Description.

This fur seal is a midsized pinniped with a relatively long neck and pointed muzzle compared with others in the family. The nose does not extend much past the mouth, the external ears are long, prominent, and naked at the tip. Adults have very long vibrissae, particularly males, up to 35 to 50 cm. The fore flippers are about one-third, and hind flippers slightly more than one-fourth, of the total length. These seals find the antarctic warm so they take plunges in cold water to stay cold.  Adult males are dark brown in colour. Females and juveniles tend to be paler, almost grey with lighter undersides. Colour patterns are highly variable, and scientists reported that some hybridization between Subantarctic and Antarctic fur seals has occurred. Pups are dark brown at birth, almost black in color. About one in 1000 Antarctic fur seals are pale 'blonde' variants - not albino - and they stay so as adults.  Males are substantially larger than females. Males grow up to 2 m (6.5 ft) long and with a mean weigh of 133 kg (293 lb). Females reach 1.4 m (4.6 ft) with a mean weight of 34 kg (74.9 lb). At birth, mean standard length is 67.4cm (58–66) and mass is 5.9kg (4.9–6.6) in males and 5.4kg (4.8–5.9) in females.  Antarctic fur seals live up to 20 years with a maximum observed for female of 24.

Geographic Range and Distribution.

Antarctic fur seals are believed to be the most abundant species of fur seal. The largest congregation occurs on South Georgia, which holds approximately 95% of the global population. The current best estimate for South Georgia is 4.5-6.2 million animals and 46,834 at Bouvetøya. However, there are regional differences in population trends: some colonies are increasing in size (e.g. Kerguelen Islands, McDonald Islands), some are stables (e.g. Macquarie Island, Heard islands), some showing decrease (e.g. Bouvetøya).  Antarctic fur seals have a circumpolar distribution and breed from 61° S to the Antarctic Convergence. Breeding colonies are found at South Georgia, South Sandwich Islands, South Orkney Islands, South Shetland Islands and Bouvetøya in the Southern Atlantic Ocean; Marion Island, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen and Heard Island in the Southern Indian Ocean; and Macquarie Island in the Southern Pacific Ocean. During winter, Antarctic fur seals range widely from the Antarctic continent to the Falkland Islands, and southern Argentina and Chile, reaching as far as the Mar del Plata and Gough Island.

Behavior.

Antarctic fur seals are one of the better-studied Southern Ocean predators. However, the vast majority of information has been collected during summer breeding months. The breeding system of the Antarctic Fur Seal is polygynous, and dominant breeding males mate with as many as 20 females during a successful season. Males establish breeding grounds in October to early November. Females generally reach the colonies in December and give birth to a single pup several days later. Gestation lasts between 8 and 9 months and it has been observed a high breeding synchrony across the species’ range, concentrating 90% of pup births in a 10-day window. Pups are weaned at about four months old. Juveniles may then spend several years at sea before returning to begin their breeding cycles.  The ecology of Antarctic fur seals during the non-breeding winter is poorly understood. Adult and subadult males may form groups while moulting along the Antarctic Peninsula in late summer and early autumn. Adult females are gregarious but relatively asocial other than the strong bond they establish with their pups, although there are occasional aggressive encounters with nearby females or other pups and brief interactions with adult males to mate. These seals appear to be solitary when foraging and migrating.  The usual food source for individuals in the Atlantic Region is Antarctic krill ("Euphausia superba"); while in the Indian Ocean the diet is mostly based on fish and squid. The fish prey are principally myctophids, icefish, and Notothenids, although skates and rays are also consumed. Penguins are occasionally taken by Antarctic fur seal males. Seasonal differences in diet have been recorded across colonies, seasons and years. Studies have showed that female Antarctic fur seals can undertake wide-ranging foraging migrations during winter. Interannual differences appear to be related to differences in local oceanographic conditions.

Taxonomy.

Antarctic fur seals are member of the genus "Arctocephalus". Recently, a proposal was made to reassign this species to the resurrected genus "Arctophoca".  Antarctic fur seals can be confused with southern otariids that share their range, like Subantarctic ("A. tropicalis"), New Zealand ("A. forsteri"), and South American fur seals ("A. australis"), and the Juan Fernandez fur seal ("A. phillippii"), as well as the South American ("Otaria flavescens") and New Zealand sea lions ("Phocarctos hookeri"), are the most likely species to consider. Genetic studies on population structure have suggests that there are two genetically distinct regions: a western region including the islands of the Scotia Arc, Bouvetøya, and Marion Islands, and an eastern region, including Kerguelen and Macquarie Islands. Seals from Crozet Islands and Heard Island are mixtures from both regions.

Population status.

South Georgia islands, which hold approximately 95% of the global population, had a total population in 1999/2000 between 4.5 and 6.2 million. The South Georgia population reached carrying capacity fairly recently and may thus be spilling over into relatively nearby, lower density sites. However, the abundance of adult females is estimated to have declined by some 30% between 2003 and 2012, and by 24% since 1984 to around 550,000. The population trend according the IUCN Red list is ‘decreasing’ and it has been suggested that this decline is due to the effects of global climate change on prey availability.

Threats.

Historically the species were decimated by the sealing industry for its fur and its population was driven close to extinction by the 19th century. Since sealing operations ceased in the early 20th century, the species has recovered at different rates across its former geographic range.  Waters inhabited by Antarctic Fur Seals are exploited by few fisheries, but these may expand in their range in the future. A 1997 study at South Georgia indicated that several thousand Antarctic fur seals were entangled in man-made debris such as discarded fishing line, nets, packing bands and anything that can form a collar. Consequently, CCAMLR campaigned for compliance with MARPOL provisions relating to waste disposal at sea, and for cutting of any material jettisoned which could form collars to entangle seals. Subsequent monitoring of entangled fur seals confirmed that entanglement is still a persistent problem, but it has halved in recent years. Trawling activities developing around Macquarie Island may affect the prey base of the primarily fish-eating Antarctic fur seals that breed on those islands. Recent work indicates that there is significant overlap between foraging areas and fisheries activities, suggesting a potential for competition for prey resources may exist.  Leopard Seals have been noted to take as many as a third of the Antarctic Fur Seal pups born at sites in the South Shetland Islands. Levels of predation may be high enough to cause a population decline at these sites. New Zealand Sea Lions have been reported to kill up to half of the Antarctic Fur Seal pup production in a season at Macquarie Island.  As well as the effects of hunting and fishing, the numbers of humans visiting the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic each year for tourism and scientific expeditions has risen. This increase in visits has led to greater interaction between the local fauna and humans. With this greater interaction comes the risk of impacting the territoriality of seals especially during the mating season. This can also increase the possibility of ‘exotic’ injuries to humans. In 2015 a man was rescued from a South Georgia Island by British Forces after receiving a serious bite from a fur seal. Due to the remote location of where these injuries occur this can lead to complications in getting people to a physician with the relevant experience in treating exotic animal bites. This issue is compounded by the complexity of fur seal behavior and how serious a bite can be and the risk of transfer of diseases. The implication for Antarctic Fur Seals but this species is considered to be one of several pinnipeds at high risk of future disease outbreaks because of their tendency to congregate in large dense aggregations and the effect of environmental changes associated with global warming on the spread of diseases.  Finally, the 19th century population bottleneck led to reduced genetic diversity, leaving it again more vulnerable to disease and stresses of climate change. In particular, the Antarctic fur seal's primary prey base, krill, could be reduced as a result of ocean acidification, or the distribution could be altered by climate change.

Conservation status.

IUCN Conservation status: Least Concern. The species is protected by the governments in whose waters it resides (Australia, South Africa, France) and by the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals in waters south of 60° S. The animal is also listed in Appendix 2 of CITES.

External links.

To learn more about Antarctic Fur seal visit:

The Antarctic fur seal ("Arctocephalus gazella"), is one of eight seals in the genus "Arctocephalus", and one of nine fur seals in the subfamily "Arctocephalinae". Despite what its name suggests, the Antarctic fur seal is mostly distributed in Subantarctic islands and its scientific name is thought to have come from the German vessel SMS Gazelle, which was the first to collect specimens of this species from Kerguelen Islands.

L'Otarie à fourrure antarctique, ou Otarie de Kerguelen ("Arctocephalus gazella") est un mammifère marin. Ses colonies de reproduction sont situées sur les îles sub-antarctiques situées à proximité de la convergence antarctique. Environ 95 % de la population mondiale se reproduit sur l'île de Géorgie du Sud. Cette otarie doit son nom latin au navire allemand SMS "Gazelle" qui a ramené le premier spécimen connu de cette espèce des Îles Kerguelen, découverte au cours de l'expédition scientifique autour du monde effectuée par ce navire.


Characteristics.

