Career.

Kishio Suga was born in Morioka, Iwate Prefecture. From 1964 to 1968, he was a student in the painting department at Tama Art University in Tokyo. While at Tama, Suga read the writings of Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze, Kitarō Nishida, Kei Nishitani, Nāgārjuna, and Vasubandhu.  During this period, two artists who taught at the university were important influences on Suga. Yoshishige Saito encouraged Suga and other students to take a deconstructive approach to modernism and Euro-American-centric art theory. Another influential teacher was the artist Jiro Takamatsu, whose illusionistic paintings and sculpture were central to the development of the Tokyo art scene at that time. Suga’s early work reflected this approach. In his first solo exhibition, at Tsubaki Kindai Gallery, Tokyo, in November 1968, Suga presented "Space Transformation" (1968) (転移空間), a freestanding structure of red-painted wood that gave the illusion of a stack of boxes collapsing under their own weight.  At the same time as Suga was producing these illusionistic paintings and sculptures, he was already shifting to an engagement with raw materials in works such as "Layered Space" (1968) (積層空間), a transparent acrylic box containing layers of sawdust, cotton, ashes, plastic dust, and soil.  In the second half of 1968, this exploration of raw materials, ephemerality and space gained recognition as a broader movement. Lee Ufan presented his first work juxtaposing rocks and steel plates. At the 1st Kobe Suma Rikyū Park "Contemporary Sculpture Exhibition" (第一回野外彫刻展), Nobuo Sekine presented "Phase—Mother Earth" (位相—大地), a cylindrical hole in the earth, 2.7 meters deep and 2.2 meters in diameter, with the excavated earth molded into a cylinder of exactly the same dimensions.  By 1973, Kishio Suga, Lee Ufan, Nobuo Sekine, and other artists such as Susumu Koshimizu, Katsuro Yoshida, and Kōji Enokura, became collectively known as Mono-ha (literally “School of Things”).  Suga came to articulate his ideas in terms of "hōchi" (放置, release), an act that highlights the reality of "mono" (もの, things) and their interdependence with the surrounding "jōkyō" (状況, situation, context, or expanse). In his ongoing investigation of "situation" and the "activation (アクティベーション) of existence," Suga has produced many installations that are emblematic of the Mono-ha approach.  "Infinite Situation I (window) " (1970) (無限状況), consisted of two blocks of wood of different lengths propping open adjacent windows in a staircase at the Trends in Contemporary Art exhibition at the National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, in 1970.  In 1971, Suga created "Law of Situation" (状況律), the artist placed ten flat stones in a line on a 20-meter-long pane of glass and floated it on the surface of a lake in Tokiwa Park, Ube City, Yamaguchi Prefecture.  "In the State of Equal Dimension" (1973) (等間体) is made up of two tall, forked branches that support a length of rope at four points along a corner of the gallery wall; each end of the rope is tied to a rock that rests on the floor.
  "Law of Multitude" (1975) (多分律) consisted of an undulating expanse of transparent plastic sheeting laid on some dozens of concrete columns, each one topped by a single stone.

 In addition to his site-specific installations, Suga also makes smaller assemblages that display on the wall or floor. Suga variously ties, binds, stacks, cuts, glues, paints, tapes, wedges, leans, peels, nails, screws, carves, bends, and folds these materials into their current forms.

Exhibitions.

Kishio Suga’s first solo exhibition was at Tsubaki Kindai Gallery, Tokyo, in 1968. Since then, he has had numerous solo shows in Japan, including at the Iwate Museum of Art, Morioka; the Yokohama Museum of Art; the Chiba City Museum of Art; the Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art; and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo.  His work has also been included in landmark surveys, such as the 8th Biennale de Paris in 1973; "Japon des Avant Gardes 1910–1970", Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, 1986; "Japanese Art after 1945: Scream Against the Sky", held at Yokohama Museum of Art, Guggenheim Museum Soho, New York, and San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 1994; and "Reconsidering Mono-ha", National Museum of Art, Osaka, 2005.  In 2008, Kishio Suga Souko Museum opened at Itamuro Onsen Daikokuya, Tochigi prefecture. This museum houses a large selection of Suga's indoor sculptural works and several outdoor sculpture gardens designed and installed by Suga.  His work has received renewed attention in the United States following his inclusion in "Requiem for the Sun: The Art of Mono-ha", at Blum & Poe, Los Angeles, in February 2012. This exhibition was the first survey of Mono-ha in the United States, and was followed by a solo exhibition at Blum & Poe in November 2012, which was his first solo show in the United States. Suga’s work was also featured in "Tokyo 1955–1970: A New Avant Garde" at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 2012.

Collections.

Kishio Suga’s work is in the collection of numerous museums, including:

Awards.

Kishio Suga was awarded the 11th Shell Art Prize in 1967, the Grand Prize at the 5th Japan Art Festival in 1970, and Mainichi Awards in 2016. He teaches at Tama Art University, Tokyo.

He is one of the key members of Mono-ha, a group of artists who became prominent in the late 1960s and 1970s. The Mono-ha artists explored the encounter between natural and industrial materials, such as stone, steel plates, glass, light bulbs, cotton, sponge, paper, wood, wire, rope, leather, oil, and water, arranging them in mostly unaltered, ephemeral states. The works focus as much on the interdependency of these various elements and the surrounding space as on the materials themselves.

Kishio Suga (dans l’ordre japonais Suga Kishio 菅 木志雄, né le ) est un artiste japonais rattaché au mouvement Mono-ha.


Biography.

Erich Spitz was born in Brno (Czechoslovakia) on 27 March 1931. Married in 1963, he has three children.  After studying at the Sokolska Gymnasium in Brno, he joined the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the Technical University of Prague, from which he graduated in 1954 as an engineer from the Prague Polytechnic. He was awarded a Doctor of Science degree in 1955.

Professional career.

After a year (1957-1958) spent at the Meudon observatory as a researcher in radio astronomy, Erich Spitz joined the Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil (CSF), which merged in 1968 with the French company Thomson-Houston (CFTH), a subsidiary of Thomson-Brandt to create the Thomson-CSF group, which in 2000 was renamed Thales.  From 1958 to 1968, Erich Spitz was a researcher in the Applied Physics Department of the new Corbeville Research Centre that the CSF had just created in 1957 near the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique (CEA) in Saclay, notably under the impetus of Jean Robieux. Head of the laboratory from 1968, he took over the management of the research centre, which was named "Laboratoire Central de Recherche" (LCR) in 1975.  In 1983, he was appointed "Technical and Research Director" of the Thomson group, succeeding Pierre Aigrain, then in 1986 "Deputy Managing Director in charge of research and technology". In 1988, he created the "Scientific and Technical College" bringing together the best experts from Thomson-CSF. Since 1995, he has been "Advisor to the Chairman ".  In addition, from 2001 to 2009, Erich Spitz was Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Thales Avionics LCD SA, a subsidiary of Thales Avionics S.A.

Scientific work.

The main scientific work of Erich Spitz, which has led to numerous patent applications, is related to:

Publications and books.

Publications.

Some of Erich Spitz's major publications:

Report of the "Sustainability of Digital Media" group.

On behalf of the Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Technology, Erich Spitz chaired the working group "Sustainability of Digital Media" whose report was published in March 2010.

Recognition.

Academic environment.

Erich Spitz is:

Awards.

Erich Spitz is an Officier of the Ordre National de la Légion d'Honneur and an Officier of the Ordre National du Mérite.

Erich Spitz is a French engineer and physicist, born in Brno (Czechoslovakia) on 27 March 1931. ""He is the author of a large number of publications and patents in the fields of electromagnetic radiation, optical fibres, optical information storage and processing, and liquid crystal display, and has made a major contribution to the progress of electronic science and industry". »

Erich Spitz est un ingénieur et physicien français, né à Brno (Tchécoslovaquie) le. Auteur d’un grand nombre de publications et de brevets dans les domaines du rayonnement électromagnétique, des fibres optiques, du stockage et du traitement optique d’informations, de la visualisation par cristaux liquides, il a largement contribué au progrès de la science et de l'industrie électroniques.


Biography.

Manuel Moreno was born in Buenos Aires in 1781, and studied at "Real Colegio de San Carlos". He started to work in the colonial government by 1800, and joined his brother Mariano Moreno in his mission to London. However, Mariano died on board the ship, which inspired Manuel to write a biography of his life. He wrote them quickly, in order to be able to publish them in London, and used it as a force to promote the Revolution in Europe.  He returned in 1813, and was appointed as state secretary by the Second Triumvirate. In 1817, he was jailed and banished to the United States, where he graduated in medicine at the Maryland university. He returned in 1821 and worked in the Public Library, and it is believed that he was the first person to teach about chemistry in Buenos Aires.  Later, he joined the Legislature, where he held his position for a number of terms. He represented the Banda Oriental in the Constitutional Assembly of 1824, and supported the enactment of a federalist government. Moreno was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1825. He moved to England and Juan Manuel de Rosas appointed him as minister plenipotentiary in 1832. He wrote many formal complaints about the British occupation of the Falkland Islands after 1833, which were rejected by the British government. He returned to Buenos Aires in 1853, dying four years later.

Manuel Moreno (Buenos Aires, 1782 – íb., 1857) was an Argentine politician, brother of Mariano Moreno. He was one of the founders of the Federal Party in the province of Buenos Aires.

Manuel Moreno (Buenos Aires, Vice-royauté du Río de la Plata, 1782 – "id"., Argentine, 1857), était un homme politique, un diplomate et un scientifique argentin. Frère cadet de Mariano Moreno, il fut l’un des fondateurs du Parti fédéraliste dans la province de Buenos Aires.


Early life.

Payton was born in San Mateo, California, and raised in Naperville, Illinois, by parents Thomas and Jeanne Payton. Payton's parents were originally from Scranton, Pennsylvania; Thomas worked in the insurance industry. Sean Payton lived in Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, during his grade school and middle school years (1970–1978). Sean attended Naperville Central High School in Naperville, Illinois, starting as quarterback his senior year before graduating in 1982. Winning a football scholarship, Payton had a successful career playing quarterback at Eastern Illinois University, leading the Panthers to an 11–2 record and the quarter-finals of the Division I-AA Playoffs in 1986; while at EIU, he became a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity with his close friend, Rick Henghold. Under coach Al Molde, Payton's Eastern Illinois teams were known as "Eastern Airlines" due to their prolific passing attack that frequently topped 300 yards per game (and had 509 passing yards in one game, still a school record).

