection which defeated England in a friendly match in 1955.

A main player in one of the best teams of Europe.

Robert Jonquet's fellow players with Reims reads like a Who's Who of French football during the 1950s: between goalkeeper (Dominique Colonna) and offensive forces (Raymond Kopa, Michel Hidalgo, Léon Glovacki, Jean Vincent, Just Fontaine, Roger Piantoni, René Bliard) stood safe defensive players such as Roger Marche, Armand Penverne, Albert Batteux, Michel Leblond, Jean Wendling – and evenly over one decade for Jonquet, who is the only players who played in two finals of the European Cup as well as two finals of the Latin Cup. Albert Batteux by the way accompanied and supported Jonquet career over this time in three different ways: as a fellow players (until 1950), as a manager (1950–1959) and as French national football coach (starting from 1955).

1957–1961.

The 1957/58 season held further titles but also included probably the blackest hour for Jonquet. With Reims he won the treble of the French Championships Cup and Super Cup. In addition he participated in its second soccer world championship, at 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden where France finished third. However its misfortune in the semi-final (see below) prevented Jonquet's participation in the match for third place (6: 3 against Germany).  After the second European Cup final against rival Real Madrid (1959, 0:2) Raymond Kopa returned from "Los Merengues" to Reims – and Jonquet won his fifth French championship in 1960 and his third Super Cup. In this summer he retired at age 35 from France and moved to Racing Strasbourg in the second division, helping them to promote to the top division division 1 in 1961 – his final success as a player.

International career.

Between April 1948 and July 1960 Robert Jonquet played 58 matches for France and captained them. He participated 1954 FIFA World Cup (one match) and 1958 FIFA World Cup (five matches as the team captain). In Sweden his injury in the semi-final against Brazil after 35 minutes, following an impact with Vavá, all but incapacitated him. In the half-time break – substitutes at that time not yet permitted – the team physician injected a pain-satisfying syringe, and Jonquet was able to stand on two legs. He spent the second half more or less useless and hobbling on the left wing. Indeed, he had broken its fibula. But five months later he came back in the national team.  He played his last match at Euro 1960 against Czechoslovakia.

After his playing career he died.

At RC Strasbourg, Robert Jonquet moved from the playing field to the coaching sidelines, enjoying a spell with Reims and afterwards with a small teams, Romilly-sur-Seine, Épernay and Châlons-sur-Marne. He was very disappointed with the rise of money in football, missing his time at Stade de Reims. He died on 18 December 2008. His club Reims gave his name to a stand of their stadium Auguste Delaune.

Honours.

Reims

Robert Jonquet (3 May 1925 – 18 December 2008) was a French former football defender. He played the majority of his professional career for the club Reims, winning five French championships and appearing in two European Cup finals. He is considered as one of the best central defender of his time.

Robert Jonquet est un footballeur international puis entraîneur français, né le à Paris et mort le à Reims. Jouant au poste de défenseur, il est considéré comme l'un des meilleurs joueurs à son poste.


Early life.

Edgley was born in Perth. She is the daughter of theatre, concert and circus promoter Michael Edgley, known for bringing the Moscow State Circus to Australia during the 1980s. Her mother, Jeni Edgley, was formally involved in managing a 250-acre (101 hectare) health retreat. As a child, Gigi Edgley performed both in and out of school. She also took several years of ballet, jazz, and character dance. She became mainly interested in acting and had her first professional theatrical engagement at the Twelfth Night Theatre. She earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from the Queensland University of Technology in 1998. As a believer in the school of method acting, Gigi has developed a broad set of skills and experiences for her roles. Edgley is proficient in ballet, jazz, character dance, singing, and martial arts. Her signature skill is fire-twirling.

Career.

Acting.

Edgley's early TV and film work included several independent productions (with later Farscape co-star Anthony Simcoe), as well as a guest star spot on the popular Australian series "Water Rats" and a role in Australian film titled "The Day of the Roses".  Edgley is best known for her role as Chiana on the science fiction TV series "Farscape". Originally, she was hired for only one episode, and her character was supposed to die at the end of the hour. The creators decided to keep her around for a few more episodes. At the beginning of Season 2, she was promoted to be a regular on the show. She appeared in total of 68 episodes of the series. Her character's nickname (Pip) was actually coined by her co-star Ben Browder.  Between seasons, Edgley has appeared in other guest starring roles on TV, including the popular internationally aired series "The Lost World" and "BeastMaster" (returning for a second guest starring role), has undertaken some independent film work, was cast in a feature film (pulled due to production and schedule reasons), and read a starring role in an audio drama for Seeing Ear Theatre.  After the cancellation of "Farscape", Edgley pursued other projects including a role in the Australian drama telefilm "BlackJack" with Colin Friels. She joined the cast of Australian drama series "The Secret Life of Us" in 2003 and "Stingers" in 2004.  Edgley returned as Chiana in the SciFi Channel miniseries "" in 2004. In 2006 Edgley starred as the female lead in critically acclaimed Australian Drama/Thriller "Last Train to Freo". Her role was nominated for a Best Actress in a Lead Role by the Film Critics Circle of Australia. She also had a minor supporting role in the 2007 USA Network TV miniseries "The Starter Wife". She had a leading role in three seasons of "" from 2009. In 2018, she appeared in the film "Diminuendo" opposite Richard Hatch.  She frequently appears at science fiction conventions and gives interviews to many magazines and radio stations around the world.

Music.

Edgley recorded a music single titled "Poison" with recording artist n8. The song is available as streaming audio on her webpage in the music section. She also appeared in a music video for the song "When You Get to California" (2004) by Australian rock group Hoodoo Gurus.  In July 2007, Edgley began recording with Seattle-based artist/producer Kyle Stevens and writing songs for a new music release. At Farscape Con in November 2007, Gigi released "...SO IT SEEMS", a five song E.P. produced and co-written with Kyle. Edgley has recorded "Fall", "Ftang!", and "Blue Sky Thoughts".

Other appearances and achievements.

Edgley was featured in several printed magazines. Most notably, she appeared nude in the Issue 49 (February 2001) of the popular Australian magazine Black+White. She was also on the cover of the "FHM" magazine in December 2003 and the cover of the US version of the TV Guide (29 July – 4 August 2000 issue).  Edgley was "Yen Magazine's" ambassador for the 2006 "Pantene Young Woman of the Year Awards".

Gigi Edgley (born 16 November 1977) is an Australian actress, singer and songwriter. She is best known for her roles as Chiana on the series "Farscape" and Lara Knight in "".

Gigi Edgley (née le à Perth en Australie) est une actrice australienne et présentatrice principalement connue pour son rôle de Chiana dans la série télévisée "Farscape".


Description.

The music's traditional form was largely improvised and intensely emotional and expressed the tribulations of a subjugated, initially enslaved, people. It is primarily dance music but was also used for dirges and as part of traditional exorcisms.

Instruments.

Traditional instruments include: There is also the tantam which a stringed instrument consisting of a gourd with a bow attached played in time to the drum. Nowadays, electric guitars and keyboards are used.

