History.

In "De Bello Gallico" describing his conquest of Gaul (58–50 BC), Julius Caesar distinguished between "provincia nostra" in the south of Gaul, which already was a Roman province in his time, and the three other parts of Gaul: the territories of the "Aquitani", of the "Belgae", and of the "Galli" also known as the "Celtae". The territory of the Galli extended from the rivers Seine and Marne in the north-east, which formed the boundary with Gallia Belgica, to the river Garonne in the south-west, which formed the border with Gallia Aquitania. Under Augustus, Gallia Lugdunensis was created by reducing in size the territory of the Galli: The portion between the river Loire and the Garonne was given to Gallia Aquitania, and central-eastern portions were given to the new province of Germania Superior. The map shows the extent after these reductions. The date of the creation of Gallia Lugdunensis is under discussion, whether between 27 and 25 BC or between 16 and 13 BC, during Augustus' visits to Gaul.  It was an imperial province, deemed important enough to be governed by an imperial legate. After Diocletian's Tetrarchy (AD 296), it was the major province of a diocese confusingly called Galliae ('the Gaul provinces'), to which further only the Helvetic, Belgian (both also Celtic) and German provinces belonged; with the dioceses of Viennensis (the southern provinces of Gaul), Britanniae (also Celtic) and Hispaniae (the whole Celtiberian peninsula) this formed the praetorian prefecture also called Galliae, subordinate to the western emperor.  The province effectively ceased to exist in AD 486 when the Roman general Syagrius was defeated by the invading Franks.

Fiction.

The fictional unconquered village from the French comic book "Asterix" is located here, on an Armorican peninsula (modern Brittany).

Gallia Lugdunensis (French: Gaule Lyonnaise) was a province of the Roman Empire in what is now the modern country of France, part of the Celtic territory of Gaul formerly known as Celtica. It is named after its capital Lugdunum (today's Lyon), possibly Roman Europe's major city west of Italy, and a major imperial mint. Outside Lugdunum was the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls, where representatives met to celebrate the cult of Rome and Augustus.

La Gaule lyonnaise ("Gallia Lugdunensis" en latin), ou Lyonnaise, était une des trois provinces (avec la Gaule aquitaine et la Gaule belgique) créées par Auguste au début de son principat à partir des conquêtes effectuées par Jules César en Gaule entre 58 et 51/50 Le sud de la Gaule et la vallée du Rhône, jusqu'à Vienne, sont alors déjà romains, depuis leur conquête effectuée antérieurement entre 125 et 121 Cette dernière région constitue une province distincte, de rang sénatorial, la Narbonnaise, tandis que Gaules lyonnaise, aquitaine et belgique sont des provinces impériales. Ces trois dernières provinces issues du découpage augustéen se trouvaient cependant réunies, à travers les notables gaulois à la tête des cités, dans le cadre d'une assemblée commune, à vocation politique et religieuse, liée au culte impérial, le Sanctuaire fédéral des Trois Gaules, et dont le siège se situait face à la colonie romaine de "Lugdunum" (Lyon), à la confluence entre Saône et Rhône, lieu nommé "condate" ou "ad confluentes". Cette province a compté au moins vingt-trois peuples dont les Ségusiens ou Ségusiaves et les Éduens.


Description.

The most characteristic feature of this group is the skull structure. Oviraptorids had short snouts and very deep mandibles. Some taxa ("Oviraptor", "Citipati", "Rinchenia") had a midline crest on top of the skull, resembling that of a cassowary. Other distinguishing characteristics include a bony spike intruding on the mandibular fenestra, nostrils placed very high and far back on the snout, an extremely thin bony bar beneath the eye, and highly pneumatized skull bones. Like their relatives the caenagnathids, the jaws were edentulous (with no teeth), having instead two small bony projections on the roof of the mouth.

Classification and species.

The classification of the oviraptorids has been controversial. Most studies divide oviraptorosaurs into two primary sub-groups, the Caenagnathidae and the Oviraptoridae. However, some phylogenetic studies have suggested that many traditional members of the Caenagnathidae may more closely related to the crested oviraptorids. Because of this, and the fact that at least one study found that "Caenagnathus" itself may not have been part of the 'caenagnathid' group, Tom Holtz (2010) placed that group close to the Oviraptoridae and termed it the Elmisauridae, though this idea has not gained consensus among other researchers.  The Oviraptoridae itself is traditionally divided into two "subfamilies": the small, short-armed, and mainly crestless subfamily Heyuanniinae and the larger, crested, long-armed Oviraptorinae ("Oviraptor" + "Citipati"). Some phylogenetic studies have shown that "Oviraptor" is the most primitive known oviraptorid, thus making "Citipati" a closer relative of the "ingeniines" and this traditional division into crestless and crested forms artificial.  Other possible oviraptorids include "Nomingia gobiensis", "Gigantoraptor erlianensis", "Jiangxisaurus ganzhouensis" and "Shixinggia oblita". All four have been suggested to be oviraptorids, caenagnathids, or more primitive than either group. The below cladogram was found in the description of the genus "Anzu".

Paleobiology.

Habitat.

Almost all oviraptorids come from desert deposits of the Gobi Desert. Even in the late Cretaceous period, much of this area was desert, or at least very dry, habitat. In many of the localities where they are found, oviraptorids are among the most abundant dinosaurs present, second only to ankylosaurs and protoceratopsids. This is consistent with the idea that they were primarily herbivores, which tend to far outnumber carnivores in a given environment. Oviraptorids appear to have been far more abundant in arid habitats dominated mainly by small dinosaurs (such as those preserved in the Barun Goyot and Djadochta Formations) than in wetter ecosystems where large dinosaurs are common (such as the Nemegt Formation). The same pattern holds true for protoceratopsids, indicating that both groups preferred dry, desert-like habitat, and fed mainly on the types of tough, low-growing plant life that grows in arid climates.

Diet.

The diet of oviraptorids is not fully understood. Though some appear to have been at least partially carnivorous, they were probably primarily herbivorous.  Originally, oviraptorids were thought to be specialized egg raiders, based on a Mongolian find showing "Oviraptor" on top of a nest erroneously attributed to the ceratopsian dinosaur "Protoceratops". However, discoveries in the 1990s, including "Citipati" specimens clearly brooding (rather than preying on) the same types of nests, and a "Citipati" embryo inside the same type of egg preserved in these nests, showed that the "specialized egg thief" idea was incorrect. Still, some scientists have suggested that oviraptorids may have fed on shelled food items like eggs or shellfish. However, animals specialized for eating shelled food typically have broad, crushing beaks or teeth. In contrast, the jaws of oviraptorids had thin, sharp edges probably supporting shearing beaks, ill-suited for cracking shells. Among other known animals, the beaks of oviraptorids most closely resemble those of herbivorous dicynodont synapsids, which are usually considered herbivorous. Their beaks also share similarities with the beaks of herbivorous parrots and tortoises.  Evidence of partial carnivory among some oviraptorines comes from a lizard skeleton preserved in the body cavity of the type specimen of "Oviraptor" and two hatchling "Byronosaurus" skulls found in a "Citipati" nest. Some scientists have also suggested that some oviraptorids (especially the small-handed, weak-clawed "ingeniines") fed mainly on plant material.

Reproduction.

Although fossilized dinosaur eggs are generally rare, oviraptorid eggs are relatively well known. Several oviraptorid nests, eggs, and embryos are known, mostly uncovered in the Gobi Desert. Some specimens of "Oviraptor philoceratops", "Citipati osmolskae", "Nemegtomaia" and cf. "Machairasaurus" have been found in brooding positions in association with nests. All of the nesting specimens are situated on top of egg clutches, with their limbs spread symmetrically on each side of the nest, front limbs covering the nest perimeter. This brooding posture is found today only in birds and supports a behavioral link between birds and theropod dinosaurs.  Oviraptorid eggs are shaped like elongated ovals ("elongatoolithid") and resemble the eggs of ratite birds (such as ostriches) in texture and shell structure. In the nest, eggs are typically found in pairs and arranged in concentric circles of up to three layers, with complete clutches consisting of as many of 22 eggs in some species. The eggs of "Citipati" are the largest known definitive oviraptorid eggs, at 18 cm. In contrast, eggs associated with "Oviraptor" are only up to 14 cm long. The first oviraptorid eggs (of the genus "Oviraptor", which mean "Egg thief") were found in close proximity to the remains of the ceratopsian dinosaur "Protoceratops" and it was assumed that the oviraptorids were preying upon the eggs of the ceratopsians. It was not until 1993, when a "Citipati" embryo was discovered inside an egg of the type assigned to "Protoceratops", that the error was corrected. Norell "et al.", who recognized the embryo as oviraptorid, assigned it to the genus "Citipati". The egg containing the embryo was smaller than most known "Citipati" eggs at only 12 cm, though it was partially eroded and broken into three pieces, making an accurate estimate of its original size difficult. The embryo-bearing egg was otherwise identical to other oviraptorid eggs in shell structure and was found in an isolated nest, again arranged in a circular pattern. An oviraptorosaurian specimen from China described in 2005 was found to have two unlaid eggs within the pelvic canal. This suggests that, unlike modern crocodilians, oviraptorosaurs did not produce and lay many eggs at the same time. Rather, the eggs were produced within the reproductive organs in pairs, and laid two at a time, with the mother positioned in the center of the nest and rotating in a circle as each pair was laid. This behavior is supported by the fact that the eggs oval shape, with the more narrow end pointing backward from the birth canal, matching their orientation toward the center of the nest after being laid. The presence of two shelled eggs within the birth canal shows that oviraptorosaurs were intermediate between the reproductive biology of crocodilians and modern birds. Like crocodilians, they had two oviducts. However, crocodilians produce multiple shelled eggs per oviduct at a time, whereas oviraptorosaurs, like birds, produced only one egg per oviduct at a time.  In 2017, paleontologists discovered colored pigments in some fossilized oviraptorid embryos of the egg-shell genus "Macroolithus" (which may represent eggs of "Heyuannia"). Examinations of eggs attributed to "Heyuannia" by Jasmina Wiemann and Tzu-Ruei Yang "et al" revealed the eggs preserved the blue-green pigment biliverdin and the reddish-brown pigment protoporphyrin, the same pigments found in many modern birds' eggshells. The eggs are thought to have been a blue-green color, because biliverdin is preserved in much greater abundance the photoporphyrin. In modern bird eggs, coloration can camouflage the eggs or help parents identify eggs, and it is correlated with more intensive parental care.

