Definition.

Unlike most action games, stealth games challenge the player to avoid alerting enemies altogether. The core gameplay elements of the modern stealth game are to avoid combat, minimize making noise, and strike enemies from the shadows and behind. Completing objectives without being detected by any enemy, sometimes referred to as "ghosting" is a common approach to stealth games. Avoiding detection may be the only way to successfully complete a game, but there are usually multiple ways to achieve a goal with different pathways or styles of play. Players can hide behind objects or in shadows, and can strike or run past an enemy when the enemy is facing the other way. If the player attracts the attention of enemies, they may be able to hide and wait until the enemies abandon their search. Thus, planning becomes important, as does trial-and-error. Some stealth games put more emphasis on physical combat skill when the player is spotted. Some games offer a choice between killing or merely knocking out an enemy. When ghosting is optional, or not well-supported by a game, players may still attempt to avoid combat for moral reasons or as a demonstration of skill. Early on in the development of the stealth genre these games were referred to as "sneak 'em up" games.

Game design.

When hiding in the dark is a gameplay element, light and shadow become important parts of the level design. Usually the player is able to disable certain light sources. Stealth games also emphasize the audio design when players must be able to hear the subtle sound effects that may alert enemies to their actions; noise will often vary as the player walks on different surfaces such as wood or metal. Players who move recklessly will make more noise and attract more attention.  In order for a game to include stealth gameplay, the knowledge of the artificial intelligence (AI) must be restricted to make it ignorant to parts of the game world. The AI in stealth games takes into specific consideration the enemies' reactions to the effects of the player's actions, such as turning off the lights, as opposed to merely reacting to the player directly. Enemies typically have a line of sight which the player can avoid by hiding behind objects, staying in the shadows or moving while the enemy is facing another direction. Enemies can also typically detect when the player touches them or moves within a small, fixed distance. Overall, stealth games vary in what player actions the AI will perceive and react to, with more recent games offering a wider range of enemy reactions. Often, the AI's movements are predictable and regular, allowing the player to devise a strategy to overcome his adversaries. Players are often given limited methods of engaging opponents directly in stealth games, either by restricting the player to ineffective or non-lethal weapons, equipping adversaries with far superior equipment and numbers, or providing the player with a limited amount of health that makes most combat scenarios extremely dangerous. Stealth games sometimes overlap with the survival horror genre, in which players are forced to hide from and evade supernatural or occasionally mundane enemies as they attempt to track down the player.

History.

Early developments: 1979–1997.

According to "Retro Gamer"s John Szczepaniak, the first stealth game was "Manbiki Shounen" ("Shoplifting Boy"), published in November 1979. The PET 2001 personal computer game was developed by Hiroshi Suzuki and involves a boy entering a convenience store and attempting to shoplift by stealing "$" symbols while avoiding the line-of-sight detection of the owner. If caught, the player is led away by the police. Suzuki presented the game to developer Taito, which used it as inspiration for their similar stealth arcade game, "Lupin III" (based on the manga and anime of the same name), released in April 1980. In November 1980, Suzuki developed a sequel, "Manbiki Shoujo" ("Shoplifting Girl").  "Castle Wolfenstein", originally available in 1981, employed stealth elements as a focus of the gameplay. Players were charged with traversing the levels of "Castle Wolfenstein", stealing secret plans and escaping. Players could acquire uniforms to disguise themselves and walk by guards undetected. "Beyond Castle Wolfenstein", released in 1984, included some additions to its predecessor, such as a dagger for close-range kills and a greater emphasis on disguising in enemy uniform. id Software's updated 1992 remake "Wolfenstein 3D" was originally going to feature some of the original's stealth gameplay, such as body hiding, but this was cut to make the game faster paced. As a result of these changes, "Wolfenstein" would instead pave the way for later 3D action games, specifically first-person shooters.  In 1981, Sega released an arcade game called "005" in which the player's mission is to take a briefcase of secret documents to a waiting helicopter while avoiding enemy flashlights and use boxes as hiding spots. "005" holds the Guinness World Record for being the first stealth game.  In 1985, Durell Software released "Saboteur", a game in which the player controls a ninja who has to infiltrate a facility and find a disk while avoiding or defeating security cameras, guards, and dogs. "Retro Gamer" has called this "the original stealth game". Mindscape's "Infiltrator", released in 1986, combined a flight simulator with a stealth-based "ground mission". In this ground mission, the protagonist attempts to sneak into enemy territory using false IDs to avoid detection and knock-out gas to incapacitate enemies. The goal of this mission is to photograph secret documents while avoiding alarms.  Hideo Kojima's "Metal Gear", released in 1987 for the MSX2 and the Nintendo Entertainment System in 1988, utilized stealth elements within an action-adventure framework, and was the first mainstream stealth game to be released on consoles. Since the MSX2 was not available in North America, only the NES version was released there. "Metal Gear" placed a greater emphasis on stealth than other games of its time, with the player character Solid Snake beginning without any weapons (requiring him to avoid confrontation until weapons are found) and having limited ammunition for each weapon. Enemies are able to see Snake from a distance (using a line-of-sight mechanic) and hear gunshots from non-silenced weapons; security cameras and sensors are placed at various locations, and a security alarm sounds whenever Snake is spotted and causes all enemies on screen to chase him. Snake could also disguise himself in enemy uniform or a cardboard box, and use his fists to fight enemies.  The sequel "" was released in 1990 for the MSX2. It further evolved the stealth gameplay of its predecessor and introduced most of the gameplay elements present in "Metal Gear Solid", including the three-dimensional element of height, allowing players to crouch and crawl into hiding spots and air ducts and underneath desks. The player could also distract guards by knocking on surfaces and use a radar to plan ahead. The enemies had improved AI, including a 45-degree field of vision, turning their heads left and right to see diagonally, the detection of various different noises, being able to move from screen to screen (they were limited to a single screen in earlier games), and a three-phase security alarm (where reinforcements are called in to chase the intruder, then remain on the lookout for some time after losing sight of the intruder, and then leave the area). The game also had a complex storyline and improved graphics.

