History.

When it was originally established in 1961 as a wildlife sanctuary the Mara covered only of the current area, including the Mara Triangle. The area was extended to the east in 1961 to cover and converted to a game reserve. The Narok County Council (NCC) took over management of the reserve at this time. Part of the reserve was given National Reserve status in 1974, and the remaining area of was returned to local communities. An additional were removed from the reserve in 1976, and the park was reduced to in 1984.  In 1994, the TransMara County Council (TMCC) was formed in the western part of the reserve, and control was divided between the new council and the existing Narok County Council. In May 2001, the not-for-profit Mara Conservancy took over management of the Mara Triangle.  The Maasai people make up a community that spans across northern, central and southern Kenya and northern parts of Tanzania. As pastoralists, the community holds the belief that they own all of the cattle in the world. The Maasai rely off of their lands to sustain their cattle, as well as themselves and their families. Prior to the establishment of the reserve as a protected area for the conservation of wildlife and wilderness, the Maasai were forced to move out of their native lands.  Tradition continues to play a major role in the lives of modern day Maasai people, who are known for their tall stature, patterned shukas and beadwork. It is estimated that there are approximately half a million individuals that speak the Maa language and this number includes not only the Maasai but also Samburu and Camus people in Kenya.

Geography.

The total area under conservation in the Greater Maasai Mara ecosystem amounts to almost. It is the northernmost section of the Mara-Serengeti ecosystem, which covers some in Tanzania and Kenya. It is bounded by the Serengeti Park to the south, the Siria / Oloololo escarpment to the west, and Maasai pastoral ranches to the north, east and west. Rainfall in the ecosystem increases markedly along a southeast–northwest gradient, varies in space and time, and is markedly bimodal. The Sand, Talek River and Mara River are the major rivers draining the reserve. Shrubs and trees fringe most drainage lines and cover hillslopes and hilltops.  The terrain of the reserve is primarily open grassland with seasonal riverlets. In the south-east region are clumps of the distinctive acacia tree. The western border is the Esoit (Siria) Escarpment of the East African Rift, which is a system of rifts some long, from Ethiopia's Red Sea through Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi and into Mozambique. Wildlife tends to be most concentrated here, as the swampy ground means that access to water is always good, while tourist disruption is minimal. The easternmost border is from Nairobi, and hence it is the eastern regions which are most visited by tourists.  The rains are biannual, with two distinct rainy seasons. Local farmers have referred to these as the 'long rains' which last approximately six to eight weeks in April and May and the'short rains' in November and December which last approximately four weeks.  Elevation: ; Rainfall: /month; Temperature range:

Wildlife.

Wildebeest, topi, zebra, and Thomson's gazelle migrate into and occupy the Mara reserve, from the Serengeti plains to the south and Loita Plains in the pastoral ranches to the north-east, from July to October or later. Herds of all three species are also resident in the reserve.  Hippopotami and crocodiles are found in large groups in the Mara and Talek rivers. Hyenas, cheetahs, jackals, servals and bat-eared foxes can also be found in the reserve. The plains between the Mara River and the Esoit Siria Escarpment are probably the best area for game viewing, in particular regarding lion and cheetah.  Wildebeest are the dominant inhabitants of the Maasai Mara, and their numbers are estimated in the millions. Around July of each year, these animals migrate north from the Serengeti plains in search of fresh pasture, and return to the south around October. The Great Migration is one of the most impressive natural events worldwide, involving some 1,300,000 blue wildebeest, 500,000 Thomson's gazelles, 97,000 Topi, 18,000 common elands, and 200,000 Grant's zebras.  Antelopes can be found, including Grant's gazelles, impalas, duikers and Coke's hartebeests. The plains are also home to the distinctive Masai giraffe. The large roan antelope and the nocturnal bat-eared fox, rarely present elsewhere in Kenya, can be seen within the reserve borders.  More than 470 species of birds have been identified in the park, many of which are migrants, with almost 60 species being raptors. Birds that call this area home for at least part of the year include: vultures, marabou storks, secretary birds, hornbills, crowned cranes, ostriches, long-crested eagles, African pygmy-falcons and the lilac-breasted roller, which is the national bird of Kenya.

Administration.

The Maasai Mara is administered by the Narok County government. The more visited eastern part of the park known as the Maasai Mara National Reserve is managed by the Narok County Council. The Mara Triangle in the western part is managed by the Trans-Mara county council, which has contracted management to the Mara Conservancy since the early 2000s.  The outer areas are conservancies that are administered by Group Ranch Trusts of the Maasai community, although this approach has been criticised for benefitting just a few powerful individuals rather than the majority of landowners. Although there has been a rise in fencing on private land in recent years, the wildlife roam freely across both the reserve and conservancies.

Research.

The Maasai Mara is a major research centre for the spotted hyena. With two field offices in the Mara, the Michigan State University based Kay E. Holekamp Lab studies the behaviour and physiology of this predator, as well as doing comparison studies between large predators in the Mara Triangle and their counterparts in the eastern part of the Mara.  A flow assessment and trans-boundary river basin management plan between Kenya and Tanzania was completed for the river to sustain the ecosystem and the basic needs of 1 million people who depend on its water.  The Mara Predator Project also operates in the Maasai Mara, cataloging and monitoring lion populations throughout the region. Concentrating on the northern conservancies where communities coexist with wildlife, the project aims to identify population trends and responses to changes in land management, human settlements, livestock movements and tourism.  Since October 2012, the Mara-Meru Cheetah Project has worked in the Mara monitoring cheetah population, estimating population status and dynamics, and evaluating the predator impact and human activity on cheetah behavior and survival. The head of the Project, Elena Chelysheva, was working in 2001-2002 as Assistant Researcher at the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) Maasai-Mara Cheetah Conservation Project. At that time, she developed original method of cheetah identification based on visual analysis of the unique spot patterns on front limbs (from toes to shoulder) and hind limbs (from toes to the hip), and spots and rings on the tail. Collected over the years, photographic data allows the project team to trace kinship between generations and build Mara cheetah pedigree. The data collected helps to reveal parental relationship between individuals, survival rate of cubs, cheetah lifespan and personal reproductive history.

Tourism.

The Maasai Mara is one of the most famous safari destinations in Africa. Entry fees are currently US$ 70 for adult non-East African Residents per 24 hours (if staying at a property inside the Reserve) or US$ 80 if outside the reserve, and $40 for children. There are a number of lodges and tented camps catering for tourists inside or bordering the Reserve and within the various separate Conservancies which border the main reserve. However, the main reserve is unfenced even along the border with Serengeti (Tanzania) which means there is free movement of wildlife throughout the ecosystem.  Although one third of the whole Maasai Mara in the western part if the larger reserve, The Mara Triangle has only two permanent lodges within its boundaries, namely the Mara Serena Lodge and Little Governors Camp (compared to the numerous camps and lodges on the Narok side) and has well maintained, all weather gravel roads. The rangers patrol regularly which means that there is less poaching and excellent game viewing. There is also strict control over vehicle numbers around animal sightings, allowing for a better experience when out on a game drive. Most lodges within the region charge higher rates during the Migration season, although the Maasai Mara is home to prolific wildlife year-round.  There are several airfields which serve the camps and lodges in the Maasai Mara, including Mara Serena Airstrip, Musiara Airstrip and Keekorok, Kichwa Tembo, Ngerende Airport, Ol Kiombo and Angama Mara Airstrips, and several airlines such as SafariLink and AirKenya fly scheduled services from Nairobi and elsewhere multiple times a day. Helicopter flights over the reserve are limited to a minimum height of 1,500 ft.  Game drives are the most popular activity in the Maasai Mara, but other activities include hot air ballooning, nature walks, photographic safaris and cultural experiences.

Big Cat Diary.

The BBC Television show titled ""Big Cat Diary"" was filmed in the Maasai Mara. The show followed the lives of the big cats living in the reserve. The show highlighted scenes from the Reserve's Musiara marsh area and the Leopard Gorge, the Fig Tree Ridge areas and the Mara River, separating the Serengeti and the Maasai Mara.

Photography competition.

In 2018, the Angama Foundation, a non-profit affiliated with Angama Mara, one of the Mara's luxury safari camps, launched the Greatest Maasai Mara Photographer of the Year competition, showcasing the Mara as a year-round destination and raise funds for conservation initiatives active in the Mara. The inaugural winner was British photographer Anup Shah. The 2019 winner was Lee-Anne Robertson from South Africa.

Threats.

A study funded by WWF and conducted by ILRI between 1989 and 2003 monitored hoofed species in the Mara on a monthly basis, and found that losses were as high as 75 percent for giraffes, 80 percent for common warthogs, 76 percent for hartebeest, and 67 percent for impala. The study blames the loss of animals on increased human settlement in and around the reserve. The higher human population density leads to an increased number of livestock grazing in the park and an increase in poaching. The article claims, "The study provides the most detailed evidence to date on the declines in the ungulate (hoofed animals) populations in the Mara and how this phenomenon is linked to the rapid expansion of human populations near the boundaries of the reserve."  The rise of local populations in areas neighbouring the reserve has led to the formation of conservation organisations such as the Mara Elephant Project who aim to ensure the peaceful and prosperous co-existence of humans alongside wildlife. Human wildlife conflict is seen as a leading threat to the reserve as the population continues to grow.

