History.

While fishing is likely the town's oldest industry, quarrying has been important to the town and the local area since at least the 1st century AD. During the time of the Roman occupation this industry grew, with the distinctive Purbeck marble being used for decorative purposes in buildings as far away as London. When the Romans left Britain, quarrying largely ceased until the 12th century.  The town is first mentioned in historical texts in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" of 877. It is stated as being the scene of a Danish naval disaster: ""This year came the Danish army into Exeter from Wareham; whilst the navy sailed west about, until they met with a great mist at sea, and there perished one hundred and twenty ships at Swanwich."" The Danish ships were driven by a storm onto Peveril Point, a shallow rocky reef outcropping from the southern end of Swanage Bay. A monument topped (historically incorrectly) by cannonballs was built in 1862 by John Mowlem at the southern end of the seafront promenade to mark this event - interpreted as great naval victory by King Alfred.  In the 12th century demand for Purbeck Marble grew once again. While Purbeck marble is not suited to external use, as it does not weather well, it is however strong and suitably decorative for use as internal columns. As such the stone was used in the construction of many large churches and cathedrals being built at the time.  In contrast to the decorative Purbeck marble, Purbeck limestone, or more commonly 'Purbeck stone', has been used in construction locally since the early days of quarrying on Purbeck. Its use is less well documented as it was taken for granted as the default construction materials in the area. However, the arrival of more modern quarrying techniques in the 17th century resulted in an increase in production. The Great Fire of London in 1666 led to a period of large-scale reconstruction in the city, and Purbeck stone was extensively used for paving. It was in this time that stone first started being loaded upon ships directly from the Swanage seafront; before this time quarried stone had been first transported to Poole for shipping.  The idea that Swanage could become a tourist destination was first encouraged by a local MP William Morton Pitt in the early 19th century, who converted a mansion in the town into a luxury hotel. The hotel is noted for having been visited in 1833 by the (then) Princess Victoria, later to become queen. The building was later renamed the Royal Victoria Hotel, now the building has been converted into flats and a bar and nightclub in the left and right wings respectively.

Mowlem and Burt – the Victorian era.

The town's greatest prominence came during the Victorian period. John Mowlem (1788–1868), a Swanage resident, became a successful builder in London, creating the Mowlem construction company, which still existed as recently as 2006, when it was acquired by another company, Carillion.  John Mowlem made his business in London by importing stone into the city from around the country, including Purbeck limestone. Through this process, many relics and monuments were brought from London to Swanage in the 19th century by Mowlem and his nephew George Burt (1816–1894) who took over the business when Mowlem retired. It is said that these items brought from London were used as ballast for the empty vessels which transported the Purbeck stone to London.  These include the big clock tower near Peveril Point. The clock tower, commemorating the Duke of Wellington, designed by Arthur Ashpitel, was built in 1854 at the southern approach to the old London Bridge. Within 10 years it became an obstruction to traffic on the busy bridge and had to be removed. It was re-erected 1867–68 on its present site at the southern end of the bay on the sea front. A further item transported from London to Swanage is the 1860 façade of the Mercers' Hall, that was used as the façade of the Swanage Town Hall, which was designed by G. R. Crickmay (1830–1907) of Weymouth, and built during the early 1880s.  Mowlem and Burt were highly influential in the development of the town, taking an active interest in their town of birth into retirement. Between them they were responsible for the building of much of the town's infrastructure, including the town's first pier, the Mowlem Institute (a reading room), the first gas and water works, and the development of the Durlston estate and Country Park, at the southern end of the town. The Great Globe which can be found slightly south of Durlston Castle, both also designed by Crickmay, in the Durlston Country Park was completed by George Burt in 1887. It is made up of 15 sections of stone and joined together with granite dowels. The Great Globe weighs and is in diameter.  Newton Manor House on the High Street was a 17th century farmhouse, remodelled in the 18th and 19th centuries. For some centuries the house and estate belonged to the Cockram family. In c1876 it was bought by Sir John Charles Robinson, Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum.  Swanage Lighthouse was built in 1880, on the clifftop at Anvil Point, not far away from Durlston Castle.  The railways were introduced to the town in 1885 with the encouragement of Burt by the London and South Western Railway Company. By this time the town was becoming a popular resort destination for the wealthy, noted for its fine weather and clean air. The town previously had been fairly cut off due to its valley location, but the introduction of the railway made the town much more accessible to visitors, with direct services running from London. However the greatest increase in visitors came with the building of the second 'new' pier in 1895, built primarily for use by pleasure steamers.

The Great War to the present.

The town enjoyed several decades quietly being successful as a seaside resort. The First World War left few physical marks on the town, however during the Second World War gun emplacements and pillboxes were built at spots along the shoreline at the southern end of the bay. The town also received bomb damage during the Second World War, with 20 people killed. The town and other nearby villages are noted for playing a part in the development of radar.  After the Second World War the town, like many other seaside resorts and indeed the country at large, suffered a recession with few people able to spare the money for holidaying. In 1972 the Swanage branch line of the railway was closed by British Rail as part of larger network-wide cutbacks. A group of local enthusiasts formed a charitable organisation with the purpose of restoring and preserving the branch line and steam and diesel locomotives to run along it, forming the Swanage Railway.  Through the years Swanage has suffered from flooding, with severe flooding occurring as recently as 1990. In 1993 a large-scale flood alleviation scheme was completed, ending in the banjo-shaped 'new jetty' outletting rainwater. This in itself created a new problem, disturbing the natural northward drift of sand up the bay, with a buildup on the southern side and reduction of sand on the northern. This reduction of sand levels exposed the foundations of parts of the seawall threatening to damage it. As a result, the beach was improved in 2005–06 by construction of new greenheart timber groynes and the placement of of sand as beach nourishment.

Governance.

Local governance and service provision is provided by Swanage Town Council (based at Swanage Town Hall) and, the newly formed, Dorset Council. This changed with a local government reorganisation in 2019 from a two-tier structure (Purbeck District Council and Dorset County Council), to a single-tier unitary authority covering rural Dorset. In terms of UK Parliamentary representation, Swanage falls within the constituency of South Dorset.

Town Council.

Swanage Town Council is the Parish Authority based in the historic town hall in the High Street. Services provided by the Town Council include – "sport and recreational facilities, beach, tourist information and promotion of tourists, caravan parks, off-street car parks, public conveniences, cemeteries, allotments". The Town Council consists of twelve elected Councillors, elected from two electoral wards (Swanage North and Swanage south), who each serve 4 year terms. As of the 2019 local elections, the political breakdown of the Town Council is 10 Conservative Councillors (57% of total votes) and 2 Labour Councillors (23% of total votes). These Councilors appoint a chairman to act as the Town Mayor, currently Cllr Mike Bonfield. Working groups and committees are formed for specific concerns and functions such as;Transport, Capital Projects and General Operations. The council employs up to 100 staff to deliver its services who are managed by the Town Clerk and various sub managers.

Geography and geology.

Swanage faces to the east Swanage Bay in Dorset on the south coast of England. The bay is at the eastern end of the Isle of Purbeck, approximately south of Poole and east of Dorchester. The northern headland of the bay is formed of chalk, the southern of Purbeck Limestone, with softer primarily Wealden clays forming the bay and valley in which the town is sited. The Purbeck limestone was extensively quarried with several sites to the south west showing evidence of former quarries, particularly Tilly Whim Caves and Dancing Ledge, a man made rock shelf used for loading ships. Natural erosion has formed stacks along and at the end of the northern headland, in particular the notable Old Harry Rocks. In part through the process of quarrying, fossils from the dinosaur age have been discovered in the local rock, and the coastline up to and including Swanage Bay has been included in the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site.

Climate.

As with the rest of the British Isles Swanage experiences a maritime climate with warm (but not hot) summers and cool winters. Within this climate zone, Swanage's coastal location ensures a smaller range in annual temperature than in places further inland. The Met Office operates a weather station at the town, and temperature extremes recorded range from in January 1963 up to during July 1976. Rainfall typically peaks in winter, and is at its lowest during summer. The town's position on an east-facing bay provides it some protection from the prevailing southwesterly winds.

Economy.

Swanage's primary sources of employment are wholesale and retail trade (including mechanics), health and social work, and accommodation and food service activities. The town has a tourism industry, however the demand level is highly seasonal, and as such people looking for permanent work may have to commute to nearby towns such as Poole and Bournemouth. The town centre has a few medium-sized outlets for major retailers, a collection of local retailers, a number of cafes, bars, restaurants and pubs. The seafront has two amusement arcades, several ice cream outlets, fish restaurants and cafes. The town also has a number of successful small-scale cottage industries.  There is a brickworks on the outskirts of the town that uses the Wealden Clay found in the valley for producing bricks, and quarrying still continues to the south.

Tourism.

During the peak summer season many people are drawn by the town's beautiful setting, the beach and other attractions. The town has numerous hotels and guest rooms though the number (particularly of hotels) has reduced slightly in recent years. Swanage has a gently sloping white sand beach which is sheltered and generally calm. The beach is well served by local businesses providing refreshments and services. For hire are deck chairs, boats, pedalos and general watersports equipment. There are amusement arcades and parks.  Besides the beach, there are other local attractions including the restored Swanage steam railway and the Victorian pier. The town may also be used a base from which to visit other nearby areas of interest, such as Corfe Castle.

Culture.

As a small town there are no large cultural institutions based in the town, though there are a number of small clubs and groups, including the Swanage Town Band formed in the late 19th century. The largest facility in the town is the Mowlem Theatre, on the site of the former Mowlem Institute, opened in 1967. Performing a dual role as a 400-seat theatre and cinema, the complex also hosts a bar and restaurant and a small collection of shops. Typically there are around 200 film showings and 60–100 nights of live theatre.  Swanage has a Detached Flight of the Air Training Corps which regularly partakes in activities around the town, including charitable collections, training exercises and parades. 2185 (Swanage) DF is attached to 2185 (Wareham) Squadron ATC as its parent unit.

Festivals and events.