Establishing a genre: 1998–2002.

Although stealth gameplay had appeared in previous games, 1998 is seen as a turning point in gaming history because of the release of "", "Metal Gear Solid", and "". The ninja-themed "Tenchu: Stealth Assassins" was the first 3D stealth based-game. Months later, the highly anticipated "Metal Gear Solid" transformed its modestly successful franchise into a mainstream success. The increased power of the PlayStation console over previous platforms allowed for greater immersion in terms of both story and game environment. "Metal Gear Solid" has been credited with popularizing the stealth genre. "Thief: The Dark Project" is also credited as a pioneer of the genre. It was the first stealth game using the first-person perspective, dubbed a "first-person sneaker", or "sneak-em-up", and the first to use darkness and shadows as the mode of concealment. Another of Thief's most noteworthy contributions to the genre was the use of sound as a central mechanic. The robust simulation of sound meant players had to be mindful of the sounds they made, including what kind of surface they were traversing, lest they draw attention to them. Conversely, it meant guards could be heard from a distance and the surfaces they moved on could be identified based on the sounds they made.  With further releases, many games in the genre drifted towards action by allowing the option of direct confrontations. The "Hitman" series, the first installment of which was released in 2000, allowed this play style, but rewarded the player for stealthy and elaborate assassination of antagonists. "", the first of the series, was the first 3D game to employ the genre's device of disguises. "No One Lives Forever", an espionage themed parody also released in 2000, again allowed the player to combine or choose between stealth and overt violence. In 2000, the first-person action role-playing game "Deus Ex" also allowed the player the choice of taking a stealth approach. A USA Today reviewer found "At the easiest difficulty setting, your character is pureed again and again by an onslaught of human and robotic terrorists until you learn the value of stealth."  "", released 2001 for the PlayStation 2, further evolved the stealth gameplay series. It featured an array of new abilities, including "leaping over and hanging off of railings, opening and hiding in storage lockers," and sneaking up behind enemies to "hold them at gunpoint for items and ammunition." "Metal Gear Solid 2" holds a Guinness World Record for being the first stealth game to feature collective artificial intelligence. "Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty" sold 7 million units in sales, followed by "Metal Gear Solid" with 6 million units.

Later developments: 2002–present.

