Early life.

Behiç Erkin was born as Hakkı Behiç in 1876 in Constantinople, Ottoman Empire.

Career.

Starting in the early 1910s, Erkin was a close friend and early collaborator of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Mustafa Kemal and Colonel Behiç Bey (Erkin) played crucial roles in the success of the battles at the Dardanelles front, where both men commanded during World War I. Erkin earned a high reputation and the German Iron Cross 1st Class military decoration, which served him when he needed to impress Germans during the Occupation. He also played a foremost part in the Turkish War of Independence. He took the family name "Erkin" after Turkey's 1934 Law on Family Names was passed. His surname "Erkin," which means "free man" was personally suggested by Atatürk in honor of his ability to make objective decisions in the face of outside pressure.  In 1939 then President İsmet İnönü hand-picked Erkin for the post of ambassador to France. Erkin's standing with the national government was critical to his mission of being able to save people from being dispatched to Nazi concentration camps in Eastern Europe. His decision to maintain the consulate in Paris even after the Occupation enabled his staff to keep closer watch and rescue Turkish Jews in the Paris area. In 1942-1943, Erkin personally arranged the evacuation across Europe to Turkey by rail of thousands of Turkish-associated Jews.

Mission in France.

Background.

According to a census French authorities conducted under German Army direction in autumn 1940, 3,381 of a total of 113,467 Jews over age 15, residing in Paris and holding French nationality, were of Turkish origin. The total number of ethnic Turkish Jews were estimated at five thousand people if those under 15 were counted. Scholars have estimated possibly ten thousand Jews of Turkish origin for the whole of France at the time. Turkey's Code allowed for double nationality, but people had to update their registry at the consulate every five years to preserve a Turkish identity. Many former Turkish nationals in France had neglected this, as most had lived there for decades. Ties to their parents' country were often reduced to anecdotal level. Scholars estimate that approximately ten thousand Jews who solely held the Turkish nationality may have resided in France at the time.

Erkin's tenure.

Erkin arrived at the Turkish Embassy in Paris only three weeks before the start of the Second World War. While the embassy was small, its staff represented Turkey's administrative and cultural elite, all graduates of Galatasaray High School. They continued as leaders of Turkey in the postwar decades. Two among the staff, Fatin Rüştü Zorlu and Melih Esenbel, were later to become foreign ministers of Turkey. (Zorlu was executed after the 1960 "coup d'état". A third colleague, Beşir Balcıoğlu, was assassinated in Madrid in 1978 by ASALA, Armenian militants, along with Zeki Kuneralp.) Namık Kemal Yolga, also known for rescuing Turkish Jews in Paris, became part of the embassy when he was appointed Vice Consul starting April 1940.  After the long phase of the Phony War ("Drôle de guerre") and the occupation of southern France by the German Army, the consulate located in Marseille and headed by Necdet Kent was moved to Grenoble, Switzerland, which was a neutral nation. The coordination work was carried out by Leon Mandil, a Turkish Jew appointed a decade before by Atatürk as "special attaché". He had a perfect command of the French language and culture. His family had been prominent in Turkey since the 19th century. >  On 9 June 1940 Sunday, the French government moved in such haste to Vichy that it failed to notify all the embassies in Paris of the change of capital. It took one month for the Turks to move their embassy, with 20 staff members or spouses, but Erkin retained five men in Paris to run the consulate. Once in Vichy, Erkin had frequent contacts with virtually all Vichy officials, including Maréchal Philippe Pétain, Pierre Laval, Paul Baudoin, François Charles-Roux, Charles Rochat and members of embassies of other countries, including the United States. Following France's surrender to Germany, William D. Leahy represented the US as ambassador in Vichy only from December 1940 to May 1942.  In the early days, the Turkish embassy tried to protect ethnic Turkish Jews by encouraging them to post notices of Turkish nationality next to the "Jewish-owned enterprise" sign required by the Germans. The embassy tried to work with the Germans to protect their nationals. A letter of 28 February 1941 from the German embassy, signed Otto Abetz, stated that they would be "disposed to evaluate specific cases concerning Turkish nationals" as communicated by the consulate. But when Xavier Vallat was appointed Head Commissioner for Jewish Affairs, he gave new impetus to Vichy France's anti-Jewish actions.  Through 1941-1942, measures against Jews in France became increasingly more severe. The Nazis gathered and deported the most recent Jewish immigrants, then those who had come to France after 1933, and then collected French Jews proper, those who had lived in France for generations. Vallat's office was concerned primarily with confiscating Jewish assets; he directed a wide-scale inventory to be drawn in June–July 1941.  Throughout 1942, Erkin assigned nominal trustees to protect enterprises owned by Turkish Jews. Near the end of the year, the Germans developed a scheme to transport all Jewish nationals of neutral countries to their respective home countries. Accordingly, on 19 September 1942, Berlin directed that Turkish Jews could be evacuated until 31 January 1943, a date later extended for two months and more. A few days before the communication, Erkin had secretly met with Germany's Consul General in Vichy Krug von Nidda, Otto Abetz, Heinz Röthke and Rudolf Schleier. He was ready to arrange the first train for Turkish evacuees, which departed from Paris in November 1942 to arrive in Edirne, Turkey eleven days later. It was decorated with a crescent and star. The enterprise was tense with danger, as the consulate was worried about potential attacks on the masses of Jews who gathered at the consulate. Erkin and his staff were able to transport thousands of ethnic Turkish Jews to safety.  Aged 67 in 1943 and having had his ambassadorial term extended three times, Erkin retired in August 1943 to return to İstanbul. In 1958 he completed his memoirs (published in 2010).  Behiç Erkin died on November 11, 1961. At his wish, he was buried in a courtyard near a railway junction in the Eskişehir train station, where he had started his career four decades before.

Biographical accounts.

Erkin completed a 900-page memoir in 1958, published in 2010 by the Turkish Historical Society. His grandson used the memoir as the basis for his own research about his grandfather's life. Erkin's memoirs dealt with his efforts to aid the Turkish Jews' in France, as their lives were increasingly at risk.  In 2007 Emir Kıvırcık, Erkin's grandson, published "The Ambassador", an account of Erkin's tenure in France. The book was rich in details on conditions that prevailed in Vichy France. Kıvırcık related many individual stories while telling of his grandfather's efforts in the context of the Occupation. For example, he told of Robert Lazare Rousso, picked up by the Nazis in a random identity check in Paris on 13 December 1941 and dispatched to a camp. Under the number 3233, he was held with thousands of others for two months, before gaining release on 6 February 1942 due to pressure that Erkin's consulate brought with the Germans. As of 2007, Monsieur Rousso was still living in Paris. As another example, Herman Rothenberg and Isak Bitran were arrested in October 1942 and sent to Drancy internment camp. After the Turkish consulate corresponded for months with the SS about them, pleading for the release of neutral nationals, both were released on 12 March 1943. Three days later with their families, they boarded an evacuation train the embassy had arranged for emigration to Turkey.  In 2007 American actor and director George Clooney was considering a role as Erkin in a film project related to the ambassador's World War II years.  In "The Road to the Front" ("Cepheye Giden Yol") (2008), Kıvırcık covered his grandfather Erkin's World War I years.  Contrary to all these accounts, Turkish historian and newspaper columnist Ayşe Hür states in a column published in December 2007 that the efforts of Erkin in saving Turkish Jews have been greatly exaggerated. Quoting work by historian Corinna Guttstadt, the number of saved Jews is stated to be 114, not in the thousands as claimed by other biographies. Furthermore, according to the same article, the number of Jews that have been identified by the German authorities as possible Turkish citizens was 3036, so the number of people saved by Erkin appears to be a small fraction of the total.

Yad Vashem application.

In April 2007, an Israeli association of Jews with origins in Turkey applied to have Erkin included among the "Righteous Among the Nations" in Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial. The applicants, principally Israelis with origins in Turkey, are seeking witnesses to help document their application.

Behiç Erkin (1876 in Constantinople, Ottoman Empire – November 11, 1961 in Istanbul, Turkey) was a Turkish career officer, first director (1920–1926) of the Turkish State Railways, nationalized under his auspices, statesman and diplomat of the Turkish Republic, who helped save almost 20,000 ethnic Jews in France during World War II. He was Minister of Public Works, 1926–1928, and deputy for three terms; and an ambassador. He served as Turkey's ambassador to Budapest between 1928–1939, and to Paris and Vichy between August 1939-August 1943. As Turkish ambassador in France under the German Occupation after June 1940, Erkin used the power of his office and nation's neutrality to save Jews who could document a Turkish connection, however slight, from the Holocaust.

Behiç Erkin (né le à Istanbul et mort le ) est un militaire, directeur général de l'entreprise ferroviaire nationale turque (TCDD), ministre et diplomate turc.


History.

Dunseith was platted in 1882. The town is named for Jeannette Dunseith Eaton, who was the mother of one of the original townsite company's 6 founders Captain James D. Eaton from Covington, Kentucky. "Dùnsìth" is a Gaelic word meaning "City of Peace," from "dùn" () and "sìth" (). A post office has been in operation in Dunseith since 1884. The city was incorporated in 1908.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land. Dunseith lies just south of the Turtle Mountain plateau.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 773 people, 274 households, and 170 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 299 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 15.0% White, 0.9% African American, 79.6% Native American, 0.4% from other races, and 4.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.  There were 274 households of which 46.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.4% were married couples living together, 25.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 9.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.0% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.72 and the average family size was 3.41.  The median age in the city was 27.4 years. 35.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.7% were from 25 to 44; 18.2% were from 45 to 64; and 12.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.2% male and 50.8% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 739 people, 253 households, and 178 families residing in the city. The population density was 729.2 people per square mile (282.5/km2). There were 282 housing units at an average density of 278.2 per square mile (107.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 24.76% White, 0.27% African American, 71.04% Native American, 0.14% Asian, 0.14% from other races, and 3.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.27% of the population.  There were 253 households out of which 44.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.6% were married couples living together, 32.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.6% were non-families. 26.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.74 and the average family size was 3.23.  In the city, the population was spread out with 35.2% under the age of 18, 11.1% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 14.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 80.1 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $17,917, and the median income for a family was $19,531. Males had a median income of $21,042 versus $20,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $9,478. About 40.0% of families and 36.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 48.7% of those under age 18 and 24.6% of those age 65 or over.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dunseith has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Dunseith ( ) is a city in Rolette County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 773 at the 2010 census. Dunseith is best known for its proximity to the International Peace Garden. The port of entry at the Peace Garden is one of three 24-hour ports in North Dakota (the others being Portal and Pembina). Dunseith is also the home of the world's largest turtle sculpture, the "W'eel Turtle", made of more than 2,000 wheels painted green.