The town hosts a number of annual festivals and events. In the summer months there is a carnival week which includes a procession of floats and dancers and several firework displays, and many other attractions and small events including live music from various bands from all over Southern England, races and a regatta.  The railway used to have special Thomas the Tank Engine themed events, until the cost of running these became prohibitive, and other special services.  The town also hosts successful festivals, which attract more than a purely local audience. These include a jazz festival, a folk festival, a blues festival, and there are plans for a food festival in the future.  New Year's Eve has traditionally been a big event for Swanage, with the town drawing more people from surrounding areas, and people travelling considerable distances to attend. In part this has been due to attendance by employees of the nearby Wytch Farm oil processing facility. While the popularity of the event has waned somewhat from its peak in the early 1990s, with fewer oil employees in the area, there is still a large gathering each year, spilling out into the square and High Street at midnight. It is a long-standing tradition in Swanage for people to dress up for New Year's Eve to add to the atmosphere. There is no specific fancy dress "theme", but costumes tend to be humorous.

Churches.

There are several church congregations in Swanage, many of which meet at sites of historic interest. St Mary's Anglican Church was built from 1860 and Swanage Methodist Church was built in 1886. There are also three more Anglican churches, Emmanuel Baptist Church, a Quakers' meeting house, Roman Catholic, Salvation Army and United Reformed Church. All the churches are part of the ecumenical group known as "Churches Together in Swanage and District" which also extends to churches within Langton Matravers, Kingston and Worth Matravers.  The town also has the "Old Stable", a Christian-led community centre in the town centre.

Transport.

Swanage is accessible by main road either through Wareham and its bypass or via the Sandbanks Ferry which provides a shorter route to Bournemouth. There is a minor road connecting Swanage to East Lulworth via Corfe Castle but this passes through a military firing range and is closed during firing exercises.  The main bus services are provided by Morebus. Number 40 runs between Swanage and Poole, number 30 between Swanage and Weymouth (summer time only), and the number 50 runs between Swanage and Bournemouth via the Sandbanks Ferry. Double-deck open top buses are used on the Poole and Bournemouth to Swanage routes in the summer months. The buses on these routes are branded as Purbeck Breezers. The Bournemouth to Swanage route was voted one of Britain's top three scenic bus routes in 2018. Swanage has seen serious cuts to its bus services in recent years, reducing the frequency of services to Poole and Wareham and much reducing links to Harmans Cross and Worth Matravers.  Swanage has a restored heritage steam railway which operates for most of the year. In February 2013 the Swanage Railway obtained a government grant of £1.47 million to re-introduce regular services to the main line at Wareham. The physical connection between the Swanage Railway and the main line has been restored but is currently used only during the summer months. Limited ferry services also run between Poole Quay and Swanage Pier. These are used by Swanage residents for shopping trips to Poole's large shopping centre, and also by tourists in Poole for day trips into Swanage.  To avoid the narrow A351 through Corfe Castle village and parking in Swanage, a park and ride facility operates at Norden, with connections into Swanage provided by Swanage Railway steam trains or buses on routes 30 and 40. Together with Swanage Railway trains from Wareham, boat trips from Poole and the scenic bus route from Bournemouth, this provides an unusually wide and attractive range of public transport options with low carbon footprint for visiting the town.  The nearest mainline railway station to Swanage is Wareham, with South Western Railway services westward to Dorchester South and Weymouth and eastwards towards Poole, Bournemouth, Southampton Central and London Waterloo.  National Express Coaches operate a daily coach service from Swanage to London (One journey each way, to London in the morning, back in the evening).

Education.

Until 2013 schools in Purbeck District operated as part of a three-tier comprehensive pyramid system. Under this system, the Purbeck Secondary School in Wareham was fed by the various middle schools in the Purbeck district, including the former Swanage Middle School on the edge of the town at Herston. These in turn were fed by the district's primary schools. However, in November 2010 a move to change to a two-tier system was approved following a proposal from Dorset County Council in May of that year. This culminated in the closure of Purbeck's Middle Schools in September 2013. As a further result the district's primary schools, including the 4 in Swanage are required to accommodate children through two additional school years. These cover years 1–6, with children moving on to secondary education from year 7 onwards.  Concern from parents and teachers following the original announcement of these plans prompted the formation of the Education Swanage group, who put together a proposal to form a free school in the town to provide secondary education. Having successfully completed several rounds of reviews with the Department for Education, Education Swanage's proposal was finally accepted in October 2011. "The Swanage School" opened in September 2013 temporarily located at Harrow House, an international language school within the town until the new building became ready. Pupils moved to the new building in Easter 2014.  A large private language school in the town, Harrow House, caters for foreign pupils. The school, founded in 1969 has a large white pressurised dome which serves as a sports hall, which is visible from some distance.  Adjacent to Harrow House is Purbeck View School, owned by Cambian Education. This school caters to the needs of autistic children and teenagers and provides boarding facilities. The town has a library in the town centre housed in a distinctive 1960s octagonal glass and Purbeck Stone building  A small museum with artefacts and displays recounting the town and surrounding area's history is located at the square on the seafront. The museum had previously been housed in the historical Tithe Barn building, however mounting maintenance costs forced the relocation of much of the collection to the new site, with the remainder in storage.

Public services.

The town is served by a small fire station provided by Dorset Fire and Rescue Service and located centrally within the town. Swanage Police Station, originally opened in 1899 and was operated by Dorset Police, before being closed in November 2012.  Swanage Hospital is a community hospital provided by Dorset Healthcare with an accompanying Ambulance Station provided by the South Western Ambulance Service. The hospital has a Minor Injuries Unit, providing basic emergency care from 8am to 8pm, inpatient and outpatient departments, an operating theatre, radiography, physiotherapy and occupational therapy departments. Swanage Medical Practice provides GP services.  Given the coastal location, the town is also served by an RNLI lifeboat station a HM Coastguard post, and a National Coastwatch Institution station.

Sport and recreation.

Swanage is represented in a number of sports, including football, rugby, cricket, croquet, hockey, sailing and rowing.  Swanage Town and Herston F.C., who play in the Dorset Premier League  The sea cliffs and quarries to the west of Swanage provide excellent venues for rock climbing.  The surrounding areas make for excellent walking and as such the town is a popular destination for hikers who use the town as base. Many beauty spots are in walkable distance, while never being too far from refreshment. The town is on the Dorset Coast Path with attractive cliffs walks to Old Harry Rocks and Studland to the north, and Durlston Head and Lulworth Cove to the south and west.

Parks.

Swanage has a King George's Field near the centre of town in memorial to King George V, which includes large playing fields, as well as skate park facilities and a hi-tech play area, both funded by community groups. There are plans also for the building of a new sports pavilion at the park, to replace the previous building which had been demolished due to safety concerns.  Towards the eastern end of town is Days Park, which includes a playing field, play area and gardens.

Water sport.

Swanage bay provides a well sheltered environment for a range of watersports, including swimming, kayaking, canoeing, sailing, windsurfing and jetskiing.  Scuba diving takes place under the piers and at nearby coastal wrecks. Swanage is considered by many to be the home of British scuba diving. It is one of the most popular sea water training sites for dive schools and clubs to take trainee divers due to the sheltered conditions within the bay. The dive school on the pier was the first dive school in Great Britain.  Swanage Sailing club was established in 1935 and is located immediately south of the pier.  Swanage Sea Rowing Club, formed in 2001 has been highly successful and currently has over 100 members and four Cornish pilot gigs of its own, funded through donations. Competitions take place at regattas of which the club attends several per year, including the World Pilot Gig Championships held on the Isles of Scilly.  There are two public swimming pools, one at the Swanage Bay View Holiday Home Park and another at Ulwell Caravan Park. Both offer swimming lessons and aquarobic sessions.

Twin towns.

Swanage is twinned with:

Notable residents.

Between 1934 and 1936 Swanage was the home of artist Paul Nash. He worked on the "Shell Guide to Dorset" and produced a considerable number of paintings and photographs during this period. Also staying in Swanage at this time was the surrealist Eileen Agar, with whom Nash collaborated. In 1936 Nash wrote an essay entitled "Swanage or Seaside Surrealism", in which he described the town as having something "of a dream image where things are so often incongruous and slightly frightening in their relation to time or place."  Artist and writer, Philip Sugden was born and raised in Swanage. He is known for his drawings and paintings of India and Tibet, and his books entitled, "Visions From the Fields of Merit" and "White Lotus".  The Canadian poet, novelist, and painter P K Page was born in Swanage, Dorset on 23 November 1916. In 1919, she left with her family for Canada. In 1954, Page won the Canadian Governor General's Award for poetry and in 1977 was made an Officer to the Order of Canada, and was subsequently promoted to the rank of Companion of the Order of Canada.

Cultural references.

Swanage is stated as the hometown of John Cleese's character Basil Fawlty in the sitcom "Fawlty Towers".  Some of James Blunt's video "Carry You Home" was filmed in Swanage and Worth Matravers.  The first episode of the second series of the British sitcom, "The Inbetweeners", called "The Field Trip" is set mainly in Swanage, although this episode was actually filmed in Littlehampton.  In 1997, a diameter crater on Mars was named after Swanage.

In literature.

Swanage is called Knollsea in Thomas Hardy's novels. In "The Hand of Ethelberta" it is described as "a seaside village lying snug within two headlands as between a finger and thumb".  In E.M. Forster's "Howards End", Margaret and Mr. Wilcox first kiss there at the end of an evening's stroll, and the town is mentioned frequently throughout the book.  "The Lady Margaret", one of the linked short stories in Keith Roberts', "Pavane" has Swanage as the place where Jesse Strange meets an old school friend and fails to establish a relationship with his childhood sweetheart Margaret.

See also.

Local villages:

Swanage () is a coastal town and civil parish in the south east of Dorset, England. It is at the eastern end of the Isle of Purbeck and one of its two towns, approximately south of Poole and east of Dorchester. In the 2011 census the civil parish had a population of 9,601. Nearby are Ballard Down and Old Harry Rocks, with Studland Bay and Poole Harbour to the north. Within the parish are Durlston Bay and Durlston Country Park to the south of the town. The parish also includes the areas of Herston, just to the west of the town, and Durlston, just to the south.

Swanage est une petite ville du Dorset, Angleterre, située à l'extrémité Est de l'île de Purbeck, à environ 10 km au sud de Poole et 40 km au sud de Dorchester. Sa population est de 10,124 habitants.