After the mainstream success of the genre, stealth elements became increasingly incorporated into a wide range of video games, with numerous action games using stealth elements in some way or another. In 2002, the first installment of the Tom Clancy licensed "Splinter Cell" series was released, which attempted to add more realism to the stealth genre both in terms of graphics and in-game equipment. If the player is discovered in "Splinter Cell", the guards will often raise a general alarm which can cause a difficulty spike or even result in automatic mission failure. Clint Hocking, who worked as a level designer for "Splinter Cell", noted that this mechanic was in place at this point because the gameplay developers could not easily implement alternative player actions in the case of such detection; for example, on detection, a real agent may react by subduing the agent that found them, but this was not possible to program in at this point in time. Hocking recognized this would be frustrating to the player and would remain an issue with stealth games for about a decade. In addition, "Splinter Cell" was notable for its state of the art graphics, including dynamic lighting and shadows. Like "Thief", Splinter Cell featured a visibility meter which determined how much light was falling on the character. These effects not only contributed to the atmosphere of the game, but dynamically affected in which areas the player could hide. The 2004 sequel, "", added a multiplayer component to the stealth genre.  As the genre developed and progressed, stealth gameplay was combined with other genres. "Sly Cooper", a cel-shaded game released in 2002, was a "stealth platformer", while 2003's "Siren" combined the survival horror genre with the stealth genre. In the same year, "Manhunt" employed a snuff movie theme and allowed the player to kill antagonists with varying levels of violence, dependent on how much time was spent sneaking behind them. It was the first to show visual executions in the genre. The following year, Konami's "Metal Gear Acid" combined the stealth gameplay of the "Metal Gear" series with turn-based strategy and tactical role-playing game elements as well as card battle elements from Konami's own "Yu-Gi-Oh!" games. In 2004, "" introduced camouflage to the genre. Set in a jungle, the game emphasized infiltration in a natural environment, along with survival aspects such as food capture, healing and close-quarters combat. The following year, the updated version "" added an online multiplayer mode to the game with stealth elements. Another 2004 release was "", based on the "Chronicles of Riddick" series of movies. The game follows the character of Riddick as he attempts to escape from prison. Action and stealth gaming are combined seamlessly by allowing the character to hide, sneak, or fight his way past most situations. The game was critically acclaimed, and was followed with "" in 2009.  In 2007, "Assassin's Creed" employed a social element to the stealth game, where the player is able to hide among crowds of civilians by taking care to blend in. Stealth elements were incorporated into Crytek's open world first-person shooter "Crysis", multiplayer first-person shooter "Team Fortress 2", and first-person role-playing game "Fallout 3". In 2008, "" (PlayStation 3) introduced a battlezone element, where the stealth gameplay is incorporated into a battlefield fought between two armies, both of which can be infiltrated by Solid Snake. In 2009, "Assassin's Creed II" broadened its predecessor's elements of stealth by allowing the player to blend among any group of civilians, rather than specific ones. "Assassin's Creed II" also allowed the player to distract guards by tossing coins or by hiring thieves and courtesans, and also featured a notoriety level, which made the player more recognizable until they paid off officials or tore down wanted posters. The same year, "" and "" incorporated stealth elements in different segments of the games. The multiplayer modes of "Aliens vs. Predator" in 2010 and "Killzone 3" in 2011 also incorporated stealth elements.  The 2012 game "Dishonored" tried to incorporate stealth elements that were influenced by "", such as the importance of lighting and shadows. The developers later abandoned that system citing realism as a factor. The game instead relies on a system of "occlusion-based" stealth, using the vision cones of the enemies, obstacles, and special abilities which determines whether or not the character is visible. Additionally, while other games had implemented such systems, "Dishonored" was recognized for having a forgiving stealth system compared with "Splinter Cell", in that if detected, the player had several options available to either attack those enemies that detected them, distract them, or flee and outrun them by using parkour, rather than immediately reaching a "game over". Forbes called "Dishonored" one of the best stealth games of 2012, along with "" and "Mark of the Ninja". "Mark of the Ninja" puts a twist on the stealth genre in that it is a 2D side-scroller. This posed some unique factors, such as the lack of corners for the character to hide behind, and the visibility presented in a side-scroller; the developers overcame this by adding 'fog' that prevents the player from seeing things that the character can not see, visually representing enemy line-of-sight and even visualizing the noise made by the character, including how far that noise travels. After the completion of the game, the player has access to a harder difficulty called "New Game Plus", which further decreases visibility by adding fog behind the player and removes noise visualizations and enemy line of sight indicators.  In 2014, Creative Assembly released "", a stealth game which emphasized survival-horror. In this game, the protagonist is trapped on a space station with an alien xenomorph which they must avoid for the majority of the game, being unable to kill it. The game also uses feedback from the player's microphone to enhance gameplay as the alien is able to hear noises made by the player and can use them to detect their location. The 2019 "Untitled Goose Game" by Australian developer House House, utilised stealth as a major mechanic alongside the otherwise comedic tone of the game, leading to comparisons to "Metal Gear Solid".