Lyrics.

The lyrics of sega music usually relate to the lives of the inhabitants; they do not usually relate to the musicians' ancestral homeland.

Dance.

Sega is danced without the feet ever leaving the ground. Instead, the rest of the body moves.

History.

Origins.

Sega music originated among the slave populations of Mauritius, it then appeared in Réunion and later spread throughout the Seychelles. It is usually in 6/8 meter and has an associated dance form.  Sega's exact origins outside the islands are unknown. However, it is understood to have Afro-Malagasy roots and be a fusion of African or Malagasy music with European music. The European influence includes folk dance music like polka, waltz and quadrilles.  Gatan Benoit suggested that sega came from Madagascar and Boswell notes there may be a link between sega and famadihana, a Merina death ritual. Arago instead identifies it with (t)chéga from Mozambique. He states that it is similar to the fandango and chica (dance) from Brazil whose origins are in African music from Mozambique and Angola. It was termed "African" by sega musician Jacques Cantin.

Place in Society.

Sega was for long looked down upon because it was the music of slaves. It was also looked down upon by the Catholic Church, which was not keen on its association with sexuality and alcohol.  Until the Mauritian Ti Frère became popular in the 1960s, sega was only played in private places. A particularly big turning point was his performance at the Night of the Sega at Mount Le Morne on 30 October 1964. It is now considered the national music of Mauritius and not restricted by ethnicity.

Modern varieties.

Sega is now popular across the islands of Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles, Comoros, Mayotte and Rodrigues, along with parts of Madagascar. In its modern form, sega is combined with genres like jazz, zouk, and its fusion genre with reggae known as Seggae. Elements of African music have been added to sega since the 1980s.

Santé engagé.

Santé engagé is a genre of Mauritian music which consists of singing protest songs. It is a way to protest against injustices through music. The genre mixes traditional Mauritian sega with Indian influences.

Seggae.

Seggae is a fusion of sega with reggae, a kind of Jamaican popular music that is very popular across sega's range. Seggae musicians include Ras Natty Baby, Sonny Morgan and the man seen as being the founder, Kaya. Kaya, whose real name is Joseph Reginald Topize, was at the height of his career in 1999 when he was found dead in a prison cell. Riots followed soon after causing one of the major social upheavals in Mauritius. Kaya's music is, however, still very popular and has inspired contemporary musicians to expand the Seggae genre.

Regional varieties.

Réunion.

In Réunion, sega is relatively slow, and is danced by couples who are not as physically close as on Mauritius. There is some confusion as to the usage of the words maloya and sega. What was called sega in historical accounts from previous centuries is similar to what is nowadays called maloya. The word "sega", on the other hand, is used to describe the fusion genre of the Afro-Malagasy and the European.

Rodrigues.

Traditional Rodriguan sega is Sega tambour, where the drum is more prominent. Sega tambour is considered to be truer to the origins of sega than Mauritian sega, due to Rodrigue's geographical isolation. The accordion groups of Rodrigues, "segakordeon", include European folk dance music such as polkas, quadrilles, waltzes and Scottish reels. Rodrigue music is extremely swift compared to other varieties. These sega tambours are sung mostly by women and are danced only by one couple at a time, accompanied by clapping or the use of improvised percussion instruments like table legs and glasses. The accordion was not being played so much by young people but an initiative involving the European Union are giving accordion lessons to young Rodriguans.

Seychelles.

One form of Seychellois sega is called Moutya and is similar to Réunionnais sega. Seychellois music is influenced by Western ballads, and especially country music. Increasingly, Reggae, hip and hop and pop style Seychellois music have become popular locally as well as internationally with the wider Seychellois community.

Chagos Islands.

The Chagos Islanders also had their own variety of sega before they were deported from the islands to make way for the American military base Diego Garcia.

Sega () is one of the major music genres of Mauritius, the others being its fusion genre Seggae,Bhojpuri,nagpuri and khortha songs. It has origins in the music of slaves as well as their descendants Mauritian Creole people and is usually sung in creole. Sega is also popular on the islands of Agalega and Rodrigues as well as Réunion and Seychelles, though the music and dances differ and it is sung in these islands' respective creole languages. In the past, the Sega music was made only with traditional instruments like ravanne and triangle, it was sung to protest against injustices in the Mauritian society, this particular version of the Sega is known as Santé engagé.

Le séga est le genre musical majeur des Mascareignes : l'île Maurice, de l'île de La Réunion et Rodrigues, des Seychelles, Agaléga, Saint-Brandon, les îles Chagos et d'autres de l'Océan Indien.


Etymology.

The word "Syrmia" is derived from the ancient city of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica). Sirmium was a Celtic or Illyrian town founded in the third century BC.  "Srem" () and "Srijem" are used to designate the region in Serbia and Croatia respectively. Other names for the region include:

History.

Prehistory.

Between 3000 BC and 2400 BC, Syrmia was at the centre of Indo-European Vučedol culture.

Roman era.

Sirmium was conquered by Romans in the first century BC and became the economic and political capital of Pannonia. In 6 AD, there was an uprising of the indigenous peoples against Roman rule. However, ten later Roman Emperors were born in Sirmium or nearby. They included Herennius Etruscus (227-251), Hostilian (230?-251), Decius Traian (249-251), Claudius II (268-270), Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270-275), Probus (276-282), Maximianus Herculius (285-310), Constantius II (337-361) and Gratian (367-383). These emperors were mostly Romanised Illyrians.

Early Middle Ages.

In the 6th century, Pannonia, was a province of the Byzantine Empire, and included the region of Syrmia. During that time, Byzantine rule was challenged by Ostrogoths and Gepids. In 567, Byzantine rule was fully restored, but finally collapsed during the Siege of Sirmium by Avars and Slavs (582). It remained under the Avarian rule up to the c. 800, when it same under the control of the Frankish Empire. In 827, Bulgars invade Syrmia and continued to rule after a peace treaty in 845 AD. The region was later incorporated into the Principality of Lower Pannonia, but during the 10th century it became a battleground between Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Serbs.  At the beginning of the 11th century, the ruler of Syrmia was Duke Sermon, vassal of the Bulgarian emperor Samuil. There had been Bulgar resistance to Byzantine rule. This collapsed and Sermon, who refused to capitulate was captured and killed by Constantine Diogenes. A new but ultimately short lived area of governance named the Thema of Sirmium was established. It included the region of Syrmia and what is now Mačva. In 1071, Hungarians took over the region of Syrmia, but Byzantine Empire reconquered the province after the victory over Hungarians in the Battle of Syrmia (1167). Byzantine rule ended in 1180, when Syrmia was taken again by the Hungarians.

Late Middle Ages.