Maasai Mara, also known as Masai Mara, and locally simply as The Mara, is a large national game reserve in Narok, Kenya, contiguous with the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. It is named in honor of the Maasai people, the ancestral inhabitants of the area, who migrated to the area from the Nile Basin. Their description of the area when looked at from afar: "Mara" means "spotted" in the local Maasai language, due to the many short bushy trees which dot the landscape.

La réserve nationale du Masai Mara est une réserve nationale située au sud-ouest du Kenya. C'est le prolongement naturel du parc national du Serengeti situé en Tanzanie. Elle tient son nom de la tribu qui vit sur ses terres, les Masaïs, et de la rivière qui la traverse, la Mara. C'est dans ce parc qu'a été tourné le film "Félins".


Biography.

Khalid bin Mahfouz was the second eldest son of Salem Ahmed bin Mahfouz, a Saudi who rose from being an illiterate moneychanger to the founder of the first bank in his country, the National Commercial Bank of Saudi Arabia (NCB). Salem Ahmed then became the personal banker of the Saudi royal family. He handed management of NCB, the largest bank in the country, to Khalid sometime in the 1980s.  In the 1970s Khalid bin Mahfouz bought and lived in a $3.5 million chateaux-style house, later named "Versailles," in the River Oaks area of Houston. He also bought a four thousand acre (16 km2) ranch along the Trinity River in Liberty County, Texas, near the ranch of James Bath. Another of his estates, resting on 121 acres, was reportedly put up for sale at auction on April 11, 2013 with a guide price of 2.4 million euro.  In 1990 Khalid bin Mahfouz acquired Irish citizenship through inward-investment procedures.  Bin Mahfouz was married with three children. His personal net worth was $3.2 billion in 2006, making him one of the richest people in the world at the time; his family fortune was estimated to have been worth over $4 billion.

Controversies and allegations.

Alleged Brother-in-law of Osama bin Laden.

This allegation came from high-profile people, book authors and well respected newspapers in the US and Europe such as The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Post. All turned out to be based on false information. For example, James Woolsey, former Director of CIA, testified to a congressional subcommittee that Khalid Bin Mahfouz was a brother-in-law of Osama Bin Laden. He later on told Los Angeles Times 'I don't know what to say other than there was some confusion, but I never meant to refer to Bin Mahfouz's sister'.  The Wall Street Journal issued a correction. “None of Khalid bin Mahfouz's sisters is, or ever has been, married to Osama bin Laden." "

$225 million BCCI scandal fine.

Bin Mahfouz was a non-executive director of Bank of Credit and Commerce International, a financial conglomerate later convicted of money laundering, bribery, support of terrorism, arms trafficking, and many other crimes. Mahfouz personally owned a 20% stake in BCCI. He was indicted by a New York state grand jury for fraud but denied any culpability. The fraud charges were settled for $225 million in lieu of fines. Mr. Bin Mahfouz has claimed that he simply settled as a business decision rather than using resources to fight further.

Donations to Osama bin Laden in 1988.

Craig Unger's book "House of Bush, House of Saud" claims that bin Mahfouz donated over $270,000 to Osama bin Laden's Islamist organization at the request of Osama's brother Salem bin Laden. Bin Mahfouz's lawyer stated: "This donation was to assist the US-sponsored resistance to the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and was never intended nor, to the best of Sheikh Khalid's knowledge, ever used to fund any 'extension' of that resistance movement in other countries."

Alleged NCB funding of al-Qaeda.

Khalid bin Mahfouz has denied that NCB, his bank, was involved in funding an al-Qaeda group. According to reports, high-placed Saudi businessmen transferred millions of dollars through NCB to charities operating as fronts for al-Qaeda. Mahfouz states that he could not have been aware of every wire transfer moving through the bank, and that he would not have allowed such transactions had he known they were taking place.  Additionally, Forbes reports: NCB senior officials vehemently deny the existence of this audit.  He eventually won a string of lawsuits against writers who had accused him of supporting terrorism, with a notable exception of Rachel Ehrenfeld. Ehrenfeld, the author of Funding Evil and a U.S. citizen based in New York, had not written or marketed her book internationally and refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the English court over her case, instead alleging that Mahfouz was using the High Court of Justice for libel tourism. Her refusal resulted in Justice Eady in the High Court awarding a default judgment against her in 2005. Dr Ehrenfeld was ordered to apologize, destroy all copies of her book and pay him $230,000 in damages. The New York State Legislature, however, passed a law preventing the judgments from being enforced by providing greater protection against libel judgments in countries whose laws are inconsistent with the freedom of speech granted by the United States Constitution.  Sheik Mahfouz did acknowledge making one contribution to Al Qaeda during the epoch of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan.

Muwafaq Foundation.

Khalid bin Mahfouz helped set up a charity organization called the Muwafaq Foundation, Muwafaq being Arabic for "blessed relief". He funded this charity with $30 million, and put his eldest son, Abdulrahman bin Mahfouz, on the board of directors. In October 2001, the U.S. Treasury Department named Muwafaq Foundation - a charity devoted to famine relief - a front organization. Neither Khalid nor Abdulrahman were accused of funding terrorism by the United States; however Yasin al-Qadi, a Saudi national hired to run the charity, was named a supporter of terrorism and had his assets frozen by the U.S. Treasury Department.

UN designation.

There have been numerous allegations that Khalid bin Mahfouz has been named a terrorist financier by the United Nations. The controversy springs from a report prepared by French investigator Jean-Charles Brisard and his research agency, the JCB Consulting Group, for the President of the Security Council of the United Nations in December 2002. In this report Khalid was listed as one of seven "main individual Saudi sponsors of al Qaeda."

Khalid bin Mahfouz (December 26, 1949 – August 16, 2009) () was a Saudi Arabian billionaire, banker, businessman, investor and former chairman of the National Commercial Bank (NCB). Khalid is the son of Salem Bin Mahfouz, a Saudi entrepreneur who rose from being a smalltime moneychanger to becoming the founder of the NCB, the first private Saudi bank.

Khalid Salim Bin Mahfouz ( - ) est un banquier d'Arabie saoudite, cofondateur et ancien président de la National Commercial Bank (NCB), l'une des plus grandes banques saoudiennes, cité dans plusieurs dossiers portant sur Al-Qaïda. Fils de Salim Bin Mahfouz et ancien juriste, il est nommé en 1989 conseiller suprême d'Aramco par le roi Fahd.


Toponym.

Elephant Island's name is attributed to both its elephant head-like appearance and the sighting of elephant seals by Captain George Powell in 1821, one of the earliest sightings.

Geography.

The island is oriented approximately east–west, with a maximum elevation of at Pardo Ridge. The weather is normally foggy with much snow, and winds can reach.  Significant named features are Cape Yelcho, Cape Valentine and Cape Lookout at the northeastern and southern extremes, and Point Wild, a spit on the north coast. The Endurance Glacier is the main discharge glacier.

Geology.

Elephant Island is part of the Scotia metamorphic complex, which was created by Cretaceous sea floor sediments being scraped off and metamorphosed at the Scotia subduction zone. The resulting rocks are phyllites, blueschists and greenschists typical of an accretionary wedge, with increased metamorphism from northeast to southwest. These rocks are at the surface here because of uplift along the Shackleton Fault Zone where it meets the South Scotia Ridge. This complex is very similar in age and rock types to those of coastal California, including Catalina Island and the Big Sur coast.

Flora and fauna.

The island supports no significant flora or native fauna, although migratory gentoo penguins and seals may be found, and chinstrap penguins nest in season. A lack of safe anchorage has prevented any permanent human settlement, despite the island being well placed to support scientific, fishing and whaling activities. Due to slow recoveries and illegal whaling by the Soviet Union with support from Japan, numbers of southern right whales visiting Elephant island are still at low levels.

History.

First Russian Antarctic expedition.

The First Russian Antarctic expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on the 985-ton sloop-of-war "Vostok" ("East") and the 530-ton support vessel "Mirny" ("Peaceful") discovered Elephant Island on 29 January 1821 and named it "Остров Мордвинова" ("Mordvinov Island") in honour of.

"Endurance" expedition.