Playing career.

Although he was not drafted in the 1987 NFL Draft, Payton tried out for the Kansas City Chiefs for one day. In 1987, he played quarterback for the Chicago Bruisers and Pittsburgh Gladiators during the inaugural season of the Arena Football League, before his rights were sold for $1,000.00 to the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Canadian Football League. He was also a member of the Chicago Bears squad of strikebreaking replacement players, known as the "Spare Bears", during the 1987 NFL players strike. In 3 games he completed 8 of 23 passes (34.8%), for 79 yards, no TDs, and 1 INT, a passer rating of 27.3. He was also sacked 7 times for 47 yards and had one rush attempt for 28 yards. Coincidentally, his one interception came against the New Orleans Saints, the team he would later go on to coach to a Super Bowl victory.  In 1988, he played for the Leicester Panthers of the professional UK Budweiser National League. Payton landed the starting quarterback role for the Panthers. Payton led the Panthers to a touchdown on their first possession. That same season saw the Panthers go to the Quarterfinals of the British League, eventually losing to the London Olympians after Payton returned to the US to take up a coaching position.

Coaching career.

Early coaching career.

Payton began his coaching career in 1988 as an offensive assistant at San Diego State University. He made a series of assistant coaching positions at Indiana State University, Miami University (offensive coordinator), Illinois, and again at San Diego State (running backs coach), before landing a job as the quarterbacks coach with the Philadelphia Eagles in 1997.  He coached Marshall Faulk from 1992 to 1993 while serving at San Diego State.  As OC at Miami University, he helped RB Deland McCullough run for over 1,100 yards. In 1995, the team scored the most points in a season (326) since 1986 and finished 8–2–1. RB Deland McCullough ran for over 1,600 yards with 14 TD and QB Sam Ricketts also threw 14 TD.  At the University of Illinois in 1996, he coached QB Scott Weaver, who completed 56% of his passes for over 1,700 yards and 7 TD.

Philadelphia Eagles.

From 1997 to 1998, Payton was quarterbacks coach for the Philadelphia Eagles and worked with offensive coordinator Jon Gruden and offensive line coach Bill Callahan. In 1998, Gruden and Callahan left for the Oakland Raiders, and Eagles head coach Ray Rhodes and Payton were fired. The Eagles' quarterbacks passed for 4,009 yards in 1997.

New York Giants.

In 1999, Payton was hired as the quarterbacks coach for the New York Giants and was promoted to the role of offensive coordinator in 2000. Under his guidance, the Giants would go on to represent the NFC in Super Bowl XXXV. During this time, he was known to lock himself in the stadium and sleep on the couches while studying plays during off-days.  At around 6:45 a.m. on September 11, 2001, the New York Giants' flight from Denver, where the Giants played the Denver Broncos for the first "Monday Night Football" game of 2001, landed at the gate of Newark Liberty International Airport next to United Airlines Flight 93, the flight that was hijacked and eventually crashed in rural Pennsylvania. Payton recalls this moment in his autobiography "Home Team: Coaching the Saints and New Orleans Back to Life". During the 2002 season, after several poor showings by the Giants' offense, Payton's role in play-calling was taken over by then head coach Jim Fassel. Under Fassel the offense improved and propelled the team to a wild-card playoff berth. While Payton was still ostensibly in charge of the offense, his role in the team was clearly diminished and had he not been hired away by the Dallas Cowboys, he likely would have been fired.

Dallas Cowboys.

Payton joined Bill Parcells and the Cowboys as an assistant head coach and a quarterbacks coach in 2003, where he helped coach Quincy Carter, Vinny Testaverde, and Drew Bledsoe to 3,000-yard seasons. He was a primary factor for the team to sign UDFA Tony Romo.  In 2005, he was promoted by Parcells to assistant head coach/passing game coordinator.

New Orleans Saints.

Payton received his first head coaching job in 2006 with the New Orleans Saints. In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, in the 2005 season the Saints had finished with a 3–13 record, ranking as the second worst team in the league. However, Payton turned the struggling team around, and, with newly acquired free agent quarterback Drew Brees, led them to their first playoff appearance in 6 years. The team had one of the league's most productive offenses, ranking first in passing, and fifth in points scored. The Saints won the NFC South with a 10–6 record, had a first round playoff bye and notched only the second playoff win in franchise history, giving them a berth in the NFC Championship Game against the top-seeded Chicago Bears. The Saints out-gained the Bears in total yards of offense, but lost the game by the lopsided score of 39–14. Receiving 44 out of 50 votes from a panel of sports journalists and broadcasters, Payton won the AP NFL Coach of the Year Award in January 2007.  In the 2007 season, the Saints tried to improve upon their 10–6 record from the previous season. They and the Pittsburgh Steelers opened the NFL preseason, playing the Hall of Fame Game on August 5, 2007. The Saints were 3–2 in the pre-season. The Saints also had the honor of opening the season against the defending champion Indianapolis Colts. The Saints finished the 2007 season 7–9.  In 2009, Payton aggressively coached the Saints to their most successful season, with a 13–3 regular season, and a 31–17 victory over the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLIV.  In June 2010, Payton published a book (written with journalist Ellis Henican) entitled "Home Team: Coaching the Saints and New Orleans Back to Life". The book opened at number 8 on the non-fiction bestseller list of "The New York Times". Payton described the concept of "Home Team": "I didn't want to write another winning-on-the-field book or about modern-day leadership...I wanted to write a book about the stories, ones that you sit around and tell your friends."  On October 16, 2011, while coaching against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Payton broke his tibia and tore his MCL in a collision with tight end Jimmy Graham's helmet after Graham was tackled on the sideline. Unable to stand on the sidelines, Payton coached from the booth during rehabilitation. In a memorable moment the week after, Payton was spotted eating a hot dog in a relaxed state while the Saints blew out the Indianapolis Colts 62–7.  Payton has agreed to a new multi-year contract extension as head coach of the Saints beginning in 2013. On January 6, 2016, he announced that he would stay with the Saints despite interest from other teams that had led to speculation that he would be traded.  Payton agreed to a new 5-year contract extension as head coach of the Saints on March 23, 2016.  On Christmas Eve 2016, Payton notched his 94th victory as Saints head coach, passing Jim E. Mora as the winningest coach in franchise history.  Payton and the Saints would endure some eventful seasons over the next three years. The 2017 season would see the Saints achieve their first winning season since 2013 with an 11–5 record. In the Wild Card round of the postseason, New Orleans defeated the division rival Carolina Panthers 31–26 to advance to the Divisional round against the second-seeded Minnesota Vikings. Against the Vikings, after falling behind 17–0, the Saints were able to crawl back and hold a 24–23 advantage in the final minute of the fourth quarter. On the last play of the game, Vikings quarterback Case Keenum threw a 27-yard pass to wide receiver Stefon Diggs, who evaded Saints safety Marcus Williams and ran to the end zone to complete a 61-yard touchdown pass as time expired to award Minnesota a 29–24 victory. This game was the first in NFL playoff history to end in a touchdown as time expired. The play would later be known as the Minneapolis Miracle.  In the 2018 season, the Saints attained the top-seed in the NFC after finishing with a 13–3 record. Upon eliminating the defending Super Bowl champion Philadelphia Eagles 20–14 in the Divisional round, the team advanced to the NFC Championship Game against the Los Angeles Rams for the right to represent the conference in Super Bowl LIII. The game was marred with controversy after the referees missed a pass interference call of Nickell Robey-Coleman's hit on Tommylee Lewis on 3rd-and-10 with 1:45 remaining in the 4th quarter. The Saints would go on to lose 26–23 in overtime. Some fans, players, and analysts believe the missed call is among the worst in NFL history. The NFL admitted to missing the call soon after the game was over, but did not apologize for the situation until a week and a half later. The fallout from the missed call was a factor in the NFL's decision to expand instant replay, making pass interference (including non-calls) reviewable.  On September 15, 2019, the Saints and Payton agreed to a 5-year contract extension.  The Saints once again finished 13–3 in 2019. However, they would be upset in the Wild Card round by the Minnesota Vikings in overtime 26–20, a third consecutive disappointing playoff finish for the Saints.

Bounty scandal.

On March 2, 2012, the NFL concluded after a thorough investigation that from 2009 to 2011, the Saints implemented a bounty program that rewarded players for deliberately attempting to knock opposing players out of games. The slush fund was determined to be administered by defensive coordinator Gregg Williams, who joined the team in 2009. An extensive league investigation found that Payton was implicated in the Bounty Scandal. The league determined Payton went as far as to orchestrate a cover-up when the league first investigated it in the 2009-10 offseason. When informed that the league was investigating reports of a bounty program, Payton met with Williams and assistant head coach Joe Vitt and told them, "Let's make sure our ducks are in a row."  According to a league memo, the NFL reopened its investigation late in the 2011 season. Just before the Saints' playoff game against the Detroit Lions, league officials alerted Saints owner Tom Benson that they had found irrefutable evidence of the Saints' bounty program. When general manager Mickey Loomis informed Payton that the league had reopened its investigation, Payton failed to shut the alleged program down.  On March 22, 2012, NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell suspended Payton for the entire 2012 season, effective April 1. Payton became the first head coach in modern NFL history to be suspended for any reason. Goodell was particularly upset that Payton and other Saints officials had lied to him about the scheme. For instance, during its investigation, the league uncovered an email that Michael Ornstein, the agent for former Saints running back Reggie Bush, had sent to Payton. In reality, the Ornstein email wasn't directly sent to Payton, instead it came to team spokesman Greg Bensel, who then forwarded it to the coaching staff with this message: "email from Orny (he asked that I send it) the dude is in prison so I told him I would." The email stated "put me down for $5000 on "Green Bay Packers quarterback Aaron Rodgers". "It's a running joke going for three years," Ornstein said. "Ornstein's email is just another example of the speciousness of the quote-unquote evidence that Commissioner (Roger) Goodell claims to have to support his erroneous accusations against Jonathan and the other players," lawyer Peter Ginsberg said. "As more of the evidence is revealed in the media, it is becoming more and more apparent how irresponsible the NFL's actions have been." When confronted with the email, Payton initially claimed he never read it, but subsequently admitted that he had. In an interview with ESPN's Adam Schefter, Goodell implied that Payton would have faced significant punishment even if he'd been more forthcoming. In Goodell's view, Payton's contractual obligation to supervise his assistants meant that, at the very least, he should have known about the scheme and shut it down immediately. In the league's announcement of sanctions against the Saints, Payton was faulted for violating a provision of the league constitution that requires coaches to inform their owners about team operations, as well as to "avoid actions that undermine or damage the club's reputation or operating success."  On March 30, 2012, Payton lodged a formal appeal of his suspension. Goodell held an expedited hearing on the matter and was expected to render a decision in "days, not weeks," according to ESPN's Schefter. Payton also used the hearing as a chance to get clarification on the terms of his ban. Goodell turned the appeal down on April 9, meaning that Payton's suspension was set to begin on April 16. He was to remain suspended until the end of Super Bowl XLVII, which was held in New Orleans. According to ESPN's Chris Mortensen, Payton was to forfeit $5.8 million of his $7.1 million salary. He was barred from even casual contact with anyone in the NFL; any such contact would have to be reported to NFL executive Ray Anderson.  Soon after the suspension was announced, Payton began discussions with his mentor, Parcells, about serving as interim coach for the 2012 season.  In September 2011, the Saints and Payton agreed to extend Payton's contract through 2015. However, on November 4, 2012, the NFL revealed that it had disallowed the extension because it contained a clause the NFL deemed to violate its rules, which would have allowed Payton to leave if Saints general manager Mickey Loomis were not with the team. The NFL's action left Payton's contract status in doubt beyond the 2012 season, although Payton said that he intended to return to the Saints.  NFL Commissioner Roger Goodell reinstated Payton on January 22, 2013.