In the 13th century, the region was controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary. On 3 March 1229, the acquisition of Syrmia was confirmed by Papal bull. Pope Gregory IX wrote, "[Margaretha] soror...regis Ungarie [acquired] terram...ulterior Sirmia". In 1231, The Duke of Syrmia was Giletus. In the 1200s, the territory around Syrmia was divided into two counties: Syrmia in the east and Valkó (Vukovar) in the west.  In the 13th century, between 1282 and 1316, Syrmia was ruled by Stefan Dragutin of Serbia. Initially, Dragutin was a vassal of Hungary but later ruled independently. Dragutin died in 1316, and was succeeded by his son, Stefan Vladislav II (1316–1325). In 1324, Vladislav II was defeated by Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Rascia. Lower Syrmia became the subject of dispute between the Kingdoms of Rascia and Hungary.  In 1404, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor ceded part of Syrmia to Stefan Lazarević of Serbia and then to Đurađ Branković.  From 1459, the Hungarian kings endorsed the House of Branković and later, the Berislavići Grabarski family as the titular heads of the Serbian Despotate of which Syrmia was a part. They resided in Kupinik (modern Kupinovo). The local rulers included Vuk Grgurević (1471 to 1485); Đorđe Branković (1486 to 1496), Jovan Branković (1496 to 1502), Ivaniš Berislavić (1504 to 1514), and Stjepan Berislavić (1520 to 1535). In 1522, the last of the titular Serbian despots in Syrmia, Stjepan Berislavić, moved to Slavonia, ahead of invading Ottoman forces. Another important local governor was Laurence of Ilok, Duke of Syrmia (1477 to 1524), who reigned over large parts of the region from Ilok.

Early modern period.

In 1521, parts of Syrmia fell to the Ottomans and by 1538, the entire region was under Ottoman control. Between 1527 and 1530, Radoslav Čelnik ruled Syrmia as an Ottoman vassal. The area of Ottoman administration in Syrmia was known as the Sanjak of Syrmia.  In 1699, the Habsburg Monarchy took western Syrmia from the Ottomans as part of the Treaty of Karlowitz. Until the Treaty of Passarowitz at the end of the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18, remainder of Syrmia was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier.  At the end of the Austro-Russian-Turkish War of 1735–1739, there was a migration of Albanians from the Kelmendi tribe to Srem, who were recorded as speaking Albanian as late as 1921. <ref

Syrmia (/Срем or Srijem/Сријем) is a region of the southern Pannonian Plain, which lies between the Danube and Sava rivers. It is divided between Serbia and Croatia. Most of the region is flat, with the exception of the low Fruška gora mountain stretching along the Danube in its northern part.

La Syrmie, "Срем" ("Srem") en alphabet serbe cyrillique et latin, "Srijem" en croate, "Szerém" ou "Szerémség" en hongrois, "Syrmien" en allemand, "Syrmia" ou "Sirmium" en latin, est une ancienne province historique de Hongrie-Croatie, située entre le Danube et la Save, du confluent du Danube avec la Drave jusqu'à son confluent avec la Save en face de Belgrade. C'est en Syrmie que se trouve la Fruška gora, la seule montagne de Voïvodine, devenue aujourd'hui un parc national. On y trouve de nombreux monastères orthodoxes. Le nom de "Syrmie" vient du nom de la ville romaine "Sirmium", aujourd'hui nommée en serbe "Сремска Митровица" ("Sremska Mitrovica"), en croate "Srijemska Mitrovica", en allemand "Syrmisch Mitrowitz" et en hongrois "Szávaszentdemeter".


History.

Greek civilization.

There are two words in ancient Greek that have been translated to "temperance" in the English language. The first, "sôphrosune", largely meant "self-restraint". The other, "enkrateia", was a word coined during the time of Aristotle, to mean "control over oneself", or "self-discipline". Enkrateia appears three times in the King James Bible, where it was translated as temperance.  The modern meaning of temperance has evolved since its first usage. In Latin, tempero means restraint (from force or anger), but also more broadly the proper balancing or mixing (particularly, of temperature, or compounds). Hence the phrase "to temper a sword", meaning the heating and cooling process of forging a metal blade. The Latin also referred to governing and control, likely in a moderate way (i.e. not with the use of excessive force) [needs references].  Temperance is a major Athenian virtue, as advocated by Plato; self-restraint (sôphrosune) is one of his four core virtues of the ideal city, and echoed by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, "temperance is a mean with regard to pleasures". In "Charmides", one of Plato's early dialogues, the one who possessed "sophrosune" is defined in four ways: (1) one who has quietness, (2) one who has modesty, (3) one who does his own business, and (4) one who knows himself. Plato quickly dismisses the three first definitions and argues against (4) that if "sophrosune" would have been only the property of knowing what one knows or not, then it would be useless without knowledge about other matters.

Religions.

Themes of temperance can be seen across cultures and time, as illustrated here.

Buddhism.

Temperance is an essential part of the Eightfold Path. In the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, often regarded as the first teaching, the Buddha describes the Noble Eightfold Path as the Middle Way of moderation, between the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification. The third and fifth of the five precepts (pañca-sila) reflect values of temperance: "misconduct concerning sense pleasures" and drunkenness are to be avoided.

Christianity.

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, temperance is prolific. The Old Testament emphasizes temperance as a core virtue, as evidenced in both Solomon's Book of Proverbs and in the Ten Commandments, with its admonitions against adultery and covetousness. The New Testament does so as well, with forgiveness being central to theology and self-control being one of the Fruits of the Spirit. With regard to Christian theology, the word temperance is used by the King James Version in Galatians 5:23 for the Greek word ἐγκρατεία (enkrateia), which means self-control or discipline ("Strong's Concordance", 1466). Thomas Aquinas promoted Plato's original virtues in addition to several others.  Within the Christian church Temperance is a virtue akin to self-control. It is applied to all areas of life. It can especially be viewed in practice among sects like the Amish, Old Order Mennonites, and Conservative Mennonites. In the Christian religion, temperance is a virtue that moderates attraction and desire for pleasure and "provides balance in the use of created goods". St. Thomas calls it a "disposition of the mind which binds the passions". Temperance is believed to combat the sin of gluttony. More recently, in positive psychology, temperance was defined to include these four main character strengths: forgiveness, humility, prudence, and self-regulation.

Hinduism.

The concept of "dama" () in Hinduism is equivalent to temperance. It is sometimes written as "damah" (Sanskrit: दमः). The word "dama", and Sanskrit derivative words based on it, connote the concepts of self-control and self-restraint. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in verse 5.2.3, states that three characteristics of a good, developed person are self-restraint ("damah"), compassion and love for all sentient life ("daya"), and charity ("daana"). In Hinduism literature dedicated to yoga, self-restraint is expounded with the concept of "yamas" (). According to "ṣaṭsampad", self-restraint ("dama") is one of the six cardinal virtues.  The list of virtues that constitute a moral life evolve in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added, some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a "dharmic" (moral) life: "Dhriti" (courage), "Kshama" (forgiveness), "Dama" (temperance), "Asteya" (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), "Saucha" (purity), "Indriyani-graha" (control of senses), "dhi" (reflective prudence), "vidya" (wisdom), "satyam" (truthfulness), "akrodha" (freedom from anger). In later verses this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a more broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: "Ahimsa" (Non-violence), "Dama" (temperance), "Asteya" (Non-covetousness/Non-stealing), "Saucha" (purity), "Satyam" (truthfulness). This trend of evolving concepts continue in classical Sanskrit literature, "Dama" with "Ahimsa" and few other virtues present in the evolving list of virtues necessary for a moral life ("dharma").  Five types of self-restraints are considered essential for a moral and ethical life in Hindu philosophy: one must refrain from any violence that causes injury to others, refrain from starting or propagating deceit and falsehood, refrain from theft of other's property, refrain from sexually cheating on one's partner, and refrain from avarice. The scope of self-restraint includes one's action, the words one speaks or writes, and in one's thoughts. The necessity for temperance is explained as preventing bad "karma" which sooner or later haunts and returns to the unrestrained. The theological need for self-restraint is also explained as reigning in the damaging effect of one's action on others, as hurting another is hurting oneself because all life is one.