A stealth game is a type of video game in which the player primarily uses "stealth" to avoid or overcome antagonists. Games in the genre typically allow the player to remain undetected by hiding, sneaking, or using disguises. Some games allow the player to choose between a stealthy approach or directly attacking antagonists, but rewarding the player for greater use of stealth. The genre has employed espionage, counter-terrorism, and rogue themes, with protagonists who are special forces operatives, spies, thieves, ninjas, or assassins. Some games have also combined stealth elements with other genres, such as first-person shooters and platformers.

Le jeu d'infiltration est un genre de jeu vidéo permettant au joueur d'éviter certains désavantages (généralement des combats) en jouant sur le fait d'être repéré ou non. Les ennemis n'étant en général pas au courant de la présence, de la position et ou du fait que le joueur soit un ennemi, le joueur peut tromper leur vigilance et doit souvent tenter de s'infiltrer dans un lieu en toute discrétion pour réaliser une mission. En général, ce type de jeu implique une progression lente et réfléchie.


History.

The black eye pea is cultivated throughout the world. Most of the black-eyed pea cultivation occurred in the Southern United States as early as the 17th century in Virginia. The crop would also eventually prove popular in Texas. Throughout the South, the black-eyed pea is still a widely used ingredient in soul food and cuisines of the Southern United States. The planting of crops of black-eyed peas was promoted by George Washington Carver because, as a legume, it adds nitrogen to the soil and has high nutritional value. Black-eyed peas contain calcium (41 mg), folate (356 μg), protein (13.22 g), fiber (11.1 g) and vitamin A (26 IU), among other nutrients, with less than of food energy in a serving.

Cultivation.

This heat-loving crop should be sown after all danger of frost has passed and the soil is warm. Seeds sown too early will rot before germination. Black-eyed peas are extremely drought tolerant, so excessive watering should be avoided.  The crop is relatively free of pests and disease. Root-knot nematodes can be a problem, especially if crops are not rotated. As a nitrogen-fixing legume, fertilization can exclude nitrogen three weeks after germination.  The blossom produces nectar plentifully, and large areas can be a source of honey. Because the bloom attracts a variety of pollinators, care must be taken in the application of insecticides to avoid label violations.  After planting the pea, it should start to grow after 2–5 days

Lucky New Year food.

Southern United States.

In the Southern United States, eating black-eyed peas or Hoppin' John (a traditional soul food) on New Year's Day is thought to bring prosperity in the new year. The peas are typically cooked with a pork product for flavoring (such as bacon, fatback, ham bones, or hog jowls) and diced onion, and served with a hot chili sauce or a pepper-flavored vinegar. The traditional meal also includes Cabbage, collard, turnip, or mustard greens, and ham. The peas, since they swell when cooked, symbolize prosperity; the greens symbolize money; the pork, because pigs root forward when foraging, represents positive motion. Cornbread, which represents gold, also often accompanies this meal.  Several legends exist as to the origin of this custom. Two popular explanations for the South’s association with peas and good luck dates back to the American Civil War. The first is associated with General William T. Sherman’s march of the Union Army to the sea, during which they pillaged the Confederates' food supplies. Stories say peas and salted pork were said to have been left untouched, because of the belief that they were animal food unfit for human consumption. Southerners considered themselves lucky to be left with some supplies to help them survive the winter, and black-eyed peas evolved into a representation of good luck. One challenge to this legend is that General Sherman brought backup supplies with him including three days of animal feed and would have been unlikely to have left even animal feed untouched. In addition, the dates of the first average frost for Atlanta and Savannah, respectively, are November 13 and November 28. As Sherman's march was from November 15 to December 21, 1864, it is improbable, although possible, that the Union Army would have come across standing fields of black-eyed peas as relayed in most versions of the legend. In another Southern tradition, black-eyed peas were a symbol of emancipation for African-Americans who had previously been enslaved, and who after the Civil War were officially freed on New Years Day. Other Southern American traditions point to Jews of Ashkenazi and Sephardic ancestry in Southern cities and plantations.

Culinary uses worldwide.

Africa and Middle East.

In Egypt, black-eyed peas are called "lobia". Cooked with onions, garlic, meat, and tomato juice, and served with Egyptian rice with some pastina called "shaerya" mixed in, it makes the most famous rice dish in Egypt.  In Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, "lobya" or green black-eyed-beans are cooked with onion, garlic, tomatoes, peeled and chopped, olive oil, salt and black pepper.  In Nigeria in West Africa and the Caribbean, a traditional dish called "akara" is made of mashed black-eyed peas to which is added salt, onions and/or peppers. The mixture is then fried. In Nigeria, there’s also a pudding made from it called ‘moin-moin’ where it is ground and mixed with seasoning as well as some plant proteins before it is steamed. This is served with various carbohydrate rich foods such as pap, rice or garri.