The African palm civet is grey to dark brown with dark spots on the back. It has short legs, small ears, a lean body, and a long ringed tail. It has two sets of scent glands on the lower abdomen and between the third and fourth toes on each foot, which secrete a strong smelling substance used to mark territory and in mating. Adult females reach a body length of with a long tail and weigh. Adult males reach in body length with a long tail and weigh.  The African palm civet's ear canal is not divided and cartilaginous at the end.

Distribution and habitat.

The African palm civet ranges throughout much of sub-Saharan Africa from Guinea to South Sudan, south to Angola and into eastern Zimbabwe. It has been recorded in deciduous forests, lowland rainforests, gallery and riverine forests, savanna woodlands, and logged forests up to an altitude of.  In Senegal, it was observed in 2000 in Niokolo-Koba National Park, which encompasses mainly open habitat dominated by grasses. In Guinea's National Park of Upper Niger, it was recorded during surveys conducted in 1996 to 1997. In Liberian Upper Guinean forests, it was sighted in Gbarpolu County and Bong County during surveys in 2013. In the 1950s, one individual was wild-caught on Bioko Island. However, it was not recorded on the island during subsequent surveys between 1986 and 2015.  In Gabon’s Moukalaba-Doudou National Park, it was recorded in forested areas during a camera-trapping survey in 2012. In Batéké Plateau National Park, it was recorded only west of the Mpassa River during surveys carried out between June 2014 and May 2015.  In Zanzibar, it was recorded in groundwater forest on Unguja Island in 2003.

Behaviour and ecology.

The African palm civet is a nocturnal, largely arboreal mammal that spends most of the time on large branches, among lianas in the canopy of trees. It eats fruits such as those of the African corkwood tree ("Musanga cecropioides"), "Uapaca", persimmon ("Diospyros hoyleana"), fig trees ("Ficus"), papayas ("Carica papaya") and bananas ("Musa").  Males have home ranges of and females of. The home range of a dominant male includes home ranges of several females.

Reproduction.

In Gabon, females were recorded to give birth in the long wet season and at the onset of the dry season between September and January. The female usually gives birth after a gestation period of 2–3 months. A litter consists of up to four young that are suckled for around three months. While she has suckling young the female's mammary glands produce an orange-yellow liquid which discolours her abdomen and the young civets' fur. This probably discourages males from mating with nursing females. Its generation length is 7.8 years.

Taxonomy and evolution.

In 1830, John Edward Gray first described an African palm civet using the name "Viverra binotata" based on a zoological specimen obtained from a museum in Leiden.  In 1843, Gray proposed the genus "Nandinia" and subordinated "Viverra binotata" to this genus.  In 1929, Reginald Innes Pocock proposed the family Nandiniidae, with the genus "Nandinia" as sole member. He argued that it differs from the Aeluroidea by the structure and shape of its ear canal and mastoid part of the temporal bone.  Results of morphological and molecular genetic analyses indicate that it differs from viverrids and diverged from the Feliformia about 44.5 million years ago.

Phylogenetic tree.

The phylogenetic relationships of African palm civet is shown in the following cladogram:

Threats.

The African palm civet is threatened by habitat loss and hunting for bushmeat. In 2006, it was estimated that more than 4,300 African palm civets are hunted yearly in the Nigerian part and around 3,300 in the Cameroon part of the Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests.  In Guinea, dead African palm civets were recorded in spring 1997 on bushmeat market in villages located in the vicinity of the National Park of Upper Niger. Dried heads of African palm civets were found in 2007 at the Bohicon and Dantokpa Markets in southern Benin, suggesting that they are used as fetish in animal rituals. The attitude of rural people in Ghana towards African palm civets is hostile; they consider them a menace to their food resources and safety of children. In Gabon, it is among the most frequently found small carnivores for sale in bushmeat markets. Upper Guinean forests in Liberia are considered a biodiversity hotspot. They have already been fragmented into two blocks. Large tracts are threatened by commercial logging and mining activities, and are converted for agricultural use including large-scale oil palm plantations in concessions obtained by a foreign company.

The African palm civet ("Nandinia binotata"), also known as the two-spotted palm civet, is a small feliform mammal widely distributed in sub-Saharan Africa. It is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

La Nandinie (Nandinia binotata), ou Civette palmiste africaine est une espèce de mammifère carnivore Féliformes. Elle possède de courtes jambes, de petites oreilles, un corps semblable à celui d'un chat et une longue et souple queue qui est de la même longueur que son corps. À l'âge adulte, la civette palmiste africaine pèse entre 1,7 et.


History.

One of the first recorded discoveries regarding electromagnetic propulsion was in 1889 when Professor Elihu Thomson made public his work with electromagnetic waves and alternating currents. A few years later Emile Bachelet proposed the idea of a metal carriage levitated in air above the rails in a modern railway, which he showcased in the early 1890s. In the 1960s Eric Roberts Laithwaite developed the linear induction motor, which built upon these principles and introduced the first practical application of electromagnetic propulsion. In 1966 James R. Powell and Gordon Danby patented the superconducting maglev transportation system, and after this engineers around the world raced to create the first high-speed rail. From 1984 to 1995 the first commercial automated maglev system ran in Birmingham. It was a low speed Maglev shuttle that ran from the Birmingham International Airport to the Birmingham International Railway System.

Uses.

Trains.

Electromagnetic propulsion is utilized in transportation systems to minimize friction and maximize speed over long distances. This has mainly been implemented in high-speed rail systems that use a linear induction motor to power trains by magnetic currents. It has also been utilized in theme parks to create high-speed roller coasters and water rides.  Maglev  A typical Maglev train costs three cents per passenger mile, or seven cents per ton mile (not including construction costs). This compares to 15 cents per passenger miles for travel by plane and 30 cents for ton mile for travel by intercity trucks. Maglev tracks have high longevity due to minimal friction and an even distribution of weight. Most last for at least 50 years and require little maintenance during this time. Maglev trains are promoted for their energy efficiency since they run on electricity, which can be produced by coal, nuclear, hydro, fusion, wind or solar power without requiring oil. On average most trains travel 483 km/h (300 mph) and use 0.4 megajoules per passenger mile. Using a 20 mi/gallon car with 1.8 people as a comparison, travel by car is typically 97 km/h (60 mph) and uses 4 megajoules per passenger mile. The carbon dioxide emissions are based upon the method of electrical production and fuel use. Many renewable electrical production methods generate little or no carbon dioxide during production (although carbon dioxide may be released during manufacture of the components, e.g. the steel used in wind turbines). The running of the train is significantly quieter than other trains, trucks or airplanes. Assembly: Linear Induction Motor A linear induction motor consists of two parts: the primary coil assembly and the reaction plate. The primary coil assembly consists of phase windings surrounded by steel laminations, and includes a thermal sensor within a thermal epoxy. The reaction plate consists of a 3.2 mm (0.125 inch) thick aluminum or copper plate bonded to a 6.4 mm (0.25 inch) thick cold rolled steel sheet. There is an air gap between these two parts that creates the frictionless property an electromagnetic propulsion system encompasses. Functioning of a linear induction motor begins with an AC force that is supplied to the coil windings within the primary coil assembly. This creates a traveling magnetic field that induces a current in the reaction plate, which then creates its own magnetic field. The magnetic fields in the primary coil assembly and reaction plate alternate, which generates force and direct linear motion.

Spacecraft.

There are multiple applications for EMP technologies in the field of aerospace. Many of these applications are conceptual as of now, however, there are also several applications that range from near term to next century. One of such applications is the use of EMP to control fine adjustments of orbiting satellites. One of these particular systems is based on the direct interactions of the vehicle's own electromagnetic field and the magnetic field of the Earth. The thrust force may be thought of as an electrodynamic force of interaction of the electric current inside its conductors with the applied natural field of the Earth. To attain a greater force of interaction, the magnetic field must be propagated further from the flight craft. The advantages of such systems is the very precise and instantaneous control over the thrust force. In addition, the expected electrical efficiencies are far greater than those of current chemical rockets that attain propulsion through the intermediate use of heat; this results in low efficiencies and large amounts of gaseous pollutants. The electrical energy in the coil of the EMP system is translated to potential and kinetic energy through direct energy conversion. This results in the system having the same high efficiencies as other electrical machines while excluding the ejection of any substance into the environment.  The current thrust-to mass ratios of these systems are relatively low. Nevertheless, since they do not require reaction mass, the vehicle mass is constant. Also, the thrust can be continuous with relatively low electric consumption. The biggest limitation would be mainly the electrical conductance of materials to produce the necessary values of the current in the propulsion system.

Ships and Submarines.

EMP and its applications for seagoing ships and submarines have been investigated since at least 1958 when Warren Rice filed a patent explaining the technology. The technology described by Rice considered charging the hull of the vessel itself. The design was later refined by allowing the water to flow through thrusters as described in a later patent by James Meng. The arrangement consists of a water channel open at both ends extending longitudinally through or attached to the ship, a means for producing magnetic field throughout the water channel, electrodes at each side of the channel and source of power to send direct current through the channel at right angles to magnetic flux in accordance with Lorentz force.