Biography.

Philip Benizi was born on August 15 in the Florentine district of Oltrarno, the day the Blessed Virgin first appeared to the Seven Founders. He became the great propagator of the Order of the Servants of Mary (the Servites). When he was elected the general superior on June 5, 1267, the order, which had long been the object of attack from enemies, entered into the crisis of its existence. The Second Council of Lyons in 1274 put into execution the ordinance of the Fourth Lateran Council, forbidding the foundation of new religious orders, and absolutely suppressing all mendicant institutions not yet approved by the Holy See. In 1276 Pope Innocent V, in a letter addressed to Philip, declared the order suppressed. Philip then proceeded to Rome, but before his arrival there, Innocent V had died.  The city of Forlì was part of the Papal States and, in 1283, the site of strong anti-papal sentiment was placed under interdict. Pope Martin V asked Philip to go to Forlì and try to reconcile the divided city. Eighteen-year-old Peregrine Laziosi (Latiosi), the son of a Ghibelline leader, was among those abusive towards Philip. However Philip's meeting with the initially antagonistic Peregrine help the young man later decide to join the Servite order. Saint Peregrine was canonized by Pope Benedict XIII in 1726.  Philip died on August 22, 1285, during the Octave of the Assumption at Todi, where he is buried.  In the cloister of Santa Maria of the Servites in Vicenza, took place his miracles in 1319.

Veneration.

The Church of the Servites of Mary in Todi, Umbria, contains the body of St Philip Benizi, whose statue is the work of Bernini.  St Philip's feast day is celebrated on August 23. He and Santa Maria Addolorata are the titular co-patrons of the minor basilica of Monte Senario (Vaglia), Province of Florence, in the Diocese of Florence (since 1917).

Cultural references.

Five scenes from his life were painted in the early 16th century by the Florentine Andrea del Sarto: ""His Charity to a Leper"", ""The Smiting of the Blasphemers"", ""The Cure of the Woman Possessed with a Devil"", ""The Resurrection of Two Children near the Tomb of the Saint"", and ""The Veneration of his Relics"".  There is a statue of him on the Charles Bridge in Prague, Czech Republic. Designed in 1714, this statue was made from Salzburg marble and donated by the Servites convent in Prague. The statue portrays him holding a cross, a book and a spray. By his legs there is the crown of the pope. A clay model of this statue can be found in the Salzburg museum.  There is also a chapel dedicated to him in the church of San Marcello al Corso in Rome, and a statue dedicated to him at The National Sanctuary of our Sorrowful Mother, popularly known as The Grotto, in Portland, Oregon.  In Slovakia, where name days are commonly celebrated, the name day for Philip falls on August 23rd, the feast day of St Philip Benizi.

Philip Benizi (sometimes St Philip Benitius, and in Italian Filippo Benizzi) (August 15, 1233 – August 22, 1285) was a general superior of the Order of the Servites, and credited with reviving the order. Pope Leo X had beatified him in 1516; and Pope Clement X canonized him as a saint in 1671.

Philippe Benizi (1233 - 1285) est un médecin et un religieux italien qui fut pendant 19 ans ministre général de l'Ordre des Servites de Marie.


Biography.

Piper was born on January 11, 1946, in Chattanooga, Tennessee, to Bill and Ruth Piper. His father was a traveling evangelist and church planter. When he and his older sister Beverly were still young, the Pipers moved to Greenville, South Carolina, where he spent the remainder of his youth and graduated from Wade Hampton High School.  According to Piper, he had a religious conversion at his mother's knee while on vacation in Florida. He remarked that it "blows him away" that he was saved at six years old, not because he remembers the event, but because the Bible tells him what happened to him.  He married Noël Henry in December 1968, and together they have four sons, a daughter, and 12 grandchildren.  Piper attended Wheaton College (1964–1968) majoring in literature and minoring in philosophy. Studying romantic literature with Clyde Kilby stimulated his poetic side, and today he regularly composes poetry to celebrate special family occasions as well as annually composing story-poems (based on the life of biblical characters) for his congregation during the four weeks of Advent.  In college, he originally desired to pursue a career in medicine, only to decide to go into ministry during a bout of mononucleosis, while listening to the sermons of Harold Ockenga over the radio from his hospital bed. He then completed a Bachelor of Divinity degree at Fuller Theological Seminary in Pasadena, California. While at Fuller, he took several courses from Daniel Fuller and through him discovered the writings of Jonathan Edwards. Along with C. S. Lewis, Edwards and Fuller are noted influences in Piper's life and ministry.  Piper received his Doctor of Theology degree in New Testament Studies at the University of Munich, Germany (1971–1974) under Leonhard Goppelt. His dissertation, "Love Your Enemies", was published by Cambridge University Press and Baker Book House. Upon completion of his doctorate, he taught Biblical Studies at Bethel University and Seminary in Saint Paul, Minnesota, for six years (1974–1980).  His mother died on December 16, 1974, in a bus wreck in Israel. Piper's 1990 booklet "What's the Difference?" included a tribute to her.  On January 11, 2006, Piper announced that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer. According to a letter sent to his church, he and his doctors believed that the cancer was fully treatable. Piper responded to his diagnosis with the following:  Piper underwent successful surgery on February 14, 2006.  His father died on March 6, 2007.

Ministry.

In 1980, Piper became pastor of Bethlehem Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where he ministered until March 31, 2013. Piper hit the evangelical scene after the publication of his book "Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist" (1986) and has continued to publish dozens of books further articulating this theological perspective. In 1994, he founded Desiring God Ministries, with the aim of "spread[ing] a passion for the supremacy of God in all things for the joy of all peoples through Jesus Christ." Desiring God Ministries offers all of Piper's sermons and articles from the past three decades—and most of his books—online free of charge.  Piper took an eight-month leave of absence from his ministry from May 1, 2010, to January 9, 2011.  He announced in June 2011 that he would soon step down from his role of pastor. A candidate to succeed him was announced in March 2012, and on May 20, 2012, Jason Meyer was voted in (784 yes to 8 no) to be the next Pastor for Preaching & Vision, replacing John Piper.  On March 31, 2013 (Easter Sunday), Piper preached his final sermon as pastor of Bethlehem Baptist and announced in an open letter to the congregation that he and his family would be moving to Tennessee for at least a year so that the new leadership can develop a strategic vision for the church without distractions.  In 2010, a "Festschrift" was published in his honor. "For the Fame of God's Name: Essays in Honor of John Piper" included contributions from Don Carson, Sinclair Ferguson, G. K. Beale, Thomas R. Schreiner, Wayne Grudem, Al Mohler, C. J. Mahaney, Mark Dever, John MacArthur, and Bill Mounce.

Theological views.

Christian hedonism.

Piper advocates Christian hedonism and teaches that "God is most glorified in us when we are most satisfied in Him" and that God's highest pursuit ("his glory") and man's deepest and most durable happiness come together in one pursuit—namely, the pursuit of joy in God.

Complementarianism.

Piper holds to a complementarian view of gender roles. This view says that the Bible teaches that a husband is called to lovingly lead, protect and provide for his wife and family, and that the wife should affirm and submit to her husband's leadership. He also says that the Bible teaches that men are to bear the primary responsibility to lead the church and that therefore only men should be elders. Piper, along with Wayne Grudem, was co-editor of one of the books in this area, called "Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood". One of the chapters has been reprinted several times as an independent short book called "What's the Difference?"

Calvinism.

Piper's soteriology is Calvinist and his ecclesiology is Baptist. He affirms the distinctively Calvinist doctrine of double predestination, which includes "unconditional reprobation" or damnation as a corollary to the Augustinian doctrine of unconditional election, and he subscribes to the Leibnizian view that God decreed this universe to be the best of all possible universes.  Piper believes in justification by faith alone apart from works of man, and his teachings emphasize the need for the active and inevitable perseverance of the believer in faith, sanctification, and enduring sufferings, which he believes is evidence of God's saving grace. According to Piper, a once-professing Christian who does not faithfully persevere until the end demonstrates that he was mistaken about his election and was never a true believer in the first place.

Historical creationism.

Piper espouses a brand of creationism known as "historical creationism", and credits John Sailhamer's book "Genesis Unbound" to explaining the view. "Historical creationism" states that God created the universe, planet Earth, and many creatures and things within Earth itself over the course of an indefinite time period before the first day of the week of Genesis 1, and that the days of the creation week were God changing a desolate piece of land into the blessed region of Eden, where God would bring Adam and Eve into existence and place them within it on the sixth day. "In verse 1," Piper said, "'In the beginning he made the heavens and the earth,' he makes everything. And then you go day by day and he's preparing the land. He's not bringing new things into existence; he's preparing the land and causing things to grow and separating out water and earth. And then, when it's all set and prepared, he creates and puts man there." Piper acknowledged, however, that although it is his interpretation of the text, he is not dogmatic about the issue and that "every pastor should go ahead and say what he believes... I'm inclined to not draw that too narrowly."

Continuationism.

Regarding spiritual gifts, Piper is a continuationist, however not in the classical Pentecostal sense. That is, he believes that supernatural gifts such as prophecy, miracles, healings, and speaking in tongues have not ceased and should be sought by the church, in particular with regard to missions and evangelism. He does believe, however, that the office of apostle has ceased and that the gift of prophecy in the church is not the same as the inspiration of scripture. While he believes that God's supernatural revelation in the New Testament gift of prophecy is without error, he says that today, outside the biblically recorded Word of God, the prophet's perception, understanding and delivery of that revelation is imperfect and fallible, thus modern prophecies within the church are subject to sifting.

Eschatology.

Piper describes himself as an "optimistic premillennialist" and holds a post-tribulation view of the second coming of Jesus and of the Rapture, which teaches that the Church will go through the Great Tribulation. Because of this belief, he maintains that Romans 11 teaches that a mass in-gathering of ethnic Israel will be saved when the hardening of their hearts is removed at Jesus' second coming. He therefore advocates the importance of hoping in the resurrection of the dead at Christ's return.

Law and covenant.