Liberty Christian Warriors (Argyle, TX).

During his 2012 suspension from the NFL, Payton served as the offensive coordinator for his son Connor's sixth-grade team in Argyle, Texas. Payton used a simplified version of the Saints playbook, and the team went unbeaten until losing near the end of the regular season to a team that ran the single-wing, which his team was unable to stop. Since he believed he would face that team again in the league's playoffs, he obtained video that the father of one of his players recorded, and then contacted his mentor Parcells to help him break down the opponent's offense. The teams indeed faced one another in the league finals; Payton's team lost a considerably closer game in which they were able to slow down the opposing offense to a Springtown Pee Wee team.

Personal life.

Payton met Beth Shuey, an Indiana State University graduate while coaching there. The couple had two children, daughter Meghan (born 1997) and son Connor (born 2000). Payton is Irish Catholic. Payton and his family moved to a home in Mandeville, Louisiana when he became the Saints' head coach. The home, like many built on the Gulf Coast after Hurricane Katrina, later turned out to be constructed with defective Chinese drywall, and Payton eventually became a named plaintiff in a widely reported class action lawsuit against the manufacturer, Knauf Plasterboard Tianjin Co. Ltd.  In the wake of the issues with their home in Mandeville, the Paytons decided to move the family back to the Dallas area in 2011, when they purchased a home in the Vacquero Club, an upscale golf community in Westlake that is home to several PGA Tour professionals, as well as the Jonas Brothers and Josh Hamilton. Rumors swirled over the 2011 Super Bowl weekend that the move would coincide with Payton returning to the Cowboys as the General Manager or in some other executive capacity, but these turned out to be groundless. At the time, he maintained a residence in the New Orleans area during the season, while his family resided full-time in Westlake, a 90-minute trip via a privately chartered flight.  In June 2012, Payton and his wife Beth filed for divorce.  In 2014, after his suspension and the finalization of his divorce, he moved from the New Orleans suburbs where he had kept his in-season home to Uptown New Orleans, buying a condo in that neighborhood, and now lives there year-round. Shortly before the 2015 season, which coincided with the 10th anniversary of Hurricane Katrina, he hosted a dinner for the four coaches and four players who had continuously been with the Saints since he became head coach, and presented each of them with a Rolex watch.  In January 2018 New Orleans musician Shamarr Allen dedicated a song to Payton entitled "Hit the Sean Payton" which he composed after watching an Instagram live video of Payton dancing in celebration with the Saints players after defeating the Carolina Panthers for the third time that season. Saints running back Alvin Kamara had recorded the locker room celebrations for his Instagram live feed and the video went viral on social media. On November 10, 2019, at the end of the Saints vs. Falcons games, it was announced that Payton had gotten engaged two days prior on November 8 to his girlfriend, Skylene Montgomery.  On March 19, 2020, it was reported that Payton had tested positive for COVID-19. Payton became the first confirmed case of COVID-19 in the NFL. On March 26, 2020 Payton announced that he tested negative and has been cleared from COVID-19.

Patrick Sean Payton (born December 29, 1963) is an American football coach and former player who is the current head coach of the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). Payton was a quarterback at Naperville Central High School and Eastern Illinois University and played professionally in 1987 and 1988. He began his coaching career as offensive assistant for San Diego State University and had several assistant coaching positions on college and NFL teams before being named as the tenth full-time coach in Saints history in 2006. Payton has always been known for his offensive prowess, having scored more points (2,804) and gained more yards (40,158) than any other team in a coach's first 100 games in NFL history. Payton has the second-longest NFL tenure among active head coaches, behind New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick, who has coached the Patriots since the 2000 season.

Patrick Sean Payton (né le à San Mateo, Californie) est un entraîneur de football américain en National Football League, actuellement sous contrat avec les Saints de La Nouvelle-Orléans.


Establishment.

Under the Ritsuryō law system, the shrines that the Imperial Court would present offerings to for rites such as the "ki'nensai" (祈年祭), a service to pray for a good harvest, were mostly decided by the, but once the Ritsuryō system began to deteriorate, the offerings were only given to a select few shrines.  In 965, Emperor Murakami ordered that Imperial messengers were sent to report important events to the guardian "kami" of Japan. These "heihaku" were presented to 16 shrines: 1. Ise; 2. Iwashimizu; 3. Kamo; 4. Matsunoo; 5. Hirano; 6. Inari; 7. Kasuga; 8. Oharano; 9. Miwa; 10: Isonokami; 11. Ōyamato; 12. Hirose; 13. Tatsuta; 14. Sumiyoshi; 15. Nibu and 16. Kibune.  In 991, Emperor Ichijō added three more shrines to Murakami's list—17. Yoshida; 18. Hirota; and 19. Kitano; and two more were added three years later in 994;—20. Umenomiya; and 21. Gion.  In 1039, Emperor Go-Suzaku ordered that one more shrine be added to this list, 22. Hie, and this unique number of Imperial-designated shrines has not been altered since that time.  Near the end of the Heian period, there was a movement to add Itsukushima Shrine to the list, but it did not happen. However, until the end of the Muromachi period, the Imperial Court made offerings to it, and in the Edo period, offerings were again made after disasters occurred.

List of shrines.

When the Nijūni-sha are considered as a grouped set, they are conventionally presented in order of rank, not in terms of the chronological sequence in which they were designated. The three rank ranked groupings originally derived from a complex array of Heian geopolitical relationships.

The of Japan is one ranking system for Shinto shrines. The system was established during the Heian period and formed part of the government's systematization of Shinto during the emergence of a general anti-Chinese sentiment and the suppression of the Taoist religion. It involved the establishment of the shrines as important centers of public life in Japan. It played a role in official imperial ceremonies such as the "Practice of Chinkon". An extensive body of literature also emerged containing information about each shrine, including the shrine's origin, priestly dress, divine treatises, the system of shrine removal, subordinate shrines, and annual cycle of rituals, among others.

Les du Japon est un système de classement des sanctuaires shinto mis en place au cours de l'époque de Heian (794-1185). Les sanctuaires énumérés ci-dessous reçoivent des offrandes spéciales de la cour impériale et la plupart sont situés dans les environs de Kyoto, la capitale du Japon à l'époque.


Education and early career.

Tatsuno studied architecture at the Imperial College of Engineering where he was a student of the influential British architect Josiah Conder, called "father of Japanese modern architecture". After his graduation in 1879, Tatsuno journeyed to London in 1880 attending courses at the University of London. During his stay he worked at the architectural offices of the Gothic Revivalist William Burges. Burges died in 1881 during Tatsuno's stay, but before returning to Japan Tatsuno also took the opportunity to travel extensively in France and Italy.  On his return to Tokyo, Tatsuno taught first at the Imperial College of Engineering before becoming department head at University of Tokyo.  In 1886, he was one of the founders of the forerunner of the, the then called "Building Institute". The organisation was based upon the Royal Institute of British Architects and the group met regularly, sponsored lectures and produced Japan's first architectural journal.  Tatsuno Kingo (金吾) was called Tatsuno Kengo as a nickname for him because Kengo (堅固) means firmness and his designs and layouts were solid.

Later career.

Although his early work was influenced by his travels in Europe with traces of Inigo Jones and Christopher Wren, the Shibusawa Mansion (1888) was influenced by Serlio, Ruskin and Conder's own Venetian styled works. The site, on one of Tokyo's canalways suited itself to a Venetian character.

Bank of Japan.

Tatsuno's connection with Shibusawa Eiichi brought him the commission to design the Bank of Japan in 1890 (completed in 1896). It was first building of its type to be designed by a native Japanese person. Tatsuno immediately set off to Europe for a year to do research for the project, studying amongst other buildings, the Banque Nationale in Brussels by Beyaert and Janssens.  The bank is a three-storey building constructed with reinforced brick faced with stone and has limited use of steel for long spans. Its style displays Neo-Baroque architectural influences. echoing European central bank buildings of the period. The original building was square in plan with the banking hall situated immediately behind the porticoed main front.  Tatsuno not only designed the Tokyo Head Office of the Bank of Japan, but was also responsible for designing the Bank of Japan's branch offices in Osaka, Kyoto, Nagoya, Kanazawa, Hakodate and Hiroshima. Almost two thirds of the 140 buildings that Tatsuno was associated with in his career were to be bank buildings.

Tokyo Station.