Jainism.

Temperance in Jainism is deeply imbibed in its five major vows which are:  In Jainism, the vow of Ahimsa is not just restricted to not resorting to physical violence, but it also encompasses in itself abstinence from violence in any and all form either by thought, speech or action.  On Samvatsari, the last day of Paryushan—the most prominent festival of Jainism—the Jains greet their friends and relatives on this last day with "Micchāmi Dukkaḍaṃ", seeking their forgiveness. The phrase is also used by Jains throughout the year when a person makes a mistake, or recollects making one in everyday life, or when asking for forgiveness in advance for inadvertent ones.

Contemporary organizations.

Values of temperance are still advocated by more modern sources such as the Boy Scouts, William Bennett, and Ben Franklin. Philosophy has contributed a number of lessons to the study of traits, particularly in its study of injunctions and its listing and organizing of virtues.

Temperance in its modern use is defined as moderation or voluntary self-restraint. It is typically described in terms of what an individual voluntarily refrains from doing. This includes restraint from revenge by practicing non-violence and forgiveness, restraint from arrogance by practicing humility and modesty, restraint from excesses such as extravagant luxury or splurging by practicing prudence, and restraint from rage or craving by practicing calmness and self-control.

La tempérance est définie comme modération ou retenue de soi-même volontaire. Elle est typiquement décrite en fonction de ce qu'un individu se retient de faire. Ceci inclut la retenue de représailles comme désir de paix et de pardon, retenue d'arrogance comme forme d'humilité et de modestie ainsi que la retenue d'excès comme forme de prudence, de calme et de contrôle de soi.


Structure and catalytic mechanism.

A diverse array of genetically distinct lipase enzymes are found in nature, and they represent several types of protein folds and catalytic mechanisms. However, most are built on an alpha/beta hydrolase fold and employ a chymotrypsin-like hydrolysis mechanism using a catalytic triad consisting of a serine nucleophile, a histidine base, and an acid residue, usually aspartic acid.

Physiological distribution.

Lipases are involved in diverse biological processes which range from routine metabolism of dietary triglycerides to cell signaling and inflammation. Thus, some lipase activities are confined to specific compartments within cells while others work in extracellular spaces.

Human lipases.

The main lipases of the human digestive system are pancreatic lipase (PL) and pancreatic lipase related protein 2 (PLRP2), which are secreted by the pancreas. Humans also have several related enzymes, including hepatic lipase, endothelial lipase, and lipoprotein lipase. Not all of these lipases function in the gut (see table).  Other lipases include,,,,,,,,, and.  There also are a diverse array of phospholipases, but these are not always classified with the other lipases.

Industrial uses.

Lipases serve important roles in human practices as ancient as yogurt and cheese fermentation. However, lipases are also being exploited as cheap and versatile catalysts to degrade lipids in more modern applications. For instance, a biotechnology company has brought recombinant lipase enzymes to market for use in applications such as baking, laundry detergents and even as biocatalysts in alternative energy strategies to convert vegetable oil into fuel. High enzyme activity lipase can replace traditional catalyst in processing biodiesel, as this enzyme replaces chemicals in a process which is otherwise highly energy intensive, and can be more environmentally friendly and safe. Industrial application of lipases requires process intensification for continuous processing using tools like continuous flow microreactors at small scale. Lipases are generally animal sourced, but can also be sourced microbially.

Diagnostic use.

Blood tests for lipase may be used to help investigate and diagnose acute pancreatitis and other disorders of the pancreas. Measured serum lipase values may vary depending on the method of analysis.

Medical use.

Lipase can also assist in the breakdown of fats into lipids in those undergoing pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). It is a key component in Sollpura (Liprotamase).

References.

25. Gulzar, Bio-degradation of hydrocarbons using different bacterial and fungal species. Published in international conference on biotechnology and neurosciences. CUSAT (cochin university of science and technology), 2003

A lipase (, ) is any enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats (lipids). Lipases are a subclass of the esterases.

Les lipases sont des enzymes hydrosolubles capables d'effectuer l'hydrolyse de fonctions esters et sont spécialisées dans la transformation de glycéride (triglycéride, diglycérides, monoglycérides) en glycérol et en acides gras (lipolyse). À ce titre, elles constituent une sous-classe des estérases.


Early life.

Romijn was born on November 6, 1972, in Berkeley, California. Her mother, Elizabeth Romijn (née Kuizenga), is a community college instructor of English as a Second Language (ESL) and textbook author. Rebecca's father, Jaap Romijn, is a custom furniture maker. Her father is a native of Barneveld, the Netherlands, while her mother is an American of Dutch and English ancestry. Her mother met Rebecca's father as a teenager while living in the Netherlands on a student exchange program. Romijn's maternal grandfather, Henry Bernard Kuizenga, was a Presbyterian minister and seminary professor.  On "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", when questioned about always being glamorous and beautiful, Romijn revealed that in her early teens, she was in fact an insecure "drama geek" and that, as a result of her growth spurt, she suffered from scoliosis and was constantly in pain. Many sources say that she was once nicknamed the "Jolly Blonde Giant" because of her height, but she has admitted to making that up "for a laugh". While studying Music (Voice) at the University of California, Santa Cruz, she became involved with fashion modeling and eventually moved to Paris, where she lived for more than three years.

Career.