Metabolism.

A study by Robert Eagle et al. of the University of California-Los Angeles indicates that from specimens of eggs found in Mongolia and examination of the isotopes carbon-13 and oxygen 18 found within, Oviraptorids had body temperatures that could be elevated higher than that of the surrounding environment but lower than that of birds. This is very different from the isotope ratios of sauropod dinosaurs like "Brachiosaurus", which had body temperatures of up to and were fully endothermic.

Feathers.

Oviraptorids were probably feathered, since some close relatives were found with feathers preserved (including species of "Caudipteryx", "Protarchaeopteryx" and "Similicaudipteryx"). Another finding pointing to this is the discovery in "Nomingia" of a pygostyle, a bone that results from the fusion of the last tail vertebrae and is responsible in birds to hold a fan of feathers in the tail. Finally, the arm position of the brooding "Citipati" would have been far more effective if feathers were present to cover the eggs.

Pathology.

The brooding oviraptorid specimen IGM 100/979 showed a callus and possible longitudinal groove left over from a healed fracture of the right ulna. Other oviraptorids have had pathological features reported in their phalanges but these have not been described in detail in the scientific literature.

Oviraptoridae is a group of bird-like, herbivorous and omnivorous maniraptoran dinosaurs. Oviraptorids are characterized by their toothless, parrot-like beaks and, in some cases, elaborate crests. They were generally small, measuring between one and two metres long in most cases, though some possible oviraptorids were enormous. Oviraptorids are currently known only from the Late Cretaceous of Asia, with the most well-known species and complete specimens found only in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia and northwestern China.

Les Oviraptoridae (oviraptoridés en français) forment une famille éteinte de dinosaures théropodes à plumes, généralement de taille modeste (rarement plus de de long), qui ont vécu au Crétacé supérieur, dans l'actuelle Chine et en Mongolie.


Biography.

Early years.

Massillon was born at Hyères in Provence where his father was a royal notary. At the age of eighteen he joined the French Oratory and taught for a time in the colleges of his congregation at Pézenas, and Montbrison and at the Seminary of Vienne. On the death of Henri de Villars, Archbishop of Vienne, in 1693, he was commissioned to deliver a funeral oration, and this was the beginning of his fame. In obedience to Cardinal de Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, he left the Trappist Abbey of Sept-Fons, to which he had retired, and settled in Paris, where he was placed at the head of the famous Oratorian Seminary of Saint Magloire.

Career.

Massillon soon gained a wide reputation as a preacher and was selected to be the Advent preacher at the court of Versailles in 1699. He was made Bishop of Clermont in 1717, and two years later was elected a member of the Académie française. The last years of his life were spent in the faithful discharge of his episcopal duties; his death took place at Clermont on September 18, 1742. Massillon enjoyed in the 18th century a reputation equal to that of Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet and of Louis Bourdaloue, and was much praised for his eloquence by Voltaire, D'Alembert and kindred spirits among the Encyclopaedists.  Massillon's popularity was probably because in his sermons he lays little stress on dogmatic questions, but treats generally of moral subjects, in which the secrets of the human heart and the processes of man's reason are described with poetical feeling. He has usually been contrasted with his predecessor Bourdaloue, the latter having the credit of vigorous denunciation, Massillon that of gentle persuasiveness. Besides the "Petit Carême", a sermon which he delivered before the young King Louis XV of France in 1718, his sermons on the Prodigal Son, on the small number of the elect, on death, for Christmas Day, and for the Fourth Sunday in Advent, may be perhaps cited as his masterpieces. His funeral oration on King Louis XIV of France is only noted now for the opening sentence: ""Dieu seul est grand."" (Only God is great.) But, in truth, Massillon is singularly free from inequality. His great literary power, his reputation for benevolence, and his known toleration and dislike of doctrinal disputes caused him to be much more favourably regarded than most churchmen by the philosophers of the 18th century.  The first edition of Massillon's complete works was published by his nephew, also an Oratorian (Paris, 1745–1748), and upon this, in the absence of manuscripts, succeeding reprints were based. The best modern edition is that of the Abbé Blampignon (Paris, 1865–1868, 4 vols.; new ed. 1886).

Jean-Baptiste Massillon, Cong. Orat. (24 June 1663, Hyères – 28 September 1742, Beauregard-l'Évêque), was a French Catholic bishop and famous preacher, who served as Bishop of Clermont from 1717 until his death.

Jean-Baptiste Massillon, né le à Hyères (France) et mort le à Beauregard-l'Évêque, est un homme d'Église français, évêque de Clermont en Auvergne.


Championnat d'Europe féminin de football

History.

Women's football history has interesting turns and twists starting all the way in Europe. The predecessor tournament to the UEFA Women's Championship began in the early 1980s, under the name "UEFA European Competition for Representative Women's Teams". With the increasing popularity of women's football, the competition was given European Championship status by UEFA around 1990. Only the 1991 and 1995 editions have been used as European qualifiers for a FIFA Women's World Cup; starting in 1999, the group system used in men's qualifiers was also used for women's national teams.  Eight UEFA Women's Championships have taken place, preceded by three editions of the earlier "European Competition for Representative Women's Teams". The most recent holding of the competition is the 2017 Women's Euro hosted by the Netherlands in July and August 2017.  Unofficial women's European tournaments for national teams were held in Italy in 1969 and 1979 (won by Italy and Denmark respectively), but there was no formal international tournament until 1982 when the first UEFA 1984 European Competition for Women's Football qualification was launched. The 1984 Finals was won by Sweden. Norway won in the 1987 Finals. Since then, the UEFA Women's Championship has been dominated by Germany, which has won eight out of ten events, interrupted only by Norway in 1993. Germany's 2013 win was their sixth in a row.  The tournament was initially played as a four-team event. The 1997 edition was the first that was played with eight teams. The third expansion happened in 2009 when 12 teams participated. From 2017 onwards 16 teams compete for the championship.

Results.

Summary.

Statistics do not include the unofficial 1969 and 1979 tournaments.

Team summary.

Participation details.

Legend  For each tournament, the number of teams in each finals tournament (in brackets) are shown.

Tournament statistics.

UEFA.com Golden Player by tournament.

Official player of the tournament (from 2013)

The UEFA European Women's Championship, also called the UEFA Women's Euro, held every four years, is the main competition in women's association football between national teams of the UEFA confederation. The competition is the women's equivalent of the UEFA European Championship.

Le championnat d'Europe féminin de football est une compétition de football opposant les équipes nationales féminines, organisée par l'Union des associations européennes de football (UEFA). La première édition, qui s'appelle "Compétition européenne de l'UEFA pour les équipes féminines représentatives", oppose seize équipes à partir de 1982 pour la qualification pour une finale en matchs aller-retour remportée par la Suède en 1984.


History.

The Argentine Association Football League (in English) was founded on 21 February 1893 by Alexander Watson Hutton, considered "the father" of Argentine football. The Argentine Association is the oldest in South America and one of the oldest to be formed outside Europe. In 1906 Florencio Martínez de Hoz became the first Argentine-born president of the association.  In 1912 the president of Gimnasia y Esgrima de Buenos Aires, Ricardo Aldao, broke up with the association establishing an own league, the "Federación Argentina de Football" which organized a parallel tournament. Some teams moved to the FAF were Gimnasia y Esgrima, Independiente, Estudiantes de La Plata and Atlanta. The league lasted until 1914 when rejoining "Asociación Argentina de Football" forming a unique league for the 1915 season.  The second dissident league was formed in 1919 and named "Asociación Amateurs de Football", organizing its own championships (as FAF had done) until 1926 when it merged to the official association. The dissident league included some of the most prominent teams such as River Plate, Racing, Independiente and San Lorenzo, with the exception of Boca Juniors that remained in the official "Asociación Argentina de Football".  When both leagues merged for the 1927 season, the association was again renamed to "Asociación Amateur Argentina de Football" until the professionalization of the sport in 1931 when it switched to "Liga Argentina de Football". The first round of the recently created professional championship was on 31 May 1931.  Despite football turning professional in Argentina, some clubs wanted to remain amateur so they formed a new league, the "Asociación de Football Amateur y Profesionales", which organized a parallel tournament until 1934 when the dissident association merged with LAF on 3 November 1934 to form the "Asociación del Football Argentino" which has remained since.  In 2015, during the presidential elections to elect a new president for the body, there were two candidates to occupy Julio Humberto Grondona's chair, Marcelo Tinelli –who wanted a change in how things were going, like eliminating corruption between some clubs and the AFA– and Luis Segura, who had taken charge after Grondona's death, with the intention of extending his mandate.  With 75 presidents of different Argentine clubs voting, the day of the elections something went wrong when the final count resulted in a draw of 38 to 38 (76 votes in total). The explanation given was that one of the electors put a double vote and that mistake was not reported. As a result, the executive committee decided to postpone the election.  After some meetings to put an end to the conflict, both candidates agreed to have another election in June 2016.  In June 2016, AFA president Luis Segura was charged with "aggravated administrative fraud". Segura has been replaced on an interim basis by the AFA's executive secretary, Damián Dupiellet.  In 2017, the association approved the creation of a new entity, named "Superliga Argentina de Fútbol", which would take over the organization of Primera División championship. The main European football leagues (such as English Premier League or Spanish La Liga, organized by associations dedicated exclusively to that championships and run as separate entities from their respective National Associations) served as inspiration for the creation of the Superliga.  The 2016–17 Primera División championship was the last tournament organized by the AFA. Starting with the 2017–18 season to 2019–20 season, the "Superliga Argentina", an entity administrated by itself with its own statute, organised Primera División championships. In March 2020, AFA dissolved the Superliga and took over the Primera División again.

Names.

The body has been renamed several times since its establishment in 1893, in most of the cases translating into Spanish the original British names. The list of names is the following:

Current staff.

As of May 2020:

Competitions.

Official association.

The list of official competitions organized by the Argentine Football Association since its creation in 1893 are:

Dissident associations.