The island was the desolate refuge of the British explorer Ernest Shackleton and his crew in 1916 following the loss of their ship "Endurance" in the pack ice of the Weddell Sea. The crew of 28 reached Cape Valentine on Elephant Island after months spent drifting on ice floes and a harrowing crossing of the open ocean in small lifeboats. After camping at Cape Valentine for two nights, Shackleton and his crew moved west to a small, rocky spit at the terminus of a glacier, which offered better protection from rockfalls and from the sea, and which they called "Point Wild".  Realizing that there was no chance of passive rescue, Shackleton decided to sail to South Georgia, where he knew there were several whaling stations. Shackleton sailed with Tom Crean, Frank Worsley, Harry "Chippy" McNish, Tim McCarthy, and John Vincent on an voyage in the open lifeboat "James Caird" beginning on Easter Monday, April 24, 1916, and arriving at South Georgia 16 days later. His second-in-command, Frank Wild, was left in charge of the remaining party on Elephant Island, waiting for Shackleton's return with a rescue ship.  There was much work for the stranded men. Because the island had no natural source of shelter, they constructed a shack and wind blocks from their remaining two lifeboats and pieces of canvas tents. Blubber lamps were used for lighting. They hunted for penguins and seals, neither of which were plentiful in autumn or winter. Shackleton instructed Wild to depart with the crew for Deception Island if he did not return to rescue them by the beginning of summer, but after four and a half months, on August 30, 1916, the artist George Marston spotted a ship. The ship, with Shackleton on board, was the tug "Yelcho", from Punta Arenas, Chile, commanded by Luis Pardo, which rescued all the men who had set out on the original expedition.

Joint Services Expeditions 1970–71.

A Joint Services Expedition led by Commander Malcolm Burley was dropped off on Elephant Island by. The party then spent six months carrying out a survey of the island and other scientific research for the British Antarctic Survey and climbing some of the peaks on the island. The expedition visited Point Wild but found no trace of the "Endurance" expedition; it did, however, find the wreckage of a large sailing vessel, likely the remains of the schooner "Charles Shearer" from Stonington, New London, Connecticut, under Captain William Henry Appelman. The expedition also landed on and climbed the highest peak on nearby Clarence Island.

Historic sites.

Point Wild contains the Endurance Memorial Site, an Antarctic Historic Site (HSM 53), with a bust of Captain Pardo and several plaques. Hampson Cove on the southwest coast of the island, including the foreshore and intertidal area, contains the wreckage of a large wooden sailing vessel; it has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 74), following a proposal by the United Kingdom to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.

Elephant Island is an ice-covered, mountainous island off the coast of Antarctica in the outer reaches of the South Shetland Islands, in the Southern Ocean. The island is situated north-northeast of the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, west-southwest of South Georgia, south of the Falkland Islands, and southeast of Cape Horn. It is within the Antarctic claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom.

L’île de l’Éléphant est une île montagneuse située au nord-ouest de l'Antarctique. Elle fait partie de l’archipel des îles Shetland du Sud. Sa position géographique est, à au sud-ouest de la Géorgie du Sud.


Presentation.

Gas gangrene can cause myonecrosis (muscle tissue death), gas production, and sepsis. Progression to toxemia and shock is often very rapid. It can easily be noticed by the large, blackened sores that form, as well as a degree of loud and distinctive crepitus caused by gas escaping the necrotic tissue.

Etiology.

"Clostridium" species produce more toxins and exhibit higher degrees of virulence than any other bacterial taxon. "Clostridium" infections are usually opportunistic, and occur in individuals with serious preexisting medical conditions. However, "Clostridium" infections are also known to occur in healthy individuals. Four species of "Clostridium" ("Clostridium botulinum", "Clostridium perfringens", "Clostridium tetani", and "Clostridium sordelli") are responsible for most human infections. Since "Clostridium" is an obligate anaerobe taxon, the bacterium infects hypoxic tissues, which had became anaerobic due to restricted blood flow, degradation of blood vessels, or atherosclerosis. Immunocompromised individuals exhibit higher susceptibility for infection and higher mortality rates.

Epidemiology.

"Clostridium" species are found in abundance in soil, especially soil used for animal husbandry. In medical facilities, it thrives when unhygienic circumstances prevail. In the United States, the incidence of myonecrosis is only about 1,000 cases per year.  During World War I and World War II, 'Clostridial myonecrosis was found in 5% of wounds, but with improvement in wound care, antisepsis and the use of antibiotics, the incidence has fallen to 0.1% of war-related wound infections in the Vietnam war.  With the best of care, including early recognition, surgical care, antibiotic treatment, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy, the mortality rate is 20-30% and can be as low as 5-10%. If untreated, however, the disease has a 100% fatality rate.

Pathophysiology.

Gas gangrene is caused by exotoxin-producing "Clostridium" species (most often "C. perfringens", and "C. novyi", but less commonly "C. septicum" or "C. ramnosum"), which are mostly found in soil, but also found as normal gut flora, and other anaerobes (e.g., "Bacteroides" and anaerobic streptococci).  Bacterium of the Clostridial species produce two toxins: alpha and theta toxins, which cause necrotizing damage to tissues.  Other organisms may occasionally cause gas gangrene (for example, "Klebsiella pneumoniae" in the context of diabetes).  A gas composition of 5.9% hydrogen, 3.4% carbon dioxide, 74.5% nitrogen, and 16.1% oxygen was reported in one clinical case.  Myonecrosis differs slightly from other types of necrosis. While the underlying causes are almost identical, the type of affected tissue (in particular, muscle tissue) is significantly more important for the patient's general health. Superficial necrosis is unsightly and can lead to unattractive scarring, but otherwise does not affect the patient's likelihood of survival or physical capability to the same extent. However, massive myonecrosis will likely result in the loss of movement of the entire region. If the necrotic damage is allowed to continue throughout an affected limb, then often that entire limb is lost permanently.  It is often difficult to identify the extent of muscle damage, as "C. perfringens" may be at work in deeper fascial layers below the skin. Unlike other anaerobic infections, discharge in these infections is often not purulent (filled with pus). Instead, the discharge is often described as "sweetly putrid" or "dishwater pus" because it is much thinner than normal pus. This is due to the lysis of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, caused by the lecithinases and other toxins released by "Clostridium" species.  Soil-borne anaerobes are particularly well-adapted to surviving harsh conditions. Often, a scarcity of nutrition and competition for resources from numerous other species occurs. Changes in pH and temperature are often significant, also. Bacteria often possess the ability to create exotoxins to assist them in competing with other microbes in their natural environments. When such bacteria are able to enter a living host, they encounter a vast supply of nutrients, warm conditions, and an abundance of water. This enables the microbes to rapidly proliferate, far in excess of the immune system's capability to defend, as prokaryotic bacteria possess a far greater capacity for multiplication than the host's immune system. The combination of bacterial load and ability to multiply is the basis for the microbes' ability to cause massive infection. Alongside such rapid proliferation is a corresponding mass-production of exotoxin that causes severe damage to local tissue in the host. One such exotoxin is alpha toxin, which is produced by "C. perfringens" and is the key virulence factor in its pathogenesis.  Massive infection, gross injury, and depletion of the host's immune capability result in system-wide sepsis. This is partly due to the burden on the immune system, its corresponding release of inflammatory cytokines, and the distribution of bacterial toxins. Massive infection is likely to result in death from a combination of system-wide septic shock and the unintentionally damaging effects of the immune response. In animals, disability and distress caused by all of these factors markedly increase the chance of predation.

Virulence factors.

Members of the "Clostridium" species exhibit a plethora of virulence factors. Common virulence factors associated with gas gangrene include alpha toxin and theta toxin. "Clostridium perfingens" causes 80–90% of infections and produces both these toxins.  "Clostridium perfingens" alpha toxin is widely associated with gas gangrene as it is its main virulence factor whilst invading its host. Alpha toxin is associated with hemolysis, thus restricting blood flow towards the area of infection. As the surrounding circulatory system collapses, neutrophils and monocytes, eosinophils and basophils cannot reach target areas of infection. The hemolytic activity of alpha toxin produces an anaerobic environment essential for the proliferation of the bacteria. Alpha toxin also exhibits the ability to infiltrate surrounding cellular tissue and cause a cascade of aberrant biochemical activity.  Theta toxin is also employed by "Clostridium perfingens" as a virulence factor. Theta toxin also promotes vascular degradation as its counterpart alpha toxin. A platelet-activation factor is employed which triggers an acute inflammatory response in nearby tissues. This inflammatory response leads to constriction of surrounding arteries and promotes an anaerobic environment for "Clostridium perfingens" growth and pathophysiology.  Beta toxin is an integral virulence factor in promoting enterocolitics and enterotoxemia. This toxin uses pores in the cellular biolipid membrane to import a pathogenic factor into organisms.

Signs and symptoms.

A multitude of symptoms are associated with Gas gangrene. Distinctively, black lesions on the skin appear in a bubble form which allows visualization of gas-producing bacteria. Symptoms include:

Diagnosis.

Various diagnostic methods can be employed in the diagnosis of Gas gangrene. Due to low incidence of myonecrosis it is easy to overlook diagnosis. As bacterial infections mostly exhibit the same symptoms, early diagnosis of gas gangrene rarely occurs. The ambiguous symptoms only contribute to poorer prognosis. Diagnostic methods include:

Treatment.