Piper does not deny of the typical hermeneutical frameworks, but is furthest from dispensationalism, and closest to Covenant Theology, or a New Covenant theology in matters of the Law and covenants, but agrees with the dispensationalist belief that there will be a millennium. He says that the Law was meant by God to reveal sin and show man's inability to live up to God's righteous standards. Christians, living under the New Covenant, are not under the Old Covenant law but able to fulfill its intent through faith in Jesus Christ.  Piper teaches that God has only one covenant people, mostly believing Jews in the Old Testament, and now that people consists of all the followers of Christ, or the Church, whether Jew or Gentile. Piper asserts that Israel has rights from God to dwell in that land, but not because they are merely Jewish, and Jews who reject Jesus as Messiah have no divine right of claim on those promises. Piper also believes that all Christians, Jew or Gentile, will inherit the earth, including the land of Israel, when Christ sets up the millennial kingdom in the Second Coming.

John Stephen Piper (born January 11, 1946) is founder and senior teacher of desiringGod.org, and chancellor of Bethlehem College & Seminary in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Piper served as Pastor for Preaching and Vision of Bethlehem Baptist Church in Minneapolis, Minnesota, for 33 years. His books include ECPA Christian Book Award winners "Spectacular Sins", "What Jesus Demands from the World", "Pierced by the Word", and "God's Passion for His Glory", and bestsellers "Don't Waste Your Life" and "The Passion of Jesus Christ". The organization Desiring God is named for his book "Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist" (1986).

John Stephen Piper (né le à Chattanooga dans le Tennessee) est un pasteur baptiste réformé, un auteur, et un théologien. Il a servi comme pasteur principal à l'église baptiste Bethlehem à Minneapolis dans le Minnesota pendant trente-trois ans. Il dirige l'organisation évangélique "Desiring God", dont le nom provient de son ouvrage "Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist" (1986).


Biography.

Early life.

Fontanarrosa was born in Rosario, province of Santa Fe, and he lived and worked there until his death. He was widely known by the affectionate nickname "El Negro".

Career.

"People would say that I'm comic writer, at most, and that will be true. I don't care too much how people will define me as a writer. I don't want to be a Nobel laureate. It will be enough for me if anyone tells me 'I laughed my ass off with your book.'" Fontanarrosa began his career writing and drawing comic strips and later branched out into writing narrative with short stories, especially about football (soccer). His most famous strips are "Inodoro Pereyra", featuring a gaucho and his talking dog Mendieta, and the hitman "Boogie el Aceitoso", which came to life as a "Dirty Harry" parody.  Simultaneously with his comic book career, Fontanarrosa went on to write three novels ("Best Seller", "El área 18" and "La Gansada") and seven books of short stories ("Los trenes matan a los autos", "El mundo ha vivido equivocado", "No sé si he sido claro", "Nada del otro mundo", "El mayor de mis defectos", "Uno nunca sabe" and "La mesa de los galanes"), all of them filled with a combination of subtle and broad humor. There are also a number of book compilations of his newspapers' strips.  His work has been seen in different Latin American newspapers including Argentine "Clarín", Colombian "El tiempo", Uruguayan "La República", and Mexican magazine "Proceso". In 1977 he was approached by Les Luthiers (the famous Argentine humour/music group), who wanted him to collaborate on a script they were writing for a film starring the six group members; the film never bore fruit, but he instead became a creative partner, often writing jokes and situations for them, and most of their shows from 1979 onwards feature his input alongside Les Luthiers'.  In November 2007, a posthumous work of Fontanarrosa was made public: the animated film "Fierro" was released, for which he had co-wrote the script and designed all the characters shortly before his death.

Illness.

In 2003 he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and was bound to a wheelchair. He continued to work, and participated in the meetings of the Third International Congress of the Spanish Language, in 2004, where he gave a humorous lecture about taboo words and the final speech. On 26 April 2006 the Senate awarded him the Domingo Faustino Sarmiento Mention of Honour for his career and his contribution to Argentine culture.  On January 18, 2007 he announced that he would be no longer drawing his own strips because he had lost full control of his hand, but stated that he would go on writing the scripts for his characters.

Death.

On 19 July 2007, Fontanarrosa suffered a respiratory failure, and was taken to a hospital. He died there about one hour later. His funeral service and the funeral procession on the next day were attended by thousands of common citizens, writers, actors, and political authorities. The procession stopped beside the Gigante de Arroyito stadium (home of Rosario Central, a team of which Fontanarrosa was possibly its most notable fan) and then continued north to the neighbouring city of Granadero Baigorria, where Fontanarrosa was buried at the "Parque de la Eternidad" cemetery.  The main national news services and printed media of Argentina devoted special segments to Fontanarrosa's legacy and to the funeral service. The national government declared a Mourning Day for National Culture, and the municipal government of Rosario ordered flags to be flown at half mast.

Roberto Alfredo Fontanarrosa, known popularly as "El Negro" Fontanarrosa (November 26, 1944 in Rosario – July 19, 2007), was an Argentine cartoonist, comics artist and writer. During his extended career Fontanarrosa became one of the most acclaimed "historieta" artists of his country, as well as a respected fiction writer. He created the comics and characters of "Inodoro Pereyra", a gaucho, and "Boogie, el aceitoso", a contract killer. He also created the comic book Los Clásicos según Fontanarrosa, which contained a selection of jokes parodies of classic universal literature published in the magazine Chaupinela in the 1970s. A film was made loosely based on Fontanarrosa's short story "Memorias de un wing derecho".

Roberto Fontanarrosa, né le à Rosario et mort le dans cette même ville est un écrivain et auteur de bandes dessinées argentin.


Early life and career.

Kuhn was born in Takoma Park, Maryland, the son of Alice Waring (Roberts) and Louis Charles Kuhn, a fuel company executive. His father was a Bavarian (German) immigrant, and his mother had deep roots in Maryland. Kuhn grew up in Washington, D.C., and graduated from Theodore Roosevelt High School. He then attended Franklin and Marshall College in the V-12 Navy College Training Program before going to Princeton in 1945. Kuhn graduated from Princeton with honors in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics. He then received his law degree in 1950 from the University of Virginia where he served on the editorial board of the law review.  Following his graduation from law school, Kuhn worked at the New York City law firm Willkie Farr & Gallagher because the firm represented the National League. While working in baseball's legal affairs, Kuhn served as a counselor for the NL in a lawsuit brought against it by the City of Milwaukee when the Milwaukee Braves moved to Atlanta following the 1965 season.  After the owners forced out William Eckert in 1968, Kuhn seemed like a logical replacement for the job of commissioner. He, unlike Eckert, was very aware of the inner workings of Major League Baseball before taking office. Kuhn's closest challengers for the commissionership were Mike Burke, president of the New York Yankees; and San Francisco Giants head of baseball operations Chub Feeney, who instead became president of the National League. Kuhn was the youngest (42), tallest (6-foot-5), and heaviest (240 pounds, 109 kg) commissioner in history.

Actions as commissioner.

His tenure was marked by labor strikes (most notably in 1981), owner disenchantment, and the end of baseball's reserve clause, yet baseball enjoyed unprecedented attendance gains (from 23 million in 1968 to 45.5 million in 1983) and television contracts during the same time frame.  Kuhn suspended numerous players for involvement with drugs and gambling, and took a strong stance against any activity that he perceived to be "not in the best interests of baseball".  In 1970, he suspended star Detroit Tigers pitcher Denny McLain indefinitely (the suspension was later set at three months) due to McLain's involvement in a bookmaking operation, and later suspended McLain for the rest of the season for carrying a gun. He barred both Willie Mays (in 1979) and Mickey Mantle (in 1983) from the sport due to their involvement in casino promotion; neither was directly involved in gambling, and both were reinstated by Kuhn's successor Peter Ueberroth in 1985.  Also in 1970, Kuhn described Jim Bouton's "Ball Four" as "detrimental to baseball" and demanded that Bouton retract it. The book has been republished several times and is now considered a classic.  On October 13, 1971, the World Series held a night game for the first time. Kuhn, who thought that baseball could attract a larger audience by featuring a prime time telecast (as opposed to a mid-afternoon broadcast, when most fans either worked or attended school), pitched the idea to NBC. An estimated 61 million people watched Game 4 on NBC; TV ratings for a World Series game during the daytime hours would not have approached such a record number.  Through the rest of the 1970s and into the 1980s, weekday World Series games were played at night while most weekend games continued to be scheduled in the daytime. An exception came in 1976, when Game 2 was played on a Sunday night to avoid conflicts with NBC's NFL coverage; Kuhn responded to criticism of the scheduling by attending the game, held at Cincinnati's Riverfront Stadium, without an overcoat in spite of the chilly nighttime weather. Kuhn's primetime vision has been fulfilled, however, as all World Series games are now shown in prime time.  In 1980, during the Iranian hostage crisis, Kuhn sat at a baseball game with Jeremiah Denton, a Navy admiral and former POW in Vietnam who would be elected U.S. Senator later that year from the state of Alabama. Recalling the event to "The Washington Post", Kuhn believed that ""that afternoon...the idea of a lifetime baseball pass was discussed,"" and upon their return from Iran, each of the 52 hostages was given one of these unique passes.

Curt Flood.

On October 7, 1969, the St. Louis Cardinals traded Curt Flood, catcher Tim McCarver, outfielder Byron Browne, and left-handed pitcher Joe Hoerner to the Philadelphia Phillies for first baseman Dick Allen, second baseman Cookie Rojas, and right-handed ace relief pitcher Jerry Johnson.  However, Flood refused to report to the moribund Phillies, citing the team's poor record and the fact that they played in dilapidated Connie Mack Stadium and played in front of racist fans. Flood forfeited a relatively lucrative US$100,000 contract by his refusal to be traded to the Phillies.  In a letter to Kuhn, Flood demanded that the commissioner declare him a free agent.

Flood's letter to Kuhn.

"December 24, 1969"

"Flood v. Kuhn".