The following table include competitions organized by dissident associations.

Presidents.

Official Association  Dissident Associations

The Argentine Football Association (,, AFA) is the governing body of football in Argentina based in Buenos Aires. It organises the main divisions of Argentine league system (from Primera División to Primera D), including domestic cups Copa Argentina and Supercopa Argentina. The body also manages all the Argentina national teams, including the Senior, U-20, U-17,, Olympic and women's squads. Secondly, it also organizes the women's, children, youth, futsal, and other local leagues.

L'association du football argentin ("Asociación del Fútbol Argentino" AFA) est une association regroupant les clubs de football d'Argentine et organisant les compétitions nationales et les matchs internationaux de la sélection d'Argentine.


Jacobi theta function.

There are several closely related functions called Jacobi theta functions, and many different and incompatible systems of notation for them. One Jacobi theta function (named after Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi) is a function defined for two complex variables and, where can be any complex number and is the half-period ratio, confined to the upper half-plane, which means it has positive imaginary part. It is given by the formula  where is the nome and. It is a Jacobi form. At fixed, this is a Fourier series for a 1-periodic entire function of. Accordingly, the theta function is 1-periodic in :  It also turns out to be -quasiperiodic in, with  Thus, in general,  for any integers and.

Auxiliary functions.

The Jacobi theta function defined above is sometimes considered along with three auxiliary theta functions, in which case it is written with a double 0 subscript:  The auxiliary (or half-period) functions are defined by  This notation follows Riemann and Mumford; Jacobi's original formulation was in terms of the nome rather than. In Jacobi's notation the -functions are written:  The above definitions of the Jacobi theta functions are by no means unique. See Jacobi theta functions (notational variations) for further discussion.  If we set in the above theta functions, we obtain four functions of only, defined on the upper half-plane (sometimes called theta constants.) These can be used to define a variety of modular forms, and to parametrize certain curves; in particular, the Jacobi identity is  which is the Fermat curve of degree four.

Jacobi identities.

Jacobi's identities describe how theta functions transform under the modular group, which is generated by and. Equations for the first transform are easily found since adding one to in the exponent has the same effect as adding to (). For the second, let  Then

Theta functions in terms of the nome.

Instead of expressing the Theta functions in terms of and, we may express them in terms of arguments and the nome, where and. In this form, the functions become  We see that the theta functions can also be defined in terms of and, without a direct reference to the exponential function. These formulas can, therefore, be used to define the Theta functions over other fields where the exponential function might not be everywhere defined, such as fields of -adic numbers.

Product representations.

The Jacobi triple product (a special case of the Macdonald identities) tells us that for complex numbers and with and we have  It can be proven by elementary means, as for instance in Hardy and Wright's "An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers".  If we express the theta function in terms of the nome (noting some authors instead set ) and take then  We therefore obtain a product formula for the theta function in the form  In terms of and :  where is the -Pochhammer symbol and is the -theta function. Expanding terms out, the Jacobi triple product can also be written  which we may also write as  This form is valid in general but clearly is of particular interest when is real. Similar product formulas for the auxiliary theta functions are

Integral representations.

The Jacobi theta functions have the following integral representations:

Explicit values.

See Yi (2004).

Some series identities.

The next two series identities were proved by István Mező:  These relations hold for all. Specializing the values of, we have the next parameter free sums

Zeros of the Jacobi theta functions.

All zeros of the Jacobi theta functions are simple zeros and are given by the following:  where, are arbitrary integers.

Relation to the Riemann zeta function.

The relation  was used by Riemann to prove the functional equation for the Riemann zeta function, by means of the Mellin transform  which can be shown to be invariant under substitution of by. The corresponding integral for is given in the article on the Hurwitz zeta function.

Relation to the Weierstrass elliptic function.

The theta function was used by Jacobi to construct (in a form adapted to easy calculation) his elliptic functions as the quotients of the above four theta functions, and could have been used by him to construct Weierstrass's elliptic functions also, since  where the second derivative is with respect to and the constant is defined so that the Laurent expansion of at has zero constant term.

Relation to the "q"-gamma function.

The fourth theta function – and thus the others too – is intimately connected to the Jackson -gamma function via the relation

Relations to Dedekind eta function.

Let be the Dedekind eta function, and the argument of the theta function as the nome. Then,  and,  See also the Weber modular functions.

Elliptic modulus.

The elliptic modulus is and the complementary elliptic modulus is

A solution to the heat equation.

The Jacobi theta function is the fundamental solution of the one-dimensional heat equation with spatially periodic boundary conditions. Taking to be real and with real and positive, we can write  which solves the heat equation  This theta-function solution is 1-periodic in, and as it approaches the periodic delta function, or Dirac comb, in the sense of distributions  General solutions of the spatially periodic initial value problem for the heat equation may be obtained by convolving the initial data at with the theta function.

Relation to the Heisenberg group.

The Jacobi theta function is invariant under the action of a discrete subgroup of the Heisenberg group. This invariance is presented in the article on the theta representation of the Heisenberg group.

Generalizations.

If is a quadratic form in variables, then the theta function associated with is  with the sum extending over the lattice of integers formula_36 This theta function is a modular form of weight (on an appropriately defined subgroup) of the modular group. In the Fourier expansion,  the numbers are called the "representation numbers" of the form.

Theta series of a Dirichlet character.

For formula_38 a primitive Dirichlet character modulo formula_39 and formula_40 then  is a weight formula_42 modular form of level formula_43 and character formula_44, which means  whenever

Riemann theta function.

Let  the set of symmetric square matrices whose imaginary part is positive definite. formula_48 is called the Siegel upper half-space and is the multi-dimensional analog of the upper half-plane. The -dimensional analogue of the modular group is the symplectic group formula_49 for, formula_50 The -dimensional analogue of the congruence subgroups is played by  Then, given formula_52 the Riemann theta function is defined as  Here, formula_54 is an -dimensional complex vector, and the superscript T denotes the transpose. The Jacobi theta function is then a special case, with and formula_55 where formula_56 is the upper half-plane.  The Riemann theta converges absolutely and uniformly on compact subsets of formula_57  The functional equation is  which holds for all vectors formula_59 and for all formula_54 and formula_61

Poincaré series.

The Poincaré series generalizes the theta series to automorphic forms with respect to arbitrary Fuchsian groups.

In mathematics, theta functions are special functions of several complex variables. They are important in many areas, including the theories of Abelian varieties and moduli spaces, and of quadratic forms. They have also been applied to soliton theory. When generalized to a Grassmann algebra, they also appear in quantum field theory.

[[image:Complex theta minus0point1times e i pi 0point1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.7|Fonction theta de Jacobi formula_1 avec formula_2 et <math>q={\rm e}^ [[Catégorie:Théorie analytique des nombres]] [[Catégorie:Fonction elliptique|Theta]] [[Catégorie:Fonction remarquable|Theta]]


Early life.

José Antonio Domínguez Bandera was born on 10 August 1960 in Málaga, the son of Civil Guard police officer José Domínguez Prieto (1920–2008) and schoolteacher Ana Bandera Gallego (1933–2017). He has a brother named Francisco. As a child, he wanted to become a professional football player until a broken foot sidelined his dreams at the age of 14. He showed a strong interest in the performing arts and formed part of the ARA Theatre-School run by Ángeles Rubio-Argüelles y Alessandri (wife of diplomat and filmmaker Edgar Neville) and the College of Dramatic Art, both in Málaga. His work in the theater and his performances on the streets eventually landed him a spot with the Spanish National Theatre.

Career.

Early work, 1982–1990.

Banderas began his acting studies at the School of Dramatic Art in Málaga, and made his acting debut at a small theatre in Málaga. He was arrested by the Spanish police for performance in a play by Bertolt Brecht, because of political censorship under the rule of General Francisco Franco. Banderas spent a whole night at the police station; he had three or four such arrests while he was working with a small theatre troupe that toured all over Spain and was giving performances in small town theatres and on the street. Banderas began working in small shops during Spain's post-dictatorial cultural movement known as the La Movida Madrileña.  While performing with the theatre, Banderas caught the attention of Spanish director Pedro Almodóvar, who cast the young actor in his 1982 film debut "Labyrinth of Passion". Five years later, he went on to appear in the director's "Law of Desire", making headlines with his performance as a gay man, which required him to engage in his first male-to-male onscreen kiss. After Banderas appeared in Almodóvar's 1986 "Matador", the director cast him in his internationally acclaimed 1988 film, "Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown".  The recognition Banderas gained for his role increased two years later when he starred in Almodóvar's controversial "Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!" as a mental patient who kidnaps a porn star (Victoria Abril) and keeps her tied up until she returns his love. It was his breakthrough role in "Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!", that helped spur him on to Hollywood. Almodóvar is credited for helping launch Banderas's international career, as he became a regular feature in his films throughout the 1980s.

Breakthrough, 1991–1994.

In 1991, Madonna introduced Banderas to Hollywood. (He was an object of her desires in her pseudo-documentary film of one of her concert tours, "".) The following year, still speaking minimal English, he began acting in U.S. films. Despite having to learn all his lines phonetically, Banderas still managed to turn in a critically praised performance as a struggling musician in his first American drama film, "The Mambo Kings" (1992).  Banderas then broke through to mainstream American audiences in the film "Philadelphia" (1993), as the lover of lawyer Andrew Beckett (Tom Hanks), who has AIDS. The film's success earned Banderas wide recognition, and the following year he was given a role in Neil Jordan's high-profile adaptation of Anne Rice's "Interview with the Vampire", sharing the screen with Brad Pitt.

Worldwide recognition, 1995–present.