Dunseith (en anglais ) est une ville située dans le comté de Rolette, dans l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Early life.

Smith was born in London, England, to Charles John Smith (1838–1928), a medical doctor, and Sarah Ann ("née" Clode, 1836–1922). His sister, Beryl Faber (died 1912), was married to Cosmo Hamilton.  Smith was educated at Charterhouse School and St John's College, Cambridge. He settled in South Africa to prospect for gold in 1888–89. While there he developed pneumonia and was wrongly pronounced dead by doctors. He married Isabella Wood in 1896.

Cricket career.

As a cricketer, Smith was primarily a right arm fast bowler, though he was also a useful right-hand lower-order batsman and a good slip fielder. His oddly curved bowling run-up, which started from deep mid-off, earned him the nickname "Round the Corner Smith". When he bowled round the wicket his approach was concealed from the batsman by the umpire until he emerged, leading W. G. Grace to comment "it is rather startling when he suddenly appears at the bowling crease." He played for Cambridge University (1882–85) and for Sussex at various times from 1882 to 1892. While in South Africa he captained the Johannesburg English XI. He captained England to victory in his only Test match, against South Africa at Port Elizabeth in 1888–89, taking five wickets for nineteen runs in the first innings. The English team who played were by no means representative of the best players of the time and nobody at the time realised that the match would enter the cricket records as an official Test match.  In 1932, he founded the Hollywood Cricket Club and created a pitch with imported English grass. He attracted fellow expatriates such as David Niven, Laurence Olivier, Nigel Bruce (who served as captain), Leslie Howard and Boris Karloff to the club as well as local American players. Smith's stereotypical Englishness spawned several amusing anecdotes: while fielding at slip for the Hollywood Club, he dropped a difficult catch and ordered his English butler to fetch his spectacles; they were brought on to the field on a silver platter. The next ball looped gently to slip, to present the kind of catch that "a child would take at midnight with no moon." Smith dropped it and, snatching off his lenses, commented, "Damned fool brought my reading glasses." Decades after his cricket career had ended, when he had long been a famous face in films, Smith was spotted in the pavilion on a visit to Lord's. "That man over there seems familiar", remarked one member to another. "Yes", said the second, seemingly oblivious to his Hollywood fame, "Chap called Smith. Used to play for Sussex."

Acting career.

Smith began acting on the London stage in 1895. His first major role was in "The Prisoner of Zenda" the following year, playing the dual lead roles of king and look-alike. Forty-one years later, he appeared in the most acclaimed film version of the novel, this time as the wise old adviser. When Raymond Massey asked him to help him understand the role of Black Michael, he answered "My dear Ray, in my time I have played every part in "The Prisoner of Zenda" except Princess Flavia. And I "always" had trouble with Black Michael!" He made his Broadway debut as early as 1895 in "The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith". In 1907 he appeared with Marie Doro in "The Morals of Marcus", a play Doro later made into a silent film. Smith later appeared in a revival of George Bernard Shaw's "Pygmalion" in the starring role of Henry Higgins.  Smith appeared in early films for the nascent British film industry, starring in "The Bump" in 1920 (written by A. A. Milne for the company Minerva Films, which was founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). Smith later went to Hollywood where he had a successful career as a character actor playing either officer or gentleman roles. One such role in 1937 was as Colonel Williams in "Wee Willie Winkie" starring Shirley Temple, Victor McLaglen, Cesar Romero and June Lang. He was also regarded as being the unofficial leader of the British film industry colony in Hollywood, which Sheridan Morley characterised as the Hollywood Raj, a select group of British actors who were seen to be colonising the capital of the film business in the 1930s. Other film stars considered to be "members" of this select group were David Niven (whom Smith treated like a son), Ronald Colman, Rex Harrison, Robert Coote, Basil Rathbone, Nigel Bruce (whose daughter's wedding he had attended as best man), Leslie Howard (whom Smith had known since working with him on early films in London), and Patric Knowles.  Smith expected his fellow countrymen to report for regular duty at his Hollywood Cricket Club. Anyone who refused was known to "incur his displeasure". Fiercely patriotic, Smith became openly critical of the British actors of enlistment age who did not return to fight after the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Smith loved playing on his status as Hollywood's "Englishman in Residence". His bushy eyebrows, beady eyes, handlebar moustache, and height of 6'2" made him one of the most recognisable faces in Hollywood.  Smith starred alongside such screen legends as leading ladies Greta Garbo, Elizabeth Taylor, and Vivien Leigh and the actors Clark Gable, Laurence Olivier, Ronald Colman, Maurice Chevalier, and Gary Cooper. His films include such classics as "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1937), "The Four Feathers" (1939), Hitchcock's "Rebecca" (1940), "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" (1941), "And Then There Were None" (1945) in which he played General Mandrake, and the 1949 remake of "Little Women" starring Elizabeth Taylor and Janet Leigh, in which he portrayed the aged grandfather of Laurie Lawrence, (played by a young Peter Lawford), who generously gives a piano to the frail Beth March (played by Margaret O'Brien). He also appeared as the father of Maureen O'Sullivan in "Tarzan the Ape Man", the first Tarzan film with Johnny Weissmüller. Smith also played a leading role as the Earl of Dorincourt in David O. Selznick's literature adaption "Little Lord Fauntleroy" (1936).  He appears in Dennis Wheatley's 1934 thriller, "Such Power is Dangerous", about an attempt to take over Hollywood, under the fictitious name of 'Warren Hastings Rook' (rather than Charles Aubrey Smith). Author Evelyn Waugh leaned heavily on Smith in drawing the character of Sir Ambrose Abercrombie for Waugh's 1948 satire of Hollywood "The Loved One". Commander McBragg in the TV cartoon "Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales" is a parody of him. The cartoon character also appears in "The Simpsons" episode "The Seemingly Never-Ending Story".

Death.

Smith died from pneumonia at home in Beverly Hills on 20 December 1948, aged 85. He was survived by his wife and their daughter, Honor. His body was cremated and nine months later, in accordance with his instructions, the ashes were returned to England and interred in his mother's grave at St Leonard's churchyard in Hove, Sussex.

Honours and awards.

Smith has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.  Smith was an officer in the Legion of Frontiersmen.  In 1933, he was on the first board of the Screen Actors Guild.  He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1938 and was knighted by King George VI in 1944 for services to Anglo-American amity.

Sir Charles Aubrey Smith, CBE (21 July 1863 – 20 December 1948) was an English Test cricketer who became a stage and film actor, acquiring a niche as the officer-and-gentleman type, as in the first sound version of "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1937). In Hollywood, he organised British actors into a cricket team, much intriguing local spectators.

Charles Aubrey Smith est un acteur et joueur de cricket international britannique né à Londres le et mort à Beverly Hills le.


Club career.

Early career in Argentina.

Born in Mercedes, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Culio began his football career at Flandria after being scouted in the street when he was nineteen. He previously went on trial at Argentinos Juniors despite living 100 km from the capital but failed to earn a contract after his grandmother, who gave him money to travel at Argentinos Juniors, suffered an illness and gave up football as a result. Throughout his time at Flandria, he quickly worked his through to the first team, establishing himself in the starting eleven for the side. He also scored once for the side during his time there.  In 2004, Culio moved to Almagro, where he received a handful of first team appearances, making eight appearance.

Club Atlético Independiente/Racing Club.

On 13 July 2005, he joined Independiente. Culio made his Club Atlético Independiente debut on 7 August 2005, in a 4–2 win over Lanús. However, he only made one appearances for the side, as his time at the club was overshadowed by injuries. It was announced that he was expected to leave the club following the 2005–06 season.  On 25 July 2006, Culio then joined Racing Club ahead of the 2006–07 season. However, he spent the first four months on the substitute bench. It wasn't until on 8 November 2006 when Culio made his Racing Club debut, in a 3–2 loss against Banfield. His time at Racing Club was overshadowed when he was involved in an alteration with Cristian Pino, which was eventually solved. Despite this, he went on to make three appearances for Racing Club.

Club de Deportes La Serena.

In January 2007, it was announced that Culio joined La Serena in the.  Culio made his La Serena debut on 26 January 2007, where he started the whole game, in a 1–0 loss against Unión Española. He quickly became a first team regular for the side, making a number of good performances. It wasn't until on 10 March 2007 when he scored his first goal, in a 1–1 draw against Everton. His second goal then came on 29 April 2007, in a 2–1 win over Santiago Wanderers. At the end of the 2006–07 season, Culio went on to make nineteen appearances and scoring three times for the side.

CFR Cluj.