Kuhn denied his request, citing the propriety of the reserve clause, which was language in contracts that essentially prevented a player from playing with another team even after his contract expired. In response, Flood filed a lawsuit against Kuhn and Major League Baseball on January 16, 1970, alleging that Major League Baseball had violated federal antitrust laws. Flood likened the reserve clause to slavery. It was a controversial analogy, even among those who opposed the reserve clause.  The case, "Flood v. Kuhn" (407 U.S. 258) eventually went to the Supreme Court. Flood's attorney, former Supreme Court Justice Arthur Goldberg, asserted that the reserve clause depressed wages and limited players to one team for life. Major League Baseball's counsel countered that Commissioner Kuhn acted the rules, which were set up (and therefore his duty to uphold, in so many words) '"for the good of the game.""  Ultimately, the Supreme Court, acting on "stare decisis" "to stand by things decided", ruled 5–3 in favor of Major League Baseball, upholding a 1922 ruling in the case of "Federal Baseball Club v. National League", (259 U.S. 200).

Charles O. Finley.

Though he had a reputation as an owners' commissioner, Kuhn did not avoid confronting at least one owner whom he disliked. He was a major adversary of Oakland Athletics owner Charles O. Finley. A major embarrassment for baseball resulted from Finley's actions during the 1973 World Series. Finley forced player Mike Andrews to sign a false affidavit saying he was injured after the reserve infielder committed two consecutive errors in the 12th inning of Oakland's Game 2 loss to the New York Mets. Andrews's teammates as well as manager Dick Williams rallied to his defense. Kuhn in response forced Finley to reinstate Andrews. In 1976, when Finley attempted to sell several players to the Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees for $3.5 million, Kuhn blocked the deals on the grounds that they would be bad for the game. Kuhn's decision may simply have been a revenge tactic aimed at Finley after he attempted to force an owners' vote to remove Kuhn as commissioner in 1975.

Hank Aaron.

At the start of the 1974 season, Kuhn inadvertently got into the middle of a small controversy during Hank Aaron's pursuit of Babe Ruth's record of 714 career home runs. Aaron's Atlanta Braves opened the season on the road in Cincinnati with a three-game series against the Cincinnati Reds. Braves management wanted him to break the record at home in Atlanta. Therefore, they were going to have Aaron sit out the first three games of the season. But Kuhn ruled that Aaron had to play two out of three. The result was that Aaron tied Ruth's record in his very first at bat, but did not hit another home run in the series. Kuhn did not attend the game where Aaron broke the record, citing a previous engagement.

Ted Turner.

In 1977, Kuhn battled the brash new owner of the Atlanta Braves, Ted Turner. Turner admitted that he had made remarks at a cocktail party about acquiring San Francisco Giants star Gary Matthews, at a time when Kuhn had ordered owners not to speak about potential free agents. Kuhn concluded that Turner's statement was not in the "best interest of baseball" and fined Turner, suspended him from baseball for one year, and penalized his club with the loss of a draft choice. Turner sued but both the trial and appellate courts refused to grant Turner relief, emphasizing the limited-extent of judicial review over baseball and the commissioner's office.

Melissa Ludtke case.

In 1977, Melissa Ludtke, a reporter for "Sports Illustrated," sued Kuhn and the baseball commission for access to the locker room of the New York Yankees. She was denied access to the Yankees clubhouse during the 1977 World Series and asserted her 14th amendment right was violated. She won her suit. The court stated her fourteenth amendment right was violated since the Yankees clubhouse was controlled by New York City. The court also stated that her fundamental right to pursue a career was violated based on her sex.

Race.

When baseball writers came out in support of inducting Negro League players into the Hall of Fame, Kuhn supported recognizing the players in the Hall, but was unable to garner sufficient support from the Hall of Fame board of directors. As a compromise, Kuhn established a committee to select the greatest Negro Leaguers, to be honored with a display at the museum in Cooperstown. Satchel Paige was selected as the initial inductee for the Negro Leagues display.  The decision to honor the Negro Leaguers with a separate exhibit received significant criticism. Sportswriter Jim Murray of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "They segregated the Hall of Fame!... To have kept Satchel Paige from playing in the white leagues for 24 years and then bar him from the pearly gates on the grounds he didn't play the required 10 years [in the major leagues] is a shocking bit of insolent cynicism, a disservice to America. What is this – 1840? Either let him in the front of the hall – or move the damn thing to Mississippi." Larry Doby, the first black player in the American League, commented, "With another wing... whatever good they've done, they've torn it down."  Kuhn, in his autobiography, claimed that he "knew that the furor would be heard by the board of directors and that the public outcry would be hard to resist. That is exactly what happened." Within a few months, the Hall of Fame board of directors changed its mind and agreed to give Paige, and future honorees of the Negro Leagues selection committee, full membership in the Hall.  Bill James, in his book "The Politics of Glory: How Baseball's Hall of Fame Really Works", wrote that Kuhn seemed "very proud of how he handled the affair, doing an end run around the Hall of Fame board of directors by exposing the Hall – and himself – to public criticism. Perhaps this does reflect some personal courage, and he was able to see that the right thing was done. But the Hall of Fame was also damaged.... The message that got through to the public, loosely translated, was that the Hall of Fame was a racist institution.... Bowie Kuhn would have been a better friend to the Hall of Fame if he had led them to come to terms with their institutional racism in private, rather than leading them to expose it to the public."

Kuhn's war on drugs.

After being in office for over ten years, Kuhn had grown a strong reputation for being hard on players who abused drugs. Kuhn was quick to punish players who used drugs with heavy fines and suspensions. Kansas City Royals catcher Darrell Porter told the Associated Press that during the winter of 1979–1980 he became paranoid, convinced that Kuhn knew about his drug abuse, was trying to sneak into his house, and planned to ban him from baseball for life. Porter found himself sitting up at night in the dark watching out the front window, waiting for Kuhn to approach, clutching billiard balls and a shotgun. Ironically, when Porter was named the most valuable player of the 1982 World Series while playing for the Cardinals, Kuhn was on hand to congratulate him.  In 1983, four players from the Kansas City Royals – Willie Wilson, Jerry Martin, Willie Aikens, and Vida Blue – were found guilty of cocaine use. In addition, such established stars as Ferguson Jenkins, Keith Hernandez, Dave Parker, and other veteran players such as Dale Berra, admitted to having problems with drugs. In 1980, during a customs search in Toronto, Ferguson Jenkins was found possessing 3.0 grams cocaine, 2.2 grams hashish, and 1.75 grams marijuana. In response, on September 8, Kuhn suspended him indefinitely. However, Jenkins' suspension lasted only two weeks before, in an unprecedented action, an independent arbiter reinstated him and he returned to the league. Jenkins was not further punished by MLB for the incident, as he remained active until his retirement following the 1983 season.

Leaving office.

Kuhn was both praised and attacked for the firm stand that he levied against offenders. However, his hardline stand on PEDs and the 1981 strike caused most of the MLB owners to turn against him. In 1983, Kuhn and his supporters made a last-ditch effort to renew his contract but ultimately failed. Kuhn, though, was allowed to stay for the 1984 regular season before being replaced by Peter Ueberroth.

Life after baseball.

Following baseball, Kuhn returned to the law firm of Willkie Farr & Gallagher and assumed presidency of the Kent Group, a business, sports and financial consulting firm. Kuhn left Willkie, Farr & Gallagher in 1987 to join with Harvey D. Myerson, a former senior partner in the firm of Finley, Kumble, Wagner, Underberg, Manley, Myerson & Casey, to form the firm of Myerson & Kuhn. He also became an adviser and board member for Domino's Pizza and the Ave Maria Foundation.  Kuhn had been a longtime resident of Ridgewood, New Jersey. According to an AP wire story, he partnered in a law firm with Harvey Myerson which subsequently went bankrupt and then sold his New Jersey home and moved to Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, because his home and other assets were shielded from the bankruptcy.  Kuhn became the Chairman of the Catholic Advisory Board of the Ave Maria Mutual Funds upon the inception of their first mutual fund, Ave Maria Catholic Values Fund, in May 2001. Bowie was a member of the Catholic Organization for President's and CEO's, Legatus and was influential in chartering the chapter of Legatus in Jacksonville, FL. Legatus later memorialized him for his dedication and service to the organization by establishing the "Bowie Kuhn Award for Evangelization".  In July 2001, Kuhn appeared on an hour long episode of The Journey Home, in which he explained the role that his Catholic faith had played in his life and career.  During a telecast of the 2004 World Series, broadcaster Joe Buck announced that just prior to his 78th birthday, Kuhn was scheduled to undergo open-heart surgery. He died on March 15, 2007 at St. Luke's Hospital in Jacksonville, Florida after being hospitalized for several weeks with pneumonia.  Kuhn was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2008, after having been elected by the Veterans Committee nine months after his death.

Bowie Kent Kuhn (; October 28, 1926 – March 15, 2007) was an American lawyer and sports administrator who served as the fifth Commissioner of Major League Baseball from February 4, 1969 to September 30, 1984. He served as legal counsel for Major League Baseball owners for almost 20 years prior to his election as commissioner.

Bowie Kuhn, né le 28 octobre 1926 et décédé le 15 mars 2007, était un juriste américain qui fut commissaire des ligues majeures de baseball du 4 février 1969 au 30 septembre 1984. Avant sa désignation comme commissaire, il fut pendant vingt ans un conseiller des propriétaires de franchises MLB. Durant son mandat, la ligue passa de 23 millions de spectateurs en 1968 à 45,5 millions en 1983.


History.

In 1876, the Texas State Legislature established Wheeler County. In 1879, Mobeetie was named the county seat. Mobeetie was then known as "Sweetwater", but this name should not be confused with the Sweetwater, which is the seat of Nolan County west of Abilene. A stone courthouse was erected from locally quarried materials in 1880, but was replaced by a wooden structure in 1888. The town of Wheeler was designated as the county seat in 1908. The wooden courthouse was moved to the current site, but was replaced by the existing structure as a result of a 1925 bond election. The previous building was sold to a sheriff, Riley Price, who dismantled it and used it to build barns on his nearby ranch. The structure was designed by E. H. Eads of Shamrock and built by local contractors Hughes and Campbell. It features Palladian windows and Corinthian columns, characteristic of the Greek revival style of architecture.  In the 1880s, Temple Lea Houston, the youngest son of Sam Houston, was the district attorney of the 35th Judicial District of Texas, when then encompassed 26 counties in the Texas Panhandle. The district was based at the time in the courthouse at Mobeetie in Wheeler County. Houston was also a member of the Texas State Senate from 1885 to 1889 and later moved to Oklahoma, where he worked for statehood. An NBC television series, "Temple Houston", which aired from 1963 to 1964, is loosely based on his life, with Jeffrey Hunter in the starring role.  The Pioneer West Museum, the Wheeler County historical museum, is located in Shamrock off U.S. Highway 83.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which are land and (0.1%) is covered by water.