Treatment is usually debridement and excision, with amputation necessary in many cases. Water-soluble antibiotics (such as penicillin) alone are not effective because they do not penetrate ischaemic muscles sufficiently to be effective. Penicillin is effective against "C. perfringens". When gas gangrene occurs in such regions as the abdominal cavity, the patient can be treated in a hyperbaric chamber. which contains a pressurized oxygen-rich atmosphere. The oxygen saturates the infected tissues and thereby prevents the growth of the obligately anaerobic clostridia. The growth of "C. perfringens" is inhibited when the availability of oxygen is equivalent to a partial pressure of around 9–10 kPa (compare to 4–5 kPa in venous blood under normal conditions, with 11–13 kPa in arteries and 21 kPa in air at sea level), so if the treatment is started early, this condition can mostly be cured.

Prognosis.

Gas gangrene left untreated is a potentially fatal affliction. Early diagnosis of the type of infection and species causing the infection will improve prognosis tremendously. Preventative measures are employed universally through medical facilities to stymie bacterial infections in patients. Reducing the susceptibility of infection will promote a better prognosis by practicing good hygiene and preventing the contraction of diseases which produce hypoxia or a immunocompromised state.  Following resolve of myonecrosis, patients will often require further care following the deleterious effects caused by the infection. Skin grafts are often required following removal of nectrotic tissues. Former patients will still require hyperbaric oxygen therapy to prevent a recurring infection.

Gas gangrene (also known as clostridial myonecrosis and myonecrosis) is a bacterial infection that produces tissue gas in gangrene. This deadly form of gangrene usually is caused by "Clostridium perfringens" bacteria. About 1,000 cases of gas gangrene are reported yearly in the United States.

La gangrène gazeuse, appelée aussi emphysème putride ou myonécrose, est une infection microbienne à "Clostridium perfringens" de type A (bactérie anaérobie). Cette bactérie produit du gaz au sein du tissu infecté et il en résulte une sensation de crépitement, parfois perceptible lorsqu’on palpe les zones concernées.


Religious sanctuary.

"Sanctuary" is a word derived from the Latin, which is, like most words ending in, a container for keeping something in—in this case holy things or perhaps cherished people (/). The meaning was extended to places of holiness or safety, in particular the whole demarcated area, often many acres, surrounding a Greek or Roman temple; the original terms for these are "temenos" in Greek and "fanum" in Latin, but both may be translated as "sanctuary". Similar usage may be sometimes found describing sacred areas in other religions. In Christian churches "sanctuary" has a specific meaning, covering part of the interior, covered below.

Sanctuary as area around the altar.

In many Western Christian traditions including Catholic, Lutheran, Methodist, and Anglican churches, the area around the altar is called the sanctuary; it is also considered holy because of the physical presence of God in the Eucharist, both during the Mass and in the church tabernacle the rest of the time.  In many churches the architectural term "chancel" covers the same area as the sanctuary, and either term may be used. In some Protestant churches, the term "sanctuary" denotes the entire worship area while the term "chancel" is used to refer to the area around the altar-table.  In many Western traditions altar rails sometimes mark the edge of the sanctuary or chancel. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic Churches of Syro-Malabar Church, Byzantine rite and Coptic Orthodox Churches, the sanctuary is separated from the nave (where worshippers pray) by an iconostasis, literally a wall of icons, with three doors in it. In other Oriental Orthodox traditions, a sanctuary curtain is used.  The terminology that applies the word "sanctuary" to the area around the altar does not apply to Christian churches alone: King Solomon's temple, built in about 950 BC, had a sanctuary ("Holy of Holies") where the Ark of the Covenant was, and the term applies to the corresponding part of any house of worship. In most modern synagogues, the main room for prayer is known as the sanctuary, to contrast it with smaller rooms dedicated to various other services and functions. (There is a raised bimah in the sanctuary, from which services are conducted, which is where the ark holding the Torah may reside; some synagogues, however, have a separate bimah and ark-platform.)

Sanctuary as a sacred place.

In Europe, Christian churches were sometimes built on land considered to be a particularly holy spot, perhaps where a miracle or martyrdom was believed to have taken place or where a holy person was buried. Examples are St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and St. Albans Cathedral in England, which commemorate the martyrdom of Saint Peter (the first Pope) and Saint Alban (the first Christian martyr in Britain), respectively.  The place, and therefore the church built there, was considered to have been sanctified (made holy) by what happened there. In modern times, the Catholic Church has continued this practice by placing in the altar of each church, when it is consecrated for use, a box (the "sepulcrum") containing relics of a saint. The relics box is removed when the church is taken out of use as a church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the antimension on the altar serves a similar function. It is a cloth icon of Christ's body taken down from the cross, and typically has the relics of a saint sewn into it. In addition, it is signed by the parish's bishop, and represents his authorization and blessing for the Eucharist to be celebrated on that altar.

Human sanctuary.

Traditions of Sanctuary.

Although the word "sanctuary" is often traced back only as far as the Greek and Roman empires, the concept itself has likely been part of human cultures for thousands of years. The idea that persecuted persons should be given a place of refuge is ancient, perhaps even primordial, deriving itself from basic features of human altruism. In studying the concept across many cultures and times, anthropologists have found sanctuary to be a highly universal notion, one which appears in almost all major religious traditions and in a variety of diverse geographies. "Cities of refuge" as described by the Book of Numbers and Deuteronomy in the Old Testament, as well as the Bedouin idea of "nazaala", or the "taking of refuge," indicate a strong tradition of sanctuary in the Middle East and Northern Africa. In the Americas, many native tribes shared similar practices, particularly in the face of invading European powers. Despite tensions between groups, many tribes still offered and received sanctuary, taking in those who had fled their tribal lands or feared persecution by the Spanish, English, and French.

Legal sanctuary.

In the classical world, some (but not all) temples offered sanctuary to criminals or runaway slaves. When referring to prosecution of crimes, sanctuary can mean one of the following:

Right of asylum.

Many ancient peoples recognised a religious right of asylum, protecting criminals (or those accused of crime) from legal action and from exile to some extent. This principle was adopted by the early Christian church, and various rules developed for what the person had to do to qualify for protection and just how much protection it was.  In England, King Æthelberht made the first laws regulating sanctuary in about AD 600, though Geoffrey of Monmouth in his "Historia Regum Britanniae" (c. 1136) says that the legendary pre-Saxon king Dunvallo Molmutius (4th/5th century BC) enacted sanctuary laws in the Molmutine Laws as recorded by Gildas (c. 500–570). By Norman times, there had come to be two kinds of sanctuary: All churches had the lower-level kind, but only the churches the king licensed had the broader version. The medieval system of asylum was finally abolished entirely in England by James I in 1623.

Political asylum.

During the Wars of the Roses of the 15th century when the Lancastrians or Yorkists would suddenly gain the upper hand by winning a battle, some adherents of the losing side might find themselves surrounded by adherents of the winning side and unable to return to their own side, so they would rush to sanctuary at the nearest church until it was safe to leave it. A prime example is Queen Elizabeth Woodville, consort of Edward IV of England.  In 1470, when the Lancastrians briefly restored Henry VI to the throne, Edward's queen was living in London with several young daughters. She moved with them into Westminster Abbey for sanctuary, living there in royal comfort until Edward was restored to the throne in 1471 and giving birth to their first son Edward during that time. When King Edward IV died in 1483, Elizabeth (who was highly unpopular with even the Yorkists and probably did need protection) took her five daughters and youngest son (Richard, Duke of York; Prince Edward had his own household by then) and again moved into sanctuary at Westminster Abbey. She had all the comforts of home; she brought so much furniture and so many chests that the workmen had to break holes in some of the walls to move everything in fast enough to suit her.  In the 20th century, during World War I, all of Russia's Allies made the controversial decision in 1917 to deny political sanctuary to Tsar Nicholas II Romanov and his immediate family when he was overthrown in that year's February Revolution because of his abuses of power and forced to abdicate in March in favor of Alexander Kerensky's Russian Provisional Government. Nicholas and his family and remaining household were sent to Tobolsk, Siberia that summer while Kerensky kept Russia in the war when it couldn't win, enabling Lenin and his Bolsheviks to gain the Russian people's support in overthrowing Kerensky in that year's October Revolution. The Russian Civil War started that November and in July, 1918, with Lenin losing the civil war, Nicholas and his family were executed on Lenin's orders while confined to the Ipatiev House in Yekaterenburg. In 1939, months before World War II began, 937 Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany on board the MS St. Louis met the same fate, first by Cuba—their original destination—and afterwards by the United States and Canada. As a result, 620 of them were forced back to Europe, where 254 of them died in Nazi concentration camps during the war. This incident was the subject of Gordon Thomas' and Max Morgan-Witts' 1974 novel, "Voyage of the Damned" and its 1976 movie adaptation. In 1970, Simonas Kudirka was denied U.S. sanctuary when he attempted to defect from the then-Soviet Union by jumping from his "mother ship", 'Sovetskaya Litva', onto the USCGC Vigilant when it was sailing from New Bedford while Kudirka's ship was anchored at Martha's Vineyard. Kudrika was accused of stealing 3,000 rubles from Sovetskaya Litva's safe and when the U.S. State Department failed to help him, Kudrika was sent back to the Soviet Union, where he was convicted of treason and sentenced to ten years of hard labor but because Kudirka could claim American citizenship through his mother, he was allowed to return to the United States in 1974. His plight was the subject of Algis Ruksenas' 1973 book "Day of Shame: The Truth About The Murderous Happenings Aboard the Cutter Vigilant During the Russian-American Confrontation off Martha's Vineyard" and the 1978 TV movie "The Defection of Simas Kudirka", starring Alan Arkin. Ten years later, Ukrainian youth, Walter Polovchak, became a cause célèbre in the 1980's because of his request in 1980 at age 12 to remain in the United States permanently after announcing that he didn't want to return with his parents to what was then Soviet Ukraine, and was the subject of a five-year struggle between U.S. and Soviet courts over his fate, which was decided in his favor in 1985 when Walter turned 18 that October 3 and was no longer a juvenile and thus no longer under any requirements to return to his parents if he didn't want to. Later in the 1980s, Estonian national and alleged Nazi war criminal, Karl Linnas, was the target of several sanctuary denials outside the United States before he was finally returned in 1987 to the then-USSR to face a highly likely death penalty for alleged war crimes that he was convicted of in 1962 (see Holocaust trials in Soviet Estonia). Linnas died of a heart attack in a Leningrad prison hospital on July 2, 1987 while waiting for a possible retrial in Gorbachevian courts, 25 years after Khrushchevian courts convicted him in absentia.