Elevators.

Cable-free elevators using EMP, capable of moving both vertically and horizontally, have been developed by German engineering firm Thyssen Krupp for use in high rise, high density buildings.

Electromagnetic propulsion (EMP), is the principle of accelerating an object by the utilization of a flowing electrical current and magnetic fields. The electrical current is used to either create an opposing magnetic field, or to charge a field, which can then be repelled. When a current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, an electromagnetic force known as a Lorentz force, pushes the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the conductor and the magnetic field. This repulsing force is what causes propulsion in a system designed to take advantage of the phenomenon. The term electromagnetic propulsion (EMP) can be described by its individual components: electromagneticusing electricity to create a magnetic field, and propulsionthe process of propelling something. When a fluid (liquid or gas) is employed as the moving conductor, the propulsion may be termed magnetohydrodynamic drive. One key difference between EMP and propulsion achieved by electric motors is that the electrical energy used for EMP is not used to produce rotational energy for motion; though both use magnetic fields and a flowing electrical current.

La propulsion magnétique est un moyen de locomotion qui utilise les propriétés magnétiques des électroaimants. Le train Maglev utilise cette technologie.


Syntax.

Tensor notation makes use of upper and lower indexes on objects that are used to label a variable object as covariant (lower index), contravariant (upper index), or mixed covariant and contravariant (having both upper and lower indexes). In fact in conventional math syntax we make use of covariant indexes when dealing with Cartesian coordinate systems formula_1 frequently without realizing this is a limited use of tensor syntax as covariant indexed components.  Tensor notation allows upper index on an object that may be confused with normal power operations from conventional math syntax. For example, in normal math syntax, formula_2, however in tensor syntax a parenthesis should be used around an object before raising it to a power to disambiguate the use of a tensor index versus a normal power operation. In tensor syntax we would write, formula_3 and formula_4. The number in the inner parenthesis distinguishes the contravariant component where the outer parenthesis number distinguishes the power to raise the quantities to. Of course this is just an arbitrary equation, we could have specified that c is not a tensor and known that this particular variable does not need a parenthesis around it to take the quality c to a power of 2, however, if c were a vector, then it could be represented as a tensor and this tensor would need to be distinguished from normal math indexes that indicate raising a quantity to a power.

Key concepts.

Vector decomposition.

Tensors notation allows a vector (formula_5) to be decomposed into an Einstein summation representing the inner dot product of a basis vector (formula_6 or formula_7) dotted with a component vector(formula_8 or formula_9).  formula_10  Every vector has two different representations, one referred to as contravariant component (formula_9) with a covariant basis(formula_6), and the other as a covariant component(formula_8) with a contravariant basis(formula_7). (tensor objects with all upper indexes are referred to as contravariant, and tensor objects will all lower indexes are referred to as covariant.) The need to distinguish between contravariant and covariant arises from the fact that when we dot an arbitrary vector with its basis vector related to a particular coordinate system, there are two ways of interpreting this dot product, either we view it as the projection of the basis vector onto the arbitrary vector, or we view it as the projection of the arbitrary vector onto the basis vector, both views of the dot product are entirely equivalent, but have different component elements and different basis vectors:  formula_15  For example, in physics you start with a vector field, you decompose it with respect to the covariant basis, and that's how you get the contravariant coordinates. For orthonormal cartesian coordinates, the covariant and contravariant basis are identical, since the basis set in this case is just the identity matrix, however, for non-affine coodinate system such as polar or spherical is a need to distinguish between decomposition by use of contravariant or covariant basis set for generating the components of the coordinate system.

Covariant vector decomposition.

Contravariant vector decomposition.

Metric tensor.

The metric tensor represents a matrix with scalar elements (formula_18 or formula_19) and is a tensor object which is used to raise or lower the index on another tensor object by an operation called contraction, thus allowing a covariant tensor to be converted to a contravariant tensor, and vice versa.  Example of lowering index using metric tensor:  formula_20  Example of raising index using metric tensor:  formula_21  The metric tensor is defined as:  formula_22  formula_23  This means that if we take every permutation of a basis vector set and dotted them against each other, and then arrange them into a square matrix, we would have a metric tensor. The caveat here is which of the two vectors in the permutation is used for projection against the other vector, that is the distinguishing property of the covariant metric tensor in comparison with the contravariant metric tensor.  Two flavors of metric tensors exist: (1) the contravariant metric tensor (formula_19), and (2) the covariant metric tensor (formula_18). These two flavors of metric tensor are related by the identity:  formula_26  For an orthonormal Cartesian coordinate system, the metric tensor is just the kronecker delta formula_27 or formula_28, which is just an Identity matrix, and formula_29.

Jacobian.

In addition a tensor can be readily converted from an unbarred(x) to a barred coordinate(formula_30) system having different sets of basis vectors:  formula_31  by use of Jacobian matrix relationships between the barred and unbarred coordinate system (formula_32). The Jacobian between the barred and unbarred system is instrumental in defining the covariant and contravariant basis vectors, in that in order for the these vectors to exist they need to satisfy the following relationship relative to the barred and unbarred system:  Contravariant vectors are required to obey the laws:  formula_33  formula_34  Covariant vectors are required to obey the laws:  formula_35  formula_36  There are two flavors of Jacobian matrix:  1. The J matrix representing the change from unbarred to barred coordinates. To find J, we take the "barred gradient", i.e. partial derive with respect to formula_37:  formula_38  2. The formula_39 matrix, representing the change from barred to unbarred coordinates. To find formula_39, we take the "unbarred gradient", i.e. partial derive with respect to formula_41:  formula_42

Gradient vector.

Tensor calculus provides a generalization to the gradient vector formula from standard calculus that works in all coordinate systems:  formula_43  In contrast, for standard calculus, the gradient vector formula is dependent on the coordinate system in use (example: Cartesian gradient vector formula vs. the polar gradient vector formula vs. the spherical gradient vector formula, etc.). In standard calculus, each coordinate system has its own specific formula, unlike tensor calculus that has only one gradient formula that is equivalent for all coordinate systems. This is made possible by an understanding of the metric tensor that tensor calculus makes use of.

In mathematics, tensor calculus, tensor analysis, or Ricci calculus is an extension of vector calculus to tensor fields (tensors that may vary over a manifold, e.g. in spacetime).

En physique théorique, des équations différentielles, posées en termes de champs tensoriels, sont une manière très générale pour exprimer les relations à la fois géométriques par nature et liées au calcul différentiel. Pour formuler de telles équations, il faut connaître la dérivée covariante. Cela permet d'exprimer la variation d'un champ tensoriel le long d'un champ vectoriel. La notion d'origine du calcul différentiel absolu, plus tard renommé calcul tensoriel, amena à l'isolation du concept géométrique de connexion.


Nomenclature.

The title does not refer to the minor River Clarence in Pas-de-Calais, Northern France, but is said by Polydore Vergil to originate from the manor and castle of Clare in Suffolk, the "caput" of a feudal barony, which was held by Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, in right of his wife, the heiress Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster, ultimate descendant and heiress of the previous holder, the de Clare family; Clare was among the many estates which she brought to her husband. After the Union of the Crowns in 1603, the holders of the title were also given titles named after Scottish places: St Andrews and Avondale.

Dukes of Clarence, first Creation (1362).

The title was first created for Lionel, a younger son of King Edward III who in 1352 had married Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster, the sole heiress via a female line of Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester. The name "Clarence" referred to the feudal barony of Clare in Suffolk, and as the holder of it (and others) by right of his wife Lionel was given that title.

Possible future creations.

The Dukedom is currently vacant. While there was some speculation that it was one of the options available for Prince Harry upon his wedding with Meghan Markle, press reports also noted the Dukedom's chequered past, including scandals and unfounded rumors of criminality related to Prince Albert Victor. Prince Harry was ultimately awarded the Dukedom of Sussex.

Duke of Clarence is a substantive title which has been traditionally awarded to junior members of the British royal family. All three creations were in the Peerage of England.

Le titre de duc de Clarence fut traditionnellement attribué aux jeunes membres de la famille royale anglaise et britannique. Les trois premières créations furent dans la pairie d'Angleterre, la quatrième dans celle de Grande-Bretagne, et la dernière dans celle du Royaume-Uni.


Early life and education.

Urdangarin is the son of Juan María Urdangarin Berriochoa (b. Zumárraga, 19 September 1932 – d. Vitoria-Gasteiz, 10 May 2012), engineer and businessman in the chemical and the banking industries, and wife Claire Françoise Liebaert Courtain (b. Antwerp, 16 July 1935), of Spanish Basque and Belgian (both Walloon and Flemish) descent respectively. He has six siblings. His paternal grandparents Laureano de Urdangarin y Larrañaga (1898–1982) and wife Ana de Berriochoa y Elgarresta (1902–1996) came from the tiny and humble Basque village of Zumarraga.  He obtained an MBA after a "tailor made study".

Sports career.