Among other jobs, Romijn started her modeling career in 1991. She has appeared on the covers of American, French, Spanish, Russian and Swedish editions of "Elle", "Marie Claire", American, Italian, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Russian, Greek, and Mexican editions of "Cosmopolitan", Allure", Glamour", "GQ", "Esquire", and "Sports Illustrated".  She has appeared in advertising campaigns for Escada, Christian Dior, La Perla, Tommy Hilfiger, Furla, Liz Claiborne, J. Crew, Victoria's Secret, bebe, La Senza, Dillard's, Pantene, Got Milk?, Miller Lite, and Maybelline. She has also walked for Giorgio Armani, Sonia Rykiel, and Anna Molinari along with the likes of Claudia Schiffer, Stephanie Seymour, Karen Mulder, Kate Moss, Naomi Campbell, Linda Evangelista, Cindy Crawford, Helena Christensen and Christy Turlington. She also was the host of MTV's "House of Style" from 1998 to 2000. Romijn has been featured numerous times in annual lists of the world's most beautiful women by publications such as "Maxim" (2003–2007), AskMen.com (2001–2003, 2005–2006), and "FHM" (2000–2005). She also appeared as a guest in the animated talk show "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" episode "Chinatown".  In 2000's "X-Men" Romijn had her first major movie role as Mystique; she returned to the role in 2003's sequel "X2", and again for "" (2006). In these films, her costume consisted of blue makeup and some strategically placed prosthetics on her otherwise nude body. In "X2" she shows up in a bar in one scene in her "normal" look, and in "X-Men: The Last Stand", she appears as a dark-haired "de-powered" Mystique. The role has since been recast with Jennifer Lawrence playing the younger version of the character. She had her first leading role in Brian De Palma's "Femme Fatale" (2002). She also has starred in movies such as "Rollerball", "The Punisher" playing a woman named Joan (Joan and Mystique are both characters from Marvel Comics) and "Godsend". She played the leading role in "Pepper Dennis", a short-lived TV series on The WB Television Network.  In January 2007, Romijn made her first appearance on the ABC series "Ugly Betty" as a full-time regular cast member. She played Alexis Meade, a transgender woman and the sister of lead character Daniel Meade. In April 2008, however, it was reported that Romijn would only be appearing as a recurring character in Season 3 due to a change in direction by the writing staff (aligning, fortuitously enough, with Romijn's pregnancy, which would have been inconsistent with her character's storyline). In November 2007, Romijn made a guest appearance on the ABC series "Carpoolers", where she played the ex-wife of the character Laird, played by her real-life husband Jerry O'Connell.  Romijn starred in the ABC series "Eastwick", reuniting her with her former "Pepper Dennis" co-star, Lindsay Price, before ABC canceled the show on November 9, 2009. She appears in an uncredited cameo in the 2011 feature film "", appearing as an older version of the character played by Jennifer Lawrence. Romijn appeared as lab worker Jessie on the Adult Swim live-action show "" for two seasons. Between June and September 2013, she starred in TNT's series "King & Maxwell" as Michelle Maxwell, a former Secret Service agent who works as a private investigator.  In addition to her film ventures, Romijn has also recorded music, performing a cover of Prince's "Darling Nikki" for the 2005 album "Electro Goth Tribute to Prince". She was also featured on the song "Color Me Love" for RuPaul's eighth studio album "Realness" in 2015. She starred as Eve Baird, the guardian of the eponymous group in "The Librarians", a direct spin-off of "The Librarian" film series. She is also currently the host of GSN's original series and reality show "Skin Wars". Romijn has also been confirmed to voice Lois Lane in the latest movie in the DC Universe Animated Original Movies, an adaptation of "The Death of Superman". In 2019 she joined the cast of "", playing the role of Number One, first officer of the USS "Enterprise".

Personal life.

Romijn began dating actor John Stamos in 1994, after they met at a Victoria's Secret fashion show in which she was modeling. Romijn and Stamos became engaged on Christmas Eve 1997, and they married on September 19, 1998 at the Beverly Hills Hotel. During the marriage, she used the name Rebecca Romijn-Stamos in both her personal and professional life. The couple announced their separation in April 2004. Stamos filed for divorce in August 2004, and it became final on March 1, 2005. Romijn subsequently resumed using only her maiden name, but revealed in an August 2013 interview on "Conan" that she had never legally changed her name back from Romijn-Stamos after a "Conan" staff member noticed "Romijn-Stamos" on her driver's license.  In 2004 Romijn started dating actor Jerry O'Connell. They became engaged in September 2005, and married at their home in Calabasas, California, on July 14, 2007. Romijn and O'Connell have twin daughters born in 2008.

Rebecca Alie Romijn ( ; ; born November 6, 1972) is an American actress and former model. She is known for her role as Mystique in the trilogy of the "X-Men" film series, and as Joan from "The Punisher" (2004), both of which are based on Marvel Comics. She also had a recurring role as Alexis Meade on the television series "Ugly Betty", and as Number One on "". Her other major roles include Eve Baird on the TNT series "The Librarians", which ran for four seasons, voicing Lois Lane in some DC Universe Animated Original Movies and as the host of the game show "Skin Wars".

Rebecca Romijn, née le à Berkeley, en Californie, aux États-Unis, est une actrice et mannequin américaine. Au cinéma, elle se fait connaître au début des années 2000 en incarnant la mutante Mystique dans la trilogie de blockbusters "X-Men", adaptée des comics "X-Men" (2000-2006).


Geographic setting.

Politically, the Jungfrau is split between the municipalities of Lauterbrunnen (Bern) and Fieschertal (Valais). It is the third-highest mountain of the Bernese Alps after the nearby Finsteraarhorn and Aletschhorn, respectively 12 and 8 km away. But from Lake Thun, and the greater part of the canton of Bern, it is the most conspicuous and the nearest of the Bernese Oberland peaks; with a height difference of 3,600 m between the summit and the town of Interlaken. This, and the extreme steepness of the north face, secured for it an early reputation for inaccessibility. The Jungfrau is the westernmost and highest point of a gigantic 10 km wall dominating the valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. The wall is formed by the alignment of some of the biggest north faces in the Alps, with the Mönch (4,107 m) and Eiger (3,967 m) to the east of the Jungfrau, and overlooks the valleys to its north by a height of up to 3 km. The Jungfrau is approximately 6 km from the Eiger; with the summit of the Mönch between the two mountains, 3.5 km from the Jungfrau. The wall is extended to the east by the Fiescherwand and to the west by the Lauterbrunnen Wall.  The difference of altitude between the deep valley of Lauterbrunnen (800 m) and the summit is particularly visible from the area of Mürren. From the valley floor, west of the massif, the altitude gain is more than 3 km for a horizontal distance of 4 km.  The landscapes around the Jungfrau are extremely contrasted. Instead of the vertiginous precipices of the north-west, the south-east side emerges from the upper snows of the Aletsch Glacier at around 3,500 meters. The 20 km long valley of Aletsch on the south-east is completely uninhabited and also surrounded by other similar glacier valleys. The whole area constitutes the largest glaciated area in the Alps as well as in Europe.

Climbing history.