Major highways.

U.S. Highway 66 is no longer officially commissioned or signed, but has special brown historic signage at various points along its former routing.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 5,284 people, 2,152 households, and 1,487 families residing in the county. The population density was 6 people per square mile (2/km2). There were 2,687 housing units at an average density of 3 per square mile (1/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 87.83% White, 2.78% Black or African American, 0.78% Native American, 0.55% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 6.64% from other races, and 1.34% from two or more races. 12.57% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 2,152 households out of which 29.60% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.00% were married couples living together, 7.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.90% were non-families. 29.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 2.94.  In the county, the population was spread out with 24.90% under the age of 18, 6.50% from 18 to 24, 22.50% from 25 to 44, 25.20% from 45 to 64, and 20.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 92.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.40 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $31,029, and the median income for a family was $36,989. Males had a median income of $26,790 versus $19,091 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,083. About 11.60% of families and 13.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.30% of those under age 18 and 16.80% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

Republican Drew Springer, Jr., a businessman from Muenster in Cooke County, has since January 2013 represented Wheeler County in the Texas House of Representatives.  The representative from 1971 to 1979 was the Democrat Phil Cates, later a lobbyist in Austin.

Wheeler County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 5,410. Its county seat is Wheeler. The county was formed in 1876 and organized in 1879. It is named for Royall Tyler Wheeler, a chief justice of the Texas Supreme Court.

Le comté de Wheeler, en "", est un comté situé au nord de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Fondé le, son siège de comté est la ville de Wheeler. Selon le recensement de 2010, sa population est de, estimée, en 2017, à. Le comté a une superficie de, dont en surfaces terrestres. Il est nommé en l'honneur de Royall Tyler Wheeler, ancien magistrat auprès de la Cour suprême du Texas.


Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 84,088 people, 30,071 households, and 22,192 families residing in the county. The population density was 95 people per square mile (37/km2). There were 32,945 housing units at an average density of 37 per square mile (14/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 74.22% White, 6.30% Black or African American, 0.53% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 15.92% from other races, and 2.22% from two or more races. 39.20% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 16.2% were of German, 6.2% American and 5.6% English ancestry according to Census 2000. 73.3% spoke English and 25.5% Spanish as their first language.  There were 30,071 households out of which 37.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.70% were married couples living together, 12.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.20% were non-families. 22.40% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.23.  In the county, the population was spread out with 29.10% under the age of 18, 9.20% from 18 to 24, 28.10% from 25 to 44, 21.50% from 45 to 64, and 12.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.70 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $38,732, and the median income for a family was $44,443. Males had a median income of $35,484 versus $21,231 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,379. About 10.50% of families and 12.90% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.20% of those under age 18 and 11.70% of those age 65 or over.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.8%) is water.

Victoria County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, its population was 86,793. Its county seat is Victoria.

Le comté de Victoria, en "", est un comté situé au sud-est de l'État du Texas aux États-Unis. Fondé le, son siège de comté est la ville de Victoria. Selon le recensement des États-Unis de 2010, sa population est de. Le comté a une superficie de, dont en surfaces terrestres. Le comté est baptisé à la mémoire de Guadalupe Victoria, président du Mexique.


Biography.

McDougall was educated at Owens College, Manchester and St John's College, Cambridge. He also studied medicine and physiology in London and Göttingen. After teaching at University College London and Oxford, he was recruited to occupy the William James chair of psychology at Harvard University in 1920, where he served as a professor of psychology from 1920 to 1927. He then moved to Duke University, where he established the Parapsychology Laboratory under J. B. Rhine, and where he remained until his death. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. Among his students were Cyril Burt, May Smith, William Brown and John Flügel.  McDougall's interests and sympathies were broad. He was interested in eugenics, but departed from neo-Darwinian orthodoxy in maintaining the possibility of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, as suggested by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck; he carried out many experiments designed to demonstrate this process. Opposing behaviourism, he argued that behaviour was generally goal-oriented and purposive, an approach he called hormic psychology (from Greek ὁρμή "hormḗ" "impulse").  However, in the theory of motivation, he defended the idea that individuals are motivated by a significant number of inherited instincts, whose action they may not consciously understand, so they might not always understand their own goals. His ideas on instinct strongly influenced Konrad Lorenz, though Lorenz did not always acknowledge this. McDougall underwent psychoanalysis with C. G. Jung, and was also prepared to study parapsychology.  Because of his interest in eugenics and his unorthodox stance on evolution, McDougall has been adopted as an iconic figure by proponents of a strong influence of inherited traits on behaviour, some of whom are regarded by most mainstream psychologists as scientific racists. He wrote: "...; the few distinguished Negroes, so called, of America – such as Douglass, Booker Washington, Du Bois – have been, I believe, in all cases mulattoes or had some proportion of white blood. We may fairly ascribe the incapacity of the Negro race to form a nation to the lack of men endowed with the qualities of great leaders, even more than to the lower level of average capacity" (McDougall, William., The Group Mind, p.187, Arno Press, 1973; Copyright, 1920 by G.P. Putnam's Sons). McDougall married at the age of 29 ("against my considered principles", he reports in his autobiographical essay, "for I held that a man whose chosen business in life was to develop to the utmost his intellectual powers should not marry before forty, if at all"). He had five children.  McDougall's book "The Group Mind" received "very hostile reviews" from psychologists but sold well to the public. The American Press was critical of McDougall as his lectures on national eugenics were seen as racist.

Psychical research.

McDougall was a strong advocate of the scientific method and academic professionalisation in psychical research. He was instrumental in establishing parapsychology as a university discipline in the US in the early 1930s. In 1920, McDougall served as president of the Society for Psychical Research, and in the subsequent year of its US counterpart, the American Society for Psychical Research.  McDougall was a member of the "Scientific American" committee that investigated the medium Mina Crandon. He attended séances with the medium and was sceptical about her "ectoplasmic hand". He suspected that it was part of an animal, artificially manipulated to resemble a hand. McDougall's suspicion was confirmed by independent experts who had examined photographs of the hand.  McDougall was critical of spiritualism, he believed that some of its proponents such as Arthur Conan Doyle misunderstood psychical research and "devote themselves to propaganda". In 1926, McDougall concluded "I have taken part in a considerable number of investigations of alleged supernormal phenomena; but hitherto have failed to find convincing evidence in any case, but have found rather much evidence of fraud and trickery."  McDougall, however, continued to encourage scientific research on psychic phenomena and in 1937 was a founding co-editor (with Joseph Banks Rhine) of the peer-reviewed "Journal of Parapsychology", which continues to be published.

Animism.

In 1911, McDougall authored "Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism". In the work he rejected both materialism and Darwinism and supported a form of Lamarckism where mind guides evolution. McDougall defended a form of animism where all matter has a mental aspect; his views were very similar to panpsychism as he believed that there was an animating principle in matter and had claimed in his work that there were both psychological and biological evidence for this position. McDougall had defended the theory that mind and the brain are distinct but interact with each other though he was not a dualist or a monist as he believed his theory of animism would replace both the philosophical views of dualism and monism. As a parapsychologist he also claimed telepathy had been scientifically proven, he used evidence from psychic research as well as from biology and psychology to defend his theory of animism.  McDougall produced another work attacking materialism titled "Materialism and Emergent Evolution" (1929). In the book he had also criticised the theory of emergent evolution as he claimed it had ignored the evidence of Lamarckism and had ignored the evidence of mind guiding evolution. McDougall's last work on the subject titled "The Riddle of Life" (1938) criticised organicism as according to McDougall even though the theory of organicism had rejected materialism it had not gone far enough in advocating an active role for a nonphysical principle.

Selected bibliography.

By William McDougall:  By Margaret Boden:

William McDougall FRS (; 22 June 1871 – 28 November 1938) was an early 20th century psychologist who spent the first part of his career in the United Kingdom and the latter part in the United States. He wrote a number of highly influential textbooks, and was particularly important in the development of the theory of instinct and of social psychology in the English-speaking world. He was an opponent of behaviourism and stands somewhat outside the mainstream of the development of Anglo-American psychological thought in the first half of the 20th century; but his work was very well-known and respected among lay people.

William McDougall, né le à Chadderton au Royaume-Uni et mort le à Durham aux États-Unis, est un psychologue et professeur d'université, auteur de plusieurs livres importants dans ce domaine. Il a développé une théorie de l'instinct et de la psychologie sociale.


Early life and education.

Betsy Ross was born on January 1, 1752, to Samuel Griscom (1717–1793) and Rebecca James Griscom (1721–1793) on the Griscom family farm in New Jersey. Ross was the eighth of seventeen children, of whom only nine survived childhood. A sister, Sarah (1745–1747), and brother, William (1748–1749), died before Elizabeth ("Betsy") was born (another sister, Sarah Griscom Donaldson (1749–1785), was named after the earlier deceased Sarah). Ross was just five years old when her sister Martha (1754–1757) died, and another sister, Ann (1757–1759), only lived to the age of two. Brothers Samuel I (1753–1756) and Samuel II (1758–1761) both died at age three. Two others, twins, brother Joseph (1759–1762) and sister Abigail (1759–1762), died in one of the frequent smallpox epidemics in the autumn of 1762. Ross grew up in a household where the plain dress and strict discipline of the Quakers dominated. She learned to sew from a great aunt, Sarah Elizabeth Ann Griscom. Ross' great-grandfather, Andrew Griscom, a member of the Quakers and a carpenter, had emigrated in 1680 from England.  After her schooling at a Quaker-run state school, Ross' father apprenticed her to an upholsterer named William Webster.

Ross Family Tradition.