At the age of 18, Urdangarin became a professional handball player with FC Barcelona Handbol, where he remained until his retirement in 2000. Meanwhile, he studied at the Escuela Superior de Administración y Dirección de Empresas (ESADE) in Barcelona, from which he received a master's degree in business administration.  As a member of the Spanish handball team, he participated in the 1992, 1996, and 2000 Summer Olympics, serving as team captain in 2000. The team won the bronze medal in 1996 and 2000.  Urdangarin has been a member of the Spanish Olympic Committee since 4 April 2001, and was elected first deputy chairman on 16 February 2004. In 2001, he received the Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Sports Merit; which also allows him to be addressed as "The Most Excellent".  In September 2001, it was reported that he had been appointed director of planning and development at Octagon Esedos, a company dedicated to sports marketing. At the same time, he retired from professional handball.

Corruption and money laundering.

In November 2011, Urdangarin was accused of diverting public funds for his own profit through the non-profit "Nóos institute" in the 'Palma Arena' case. The Spanish Anticorruption bureau conducted searches at the "Nóos institute". The daily "El País" published a budget document for an international event organized by the Noos Institute. It is believed that he persuaded various Spanish public administrations (mostly regional governments) to sign agreements with the Nóos Institute for both work that was never done and work that was dramatically overstated up to €5,800,000 from public administrations.  In December 2011, the Anticorruption Bureau confirmed that Urdangarin had been sending substantial sums of public money to accounts in Belize and the United Kingdom. That same month, the Royal Household of Spain announced that Urdangarin would not participate in any official Royal Family activity for the foreseeable future, as a result of the scandal. In his 2011 Christmas Eve National Speech, King Juan Carlos stated that "La justicia es igual para todos" ("Justice is the same for everyone"); the following day he clarified that he was speaking generally.  On 6 February 2012, Urdangarin appeared before a judge regarding allegations of corruption. He is being investigated with 14 others, including Jaume Matas, former premier of the Balearics. He appeared again on 25 February 2012 in Mallorca to answer questions before the investigating judge, José Castro.  On 26 January 2013, the Spanish royal household removed the section covering Iñaki Urdangarin from its official website.  Since 12 June 2015, he is no longer referred to as the Duke of Palma de Mallorca following the removal of that title from his wife the Infanta Cristina.  On 10 June 2016 Prosecutor Pedro Horrach called for Urdangarin to be jailed for 19 and a half years and to be fined 980,000 euros. He was sentenced to six years and three months of jail and a fine of €512,000 on 17 February 2017. On 12 June 2018 the Supreme Court of Spain in appeal sentenced Urdangarin to five years and ten months imprisonment. On 18 June 2018, he reported to the prison of Brieva in Ávila.

Personal life.

According to the Royal Household, Urdangarin met the Infanta Cristina, Duchess of Palma de Mallorca at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. However Consuelo León Llorente and María Molina maintain in their book, "Infanta Cristina", that they met in 1992. They married in Barcelona on 4 October 1997. The couple have four children, all born at Teknon Medical Centre in Barcelona: Juan (born 29 September 1999), Pablo (born 6 December 2000), Miguel (born 30 April 2002), and Irene (born 5 June 2005). As is social custom in Spain, Urdangarin was often accorded the male form of his wife's title with the courtesy title of Duke of Palma de Mallorca since his marriage. Cristina would lose this title in 2015.  The family lived in Barcelona from 1997 until 2009, where Urdangarin was director of planning and development for Motorpress Ibérica and a founding partner of Nóos Consultoría Estratégica. From 2009 to 2011, they lived in Washington, D.C., where he worked for Telefónica, before returning to Barcelona. In August 2013 Urdangarin remained in Barcelona to stand trial, while his wife and children moved to Geneva, Switzerland, to work with the Caixabank Foundation. He joined the family a short time later.  Despite the revocation of his wife's Ducal title, Inaki Urdangarin retains the honorific of "The Most Excellent" as a Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Sports Merit.

Titles, styles, honours and arms.

Titles.

In view of contradictory Spanish legislation, enacted over the past 30 years, Urdangarin was not entitled to use the ducal title of his wife (Royal Decree 1368/1987, Transitory Provisions, Third). But by centuries-old social convention in Spain, he was considered a duke. As such, by the same social convention he was styled as "His Excellency", but as a Grand Cross he is also officially addressed with this style.

Honours.

"See also List of honours of the Spanish Royal Family by country"

Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert (born 15 January 1968) is a retired Spanish handball player turned entrepreneur and brother-in-law of King Felipe VI. Urdangarin was convicted of embezzling about 6 million euros in public funds for sporting events since 2004 through his nonprofit foundation, the so-called Nóos case, and of political corruption by using his former courtesy title of Duke of Palma de Mallorca as the husband of the Infanta Cristina, daughter of former King Juan Carlos. In June 2018 he was sentenced to 5 years and 10 months in prison; he is currently imprisoned in Ávila.

Iñaki Urdangarin Liebaert, né le à Zumarraga, est un ancien joueur de handball espagnol, ayant joué en équipe nationale. Époux de l'infante Cristina de Borbón, seconde fille du roi Juan Carlos d'Espagne. Par ce mariage, il est devenu duc consort de Palma de Majorque (de 1997 à 2015, date où le titre a été retiré à son épouse).


Plot.

Three years, Colonel Sam Trautman visits his old friend and ally John Rambo in Thailand. He explains that he is putting together a mercenary team for a CIA-sponsored mission to supply the Mujahideen and other tribes as they try to repel the Soviet Army in Afghanistan. Despite being shown photos of civilians suffering at the hands of the Soviet military, Rambo refuses to join, as he is tired of fighting. Trautman proceeds anyway and is ambushed by enemy forces near the border, resulting in all of his men being killed. Trautman is captured and sent to a large mountain base to be interrogated by Soviet Colonel Zaysen and his henchman Sergeant Kourov.  Embassy official Robert Griggs informs Rambo of Col. Trautman's capture but refuses to approve a rescue mission for fear of drawing the United States into the war. Aware that Trautman will die otherwise, Rambo gets permission to undertake a solo rescue on the condition that he will be disavowed in the event of capture or death. Rambo immediately flies to Peshawar, Pakistan, where he intends to convince arms dealer Mousa Ghani to bring him to Khost, the town closest to the Soviet base where Trautman is held captive.  The Mujahideen in the village, led by chieftain Masoud, hesitate to help Rambo free Trautman. Meanwhile, a Soviet informant in Ghani's employ informs the Soviets, who send two attack helicopters to destroy the village. Though Rambo manages to destroy one of them with a turret, the rebels refuse to aid him any further. Aided only by Mousa and a young boy named Hamid, Rambo attacks the base and inflicts significant damage before being forced to retreat. Hamid, as well as Rambo, are wounded during the battle and Rambo sends him and Mousa away before resuming his infiltration.  Skillfully evading base security, Rambo reaches Trautman just as he is about to be tortured with a flamethrower. He and Trautman rescue several other prisoners and hijack a Hind gunship helicopter to escape the base. The helicopter is damaged during takeoff and quickly crashes, forcing the escapees to flee across the sand on foot. An attack helicopter pursues Rambo and Trautman to a nearby cave, where Rambo destroys it with an explosive arrow. A furious Zaysen sends Spetsnaz commandos under Kourov to kill them, but they are quickly routed and killed. An injured Kourov attacks Rambo with his bare hands, but is overcome and killed.  As Rambo and Trautman make their way to the Pakistani border, Zaysen and his forces surround them. But before the duo are overwhelmed, Masoud's Mujahideen forces attack the Soviets in a surprise cavalry charge. Despite being wounded, Rambo takes control of a tank and uses it to attack Zaysen's Hind gunship in a head-on battle with both vehicles firing high-calibre machine gun rounds, Rambo firing the tank's main gun and Zaysen unleashing volleys of the Hind's high explosive rockets and missiles. The final charge sees the two vehicles collide, but Rambo survives after firing the tank's main gun after colliding with Zaysen's Hind. At the end of the battle, Rambo and Trautman say goodbye to the Mujahideen and leave Afghanistan.

Production.

Development and writing.

Sylvester Stallone later said his original premise of the film "was more in keeping with the theme of "Tears of the Sun", but set in Afghanistan."  "Bullitt" and "Red Heat" scribe Harry Kleiner was hired to write a draft, but his script was rejected by Stallone. Several weeks into filming, many of the film's crew were fired including the director of photography and director Russell Mulcahy. Stallone:  The canvas of this movie is so large you have to constantly think 10 scenes ahead. You can't wing it. They didn't go into the Battle of Waterloo not knowing what their strategy would be. Well, this movie is kind of like a cinematic warfare. We have a huge cast and crew (more than 250 people) and tough locations to deal with. Everyone and everything has to coordinate.  Some critics noted that the timing of the movie, with its unabashedly anti-Soviet tone, ran afoul of the opening of Communism to the West under Mikhail Gorbachev, which had already changed the image of the Soviet Union to a substantial degree by the time the movie was finished.