In 1811, the brothers Johann Rudolf (1768–1825) and Hieronymus Meyer, sons of Johann Rudolf Meyer (1739–1813), the head of a rich merchant family of Aarau, along with several servants and a porter picked up at Guttannen, first reached the Valais by way of the Grimsel, and crossed the Beich Pass, a glacier pass over the Oberaletsch Glacier, to the head of the Lötschen valley. There, they added two local chamois hunters, Alois Volken and Joseph Bortis, to their party and traversed the Lötschenlücke before reaching the Aletschfirn (the west branch of the Aletsch Glacier), where they established the base camp, north of the Aletschhorn. After the Guttannen porter was sent back alone over the Lötschenlücke, the party finally reached the summit of the Jungfrau by the Rottalsattel on August 3. They then recrossed the two passes named to their point of departure in Valais, and went home again over the Grimsel.  The journey was a most extraordinary one for the time, and some persons threw doubts at its complete success. To settle these, another expedition was undertaken in 1812. In this the two sons, Rudolf (1791–1833) and Gottlieb (1793–1829), of Johann Rudolf Meyer, played the chief parts. After an unsuccessful attempt, defeated by bad weather, in the course of which the Oberaarjoch was crossed twice (this route being much more direct than the long detour through the Lötschental), Rudolf, with the two Valais hunters (Alois Volker and Joseph Bortis), a Guttannen porter named Arnold Abbühl, and a Hasle man, bivouacked on a depression on the southeast ridge of the Finsteraarhorn. Next day (August 16) the whole party attempted the ascent of the Finsteraarhorn from the Studer névé on the east by way of the southeast ridge, but Meyer, exhausted, remained behind. The following day the party crossed the Grünhornlücke to the Aletsch Glacier, but bad weather then put an end to further projects. At a bivouac, probably just opposite the present Konkordia Hut, the rest of the party, having come over the Oberaarjoch and the Grünhornlücke, joined the Finsteraarhorn party. Gottlieb, Rudolf's younger brother, had more patience than the rest and remained longer at the huts near the Märjelensee, where the adventurers had taken refuge. He could make the second ascent (September 3) of the Jungfrau, the Rottalsattel being reached from the east side as is now usual, and his companions being the two Valais hunters.  The third ascent dates from 1828, when several men from Grindelwald, headed by Peter Baumann, planted their flag upon the summit. Next came the ascent by Louis Agassiz, James David Forbes, Heath, Desor, and Duchatelier in 1841, recounted by Desor in his "Excursions et Séjours dans les Glaciers". Gottlieb Samuel Studer published an account of the next ascent made by himself and Bürki in 1842. In 1863, a party consisting of John Tyndall, J. J. Hornby, and T. H. Philpott, successfully reached the summit and returned to the base camp of the Faulberg (located near the actual position of the Konkordia Hut) in less than 11 hours. In the same year Mrs Stephen Winkworth became the first woman to climb the Jungfrau. She also slept overnight in the Faulberg cave prior to the ascent as there was no hut at that time.  Before the construction of the Jungfraujoch railway tunnel, the approach from the glaciers on the south side was very long. The first direct route from the valley of Lauterbrunnen was opened in 1865 by Geoffrey Winthrop Young, H. Brooke George with the guide Christian Almer. They had to carry ladders with them in order to cross the many crevasses on the north flank. Having spent the night on the rocks of the Schneehorn (3,402 m) they gained next morning the Silberlücke, the depression between the Jungfrau and Silberhorn, and thence in little more than three hours reached the summit. Descending to the Aletsch Glacier they crossed the Mönchsjoch, and passed a second night on the rocks, reaching Grindelwald next day. This route became a usual until the opening of the Jungfraujoch.  The first winter ascent was made on 23 January 1874, by Meta Brevoort and W. A. B. Coolidge with guides Christian and Ulrich Almer. They used a sled to reach the upper Aletsch Glacier, and were accompanied by Miss Brevoort's favorite dog, Tschingel.  The Jungfrau was climbed via the west side for the first time in 1885 by Fritz and Heinrich von Allmen, Ulrich Brunner, Fritz Graf, Karl Schlunegger and Johann Stäger—all from Wengen. They ascended the Rottal ridge ("Innere Rottalgrat") and reached the summit on 21 September. The more difficult and dangerous northeast ridge that connects the summit from the Jungfraujoch was first climbed on 30 July 1911 by Albert Weber and Hans Schlunegger.  In July 2007 six Swiss Army recruits, part of the Mountain Specialists Division 1, died in an accident on the normal route. Although the causes of the deaths was not immediately clear, a report by the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research concluded that the avalanche risk was unusually high due to recent snowfall, and that there was "no other reasonable explanation" other than an avalanche for the incident.

Ascent by James Phillpotts in 1863.

In July 1863 James Surtees Phillpotts, a young graduate later to become Headmaster of Bedford School, climbed the Jungfrau together with his friends Chaytor and Robertson. It seems probable that the “T.H. Philpott” referred to in John Ball's 1869 guidebook (see above) was in fact James Phillpotts. The trio had three guides, Peter Baumann, Herr Kaufmann and Herr Rubi, and slept in the Faulberg cave during the nights before and after the ascent. Their expedition is described in a letter dated Sunday 26 July which James Phillpotts wrote to his friend and colleague Alexander Potts (subsequently Headmaster of Fettes College). The following extracts are from that letter.  The Virgin certainly did not smile on the poor "fools who rushed in" on her sacred heights, i.e. in plain British, we had the treadmill slog, the biting wind, the half frost-bitten feet and the flayed faces that generally attend an Alpine ascent.  We got to the Faulberg hole about dark, and enjoyed the coffee the longman (Kauffmann) made, as one would in a hole in a rock in a cold evening. The "Faulberg Nachtlager" consists of two holes and a vestibule to the upper hole. The Upper Hole in which we lodged just contained Chay[tor], the Guv [Robertson] and myself, stretched at full length on a little hay over a hard rock mattress, convex instead of concave at the point where one likes to rest one's weight. Chaytor was in the middle, and as we were very close was warm and slept. The Guv and I courted Nature's soft nurse in vain. At two we got up and methodically put our feet into the stocks, i.e. our boots, breakfasted and shivered, then started (unwashed of course, as the cold gave us malignant hydrophobia) a little after 3:30.  The hole was about 150 feet up one of the loose stone cliffs one now knows so well. So we groped our way down it and over the moraine – the stars still lingering, as day was just dawning. We could not start at 1:30, the proper time, as there was no moon and we wanted light as we had to tramp the glacier at once. Rubi led, and off we went, roped and in Indian file, in the old treadmill way over the slippery ploughed-field-like snow that lay on the upper glacier, for a pull without a check of one or two hours.  At last we came to the region of "bergschrunds" and crevasses. They seemed to form at first an impassable labyrinth, but gradually the guides wound in and out between the large rifts, which were exquisitely lovely with their overhanging banks of snow and glittering icicles, and then trod as on pins and needles over a snowbridge here and there, or had to take a jump over the more feasible ones – and we found ourselves at the foot of the mountain; trudged up on the snow which ought to have been crisp but was even then more or less fresh fallen and sloppy; had to creep over about three crevasses, and after a tiresome pull, dragging one leg after another out of ankle or knee deep snow, we got on a crest of snow at right angles to the slope we had just come up. That slope with its crevasses on one side, and on the other a shorter and much steeper one which led in a few steps to a precipice.  All along this crest went a snakelike long crevasse, for which we had continually to sound, and go first one side and then the other; then we got to the foot of the saddle. Some twenty or thirty steps, some cut, some uncut, soon took us up a kind of hollow, and we got on a little sloping plateau of some six feet large, where we left the grub and the knapsack, keeping my small flask of cognac only. Then up a steep ice slope, very steep I should say, down which the bits of ice cut out of the steps hopped and jumped at full gallop and then bounded over to some bottomless place which we could not see down. Their pace gave one an unpleasant idea of the possible consequence of a slip.  Here we encountered a biting bitter wind. Peter Baumann cut magnificent steps, at least he and Rubi did between them, the one improving on the other's first rough blows. After Rubi came Chaytor with Kauffmann behind him, then the Guv, and then myself, the tail of the string. Each step was a long lift from the last one, and as the snow was shallow they had to be cut in the ice which was like rock on this last slope.  Suddenly there burst upon us, on lifting our heads over the ridge, the green and cheerful valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Interlaken, of Grindelwald and a distant view of others equally beautiful stretching on for ever in one vast panorama. On the other side in grim contrast there was a wild and even awful scene. One gazed about one and tried in vain to see to the bottom of dark yawning abysses and sheer cliffs of ice or rock.