Asia and the Pacific.

In Indonesia, black-eyed peas are called "" or "kacang tolo" in the local language. They are commonly used in curry dishes such as "sambal goreng", a kind of hot and spicy red curry dish, "sayur brongkos", or "sayur lodeh".  The bean is commonly used across India. In North India, black-eyed peas are called "lobia" or "rongi" and cooked like "daal", served with boiled rice. In Maharashtra, they are called "chawli" and made into a curry called "chawli amti" or "chawli usal". In Karnataka they are called "alsande kalu" and used in the preparation of "huli", a popular type of curry. In South Kanara district they are called as "lathanay dha beeja" and are cooked in spiced coconut paste to make a saucy curry or a dry coconut curry. In Tamil Nadu, they are called "karamani" or thattapayaru and used in various recipes, including being boiled and made into a salad-like "sundal" (often during the Ganesh Chaturthi and Navratri festivals). In Andhra Pradesh they are known by the name 'alasandalu' and are used for variety of recipes most popularly for 'vadas'. In Kerala, they are a part of the Sadhya dish, Olan.  In Vietnam, black-eyed peas are used in a sweet dessert called "chè đậu trắng" (black-eyed peas and sticky rice with coconut milk).

Europe.

In Cyprus ( φρέσκο λουβί) and Turkey (börülce salatası), blanched black-eyed peas are eaten as salad with a dressing of olive oil, salt, lemon juice, onions and garlic.  In Portugal, black-eyed peas are served with boiled cod and potatoes, with tuna, and in salads.  "Hoppin' John", made of black-eyed peas, rice, and pork, is a traditional dish of parts of the Southern United States.

The Americas.

Texas caviar, another traditional dish in the American South, is made from black-eyed peas marinated in vinaigrette-style dressing and chopped garlic.  In Brazil's northeastern state of Bahia, especially in the city of Salvador, black-eyed peas are used in a traditional street food of Nigerian origin called "akara". The beans are peeled and mashed, and the resulting paste is made into balls and deep fried in "dendê". "Acarajé" is typically served split in half and stuffed with "vatapá", "caruru", diced green and red tomatoes, fried sun-dried shrimp and homemade hot sauce.  In the northern part of Colombia, they are used to prepare a fritter called "buñuelo". The beans are immersed in water for a few hours to loosen their skins and soften them. The skins are then removed either by hand or with the help of a manual grinder. Once the skins are removed, the bean is ground or blended, and eggs are added, which produces a soft mix. The mix is fried in hot oil. It makes a nutritious breakfast meal.  In Guyana, South America, and Trinidad and Tobago, it is one of the most popular type of beans cooked with rice, the main one being red kidney beans, also referred to as red beans. It is also cooked as a snack or appetizer on its own. On New Year's Eve (referred to as Old Year's Night in Guyana and Suriname), families cook a traditional dish called cook-up rice. The dish comprises rice, black-eyed peas, and other peas and a variety of meats cooked in coconut milk and seasonings. According to tradition, cook-up rice should be the first thing consumed in the New Year for good luck. Cook-up rice is also made as an everyday dish.

The black-eyed pea, black-eyed bean, or goat pea is a legume grown around the world for its medium-sized, edible bean. Its other common name is cowpea, although it is actually a subspecies of the cowpea.

le La cornille, le dolique à œil noir, le pois à vache ou le niébé (Vigna unguiculata" subsp. "unguiculata) est une sous-espèce végétale de "Vigna unguiculata", originaire d’Afrique. Probablement introduit en Amérique tropicale au par les Espagnols, le niébé est aujourd'hui largement cultivé dans le Sud des États-Unis, aux Caraïbes et au Brésil.


Nomenclature.

The term "spirit" refers to liquor that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume (ABV).  Liquor bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, and American schnapps, are known instead as liqueurs.  Liquor generally has an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. Beer and wine, which are not distilled, are limited to a maximum alcohol content of about 20% ABV, as most yeasts cannot metabolise when the concentration of alcohol is above this level; as a consequence, fermentation ceases at that point.

Etymology.