Pre-production.

He went to Israel two weeks before me with the task of casting two dozen vicious looking Russian troops. These men were to make your blood run cold. When I arrived on the set, what I saw was two dozen blond, blue-eyed pretty boys that resembled rejects from a surfing contest. Needless to say Rambo is not afraid of a little competition but being attacked by third rate male models could be an enemy that could overwhelm him. I explained my disappointment to Russell and he totally disagreed, so I asked him and his chiffon army to move on.  Mulcahy was replaced by Peter MacDonald, a veteran second unit director. It was MacDonald's first film as director but he was very experienced and had directed the second unit action sequences in "". MacDonald later said, "I tried very hard to change the Rambo character a bit and make him a vulnerable and humorous person, I failed totally." "I knew instinctively what was a good and bad shot," he added. "Stallone knew his character because it was his third outing as Rambo. I wasn't shooting Shakespeare and at times it was hard to take it seriously." MacDonald shot the stick fighting sequence in Bangkok himself using a handheld camera.  The character Masoud, played by Greek actor Spiros Focás, was named after Mujahideen commander Ahmad Shah Massoud who fought the USSR and later the Taliban.

Filming.

The film was shot in Israel, Thailand, and Arizona. MacDonald:  There were so many restrictions in Israel, where you could and couldn't shoot. The producers and Stallone decided they would go back to Arizona where they had looked long before I was on the film. There was a group there called the re-enactors. We had around two hundred and fifty of these guys who re-enact the [American] civil war. They were called on to do fight sequences, which they loved.

Music.

An extensive film score was written by Oscar-winning American composer Jerry Goldsmith, conducting the Hungarian State Opera Orchestra; however, much of it was not used. Instead, much of the music Goldsmith penned for the previous installment was recycled. The original album, released by Scotti Bros., contained only a portion of the new music as well as three songs, only one of which was used in the film (Bill Medley's version of "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother", played over the end credits).  A more complete 75-minute version of the score was later released by Intrada.

Release.

Box office.

"Rambo III" opened in the United States on May 25, 1988 at 2,562 theatres in its opening weekend (the four-day Memorial Day weekend), ranking #2 behind "Crocodile Dundee II". Overall, the film grossed $53,715,611 domestically and then took $135,300,000 overseas, giving "Rambo III" a box office total of $189,015,611. The film underperformed at the box-office.  Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

Critical reception.

The film scored a 37% on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 34 reviews and with an average rating of 4.53/10. The site's critical consensus states that ""Rambo III" finds its justice-dispensing hero far from the thoughtful drama that marked the franchise's beginning -- and just as far from quality action thriller entertainment." Metacritic gives the film a rating of 36 out of 100 based on 15 critic reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".  Prominent critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert were split on "Rambo III", with Siskel awarding the film "thumbs up", and Ebert declaring "thumbs down" for those expecting more out of "Rambo III". Ebert did, however, give "thumbs up" to fans, saying the film was entertaining and that it "delivers the goods".  "The New York Times" took a dim view of the film.  In West Germany, the Deutsche Film- und Medienbewertung (FBW), a government film rating office whose ratings influence financial support to filmmakers, earned criticism after it awarded a "worthwhile" rating (in German: "wertvoll") to "Rambo III".  The 1990 "The Guinness Book of World Records" deemed "Rambo III" the most violent film ever made, with 221 acts of violence, at least 70 explosions, and over 108 characters killed on-screen. However, the body count of the fourth film in the series, "Rambo", surpassed that record, with 236 kills. The Mi-24 Hind-D helicopters seen in the film are in fact modified Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma transport helicopters with fabricated bolt-on wings similar to the real Hind-Ds which were mainly used in the former Eastern Bloc. The other helicopter depicted is a slightly reshaped Aerospatiale Gazelle.  Some have claimed that the dedication at the end of the film has been altered at various points in response to the September 11 attacks. Specifically it is claimed that the dedication was (at one point) "to the brave Mujahideen fighters" and then later changed to "to the gallant people of Afghanistan". However, reviews of the film upon its release and later publications show that the film was always dedicated "to the gallant people of Afghanistan".

Home media.

"Rambo III" was released on DVD on November 23, 2004, and a Blu-Ray release followed on May 23, 2008. "Rambo III" was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on November 13, 2018.

Cut version.

In the United Kingdom, the original theatrical trailer released worldwide by Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. was rejected, but three versions appear on VHS, DVD and Blu-ray and original theatrical release. The BBFC rated the theatrical release 18 and later video releases rated 15. They also cut between two seconds and 65 seconds of the original film's runtime. Some later video releases almost tripled the cuts.

Other media.

Sequel.

A sequel titled "Rambo", was released in 2008.

Novelization.

David Morrell, author of "First Blood", the novel the first "Rambo" film is based on, wrote a novelization called "Rambo III".

Comic books.

A comic book adaptation of the film was published by Blackthorne Publishing. Blackthorne also published a 3D version of its "Rambo III" comic.

Video games.

Various companies released video games based on the film, including Ocean Software and Taito. In 1990, Sega released its own game based on the film for the Master System and Genesis/Mega Drive. Sega later adapted some of the battle scenes in the film for the 2008 arcade game "Rambo". In 2014 was released "", based on the first three "Rambo" films.

Rambo III is a 1988 American action film directed by Peter MacDonald and co-written by Sylvester Stallone, who also reprises his role as Vietnam War veteran John Rambo. A sequel to "" (1985), it is the third installment in the "Rambo" franchise, followed by "Rambo". It was the last film to feature Richard Crenna as Colonel Sam Trautman before his death in 2003.

Rambo 3 ("Rambo III") est un film d'action américain réalisé par Peter MacDonald, sorti en 1988. C'est le troisième volet d'une série de films centrée sur le personnage de John Rambo, interprété par Sylvester Stallone.


2005 Dutch European Constitution referendum

Référendum néerlandais sur le traité établissant une Constitution pour l'Europe

Debate in Parliament.

The bill that led to the referendum was drafted by Members of the Dutch parliament: Farah Karimi (GreenLeft), Niesco Dubbelboer (Dutch Labour Party) and Boris van der Ham (D66). The government was not in favor of this bill. During and after the debate about the bill several political parties made clear how they would act with the different possible outcomes of the referendum. While the referendum was officially non-binding most parties were willing to follow the outcome.

Campaign.

The governing and major opposition parties, making up 80 percent of the country's members of parliament, all backed the Constitution, along with the major newspapers. The parties of the coalition—Christian Democratic Appeal, People's Party for Freedom and Democracy, and Democrats 66—all campaigned for a "Yes" vote, as did the opposition Labour Party and GreenLeft. The Socialist Party, Pim Fortuyn List, Group Wilders, Reformed Political Party and ChristianUnion all campaigned for a "No" vote.  The result is notable, since the largest party to campaign a "No" was the Socialist Party, with 6 percent of the votes during the last elections. The "Yes" campaign was supported by all major parties (most of which were before and directly after the no-vote at loss in the polls).  Opinion polls in the months before the vote tended to show the public split on the issue, with the "No" campaign taking a clear lead as the referendum approached; but as many as half of the electorate admitted to having little or no knowledge of the contents and provisions of the Constitution.  A popular Internet vote test called "Referendumwijzer" was launched on 21 April, but critics argued that it was biased towards the Constitution, pointing out that even those most strongly against the treaty were receiving results in favour of it because of questions regarding democracy and the environment which were not necessarily relevant to the Constitution. Television broadcasts by the "Yes" campaign provoked controversy for raising the spectre of war and chaos in Europe if the Constitution was rejected. The most emotive of the adverts, which featured emotive images of the Holocaust and Srebrenica Massacre, were never aired by the "Yes" campaign, but received national news coverage and were received very poorly.  A TNS–NIPO poll on 19 May indicated that 38% of people intended to vote, with 27% in favour, and 54% against the Constitution. A poll by the same organisation on 30 May—two days before the referendum—concluded that 58% of those who intended to vote would reject the treaty. As the referendum approached, many "Yes" campaigners began to predict defeat, and some even expressed relief after the French rejection of the treaty, taking the view that this would prevent the Netherlands from being the first or only country to obstruct the course of ratification, even though they also expressed dismay that the French result had given the "No" campaign greater legitimacy and acceptance, and had suggested to the public that the Netherlands' standing in Europe would not be significantly damaged by a "No" vote, with some going as far as saying that the Netherlands would look like a fool in front of the rest of Europe.

Results.

By Region.

Source: Kiesraad  Only in 26 of the 467 Dutch municipalities was there a majority on the subject. In 446 municipalities, the majority voted against. Local context such as the average disposable income, unemployment rate, the percentage of non-Western immigrants and the address density were associated with local differences in referendum outcome.  Municipalities with the largest share of "No" voters:  Municipalities with the largest share of "Yes" voters:

Reasons for rejection.