Other than the Bank of Japan building, the structure most closely associated with Tatsuno in the later stages of his career is undoubtedly the Marunouchi facing side of Tokyo Station. The broadly Neo-Baroque design completed in 1914 is distinctive for its use of extensive steel framing and red brick with ribbed domes crowning the north and south wings of the structure. Much of the original steel framing was imported from England and the sturdiness of the design enabled the structure to survive both the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 as well as wartime bombing and fires in 1945. A sympathetic 5-year renovation of the 1914 structure was completed in October 2012, restoring the domed roof structures that had been a feature of Tatsuno's original design.  Tatsuno also had a strong influence Japanese colonial architecture - especially in Manchukuo. Connection with construction firms like Okada Engineering, the Association of Japanese Architects (Nihon Kenchiku Gakkai ) or through the new "Journal of Manchurian Architecture" (Manshu kenchiku zasshi 満州建築雑誌),helped insure that a particular architectural style—that popularized by Tatsuno, sometimes called the "Tatsuno style" (辰野式) initially became the standard throughout Japanese Manchuria. This involved a somewhat grand interpretation of the style of historical eclecticism that was popular in contemporary Europe.  In 1903 Tatsuno set up his own architectural office, the first Japanese architect in the country to do so. He died as a result of the 1918 flu pandemic in 1919.

Tatsuno is most widely known for his work as the designer of the Bank of Japan building (1896) and the Marunouchi building of Tokyo Station (1914).

, né le à Karatsu dans le domaine de Saga au Japon et décédé de la grippe à l'âge de 64 ans le, est un architecte Japonais.


Text of plan.

The plan proposed to:

Reaction.

The US agreed to turn over all of its weapons on the condition that all other countries pledge not to produce them and agree to an adequate system of inspection. The Soviets rejected this plan on the grounds that the United Nations was dominated by the United States and its allies in Western Europe, and could therefore not be trusted to exercise authority over atomic weaponry in an evenhanded manner (Nationalist China, a UN Security Council member with veto privileges, was anti-communist and aligned with the US at this time). The USSR insisted that America eliminate its own nuclear weapons before considering proposals for a system of controls and inspections.  Although the Soviets showed increased interest in the cause of arms control after they became a nuclear power in 1949, and particularly after the death of Stalin in 1953, the issue of the Soviet Union submitting to international inspection was always a thorny one upon which many attempts at nuclear arms control were stalled. Crucially, the Baruch Plan suggested that none of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council would be able to veto a decision to punish culprits. In presenting his plan to the United Nations, Baruch stated:  The Baruch Plan was not agreed to by the Soviet Union, and though debate on the matter continued until 1948, it was not seriously advanced later than the end of 1947. The USSR was, at the time of the negotiations, pursuing their own atomic bomb project, and the United States was continuing its own weapons development and production. With the failure of the plan, both nations embarked on programs of weapons development, innovation, production, and testing as part of the overall nuclear arms race of the Cold War.  Bertrand Russell urged control of nuclear weapons in the 1940s and early 1950s to avoid the likelihood of a general nuclear war, and felt hopeful when the Baruch Proposal was made. In late 1948 he suggested that "the remedy might be the threat of immediate war by the United States on Russia for the purpose of forcing nuclear disarmament on her." Later he thought less well of the Baruch Proposal as "Congress insisted upon the insertion of clauses which it was known that the Russians would not accept."  In his 1961 book "Has Man a Future?", Russell described the Baruch plan as follows: The Baruch Plan is often questioned by scholars (such as David S. Painter, Melvyn Leffler, and James Carroll) on whether it was a legitimate effort to achieve global cooperation on nuclear control.  The Baruch Plan is often cited in works promoting nuclear power or revisiting nuclear arms control. In philosopher Nick Bostrom's 2014 work, he cited the Baruch Plan as part of an argument that a future power possessing superintelligence that obtained a sufficient strategic advantage would employ it to establish a benign'singleton' or form of global unity: "If this were done with the intention to benefit everybody, for instance by replacing national rivalries and arms races with a fair, representative, and effective world government, it is not clear that there would be even a cogent moral objection to the leveraging of a temporary strategic advantage into a permanent singleton."

The Baruch Plan was a proposal by the United States government, written largely by Bernard Baruch but based on the Acheson–Lilienthal Report, to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) during its first meeting in June 1946. The United States, Great Britain and Canada called for an international organization to regulate atomic energy and President Truman responded by asking Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson and David E. Lilienthal to draw up a plan. Baruch's version of the proposal was rejected by the Soviet Union, who feared the plan would preserve the American nuclear monopoly. Its collapse led to the beginning of the Cold War arms race.

Le Plan Baruch est une proposition du gouvernement des États-Unis présentée à la Commission des Nations unies pour le contrôle de l'énergie atomique par son représentant Bernard Baruch à l'initiative du président Harry Truman en. Le plan a été élaboré à la suite du rapport Acheson-Lilienthal.


Background.

Breeze grew up in Mill Valley, California, at the foot of Mount Tamalpais, just north of San Francisco. He graduated from Tamalpais High School, which at the time had extensive technical training facilities. He studied architectural and engineering drafting there for four years. His father, Bill Breeze, was a machinist and owner of the Sports Car Center in Sausalito, California.  An avid cyclist at a time when cycling was not a common activity for adults in the US, Bill Breeze sometimes commuted to work by bicycle, and he shared with his son an appreciation for efficient, lightweight vehicles and for the bicycle as king of such vehicles. The two often discussed the properties of metals and technical aspects of bicycle design. In 1974 Joe Breeze took a course in the art of bicycle framebuilding from Albert Eisentraut in Oakland, California, and began to build his own custom-tailored road racing frames, using his father's machine shop at their home in Mill Valley. He also studied Machine and Metals Technology at College of Marin from 1974 to 1976.  Breeze had taken up cycling seriously as a teenager in the late 1960s, sometimes going on rides of a few hundred miles. He so enjoyed cycling and saw such value in the bicycle as a vehicle, he wanted to spread the word. In 1970 he took up road-bike racing, figuring that publicity about races could show people how fast and far a bicycle could go. Breeze also studied bicycle history and while traveling for races he searched for early bicycles. He hoped to promote cycling by restoring and displaying examples from the 1890s, the high point of bicycle technology.

Development of the mountain bike.

Joe Breeze raced road bikes throughout the 1970s, eventually racing in the top category. By 1972 Breeze was also competing in cyclocross races and often rode on the trails of Mount Tamalpais. In 1973, he and Velo Club Tamalpais teammate Marc Vendetti were looking for fine early bikes and found a less elegant relic: a 1941 Schwinn-built balloon-tire bike. Vendetti had a few years earlier ridden similar 1930s-40s “paper boy” bikes on Tamalpais at the periphery of the mountain's seminal group of off-road riders, the Larkspur Canyon Gang. Encouraged by Vendetti, Breeze bought the old fat-tire bike for $5, stripped off its extraneous parts and rode it down Mount Tamalpais. He loved it.  Breeze, Vendetti and Velo Club Tamalpais teammate Otis Guy were soon riding Mount Tamalpais trails together regularly. They and other teammates including Gary Fisher, and other enthusiasts from Marin located old fat-tire “ballooner” bikes of many makes, used them off-road and settled on Schwinns built between 1937 and 1944 as the best. They would remove extraneous parts from the bikes, strip them down to their original paint and ride them on Marin's rugged fire roads and trails. Some, including Gary Fisher, added parts such as gears and derailleurs to their ballooners.  In 1976 Breeze began to compete in Repack races. A downhill time trial on fire roads in the hills west of Fairfax, California, Repack brought together riders from around Mount Tamalpais who stripped down older bikes for off-road use and fitted rugged parts to them. Repack served as a testing ground for off-road bikes.  The heavy old fat-tire bike frames, made of mild steel, were not standing up to the rigors of mountain biking. Breeze was asked by Charlie Kelly to build a mountain bike frame and in early 1977 Breeze agreed to do so. While working on the design for the mountain bike, Breeze took orders to make mountain bikes for several other Marin County off-road cycling enthusiasts. He completed the prototype (Breezer #1) in Fall 1977 and rode it to victory at Repack. Breeze finished nine more Breezer mountain bikes by June 1978. He built up the bikes with all-new parts, which he sourced from around the world. Those ten Breezer Series 1 bikes, made of chrome-moly alloy steel, are widely considered the first modern mountain bikes.  The first ten Breezer mountain bikes can be recognized by their twin lateral tubes, which Breeze included to stiffen the long frames for high-speed tracking. Breeze revised his designs shortly after, and shared his ideas for the next generation of mountain bikes with other framebuilders, including Tom Ritchey (of Palo Alto, 50 miles south of Marin) who built his first mountain bike frames in 1979. Ritchey became the frame supplier to the Marin County company MountainBikes, founded in 1979 by Gary Fisher and Charlie Kelly. The mountain bike's progression from local San Francisco Bay Area builders to the larger industry was complete in Fall 1981, when Specialized Bicycle Components introduced a lower-priced production mountain bike, the Specialized Stumpjumper, built in Japan and based on the Ritchey-built bikes sold by Fisher and Kelly.

Early mountain bike racing, events.

Joe Breeze raced in 19 of the 24 Repack races, winning 10 times. Twenty-two of the Repack races, downhill time trials organized and promoted by Charlie Kelly, were held from 1976 to 1979. Repack is known as mountain biking's first recorded competition. The last Repack race in 1979 was filmed by a TV crew for a San Francisco Bay Area news program, KPIX Evening Magazine. That filmed account aired nationally, spreading the word about mountain biking to a larger audience. The Repack race was revived for two more runs, in 1983 and 1984, becoming the first officially sanctioned downhill mountain bike race.  A mosaic tribute to Repack was installed in downtown Fairfax in 2013.  In 1978, Joe Breeze was one of five riders from Marin County to travel to Crested Butte, Colorado, to participate in the Pearl Pass Tour, a two-day, off-road ride from Crested Butte to Aspen, over 12,700 foot Pearl Pass. Joe Breeze, Charlie Kelly, and Wende Cragg rode their 1977 and 1978 Breezers, while the other participants, including Gary Fisher and Michael Castelli of Marin County and several Crested Butte residents, rode modified Schwinns from the 1930s to 1950s. Crested Butte became an important destination for mountain biking; the Pearl Pass Tour, founded in 1976, is the sport's longest running annual two-day event.  In 1983, Breeze and several others founded NORBA (National Off-Road Bicycle Association), the first sanctioning organization for off-road bicycle racing. Breeze designed the NORBA logo and championed the rule requiring that racers do their own repairs during races. He maintained that a self-sufficiency rule for racing would ensure that manufacturers would keep their focus on durable bikes for all riders.  NORBA is now part of USA Cycling.

Breezer mountain and road bikes in 1980s and 1990s.