On 23 June 2007, it was announced that Culio was transferred to the Romanian club CFR Cluj from Club de Deportes La Serena in the. Four days later, on 27 June 2007, he was presented as a CFR Cluj player.  Culio made his CFR Cluj debut on 1 August 2007, in the opening game of the season, starting the match before coming off as a substitute in the 72nd minutes, in a 1–0 win over Oțelul Galați. Since joining the club, he quickly established himself in the first team, playing in the midfield position and was regularly capped player due to his activity on the field and physical endurance. It wasn't until on 7 November 2007 when he scored his first goal for the club but was sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 2–0 win over FC Vaslui. His performance soon earned him praised from Manager Cristiano Bergodi, as well as, earning Romanian's Player of the Month. Culio later helped CFR Cluj win both the league and Cupa României. At the end of the 2007–08 season, making thirty–seven appearances and scoring once in all competitions, Culio earned recognition by his home country.  In the 2008–09 season, Culio started the season well when he scored his first two goals in the UEFA Champions League, on 16 September 2008 against AS Roma. His team won 2–1 and Culio was designated the Man of the Match. This helped CFR Cluj obtain some important points in its first ever Champions League appearance. His performance for the side this season saw him being a subjected of a transfer bid from Russian clubs, such as, FC Moscow and Rubin Kazan. Despite the transfer bid, he stayed at the club throughout January and his performance continued to impress, earning a praise by his then teammate, Eugen Trică and Gheorghe Hagi. Between 4 April 2009 and 18 April 2009, Culio assisted five times in four appearances, including twice against FC Vaslui. This was followed up by scoring his first league goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Steaua București on 22 April 2009. Once again, Culio helped the side win the Cupa României Cup for the second time in a row, in which he scored in the final, in a 3–0 win over Politehnica Timișoara. Despite missing out four matches out of the forty–two matches the club has played in the 2008–09 season, he went on to make thirty–eight appearances and scoring four times in all competitions.  Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Culio continued to be linked a move away from the club, as interests from European clubs increased, including Porto, which saw Álvaro Pereira joined the side. Eventually, he stayed at the club throughout the summer transfer window. In the Supercupa României against Unirea Urziceni, which the game was played for 120 minutes following a 1–1 draw, Culio started the season well when he helped the side win 3–2 in the penalty–shootout despite missing a penalty. After missing two matches, he returned to the first team and played in both legs against FK Sarajevo in the UEFA Europa League Play–Offs, which they won 3–1 on aggregate. Following his return, Culio regained his first team place for the side. He then scored his first goal of the season on 16 September 2009, in a 2–0 win over Copenhagen in the UEFA Europa League Group Stage. Following a 3–2 loss against Sparta Prague in the UEFA Europa League Group Stage on 5 November 2009, Culio was involved in alteration with the club's supporters, which he apologized after the match. It wasn't until on 13 March 2010 when he scored his first league goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Dinamo București. Later in the 2009–10 season, Culio helped the side win both the league and the Cupa României after beating FC Vaslui 5–4 in penalty–shootout in the final. Despite being out on two occasions during the 2009–10 season, Culio went on to make forty–two appearances and scoring two times in all competitions. Ahead of the 2010–11 season, Culio, once again, expressed his desire to leave the club. Despite the move never happened, he, nevertheless, helped the side beat Unirea Urziceni in the Supercupa României, after the match went on penalties following a 2 –2 draw throughout extra time. He started the season as a first team regular for the side. On 2 August 2010, Culio scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–0 win over Victoria Brănești. In a 2–1 win over FC Basel in the UEFA Champions League Group Stage Matchday 1, he set up two goals, in which he was praised for his performance. Culio then assisted three times in three matches between 24 September 2010 and 3 October 2010. Then, on 19 October 2010, he scored his second league goal of the season, in a 3–2 loss against Bayern Munich. A month later, on 28 November 2010, he scored again, in a 2–2 draw against Steaua București. By the end of December 2010, Culio was subjected of a transfer bid by Kuban Krasnodar, which was rejected by the CFR Cluj. By the time of his departure, he made twenty–five appearances and scoring three times in all competitions. He also finished the top assists for the Champions League Group.  The Cluj fans loved him dearly and also gave him the nickname 'Draculio'. He was one of the most popular football players among CFR's fans.

Galatasaray.

On 6 January 2011, Culio signed with Turkish club Galatasaray for reported €2 million.  Culio made his Galatasaray debut on 23 January 2011, starting the whole game, in a 1–0 win over Sivasspor. It wasn't until on 19 February 2011 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 1–0 win over Bucaspor. Since joining the club, Culio quickly adapted at the club, stating that he settled in and got on well with his teammates, supporters (due to his work rate and professional attitude) and the manager. His second goal then came on 18 April 2011, in a 3–2 win over Manisaspor. Despite missing two matches towards the end of the 2010–11 season, he went on to make nineteen appearances and scoring four times for Galatasaray.  Shortly after the end of the 2010–11 season, new manager Fatih Terim made Culio available for transfer and was expected to leave the club in the summer. Two years after joining the club, it was announced on 7 August 2011 that both parties reached an agreement, allowing Culio to mutually leave Galatasaray by having his contract with Galatasaray terminated. As part of the termination, the settlement was reached, with Culio receiving 500 thousand euros.

Loan to Orduspor.

On 5 August 2011, Culio left Galatasaray on loan to Orduspor for €350,000. Upon joining the club, he said of the move: "Orduspor fans can not wait to stand out, Orduspor is a great community when I came here better understood. I believe that Orduspor in the Super League will bring sound. I'm waiting for our fans to support us. The last drop of the term for the success of Orduspor'u play".  Culio made his Orduspor debut in the opening game of the season against Fenerbahçe. Since joining the club, he quickly established himself in the starting eleven for the side and was one of the club's key players, alongside Jean-Jacques Gosso. Culio then scored his first goal for the club, as well as, setting up a goal, in a 2–1 win over Eskişehirspor on 15 October 2011. He added two more goals by the end of December. Culio then captained his first match on 25 January 2012 against Kardemir Karabükspor and during the match, he scored, in a 3–2 win. He went on to captain the side three more times. During the 1–1 draw against Beşiktaş on 11 March 2012, he was involved in altercation with teammate Jean-Jacques Gosso; eventually, the situation was resolved and the pair made up.  It was announced on 26 March 2012 when the club decided against taking up options to sign Culio again and expected to return to Galatasaray for the next season. It came after when he criticised the club, leading the club to terminate his loan spell there. Following this, he never played for the side for the rest of the season. Culio went on to make thirty–one appearances and scoring once for Orduspor in all competitions.  On 4 July 2012, it was announced that Culio had returned from Orduspor and back to Galatasaray and training with his original club in the Florya Metin Oktay Sports Complex and Training Center. Fatih Terim had announced last season that if he knew that Arda Turan was going to leave that he wouldn't have sent Culio to Orduspor.

Loan to Mersin Idmanyurdu.

For the 2012–13 season, Culio signed for Mersin İdmanyurdu on a one-year loan deal on 16 August 2012, with an option of paying the transfer fee of €150K by 15 January 2013.  Culio made his Mersin Idmanyurdu debut in the opening game of the season against Orduspor, where he came on as a substitute in the 60th minutes, in a 1–1 draw. In the next two follow up matches, he scored goal against Sivasspor and Eskişehirspor, adding his goal tally to two by the end of August. Since joining Mersin Idmanyurdu, Culio became a first team regular for the side. It wasn't until on 27 January 2013 when he scored twice, in a 3–0 win over Sivasspor. After scoring his sixth goal against Gençlerbirliği on 17 February 2013, Culio, however, was then sent–off for second bookable offence, in a 2–1 loss against Kayserispor on 3 March 2013.  At the end of the 2012–13 season, making thirty–five appearances and scoring six times in all competitions, Culio left Mersin Idmanyurdu and returned to his parent club.

Deportivo de La Coruña.

On 9 August 2013, he signed for Deportivo de La Coruña on an initial one-year deal.  Culio made his Deportivo de La Coruña debut against Las Palmas in the opening game of the season, where he started the match, set up a goal for Pablo Insua and then got sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 1–0 win. Since joining the club, he quickly established himself in the starting eleven for the side. It wasn't until on 13 October 2013 when he scored his first Deportivo de La Coruña goal, in a 1–0 win over Barcelona B. His second goal for the side then came on 24 November 2013 when he scored the only goal of the game, with a 1–0 win over SD Ponferradina.  However, his time at Deportivo de La Coruña was overshadowed with alteration with teammate Luisinho and suspension. Despite this, his performance at the club attracted interests from UAE Pro-League side Al Wasl. Although he initially wanted to stay at the club, Culio ultimately changed his mind when he was absent from training in early–January.

Al Wasl.

On 10 January 2014, Culio joined UAE Pro-League side Al Wasl for a transfer fee of 300,000 euros, until the end of the season.  On 14 January 2014, Culio made his Al Wasl debut in the quarter–finals of the UAE President Cup against Al Ain and scored during the match, but eventually, Al Wasl were eliminated following a 9–8 loss in the penalty shootout after the game went extra time. His league debut came on 18 January 2014, in a 2–1 loss against Al Jazira. For the rest of the 2013–14 season, he went on to make ten appearances for the side. Following this, it was announced that Culio left Al Wasl after being told by the club's management that he was surplus to requirements. After leaving the club, Culio reflected on his time at the club.

Las Palmas.

On 25 August 2014, it was announced that Culio joined Las Palmas on a one–year contract with the club.  However, he missed the first two months at the club, due to delays of international clearance from Al Wasl. It wasn't until on 4 October 2014 when he made his Las Palmas debut, where he started the whole game, in a 1–1 draw against Sporting de Gijón. Two weeks later, on 19 October 2014, Culio scored his first goal for the club, but was later sent–off for the second bookable offence, in a 2–0 win over CD Numancia. After serving a one match suspension, he returned to the starting lineup, where he set up a goal for Roque Mesa to score the second goal of the game, in a 2–1 win over Albacete on 1 November 2014. Since joining the club, Culio established himself in the starting eleven for the side. However, in a 5–3 win over Real Zaragoza on 11 January 2015, Culio was sent–off, along with his two teammates, for arguing with referee and officials, leading him to serve a two match suspension. Las Palmas came fourth and made the play-offs, in which, Culio was featured in four matches in the play-offs, as on 21 June 2015, in the final second leg against Real Zaragoza at the Estadio Gran Canaria, he set up the opening goal for Mesa, which the club later won 2–0 on the night, 3–3 on aggregate, thus sending "Los Amarillos" into La Liga via the same rule. Despite being sidelined during the 2014–15 season, Culio went on to make thirty–three appearances and scoring once in all competitions.  At the start of the 2015–16 season, Culio was a first team regular for the side. Then, on 13 September 2015, he set up the club's third goal of the game, in a 3–3 draw against Celta. His first team runs last until on 18 October 2015 against Getafe when he was sent–off "for knocking down an opponent with his feet in the form of an iron, with no option to play the ball, when the ball is in play", in which he served a one match suspension. Following his return, his playing time was soon reduced and found himself on the substitute bench.