Sanctuary versus asylum.

The concepts of sanctuary and asylum are defined very similarly at their most basic level. Both terms involve the granting of safety or protection from some type of danger, often implied to be a persecuting, oppressive power. The divergence between these terms stems primarily from their societal associations and legal standing; while asylum understood in its political sense implies legally-binding protection on the part of a state entity, sanctuary often takes the form of moral and ethical activism that calls into question decisions made by the institutions in power.  In many instances, sanctuary is not incorporated into the law, but operated in defiance of it. Efforts to create sanctuary for the persecuted or oppressed are often undertaken by organizations, religious or otherwise, who work outside of mainstream avenues to ameliorate what they see as deficiencies in existing policy. Though these attempts to provide sanctuary have no legal standing, they can be effective in catalyzing change at community, local, and even regional levels. Sanctuary can also be integrated into these levels of government through "Sanctuary bills," which designate cities and sometimes states as safe spaces for immigrants deemed "illegal" by the federal government. These bills work to limit the cooperation of local and regional governments with the national government's efforts to enforce immigration law. In recognition of their progressiveness and boldness in the face of perceived injustice, "Sanctuary bills" are commonly referred to as "activist law."

Sanctuary in contemporary society.

For the last few centuries, it has become less common to invoke sanctuary as a means of protecting persecuted peoples. Yet, the 1980s saw a massive resurgence of cases as part of the U.S.-Central American sanctuary movement. This resurgence was part of a broader anti-war movement that emerged to protest U.S. foreign policy in Central America. The movement grew out of the sanctuary practices of political and religious organizations in both the United States and Central America. It was initially sparked by immigrant rights organizations in well-established Central American communities. These organizations first opposed U.S. foreign policy in Central America and then shifted towards aiding an ever-increasing number of Central Americans refugees. Working in tandem, immigrant rights organizations and churches created many new organizations that provided housing and legal services for newly arrived immigrants.These organizations also advocated for the creation of sanctuary spaces for those fleeing war and oppression in their home countries. By 1987, 440 cities in the United States had been declared "sanctuary cities" open to migrants from civil wars in Central America.  The immigrant-religious organization partnerships of the sanctuary movement remain active, providing essential services to immigrant populations. Particularly notable in recent years is their legal and advocacy work. By providing legal representation to asylum seekers who may not be able to afford it, these organizations give their clients a better chance of winning their respective cases. As of 2008, detained asylum seekers with legal representation were six times more likely to win their cases for asylum, and non-detained asylum seekers with representation were almost three times more likely to win asylum compared with those without it. The pro bono legal services provided by these organizations also work to alleviate stress on an adjudication system that is already overloaded with cases-- a 2014 study of the system showed that about 250 asylum officers at any one time are tasked with interviewing an average of 28,000 asylum seekers. These sanctuary-based organizations also engage in larger-scale advocacy work that allows them to reach immigrant populations beyond the communities they work in. According to a study done by the "New Sanctuary Movement" organization, at least 600,000 people in the United States have at least one family member in danger of deportation. Legislative and judicial advocacy work at the regional and even national level allows organizations to support this group of people by influencing policy.  From the 1980s continuing into the 2000s, there also have been instances of immigrant rights organizations and churches providing "sanctuary" for short periods to migrants facing deportation in Germany, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Australia and Canada, among other nations. In 2007, Iranian refugee Shahla Valadi was granted asylum in Norway after spending seven years in church sanctuary after the initial denial of asylum. From 1983 to 2003 Canada experienced 36 sanctuary incidents. In 2016, an Icelandic church declared that they would harbor two failed asylum seekers who violated the Dublin Regulation, and police removed them for deportation, as ecclesiastical immunity has no legal standing.

Other uses.

When referring to a shelter from danger or hardship, sanctuary can mean one of the following: The term "sanctuary" has further come to be applied to any space set aside for private use in which others are not supposed to intrude, such as a "man cave".

Non-human sanctuary.

Animal sanctuary.

An animal sanctuary is a facility where animals are brought to live and be protected for the rest of their lives. Unlike animal shelters, sanctuaries do not seek to place animals with individuals or groups, instead maintaining each animal until its natural death.

Plant sanctuary.

Plant sanctuaries are areas set aside to maintain functioning natural ecosystems, to act as refuges for species and to maintain ecological processes that cannot survive in most intensely managed landscapes and seascapes. Protected areas act as benchmarks against which we understand human interactions with the natural world.

A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred place, such as a shrine. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This secondary use can be categorized into human sanctuary, a safe place for humans, such as a political sanctuary; and non-human sanctuary, such as an animal or plant sanctuary.

En anthropologie religieuse, un sanctuaire (de "sanctus", « sacré ») est généralement un édifice ou lieu rendu (par « consécration ») ou devenu sacré, par son association au Divin ou Transcendant. Le terme désigne donc un site sacré. En conséquence ce lieu est parfois interdit aux profanes, et accessible aux seules personnes « sacrées », les ministres du culte (souvent appelés « prêtres ») à la différence d'un temple classique construit pour être un lieu accessible en particulier aux fidèles, mais pas seulement à eux. Les sanctuaires sont donc souvent associés à l'idée de pèlerinage.


Definition.

The 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) describes seven levels that can be used to compare education internationally. Within a country these can be implemented in different ways, with different age levels and local denominations. The seven levels are:  Within this system, Levels 1 and 2 – that is, primary education and lower secondary – together form basic education. Beyond that, national governments may attach the label of secondary education to Levels 2 through 4 together, Levels 2 and 3 together, or Level 2 alone. These level definitions were put together for statistical purposes, and to allow the gathering of comparative data nationally and internationally. They were approved by the UNESCO General Conference at its 29th session in November 1997. Though they may be dated, they do provide a universal set of definitions and remain unchanged in the 2011 update.  The start of lower secondary education is characterised by the transition from the single-class-teacher, who delivers all content to a cohort of pupils, to one where content is delivered by a series of subject specialists. Its educational aim is to complete provision of basic education (thereby completing the delivery of basic skills) and to lay the foundations for lifelong learning.  Lower secondary education is likely to show these criteria:  The end of lower secondary education often coincides with the end of compulsory education in countries where that exists.  (Upper) secondary education starts on the completion of basic education, which also is defined as completion of lower secondary education. The educational focus is varied according to the student's interests and future direction. Education at this level is usually voluntary.  (Upper) secondary education is likely to show these criteria:  More subjects may be dropped, and increased specialism occurs. Completion of (upper) secondary education provides the entry requirements to Level 5 tertiary education, the entry requirements to technical or vocational education (Level 4, non tertiary course), or direct entry into the workplace.  In 2012 the ISCED published further work on education levels where it codified particular paths and redefined the tertiary levels. Lower secondary education and (upper) secondary education could last between 2 and 5 years, and the transition between two often would be when students were allowed some subject choice.  Terminology for secondary schools varies by country, and the exact meaning of any of these varies. Secondary schools may also be called "academies", "colleges", "gymnasiums", "high schools", "lyceums", "middle schools", "preparatory schools", "sixth-form colleges", "upper schools", or "vocational schools", among other names. For further information about nomenclature, see the section below by country.

History.