He appeared in several major Hollywood releases in 1995, including a starring role in the Robert Rodriguez-directed film "Desperado" and the antagonist on the action film "Assassins", co-starred with Sylvester Stallone. In 1996, he starred alongside Madonna in "Evita", an adaptation of the musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice in which he played the narrator, Che, a role played by David Essex in the original 1978 West End production. He also had success with his role as the legendary masked swordsman Zorro in the 1998 film "The Mask of Zorro". In 1999 he starred in "The 13th Warrior", a movie about a Muslim caught up in a war between the Northman and human eating beasts.  In 2001, he collaborated with Robert Rodriguez who cast him in the "Spy Kids" film trilogy. He also starred in Michael Cristofer's "Original Sin" alongside Angelina Jolie the same year. In 2002, he starred in Brian De Palma's "Femme Fatale" opposite Rebecca Romijn and in Julie Taymor's "Frida" with Salma Hayek. In 2003, he starred in the last installment of the trilogy "Once Upon a Time in Mexico" (in which he appeared with Johnny Depp and Hayek). Banderas' debut as a director was the poorly received "Crazy in Alabama" (1999), starring his then wife Melanie Griffith. In 2003, he returned to the musical genre, appearing to great acclaim in the Broadway revival of Maury Yeston's musical "Nine", based on the film "81⁄2", playing the prime role originated by Raul Julia. Banderas won both the Outer Critics Circle and Drama Desk awards, and was nominated for the Tony Award for best actor in a musical. His performance is preserved on the Broadway cast recording released by PS Classics. Later that year, he received the Rita Moreno HOLA Award for Excellence from the Hispanic Organization of Latin Actors (HOLA).  Banderas' voice role as Puss in Boots in "Shrek 2", "Shrek the Third", and the last film in the "Shrek" franchise, "Shrek Forever After", helped make the character popular on the family film circuit. In 2005, he reprised his role as Zorro in "The Legend of Zorro", though this was not as successful as "The Mask of Zorro". In 2006, he starred in "Take the Lead", a high-set movie in which he played a ballroom dancing teacher. That year, he directed his second film "El camino de los ingleses", based on the novel by Antonio Soler and also received the L.A. Latino International Film Festival's "Gabi" Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 October.  He received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on 6801 Hollywood Blvd. in 2005. In 2011, the horror thriller "The Skin I Live In" marked the return of Banderas to Pedro Almodóvar, the Spanish director who launched his international career. The two had not worked together since 1990 ("Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!"). In "The Skin I Live In" he breaks out of the "Latin Lover" mold from his Hollywood work and stars as a calculating revenge-seeking plastic surgeon following the rape of his daughter. According to the Associated Press Banderas' performance is among his strongest in recent memory. He again lent his voice to Puss in Boots, this time as the protagonist of the "Shrek" spin-off prequel, "Puss in Boots". This film reunited Banderas with Salma Hayek for the sixth time.  In 2018 he was cast with Penélope Cruz in the Spanish film "Pain and Glory" ("Dolor y gloria"), directed by Pedro Almodóvar. On May 25, 2019, Banderas won Best Actor at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival for his role in the film. He was later nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for "Pain and Glory". In March 2020, Banderas was cast in an undisclosed role in the upcoming "Uncharted" film.

Business activities.

He has invested some of his film earnings in Andalusian products, which he promotes in Spain and the US. He owns 50% of a winery in Villalba de Duero, Burgos, Spain, called Anta Banderas, which produces red and rosé wines.  He performed a voice-over for a computer-animated bee which can be seen in the United States in television commercials for Nasonex, an allergy medication, and was seen in the 2007 Christmas advertising campaign for Marks & Spencer, a British retailer.  He is a veteran of the perfume industry. The actor has been working with fragrance and beauty multinational company Puig for over ten years becoming one of the brand's most successful representatives. Banderas and Puig have successfully promoted a number of fragrances so far – "Diavolo", "Diavolo for Women", "Mediterraneo", "Spirit", and "Spirit for Women". After the success of "Antonio for Men" and "Blue Seduction for Men" in 2007, he launched his latest "Blue Seduction for Women" the following year.

Personal life.

Banderas resides in England in Cobham, Surrey.  A longtime supporter of Málaga CF, Banderas is also an officer ("mayordomo de trono") of a Roman Catholic religious brotherhood in his hometown of Málaga and travels during Holy Week to take part in the processions, although he once described himself as an agnostic in an interview with "People" magazine.  In 2009, Banderas underwent surgery for a benign tumor in his back.  In May 2010, Banderas received an honorary doctorate from the University of Málaga. He received an honorary degree from Dickinson College in 2000.  Banderas has always struggled with the pronunciation of certain English words, as he mentioned in a 2011 article with "GQ" magazine: "The word that really gets me is 'animals', I just can never say it properly, whenever it is in a film I have to get it changed for a synonym. In "Zorro", I had a line changed from 'you look like a bunch of animals' to 'you look like a collection of beasts'. It worked much better, so I don't care."  In August 2015, Banderas enrolled in a fashion-design course at Central Saint Martins.  Speaking at the Málaga Film Festival during March 2017, Banderas revealed that he had suffered a heart attack on January 26, 2017, but said it "wasn't serious and hasn't caused any damages". Following that incident, he had heart surgery to put in three stents in his arteries. In a "Fresh Air" interview in September 2019, he recalled it as being life changing. He said, "It just gave me a perspective of who I was, and it just made the important things [go to] the surface. When I say this, people may just think that I'm crazy, but it's one of the best things that ever happened in my life."  Banderas married Ana Leza in 1986 or 1988 (sources differ) and divorced in 1996. He met and began a relationship with actress Melanie Griffith in 1995 while shooting "Two Much". They married on 14 May 1996 at Marylebone Town Hall in London. They have a daughter, Stella del Carmen Banderas (born 24 September 1996), who appeared onscreen with Griffith in Banderas' directorial debut "Crazy in Alabama" (1999). In 2002, the couple received the Stella Adler Angel Award for their extensive philanthropy. Griffith has a tattoo of Banderas' name on her right arm.  In June 2014, Griffith and Banderas released a statement announcing their intention to divorce "in a loving and friendly manner". According to the petition filed in the Los Angeles Superior Court, the couple had "irreconcilable differences" that led to their separation. The divorce became official in December 2015.

Activism.

In 1996, Banderas appeared among other figures of Spanish culture in a video supporting the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party lists in the general election.  In 2013, he called on Europe and the United States to emulate Hugo Chávez in Venezuela and nationalize big corporations as a solution to the global economic crisis.  In June 2015, Banderas demonstrated his support for Israel by taking part in a fund-raising event organized by Friends of the Israeli Defense Forces (FIDF), which raised $31m for Israeli soldiers.

External links.

José Antonio Domínguez Bandera (born 10 August 1960), known professionally as Antonio Banderas, is a Spanish actor, film producer and director. He is the recipient of numerous accolades, including a Cannes Best Actor Award and nominations for a Tony Award, an Academy Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards and five Golden Globe Awards.

José Antonio Domínguez Bandera, dit Antonio Banderas, est un acteur, réalisateur et producteur de cinéma espagnol, né le à Malaga (Andalousie).


Overview.

The treaty was fathered by the Speaker of the Parliament Hussein El-Husseini and negotiated in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, by the surviving members of Lebanon's 1972 parliament. The agreement came into effect with the active mediation of Saudi Arabia, discreet participation by the United States, and behind-the-scenes influence from Syria.  The agreement covered political reform, the ending of the Lebanese Civil War, the establishment of special relations between Lebanon and Syria, and a framework for the beginning of complete Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon. Since Rafik Hariri was a former Saudi diplomatic representative, he played a significant role in constructing the Taif Agreement. It is also argued that the Taif Accord reoriented Lebanon toward the Arab world, especially Syria. In other words, the Taif Accord positioned Lebanon as a country with "an Arab identity and belonging." The agreement was finalized and confirmed only after the development of an anti-Saddam Hussein international alliance. The alliance included Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, France, Iran and the United States.  The agreement formed the principle of "mutual coexistence" (Arabic: العيش المشترك) between Lebanon's different sects and their "proper political representation" (Arabic: صحة التمثيل السياسي) as the main objective of post-civil war parliamentary electoral laws. It also restructured the National Pact political system in Lebanon by transferring some of the power away from the Maronite Christian community, which had been given a privileged status in Lebanon under the period of French rule. Prior to the agreement, the Sunni Muslim Prime Minister was appointed by and responsible to the Maronite President. After the Taif agreement the Prime Minister was responsible to the legislature, as in a traditional parliamentary system. Therefore, the agreement changed the power-sharing formula that had favoured the Christians to a 50:50 ratio and enhanced the powers of the Sunni Prime Minister over those of the Christian president. Prior to the Taif negotiations, a Maronite Christian, General Michel Aoun, had been appointed Prime Minister by President Amine Gemayel on 22 September 1988. This had caused a serious political crisis of a split premiership, as the post was reserved for a Sunni Muslim due to the National Pact of 1943, and Omar Karami held this office.The Taif agreement helped to overcome this crisis by preparing the election of a new president.  The agreement also provided for the disarmament of all national and non national militias. Hezbollah was allowed to stay armed in its capacity as a "resistance force" rather than a militia, fighting Israel in the south, a privilege obtained – according to the Swedish academic Magnus Ranstorp – in part by using its leverage as holder of a number of Western hostages. Although the Taif Agreement identified the abolition of political sectarianism as a national priority, it provided no timeframe for doing so. The Chamber of Deputies was increased in size to 128 members, shared equally between Christians and Muslims, rather than elected by universal suffrage that would have provided a Muslim majority (excluding the expatriate community, a majority of which is Christian). A cabinet was established similarly divided equally between Christians and Muslims.  According to As'ad AbuKhalil and many Lebanese Christians, the agreement greatly diminished the power of the President to the benefit of the Council of Ministers, although there is ongoing debate about whether this power has shifted to the Council as a whole or the Prime Minister. The president, having had significant executive power prior to the agreement, was reduced to a figurehead with no real and/or considerable power, as in most parliamentary republics. He also noted that the agreement extended the term of the Speaker of the Lebanese Parliament from one year to four years, although the position "remains largely without meaningful authority".  The agreement was ratified on 5 November 1989. The Parliament met on the same day at the Kleyate air base in North Lebanon and elected President René Moawad, 409 days after Amine Gemayel vacated this position upon the expiration of his term in 1988. Moawad was unable to occupy the Presidential Palace which was still in use by General Michel Aoun. Moawad was assassinated seventeen days later in a car bombing in Beirut on 22 November 1989 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese Independence Day ceremonies. He was succeeded by Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998.