Real Zaragoza.

On 2 February 2016, it was announced that Real Zaragoza, keeping him until 2017. Upon joining the club, his unveil at the club received negative reception from Real Zaragoza's supporters, due to his comment made about the club during his time at Las Palmas. In response, Culio apologised for his comment.  Four days later, on 6 February 2016, Culio made his Real Zaragoza debut, where he started the whole game, in a 1–0 win over CD Leganés. After the match, he received a standing ovation from Real Zaragoza's supporters for his performance. Since joining the club, Culio received a handful of first team appearances. However, suspensions and injuries plagued his playing time at the club for the rest of the season. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Culio went on to make twelve appearances in all competitions. On 5 July 2016, it was announced that he left Real Zaragoza by mutual consent. Ahead of the match between RCD Mallorca and Real Zaragoza on 5 November 2016, he said family reasons was another factor of his departure from the club.

RCD Mallorca.

After leaving Real Zaragoza, it was announced that Culio joined Mallorca on the same day.  Culio made his RCD Mallorca debut, where he started the whole game, in a 1–0 loss against Reus Deportiu in the opening game of the season. Since joining the club, Culio established himself in the starting eleven for the side. Culio started in every matches since the start of the season until he was suspended for picking up five yellow cards. Upon returning from suspension, he scored his first goal for the club on 5 November 2016, in a 2–2 draw against his former club, Real Zaragoza. However, he was, once again, sidelined when he suffered an injury that kept him out throughout January. After returning from an injury in early–February, Culio then scored his second goal for the side, in a 2–1 win over Rayo Vallecano. However, in a follow–up match against Girona on 18 February 2017, he was sent–off for a second bookable offence, in a 1–0 loss; and was suspended again for his fifth booking of the season. Culio then scored his third goal for the side, in a 2–2 draw against CD Mirandés on 4 June 2017. At the end of the 2016–17 season, he went on to make thirty–six appearances and scoring once in all competitions.

Return to CFR Cluj.

On 26 June 2017, it was announced that Culio joined CFR Cluj for the second time in his career, signing a two–year contract. Upon joining the club, he expressed his happiness on returning to CFR Cluj.  Culio re–debuted for the club on 17 July 2017, in the opening game of the season, in a 1–1 draw against FC Botoșani. He then scored his first CFR Cluj goal since leaving the club, in a 3–0 win over Gaz Metan Mediaș on 29 July 2017. This was followed by scoring the next two goals in two matches against FC Politehnica Iași and Dinamo București. Since joining the club, he quickly established himself in the starting eleven for the side. By the end of 2017, he scored three more goals for the side. Later in the 2017–18 season, he scored two more goals for the side. He played a vital role for the club, along with Ovidiu Hoban, when they helped the side win the league for the first time in six years. Despite missing out some matches, due to suspension, during the 2017–18 season, Culio finished the 2017–18 season, making thirty–four appearances and scoring eight times in all competitions.  In the 2018–19 season, Culio started the season well when he scored the only goal of the game, scoring from a penalty, in a 1–0 win over Universitatea Craiova in the Supercupa României. However, in the second leg of the UEFA Champions League Second Qualifying Round against Malmö on 1 August 2018, he was sent–off in the 77th minutes for a second bookable offence, in a 1–1 draw; eventually, eliminating CFR Cluj from the UEFA Champions League. Despite this, Culio scored two goals throughout August. On 3 November 2018, he scored his second league goal for the side, in a 5–1 win over Botoșani. After his sending off, in a 1–0 win over Concordia Chiajna on 24 November 2018, he scored on his return, in a 3–0 win over Dinamo București on 4 December 2018. Culio scored the goal that clinched the fifth league title in club history when he converted a penalty against Universitatea Craiova on 12 May 2019. On 16 December 2019, Culio played his last match for Cluj against Astra Giurgiu, where he also scored a goal in a 2–0 win.

Quilmes Atletico Club.

After leaving CFR Cluj, he joined Quilmes Atletico Club in Argentina, in order to be closer to his family.

Personal life.

Outside of football, Culio has a job at the construction, having worked there since he was thirteen, along with his father and brother. He said he worked in construction to earn a living and played football in his spare time.  Culio is married to his wife and together, they have two daughters and one son. He also expressed interests in obtaining a Romanian Citizenship despite struggling to speak the language at first. When he first joined CFR Cluj, Culio stated that he was treated as Romanian, along with his family. He further previously stated that he wanted to play for Romania instead of his native country on three separate statements. In December 2019, Culio decided to leave CFR Cluj for personal reasons and to return with his family to Argentina.  In addition to speaking Spanish, Culio was learning Russian in hopes of joining a Russian club, which never happened.

Honours.

Club.

CFR Cluj  Galatasaray

Juan Emmanuel Culio (born 30 August 1983) is an Argentine footballer playing in his home country for Quilmes Atlético Club. A versatile left-footed midfielder, he is renowned for his passing and high work rate.

Juan Emmanuel Culio est un footballeur argentin né le 30 août 1983 à Mercedes, évoluant au poste de milieu offensif au CFR Cluj.


Birds.

In many monogamous bird species, there are extra-pair matings resulting in males outside the pair bond siring offspring and used by males to escape from the parental investment in raising their offspring. This form of cuckoldry is taken a step further when females of the goldeneye ("Bucephala clangula") often lay their eggs in the nests of other individuals. Intraspecific brood parasitism is seen in a number of duck species, where females often lay their eggs in the nests of others.  Interspecific brood-parasites include the indigobirds, whydahs, and honeyguides in Africa, cowbirds, Old World cuckoos, black-headed ducks, and some New World cuckoos in the Americas. Seven independent origins of obligate interspecific brood parasitism in birds have been proposed. While there is still some controversy over when and how many origins of interspecific brood parasitism have occurred, recent phylogenetic analyses suggest two origins in Passeriformes (once in New World cowbirds: Icteridae, and once in African Finches: Viduidae); three origins in Old World and New World cuckoos (once in Cuculinae, Phaenicophaeinae, and in Neomorphinae-Crotophaginae); a single origin in Old World honeyguides (Indicatoridae); and in a single species of waterfowl, the black-headed duck ("Heteronetta atricapilla").  Most avian brood parasites are specialists which parasitize only a single host species or a small group of closely related host species, but four out of the five parasitic cowbirds (all except the screaming cowbird) are generalists which parasitize a wide variety of hosts; the brown-headed cowbird has 221 known hosts. They usually lay only one egg per nest, although in some cases, particularly the cowbirds, several females may use the same host nest.  The common cuckoo presents an interesting case in which the species as a whole parasitizes a wide variety of hosts, including the reed warbler and dunnock, but individual females specialize in a single species. Genes regulating egg coloration appear to be passed down exclusively along the maternal line, allowing females to lay mimetic eggs in the nest of the species they specialize in. Females generally parasitize nests of the species which raised them. Male common cuckoos fertilize females of all lines, which maintains sufficient gene flow among the different maternal lines to prevent speciation.  The mechanisms of host selection by female cuckoos are somewhat unclear, though several hypotheses have been suggested in attempt to explain the choice. These include genetic inheritance of host preference, host imprinting on young birds, returning to place of birth and subsequently choosing a host randomly ("natal philopatry"), choice based on preferred nest site (nest-site hypothesis), and choice based on preferred habitat (habitat-selection hypothesis). Of these hypotheses the nest-site selection and habitat selection have been most supported by experimental analysis.

Adaptations for parasitism.

Among specialist avian brood parasites, mimetic eggs are a nearly universal adaptation. The generalist brown-headed cowbird may have evolved an egg coloration mimicking a number of their hosts. Size may also be important for the incubation and survival of parasitic species; it may be beneficial for parasitic eggs to be similar in size to the eggs of the host species.  The eggshells of brood parasites are often thicker than those of the hosts. For example, the eggs of cuckoos are about thicker than those the great reed warbler. The function of this thick eggshell is debated. One hypothesis, the puncture resistance hypothesis, states that the thicker eggshells serve to prevent hosts from breaking the eggshell, thus killing the embryo inside. This is supported by a study in which marsh warblers damaged their eggs more often when attempting to break cuckoo eggs, but incurred less damage when trying to puncture great reed warbler eggs put in the nest by researchers. Another hypothesis is the laying damage hypothesis, which postulates that the eggshells are adapted to damage the eggs of the host when the former is being laid, and prevent the parasite's eggs from being damaged when the host lays its eggs. In support of this hypothesis, eggs of the shiny cowbird parasitizing the house wren and the chalk-browed mockingbird and the brown-headed cowbird parasitizing the house wren and the red-winged blackbird damaged the host's eggs when dropped, and sustained little damage when host eggs were dropped on them.  Most avian brood parasites have very short egg incubation periods and rapid nestling growth. In many brood parasites, such as cuckoos and honeyguides, this short egg incubation period is due to internal incubation periods up to 24 hours longer in cuckoos than hosts. Some non-parasitic cuckoos also have longer internal incubation periods, suggesting that this longer internal incubation period was not an adaptation following brood parasitism, but predisposed birds to become brood parasites. This is likely facilitated by a heavier yolk in the egg providing more nutrients. Being larger than the hosts at growth is a further adaptation to being a brood parasite.