In 1980-81 Breeze built a second series of Breezer mountain bikes with oversize tubing in a diamond frame, and in 1982 to 1985 he built a third series. Breeze continued to develop and refine his mountain bike designs in the 1980s and 1990s. In 1986 he designed the American Breezer, an aluminum mountain bike built in St. Cloud, Minnesota. In the 1990s he designed a line of steel and aluminum Breezer bikes sold worldwide. Mountain bike models included the Breezer Lightning, Jet Stream, Thunder, Storm, Beamer, Twister, and Tornado. The 1993 Breezer Venturi, a road bike, featured compact geometry, which later became standard in the industry.

Bicycle transportation.

Breeze's long-term interest has been to see more people using bicycles in everyday life and not only for recreation.  On a cycling trip in Europe in 1971 he saw excellent bicycle infrastructure in the Netherlands, and people of all ages using bikes for daily transportation; this suggested possibilities for the United States that continued to inspire him through the mountain bike boom of the 1980s and 1990s.  Breeze has said that the mountain bike, being easy to ride and thus appealing to non-cyclists, "got more Americans onto bikes than any other bike since the 1890s." He observed in the 1990s, however, that as high-end mountain bike design (including his own) was geared increasingly toward race bikes, lower-priced mountain bikes followed suit and thus the bikes became less accessible to the masses. "The mountain bike opened cycling up to a lot of people by being friendlier than road bikes," Breeze wrote in 1997. "Maybe it's time for another bike to do that again." His 1996 Breezer Ignaz X cruiser was the first bike he designed for town use.  In the late 1990s Breeze devoted himself full-time to advocating for bicycle transportation, working with government agencies to make streets more bicycle-friendly and with grass-roots organizations to promote the bicycle as a practical mode of transportation. Transportation cycling, he said, addresses many issues at once: obesity, oil dependence, traffic congestion, global warming, lack of time for exercise. He and other Marin County bicycle advocates visited Washington, DC to advocate for better cycling infrastructure and a national Safe Routes to School program. For the Marin County Bicycle Coalition, he created in 1998 and periodically revises a detailed map of Marin's current and potential bicycle routes. Through the latter half of the 1990s, Breeze had been urging the U.S. bicycle industry to start producing bikes that non-athletes could use to get places in daily life.  In 2001, still seeing a need in the United States for bikes fully equipped for errands and commutes, Breeze devoted his own Breezer brand to transportation. He introduced in 2002 a line of bikes designed for everyday, practical use that integrated fenders, racks, and generator lights. With model names like Uptown, Villager, Citizen, Liberty and Greenway, these Breezer bikes were similar to European utility bikes in being fully equipped, but Breeze designed them to be lighter and more ergonomically efficient.  Since then the bicycle transportation sector, long a staple in other parts of the world, has become an important bicycle market in the United States. In 2008, Breeze sold his Breezer brand to Advanced Sports International of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and since then has worked for the company as Breezer frame designer. The arrangement allowed him to concentrate on design and product development and create more bikes for a wide range of purposes. The company introduced Joe Breeze's new line of Breezer mountain bikes in 2010. Breeze's current designs include transportation bikes, road bikes and mountain bikes.

Film; museum collections and exhibits.

Joe Breeze, along with many others involved in the early history of mountain bikes, was featured in the 2007 documentary film "". Breezer #1 (1977) was on display at the Oakland Museum, Cowell Hall of California History, from 1985 to 2011. In 2012 it became part of the collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, DC. Breezer #2 (1978), which Joe Breeze built for MountainBikes co-founder Charlie Kelly, is on display at the Mountain Bike Hall of Fame, part of the Marin Museum of Bicycling in Fairfax, California.  Breezer #9 is on display at Shimano's Bicycle Museum Cycle Center in Sakai City, Japan.  Several Breezer bikes from the 1980s and 1990s are in the collection of The Museum of Mountain Bike Art & Technology in Statesville, NC. Breeze's own 1982 (Series 3) Breezer mountain bike is on display at the US Bicycling Hall of Fame in Davis, California.  A major exhibition on the history of the mountain bike in Northern California, at San Francisco International Airport's SFO Museum (July 2012 to February 2013),  displayed 27 bikes and many related artifacts. The show was called "From Repack to Rwanda: The Origins, Evolution, and Global Reach of the Mountain Bike." Included were Joe Breeze's 1941 Schwinn-built BF Goodrich modified by Breeze in 1973 for off-road riding, and Breezer #6, built by Joe Breeze in 1977-78 for rider-photographer Wende Cragg.  Joe Breeze, Otis Guy, Marc Vendetti and others are co-founders of the Marin Museum of Bicycling in Fairfax, California, which opened to the public in June 2015. Joe Breeze is Curator of the museum, which displays bicycles from the late 1860s to the present and functions as a cycling cultural center.

Joe Breeze (born 1953) is a bicycle framebuilder, designer and advocate from Marin County, California. An early participant in the sport of mountain biking, Breeze, along with other pioneers including Gary Fisher, Charlie Kelly, and Tom Ritchey, is known for his central role in developing the mountain bike. Breeze is credited with designing and building the first all-new mountain bikes, which were called Breezers. He built the prototype, known as Breezer #1, in 1977 and completed nine more Series I Breezers by early 1978.

Joe Breeze est un coureur cycliste, concepteur de vélo, militant de la bicyclette, et chef d'entreprise américain né en 1953. Il est considéré comme l'un des inventeurs du vélo tout-terrain dans les années 1970. Il est en particulier reconnu pour avoir construit en 1977 le premier vélo entièrement pensé pour la pratique du VTT. Il est également l'un des participants clés des célèbres courses des années 1970. Fondateur de la marque de VTT Breezer, il se recentre en 2001 sur la conception de vélos utilitaires.


Family background and early life.

Parentage, disaster, and a barely spared young life.

Liu Bingyi was born in 91 BC to Liu Jin, the son of then-Crown Prince Liu Ju, and his wife Consort Wang. As the grandson of the Crown Prince, Bingyi likely was born in Prince Ju's palace.  That same year, however, disaster would strike. With conspirators accusing him of using witchcraft against his father Emperor Wu, Prince Ju was forced into a rebellion, which was defeated. Prince Ju committed suicide, and Bingyi's two uncles died with him, although it was not clear whether they also committed suicide or were killed by soldiers. Bingyi's great-grandmother Empress Wei also committed suicide, and his grandmother (Prince Ju's concubine) Consort Shi and his parents died in the incident as well in the capital Chang'an. It is not completely clear whether they took their own lives or were executed, but the latter seems likely.  For reasons not completely clear, the baby Bingyi was spared, although he was imprisoned in a prison overseen by the Ministry of Vassal Affairs. He was put into the custody of the warden Bing Ji (). Bing knew that Prince Ju was actually innocent of witchcraft and took pity on the child, and selected two kind female prisoners, Hu Zu () and Guo Zhengqing () to serve as his wet nurses and caretakers. Bing visited them each day to see how the child was doing.

Childhood.

Near the end of Emperor Wu's reign, there was an incident when magicians claimed that an aura of an emperor was appearing from Chang'an prisons. Emperor Wu ordered that all prisoners, regardless of whether they had been convicted or not and regardless of the severity of the charges, were to be executed. When the eunuch delivering the edict arrived at the Vassal Affairs prison that Bing oversaw, Bing refused to accept the edict, stating that no one who had not been convicted of a capital crime should be executed, and particularly not the emperor's own great-grandson. The eunuch filed charges against Bing for refusing to abide by the edict—a capital offense—but by that time Emperor Wu had realized his error and declared a general pardon. The prisoners in all other prisons were dead, but the prisoners at Bing's prison survived.  However, this incident made Bing feel that it was inappropriate for the young Bingyi to remain at the prison, and so he ordered one of his lieutenants to transfer Bingyi and Hu (Guo might have died by this point) to the city government of Chang'an. The city government refused to accept responsibility, and so Bing had to let them remain in prison. After Hu's sentence was over, Bing hired her out of his own pocket to continue to serve as a wet nurse for several months, before letting her leave. Later, the budget for taking care of Bingyi was cut off from the imperial clan affairs budget, and Bing took money out of his own salary to care for Bingyi. When he grew somewhat older, Bing heard that Consort Shi's mother Zhenjun () and brother Shi Gong () survived the incident, and so sought them out and had Bingyi delivered to the Shi residence. Lady Zhenjun raised him herself.  Several years later, Bingyi's granduncle Emperor Zhao found out that Bingyi was alive, and ordered that the Ministry of Imperial Clan Affairs take over the duty for caring for Bingyi. The chief eunuch at the palace Zhang He (), who had previously been an advisor to Prince Ju before he was castrated by Emperor Wu in the aftermaths of Prince Ju's death, cared well for young Bingyi, and paid for his expenses and studies out of his own pocket.

Young Adulthood and Marriage.

Circa 76 BC, Zhang wanted to marry his granddaughter to Bingyi, but his brother Zhang Anshi (), then an important official, opposed, fearing that it would bring trouble. Zhang, instead, invited one of his subordinate eunuchs (who had also been castrated by Emperor Wu), Xu Guanghan (), to dinner, and persuaded him to marry his daughter Xu Pingjun to him. When Xu's wife heard this, she became extremely angry and refused, but because Zhang was Xu's superior, Xu did not dare to renege on the promise, and Bingyi and Pingjun were married, in a ceremony entirely paid by Zhang (because Bingyi could not afford it). Zhang also paid the bride price.  After marriage, Bingyi depended on his wife's family and his grandmother's family for support, and he engaged a teacher to teach him the Confucian classics. He was a diligent learner, and he also had a strong sense of social justice. As a teenager, he had many friends from all walks of life and was able to see the dark sides of society and the suffering of the people at the hands of corrupt officials. He had a strong interest in hiking. Occasionally he was summoned to see Emperor Zhao. Pingjun bore him a son, Liu Shi.

Succession to the Throne.

After Emperor Zhao died in 74 BC at the age of 20, the regent Huo Guang initially offered the throne to Prince He of Changyi. However, after Prince He quickly showed his unsuitability to be an emperor, Huo removed him from the throne. Huo, however, could not find a suitable successor among the princes. At Bing's recommendation (although the exact process behind the scenes was not completely clear), Huo, with Zhang Anshi's concurrence, decided to offer the throne to Bingyi, then 17, an offer ratified by Huo's granddaughter Empress Dowager Shangguan. To avoid having a commoner take the throne, 27 days after Prince He was removed from the throne, Empress Dowager Shangguan first created him the Marquess of Yangwu. On the same day, he was offered the imperial seal and the throne, and he accepted.