The Taif Agreement ( / "ittifāqiyat al-Ṭā’if") (also the or ) was an agreement reached to provide "the basis for the ending of the civil war and the return to political normalcy in Lebanon". Negotiated in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, it was designed to end the decades-long Lebanese Civil War, reassert Lebanese authority in Southern Lebanon (then controlled by South Lebanon Army and supported by Israeli troops). Though the agreement set a time frame for Syrian military withdrawal, stipulating that the Syrians withdraw within two years, the actual withdrawal did not take place until 2005. It was signed on 22 October 1989 and ratified by the Lebanese parliament on 5 November 1989.

L'accord de Taëf est un traité inter-libanais, signé le, destiné à mettre fin à la guerre civile libanaise qui dure depuis 1975. Il est présenté comme une tentative de restauration de la paix par un cessez-le-feu et par la réconciliation nationale. Négocié à Taëf en Arabie saoudite, il est le résultat des efforts politiques d'un comité composé du roi Hassan II du Maroc, du roi Fahd d'Arabie saoudite et du président Chadli d'Algérie, avec le soutien de la diplomatie américaine.


Early life.

Hulot was born 30 April 1955 in Lille, France, to Monique Marguerite Marie Hulot (née Moulun), a pharmaceutical sales representative, and Philippe Marie Joseph Hulot, a gold miner in Venezuela. Hulot had one brother, Gonzaga, and a sister, Beatrice.  Hulot's father Philippe died when Hulot was fifteen years old. Gonzaga Hulot committed suicide on 24 December 1974 when Hulot was 19 years old.  Hulot took up rallying as a hobby when he was growing up and took part in the 1980 Dakar Rally, though he didn't finish the race due to difficulties with his vehicle.

Early career.

From 1973 to 1978, Hulot worked as an agency photographer for Sipa Press where he documented the 1976 Guatemala earthquake and interviewed Ian Smith during the Rhodesian Bush War.  Hulot left Sipa Press in 1978 to move to France Inter after being offered work as a radio journalist and producer. Hulot debuted on television during the children's program "Les Visiteurs du mercredi." Hulot also presented the short-lived educational programme "Les Pieds au mur." Following this, Hulot became an evening reporter focusing on motorcycle events. Hulot left France Inter in 1987.  Hulot presented the television programme, "Ushuaïa, le magazine de l'extrême" which was focused around extreme sport and natural landscapes throughout the world. The programme was broadcast on TF1 and was co-produced by Hulot's then-girlfriend Dominique Cantien. "Ushuaïa, le magazine de l'extrême" made Hulot a household name in France. "Ushuaïa, le magazine de l'extrême" ran from 1987 to 1995. Hulot went on to present Opération Okavango (1996-1997) and "Ushuaïa Nature ("1998-2012) Hulot's contract with TF1 ended in December 2011 though four of the remaining "Ushuaïa Nature" episodes aired in 2012.

Fondation Nicolas Hulot.

In 1990, Hulot founded the "Ushuaia Foundation" which became La Fondation Nicolas-Hulot pour la nature et l'homme in 1995 and which changed its name to La Fondation pour la nature et l'homme (The Foundation for Nature and Mankind) in April 2011.  Hulot and Gérard Feldzer, a former French airline pilot, experimented with airship prototypes originally developed by Didier Costes in 1992, and in 1993, the pair attempted to cross the Atlantic Ocean from Spain using an airship with pedals. The pair made it as far as 1,500 km before failing near the Cape Verde Islands.  Hulot set up partnerships for the Foundation with companies such as EDF, L'Oréal and TF1. In 2006, the National Museum of Natural History formed a partnership with "La Fondation pour la nature et l'homme", organising annual events to bring people together to combat climate change.  In 2013, the foundation launched a think tank based around ecology.

Political activities.

In 2007, Nicolas Hulot told candidates in the presidential election that he would stand as a candidate if ecology were not one of the main themes of the election. Some polls estimated his support at around 15%. In response to his announcement, five of the twelve candidates in the election, including Nicolas Sarkozy, signed his "Pacte écologique" (ecology pact), stating that ecological issues would be central to all future political decisions.

2011 Europe Écologie-Les Verts primary.

On 13 April 2011 while speaking in Sevran, Seine-Saint-Denis, Nicolas Hulot announced his candidacy in the Europe Écologie-Les Verts primary for the 2012 French presidential election. The announcement came a month after Hulot's calls for a referendum on nuclear energy following the Fukushima nuclear accident.  Hulot was invited to a televised interview on the "France Inter" show "7/9" by Bruno Duvic.  During the first round of the primary, Hulot came second with 40.22% despite polls indicating he would be able to beat Eva Joly who got 49.75% of the vote. Hulot lost during the second round and Joly became the Europe Ecologie-Les Verts candidate.  For the French presidential election of 2012, Nicolas Hulot stated that he had voted for the Left Front's candidate, Jean-Luc Mélenchon, during the first round. He said he found Melenchon more efficient on environmental issues than Joly. He supported François Hollande in the second round.

On 17 May 2017 he was appointed Minister for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition. This is following Hulot turning down offers for ministerial positions from Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy and François Hollande's governments. The position's responsibilities are focused around climate, air pollution, energy and transport. (The latter being done in collaboration with Transport minister, Élisabeth Borne.)  On 6 July 2017, Hulot announced the government's five-year plan to outlaw all petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040. The plan would also attempt to make France carbon-neutral by 2050. Financial incentives would be offered to people who try to look for cleaner alternatives. This followed a proposal by Norway to ban all petrol and diesel vehicle sales by 2025.  On 10 July 2017, Hulot said on RTL Radio that France may close up to 17 nuclear reactors by 2025 in a new plan to reduce its share of nuclear power. Liberal think-tank Institut Montaigne released a report stating that the plan to convert from nuclear energy to wind and solar will cost €217 billion by 2035. In 2016, France's Court of Audit estimated that prolonging the lifespan of France's nuclear reactors would cost €100 billion. France currently derives 75 percent of its electricity from nuclear power.  In December 2017, to combat global warming, France adopted a law banning new fossil fuel exploitation projects and closing current ones by 2040 in all of its territories, becoming the first country to schedule the end of fossil fuel exploitation.  On 28 August 2018, Hulot resigned as Minister of Ecology during a live interview on France Inter radio, citing President Emmanuel Macron's record on environmental issues and his own frustration over feeling alone in prioritising reform. He said that his time in office had been an "accumulation of disappointments", and that he did not want to "create the illusion that we're facing up to these challenges". "The Guardian" wrote that "Hulot's departure is a major blow to Macron and calls into question the president's credibility on the environment".

Criticism.

Nicolas Hulot has been criticised by some commentators, like "Le Canard enchaîné" and supporters of uneconomic growth and political ecology, who have criticised his use of the media and acceptance of funds from large firms, like EDF, L'Oréal and Rhône-Poulenc.

Personal life.

Hulot was in a relationship with Dominique Cantien, the TF1 director. Hulot married world champion rock-climber Isabelle Patissier in Saint-Malo on 2 September 1993. Hulot and Patissier divorced on 9 April 1996. Hulot remarried in Viens on 2 October 2002 to Florence Lasserre, a former municipal councillor and mother to his two sons.  In February 2018, French magazine "Ebdo" reported that Hulot had been the subject of an allegation of sexual assault, related to events that took place in the 1990s. The accuser was later reported to be Pascale Mitterrand, granddaughter of former President François Mitterrand.

Nicolas Jacques André Hulot (; born 30 April 1955 in Lille, France; officier de la Légion d'honneur, chevalier des Arts et Lettres) is a French journalist and environmental activist. He is the founder and president of the Fondation Nicolas Hulot, an environmental group established in 1990.

Nicolas Hulot [nikola ylo], né le à Lille, est un journaliste, animateur et producteur de télévision, écrivain, homme d'affaires et homme politique français.


Birth and regency.

Isabella was born in Royal Palace of Madrid in 1830, the eldest daughter of King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and of his fourth wife and niece, Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. Queen Maria Christina became regent on 29 September 1833, when her three-year-old daughter Isabella was proclaimed sovereign on the death of the king.  Isabella succeeded to the throne because Ferdinand VII had induced the Cortes Generales to help him set aside the Salic law, introduced by the Bourbons in the early 18th century, and to reestablish the older succession law of Spain. The first pretender to the throne, Ferdinand's brother Infante Carlos, Count of Molina, fought seven years during the minority of Isabella to dispute her title. Carlos' and his descendants' supporters were known as Carlists, and the fight over the succession was the subject of a number of Carlist Wars in the 19th century.  Isabella's reign was maintained only through the support of the army. The Cortes and the Moderate Liberals and Progressives reestablished constitutional and parliamentary government, dissolved the religious orders and confiscated their property (including that of the Jesuits), and tried to restore order to Spain's finances. After the Carlist war, the regent, Maria Christina, resigned to make way for Baldomero Espartero, Prince of Vergara, the most successful and most popular Isabelline general. Espartero, a Progressive, remained regent for only two years.  Baldomero Espartero was turned out in 1843 by a military and political "pronunciamiento" led by Generals Leopoldo O'Donnell and Ramón María Narváez. They formed a cabinet, presided over by Joaquín María López y López. This government induced the Cortes to declare Isabella of age at 13.

Marriage.

Three years later, on 10 October 1846, the Moderate Party (or Castilian Conservatives) made their sixteen-year-old queen marry her double-first cousin Francisco de Asís de Borbón (1822–1902), the same day that her younger sister, infanta Luisa Fernanda, married Antoine d'Orléans, Duke of Montpensier. The marriages suited France and Louis Philippe, King of the French, who as a result bitterly quarrelled with Britain. However, the marriages were not happy; persistent rumour had it that few if any of Isabella's children were fathered by her king-consort, rumoured to be a homosexual. The Carlist party asserted that the heir-apparent to the throne, who later became Alfonso XII, had been fathered by a captain of the guard, Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans.  Isabella had nine children, but only five reached adulthood:  The couple was rather caustically described by an English contemporary thus:

Reign as an adult.