Jungfraujoch and tourism.

While the mountain peak was once difficult to access, the Jungfraubahn cog railway now goes to the Jungfraujoch railway station at, the highest in Europe. The Jungfraujoch is the lowest pass between the Jungfrau and Mönch.  In 1893 Adolf Guyer-Zeller conceived of the idea for a railway tunnel to the Jungfraujoch to make the glaciated areas on the south more accessible. The building of the tunnel took 16 years and the summit station was not opened before 1912. The goal was in fact to reach the summit of the Jungfrau with an elevator from the highest railway station inside the mountain. The complete project was not realized because of the outbreak of the World War I.  The train into the mountain leaves from Kleine Scheidegg, which can be reached by trains from Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen via Wengen. The train enters the tunnel running eastward through the Eiger shortly above Kleine Scheidegg. Before arriving at the Jungfraujoch, it stops for a few minutes at two other stations, "Eigerwand" (on the north face of the Eiger) and "Eismeer" (on the south side), where passengers can see through the holes excavated from the mountain. The journey from Kleine Scheidegg to Jungfraujoch takes approximately 50 minutes including the stops; the downhill return journey taking only 35 minutes.  A large complex of tunnels and buildings has been constructed at the Jungfraujoch, mostly into the south side of the Mönch. There is a hotel, two restaurants, an observatory, a research station, a small cinema, a ski school, and the "Ice Palace", a collection of elaborate ice sculptures. Another tunnel leads outside to a flat, snow-covered area, where one can walk around and look down to the Konkordiaplatz and the Aletsch Glacier, as well as the surrounding mountains.  Apart from the Jungfraujoch, many facilities have been built in the two valleys north of the Jungfrau (the commonly named "Jungfrau Region"). In 1908, the first public cable car in the world opened at the foot of the Wetterhorn, but was closed seven years later. The Schilthorn above Mürren or the Männlichen above Wengen offer good views of the Jungfrau and other summits.

Climbing routes.

The normal route follows the traces of the first climbers, but the long approach on the Aletsch Glacier is no longer necessary. From the area of the Jungfraujoch the route to the summit takes only a few hours. Most climbers start from the Mönchsjoch Hut. After a traverse of the Jungfraufirn the route heads to the Rottalsattel (3,885 m), from where the southern ridge leads to the Jungfrau. It is not considered a very difficult climb but it can be dangerous on the upper section above the Rottalsattel, where most accidents happen. The use of the Jungfrau railway can cause some acclimatization troubles as the difference of altitude between the railway stations of Interlaken and Jungfraujoch is almost 3 km.

The Jungfrau ("maiden, virgin"), at is one of the main summits of the Bernese Alps, located between the northern canton of Bern and the southern canton of Valais, halfway between Interlaken and Fiesch. Together with the Eiger and Mönch, the Jungfrau forms a massive wall of mountains overlooking the Bernese Oberland and the Swiss Plateau, one of the most distinctive sights of the Swiss Alps.

William James Durant (né le à North Adams, Massachusetts - mort le ), dit Will Durant, est un philosophe, un historien et un écrivain américain. Il est notamment l'auteur de nombreux articles de magazines ainsi que d'une "Histoire de la Philosophie" ("The Story of Philosophy"), et d'une "Histoire de la Civilisation" ("The Story of Civilization"), en 32 volumes, qu'il mit quarante ans à écrire avec l’aide de sa femme Ariel.


Personality and identity.

Despite the perceptions that people may hold, owing to the long eyelashes and high-pitched voice (which Mel Blanc provided), Tweety is male although his ambiguity was played with. For example, in the cartoon "Snow Business", when Granny entered a room containing Tweety and Sylvester she said: "Here I am, boys!", whereas a 1952 cartoon was entitled "Ain't She Tweet" [emphasis added]. Also, his species is ambiguous; although originally and often portrayed as a young canary, he is also frequently called a rare and valuable "tweety bird" as a plot device, and once called "the only living specimen". Nevertheless, the title song of "The Sylvester & Tweety Mysteries" directly states that the bird is a canary. His shape more closely suggests that of a "baby" bird, which is what he was during his early appearances (although the "baby bird" aspect has been used in a few later cartoons as a plot device). The yellow feathers were added but otherwise he retained the baby-bird shape.  In his early appearances in Bob Clampett cartoons, Tweety is a very aggressive character who tries anything to foil his foe, even kicking his enemy when he is down. One of his most notable malicious moments is in the cartoon "Birdy and the Beast". A cat chases Tweety by flying until he remembers that cats cannot fly, causing him to fall. Tweety says sympathetically, "Awww, the poor kitty cat! He faw down and go ("in a loud, tough, masculine voice") BOOM!!" and then grins mischievously. A similar use of that voice is in "A Tale Of Two Kitties" when Tweety, wearing an air raid warden's helmet, suddenly yells, "Turn out those lights!" Tweety's aggressive nature was toned down when Friz Freleng started directing the series, with the character turning into a more cutesy bird, usually going about his business, and doing little to thwart Sylvester's ill-conceived plots, allowing them to simply collapse on their own; he became even less aggressive when Granny was introduced, but occasionally Tweety still showed a malicious side.

Creation by Bob Clampett.

Bob Clampett created the character that would become Tweety in the 1942 short "A Tale of Two Kitties", pitting him against two hungry cats named Babbit and Catstello (based on the famous comedians Abbott and Costello). On the original model sheet, Tweety was named Orson which was based on the model sheets in the early 40s (which was also the name of a bird character from an earlier Clampett cartoon "Wacky Blackout").  Tweety was created not as a domestic canary, but as a generic (and wild) baby bird in an outdoors nest: naked (pink), jowly, and also far more aggressive and saucy, as opposed to the later, more well-known version of him as a less hot-tempered (but still somewhat ornery) yellow canary. In the documentary "", animator Clampett stated, in a "sotto voce" "aside" to the audience, that Tweety had been based "on my own naked baby picture". Clampett did two more shorts with the "naked genius", as a Jimmy Durante-ish cat once called him in "A Gruesome Twosome". The second Tweety short, "Birdy and the Beast", finally bestowed the baby bird with his new name, and gave him his blue eyes.  Many of Mel Blanc's characters are known for speech impediments. One of Tweety's most noticeable is that /s/, /k/, and /g/ are changed to /t/, /d/, or (final s) /θ/; for example, "pussy cat" comes out as "putty tat", later rendered "puddy tat", and "sweetie pie" comes out as "tweetie pie" (a phonological pattern refered to as 'fronting'), hence his name. He also has trouble with liquid consonants: as with Elmer Fudd, /l/ and /r/ come out as /w/. In "Canary Row" and "Putty Tat Trouble", he begins the cartoon by singing a song about himself, "I'm a tweet wittow biwd in a giwded cage; Tweety'th my name but I don't know my age, I don't have to wuwy and dat is dat; I'm tafe in hewe fwom dat ol' putty tat." (Translation: "I'm a sweet little bird in a gilded cage...") Aside from this speech challenge, Tweety's voice is that of Bugs Bunny's, done a speed up only (if "The Old Grey Hare", which depicts Bugs as an infant, is any indication of that); the only difference is that Bugs doesn't have trouble pronouncing /s/, /k/ and /g/ as mentioned above.