Early Reign.

When Emperor Xuan accepted the throne, his son Prince Shi was barely a few months old. Prince Shi's mother Xu Pingjun has initially created a consort. When it came time to create an empress, the officials largely wanted Emperor Xuan to marry Huo Guang's daughter Huo Chengjun () and create her empress. Emperor Xuan did not explicitly reject this proposal but issued an order to seek out the sword that he owned as a commoner. Getting the hint, the officials recommended Consort Xu as empress, and she was created as such late in 74 BC. He initially wanted to create his father-in-law Xu Guanghan a marquess, but Huo opposed, reasoning a eunuch who had suffered castration as a punishment should not be made a marquess. Instead, Xu was given the title of Lord of Changcheng ().  In 73 BC, Huo offered to be relieved of his responsibilities as a regent. Emperor Xuan declined and ordered that all important matters of the state still be submitted to Huo first. He also gave high positions to Huo's son Huo Yu () and grandnephews Huo Yun () and Huo Shan (), as well as Huo's sons-in-law Fan Mingyou () and Deng Guanghan (). In many ways, Emperor Xuan, although now emperor, remained intimidated by the powers of Huo and was always humble before him. In that same year, Emperor Xuan restored posthumous titles to his grandparents and parents (although, perhaps out of respect to Emperor Zhao's memory, Crown Prince Ju received the rather unflattering posthumous name "Li" (戾, "unrepenting")) and reburied them with honor. In 67 BC, he also finally found his maternal grandmother and her family, and he rewarded his grandmother and uncles with riches, and his uncles were created, marquesses.  Huo Guang's wife Xian () would not be denied what she wanted—having her daughter as an empress. In 71 BC, Empress Xu was pregnant when Lady Xian came up with a plot. She bribed Empress Xu's female physician Chunyu Yan (), under the guise of giving Empress Xu medicine after she gave birth, to poison her. Chunyu did so, and Empress Xu died shortly after she gave birth. Her doctors were initially arrested to investigate whether they cared for the empress properly. Lady Xian, alarmed, informed Huo Guang what had happened, and Huo, not having the heart to turn in his wife, instead signed Chunyu's release.  In that same year, a major battle with Xiongnu occurred. Xiongnu had been incessantly attacking the Xiyu (central Asia) kingdom of Wusun, whose queen was the Han princess Liu Jieyou (). Emperor Xuan commissioned five generals and coordinated a plan with Wusun to attack Xiongnu at the same time. Xiongnu put the strongest defenses against the Han generals, and they largely fought inconclusively, but with the western frontiers weakened, Wusun forces won a major victory over Xiongnu, severely crippling Xiongnu's western region. For years after, without Han engaging major forces, Xiongnu was constantly under attack by Dingling from the north, Wuhuan from the east, and Wusun from the west, and became unable to harass Han borders.  In 70 BC, Emperor Xuan created Huo Chengjun empress. Accustomed to luxury living, her palace expenditures far exceeded the late Empress Xu.  Emperor Xuan's early reign was generally known for his willingness to innovate, to commission officials who were lenient on the people, and to listen to advice. For example, in 67 BC, based on a submission from a Justice Ministry official Lu Wenshu (), who was concerned about the harshness of the criminal justice system, Emperor Xuan added four appellate judges who were in charge of hearing final appeals. While this fell well short of what Lu suggested, it did help to reform the justice system somewhat.

The Destruction of the Huo Clan.

In 68 BC, Huo Guang died. Emperor Xuan and Grand Empress Dowager Shangguan made the nearly-unprecedented act of personally attending Huo's wake and built an impressive mausoleum for Huo. After Huo's death, Zhang Anshi and Wei Xiang () became Emperor Xuan's most powerful advisors, but Emperor Xuan assumed far more personal powers than he had during Huo's lifetime. Later, Bing Ji (who had not yet revealed by this point the extent of his contribution to the emperor's survival in his young age) also became a key official. Huo's son, grandnephews, and sons-in-law remained in key posts, however.  In 67 BC, Emperor Xuan created Prince Shi—the late Empress Xu's son—crown prince and created Empress Xu's father Xu Guanghan the Marquess of Ping'en—an action that Huo Guang had opposed. Huo's wife Lady Xian was shocked and displeased because if her daughter were to have a son later, that son could only be a prince and not the future emperor. She instructed her daughter to murder the crown prince. Allegedly, Empress Huo did make multiple attempts to do so but failed each time. Around this time, the emperor also heard rumors that the Huos had murdered Empress Xu, which led him to begin stripping the Huos of actual power while giving them impressive titles.  In 66 BC, after there had been increasing public rumors that the Huos had murdered Empress Xu, Lady Xian finally revealed to her son and grandnephews that she had, indeed, murdered Empress Xu. In fear of what the emperor might do if he had actual proof, Lady Xian, her son, her grandnephews, and her sons-in-law formed a conspiracy to depose the emperor. The conspiracy was discovered, and the entire Huo clan was executed by Emperor Xuan—an act that later drew heavy criticism from historians for its ungratefulness to Huo Guang. (e.g., Sima Guang in his Zizhi Tongjian.) (For the time being, Empress Huo was deposed but not executed, but 12 years later she was exiled; in response, she committed suicide.)

Middle Reign.

During the middle stage of his reign, Emperor Xuan's administration continued to be known for the promotion of honest officials who generally cared for the people. It was also marked by further fostering of relationships with Xiyu kingdoms, making them strong vassals. He was also characterized by attention to detail and willingness to have correspondences with his generals in which he kindly but firmly had concrete discussions with them on proper military strategy in dealing with minority tribes and foreign nations. An example could be seen in his correspondences with General Zhao Chongguo () in 62 BC to 60 BC when Zhao was on a mission to pacify the Qiang tribes, some of which were rebelling and some of which were considering rebellion. Zhao opposed the annihilation strategy that other generals had proposed and which Emperor Xuan had initially approved but instead advocated better treatment of the tribes and establishment of military settlements to better prepare for any future rebellions. Eventually, Emperor Xuan agreed, and the Qiang tribes were pacified without major bloodshed. Also, after a short foray into magic in 61 BC, Emperor Xuan realized the follies of seeking immortality and abandoned the would-be costly venture (unlike, for example, his great-grandfather Emperor Wu).  In 64 BC, Emperor Xuan considered creating a new empress. At that time, his favorite consorts were Consorts Hua, Zhang, and Wei. He seriously considered creating Consort Zhang, the mother of his son Liu Qin (later Prince of Huaiyang), empress but was still hesitant over the episode in which Empress Huo nearly succeeded in poisoning Crown Prince Shi. He then resolved to create an empress who did not have sons of her own and was kind and gentle. He created Consort Wang, not one of his favorites, empress, and had her raise Crown Prince Shi as her own.  That same year, he also changed his name to Xun (), to make it easier for the people to carry out "naming taboo" (the avoidance of using the emperor's name in speech or writing), because "bing" and "yi" were both common characters that were hard to avoid.  In 63 BC, having realized the extent of Bing's contributions to him, Emperor Xuan decided to repay him, and others who were involved in his upbringing, for their kindness. Bing and several others, in addition to Zhang He's adopted son, were created, marquesses. The prison guards who had treated him with kindness were also rewarded. His nurses Hu and Guo had already died by this point, but their descendants were tracked down and rewarded.

Late Reign.

Late in his reign, Emperor Xuan began to moderately become luxurious in living but was still comparatively thrifty in his expenditures. He also began to relax from his early diligence in governing the state. He also became less diligent in realizing of false reports by officials. For example, there were large numbers of reported sightings of "fenghuang" (Chinese phoenixes) – mythological birds who were considered symbols of divine favor—during this period, and while in ancient China there might have been "legitimate" sightings of phoenixes (that is, rare birds that were then-considered phoenixes), a good number of these reports were later shown to be likely hoaxes, but Emperor Xuan accepted these reports without critically examining them: although in the case of reported sightings of a green rooster and golden horse in Shu (modern Sichuan), Xuan did dispatch one of his favored poets and a Shu native, Wang Bao, to investigate and to bring back the golden horse, if found (though Wang became ill and died on the way). However, in general, Emperor Xuan's reign, even in this period, was marked by his concern for the people and unwillingness to undertake military action unless necessary. For example, in 59 BC, a major Xiongnu civil war broke out—which would leave the Xiongnu fighting each other for years. Many generals advocated using this opportunity to completely annihilate the Xiongnu. Emperor Xuan did not want to do so but rather encouraged peace among the Xiongnu princes with hopes of having them submit to him.  His efforts paid off. By 56 BC, Xiongnu had been fractured into three separate regimes, ruled by "Chanyus" Runzhen (), Huhanye (), and Zhizhi. All three sought peace with Han, and Han was able to reduce its defense forces by one fifth, decreasing the burdens on the people correspondingly. In 54 BC, Chanyu Runzhen was defeated and killed by Chanyu Zhizhi, who further sought to try to defeat Chanyu Huhanye to reunify Xiongnu. In response, in 53 BC, at the advice of his official, Chanyu Huhanye headed south and requested to become a Han vassal to seek Han protection. In 51 BC, Chanyu Huhanye made an official visit to Chang'an as a Han vassal, and Emperor Xuan, correctly judging that he should seek to have Huhanye submit to him out of gratitude and not of fear, ordered that Huhanye not be required to bow to him and that he be treated as higher than imperial princes. Emperor Xuan also commissioned an expedition force to assist Chanyu Huhanye in defending his territory. In 49 BC, Chanyu Huhanye made a second visit. With Han assistance, his strength grew, and Chanyu Zhizhi, who had previously been stronger, was forced to move west.  In 53 BC, disappointed in Crown Prince Shi's overreliance on Confucian officials and lack of resolve, he considered creating Liu Qin, the Prince of Huaiyang, a crown prince instead, but could not bring himself to do so—remembering how Prince Shi's mother Empress Xu was his first love and had been murdered by poisoning, and also how he depended on his father-in-law in his youth.  In 51 BC, after Chanyu Huhanye's visit, Emperor Xuan, in his most shining moment, remembered key officials who had been instrumental in his success. In an unprecedented action, he had the portraits of 11 of them be painted onto the main gallery of the main imperial palace, the Weiyang Palace. The 11 were:  Huo was referred only by titles and not by name—which was considered an even greater honor than given to the other 10.  By this time, the Western Han Dynasty would reach its peak in terms of territorial size, even greater than during the reign of Emperor Wu. Emperor Xuan died in 49 BC. He was succeeded by Crown Prince Shi, as Emperor Yuan. His tomb Duling () is located some 15 km southeast of the city of Xi'an.