Isabella ruled directly from 1843 to 1868, a period marked by palace intrigues, back-stairs and antechamber influences, barracks conspiracies, and military "pronunciamientos" to further the ends of the political parties; Moderados ruled from 1846 to 1854, Progressives from 1854 to 1856, and Unión Liberals from 1856 to 1863. Moderados and Unión Liberals quickly succeeded each other to keep out the Progressives, thus sowing the seeds for the Revolution of 1868.  Queen Isabella II often was active in politics. She showed favour to her reactionary generals and statesmen and to the Church and religious orders. Spain fought two wars during her reign: the war against Morocco in 1859, which ended in a treaty advantageous for Spain and cession of some Moroccan territory, and the fruitless Chincha Islands War (1864–1866) against Peru and Chile. Her reign saw tensions with the United States over the "Amistad" affair and over the war in the Pacific; independence revolts in Cuba and Puerto Rico; and some progress in public works, especially railways, and a slight improvement in commerce and finance. By virtue of a royal decree, she opened Iloilo in the Philippines to world trade on September 29, 1855, mainly to export sugar and other products to America, Australia and Europe.

Exile and abdication.

At the end of September 1868, the defeat of Isabella's forces at the Battle of Alcolea led to her deposition and exile to France. The revolt against Isabella played out in the battle is known as the Glorious Revolution. In 1870, the provisional government replaced Isabella with Amadeo I, second son of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, after much deliberation. Amadeo's abdication under pressure in 1873 led to the period of the First Spanish Republic (1873–74).  Isabella's exile helped cause the Franco-Prussian War, as Napoleon III could not accept the possibility that a German whose candidacy was supported by Prussia, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, might replace Isabella, a dynast of the Spanish Bourbons and great-great-granddaughter of the French-born Philip V of Spain. Napoleon III's loss in the war led to his deposition and the permanent end of monarchical government in France.  The First Spanish Republic collapsed in December 1874. Already on 25 June 1870, Isabella had been induced to abdicate in Paris in favour of her son, Alfonso XII, a move that aided the cause of the Restoration in 1874. After the collapse of the Republic, Alfonso was placed on the throne. Isabella had left her husband in March 1874 and continued to live in France after the Restoration surrounded by a small circle of retainers with the Marqués de Alta Villa as her secretary. On the occasion of one of her visits to Madrid during the reign of Alfonso XII, she began to intrigue with politicians in the capital and was peremptorily requested to go abroad again. She lived in Paris for the rest of her life, residing at the Palacio Castilla. She seldom travelled abroad except for a few visits to Spain. During her exile, she grew closer to her husband, with whom she maintained an ambiguous friendship until his death in 1902. Her last days were marked by the marital problems of her youngest daughter, Eulalia. She died on 10 April 1904 and is entombed in El Escorial.

Titles, styles and honours.

Titles and styles.

The underage Queen Isabella II was known by the centuries-old feudal, symbolic, long title that included both extant and extinct titles and claims:  "Isabel II by the Grace of God, Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon, of the Two Sicilies, of Jerusalem, of Navarre, of Granada, of Toledo, of Valencia, of Galicia, of Majorca, of Seville, of Sardinia, of Córdoba, of Corsica, of Murcia, of Menorca, of Jaén, the Algarves, Algeciras, Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, of the East and West Indies, Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea; Archduchess of Austria; Duchess of Burgundy, Brabant, Milan; Countess of Habsburg, Flanders, Tirol and Barcelona; Lady of Biscay and Molina"  In 1837, Spanish legislation produced a constitutional monarchy and a new format of the title was used for Isabel:  "By the grace of God and the Constitution of the Spanish monarchy, Queen Isabel II of the Spains"

Film portrayal.

In the 1997 film "Amistad", she was played by Anna Paquin, and is depicted as a spoiled 11-year-old girl.

Isabella II (; 10 October 1830 – 9 April 1904), also known as La de los Tristes Destinos ("She of the Sad Destinies"), was Queen of Spain from 1833 until 1868.

Isabelle II (ou "Isabel II" en espagnol), née le à Madrid et morte le à Paris, est reine d’Espagne de 1833 à 1868.


Life.

Quintilian was born c. 35 in "Calagurris" (Calahorra, La Rioja) in Hispania. His father, a well-educated man, sent him to Rome to study rhetoric early in the reign of Nero. While there, he cultivated a relationship with Domitius Afer, who died in 59. "It had always been the custom... for young men with ambitions in public life to fix upon some older model of their ambition... and regard him as a mentor". Quintilian evidently adopted Afer as his model and listened to him speak and plead cases in the law courts. Afer has been characterized as a more austere, classical, Ciceronian speaker than those common at the time of Seneca the Younger, and he may have inspired Quintilian's love of Cicero.  Sometime after Afer's death, Quintilian returned to Hispania, possibly to practice law in the courts of his own province. However, in 68, he returned to Rome as part of the retinue of Emperor Galba, Nero's short-lived successor. Quintilian does not appear to have been a close advisor of the Emperor, which probably ensured his survival after the assassination of Galba in 69.  After Galba's death, and during the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors which followed, Quintilian opened a public school of rhetoric. Among his students were Pliny the Younger, and perhaps Tacitus. The Emperor Vespasian made him a "consul." The emperor "in general was not especially interested in the arts, but... was interested in education as a means of creating an intelligent and responsible ruling class". This subsidy enabled Quintilian to devote more time to the school, since it freed him of pressing monetary concerns. In addition, he appeared in the courts of law, arguing on behalf of clients.  Of his personal life, little is known. In the "Institutio Oratoria", he mentions a wife who died young, as well as two sons who predeceased him.  Quintilian retired from teaching and pleading in 88, during the reign of Domitian. His retirement may have been prompted by his achievement of financial security and his desire to become a gentleman of leisure. Quintilian survived several emperors; the reigns of Vespasian and Titus were relatively peaceful, but that of Domitian was reputed to be difficult. Domitian's cruelty and paranoia may have prompted the rhetorician to distance himself quietly. The emperor does not appear to have taken offence as he made Quintilian tutor of his two grand-nephews in 90 AD. He is believed to have died sometime around 100, not having long survived Domitian, who was assassinated in 96.

Works.

The only extant work of Quintilian is a twelve-volume textbook on rhetoric entitled "Institutio Oratoria" (generally referred to in English as the "Institutes of Oratory"), published around AD 95. This work deals not only with the theory and practice of rhetoric, but also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself, providing advice that ran from the cradle to the grave. An earlier text, "De Causis Corruptae Eloquentiae" ("On the Causes of Corrupted Eloquence") has been lost, but is believed to have been "a preliminary exposition of some of the views later set forth in ["Institutio Oratoria"]".  In addition, there are two sets of declamations, "Declamationes Maiores" and "Declamationes Minores", which have been attributed to Quintilian. However, there is some dispute over the real writer of these texts: "Some modern scholars believe that the declamations circulated in his name represent the lecture notes of a scholar either using Quintilian's system or actually trained by him".

"Institutio Oratoria".

"Institutio Oratoria" (English: "Institutes of Oratory") is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education and development of the orator himself. In this work, Quintilian establishes that the perfect orator is first a good man, and after that he is a good speaker. He also believed that a speech should stay genuine to a message that is "just and honorable". Coherently, this came to be known as his good man theory, embracing the message that if one cannot be genuinely good, then one cannot be a good speaker for the people. This theory also revolves around being of service to the people. A good man is one who works for the good of the people and the prosperity of society.  Quintilian published "Institutio Oratoria" in the last years of Domitian’s rule of the empire. He had worked alongside Domitian, but as he began to write more and ease away from Emperor Domitian’s complete power, the emperor did not seem to mind as he was so impressed with Quintilian, he hired him to be a tutor for his family because of Quintilian’s devotion to education. Domitian was in the harshest period of his rule, and almost no one had the courage to speak any idea that was unlike his, but Quintilian did. He spoke as an orator in the tradition of Cicero, such as had not been seen since the beginning of the reign of Augustus. Rather than pleading cases, as an orator of his era might have been expected to do, he concentrated on speaking in more general terms about how sound rhetoric influences the education of the people.

Placement of Quintilian's rhetoric.

Quintilian cites many authors in the "Institutio Oratoria" before providing his own definition of rhetoric. His rhetoric is chiefly defined by Cato the Elder’s "vir bonus, dicendi peritus", or “the good man skilled at speaking”. Later he states: “I should like the orator I am training to be a sort of Roman Wise Man”. Quintilian also “insists that his ideal orator is no philosopher because the philosopher does not take as a duty participation in civic life; this is constitutive of Quintilian's (and Isocrates' and Cicero's) ideal orator". Though he calls for imitation, he also urges the orator to use this knowledge to inspire his own original invention.  No author receives greater praise in the "Institutio Oratoria" than Cicero: "For who can instruct with greater thoroughness, or more deeply stir the emotions? Who has ever possessed such a gift of charm?". Quintilian's definition of rhetoric shares many similarities with that of Cicero, one being the importance of the speaker's moral character. Like Cicero, Quintilian also believes that “history and philosophy can increase an orator’s command of "copia" and style;" they differ in that Quintilian “features the character of the orator, as well as the art”.  In Book II, Quintilian sides with Plato’s assertion in the "Phaedrus" that the rhetorician must be just: “In the "Phaedrus", Plato makes it even clearer that the complete attainment of this art is even impossible without the knowledge of justice, an opinion in which I heartily concur". Their views are further similar in their treatment of “(1) the inseparability, in more respects than one, of wisdom, goodness, and eloquence; and (2) the morally ideological nature of rhetoric. [...] For both, there are conceptual connections between rhetoric and justice which rule out the possibility of [an] amorally neutral conception of rhetoric. For both, rhetoric is ‘speaking well,’ and for both ‘speaking well’ means speaking justly".

Influence of Quintilian.