A form of education for adolescents became necessary in all societies that had an alphabet and engaged in commerce. In Western Europe, formal secondary education can be traced back to the Athenian educational reforms of 320BC. Though their civilisation was eclipsed and they were enslaved, Hellenistic Athenian teachers were valued in the Roman system. The Roman and Hellenistic schools of rhetoric taught the seven liberal arts and sciences – "grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music" and "astronomy" – which were regarded as a preparation for the study at a tertiary level of theology, law and medicine. Boys would have been prepared to enter these schools by private tutors at home. Girls would have only received tuition at home. When the Romans retreated, all traces of civilisation were erased.  England provides a good case study. When Augustine of Canterbury brought Christianity there in 597, no schools existed. He needed trained priests to conduct church services and boys to sing in the choir. He had to create both the grammar schools that taught Latin, to enable the English to study for the priesthood, and song schools (choir schools) that trained the'sons of gentlefolk' to sing in cathedral choirs. In the case of Canterbury (597) and Rochester (604), both still exist. Bede in his Ecclesiastical history (732) tells that the Canterbury school taught more than the 'intended reading and understanding of Latin', but 'the rules of metric, astronomy and the computus as well as the works of the saints' Even at this stage, there was tension, as the church was worried that knowledge of Latin would give the student access to non-Christian texts that it would not wish them to read.  Over the centuries leading to the renaissance and reformation the church was the main provider of secondary education. Various invasions and schisms within the controlling church challenged the focus of the schools, and the curriculum and language of instruction waxed and waned. From 1100, With the growth of the towns, grammar schools 'free' of the church were founded, and some church grammar schools were handed over to the laïty. Universities were founded that didn't just train students for the priesthood.

Renaissance and reformation.

Whereas in mainland Europe the renaissance preceded the reformation, local conditions in England caused the reformation to come first. The reformation was about allowing the laïty to interpret the Bible in their own way without the intervention of priests, and preferably in the vernacular. This stimulated the foundation of free Grammar schools- who searched for a less constrained curriculum. Colonialisation required navigation, mensuration, languages and administrative skills. The laïty wanted these taught to their sons. After Gutenberg1455 had mastered moveable metal type printing and Tyndale had translated the Bible into English (1525), Latin became a skill reserved for the catholic church and sons conservative nobility. Schools started to be set up for the sons of merchants in Europe and the colonies too- for example Boston Latin Grammar School (1635).  Comenius (1592–1670), a Moravian protestant proposed a new model of education- where ideas were developed from the familiar to the theoretical rather than through repetition, where languages were taught in the vernacular and supported universal education. In his "Didactica Magna" (Great Didactic), he outlined a system of schools that is the exact counterpart of many western school systems: kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, six-form college, university. Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693) stressed the importance of a broader intellectual training, moral development and physical hardening..  The grammar schools of the period can be categorised in three groups: the nine leading schools, seven of them boarding institutions which maintained the traditional curriculum of the classics, and mostly served 'the aristocracy and the squirearchy' ; most of the old endowed grammar schools serving a broad social base in their immediate localities which also stuck to the old curriculum; the grammar schools situated in the larger cities, serving the families of merchants and tradesmen who embraced change.

Industrialisation.

During the 18th century their social base widened and their curriculum developed, particularly in mathematics and the natural sciences. But this was not universal education and was self-selecting by wealth The industrial revolution changed that. Industry required an educated workforce where all workers needed to have completed a basic education. In France, Louis XIV, wrestled the control of education from the Jesuits, Condorcet set up Collèges for universal lower secondary education throughout the country, then Napoleon set up a regulated system of Lycee. In England, Robert Peel's Factory Act of 1802 required an employer to provide instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic during at least the first four years of the seven years of apprenticeship. The state had accepted responsibility for the basic education of the poor. The provision of school places remained inadequate, so an Order in Council dated 10 April 1839 created the Committee of the Privy Council on Education.

Universal Education.

There was considerable opposition to the idea that children of all classes should receive basic education, all the initiatives such as industrial schools and Sunday schools were initially a private or church initiative. With the Great Exhibition of 1851, it became clear just how far behind the English education system had fallen.  Three reports were commissioned to examine the education of upper, middle and labouring class children. The Clarendon Commission sought to improve the nine Great Public Schools. The Taunton Commission looked at the 782 endowed grammar schools (private and public). They found varying quality and a patchy geographical coverage, with two thirds of all towns not having any secondary school. There was no clear conception of the purpose of secondary education. There were only thirteen girls' schools and their tuition was superficial, unorganised and unscientific. They recommended a system of first-grade schools targeted at a leaving age of 18 as preparation for upper and upper-middle class boys entering university, second-grade targeted at a leaving age of 16 for boys preparing for the army or the newer professions, and third-grade targeted at a leaving age of 14 for boys of small tenant farmers, small tradesmen, and superior artisans. This resulted in the 1869 Endowed Schools Act which advocated that girls should enjoy the same education as boys.  The Newcastle Commission inquired "into the state of public education in England and to consider and report what measures, if any, are required for the extension of sound and cheap elementary instruction to all classes of the people". It produced 1861 Newcastle Report and this led to the 1870 Elementary Education Act (Forster Act).  The school boards set up by the 1870 Elementary Education Act (Forster Act) and were stopped from providing secondary education by the Cockerton Judgement of 1899. The school leaving age at this time was 10. The Judgement prompted the 1902 Education Act (Balfour Act). Compulsory education was extended to 12. The new Local Education Authorities (LEA)s that were formed from the school boards; started to open Higher Grade Elementary Schools (ISCED Level2) or county schools to supplement the endowed grammar schools. These LEAs were allowed to build second-grade secondary schools that in the main became the future secondary modern schools.  In the ""1904 Regulations for Secondary Schools"", the Board of Education determined that secondary schools should offer a: a four year subject-based course leading to a certificate in English language and literature, geography, history, a foreign language, mathematics, science, drawing, manual work, physical training, and, for girls, housewifery.  The Education Act 1918 (Fisher Act) extended compulsory full-time education to 14, and recommended compulsory part-time education from 14–18. The Hadlow report, "Education the Adolescent" (1926) proposed that there should be a break point at eleven, establishing primary schools and secondary schools.  The United Nations, founded in 1947, was committed to education for all but the definition was difficult to formulate. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) declared that elementary and fundamental education, which it didn't define, was a right to be enjoyed by all. The Education Act 1944 (Butler Act) made sweeping changes to the funding of state education using the tripartite system, but wasn't allowed to tackle private schools. It introduced the GCE 'O'level at 16, and the 'A' at 18, but only raised the school leaving age until 15, making the exam inaccessible to the majority. But one year of ISCED Level 3 (Upper) secondary education was mandatory and free.  In 1972 the school leaving was raised to 16. The Education and Skills Act 2008, when it came into force in the 2013 academic year, initially required participation in some form of education or training until the school year in which the child turned 17, followed by the age being raised to the young person's 18th birthday in 2015. This was referred to as raising the "participation age" to distinguish it from the school leaving age which remains at 16. Thus the UK is following the ISCED Level 3 (Upper) secondary education guideline.

Right to a secondary education.

The United Nations was strong in its commitment to education for all but fell into linguistic difficulty defining that right.  “Article I: Purposes and functions 1. The purpose of the Organization is to contribute to peace and security by promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter of the United Nations.”  The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) declared that elementary and fundamental education was a right to be enjoyed by all, but again could not define either elementary and fundamental education. Article 26 :(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. It was assumed that elementary education was basic education, the entitlement for children- and fundamental education was a right for the working man, but for a lawyer the definition is neither qualitative (stating what education means) or quantitative saying when it starts and when it is completed. The term secondary is not defined or mentioned. Together this has enabled countries to terminate free, compulsory, basic education at 11 or only continue education past eleven to boys.  Article 28, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) stated that primary education should be free and compulsory while different forms of secondary education, including general and vocational education, should be available and accessible to every child. Free education should be provided and financial assistance offered in case of need. In 1990, at Jomtien again tried to define the content basic education and how it should be delivered. ‘Basic education’ is defined as ‘action designed to meet ‘basic learning needs’. ‘primary schooling’ is considered as ‘the main delivery system of basic education’. addressing the basic learning needs of all means: early childhood care and development opportunities; relevant, quality primary schooling or equivalent out-of-school education for children; and literacy, basic knowledge and life skills training for youth and adults.’  The assumption being made that basic knowledge and life skills training for youth was the function of secondary education. This was codified by the ISCED documents. The Dakar Framework for Action 2010 goal 2 states: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory (primary in the sense basic) education of good quality. The Dakar Framework for Action 2010 goal 5 states: Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.  Malala Yousafzai, Nobel Peace Prize winner in a said in a 2017 interview that: “My goal is to make sure every child, girl and boy, they get the opportunity to go to school." “It is their basic human right, so I will be working on that and I will never stop until I see the last child going to school.”

Future directions for secondary education.