Research conducted by the National Museum of American History of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. notes that the story of Betsy Ross making the first American flag for General George Washington entered into American consciousness about the time of the 1876 centennial celebrations, with the Centennial Exposition then scheduled to be held in Philadelphia. In 1870, Ross's grandson, William J. Canby, presented a research paper to the Historical Society of Pennsylvania in which he claimed that his grandmother had "made with her hands the first flag" of the United States. Canby said he first obtained this information from his aunt Clarissa Sydney (Claypoole) Wilson in 1857, 20 years after Ross' death. Canby dates the historic episode based on Washington's journey to Philadelphia, in the late spring of 1776, a year before the Second Continental Congress passed the first Flag Act of June 14, 1777.  In the 2008 book "The Star-Spangled Banner: the Making of an American Icon", Smithsonian Institution experts point out that Canby's recounting of the event appealed to patriotic Americans then eager for stories about the Revolution and its heroes and heroines. Betsy Ross was promoted as a patriotic role model for young girls and a symbol of women's contributions to American history. American historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich further explored this line of enquiry in a 2007 article, "How Betsy Ross Became Famous: Oral Tradition, Nationalism, and the Invention of History".  Ross was merely one of several flag makers in Philadelphia (such as Rebecca Young, who is historically documented to have made the earlier Grand Union Flag of 1775–76, with the British Union Jack of the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew, in the upper corner canton and 13 alternating red and white stripes for the "United Colonies") for the Continental Army, along with many other ships' colors, banners, and flags which were advertised in local newspapers.  Rebecca Young's daughter Mary Young Pickersgill (1776–1857) made the flag of 15 stars and stripes in 1813, begun at her house and finished on the floor of a nearby brewery, delivered to the commander of the fort the year before the British attack of September 12–14, 1814, on Fort McHenry in Baltimore, during the War of 1812, (receiving a government-issued receipt for the work of two flags, a large "garrison flag" and a smaller "storm flag"), then seen by Francis Scott Key (1779–1843) and which inspired him to write the poem which later became the national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". Pickersgill's small 1793 rowhouse is still preserved in East Baltimore's Old Town neighborhood at East Pratt and Albemarle Streets and is known as the "Flag House & Star-Spangled Banner Museum". Occasionally over the decades, there has been some controversy and disagreement between the relative merits and historical accuracies of the two flag-making traditions and historical sites in Philadelphia and Baltimore. It is thought that Ross' only contribution to the flag design was to change the 6-pointed stars to the easier 5-pointed stars. Scholars, however, accept the claim by Francis Hopkinson—a member of the Continental Congress who designed most of the elements of the Great Seal of the United States—that he created designs for the early American flag. Hopkinson submitted letters to Congress in 1780 requesting payment for his designs. Hopkinson was the only person to make such a claim in the Revolutionary War era.

Personal life.

Griscom met John Ross (nephew of George Ross Jr, signer of the United States Declaration of Independence), who was the son of the Rev. Aeneas Ross (and his wife Sarah Leach), a Church of England (later Episcopal) priest and assistant rector at the historic city parish of Christ Church while being apprenticed to upholsterer William Webster. The couple eloped in 1773, marrying at Hugg's Tavern in Gloucester City, New Jersey.  The marriage caused a split from her Griscom family and meant her expulsion from the Quaker congregation. The young couple soon started their own upholstery business and later joined Christ Church, where their fellow congregants occasionally included visiting colony of Virginia militia regimental commander, colonel, and soon-to-be-general George Washington (of the newly-organized Continental Army) and his family from their home Anglican parish of Christ Church in Alexandria, Virginia, near his Mount Vernon estate on the Potomac River, along with many other visiting notaries and delegates in future years to the soon-to-be-convened Continental Congress and the political/military leadership of the colonial rebellion. Betsy and John Ross had no children.  The American Revolutionary War broke out when the Rosses had been married for two years. As a member of the local Pennsylvania Provincial Militia and its units from the city of Philadelphia, John Ross was assigned to guard munitions. He died in 1775. According to one legend, he was killed by a gunpowder explosion, but family sources provide doubts about this claim. The 24-year-old Elizabeth ("Betsy") continued working in the upholstery business repairing uniforms and making tents, blankets, and stuffed paper tube cartridges with musket balls for prepared packaged ammunition in 1779 for the Continental Army.  There is speculation that Ross was the "beautiful young widow" who distracted Carl von Donop in Mount Holly, New Jersey, after the Battle of Iron Works Hill, thus keeping his forces out of the crucial "turning-of-the-tide" Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26, 1776, in which Hessian soldiers were defeated after the crossing of the Delaware River.  On June 15, 1777, she married her second husband, mariner Joseph Ashburn. In 1780, Ashburn's ship was captured by a Royal Navy frigate and he was charged with treason (for being of British ancestry—naturalization to American colonial citizenship was not recognized) and imprisoned at Old Mill Prison in England. During this time, their first daughter, Zilla, died at the age of nine months and their second daughter, Eliza, was born. Ashburn died in the British jail.  Three years later, in May 1783, she married John Claypoole, who had earlier met Joseph Ashburn in the English Old Mill Prison; Claypoole had informed Ross of her husband's circumstances and death.  The couple had additionally five daughters: Clarissa, Susanna, Jane, Rachel, and Harriet (who died in infancy). With the birth of their second daughter Susanna in 1786, they moved to a larger house on Philadelphia's Second Street, settling down to a peaceful post-war existence, as Philadelphia prospered as the temporary national capital (1790–1800) of the newly independent United States of America, with the first president, George Washington, his vice president, John Adams, and the convening members of the new federal government and the U.S. Congress.  In 1793, her mother, father, and sister Deborah Griscom Bolton (1743–1793) all died in another severe yellow fever epidemic (a disease unknowingly caused by infected mosquitoes). After two decades of poor health, John Claypoole died in 1817. Ross continued the upholstery business for 10 more years. Upon retirement, she moved in with her second Claypoole daughter, Susanna (1786–1875), in a section of Abington Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. Her eldest Claypoole daughter, Clarissa (1785–1864), had taken over Ross' business back in the city.

Death and burials.

Ross, by then completely blind, spent her last three years living with her middle Claypoole daughter, Jane (1792–1873), in rapidly growing and industrializing Philadelphia. On Saturday, January 30, 1836, 60 years after the Declaration of Independence, Betsy Ross died at the age of 84. She was survived by five daughters with John Claypoole: Eliza, Clarissa, Susanna, Jane, and Rachel, and one sister, Hannah Griscom Levering (1755–1836), who herself died about 11 months later.  Although it is one of the most visited tourist sites in the city of Philadelphia, the claim that Ross once lived at the so-called "Betsy Ross House" is still a matter of historical academic dispute.  Betsy Ross's body was first interred at the Free Quaker burial grounds on North Fifth Street in Philadelphia.  Twenty years later, her remains were moved to the Mt. Moriah Cemetery in Philadelphia.  In 1975, in preparation for the American Bicentennial, city leaders ordered the remains moved to the courtyard of the Betsy Ross House. However, cemetery workers found no remains beneath her tombstone. Bones found elsewhere in the family plot were deemed to be hers and were reinterred in the current grave visited by tourists at the Betsy Ross House.

Legacy.

The Betsy Ross Bridge, connecting Philadelphia with Pennsauken Township, New Jersey, across the Delaware River is named in her honor.  Biographer Marla Miller argues that Ross' legacy should not be about a single flag, but rather because of what her story tells us about working women and men during the American Revolution.

Betsy Ross postage stamp.

On January 1, 1952, the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative postage stamp to honor the 200th anniversary of her birth. It shows her presenting the new 13-striped, 13-starred flag to George Washington, with Robert Morris, and George Ross present. The design was taken from a painting by Charles H. Weisberger, one of the founders and first custodian of the Memorial Association, who has cared for and operated the Ross House. This was issued when the Ross legend was still strong and accepted by many of the American public and before additional historical and academic scrutiny.

Elizabeth Griscom Ross (January 1, 1752 – January 30, 1836), née Griscom, also known by her second and third married names, Ashburn and Claypoole, was an American upholsterer who was credited by her relatives in 1870 with making the first American flag, accordingly known as the Betsy Ross flag. Though most historians dismiss the story, Ross family tradition holds that General George Washington, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and two members of a congressional committee—Robert Morris and George Ross—visited Mrs. Ross in 1776. Mrs. Ross convinced George Washington to change the shape of the stars in a sketch of a flag he showed her from six-pointed to five-pointed by demonstrating that it was easier and speedier to cut the latter. However, there is no archival evidence or other recorded verbal tradition to substantiate this story of the first American flag. It appears that the story first surfaced in the writings of her grandson in the 1870s (a century after the fact), with no mention or documentation in earlier decades.

Betsy Ross ( - ) est une Américaine qui aurait confectionné le premier drapeau américain pendant la révolution américaine, à la demande de George Washington. Il n'existe néanmoins aucune preuve historique de cette histoire et plusieurs autres personnes ont également revendiqué ce mérite.


Route.

The Paris–Lille railway begins at the Gare du Nord in Paris, running north for 6 km until Saint-Denis. From here, it climbs in northeastern direction at a constant 5 mm/km incline. Near Marly-la-Ville, it turns north and then northwest, and descends towards the river Oise. At Creil, the Oise is crossed. The line to Saint-Quentin and Brussels branches off at Creil.  The line leaves the Oise valley and continues north to the river Somme at Longueau near Amiens. Here the Longueau–Boulogne railway to the Gare d'Amiens and Boulogne-sur-Mer branches off to the west, and a line to Laon to the east. The line to Lille continues in northeastern direction, following the valley of the Somme until Corbie, and then the river Ancre until Miraumont, where the line turns north until it reaches Arras.  From Arras it follows the river Scarpe in eastern direction until Douai, where it turns northwest. After Ostricourt it turns north again, entering the agglomeration of Lille. After a total length of 251 km, it reaches its terminus Gare de Lille-Flandres.

Main stations.

The main stations on the Paris–Lille railway are:

History.

The idea of linking France to Belgium and Great Britain was studied by the French Government as early as 1833. By November 1842, the northern French cities Lille and Valenciennes were already connected to the Belgian railway network. In July 1844 a law was passed that determined the route of the new railway from Paris to Lille. Exploitation of the line from Paris to Lille and several branch lines was granted to the Compagnie des chemins de fer du Nord. Owners of the CF du Nord were Hottinger, Laffitte, Blount and Baron de Rothschild as president. The railway line as well as the Parisian station was inaugurated in June 1846.  The line originally passed through the Oise valley, along Saint-Ouen-l'Aumône and Persan. This way a steep climb and descent between Saint-Denis and Creil could be avoided. The arrival of stronger engines prompted the CF du Nord to construct a 19 km shorter line between Saint-Denis and Creil over the plateau, passing along Chantilly. This new section was opened on 10 May 1859.  Since the opening of the LGV Nord high speed line between Paris and Lille in 1993, most long-distance passenger traffic has shifted away from the classical Paris–Lille line. It remains an important railway for freight traffic and regional passenger traffic.