Freleng takes over.

Clampett began work on a short that would pit Tweety against a then-unnamed, lisping black and white cat created by Friz Freleng in 1945. However, Clampett left the studio before going into full production on the short (which had a storyboard produced, where it was titled "Fat Rat and the Stupid Cat"), and Freleng took on the project. Freleng toned Tweety down and gave him a cuter appearance, including large blue eyes and yellow feathers. Clampett mentions in "Bugs Bunny: Superstar" that the feathers were added to satisfy censors who objected to the naked bird. The first short to team Tweety and the cat, later named Sylvester, was 1947's "Tweetie Pie", which won Warner Bros its first Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Cartoons).  Sylvester and Tweety proved to be one of the most notable pairings in animation history. Most of their cartoons followed a standard formula:  In a few of the cartoons, Sylvester does manage to briefly eat Tweety up with a gulp. However, either Granny or another character makes him spit Tweety out right away. Sylvester was also briefly eaten by Hector the Bulldog, and forced by Granny to spit him out. This occurred during the Christmas special episode, and as a punishment, both Sylvester and Hector were tied up with their mouths gagged shut.  In 1951, Mel Blanc (with Billy May's orchestra) had a hit single with "I Tawt I Taw a Puddy Tat", a song performed in character by Tweety and featuring Sylvester. In the lyrics Sylvester sings "I'd like to eat that Sweetie Pie when he leaves his cage", implying that Tweety's name is actually Sweetie Pie, altered in its pronunciation by Tweety's speech impediment. Sylvester, who has his own speech issues involving the sounds /s/ and /p/, slobbers the "S" in "Sweetie Pie", just as he would the /s/ sounds in his own name. Later the same name was applied to the young, pink female canary in the "Tiny Toon Adventures" animated TV series of the early 1990s.  From 1945 until the original Warner Bros. Cartoons studio closed, Freleng had almost exclusive use of Tweety at the Warner cartoon studio (much like Yosemite Sam), with the exception of a brief cameo in "No Barking" in 1954, directed by Chuck Jones (that year, Freleng used Pepé Le Pew, a Jones character, for the only time in his career and the only time in a Tweety short, "Dog Pounded").

Later appearances.

Tweety had a small part in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", making Eddie Valiant (Bob Hoskins) fall from a flag pole by playing "This Little Piggy" with Valiant's fingers and releasing his grip. The scene is essentially a re-creation of a gag from "A Tale of Two Kitties", with Valiant replacing Catstello as Tweety's victim.  During the 1990s, Tweety also starred in the animated TV series "The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries", in which Granny ran a detective agency with the assistance of Tweety, Sylvester and Hector. Tweety has the starring role. The storyline carries into the 2000 direct-to-video feature-length animated film "Tweety's High-Flying Adventure". Tweety's prototype, Orson, also made an appearance in the series.  Tweety also appears in "Tiny Toon Adventures" as the mentor of Sweetie Pie, and one of the faculty at Acme Looniversity.  In the 1995 cartoon short "Carrotblanca", a parody/homage to "Casablanca", Tweety appeared as "Usmarte", a parody of the character Ugarte played by Peter Lorre in the original film. In several sequences, Tweety was speaking and laughing in character like Peter Lorre. He also does the Looney Tunes ending instead of Porky Pig or Bugs Bunny. This is also notable for being a rare instance where Tweety is playing a villain character.  In 1996, Tweety appeared in the feature film, "Space Jam," with legendary basketball player Michael Jordan. In the film, Tweety was voiced by Bob Bergen.  In 2001, a younger version of Tweety appeared on "Baby Looney Tunes", thus coming full circle from his earliest appearances.  In 2010 Tweety was featured, with his Looney Tunes co-stars, in Cartoon Network's series "The Looney Tunes Show." He is voiced by Jeff Bergman. He appeared in the episode "Ridiculous Journey", where he and Sylvester work together to avoid getting eaten by Taz. He had been revealed to have fought in World War II alongside a young Granny. Sylvester also asked him how old he was, to which Tweety replied, "I'll never tell." Sylvester then asked if Tweety would at least tell him if he (Tweety) was a boy or a girl. Tweety whispered into his ear and Sylvester had a surprised expression and said "Huh, I was wrong."  Tweety recently appeared as a recurring character in "New Looney Tunes", where he is voiced by Eric Bauza and has been reverted to the more violent and aggressive personality that Bob Clampett originally gave him.

Merchandise.

Tweety and Sylvester have been used to endorse products such as Miracle Whip dressing and MCI Communications long distance. In 1998, the United States Post Office honored Tweety and Sylvester with a 32-cent postage stamp. Tweety also appears in products produced by Warner Brothers Studios.

Modern art.

British artist Banksy's 2008 New York art installation "The Village Pet Store and Charcoal Grill" features "Tweety", an animatronic sculpture of an aged and molting version of the character.

Comic books.

Western Publications produced a comic book about Tweety and Sylvester entitled "Tweety and Sylvester", first in Dell Comics "Four Color" series #406, 489, and 524, then in their own title from Dell Comics (#4–37, 1954–62), then later from Gold Key Comics (#1–102, 1963–72).

Voice actors.

Legendary voice artist Mel Blanc originated the character's voice. After the Golden Age of American Animation came to an end, Blanc continued to voice the character in TV specials, commercials, music recording, and films, such as 1988's "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", which was one of Blanc's final projects as Tweety. Following Blanc's death in 1989, several voice actors have provided the voice in his stead. These voice actors are:

Tweety is a yellow canary in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of animated cartoons. The name "Tweety" is a play on words, as it originally meant "sweetie", along with "tweet" being an English onomatopoeia for the sounds of birds. His characteristics are based on Red Skelton's famous "Mean Widdle Kid." Tweety appeared in 46 cartoons during the golden age, made between 1942 and 1962.

Titi ( ou en version d'origine) est un personnage des Looney Tunes. Créé par Bob Clampett et Friz Freleng en 1942, ce petit canari jaune (mâle) est la proie préférée de Sylvestre le chat dit « Grosminet » ("Sylvester" en VO).