Mafia hypothesis.

There is a question as to why the majority of the hosts of brood parasites care for the nestlings of their parasites. Not only do these brood parasites usually differ significantly in size and appearance, but it is also highly probable that they reduce the reproductive success of their hosts. The "mafia hypothesis" evolved through studies in an attempt to answer this question. This hypothesis revolves around host manipulations induced by behaviors of the brood parasite. Upon the detection and rejection of a brood parasite's egg, the host's nest is destroyed and nestlings injured or killed. This threatening response indirectly enhances selective pressures favoring aggressive parasite behavior that may result in positive feedback between mafia-like parasites and compliant host behaviors.  There are two avian species that have been speculated to portray this mafia-like behavior: the brown-headed cowbird of North America, "Molothrus ater", and the great spotted cuckoo of Europe, "Clamator glandarius". The great spotted cuckoo lays the majority of its eggs in the nests of the European magpie, "Pica pica". It repeatedly visits the nests that it has parasitised, a precondition for the mafia hypothesis. An experiment was run by Soler "et al." from April to July 1990 – 1992 in the high-altitude plateau Hoya de Guadix, Spain. They observed the effects of the removal of cuckoo eggs on the reproductive success of the magpie and measured the magpie's reaction; the egg was considered accepted if it remained in the nest, ejected if gone in between visits, or abandoned if eggs were present but cold. If any nest contents were gone between consecutive visits, the nests were considered to have been depredated. The magpie's reproductive success was measured by number of nestlings that survived to their last visit, which was just before the nestling had been predicted to fledge from the nest. The results from these experiments show that after the removal of the parasitic eggs from the great spotted cuckoo, these nests are predated at much higher rates than those where the eggs were not removed. Through the use of plasticine eggs that model those of the magpie, it was confirmed that the nest destruction was caused by the great spotted cuckoo. This destruction benefits the cuckoo, for the possibility of re-nesting by the magpie allows another chance for the cuckoo egg to be accepted.  A similar experiment was done in 1996–2002 by Hoover "et al." on the relationship between the parasitic brown-headed cowbird and a host, the prothonotary warbler, "Protonotaria citrea". In their experiment, researchers manipulated the cowbird egg removal and cowbird access to the warbler's predator–proof nests. They found that 56% of egg-ejected nests were predated upon, in comparison to 6% of non-ejected nests when cowbirds were not prevented from getting to the hosts' nest; nearly all nests protected from cowbirds fledged warblers successfully. Of the nests that were rebuilt by hosts that had previously been predated upon, 85% of those were destroyed. The number of young produced by the hosts that ejected eggs dropped 60% compared to those that accepted the cowbird eggs.

Nest-site hypothesis.

In this hypothesis, female cuckoos select a group of host species with similar nest sites and egg characteristics to her own. This population of potential hosts is monitored and a nest is chosen from within this group.  Research of nest collections has illustrated a significant level of similarity between cuckoo eggs and typical eggs of the host species. A low percentage of parasitized nests were shown to contain cuckoo eggs not corresponding to the specific host egg morph. In these mismatched nests a high percent of the cuckoo eggs were shown to correlate to the egg morph of another host species with similar nesting sites. This has been pointed to as evidence for nest- site selection.  A criticism of the hypothesis is that it provides no mechanism by which nests are chosen, or which cues might be used to recognize such a site.

Parental-care parasitism.

Parental-care parasitism emphasizes the relationship between the host and the parasite in brood parasitism. Parental-care parasitism occurs when individuals raise offspring of other unrelated individuals. The host are the parents of offspring and the parasites are individuals who take advantage of either the nest or eggs within the family construct. Such dynamics occur when the parasites attempt to reduce their parental investment so they can invest the extra energy into other endeavors.

Cost to the hosts.

Given the harm that avian brood parasites can do to their hosts' reproductive success, hosts have come up with various defenses against this unique threat. Given that the cost of egg removal concurrent with parasitism is unrecoverable, the best strategy for hosts is to avoid parasitism in the first place. This can take several forms, including selecting nest sites which are difficult to parasitize, starting incubation early so they are sitting on the nests when parasites visit them early in the morning, and aggressively defending their territory. Despite providing intensive parental care, in Prothonotary Warblers, where conspecific brood parasitism occurs, there was no cost for host females in terms of annual survival probability.

Hosts reject offspring.

The host may be the one that ultimately ends up raising offspring after they return from foraging. Once parasitism has occurred, the next most optimal defense is to eject the parasitic egg. According to parental investment theory, the host can possibly adopt some defense to protect their own eggs if they distinguish which eggs are not theirs. Recognition of parasitic eggs is based on identifying pattern differences or changes in the number of eggs. This can be done by grasp ejection if the host has a large enough beak, or otherwise by puncture ejection. Ejection behaviour has some costs however, especially when host species have to deal with mimetic eggs. Hosts may mistake one of their own eggs for a parasite's on occasion and eject it, and may damage their own eggs while trying to eject a parasite's egg.  Among hosts not exhibiting parasitic egg ejection, some abandon parasitized nests and start over again. However, at high enough parasitism frequencies, this becomes maladaptive as the new nest will most likely also be parasitized. Some host species modify their nests to exclude the parasitic egg, either by weaving over the egg or in some cases rebuilding a new nest over the existing one. For instance, American coots may kick the parasites' eggs out, or build a new nest beside the brood nests where the parasites’ babies starve to death. In the Western Bonelli's warbler "Phylloscopus bonelli", a small host, experimental parasitism revealed that small dummy parasitic eggs were always ejected, whilst with large dummy parasitic eggs nest desertion more frequently occurred.

Cost to the parasites.

While parental-care parasitism significantly increased the breeding number of the parasite, only about half of the parasite eggs survived. Parasitism for the individual (the brood parasite) also has significant drawbacks. As an example, the parasitic offspring of the bearded tits, "Panurus biarmicus", compared to the offspring in non-parasitic nests, tend to develop much more slowly and often don't reach full maturity. Parasitic females however can adopt either floater traits or nesting traits. Floater females are entirely dependent on others to raise their eggs because they do not have their own nests. Hence, they reproduce significantly less because the hosts reject their ‘intruder’ eggs or they may just miss the egg-laying period of the bird they are trying to pass their eggs to. Nesting females who have their own nests may also be parasitic due to temporary situations like sudden loss of nests, or they lay surplus eggs, which overload their parental care ability.

Hosts raise offspring.

Sometimes hosts are completely unaware that they are caring for a bird that is not their own. This most commonly occurs because the host cannot differentiate the parasitic eggs from their own. It may also occur when hosts temporarily leave the nest after laying the eggs. The parasites lay their own eggs into these nests so their nestlings share the food provided by the host. It may occur in other situations. For example, female eiders would prefer to lay eggs in the nests with one or two existing eggs of others because the first egg is the most vulnerable to predators. The presence of others’ eggs reduces the probability that a predator will attack her egg when a female eider leaves the nest after laying the first egg.  Sometimes, the parasitic offspring kills the host nest-mates during competition for resources. As an example, the parasite offspring of the cowbird chick kill the host nest-mates if food intake for each of them is low, but do not do so if the food intake is adequate, as a result of their interactions with co-inhabitants of the nest.

Fish.

Mouthbrooding parasites.

A mochokid catfish of Lake Tanganyika, "Synodontis multipunctatus", is a brood parasite of several mouthbrooding cichlid fish. The catfish eggs are incubated in the host's mouth, and—in the manner of cuckoos—hatch before the host's own eggs. The young catfish eat the host fry inside the host's mouth, effectively taking up virtually the whole of the host's parental investment.

"Nest" parasites.

A cyprinid minnow, "Pungtungia herzi" is a brood parasite of the percichthyid freshwater perch "Siniperca kawamebari", which live in the south of the Japanese islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku, and in South Korea. Host males guard territories against intruders during the breeding season, creating a patch of reeds as a spawning site or "nest". Females (one or more per site) visit the site to lay eggs, which the male then defends. The parasite's eggs are smaller and stickier than the host's. 65.5% of host sites were parasitised in a study area.

Insects.

Kleptoparasites.

There are many different types of cuckoo bees, all of which lay their eggs in the nest cells of other bees, but they are normally referred to as kleptoparasites (Greek: klepto-, to steal), rather than as brood parasites, because the immature stages are almost never fed directly by the adult hosts. Instead, they simply take food gathered by their hosts. Examples of cuckoo bees are "Coelioxys rufitarsis", "Melecta separata", "Nomada" and "Epeoloides".  Kleptoparasitism in insects is not restricted to bees; several lineages of wasp including most of the Chrysididae, the cuckoo wasps, are kleptoparasites. The cuckoo wasps lay their eggs in the nests of other wasps, such as those of the potters and mud daubers.

True brood parasites.

True brood parasitism is rare among insects. Cuckoo bumblebees (the subgenus "Psithyrus") are among the few insects which, like cuckoos and cowbirds, are fed by adult hosts. Their queens kill and replace the existing queen of a colony of the host species then use the host workers to feed their brood.  A true brood-parasitic wasp is "Polistes sulcifer". This paper wasp has lost the ability to build its own nest, and relies on its host, "Polistes dominula", to raise its brood. The adult host feeds the parasite larvae directly, unlike typical kleptoparasitic insects.  In the bee "Euglossa cordata", dominant reproductive females are brood parasitic, since they replace their daughter's eggs with their own eggs, diverting her resources from producing grand-offspring to producing more of their own offspring. In addition, to increase her longevity and fecundity, a mother also eats her daughter's eggs.  Host insects are sometimes tricked into bringing offspring of another species into their own nests, as with the parasitic butterfly, "Phengaris rebeli", and the host ant "Myrmica schencki". The butterfly larvae release chemicals that confuse the host ant into believing that the "P. rebeli" larvae are actually ant larvae. Thus, the "M. schencki" ants bring back the "P. rebeli" larvae to their nests and feed them, much like the chicks of cuckoos and other brood-parasitic birds. This is also the case for the parasitic butterfly, "Niphanda fusca", and its host ant "Camponotus japonicus". The butterfly releases cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) that mimic the CHCs of the host male ant. The ant then brings the third instar larva back into its own nest and raises them until pupation.