According to a poll by Maurice de Hond, 30% of the Constitution's opponents used the referendum as an opportunity to demonstrate their dissatisfaction with the government, instead of confining their deliberations to the contents of the treaty that was put before them. At the time of the referendum, the Netherlands' centre-right coalition government, led by Jan Peter Balkenende, was suffering a period of unpopularity as it tried to push through cuts in public spending, and there was widespread disillusion with the country's political elite.  Some matters relating to the European Union that motivated the "No" vote were also not strictly connected to the provisions of the Constitution. The debate over the accession of Turkey to the European Union, as well as countries of Eastern Europe, led to fears of an increase in immigration, or an outsourcing of jobs to new member states. Furthermore, the Netherlands had not held a referendum on the euro, and amidst concern that its adoption had led to an increase in the cost of living (combined with Dutch citizens' status as the largest net per capita contributors to the EU), around 30% of the voters took the opportunity to "take revenge" on the political establishment for seeking to advance European integration in a manner that did not engage the public to the extent that it could have done.  A larger group of voters, however, voted "No" for reasons that were connected to the Constitution itself. 48% thought the new Constitution was worse than the existing treaties, and 44% cited the declining influence of the Netherlands in the EU, with the treaty as an important motivation. Linked to this was a fear of being dominated by the powerhouses of the European Union (particularly the United Kingdom, France and Germany). The perception of an aggressive and ruthless style on the part of the "Yes" campaign also put off many. The Minister of Justice, Piet Hein Donner, warned that a rejection would raise the chances of war and stated that "the C in CDA "[for 'Christian']" implies that you vote in favour of the constitution." The Minister for Economic Affairs, Laurens Jan Brinkhorst, said that "the lights would go off" in the case of a rejection and that the Netherlands would become "the Switzerland of Europe." The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy withdrew a controversial television broadcast, in which rejection was connected with the Holocaust, the genocide in Srebrenica and the terrorist attacks on March 11, 2004 in Madrid. This seriously damaged the "Yes" campaign.  News and analysis: Further discussion and information:

A consultative referendum on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe was held in the Netherlands on 1 June 2005 to decide whether the government should ratify the proposed Constitution of the European Union. The result was a "No" vote.

Le référendum néerlandais sur le traité établissant une constitution pour l'Europe (aussi appelé traité de Rome II ou traité de Rome de 2004) eut lieu le. À la question « Êtes-vous pour ou contre la ratification du Traité établissant une Constitution pour l'Europe par les Pays-Bas? », le « non » recueille 61,54 % des suffrages exprimés.


Life.

Everson was born in Norristown, Pennsylvania, and moved to Tucson, Arizona, at the age of 12. His interest in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien led him to study Old English and then other Germanic languages. He read German, Spanish, and French for his B.A. at the University of Arizona (1985), and the History of Religions and Indo-European linguistics for his M.A. at the University of California, Los Angeles (1988).  In 1989, a former professor, Dr. Marija Gimbutas, asked him to read a paper on Basque mythology at an Indo-Europeanist Conference held in Ireland; shortly thereafter he moved to Dublin, where he studied as a Fulbright Scholar in the Faculty of Celtic Studies, University College Dublin (1991). He became a naturalized Irish citizen in 2000, although he retains American citizenship.

Work.

Everson is active in supporting minority-language communities, especially in the fields of character encoding standardization and internationalization. In addition to being one of the primary contributing editors of the Unicode Standard, he is also a contributing editor to ISO/IEC 10646, registrar for ISO 15924, and subtag reviewer for BCP 47. He has contributed to the encoding of many scripts and characters in those standards, receiving the Unicode Bulldog Award in 2000 for his technical contributions to the development and promotion of the Unicode Standard. In 2004, Everson was appointed convenor of ISO TC46/WG3 (Conversion of Written Languages), which is responsible for transliteration standards.  Everson is one of the co-editors (along with Rick McGowan, Ken Whistler, and V.S. Umamaheswaran) of the Unicode roadmaps that detail actual and proposed allocations for current and future Unicode scripts and blocks.  On July 1, 2012, Everson was appointed to the Volapük Academy by the Cifal, Brian R. Bishop, for his work in Volapük publishing.

Encoding of scripts.

Everson has been actively involved in the encoding of many scripts in the Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 standards, including Avestan, Balinese, Bamum, Bassa Vah, Batak, Braille, Brāhmī, Buginese, Buhid, Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics, Carian, Cham, Cherokee, Coptic, Cuneiform, Cypriot, Deseret, Duployan, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Elbasan, Ethiopic, Georgian, Glagolitic, Gothic, Hanunóo, Imperial Aramaic, Inscriptional Pahlavi, Inscriptional Parthian, Javanese, Kayah Li, Khmer, Lepcha, Limbu, Linear A, Linear B, Lycian, Lydian, Mandaic, Manichaean, Meitei Mayek, Mongolian, Myanmar, Nabataean, New Tai Lue, N'Ko, Ogham, Ol Chiki, Old Hungarian, Old Italic, Old North Arabian, Old Persian, Old South Arabian, Old Turkic, Osmanya, Palmyrene, Phaistos Disc, Phoenician, Rejang, Runic, Samaritan, Saurashtra, Shavian, Sinhala, Sundanese, Tagalog, Tagbanwa, Tai Le, Tai Tham, Thaana, Tibetan, Ugaritic, Vai, and Yi, as well as many characters belonging to the Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Arabic scripts.

Encoding of symbols.

Everson authored or co-authored proposals for many symbol characters for encoding into Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646. Among those proposals submitted to ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 2 that have been accepted and encoded: N2586R ( and four other miscellaneous symbols admitted into Unicode 4.1), N3727 (the 26 Regional Indicator Symbols used in pairs to generate national flags in emoji contexts; adopted into Unicode 6.0), and N4783R2 (chess notation symbols encoded into Unicode 11.0).  Among proposals that have not yet been approved for encoding: N1866 (an early proposal for encoding Blissymbols into the Supplementary Multilingual Plane of Unicode; still listed in the SMP roadmap as of Unicode 11.0 although no further action had been taken on it for years) and N4784R (heterodox chess symbols for use in variant games like fairy chess).  Everson, along with Doug Ewell, Rebecca Bettencourt, Ricardo Bánffy, Eduardo Marín Silva, Elias Mårtenson, Mark Shoulson, Shawn Steele, and Rebecca Turner, is a contributor to the Terminals Working Group researching obscure characters found in legacy character sets used by home computers (or “microcomputers”), terminals, and other legacy devices made from the mid-1970s until the mid-1980s; their latest effort, proposal L2/19-025, includes 214 graphic characters for compatibility with MSX, Commodore 64, and other microcomputers of the era, as well as Teletext.

Font development.

In 1995 he designed the Unicode font, Everson Mono, a monospaced typeface with more than 4,800 characters. This font was the third Unicode-encoded font to contain a large number of characters from many character blocks, after Lucida Sans Unicode and Unihan font (both 1993). In 2007 he was commissioned by the International Association of Coptic Studies to create a standard free Unicode 5.1 font for Coptic, "Antinoou", using the Sahidic style.

Conscript Unicode Registry.

Together with John Cowan, he is also responsible for the ConScript Unicode Registry, a project to coordinate the mapping of artificial scripts into the Unicode Private Use Area. Among the scripts "encoded" in the CSUR, Shavian and Deseret were eventually formally adopted into Unicode; two other conscripts under consideration are Tolkien's scripts of Tengwar and Cirth.

Language and locale information.

Everson has also created locale and language information for many languages, from support for the Irish language and the other Celtic languages to the minority Languages of Finland. In 2000, together with Trond Trosterud, he co-authored Software localization into Nynorsk Norwegian, a report commissioned by the Norwegian Language Council. In 2003 he was commissioned by the United Nations Development Programme to prepare a report on the computer locale requirements for the major languages of Afghanistan (Pashto, Dari, and Uzbek), co-authored by Roozbeh Pournader, which was endorsed by the Ministry of Communications of the Afghan Transitional Islamic Administration. More recently, UNESCO's Initiative B@bel funded Everson's work to encode the N'Ko and Balinese scripts.

Work on a standard for Cornish.

In 2007 he co-authored a proposal for a new standard written form of Cornish, called Kernowek Standard. Following the publication of the Standard Written Form in 2008, Everson and a group of other users examined the specification and implemented a set of modifications to it, publishing a formal specification in 2012.

Publishing at Evertype.

Everson operates a publishing company, Evertype, through which he has published total of 295 books, these include a wide range of titles by various authors and editors, with Everson himself as co-author of one, editor of several, and having adapted or revised several more. He also designed fonts for several.  Everson has a particular interest in Gaelic typeface design, and does a considerable amount of work typesetting books in Irish for publication by Evertype.  Another project consists of his publications of translations of "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" in many languages, amongst which are minority languages and constructed languages. Translations are available in Cornish, Esperanto, French, German, Hawaiian, Irish, Italian, Jèrriais, Ladino, Latin, Lingua Franca Nova, Lingwa de planeta, Low German, Manx, Mennonite Low German, Borain Picard, Sambahsa, Scots, Shavian transliteration, Swedish, Ulster Scots and Welsh, with several other translations being prepared.