UNESCO believes that in order to prepare young people for life and work in a rapidly changing world, secondary-level education systems need to be re-oriented to impart a broad repertoire of life-skills. These skills should include the key generic competencies, non occupation-specific practical capabilities, ICT, the ability to learn independently, to work in teams, entrepreneurship and civic responsibility.  They may be best instilled through a shared foundational learning period and by deferring the directing of students into academic and vocational streams for as long as possible, and then there should be flexibility to ensure the free movement of students between the streams depending on their aptitudes and inclinations. Accreditation in one stream should have equal recognition in the other as well as for access to higher education. This will equip young people with multiple skills so that they are prepared to enter and re-enter the workforce several times in their working lives, as wage employees or self-employed entrepreneurs, and to re-train themselves when their skills become obsolete.  It recognizes that there is no single model that will suit all countries, or even all communities in a given country. Secondary-level education policy should be under continuous review to keep in step with scientific and technological, economic and societal change.

Promoting the Rule of Law.

Adolescence is associated with a time of significant growth where identity, belongingness, and socialization, especially among peer groups is particularly important. Secondary schools play an important role in youth's socialization, development and forming their ideas and approach to justice, democracy and human rights.  Education systems that promote education for justice, that is, respect for the rule of law (RoL) together with international human rights and fundamental freedoms strengthen the relationship between learners and public institutions with the objective of empowering young people to become champions of peace and justice. Teachers are on the front line of this work and, along with families, play a formative role in shaping the future of youth's attitudes and behaviours.

By country.

Each country has developed the form of education most appropriate for them. There is an attempt to compare the effectiveness by using the results from the PISA that, each third year, assesses the scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading of a representative sample of 5000 fifteen year olds from each country.

Secondary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less common junior secondary education) is considered the second and final phase of basic education, and level 3 (upper) secondary education is the stage before tertiary education. Every country aims to provide basic education, but the systems and terminology remain unique to them. Secondary education typically takes place after six years of primary education and is followed by higher education, vocational education or employment. Like primary education, in most countries secondary education is compulsory, at least until the age of 16. Children typically enter the lower secondary phase around age 11. Compulsory education sometimes extends to age 19.

L'enseignement secondaire couvre les degrés scolaires qui se situent entre la fin de l'école primaire et le début de l'enseignement supérieur. Les systèmes retenus par les différents pays sont très variés.


Biography.

After working as a selector on the "Sound of Silence Keystone" sound system, and then his own "Gathering of Youth" system, he began his singing career as part of The African Brothers in 1969, along with Tony Tuff and Derrick Howard. The group released several singles in the first half of the 1970s on labels such as Micron and their own Ital label, and were an early example of the Rastafari movement's influence on the Jamaican music scene, taking a clear lead from The Abyssinians. After recording "Mysterious Nature" for producer Rupie Edwards, the group recorded 1974's "No Cup No Broke" for Studio One, breaking up shortly after. Minott then teamed up with the producer Clement "Coxsone" Dodd, as studio apprentice at Dodd's Studio One, working as a singer, guitarist and percussionist, and soon began recording his own singles. Minott developed a talent for writing new songs to fit over existing rhythms (which at the time was common when singers performed live, but rare in the studio), often proving more popular than the original songs, pioneering an approach that would be central to the emerging dancehall style.  After a number of moderately successful hits for Studio One, such as "Vanity", "Hang On Natty", "Mr. DC", and "Jah Jah Children", his debut LP "Live Loving" made his name and increased his popularity, and is regarded as pioneering the dancehall style that would dominate the early 1980s. It was followed in 1979 with a second album, "Showcase", which included his singles that had been omitted from the first album.  The "Bittersweet" album followed, and then the third album of 1979, "Ghetto-ology", which saw a return to roots reggae. "Roots Lovers" (1980) saw a move towards lovers rock, which was a UK hit. He became a bigger star in the UK than in Jamaica, his self-produced "Hard Time Pressure" being a major UK reggae hit in 1980, leading Minott to relocate to the UK, where he became a focus for UK reggae.  Singles such as "Run Come", "Not for Sale", "African Girl", "Lovers Rock", "In a Dis Ya Time", "Africa" and "Make It with You" (with Carroll Thompson) were hits in the years that followed. "Good Thing Going" (a cover of a song originally recorded by Michael Jackson in 1971) was picked up for distribution by RCA and reached Number 4 in the UK Singles Chart in March 1981, leading to an album of the same name. The "Herbman Hustling" album saw a return to dancehall and roots reggae.  He released an album of recordings from Channel One Studios, "With Lots Of Extra" in 1983, collecting several hits from his time working with Winston Holness. While Minott was in England he discovered the group Musical Youth and released a number of successful Lovers Rock singles.  Returning to Jamaica, his "Youth Promotion" sound system performed regularly in Kingston's Maxfield Park, featuring Jah Stitch and newcomers who had been nurtured by his organization such as Ranking Joe, Captain Sinbad, and Ranking Dread. His Black Roots label featured his productions of these artists plus others such as Barry Brown, Tenor Saw, Little John, Tony Tuff, Barrington Levy, Horace Andy, and one of his discoveries from England, Trevor Hartley. Minott also produced early works by Nitty Gritty, Junior Reid, Yami Bolo, Colourman, Daddy Freddy and Garnett Silk.  Throughout the 1980s the hits kept coming. Able to encompass different styles from rough roots to sweet lovers, through to classic dancehall, he was an artist of some influence. In that period he was working for all the top producers in Jamaica including, Mikey Dread, George Phang, Sly & Robbie, Philip "Fatis" Burrell, Channel One, Prince Jammy, and Donovan Germain, as well as recording for United States-based Lloyd "Bullwackie" Barnes (the "Wicked A Go feel It" album from 1984). His biggest hits included "Herbman Hustling", "No Vacancy", "Jamming in the Street", "Rub A Dub Sound", "Buy Off The Bar", "Rydim", and "Devil's Pickney".  He linked up with Sly & Robbie for 1984's "Rub a Dub Sound Style" single, which is regarded as a prototype for the ragga style that developed in the mid-1980s.  Sugar Minott continued to record on his Black Roots label, Youth Promotion Label and for Major and Independent labels. His albums receive increasingly exciting reviews. He released over 60 albums and hundreds of singles.  Sugar is one of the artists who appeared on the (2006) record, "Radiodread", released by the Easy Star label, he provided the guest vocals on the song "Exit Music (For a Film)".  Minott's desire for independence led him to leave Studio One in 1978 and form his own Black Roots Records label and Youth Promotion organization, the latter with the aim of helping young singers from the same ghetto background as himself. Minott also ran the Youthman Promotion sound-system, giving young performers their first public exposure. Youthman Promotion has new selectors working alongside the veterans of Major Stitch, Ragga Steve and Drifter, Daddy Ants, Mr Shorty and Jimmy Knuckles. The selectors most recently added to the sound are DiGeneral Starry B in 2007, alongside Poochiny and Jr War, who were added in 2012. Ragga Steve has taken full control of the sound with Earl Minott in the UK.

Death.

Minott died on 10 July 2010 at the University Hospital of the West Indies in St. Andrew Parish, Jamaica, after being admitted earlier that day. The cause of death remains undisclosed. He had been affected by a heart condition since early 2009, and cancelled several performances in May 2010 due to chest pains.  In May 2012, a charity concert was held at his former home commemorating his birthday, with Minott's children (who include daughter Tamar, aka Pashon) joined by Bounty Killer, Sizzla, Beenie Man, Junior Reid, Ken Boothe and John Holt. Proceeds went to the Youthman Promotions Music Centre and other causes helping local poor people.  He is survived by his wife Maxine Stowe and 13 children.

Lincoln Barrington "Sugar" Minott (25 May 1956 – 10 July 2010) was a Jamaican reggae singer, producer and sound-system operator.

Lincoln Barrington 'Sugar' Minott est un chanteur, producteur et musicien de reggae jamaïcain né le à Kingston et mort le. Il est un des fondateurs du groupe African Brothers.


Geography and geomorphology.

Yucamane lies in the Tacna Region, Candarave Province, Candarave District of Peru, west of lake Vilacota. The town of Candarave lies southwest from the volcano and the city of Tacna south. A number of mostly agricultural towns exist on its slopes, such as Aricota, Cairani, Camilaca, Cucachi, Huanuara, Morjani, Pallata, Susapaya, Tarata, Ticaco, Totora and Yucamane Pampa, as well as irrigation infrastructure and major roads. Sulfur was mined on the volcano in the past.  The area of Yucamane is accessible by a number of roads including the international Ilo-Desaguadero highway, and a road leads up the northwestern flank of Yucamane to a point close to the mountain pass between Yucamane and Calientes. The edifice of the volcano and surrounding region are part of the Vilacota-Maure protected area.

Regional.

The Andes are the longest mountain range on Earth, extending from the Tierra del Fuego archipelago in southernmost South America to Venezuela in the north. In southern Peru, the Andes consist of several mountain chains including the Western Cordillera and the Eastern Cordillera, with elevations of up to, which are separated from each other by the Altiplano.  More than 2,000 volcanoes exist in the Andes, mainly in the countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Among these is Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted in 1985 in Colombia. Seven volcanoes have been active in Peru since the arrival of the Spaniards, but volcanic activity is typically poorly recorded in Peru, owing to the remote nature of the region and the scarce population.  Yucamane is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the three major volcanic belts in the Andes, which spans the countries of Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. In Peru about four hundred heavily eroded volcanoes make up the volcanically active area along with the active volcanoes El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas; the volcanoes Andagua volcanic field, Casiri, Chachani, Coropuna, Firura, Huaynaputina, Tutupaca and Yucamane may have been active in recent history. The largest historical eruption in Peru occurred in 1600 at Huaynaputina and caused 1,500 fatalities and severe economic damage. Another major eruption occurred 2,000 years before present at El Misti volcano. Finally, the three volcanoes Ampato, Chachani and Coropuna have heights exceeding.