Services.

The Paris–Lille railway is used by the following passenger services:

The railway from Paris to Lille is an important French 251-kilometre long railway line, that connects Paris to the northern French city Lille. Branch lines offer connections to Belgium and Great Britain. As one of the first railway lines in France, it was opened on 20 June 1846. The opening of the LGV Nord high speed line from Paris to Lille in 1993 has decreased its importance for passenger traffic.

La ligne de Paris-Nord à Lille est l'une des grandes artères radiales du réseau ferré français. D'une longueur de, elle relie Paris à Lille, à travers les régions Île-de-France et Hauts-de-France. Tracée le plus souvent en fond de vallée ou en plaine dans le relief peu accentué du Nord de la France, cette grande radiale possède un profil plutôt favorable et un équipement de bon niveau, autorisant des vitesses assez élevées.


Responsabilité des parents du fait de leur enfant en droit français

In Canada law.

Parental responsibility legislation has been enacted in three Canadian provinces: Manitoba (1997), Ontario (2000), and British-Columbia (2001).  Under the Parental Responsibility Act, 2000, a "child" is anyone under the age of 18 years, and "parent" means: The Small Claims Court may order such parents to compensate those suffering any loss or damage intentionally caused by their child, unless the parent was exercising reasonable supervision over the child at the time the child engaged in the activity that caused the loss or damage and made reasonable efforts to prevent or discourage the child from engaging in the kind of activity that resulted in the loss or damage.

In U.S. law.

There is a political movement for greater parental accountability following of a number of highly publicized violent crimes committed by children. While all U.S. states allow parents to be sued for the various actions of their children, the idea of criminal legislation to enable the prosecution of adults for “neglectful” parenting is relatively new. For example, a number of states have enacted or proposed laws that will: Such legislation is constitutionally problematic in that it is often both broad and vague, and may very well infringe upon the privacy of the family. The sponsors of these laws argue that "parental delinquency" is usually the cause of the "juvenile delinquency", but opponents argue that there is little evidence to support the claim that youth crime is caused by “bad parenting” and that there are many other social, cultural and economic causes that should be addressed. Opponents argue that the increased work hours and multiple jobs that a growing number of parents must take to provide for their families' basic needs decreases their ability to supervise their child(ren), thus creating an injustice with regard to the parents' culpability in the child's action. In 1988, California enacted the Street Terrorism and Prevention Act, which provides for prison sentences of up to one year and fines up to $2,500 for parents who “grossly” or “culpably” deviate from the “normal” standards of supervision. The California Supreme Court later upheld the constitutionality of this Act.

In Canada and the United States, the term "parental responsibility" refers to the potential or actual liability that may be incurred by parents for the behavior of their children.

La responsabilité des parents du fait de leur enfant est un type de responsabilité du fait d'autrui. Il s'agit de la situation dans laquelle un enfant cause un dommage et engage dès lors la responsabilité délictuelle de ses parents.


History.

Formation (1982).

Streets was a local band formed in the beginning 1982, when the two rival bands Prizoner and Pin-Up came together in the same room. Influenced by Thin Lizzy, they started writing symphonic rocksongs and played mainly in Purmerend and around.  The first gig was at the Hutspop festival on March 3, 1982. The band at this stage was Marcel Kapteijn on vocals and guitar, Niels Hermes on keyboards, Martin Boers on leadguitar, Ton Groen on bass and Joop van de Berg played the drums. In the summer of 1982, Joop van de Berg was replaced by Wil Bouwes from Neon Graffiti. This would be the line-up until the break-up in 1987.

Streets (1982-1984).

In October 1982, the group was invited to record three songs at Vara's Popkrant, which resulted in national airplay. In April 1983, they played live at KRO Rocktempel which brought them to several record companies, but no one seemed to be interested. Around the summer of 1983, Niels Hermes' good old Fender Rhodes and ARP monophonic synthesizer were stolen. This resulted in buying the polyphonic Roland JX-3P and Yamaha DX7 synthesizers which caused a big change in sound.  Driven by this new impulse, they locked themselves in Fort Spijkerboor to write new songs to impress the record companies. When they got out in February 1984 with a brand-new demo, finally there was interest at CBS Records. In September 1984, they recorded three songs in Studio Spitsbergen with Michiel Hoogenboezem including a demo-version of "When The Snow Falls". The plans were there to release the first single, until the record company found out there was already another band in the USA called Streets. The band had to change its name in October 1984. Ten Sharp was chosen because of the sound of the name.

First singles as Ten Sharp (1985-1987).

"When The Snow Falls" was the first single, released in January 1985. The song ended up in the Tip-parade and Vara's Verrukkelijke 15. It gave the band a lot of attention on radio and television. The second single "Japanese Lovesong" ended up in the charts (number 30) in July 1985, while having a busy schedule with live-performances through the club-circuit in the Netherlands. The next single "Last Words" failed to hit the charts and ended up in the Tip-parade in January 1986. The band shot their first video for the song.  After a year of recording demo's and touring through the Netherlands, they recorded their fourth single "Way Of The West" in February 1987, a guitar-heavy rocksong which failed immediately. CBS Records was not happy with the song and dropped the band. On October 17, 1987, they played their last show in Hazerswoude as a 5-piece band.

Career as songwriters (1987-1989).

Niels Hermes and Ton Groen did continue writing songs for other artists. In 1989, they contributed two songs for the National Songcontest, without success, and Niels played in the band of Conny Vandenbos.  After two years of songwriting, they asked Marcel Kapteijn to sing on the demos that already included "You" and "Ain't My Beating Heart". When Sony Music heard the demos they were very interested in the songs sung by Marcel, who was still fed up with the music business. Ten Sharp would be Marcel Kapteijn on vocals, Niels Hermes on keys and songwriting, and Ton Groen who provided the lyrics.

Under The Water-Line and the commercial success from "You" (1991-1992).

It was the end of 1990, when they recorded 6 songs for "Under The Water-Line" at Studio Spitsbergen with producer Michiel Hoogenboezem. The name "Under The Water-Line" was chosen because of the way they liked to work: in the background.  The album was released on April 13, 1991, together with the single "You". The song became a national hit rapidly, and so did the album. By the time the single "Ain't My Beating Heart" was released, the 7-track album was expanded to a 10-track full album. Also for release in other countries. After the singles "When The Spirit Slips Away" and the re-release of "When The Snow Falls" they released the song "Rich Man" in March 1992, which resulted in their third hit from the album. At this time, "You" was just released across Europe, enjoying a lot of success. The band toured through Europe to promote the single on TV and radio stations. Because of the line-up, live performances were done only with piano and vocals, sometimes joined by Tom Barlage on saxophone. This continued until the fall of 1992.

The Fire Inside (1993-1994).

The second album was recorded in the fall of 1992, in the Wisseloord Studios, Hilversum with Michiel Hoogenboezem producing together with Niels Hermes. The record became more intense and intimate than its predecessor.  The album was released in May 1993, together with the single "Dreamhome (Dream On)" which entered the Dutch charts. The second single "Lines On Your Face" did not. In March 1994, "Rumours In The City" was released. The song was inspired by a promotional trip to Argentina in 1992. The video got support from Amnesty International with footage out of the archives of Amnesty. The single did enter the charts.

Shop of Memories And Roots Live (1995-1996).

In their third album, from February 1995, Ten Sharp returned as a full band, with the musicians Bennie Top (drums), Ton Groen (bass), Nick Bult (keyboard), Hubert Heeringa (saxophone, violin and horn) and Yelle Sieswerda (guitar). The album was followed by the Marlboro Flashback Tour in 1996, in which the band played songs from groups such as The Eagles, Steely Dan, Crowded House, Hall & Oates, E.L.O., Steve Miller, The Rolling Stones and The Beatles.  During that tour, the album "Roots Live" was recorded. This live cover album was released on November 2, 1996.

Everything And More - The Best Of (2000).

On May 13, 2000, the band released a compilation album with 5 new songs. The singles "Beautiful" and "Everything" were released for this album.  The hit single 'Beautiful' was number one on the Argentinean charts.

Stay (2003).

On March 1, 2003, the album 'Stay' was released, with 12 new songs, in which Tom Bakker was responsible for a major part of the compositions. This time, the production was given to Peter van Asten.  Guitarist Rob Winter, bassist Giovanni Caminita, drummer Ton Dijkman, and Tom Bakker itself formed the backbone of the album 'Stay'. They, in turn, were accompanied by a string orchestra, the hammond of Nico Brandsen, the percussion of Antoon Toolsma and the brass work of the Jay Horns.

You (2009).

In March 2009, a remake of their hit single "You" was released.

Maybe (2016-2017).

On November 9, 2016, Ten Sharp met rapper Cho and Ali B in the Dutch TV show ‘Ali B op volle toeren’ and they exchanged their musical approach to their hits: Cho and Ali B performed their version of Ten Sharp’s hit song "You" and Ten Sharp put Cho’s "Misschien Wel Hè" in their own musical words. As a result of this exchange, Ten Sharp made a studio version of the song they performed called "Maybe", and this was released on Itunes, Spotify and Youtube on the same day as the encounter.  On January 9, 2017, a musical video for this single was released on Youtube.  As of 2017, no full length albums were released, although they are still active as a band and perform live occasionally.

Ten Sharp is a Dutch band, sometimes labeled as a one-hit wonder group, because they are best known for their early 1990s hit song "You", a hit in some European countries in 1991 and in others (such as the United Kingdom, where it peaked at number 10) in 1992. The two band members are Marcel Kapteijn (vocals) and Niels Hermes (keyboards).

TEN SHARP est un groupe néerlandais de new wave et de sophisti-pop créé en 1984 à Purmerend, petite ville des Pays Bas,