Michael Everson (born January 9, 1963) is an American and Irish linguist, script encoder, typesetter, font designer, and publisher. He runs a publishing company called Evertype, through which he has published over a hundred books since 2006.

Michael Everson (né le ) est un expert en matière de systèmes d'écriture du monde. Il est un linguiste, un compositeur, et un concepteur de polices, et est l'un des coauteurs de la norme Unicode.


Biography.

Pierre Commoy, the photographer, was born in 1950 in La Roche-sur-Yon. Gilles Blanchard, the painter, was born in 1953 in Le Havre. In the early 1970s, Blanchard took a degree at the "École des Beaux-Arts" in Le Havre, while Commoy studied photography in Geneva.  In 1974, Blanchard moved to Paris to paint and make illustrations for magazines and advertisements. Commoy started working as a photographer for the magazines "Rock & Folk", "Dépèche Mode" and "Interview".  In autumn 1976, Commoy and Blanchard met at the inauguration of a Kenzo boutique in Paris, and started living together in an apartment in Rue des Blancs-Manteaux that they also use as a studio. Next year they started working together; Blanchard would do the painting and Commoy took the photos. Their public breakthrough came with their images for the magazine "Façade", with portraits of Andy Warhol, Mick Jagger and Iggy Pop.  In 1979, Pierre et Gilles moved to the Bastille quarter, made their first works for Thierry Mugler, designed record sleeves for artist friends, and shot fashion ads and portraits for magazines. They also made their first trip to India, a country which has inspired much of their work.  In 1983, Pierre et Gilles had their first personal show at Galerie Texbraun in Paris.  In 1984, Pierre et Gilles worked extensively for musical artists like Mikado (for whom they directed their first video), Sandii, Etienne Daho, Sheila and Krootchey.  In 1987, Pierre et Gilles again travelled to India, and started working on religious and mythological themes.  In 1989, Pierre et Gilles became friends with Marc Almond, with whom they would work for many years.  In 1993, Pierre et Gilles were awarded the "Grand Prix de Photographie" by the City of Paris; and produced art work for Absolut Vodka.  Pierre et Gilles' first retrospective exhibition was in 1996, at the "Maison Européenne de la Photographie" in Paris.  In 1997 Pierre et Gilles notably participated in Mike Aho's documentary on them titled "Pierre and Gilles, Love Stories".  In 2000, Pierre et Gilles had a major retrospective at the New Museum in New York.  In 2007, Pierre et Gilles had a major retrospective at the Galerie Nationale du Jeu de Paume in Paris.  In 2012, Pierre et Gilles exhibited a work entitled "Vive la France" in several art galleries across Europe. It depicts three naked French footballers with their genitals fully revealed: the first black, the second Arab/Muslim and the third white, to represent the multi-ethnic composition of modern French society. It attracted controversy across Austria when it was displayed on large street posters to advertise the "Naked Men" exhibition created by Ilse Haider at the Leopold Museum in Vienna, with the result that coloured ribbons were used on the largest posters to hide the players' genitals.  In 2014, Pierre et Gilles unveiled a major new exhibition, "Héros," at Galerie Daniel Templon in Paris.<ref name="http://i-d.vice.com/en_gb/look/gallery/2279/pierre-gilles">Pierre et Gilles' heroes. Publisher: "i-D". Published: 14 April 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2014.</ref>

Work.

People photographed by Pierre et Gilles include: musicians Amanda Lear (the cover of her 1980 album of "Diamonds for Breakfast", one of their first assignments), an album Lio, Khaled, Étienne Daho, Marie France, Marc Almond, Siouxsie Sioux (the cover of the album "Anima Animus" by the Creatures - Siouxsie's second band), Leslie Winer, Marilyn Manson, Madonna, Kylie Minogue, Erasure, Deee-Lite, Nina Hagen and CocoRosie (the cover of their 2007 album "The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn"); model Naomi Campbell, actresses Tilda Swinton, Catherine Deneuve and Lolo Ferrari, actors Salim Kechiouche, Jérémie Renier and Layke Anderson and also designers Jean-Paul Gaultier and Paloma Picasso.  They directed Marc Almond's 1990 music video for the song "A Lover Spurned" and Lamour's video clip for "Tu es foutu". Their most photographed muse is British male super model Enzo Junior, who has been photographed nine times.

Pierre Commoy and Gilles Blanchard, also known as Pierre et Gilles, are French artists and romantic partners. They have been producing works together since 1976, creating a world where painting and photography meet. Their art is peopled by their friends and family, anonymous and famous, who appear in sophisticated life-size sets the artists build in their studio. They meticulously apply paint to the photographs once printed on canvas. Accomplished image creators, Pierre and Gilles have built up an extraordinary contemporary iconography on the frontier between art history and popular culture.

Depuis 1976, ils développent une œuvre à quatre mains entre peinture et photographie. Leurs tableaux mettent en scène leurs proches, anonymes ou célèbres, dans des décors sophistiqués construits grandeur nature en atelier. Une fois la photographie tirée sur toile, commence un méticuleux travail de peinture. Ces créateurs d’images ont constitué une iconographie singulière explorant la frontière entre l’histoire de l’art et culture populaire.


Early life.

Corey Todd Taylor was born on December 8, 1973 in Des Moines, Iowa. He was mostly raised by his single mother in Waterloo, Iowa, a place described by Taylor as a "hole in the ground with buildings around it". He is of German, Irish and Native American descent on his father's side, and Dutch and Irish on his mother's side. Around 1979, Taylor and his mother saw the sci-fi series "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century". Before the series, there was a trailer for the 1978 horror film "Halloween". Taylor said this "developed some sense of Slipknot in [himself]". While "Halloween" introduced Taylor to masks and horror themes, Taylor's grandmother introduced him to rock music, showing him a collection of Elvis Presley records from the 1950s to 1970s. He especially found songs like "Teddy Bear", "In the Ghetto", and "Suspicious Minds" to appeal to his interests the most, describing them as "good times". Taylor also began listening to Black Sabbath at a young age, beginning with their early work.  By age 15, he had developed a drug addiction and had overdosed on cocaine twice. By this time, he was living in Waterloo, but later set out on his own and ended up at his grandmother's house in Des Moines. She took legal custody of him so that he could continue going to school, and she helped him buy musical equipment. When Taylor was 18, he left his grandmother's house and went to various places in Iowa, Des Moines being a place to which he frequently returned.  In 2017, on an episode of Viceland's "The Therapist", Taylor revealed that he was sexually abused at the age of 10 by a 16-year-old friend. Taylor stated that he never told anyone about the incident until he was "probably 18" because his abuser "threatened to hurt [him] and threatened to hurt [his] mom". At age 18, when Taylor was living with his grandmother, he attempted suicide by way of overdose. His ex-girlfriend's mother drove him to the hospital in Des Moines and doctors were able to resuscitate him. He describes this as the lowest point in his life. Taylor first met his father when he was 30 years old, and now has a relationship with him, although he said their paths do not cross that often.

Music career.

Stone Sour.

Taylor is a founding member of the American hard rock band Stone Sour. After he formed the band in 1992 with drummer Joel Ekman, Shawn Economaki joined filling in the bass position, leaving the electric guitar position to be filled by Josh Rand. Stone Sour recorded a demo album in 1993, and another in 1994. In 1997, Taylor was approached by the metal band, Slipknot, resulting in him abandoning Stone Sour while they were recording a demo album with Sean McMahon at SR studios. Taylor did not return until five years later to record their debut album, "Stone Sour" in 2002. Both Taylor and guitarist Josh Rand contacted Jim Root, Slipknot's guitarist, and Shawn Economaki, Stone Sour's original bassist, to begin writing songs for their debut album. Drummer Joel Ekman came back on board as well. This "reformation" later resulted in Stone Sour recording at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls, Iowa.  Their self-titled debut album was released August 27, 2002, and it debuted at number 46 on the "Billboard" 200. Their second album, "Come What(ever) May" debuted at number four on the Billboard 200. It was released August 1, 2006, and charted on several different charts. "Live in Moscow" is currently their only album specifically released only for music download. During the recording of the album, drummer Joel Ekman left the band for personal reasons. As a result, drummer Roy Mayorga was recruited, taking his place. The group released their third studio album, "Audio Secrecy", on September 7, 2010.  Later, Corey Taylor announced the release of a concept double album with Stone Sour. The albums are titled ""House of Gold & Bones"". During the process of making the double album, bassist Shawn Economaki left the band. He was temporarily replaced for touring purposes by Johny Chow. The first part was released in October 2012 and the second part in April 2013. There are 23 songs in total, 11 on the first part and 12 on the second. In addition to these two albums is a four-part comic book series written by Taylor and published by "Dark Horse Comics", which went on sale in 2013. With these albums came a story that was written by Taylor that coincide with the album. Fans can also construct a miniature "house of gold and bones" from the packaging design of the physical versions of the two albums. Taylor has also said that he would like to finish off the project by making the story into a movie but nothing has come of this yet.