The influence of Quintilian's masterwork, "Institutio Oratoria", can be felt in several areas. First of all, there is his criticism of the orator Seneca the Younger. Quintilian was attempting to modify the prevailing imperial style of oratory with his book, and Seneca was the principal figure in that style's tradition. He was more recent than many of the authors mentioned by Quintilian, but his reputation within the post-classical style necessitated both his mention and the criticism or back-handed praise that is given to him. Quintilian believed that “his style is for the most part corrupt and extremely dangerous because it abounds in attractive faults”. Seneca was regarded as doubly dangerous because his style was sometimes attractive. This reading of Seneca “has heavily coloured subsequent judgments of Seneca and his style".  Quintilian also made an impression on Martial, the Latin poet. A short poem, published in 86, was addressed to him, and opened, "Quintilian, greatest director of straying youth, / you are an honour, Quintilian, to the Roman toga". However, one should not take Martial's praise at face value, since he was known for his sly and witty insults. The opening lines are all that are usually quoted, but the rest of the poem contains lines such as "A man who longs to surpass his father’s census rating" (6). This speaks of Quintilian's ambitious side and his drive for wealth and position.  After his death, Quintilian's influence fluctuated. He was mentioned by his pupil, Pliny, and by Juvenal, who may have been another student, “as an example of sobriety and of worldly success unusual in the teaching profession”. During the 3rd to 5th centuries, his influence was felt among such authors as St. Augustine of Hippo, whose discussion of signs and figurative language certainly owed something to Quintilian, and to St. Jerome, editor of the Vulgate Bible, whose theories on education are clearly influenced by Quintilian's. The Middle Ages saw a decline in knowledge of his work, since existing manuscripts of "Institutio Oratoria" were fragmented, but the Italian humanists revived interest in the work after the discovery by Poggio Bracciolini in 1416 of a forgotten, complete manuscript in the monastery of St. Gall, which he found "buried in rubbish and dust" in a filthy dungeon. The influential scholar Leonardo Bruni, considered the first modern historian, greeted the news by writing to his friend Poggio: It will be your glory to restore to the present age, by your labour and diligence, the writings of excellent authors, which have hitherto escaped the researches of the learned... Oh! what a valuable acquisition! What an unexpected pleasure! Shall I then behold Quintilian whole and entire, who, even in his imperfect state, was so rich a source of delight?... But Quintilian is so consummate a master of rhetoric and oratory, that when, after having delivered him from his long imprisonment in the dungeons of the barbarians, you transmit him to this country, all the nations of Italy ought to assemble to bid him welcome... Quintilian, an author whose works I will not hesitate to affirm, are more an object of desire to the learned than any others, excepting only Cicero's dissertation "De Republica." The Italian poet Petrarch addressed one of his letters to the dead to Quintilian, and for many he “provided the inspiration for a new humanistic philosophy of education”. This enthusiasm for Quintilian spread with humanism itself, reaching northern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Martin Luther, the German theologian and ecclesiastical reformer, "claimed that he preferred Quintilian to almost all authors, 'in that he educates and at the same time demonstrates eloquence, that is, he teaches in word and in deed most happily'". The influence of Quintilian's works is also seen in Luther's contemporary Erasmus of Rotterdam. He above all shaped the implicit depth of humanism and had studied at Steyn.  It has been argued by a musicologist, Ursula that the composition of Johann Sebastian Bach's "Das Musikalische Opfer" (The Musical Offering, BWV 1079), was closely connected with the "Institutio Oratoria". Among Bach's duties during his tenure at Leipzig (1723–1750) was teaching Latin; his early training included rhetoric. (Philologist and Rector of the Leipzig Thomasschule, Johann Matthias Gesner, for whom Bach composed a cantata in 1729, published a substantial Quintilian edition with a long footnote in Bach's honor.)  After this high point, Quintilian's influence seems to have lessened somewhat, although he is mentioned by the English poet Alexander Pope in his versified "An Essay on Criticism":  <poem>In grave Quintilian’s copious works we find The justest rules and clearest method join’d (lines 669–70).</poem>  In addition, “he is often mentioned by writers like Montaigne and Lessing... but he made no major contribution to intellectual history, and by the nineteenth century he seemed to be... rather little read and rarely edited”. However, in his celebrated "Autobiography," John Stuart Mill (arguably the nineteenth-century's most influential English intellectual) spoke highly of Quintilian as a force in his early education. He wrote that Quintilian, while little-read in Mill's day due to "his obscure style and to the scholastic details of which many parts of his treatise are made up," was "seldom sufficiently appreciated." "His book," Mill continued, "is a kind of encyclopaedia of the thoughts of the ancients on the whole field of education and culture; and I have retained through life many valuable ideas which I can distinctly trace to my reading of him...". He was also highly praised by Thomas De Quincey: "[F]or elegance and as a practical model in the art he was expounding, neither Aristotle, nor any less austere among the Greek rhetoricians, has any pretensions to measure himself with Quintilian. In reality, for a triumph over the difficulties of the subject, and as a lesson on the possibility of imparting grace to the treatment of scholastic topics, naturally as intractable as that of Grammar or Prosody, there is no such chef-d'oeuvre to this hour in any literature, as the Institutions of Quintilian". In more recent times, Quintilian appears to have made another upward turn. He is frequently included in anthologies of literary criticism, and is an integral part of the history of education. He is believed to be the "earliest spokesman for a child-centered education" (141), which is discussed above under his early childhood education theories. As well, he has something to offer students of speech, professional writing, and rhetoric, because of the great detail with which he covers the rhetorical system. His discussions of tropes and figures also formed the foundation of contemporary works on the nature of figurative language, including the post-structuralist and formalist theories. For example, the works of Jacques Derrida on the failure of language to impart the truth of the objects it is meant to represent would not be possible without Quintilian's assumptions about the function of figurative language and tropes.

Marcus Fabius Quintilianus ( 35 – 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilian (), although the alternate spellings of Quintillian and Quinctilian are occasionally seen, the latter in older texts.

Quintilien (en latin Marcus Fabius Quintilianus) est un rhéteur et pédagogue latin du Il est l'auteur d'un important manuel de rhétorique, l"'Institution oratoire", dont l'influence sur l'art oratoire se prolongea pendant des siècles.


Early life and musical training.

Giuseppe Di Stefano was born in Motta Sant'Anastasia, a village near Catania, Sicily, in 1921. He moved to Milan with his parents when he was six. He was the only son of a carabiniere turned cobbler and his dressmaker wife. Di Stefano was educated at a Jesuit seminary and briefly contemplated entering the priesthood.  When he was 16, he burst into song after winning a game of cards, and the friend with whom he was playing said he must get his voice trained. Two years later he began studying in earnest with the baritones Luigi Montesanto and Mariano Stabile, the latter impressing on the young tenor the importance of clear diction, advice he readily followed.  World War Two interrupted di Stefano's early career as he had to join the Italian army, where he often entertained the troops with his singing. He was considered such a bad soldier that his commanding officer decided that he would better serve his country by leaving the forces in order to sing. He performed under the pseudonym Nino Florio until Italy was defeated, when he fled to Switzerland. After a period of internment he was allowed to sing on Lausanne Radio, where he made the first of his recordings, disclosing a tenor voice of decided beauty and a singer with personality. He recorded many of his native Sicilian songs, records of which first brought him to the attention of discerning ears outside Italy in the late 1940s.

Career.

He began his career as a lyric tenor, notable in roles such as Nemorino in Donizetti's L'Elisir d'Amore and Alfredo in Verdi's La Traviata. He made his New York debut at the Metropolitan Opera in February 1948 as the Duke of Mantua in Verdi's "Rigoletto" after singing the role in Riccione with Hjördis Schymberg in August of the previous year. After his performance in "Manon" a month later, "Musical America" wrote that Di Stefano "had the rich velvety sound we have seldom heard since the days of Gigli". He went on to perform regularly in New York for many years. In 1957, Di Stefano made his British debut at the Edinburgh Festival as Nemorino in "L'elisir d'amore" and his Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, debut in 1961, as Cavaradossi in "Tosca".  As a singer, Di Stefano was admired for his excellent diction, unique timbre, passionate delivery and, in particular, for the sweetness of his soft singing. In his Metropolitan Opera radio broadcast debut in "Faust", he attacked the high C forte and then softened to a pianissimo. Sir Rudolf Bing said in his memoirs, "The most spectacular single moment in my observation year had come when I heard his diminuendo on the high C in "" in "Faust": I shall never as long as I live forget the beauty of that sound".  During his years of international celebrity, Di Stefano won a gold Orfeo, an Italian musical award.  In 1953 Walter Legge, leader of EMI's classical wing, wanted a tenor to record all the popular Italian operas with Maria Callas, and chose Di Stefano. Among their recording achievements was the famous 1953 studio recording of "Tosca" under Victor de Sabata, which is considered "as being one of the great performances in the history of the gramophone". The two also performed together on stage frequently, from 1951 in South America to the end of 1957 in "Un ballo in maschera" at La Scala, the last time the two collaborated in an opera. He sang Alfredo in the famous Visconti production of "La traviata" in 1955 at La Scala, as well as Edgardo to her Lucia under Herbert von Karajan at La Scala, Berlin and Vienna. Rudolf Bing of the Metropolitan Opera House lamented Di Stefano's playboy lifestyle, which he felt was the cause of his vocal decline, although Di Stefano himself blamed allergies to synthetic fibres for permanently damaging his vocal cords.  In 1973, Di Stefano and Maria Callas went together for a recital tour that ended in 1974: critics remarked that Maria Callas had lost her voice, but the public reaction was nevertheless enthusiastic everywhere. It was during this period that there were rumors of a brief romantic relationship between the two singers. Di Stefano continued to sing successfully and his final operatic role was as the Emperor in "Turandot", in July 1992.

Private life and death.

In 1949 he married the conservatory student Maria Girolami in New York, with whom he had three children. The pair separated in 1976. In 1977 he began a new romantic relationship with Monika Curth, an operetta soprano originally from Hamburg, whom he married in 1993.  His last public appearance was on 24 October 2004 in Oderzo to receive an award.  On December 3, 2004, he was seriously injured during a robbery at his home in Diani Beach in Kenya by unknown assailants who left him on the ground bloodied and unconscious. After being admitted to a hospital in Mombasa, his condition proved to be more serious than it had appeared at first. After undergoing at least three operations, he went into a coma on December 7th. On December 23rd, he was transferred to Italy, where he was hospitalised in Milan. Eventually he awoke from the coma, but his health never fully improved. He died in his home in Santa Maria Hoè, north of Milan, on 3 March 2008 at the age of 86.

Vocal and singing style.