Culture.

Xuan's court was somewhat of a literary center, something which extended to his royal hunts, which he turned into somewhat of a poetry competition for accompanying poets. Among the literary figures at his court were Wang Bao and Liu Xiang.

Emperor Xuan of Han (91 BC – 10 January 48 BC), born Liu Bingyi (劉病已) and later renamed to Liu Xun (劉詢), was the tenth emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty, reigning from 74 to 48 BC, and was one of the only four Western Han emperors to receive a temple name (along with Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Wen and Emperor Wu). During his reign, the Han dynasty prospered economically and militarily became the regional superpower, and was considered by many to be the peak period of the entire Han history. He was succeeded by his son Emperor Yuan after his death in 48 BC.

Han Xuandi ( - ), né Liu Bingyi (劉病已) puis renommé Liu Xun (劉詢), était un empereur de la dynastie chinoise des Han entre à


History.

The town of Anna was platted on March 3, 1854 after the new Illinois Central Railroad established a station there. It was founded by Winstead Davie and named after Anna Davie, his wife. The city was then incorporated on February 16, 1865. The coming of the railroad can be credited for prompting the founding of the City of Anna, although, from the time of the George Rogers Clark expedition into Southern Illinois country, emigrants recognized its agricultural possibilities. Anna, centrally located in Anna Precinct of Union County, was established by ordinance following the election of Trustees in 1855, although the plot was recorded in the county records on March 3, 1854. The elevation along with the fertility of the soil makes the fruit farming, which has been one of the principal occupations of the area, more certain. As a result of the elevation and soil fertility, Viticulture specifically, has become a prominent trade for its residents. For the purpose of farming, fruit growing, gardening, and dairying, the lands in and around Anna are not surpassed in Southern Illinois. The precinct in which Anna lies is situated on the divide between the waters of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and is well drained by the Cache, Cypress, and Big Creeks. Many cool springs of water aid materially in cattle farming in this area. In 1859, brothers Cornwall and Wallace Kirkpatrick started Anna Pottery in Anna. Their work became well-known and later, collectors' items; one of their most descriptive pieces was a pig from which wine could be consumed. The business ran until 1900, according to an exhibit at the Union County Historical Society Museum in Cobden.  Anna is home to the site of the Union County Fair, which started in 1880 and continues today.  In 1909, town residents reportedly attempted to drive out the black families who lived in Anna, after the lynching of William “Froggie” James in the nearby town of Cairo, Illinois for the rape and murder of Anna resident Anna Pelley. Anna was historically a sundown town, in which African Americans were excluded from living in the town's limits. According to historian James W. Loewen, a common adage in the town was that its name of "Anna" was a backronym standing for "Ain't No Niggers Allowed". The phrase is still well-known, with few non-white residents owing in part to its historical reputation.  The Stinson Memorial Library is a public library located at 409 S. Main St. in Anna, Illinois. The library was designed by Walter Burley Griffin, an understudy to Frank Lloyd Wright, in 1913 and constructed in 1913–14. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 9, 1978.  Lewis Bakeries, the makers of Bunny Bread, was founded in 1925. Lewis started the company with a $300 loan against his mother's house, and by 1987, the company was reportedly earning $80 million in annual sales. Founder Jack Lewis died in September 2001 at the age of 91. Bunny Bread itself was created in 1947, according to the Bunny Bread website.  Anna native Clyde L. Choate expressed his concerns about the industry of coal, and was then encouraged by President Harry S. Truman to run for office. He did, and in 1946 won, serving 30 years until he left the state legislature in 1976. He was the Illinois Democratic chairman for the 1972 presidential elections and a decorated soldier from WWII, from which he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor.

Geography.

Anna is located at.  According to the 2010 census, Anna has a total area of, of which (or 99.46%) is land and (or 0.54%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 4,442 people, 1,893 households and 1,097 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,269.1 people per square mile. There were 2,123 housing units at an average density of 606.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 95.7% White, 1.1% African American, 0.6% American Indian and Alaskan Native, 0.4% Asian, <0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.2% from other races, and.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people (of any race) were 2.9% of the population.  There were 1,893 households, out of which 24.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.6% were married couples living together, 14.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8% had a male householder with no wife present and 42.0% were non-families. 37.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 21.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.85.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.7% aged 19 and younger, 7.0% from 20 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 23.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $39,602, the median income for a family was $44,420. The incomes of 20.2% of the population were below the poverty level.

Education.

Public schools in Anna include Anna Jr High School Davie School and the Lincoln School, both part of Anna District #37, and the Anna-Jonesboro Community High School District #81.

Anna is the largest community and retail trade center in Union County, Illinois, United States. Located in Southern Illinois, the population was 4,442 at the 2010 United States Census, a decline from 5,135 in 2000. The city is known for being tied to its close neighbor Jonesboro, together known as Anna-Jonesboro. Anna is known for the Choate Mental Health and Development Center, a state facility that first opened in 1869.

Anna est une ville du comté d'Union, dans l'Illinois, aux États-Unis. Elle comptait 5 136 habitants au recensement de 2000.


Format.

There were six tournaments spread over 2008, 2009 and 2010. Each of the 21 participating players was originally scheduled to play in exactly four of the six tournaments; though this was complicated when some players withdrew partway through.  Each tournament is a 14 player, single round-robin tournament. In each round players scored 1 point for a win, 1⁄2 point for a draw and 0 for a loss. Grand prix points were then allocated according to each player's standing in the tournament: 180 grand prix points for first place, 150 for second place, 130 for third place, and then 110 down to 10 points for places four to fourteen (decreasing by 10 points for each place). (Grand Prix points were split between players on equal tournament points).  Players only counted their best three tournament results. The player with the most grand prix points was the winner.  If a tie-break was needed for the overall grand prix winner, the system was:

Tournament dates.

The tournament dates and locations were as follows:

Draw rules.

A variation from normal chess rules was that the players were not allowed to talk to each other during the game and a draw by agreement was not allowed. A draw has to be claimed with the arbiter, who was assisted by an active grandmaster who had the title for at least ten years. The only draws allowed (except for stalemate) were:

Participants.

Prominent non-participants.

Of the original 14 players who qualified, Anand, Kramnik and Topalov (2008/2010 contenders), Shirov (World Cup 2007) and Morozevich (ratings list) were all not taking part. One of the first four nominated reserves, Judit Polgár was also not participating. The lineup for the Grand Prix included 13 of the 20 top-rated Grandmasters at the time it was announced, though none of the top four.  The only one to publicly give a reason was Alexander Morozevich, who announced that he was boycotting the Grand Prix, saying the process was too long, unwieldy and disorganised. He claimed that Anand, Kramnik and Topalov were also boycotting. The Week in Chess reported that Kramnik and Topalov were not participating because the event had insufficient prize money.  Josef Resch of Universal Event Promotion (organizer of 2008 World Championship) also spoke about the difficulties in organizational details with FIDE in the totality of the World Chess Championship cycle.

Original participants.

On March 5, 2008, FIDE released the list of participants, along with their world rankings according to the January 2008 ratings list (shown here in brackets).

Changes after the second and third tournaments.

After Doha and Montreux refused to host tournaments, their nominees Al-Modiahki and Pelletier were removed from the series. Carlsen and Adams withdrew from the Grand Prix. These players were replaced by Evgeny Alekseev, Pavel Eljanov, Rustam Kasimdzhanov (from the rating list) and Vladimir Akopian (Jermuk nominee) from the third tournament onwards.  After Karlovy Vary withdrew in January 2009 (after the third tournament), the Karlovy Vary nominee David Navara was also excluded from the Grand Prix, and was not replaced.

Prize Money.

The Regulations indicate the following disbursement of prize monies.  For each event there was 162000 euros available (for 14 players), and 300000 euros in the overall standings (top 10).

Events crosstables.

Baku, April–May 2008.

The first Grand Prix event began on April 20, 2008 and concluded on May 5, 2008 (Elo average 2717, Cat. XIX).  The final crosstable was as follows:

Sochi, July–August 2008.

The second Grand Prix event began on July 31, 2008 and concluded on August 14, 2008 (Elo average 2708, Cat. XIX). The final crosstable was as follows:

Elista, December 2008.

The third tournament was held in Elista between 14 and 28 December 2008 (Elo average 2713, Cat. XIX).

Nalchik, April 2009.

The fourth tournament was held in Nalchik, Kabardino-Balkaria between 14 and 29 April 2009 (Elo average 2725, Cat. XX).

Jermuk, August 2009.

The fifth tournament took place in Jermuk, Armenia between 8 and 24 August 2009 (Elo average 2719, Cat. XIX).  The tournament was won by Ivanchuk. Aronian took equal second, sufficient for him to win the Grand Prix.

Astrakhan, May 2010.

The sixth tournament took place in Astrakhan, Russia between 9 and 25 May 2010 (Elo average 2730, Cat. XX).

Grand Prix standings.

Grand Prix points in bold indicate a tournament win. A number in brackets is a player's worst result of four and doesn't add to the total.  Aronian scored enough points to win the Grand Prix before the last event took place. Hence he decided not to play the last tournament of the Grand Prix.  Notes: Gata Kamsky was later granted a place in the 2011 Candidates Tournament as runner-up of the 2009 Challenger Match. Boris Gelfand qualified for the Candidates Tournament by winning the Chess World Cup 2009. Magnus Carlsen qualified for the Candidates Tournament by rating (average of July 2009 and January 2010 FIDE rating lists). Later Magnus Carlsen withdrew from the Candidates Tournament, and he was replaced by Alexander Grischuk, who took third place in the Grand Prix. Shakhriyar Mamedyarov was later granted a place in the Candidates Tournament as organisers' wild card.

The FIDE Grand Prix 2008–10 was a series of six chess tournaments that formed part of the qualification for the World Chess Championship 2012. It was administered by FIDE, the World Chess Federation. The event was won by Levon Aronian, with Teimour Radjabov second and Alexander Grischuk third.