Brood parasites are organisms that rely on others to raise their young. The strategy appears among birds, insects and fish. The brood parasite manipulates a host, either of the same or of another species, to raise its young as if it were its own, using brood mimicry, for example by having eggs that resemble the host's (egg mimicry).

Le parasitisme de couvée, appelé aussi parasitisme de ponte, est le comportement qu'ont certaines espèces d'oiseaux de pondre leurs œufs dans le nid d'autres individus, de la même espèce ou non, bénéficiant ainsi de la nourriture destinée à l'ensemble de la couvée. Le couple hôte incube l'œuf intrus et nourrit l'oisillon jusqu'à ce qu'il parvienne à maturité. Il s'agit d'une forme particulière de cleptoparasitisme. L'exemple le plus connu est le Coucou gris qui parasite les nids de différentes espèces de passereaux. Toutefois, ce comportement s'est développé également chez d'autres espèces : chez les salamandres, les poissons ainsi que chez les insectes.


Plot.

Alma Duval is a Louisiana housewife planning a 45th birthday family celebration for her husband John Henry, known to all as Jack, who is carrying on with a much younger woman behind her back.  During the birthday dinner, Jack picks an argument with eldest son, Buddy, daring him to show some backbone. After the dinner breaks up, he takes teenaged son, Billy, out to play pool and drink beer, trying to demonstrate to him how a man ought to behave. Jack confides in Billy that he is not content with his life.  No one even touches the birthday cake Alma made. Later in the evening, she shares some of it with her neighbor, Fan, while Fan tries to convince her to take up smoking and casual drinking to impress Jack.  While her father dallies with Ruby, his 19-year-old mistress, Virginia Duval becomes lovers for the first time with boyfriend Wyatt, a medical student, who then says he cannot marry her because he needs to be with someone of greater position and wealth.  Alma has been holding onto a belief that if she can move the family back to her hometown, where she and Jack started out, everything will be all right. But she slaps Jack after discovering his affair. He decides to leave her and move to Florida, but he and Ruby are promptly killed in a car crash. Alma and her children ultimately return to the hometown, to bury Jack, but she realizes that people and places there have changed too much, there is no true happiness to be found there, either. The family goes home, with Alma insisting that the future for them all will be successful and joyous.

Production.

The screenplay for "Hot Spell" was developed from an unproduced play by Lonnie Coleman, "Next of Kin", purchased by producer Hal Wallis in June 1956. Production occurred from January 23 to early March 1957, with filming in Pasadena and Chatsworth, California.

Release.

"Hot Spell" had its premiere in New Orleans on May 21, 1958, and went into wide release in June.  Bosley Crowther of the "New York Times" gave it a moderately good review and singled out Booth, Quinn, and MacLaine for their portrayals.

In pop culture.

During the 2010 film "Valentine's Day", Estelle and Edgar Paddington (played by MacLaine and Héctor Elizondo) reunite at a showing of "Hot Spell" at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery. Edgar points to MacLaine on the screen and tells Jason Morris (played by Topher Grace), "that's my trifecta".

Hot Spell is a 1958 American drama film directed by Daniel Mann, starring Shirley Booth and Anthony Quinn, and released by Paramount Pictures.

Vague de chaleur ("") est un film américain réalisé par Daniel Mann et George Cukor (non crédité) et sorti en 1958.


19th century.

In the mid-1820s the Cherokee tribe was being pressured by the government, and by Georgia in particular, to remove to new lands west of the Mississippi River, or to end their tribal government and surrender control of their traditional territory to the United States (US) government. The General Council of the Cherokee Nation established a newspaper, in collaboration with Samuel Worcester, a missionary, who cast the type for the Cherokee syllabary. The Council selected Elias Boudinot as the first editor.  Named "Galagina Oowatie" (ᎦᎴᎩᎾ ᎤᏩᏘ) in the Cherokee language, Elias Boudinot was born in 1804 at Oothcaloga, Cherokee Nation, near present-day Chatsworth, Georgia. He chose the name of Elias Boudinot after meeting the statesman, while on his way to the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut, where he graduated. There Boudinot married Harriet Ruggles Gold, daughter of a prominent Congregational family. They returned to live at New Echota.  Boudinot named the "Cherokee Phoenix" as a symbol of renewal, for the mythical bird that rose to new life from ashes of fire. The Nation founded the paper to gather support and to help keep members of the Cherokee Nation united and informed. The newspaper was printed in English and Cherokee, using the Cherokee syllabary developed in 1821 by Sequoyah. According to Langguth, those who could only read Cherokee received the paper free, while those who could read English paid according to a sliding scale:$2.50 a year if they paid in advance and $3.50 a year if they waited a year. It served as the primary vehicle of communication among the many Cherokee townships that constituted the Cherokee Nation. The Nation occupied parts of what are now Virginia, North Carolina, Alabama and Georgia. The first issue appeared on February 21, 1828. It contained five columns on each of its four pages. The editor announced that, because translation between English and Cherokee was slow, initially the paper would print only three columns each week in the Cherokee language. The first issue covered a variety of subjects. Samuel Worcester wrote an article praising Sequoyah's invention of the syllabary, and Boudinot's first editorial criticized white settlers wanting Cherokee land. As the issue of removal attracted attention in the United States (US), the newspaper arranged a fund-raising and publicity tour, which attracted new subscribers from almost all areas of the US and Europe. Boudinot gradually published mostly in English, trying to reach that larger audience.  In 1829, Boudinot renamed the "Cherokee Phoenix" as the "Cherokee Phoenix and Indians' Advocate", reflecting his intention to influence an audience beyond the Cherokee. He addressed issues which Indians across the United States and its territories faced related to assimilation and removal from their traditional homelands. The paper no longer related solely to the Cherokee tribe. The paper also offered stories about debates over Indian removal and U.S. Supreme Court cases that affected Indian life.  Boudinot believed removal was inevitable and that the Cherokee should protect their rights by treaty. He was allied with Major Ridge in this view. His views were opposed by the majority of the Cherokee, including Principal Chief John Ross, elected by the constitutional republic in 1828. Former allies in the Cherokee government turned against Boudinot and other "treaty advocates". Opponents attacked the men's loyalty and prevented their speaking in councils. Ross denounced Boudinot's "toleration of diversified views in the "Cherokee Phoenix" and forbade Boudinot from discussing pro-removal arguments in the paper. In protest, Boudinot resigned in the spring of 1832. Ross' brother-in-law, Elijah Hicks, replaced Boudinot as editor.  Elijah Hicks, an anti-removal Cherokee, replaced Boudinot as editor. When the federal government failed to pay the annuity to the Cherokee in 1834, the paper ceased publication. In August 1835 a contingent of the Georgia Guard took the printing press to prevent any further publication. The real objective was to prevent the newspaper from falling under the influence of John Ross. The state militia was organized to police the Cherokee territory which the state had claimed.

Recent developments.

The "Cherokee Phoenix" published intermittently after Cherokee removal to Indian Territory. Since the late 20th century, it has been revived and is now published by the Cherokee Nation as a monthly broadsheet in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. The newspaper has modernized. It publishes on the Internet and is available on the iPhone, and there is a print version.  A digitized, searchable version of the paper is available through the University of Georgia libraries and the Digital Library of Georgia. Transcriptions of the English-language portions of the 19th-century newspaper can be found at Western Carolina University's Hunter Library's Web site.  Artists Jeff Marley and Frank Brannon completed a collaborative project on October 19, 2013, in which they printed using Cherokee syllabary type in the print shop at New Echota. This was the first time syllabary printing type was used at New Echota since 1835.

The Cherokee Phoenix () was the first newspaper published by Native Americans in the United States and the first published in a Native American language. The first issue was published in English and Cherokee on February 21, 1828, in New Echota, capital of the Cherokee Nation (present-day Georgia). The paper continued until 1834. The "Cherokee Phoenix" was revived in the 20th century, and today it publishes both print and Internet versions.

Le Cherokee Phoenix (en cherokee : ), appelé aussi "Cherokee Nation of Indians", est un journal national américain disparu qui est publié en 260 éditions, de 1828 à 1834, au moment de l"'Indian Removal Act" organisant la déportation des Amérindiens vivant dans le Tennessee et le Kentucky, voulue par le président Andrew Jackson.


Background.

About the song, Billy Corgan said it was "A simple song in a country tuning" and was the first song written by Corgan after the "Siamese Dream" tour. The guitars recorded in the song are tuned to EGBGBE half a step down. The drum machine track is exactly the same track Corgan recorded when he laid down the demo version of the song, because he "couldn't remember how to recreate it".  Corgan joked on an August 24, 2000 taping of "VH1 Storytellers" that he planned on making "Thirty-Three", "Sixty-Six", and "Ninety-Nine", but only finished "Thirty-Three".  When the band released their greatest hits collection in 2001, "Thirty-Three" made neither the international nor the US version. It was included, however, for the "Greatest Hits Video Collection".

Single release.

At the time of its release, the plan to release the song as the album's final single was a point of disagreement for insiders. Sources close to the band claim that "Muzzle" was in fact due to be released as the final single, as is evidenced by the fact that a promotional single for the song was issued to radio stations worldwide.

Music video.