Slipknot.

In Des Moines, Iowa, Joey Jordison, Shawn Crahan, and Mick Thomson approached him asking him to join Slipknot. He agreed to go to one of their practices, and ended up singing in front of them. Of Slipknot's nine members, Corey was the sixth to join the band. Performing with Slipknot, he would also come to be known as "Number Eight" though is superior to all members, being that the band follows a numbering scheme for its members, ranging from 0–8. According to Shawn Crahan, Corey wanted number eight, because it symbolizes infinity.  Feeling he could expand more inside Slipknot than in Stone Sour, Taylor temporarily quit Stone Sour, even though they were recording an album with Sean McMahon. Taylor's first gig with Slipknot was on August 24, 1997, which according to band members did not go well. During his first gig, Taylor was performing with facepaint instead of a mask; however, for his second show on September 12, he wore a mask that resembles his debut album mask. Taylor has recorded with Slipknot since the release of their second demo album, a self-titled demo used to promote the band to prospective labels and producers. As their permanent vocalist, he recorded with Slipknot at Indigo Ranch in Malibu, California and released "Slipknot", the band's debut album that peaked at number one on the Top Heatseekers chart, went double platinum in the United States, and was included in the 2006 book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". Taylor was accused of copyright infringement regarding the lyrics of the song "Purity", but no action was taken. Taylor began recording for their second studio album, "Iowa", in 2001 at Sound City and Sound Image in Van Nuys, Los Angeles. It was released August 28, 2001 and peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart, as well as number three on the "Billboard" 200. While writing "", Taylor decided to write lyrics that would not warrant an explicit label. It peaked at number two on the "Billboard" 200. "All Hope Is Gone" was the first Slipknot album to peak at number one on the "Billboard" 200.

Other work.

Taylor has appeared as a guest musician on albums by Soulfly, Apocalyptica, Damageplan, Steel Panther and Code Orange. At one point, he was heavily involved in the recording of thrash metal band Anthrax's album, "Worship Music", but the sessions remain unreleased. He also contributed to the "Roadrunner United" all-star album in 2005, providing vocals for the song "Rich Man". Taylor also made a brief appearance in Steel Panther's singles "Death to All but Metal", "Eyes of a Panther", and "Asian Hooker". In 2006, Taylor founded the record company Great Big Mouth Records. Taylor has produced two albums: Facecage's self-titled album and Walls of Jericho's "Redemption". Taylor provided guest narration on the track "Repentance" for Dream Theater's 2007 album "Systematic Chaos". In an interview with "Billboard magazine", Taylor confirmed that on January 13, 2009, he was planning on making a solo album, as well as returning to his side project Stone Sour after Slipknot's All Hope Is Gone World Tour. Taylor has stated that he was writing songs that "don't fit either of his main bands." He describes them as a cross between Foo Fighters, Johnny Cash, and Social Distortion, saying that there's "a country background that comes built-in with living in Iowa".  On March 30, 2009, it was confirmed that Taylor and the Junk Beer Kidnap Band would be performing at Rockfest in 2009. The group performed on April 24, 2009 at People's Court in Des Moines, Iowa, marking Taylor's first official solo show. Taylor performs with his band the Dum Fux with Denny Harvey, who make covers for 1970s punk rock and 1980s hair metal. Taylor also performs with Audacious P, a band that is primarily a Tenacious D cover band. Rapper Tech N9ne confirmed that Taylor was to perform on his album "K.O.D.", but was removed because Taylor did not submit his vocals in time. Taylor recently admitted that he tried out for the vacant singer spot in the band Velvet Revolver, but said that it just did not work out. However, according to a recent "Billboard" article, it seems likely that he may in fact become the vocalist for Velvet Revolver, though no official confirmation has been made. Duff McKagan added that they can neither "confirm or deny" Taylor's membership in the band but believes that Taylor is the "real deal". Slash has since ruled Taylor out as the possible new vocalist explaining that "[it] just wasn't right" although he does love him. Taylor has, however, recorded 10 new songs with the band, although drummer Matt Sorum stated it is unlikely they will ever be released. Taylor explained to Mark Hoppus on "Hoppus on Music" that he and McKagan were writing new music for a possible new supergroup.  On June 21, 2018, Taylor featured on the track "The Hunt" by metallic hardcore band Code Orange, the second track of the 3-track EP "The Hurt Will Go On". In September 2019, he was featured on Nostalgia Critic's parody album of Pink Floyd's "The Wall" on a cover of the opening theme for "SpongeBob SquarePants".

Acting career.

On December 4, 2013, Taylor joined the cast of "Fear Clinic". He played Bauer, one of the employees of the clinic who struggles to keep things under control when all hell breaks loose. He appeared in the 2013 horror film "Bullied". In October 2015, Taylor provided the roars for the character of The Fisher King in the "Doctor Who" episode "Before the Flood". Taylor also appeared as a cameo in "Sharknado 4".

Style and influence.

Corey Taylor told Loudwire in 2015 that if it were not for Faith No More, he "wouldn't be here today". While recovering from an attempted suicide, he saw the band perform "Epic" live on the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards and the performance inspired him to begin writing and performing music again.  Corey Taylor had once been quoted that Pearl Jam had hugely influenced and inspired his music, saying that the group was "one of the biggest and best rock bands of all time". The first two Slipknot albums with Taylor's vocals, "Slipknot" and "Iowa", both contain substantial explicit content. Many critics claimed Taylor relied on the profanity, which is why Slipknot's third album, "" is profanity-free, (with the exceptions of the word "bitch" on the song "Duality" and "bastard" on the spoken intro of "Pulse of the Maggots"), and did not warrant the explicit label. Compared with the previous vocalist for Slipknot, Anders Colsefni, Taylor has a vocal style that was characterized by ex-drummer Joey Jordison as "really good melodic singing". Taylor's vocal style, which contains at times melodic singing, growling, screaming, shouting, and rapping, led him to place at number 86 on the Hit Parader's "Top 100 Metal Vocalists of All Time" and is often compared to other vocalists such as Ivan Moody, John Bush, Phil Anselmo and Jamey Jasta.  Taylor's two major projects have contrasting temperaments. Slipknot is considered to be heavy metal, nu metal and alternative metal, and expresses moods such as depression, hostility, anger, misanthropy, and rebellion. Stone Sour is classified as alternative metal, expressing moods of bleakness and somberness as well as anger and rebellion.

Personal life.

On September 17, 2002, Taylor's then-fiancée, Scarlett, gave birth to their son Griffin Parker. Taylor also has a daughter named Angeline (born in 1992) from an earlier relationship. Taylor and Scarlett married on March 11, 2004, and divorced in 2007. On November 13, 2009, Taylor married Stephanie Luby at the Palms Hotel in Las Vegas. The couple had a daughter, sometime in 2015, however her name has not been revealed. On December 28, 2017, Taylor announced on his Twitter that he and Luby had been separated. On April 7, 2019, it was announced on his Instagram page that he became engaged to Alicia Dove, creator of ‘l"Cherry Bombs". On October 12, 2019, the pair married.  Taylor has had problems with alcohol abuse, which Scarlett helped him through as well as keeping him from committing suicide. In 2006, Taylor told MTV that he had attempted to jump off a balcony of the eighth floor of The Hyatt on Sunset Boulevard in 2003, but "somehow [Scarlett] stopped me". This was later recanted by Taylor in an interview with Kerrang! radio and stated that it was, in fact, his friend Thom Hazaert who physically stopped him from jumping. Scarlett then told him that either he would have to get sober or she would annul their marriage. Before Stone Sour started recording "Come What(ever) May" in January 2006, Taylor was sober.  On August 3, 2009, he co-hosted the 2009 Kerrang! Awards alongside Scott Ian of Anthrax. The following year, they both once again co-hosted The Kerrang! Awards, where Taylor collected the K! Services to Metal award on behalf of Paul Gray, who died after an accidental overdose of morphine and fentanyl.  In early September 2010, Taylor announced that his book, "Seven Deadly Sins: Settling The Argument Between Born Bad And Damaged Good", would be released on July 12, 2011 through Da Capo Press.

Awards.

Revolver Golden Gods Awards Loudwire Music Awards Kerrang! Awards

Corey Todd Taylor (born December 8, 1973) is an American singer, songwriter, actor and author. He is known as the lead vocalist and lyricist of the bands Slipknot and Stone Sour.

Corey Todd Taylor, né le à Des Moines, est un chanteur américain, membre principal du groupe de metal Slipknot ainsi que de Stone Sour. Il est surnommé « The Sickness » ou « Neck ».