Di Stefano had a soft voice, with an unmistakable warm and rich timbre and, at least in the early years, was very expansive. He was admired for his vocal skills, clear diction, passionate phrasing, captivating interpretation and the exquisite lightness of pianissimo and shades. Far from the studious precision and "aplomb" of a Bjorling or a Kraus, or the vocal overpowering of a Del Monaco or stylistic rigour of a Bergonzi, Di Stefano had a natural musicality, with a generous, instinctive and communicative style of singing.  Di Stefano can be placed in the tradition of tenori lirici post-romantic of the Italian and French repertoire, where he gave memorable performances especially in the first part of his career (Rigoletto, La traviata, La bohème, The pearl fishermen, Manon, "Faust"). In the following years he developed into roles of the lyrical repertoire, with more drive and drama (Tosca, "La forza del destino", Turandot, Carmen, up to Pagliacci and Andrea Chénier).

Recordings with Maria Callas.

Di Stefano and Maria Callas recorded many operas together, all of which for EMI. Together they recorded the following complete operas:  A series of duets with Di Stefano and Callas was recorded by the Philips label in the period November–December 1972, with Antonio de Almeida conducting the London Symphony Orchestra. These recordings were not published officially, but a 'pirate' version did appear.

Other recordings.

Di Stefano also made many other recordings with other wonderful singers, complete EMI sets of "Madama Butterfly" (opposite Victoria de los Ángeles, 1954) and "La traviata" (with Antonietta Stella and Tito Gobbi, 1955).  For English Decca he recorded "L'elisir d'amore" with Hilde Gueden and Fernando Corena (1955), "La Gioconda" (with Zinka Milanov and Leonard Warren, 1957), "La forza del destino" (1958) and "Tosca" (with Leontyne Price and Giuseppe Taddei, Herbert von Karajan conducting, 1962).  For Ricordi (Ricordi MRO 104/105), he made a complete stereo "Lucia di Lammermoor" with Renata Scotto, Ettore Bastianini and Ivo Vinco in 1958, with Nino Sanzogno conducting the Orchestra and Chorus of La Scala, Milan.  In 1995, VAI issued an approved version of "La bohème", from a 1959 performance in New Orleans, with the tenor starring opposite Licia Albanese, Audrey Schuh, Giuseppe Valdengo and Norman Treigle. Additionally, in 1962 the tenor recorded excerpts from Massenet's "Manon", with Anna Moffo, conducted by René Leibowitz.  In 1951, Di Stefano sang in a performance of Verdi's "Requiem", at Carnegie Hall, conducted by Arturo Toscanini, the other soloists being Herva Nelli, Fedora Barbieri and Cesare Siepi. It was released as a recording by RCA.

Giuseppe Di Stefano (24 July 19213 March 2008) was an Italian operatic tenor who sang professionally from the mid 1940s until the early 1990s. Called Pippo by both fans and friends, he was known as the "Golden voice" or "The most beautiful voice", as the true successor of Beniamino Gigli. Luciano Pavarotti said he modeled himself after Di Stefano. In an interview Pavarotti said "Di Stefano is my idol. "There" is a solar voice...It was the most incredible, open voice you could hear. The musicality of di Stefano is as natural and beautiful as the voice is phenomenal". Di Stefano was also the tenor who most inspired José Carreras. He died on the 3rd of March 2008 as a result of injuries from an attack by unknown assailants.

Giuseppe Di Stefano, né le à Motta Sant'Anastasia (commune de la province de Catane dans la région de Sicile) et mort le à Santa Maria Hoè au nord de Milan, est un ténor italien.


History.

This area of eastern Prince Edward Island traces its history of human settlement to the Mi'kmaq Nation which inhabited the area. These people were referred to as "Epegoitnag" and for them, the region was an Acadian forest wilderness containing wild game, as well as fruit, berries and wild nuts for gathering, as well as plentiful marine resources in the nearby rivers and Northumberland Strait. The land in this area was called "Samkook" which translates to 'the land of the sandy shore'.  Georgetown lies opposite Brudenell Point, which divides the Brudenell River to the north from the Montague River to the south. Brudenell Point was the location of the first permanent Acadian settlement on what the French called Ile-Saint-Jean. Here, entrepreneur Jean Pierre Roma landed in 1732 with approximately 100 settlers to begin a commercial settlement to grow food and catch fish for provisioning the French military garrison at Fortress of Louisbourg on Ile-Royale (now Cape Breton Island). French settlers called the area Trois-Rivieres (Three Rivers). The British burned the village in 1745, the same time they took control of Port-la-Joye.  Following the transfer of control of Acadia to Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763, the British government survey of St. John's Island by Captain Samuel Holland selected the entirety of Cardigan Point for the capital of Kings County and designated it as the township of Kings Royalty.  The county capital was to be named Georgetown in honour of King George III. The settlement was oriented on magnetic north and a broad street network was designed.  Present-day Georgetown's collection of heritage buildings mostly dates to the late Victorian Era at the height of Georgetown's importance in the wooden shipbuilding industry. As one of the most important ports in the colony of Prince Edward Island, the port was selected in 1870 to be the eastern terminus of the Prince Edward Island Railway (PEIR) and became a steamship terminal with connections to the Intercolonial Railway on the mainland at Pictou, Nova Scotia. Georgetown's harbour was frequently the only port on the island to be usable during the winter months on account of prevailing wind and tide directions (this being before the Canso Causeway altered sea ice patterns in the Northumberland Strait).  On September 28, 2018, the Town of Georgetown amalgamated with the Town of Montague, five nearby rural municipalities – Brudenell, Cardigan, Lorne Valley, Lower Montague, and Valleyfield – and portions of three adjacent unincorporated areas.

Infrastructure.

The Port of Georgetown is a deep water harbour situated in Cardigan Bay on the east coast of Prince Edward Island, south of the Port of Souris. The port remains ice-free from April 15 through December 31 and shipping through winter is not required by any of the current clientele. Georgetown is approximately 100 km from the port of Charlottetown.  The PEIR mainline from Georgetown extended through Montague Junction (where a spur was built to service nearby Montague) to Mount Stewart and on to Royalty Junction (connection to Charlottetown), Summerside and Alberton.

Economy.

In the 20th century, Georgetown's industrial base diversified to include the island's only shipyard, East Isle Shipyard, now owned by J.D. Irving Limited (JDI), and well known for its construction of tugs such as "Atlantic Spruce", "Atlantic Oak" and the Royal Canadian Navy's Glen class tugs.  The community is also home to the Island's largest saw mill (also owned by JDI). A major seasonal employer is a seafood plant, operated by Seafood 2000 and originally constructed by National Sea Products Limited.

Geography.

Georgetown, Capital of Kings County, sits on an 8 kilometre long peninsula formed by the Cardigan and Brudenell Rivers, along with Georgetown Harbour. This peninsula forms part of the township of Georgetown Royalty, Prince Edward Island and extends into Cardigan Bay, a sub-basin of the Northumberland Strait to the east.  Georgetown Harbour is a deep natural harbour (nearly 11 metres) and lies to the south of the community at the confluence of the Brudenell River and the Montague River.

Georgetown is a former town located within the town of Three Rivers in Kings County, Prince Edward Island, Canada. It is the Capital of Kings County. It amalgamated with the town of Montague, the rural municipalities of Brudenell, Cardigan, Lorne Valley, Lower Montague, and Valleyfield, and portions of three adjacent unincorporated areas in 2018.

Georgetown est un village de l'Île-du-Prince-Édouard, au Canada, nommé ainsi en l'honneur du roi George III. Georgetown est le chef-lieu du comté de Kings.


Spain.

He served under the Duke of Wellington as a Major General in the Peninsular War from 1807 until his reassignment to Nova Scotia. Simultaneously, he was a Lieutenant General of Portuguese forces.

Nova Scotia.

Sherbrooke arrived at Halifax on 16 October 1812 as commander of the forces in the Atlantic provinces. The five years of Sherbrooke's administration were dominated by war with the United States, which broke out in June 1812, and matters relating to the colony's defence. He mounted guns at harbour entrances across the colony and placed the militias in a state of readiness. The war proved to be profitable for Nova Scotia. Sherbrooke's commercial policies turned the Atlantic provinces into a thriving entrepôt for international trade.  From 1813–1830 Sherbrooke was Colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot.

New Ireland.

Deciding to strike at the long-disputed borderland between Passamaquoddy Bay and the Penobscot River, Sherbrooke led an expeditionary force that August which successfully landed at Castine and proceeded to subdue the entire region between the Penobscot and the St Croix. He renamed the region the colony of New Ireland. The eight-month occupation of Castine yielded customs revenues which were subsequently used to finance the Cambridge Military Library in Halifax and found Dalhousie College.  The financing of Dalhousie college, now Dalhousie University in Halifax had largely come from custom duties collected by Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, then lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia during the occupation of Castine, Maine during the War of 1812, investing £7000 as the initial endowment and £3000 reserved for the actual construction of the college.

British North America.

His active defence of the colony during the War of 1812 led to his appointment as Governor General of British North America in 1816. His talent as a mediator helped settle disputes, and he won the confidence of Louis-Joseph Papineau.  Ill health (probably a stroke) forced Sherbrooke to resign after only two years, and he retired to Nottinghamshire in England. However, his brief tenure was remembered as a period of calm before the coming storm (see Rebellions of 1837).  While he resided in Nova Scotia, his home was at Birch Cove on Bedford Basin, near Halifax. Named Sherwood, it eventually lent its name to the neighbourhoods of Sherwood Park and Sherwood Heights. The community of Sherbrooke, Nova Scotia also bears his name. Other honorific eponyms are listed below.

General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, (baptised 29 April 1764 – 14 February 1830) was a British soldier and colonial administrator. After serving in the British army in Nova Scotia, the Netherlands, India, the Mediterranean (including Sicily), and Spain, he was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia in 1811. During the War of 1812, his policies and victory in the conquest of present-day Maine, renaming it the colony of New Ireland, led to significant prosperity in Nova Scotia.

Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, baptisé le à Arnold (Angleterre), décédé le à (Angleterre), militaire, lieutenant-gouverneur de la Nouvelle-Écosse (1812–1816), gouverneur en chef de l'Amérique du Nord britannique (1816–1818). Il était reconnu comme un diplomate hors pair, ce qui a facilité sa carrière politique.