The music video for "Thirty-Three", directed both by Billy Corgan and then-girlfriend Yelena Yemchuk, is a series of images shot in stop-motion, ending with a re-enactment of the "Mellon Collie" album cover. Jimmy Chamberlin is notably absent from shots of the band. Because the group's videos so often avoid the literal interpretation of lyrics, the video for "Thirty-Three" was created with images closely related to the words of the song, as an intentional stylistic departure.

B-sides.

The B-side "The Last Song" features a guitar solo by Corgan's father, Billy Corgan, Sr. and was performed live only once, at the Pumpkins final show at Chicago's Cabaret Metro.  The B-side "My Blue Heaven" features piano by Keith Brown, a song written in 1927 by George A. Whiting and Walter Donaldson.  Adam Schlesinger of Fountains of Wayne and Ivy fame contributed piano for the B-side "The Bells".

"Thirty-Three" is a song by American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins. It was the fifth and final single from their third album, "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness". It was also the first single released after the firing of Jimmy Chamberlin and death of Jonathan Melvoin. The song peaked at 39 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, number seven in New Zealand and the top 30 in Canada and the United Kingdom. In Canada it coincidentally finished at number 33 on the "RPM" Alternative 30 year-end chart for 1997.

Thirty-Tree est une chanson du groupe de rock alternatif The Smashing Pumpkins parue en 1995 sur l'album "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness". Il s'agit du cinquième et dernier single extrait de cet album. Le titre s'est classé au classement "Billboard Hot 100".


History.

Vladimir Gusinsky founded NTV in 1993, attracting talented journalists and news anchors of the time such as Tatiana Mitkova, Leonid Parfyonov, Mikhail Osokin, Yevgeniy Kiselyov, Vladimir A. Kara-Murza, Victor Shenderovich and others. The channel set high professional standards in Russian television, broadcasting live coverage and sharp analysis of current events. Starting before the dissolution of Soviet Union as Fourth Programme, the channel broadcast a daily news programme "Segodnya" and a weekly news-commentary programme "Itogi". In the early 1990s,, a multibillion-dollar advertising agency, obtained exclusive advertising rights on NTV.  It commented favorably on President Boris Yeltsin's re-election campaign in 1996.  By 1999 NTV had achieved an audience of 102 million, covering about 70% of Russia's territory, and was available in other former Soviet republics.  During parliamentary elections in 1999 and presidential elections in 2000, NTV was critical of the Second Chechen War, Vladimir Putin and the political party Unity backed by him. In the puppet show "Kukly" in the beginning of February 2000, the puppet of Putin acted as Little Zaches in a story based on E.T.A. Hoffmann's "Little Zaches called Cinnabar", in which blindness causes villagers mistake an evil gnome for a beautiful youth. This provoked a fierce reaction from Putin's supporters. On 8 February the newspaper "Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti" published a letter signed by the Rector of St. Petersburg State University Lyudmila Verbitskaya, the Dean of its Law Department Nikolay Kropachyov and some of Putin's other presidential campaign assistants that urged the prosecution of the authors of the show for what they considered a criminal offence.

Talk show with people of Ryazan and FSB members.

On 24 March 2000, two days before the presidential elections, NTV featured the Ryazan apartment bombing of Fall 1999 in the talk show "Independent Investigation". The talk with the residents of the Ryazan apartment building along with FSB public relations director Alexander Zdanovich and Ryazan branch head Alexander Sergeyev was filmed few days earlier. On 26 March, Boris Nemtsov voiced his concern over the possible shut-down of NTV for airing the talk.  Seven months later, NTV general manager Igor Malashenko said at the JFK School of Government that Information Minister Mikhail Lesin warned him on several occasions. Malashenko's recollection of Lesin's warning was that by airing the talk show NTV "crossed the line" and that the NTV managers were "outlaws" in the eyes of the Kremlin.  According to Alexander Goldfarb, Malashenko told him that Valentin Yumashev brought a warning from the Kremlin one day before airing the show promising in no uncertain terms that the NTV managers "should consider themselves finished" if they would go ahead with the broadcast.

Change of management.

On 11 May 2000, tax police, backed by officers from the general prosecutor's office and the FSB, stormed the Moscow headquarters of NTV and Media-Most and searched the premises for 12 hours. Critics considered this move politically motivated, as NTV voiced opposition to Putin since his presidential electoral campaign. Putin denied any involvement.  Viktor Shenderovich claimed that an unnamed top government official requested NTV to exclude the puppet of Putin from "Kukly". Accordingly, in the following episode of the show, called "Ten Commandments", the puppet of Putin was replaced with a cloud covering the top of a mountain and a burning bush.  The program "Itogi" went on investigating corruption in the Russian government and the autumn 1999 blasts in Russia.  On 13 June 2000, Gusinsky was detained as a suspect in the General Prosecutor Office's criminal investigation of fraud between his Media-Most holding, Russkoye Video - 11th Channel Ltd. and the federal enterprise Russkoye Video. At the time, Media-Most was involved in a dispute over the loan received from Gazprom. On the third day, however, he was released under the written undertaking not to leave the country.  On 15 July, the puppet of Putin acted in the "Kukly" show as Girolamo Savonarola.  On 19 July, investigators of the office of the Prosecutor General of Russia came to Gusinsky's home, distrained and arrested his property.  In a surprisingly informal deal, the charges against Gusinsky were lifted after he signed an agreement with Mikhail Lesin,, on 20 July. Under the "shares for freedom" transaction or Protocol No.6 ("Протокол N.6. Доля свободы") agreement, Gusinsky would discharge his debts by selling Media-Most to Gazprom-Media, which had held a 30% share of NTV since 1996, for the price imposed by the latter, and was given a guarantee that he would not be prosecuted. After leaving the country, Gusinsky claimed he was pressured to sign the agreement by the prospect of the criminal investigation. Media-Most refused to comply with the agreement.  Tax authorities brought a suit against Media-Most aiming to wind it up.  On 26 January 2001, Gazprom announced that it had acquired a controlling stake of 46% in NTV. The voting rights of a 19% stake held by Media-Most was frozen by a court decision.  Putin met with leading NTV journalists on 29 January, but the meeting changed nothing. The parties reasserted their positions; Putin denied any involvement and said that he could not interfere with the prosecutors and courts.  Around that time American media mogul Ted Turner (owner and founder of the Turner Broadcasting System subsidiary of Time Warner) appeared to be going to buy Gusinsky's share, but this has never happened.  On 3 April, Gazprom Media headed by Alfred Kokh by violating the procedure conducted a shareholders' meeting which removed Kiselyov from the NTV Director General position.  On 14 April 2001, Gazprom took over NTV by force and brought in its own management team. Its director-general Yevgeniy Kiselyov was replaced by Boris Jordan. Many leading journalists, including Yevgeniy Kiselyov, Svetlana Sorokina, Viktor Shenderovich, Vladimir A. Kara-Murza, Dmitry Dibrov, left the company. Leonid Parfyonov and Tatyana Mitkova remained. Kiselyov's "Itogi" program was closed down, replaced by Parfyonov's "Namedni".  Citizens concerned by the threat to the freedom of speech in Russia argued that the financial pressure was inspired by the Vladimir Putin's government, which was often subject to NTV's criticism. Some tens of thousands of Russians rallied to the call of dissident NTV journalists in order to support the old NTV staff in April 2001. Within the next couple of years, two independent TV channels which absorbed the former NTV journalists, TV-6 and TVS, were also shut down.  In January 2003, Boris Jordan was ousted as director general and replaced by Nikolay Senkevich, son of TV-presenter Yuri Senkevich from Channel One. A few days earlier he was also discharged from Media-Most director-general position, where he had replaced Alfred Kokh in October 2001. As insiders claimed, Jordan was sacked because NTV had carried a live translation of the culmination of the Moscow theater siege in October 2002 and had been too critical of the way authorities handled it.  Since then, entertaining talk-shows have become more prominent on NTV, rather than political programmes. However, unlike other leading TV channels in Russia, NTV went on reporting on-the-fly about some opposition activities and government failures, including the conflagrating fire of the Moscow Manege on the day of the Russian presidential elections on 14 March 2004, and the assassination of the pro-Russian President of Chechnya Akhmad Kadyrov on Victory Day 9 May 2004.  On 1 June 2004, Leonid Parfyonov, one of the last leading journalists from the old NTV staff who remained, and who was still critical of the government, was ousted from the channel, and his weekly news commentary programme "Namedni" was taken off the air. Its last announced episode never aired. Shortly before this, Parfyonov had been forbidden to present an interview with Malika Yandarbieva, widow of Chechen rebel leader Zelimkhan Yandarbiev. Zelimkhan Yandarbiev had been assassinated in exile in Qatar earlier that year. Parfyonov had shared this decision with the public on 31 May.  On 5 July 2004, Senkevich was replaced by Vladimir Kulistikov (b. 1952) as director general of NTV. Tamara Gavrilova, formerly a fellow student with Vladimir Putin at Leningrad State University, was appointed deputy director general.  Soon the political programmes "Freedom Of Speech" hosted by Savik Shuster (Shuster works in Ukraine since 2005), "Personal Contribution" hosted by Aleksandr Gerasimov, and "Red Arrow" were closed down.

Late 2000s.

From 2006 to 2009, NTV ran weekly news commentary programme "Sunday Night" in a talk-show format and political talk-show "On The Stand", both hosted by Vladimir Solovyov, as well as weekly news commentary programme "Real Politics" hosted on Saturdays from 2005 to 2008 by political analyst and key Kremlin adviser Gleb Pavlovsky.  NTV began to be broadcast in widescreen in April 2013, hosted its own coverage of the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, and joined the long list of Russian TV networks broadcasting in High Definition on 9 February 2015.

Artistic design.

The colorful "NTV" logo as well as the iconic green sphere were designed by Simon Levin, the Russian designer, and became a symbol for the new graphic language of television design in Russia.

Controversy.