Local.

Yucamane is a mountain whose height is variously given as, or. It is a high compound volcano, with an about wide summit crater; this depression in turn has a smaller crater with a diameter of nested within. The summit crater has a young appearance, and due to the youth of the volcano there is little trace of glaciation. Yucamane has a conical shape and is formed primarily by lava flows with some block and ash flows and pyroclastic flows. Lava flows are thick and often show characteristic flow ridges. They are especially prevalent on the upper western and upper southern flanks of the volcano, while the eastern flank has a higher proportion of pyroclastic flows, as does the far southern flank. Based on slope angle, a "Yucamane I" volcano, which forms the lower part of the volcano and has a more gentle slope, has been distinguished from a "Yucamane II", which sits atop "Yucamane I" and has steeper slopes. On the southeastern flank a secondary volcanic centre, high Mal Paso, can be found. This cone is wide and has a partially destroyed crater.  Several other volcanoes lie north of Yucamane, such as the or high Yucamane Chico and the or high Calientes, which form a long north-south volcanic chain with Yucamane. Other volcanoes in the area include San Pedro and the much older Nazaparco. Nazaparco consists of andesitic rocks and rhyolitic block and ash flows, while Yucamane Chico and Calientes are surrounded by radially extending lava flows like Yucamane proper. Calientes have a degraded summit crater. These older volcanoes are eroded and show evidence of sector collapses and glaciation, which has left moraines at elevations of about. This volcanic complex is part of the Cordillera del Barroso mountain chain in southern Peru. The Yucamane fault runs in a north-south direction across the volcanoes, and another fault that runs northwest-southeast is named the Yucamane Chico fault; the Yucamane Chico volcano roughly coincides with the intersection of these faults.

Hydrology.

The slopes of the volcano drain westward, eastward and southward towards the Calientes and Callazas rivers in the east and west of Yucamane, respectively. Both rivers flow southward and ultimately join to form the Locumba river, which ends in the Pacific Ocean. The water in these rivers contains large quantities of arsenic derived from volcanic rocks, including Yucamane's volcanic rocks; arsenic in drinking water is linked to internal organ damage and cancer.

Geology.

Off the western coast of South America, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South America Plate at a rate of about. This subduction process is responsible for the volcanic activity in the Andes. The subducting slab releases fluids which induce the formation of melts which are then erupted on the surface as volcanism. The subduction process is not uniform along the plate margin; variations in the dip of the subducting Nazca plate occur along its length, and volcanic activity is concentrated in three belts (Northern Volcanic Zone, Central Volcanic Zone and Southern Volcanic Zone) where the angle of subduction is steep enough.  Volcanism in the region has been active since the Jurassic, with remnants of the oldest volcanic arc recognizable in the Peruvian Coastal Cordillera. During the Miocene epoch, volcanic activity occurred along the entire length of Peru; Pliocene-Pleistocene activity on the other hand is confined to southern Peru as part of the Central Volcanic Zone, with volcanic centres concentrated in the Western Cordillera. Volcanoes in Peru were first catalogued in 1962 and 1966, with a major compilation being published in 1991 by De Silva and Francis. These volcanoes include composite volcanoes, ignimbrites, lava domes and lava flow fields.  Yucamane is constructed on a basement formed by the Paleozoic Tacaza Group (lavas of the lower Tacaza formation), the Jurassic Yura Group (sediments of the Hualhuani formation) and the Neogene volcanic Huaylillas formation; parts of this basement crop out on the southern side of Yucamane. This basement in turn consists of two major tectonic blocks, the southern Arequipa terrane and the northern Paracas massif; both are formed by igneous and metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and are covered by Mesozoic sedimentary and Cenozoic volcanic rocks.

Petrology.

Yucamane has erupted andesite, basaltic andesite, trachyandesite and dacite, which define a potassium-rich calc-alkaline suite. The andesites make up the bulk of the outcropping edifice. These andesitic rocks contain phenocrysts of amphibole, biotite, hornblende, oxides, plagioclase and quartz.

Climate and natural features.

The region has a dry tropical climate, with precipitation on Yucamane amounting to about. Most of it falls during the summer months, and the amount of precipitation decreases southwestward towards the coast and away from the mountains. After precipitation events the mountain is sometimes covered with snow. Average temperatures in the region vary between throughout the year.  Vegetation around the volcano includes a humid tundra with overall low vegetation density on its upper slopes, and paramo and montane steppe vegetation east/west and south of the volcano on its lower slopes, respectively. Quenoa woods have been observed on its flanks, which are otherwise covered by pastures lower on the volcano. The scorpion species "Brachistosternus ninapo" is named after the volcano; the term "ninapo" is a portmanteau of the Quechua word for "fire-spitting mountain". This scorpion was discovered on the sides of the volcanoes Yucamane and El Misti.

Eruptive history.

Yucamane Chico and Calientes are of possibly pre-Pleistocene epoch age while Yucamane is younger. The activity of Calientes and Yucamane, however, overlapped in time, and both have generated lava flows which lie above moraines. Nazaparco was dated to 6.23 ± 0.1 million years ago, while dates of 540,000 ± 270,000 and 126,000 ± 3,000 before present on an older stage are reported for Caliente. Yucamane itself has lava flows dated at 380,000 ± 300,000, 23,000 ± 1,000 and 3,000 ± 2,000 years before present.  Tephrochronology has shown the occurrence of an eruption 44,000 ± 2,130/2,910 years ago; another one occurred 36,450 ± 250 years ago and generated a lateral blast. Yet another event occurred 3,270 ± 50/3,085 ± 35 years before present; during the course of this eruption Yucamane expelled at least of material in the form of pumice, lapilli and tephra. This eruption had a volcanic explosivity index of 5; fallout deposits reached the Quelccaya Ice Cap and influenced the chemistry of lakes close to the ice cap. Activity during the late Pleistocene and Holocene epochs was mainly explosive with Vulcanian eruptions and phreatomagmatic eruptions among others, which generated volcanic ash falls, block and ash flows, pyroclastic flows and pyroclastic surges. In total, about 4-5 explosive eruptions occurred in post-glacial time and left tephra deposits over the southern and southeastern flanks of the edifice.

Historical activity.

Eruptions reported in 1787, 1802, 1862 and 1902 in the region have also been attributed to Yucamane, although some may actually have occurred at Tutupaca. The 1787 and 1902 events involved the emission of ash; an 1874 edition of the Arequipa-based "El Deber" newspaper states that Yucamane was "bursting" and "steaming" in 1787. There does not appear to be any volcanic material more recent than the 3,270 ± 50/3,085 ± 35 eruption, however. Overall, historical records are fragmentary and scarce, and the Global Volcanism Program recognizes the 1,320 BCE eruption as the most recent event.  Yucamane is fumarolically active in its summit crater, the fumaroles are most recognizable after precipitation and are not very intense. Presently, Yucamane is considered to be a dormant volcano. Thermal anomalies of about of uncertain origin have been observed on Yucamane by satellite imagery. The Caliente geothermal field east of Yucamane, which includes geysers and hot springs, appears to be unrelated to Yucamane.

Hazards.

The Peruvian geological agency INGEMMET has published ash fall, lava flow and pyroclastic flow hazard maps for Yucamane, and additional hazard maps are available on its website. According to these the western, eastern and southern flanks could be threatened by lava flows, whereas the older volcanoes protect much of the northern flank. Hazards from pyroclastic flows extend farther, down to the Laguna Aricota lake southwest of the volcano. Hazards from lava flows derive from their ability to bury land and to ignite flammable materials, as well as the possible creation of lava dams on rivers and outburst floods when they break, while the high speed and temperatures of pyroclastic flows threatens people with asphyxiation, burial and burns. More than 9,000 people live in the danger zone.  Ash fall from an eruption could extend southeastward to the border with Chile]and affect the towns of Candarave, Ilabaya, Pachia, Palca and Tarata. Volcanic earthquakes like the 1999 Ticsani earthquakes at a volcano farther north and volcanic gases constitute additional dangers.

Yucamane, Yucamani or Yucumane is an andesitic stratovolcano in the Tacna Region of southern Peru. It is part of the Peruvian segment of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of the three volcanic belts of the Andes generated by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South America plate. Peru's active volcanoes Ubinas, Sabancaya and El Misti are also part of the Central Volcanic Zone.

Le Yucamane est un volcan du Pérou. Il est situé dans la région de Tacna, au sud du pays. Il culmine à d'altitude.