Le Grand Prix FIDE 2008-2010 est une compétition internationale de jeu d'échecs organisée par la FIDE en 2008-2010 et composée de six tournois fermés. Le premier et le deuxième (Levon Aronian et Teimour Radjabov) du classement final étaient qualifiés pour le tournoi des candidats disputé l'année suivante (2011).


Introduction.

A particular problem in the area of liquid-state thermodynamics is the sourcing of reliable thermodynamic constants. These constants are necessary for the successful prediction of the free energy state of the system; without this information it is impossible to model the equilibrium phases of the system.  Obtaining this free energy data is not a trivial problem, and requires careful experiments, such as calorimetry, to successfully measure the energy of the system. Even when this work is performed it is infeasible to attempt to conduct this work for every single possible class of chemicals, and the binary, or higher, mixtures thereof. To alleviate this problem, free energy prediction models, such as UNIFAC, are employed to predict the system's energy based on a few previously measured constants.  It is possible to calculate some of these parameters using ab initio methods like COSMO-RS, but results should be treated with caution, because ab initio predictions can be off. Similarly, UNIFAC can be off, and for both methods it is advisable to validate the energies obtained from these calculations experimentally.

UNIFAC correlation.

The UNIFAC correlation attempts to break down the problem of predicting interactions between molecules by describing molecular interactions based upon the functional groups attached to the molecule. This is done in order to reduce the sheer number of binary interactions that would be needed to be measured to predict the state of the system.

Chemical activity.

The activity coefficient of the components in a system is a correction factor that accounts for deviations of real systems from that of an Ideal solution, which can either be measured via experiment or estimated from chemical models (such as UNIFAC). By adding a correction factor, known as the activity (formula_1, the activity of the i component) to the liquid phase fraction of a liquid mixture, some of the effects of the real solution can be accounted for. The activity of a real chemical is a function of the thermodynamic state of the system, i.e. temperature and pressure.  Equipped with the activity coefficients and a knowledge of the constituents and their relative amounts, phenomena such as phase separation and vapour-liquid equilibria can be calculated. UNIFAC attempts to be a general model for the successful prediction of activity coefficients.

Model parameters.

The UNIFAC model splits up the activity coefficient for each species in the system into two components; a combinatorial formula_2 and a residual component formula_3. For the formula_4-th molecule, the activity coefficients are broken down as per the following equation:  In the UNIFAC model, there are three main parameters required to determine the activity for each molecule in the system. Firstly there are the group surface area formula_6 and volume contributions formula_7 obtained from the Van der Waals surface area and volumes. These parameters depend purely upon the individual functional groups on the host molecules. Finally there is the binary interaction parameter formula_8, which is related to the interaction energy formula_9 of molecular pairs (equation in "residual" section). These parameters must be obtained either through experiments, via data fitting or molecular simulation.

Combinatorial.

The combinatorial component of the activity is contributed to by several terms in its equation (below), and is the same as for the UNIQUAC model.  where formula_11 and formula_12 are the molar weighted segment and area "fractional" components for the formula_4-th molecule in the total system and are defined by the following equation; formula_14 is a compound parameter of formula_15, formula_16 and formula_17. formula_16 is the coordination number of the system, but the model is found to be relatively insensitive to its value and is frequently quoted as a constant having the value of 10.  formula_20 and formula_21 are calculated from the group surface area and volume contributions formula_6 and formula_7 (Usually obtained via tabulated values) as well as the number of occurrences of the functional group on each molecule formula_24 such that:

Residual.

The residual component of the activity formula_26 is due to interactions between groups present in the system, with the original paper referring to the concept of a "solution-of-groups". The residual component of the activity for the formula_4-th molecule containing formula_28 unique functional groups can be written as follows:  where formula_30 is the activity of an isolated group in a solution consisting only of molecules of type formula_4. The formulation of the residual activity ensures that the condition for the limiting case of a single molecule in a pure component solution, the activity is equal to 1; as by the definition of formula_30, one finds that formula_33 will be zero. The following formula is used for both formula_34 and formula_30  In this formula formula_37 is the summation of the area fraction of group formula_38, over all the different groups and is somewhat similar in form, but not the same as formula_11. formula_40 is the group interaction parameter and is a measure of the interaction energy between groups. This is calculated using an Arrhenius equation (albeit with a pseudo-constant of value 1). formula_41 is the group mole fraction, which is the number of groups formula_28 in the solution divided by the total number of groups.  formula_45 is the energy of interaction between groups "m" and "n", with SI units of joules per mole and "R" is the ideal gas constant. Note that it is not the case that formula_46, giving rise to a non-reflexive parameter. The equation for the group interaction parameter can be simplified to the following:  Thus formula_48 still represents the net energy of interaction between groups formula_38 and formula_28, but has the somewhat unusual units of absolute temperature (SI kelvins). These interaction energy values are obtained from experimental data, and are usually tabulated.

The UNIFAC method (UNIQUAC Functional-group Activity Coefficients) is a semi-empirical system for the prediction of non-electrolyte activity in non-ideal mixtures. UNIFAC uses the functional groups present on the molecules that make up the liquid mixture to calculate activity coefficients. By using interactions for each of the functional groups present on the molecules, as well as some binary interaction coefficients, the activity of each of the solutions can be calculated. This information can be used to obtain information on liquid equilibria, which is useful in many thermodynamic calculations, such as chemical reactor design, and distillation calculations.

La méthode "UNI"versal "F"unctional "A"ctivity "C"oefficient (UNIFAC en anglais, en français "C"oefficient d"'A"ctivité "F"onctionnel "UNI"versel) est un système semi-empirique de prévision d'une activité chimique non-électrolyte dans des mélanges non idéaux.


Name.

The Arabic "ghawāzī" (singular "ghāziya") means "conqueror", as the "ghaziya" is said to "conquer" the hearts of her audience. They were also known as "awālim" (singular "alma", transliterated almeh in French as "almée"), but in Egypt, Awalim are the traditional Egyptian dancers and singers of the city, not rural areas, who used to perform in respectable events such as the weddings and festivities of notable people.  Both terms are 19th-century euphemisms for "erotic dancer"; "almeh" literally means "learned woman" and came to be used as a replacement for "ghaziya" after the "ghawazi" were legally banned in 1834.  An almeh originally was a courtesan in Egyptian culture, a woman educated to sing and recite classical poetry and to discourse. After the "ghawazi" were banned, they were forced to pretend that they were in fact "awalim". The term "almeh" was introduced in French Orientalism as "almée" and used synonymously with "belly dancer".

History.

In 1834, the ghawazi were banished from Cairo to Upper Egypt by Muhammad Ali. Initially, the Ghawazi were small group represented of Gypsies, with a particular attention to their music and dance styles. Then the term included all folk dances of Rural and Upper Egyptians, mainly featuring mizmars and heavy bass lines and other traditional Egyptian music in the background.  Beginning in the first half of the 19th century, descriptions and depictions of ghawazi dancers became famous in European Orientalism, and the style was described as "danse de ventre" or belly-dance from the 1860s.  The first Ghawazis performed unveiled in the streets. Rapid hip movement and use of brass finger cymbals/hand castanets characterized their dance. Musicians of their tribe usually accompanied them in their dance. They usually wore kohl around their eyes and henna on their fingers, palms, toes and feet. According to Lane these women were "the most abandoned of the courtesans of Egypt". He describes them as being very beautiful and richly dressed.  The Ghawazi performed in the court of a house, or in the street, before the door, on certain occasions of festivity in the harem. They were never admitted into a respectable harem, but were frequently hired to entertain a party of men in the house of some rake. Both women and men enjoyed their entertainment. However, many people who were more religious, or of the higher classes, disapproved of them.  Many people liked the dancing of the Ghawazi, but felt it was improper because of its being danced by women who should not expose themselves in this manner. Because of this, there was a small number of young male performers called Khawals. The Khawals were Egyptian male tradiitonal dancers who impersonated the women of the Ghawazi and their dance. They were known to impersonate every aspect of the women including their dance and use of castanets.

Contemporary practitioners.

Representing diverse historical backgrounds, most of the Ghawazi of the Qena region belong to ethnic minorities such as the Nawar (or Nawara), Halab and Bahlawen.  Particularly well known are the Banat Maazin family, Nawar people that settled in Luxor and were filmed in the 70s and 80s. Many consider the Maazin family to be the only practicing family left of the original line of Ghawazi dancers.

Influence on Western belly-dance.

The style of dance and costuming of the Ghawazi has been especially influential in crafting the look of American Tribal Style Belly Dance. The Gypsy Ghawazi dress consists of an Ottoman coat with slits, known as a Yelek or entari. The abdomen is covered by these coats. Turkish harem pants are worn under these coats. The coats are typically ankle-length, though some modern Ghawazee troupes wear a shorter version over a full, knee-length skirt. Ghawazee dancers often adorn their heads with elaborate headresses, with dancers often accompanying themselves by playing zils, or small cymbals that are used by dancers in many forms of Middle Eastern dance.  The Egyptian Ghawazi costumes worn by rural and upper Egyptians are more rich in colors. In Rural Egypt, the traditional female dancing dress is floral and fluffy; the dancers typically choose different colors, each dancer usually wearing a different color from the one next to her.  In the Upper Egyptian style, the dancers wear the popular Saidi Telli dress, a black and glittery traditional Egyptian dress. The main dancers are accompanied by Saidi music, mainly the Egyptian flute and traditional Saidi songs narrating stories about the beauty of Qena, Assuit, Minya and their traditions.

Further reading.

The Ghawazi (also "ghawazee") () were a group of female traveling dancers. They first started as "Egyptian Gypsies", then the Ghawzis extensively practiced and developed among rural Egyptians or "Fellahin", who then developed a more rural and traditional style accompanied by Rural Egyptian songs and colorful dresses of the Fellahin and became a theme of Rural Egypt. Over the years, Upper Egyptians ("Sa'idis") mastered and then developed a different style of traditional Saidi dancing that's accompanied by Egyptian "mizmar" flute and Qena and Assuit's traditional female clothing of "Telli "()" ", a super silky type of local fabric. That Upper Egyptian style is the most famous.

Les Ghawazi sont un groupe de danseuses nomades égyptiennes du peuple nawari, un sous-groupe du peuple dom, lui-même apparenté aux Roms.