In August 2014, NTV aired a documentary titled "13 Friends of the Junta", which described critics of Russia's policies in Ukraine as "traitors" and supporters of "fascists". "The Moscow Times" reported that footage of Andrei Makarevich's concert in Sviatohirsk "was merged with images of the fighting that he supposedly endorsed. The program never mentions that the concert was for the benefit of Ukraine's internally displaced children." Another program "Anatomy of a protest" was also presenting most of the anti-government protesters in former USSR countries as "Western puppets" or CIA inspired agents. The producers of the program, Pyotr Drogovoz and Liliya Parfyonova, were also accused of frequently receiving wiretap information from FSB which allowed them to pay surprise visits with camera on various opposition meetings.

Logos.

The channel changed six logos. The current - the 7th in a row. Until 30 November 1993 the logo was in the lower right corner. From December 1993 to the present, the logo is in the lower left corner.

NTV (Cyrillic: НТВ) is a Russian free-to-air television channel that was launched as a subsidiary of Vladimir Gusinsky's company. Since 14 April 2001 Gazprom Media controls the network. NTV has no official meaning according to Igor Malashenko, the author of the name and co-founder of the company, but in the 1990s unofficial transcripts of the acronym include "New" ("Novoye"), "Independent" ("Nezavisimoye"), "Non-governmental" ("Negosudarstvenoye"), "Our" ("Nashe").

NTV (en alphabet cyrillique, "НТВ") est une chaîne de télévision russe. Fondée en 1993, elle est alors l'une des pionnières de la télévision commerciale en Russie. Adoptant à l'origine un ton volontiers satirique et parfois critique vis-à-vis du gouvernement, elle assouplit considérablement sa ligne éditoriale après son rachat par le groupe "Gazprom" en 2001.


History.

The first courthouse was built between 1743 and 1747 in the old town, on Place Daviel, opposite the église des Accoules. In the building known as Hôtel Daviel is currently found the local office of the mayor. At the beginning of the 19th century, the location of the Hôtel Daviel was found to be insufficient for the task, and La Coste proposed in 1839 to the General Council that a reconstruction project was put in place for the old palace.  After some discussion, the decision was made to transfer the courthouse to Place Montyon. The council approved this plan on, and the foundations were laid in the city of Marseille. The architect was M. Auguste Martin. The inauguration took place on and the bishop of Marseille, Mgr Patrice Cruice, celebrated a mass in one of the meeting rooms. M. Mourier, Imperial Procurer, pronounced the building open at the inaugural meeting, led by Edouard Luce, President of Civil Tribunal.  Further renovation works were launched at the beginning of 2013, and it was closed to the public, and operations were moved to the caserne du Muy, before reopening in 2015.

Exterior.

The neoclassical building is 57 metres long, and 54 metres high, in line with most Courthouses built during the Second Empire. The main facade faces onto Place Montyon, named after Jean-Baptiste de Montyon, intendant of Provence in the 18th Century. At the centre of this façade is a monumental door made of a stoop of 25 steps, a peristyle of Ionic order of six columns topped with a triangular front on which is a representation of Justice with its right to Force and the defeat of Crime represented by the head of a man to the left of Prudence and Innocence. This group was sculpted by Guillaume. The same sculptor also made two bas reliefs placed under the porche representing repressive justice and protecting justice. The rear façade, on rue Grignan, is less decorated, with only sculptures on the front of the Napoleonic armies and two lions on a commemorative table, all sculpted by Émile Aldebert. Two statues by Joseph Marius Ramus occupy the corners of the peristyle and represent Force and Prudence. The front of the side façades were created by Pierre Travaux ; they represent the East on the side of rue Breteuil, Closure and Moderation, and on the West side, on rue Émile Pollak, Vigilance and Wisdom.

Interior.

The main chamber is 16 metres long; it has 16 red Languedoc marble columns supporting a higher gallery on the first floor. The archway consists of 4 sides, divided into 5 coffers, with 4 smaller in the centre. The large coffers each represent a legislator, while each of the smaller coffers represent juridical figures who worked at the time of that legislator. The portraits are:  On the arches are also figures representing the qualities required for magistrates: force, equity, reason, rights, liberty, authority, truth, and eloquence. All the decoration of the archways is by François Gilbert.

The Marseille Courthouse (French:"Palais de justice de Marseille") is a neoclassical building located on Place Montyon, in the 6th arrondissement of Marseille, France.

Le palais de justice de Marseille est situé place Montyon, dans le, dans le quartier du palais de justice.


Definition.

Article 23.1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:  The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states in Part III, Article 6:  The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights also recognises the right, emphasising conditions and pay, i.e. labor rights. Article 15, states:

History.

The phrase "the right to work" was coined by the French socialist leader Louis Blanc in light of the social turmoil of the early 19th century and rising unemployment in the wake of the 1846 financial crisis which led up to the French Revolution of 1848. The right to property was a crucial demand in early quests for political freedom and equality, and against feudal control of property. Property can serve as the basis for the entitlements that ensure the realisation of the right to an adequate standard of living and it was only property owners which were initially granted civil and political rights, such as the right to vote. Because not everybody is a property owner, the right to work was enshrined to allow everybody to attain an adequate standard of living. Today discrimination on the basis of property ownership is recognised as a serious threat to the equal enjoyment of human rights by all and non-discrimination clauses in international human rights instruments frequently include property as a ground on the basis of which discrimination is prohibited (see the right to equality before the law).

Criticism.

Paul Lafargue, in "The Right to be Lazy" (1883), wrote: "And to think that the sons of the heroes of the Terror have allowed themselves to be degraded by the religion of work, to the point of accepting, since 1848, as a revolutionary conquest, the law limiting factory labor to twelve hours. They proclaim as a revolutionary principle the Right to Work. Shame to the French proletariat! Only slaves would have been capable of such baseness."

The right to work is the concept that people have a human right to work, or engage in productive employment, and may not be prevented from doing so. The right to work is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law through its inclusion in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, where the right to work emphasizes economic, social and cultural development.

Le droit au travail est l'un des droits de l'homme proclamé à l'article 23 de la Déclaration des Nations unies de 1948 : « Toute personne a droit au travail, au libre choix de son travail, à des conditions équitables et satisfaisantes de travail et à la protection contre le chômage. »


Ville de Campbelltown (Australie-Méridionale)

History.

The first District Council of Payneham in South Australia was formed in 1854 when the year-old District Council of East Torrens was split, for more effective governance, into three separate local governing bodies, including the original East Torrens council and the District Council of Burnside. In 1867 the new District Council of Stepney was detached from Payneham council to better represent the more urban interests of the western wards. In the following year, on 27 February 1868, Payneham was renamed the District Council of Campbelltown. The name "Campbelltown" had been decided upon at a meeting held at the Glynde Inn on 9 December 1867 and was named after Charles James Fox Campbell. The Stepney council was later renamed in the 1930s to the District Council of Payneham, making it the second council of that name.  On 1 January 1946, the Campbelltown District Council became a town with its own municipal office and, on 6 May 1960, it was proclaimed a city.

Lochend.

Campbell purchased Sections 309 and 310 on a fertile plain near the River Torrens in 1842 and built a home he called "Lochend" after the ancestral home of his family in Scotland. Lochend was built of local river stone and included a stucco porch, hall and living room with a finely moulded ceiling. Campbell later substantially expanded Lochend by the addition of three bedrooms and a cellar. Lochend included of garden and in the estate, primarily used as pastoral land. In 1849 he subdivided into 40 gardening blocks under the name "Campbelltown".  In 1852, Campbell leased the house to James Scott. By this time, the house had six rooms. Campbell sold Lochend to Scott in 1858 for 2,600 pounds, and Scott lived there until 1875. The Scott family enlarged the house to eleven rooms, a stable, coach house and cottage, all surrounded by vegetable and fruit gardens and 58 acres of crop growing land. The next owner, retired sheep farmer David Mundy, built the two-storey house Lochiel Park, on a rise just to the south of Lochend. From 1898 to 1957, Lochend and Lochiel Park were owned or lived in by members of the Hobbs family. The Hobbs sold both houses to the SA Government in 1947, and Lochiel Park became a junior boys' reformatory.  In the early 1980s, ownership of Lochend was transferred to Campbelltown Council. Empty, partly demolished and isolated, Lochend had deteriorated, was in a dangerous condition, and was in almost irretrievable condition. In 1998 Campbelltown Council began efforts to save the building; it was faithfully restored to near original condition with the guidance of the Campbelltown Historical Society, and was officially reopened on 29 February 2004.

Lochiel Park development.

In 2004 the South Australian Government announced the development of an ecovillage named Lochiel Park on the site the Lochiel Park junior boys' reformatory. The development was planned to cover an area bounded by the River Torrens (west), Lochend House, grounds and entry road (north), Hobbs House (east), the O-Bahn (south-east), and a wet-land (south).  Announcing the Development Premier Mike Rann said: "I want South Australia to become a world leader in a new green approach to the way we all live. The Lochiel Park Development will become the national model 'Green Village' incorporating ecological sustainable development technologies".  Work on the development began in 2006, and by 2010 there were 60 residents at the site. It has been touted as "an exemplary 'green' urban development incorporating 'best practice sustainable technologies' to assist in educating the public and industry about sustainable housing and land development". However, "opinion remains divided about the worth of a so-called 'green village' at the site".

Council.

The current council is:

The City of Campbelltown is a local government area in the north eastern suburbs of Adelaide, South Australia about 6 kilometres from the Adelaide GPO. The city is bordered by the River Torrens and the City of Tea Tree Gully, the District of Adelaide Hills, the City of Burnside, the City of Norwood Payneham St Peters, and the City of Port Adelaide Enfield.

La Ville de Campbelltown ("City of Campbelltown") est une zone d'administration locale au sud-est du centre ville d'Adélaïde en Australie-Méridionale en Australie.