The origin of "liquor" and its close relative "liquid" was the Latin verb "liquere", meaning "to be fluid". According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply "a liquid", can be dated to 1225. The first use the "OED" mentions of its meaning "a liquid for drinking" occurred in the 14th century. Its use as a term for "an intoxicating alcoholic drink" appeared in the 16th century.

History of distillation.

Precursors.

Early evidence of distillation comes from Akkadian tablets dated c. 1200 BC describing perfumery operations, providing textual evidence that an early, primitive form of distillation was known to the Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia. Early evidence of distillation also comes from alchemists working in Alexandria, Roman Egypt, in the 1st century. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Alchemists in Roman Egypt were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century.  Distillation was known in the ancient Indian subcontinent, evident from baked clay retorts and receivers found at Taxila and Charsadda in modern Pakistan, dating back to the early centuries of the Christian era. These "Gandhara stills" were capable of producing only very weak liquor, as there was no efficient means of collecting the vapors at low heat.  Distillation in China could have begun during the Eastern Han dynasty (1st–2nd centuries), but the distillation of beverages began in the Jin (12th–13th centuries) and Southern Song (10th–13th centuries) dynasties according to archaeological evidence.  Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice. The freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use.

True distillation.

The medieval Arabs used the distillation process extensively, and there is evidence that they distilled alcohol. Al-Kindi unambiguously described the distillation of wine in the 9th century. The process later spread to Italy, where later evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century.  In China, archaeological evidence indicates that the true distillation of alcohol began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at an archaeological site in Qinglong, Hebei, dating to the 12th century.  In India, the true distillation of alcohol was introduced from the Middle East, and was in wide use in the Delhi Sultanate by the 14th century.  Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century. The production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret.  In 1437, "burned water" (brandy) was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany. It was served in a tall, narrow glass called a "Goderulffe".  Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD, when Irish whiskey and German brandy became available. These spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content (about 40% ABV) than the alchemists' pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs. Liquor consumption rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century, when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the Black Death. Around 1400, methods to distill spirits from wheat, barley, and rye beers, a cheaper option than grapes, were discovered. Thus began the "national" drinks of Europe: "jenever" (Belgium and the Netherlands), gin (England), "Schnaps" (Germany), "grappa" (Italy), "borovička" (Slovakia), "horilka" (Ukraine), "akvavit"/"snaps" (Scandinavia), "vodka" (Poland and Russia), "ouzo" (Greece), "rakia" (the Balkans), and "poitín" (Ireland). The actual names emerged only in the 16th century, but the drinks were well known prior to then.

Government regulation.

Production.

It is legal to distill beverage alcohol as a hobby for personal use in some countries, including New Zealand and the Netherlands.  In the United States, it is illegal to distill beverage alcohol without a license. In some parts of the U.S., it is also illegal to sell a still without a license. However, all states allow unlicensed individuals to make their own beer, and some also allow unlicensed individuals to make their own wine (although making beer and wine is also prohibited in some local jurisdictions).

Sale.

Some countries and sub-national jurisdictions limit or prohibit the sale of certain very high-percentage alcohol, commonly known as neutral spirit.  Due to its flammability (see below) alcoholic beverage with alcohol content above 70% by volume is not permitted to be transported in aircraft.

Microdistilling.

Microdistilling (also known as craft distilling) began to re-emerge as a trend in the United States following the microbrewing and craft beer movement in the last decades of the 20th century. In contrast, large-scale distillation facilities were never as dominant in Scotland, so the tradition of small-scale distillation was never really lost in the Scotch whisky market.

Flammability.

Liquor that contains 40% ABV (80 US proof) will catch fire if heated to about and if an ignition source is applied to it. This temperature is called its flash point. The flash point of pure alcohol is, less than average room temperature.  The flammability of liquor is applied in the cooking technique flambé.  The flash points of alcohol concentrations from 10% ABV to 96% ABV are:

Serving.

Liquor can be served:

Alcohol consumption by country.

The World Health Organization measures and publishes alcohol consumption patterns in different countries. The WHO measures alcohol consumed by persons 15 years of age or older and reports it on the basis of liters of pure alcohol consumed per capita in a given year in a country.

Health effects.

Short-term effects.

Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors.  Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning.  As with all alcoholic beverages, driving under the influence, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; as such many countries have penalties for drunk driving.

Long-term effects.

The main active ingredient of distilled spirits is alcohol, and therefore, the health effects of alcohol apply to spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men) is associated with a "decreased" risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount; however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.  Alcoholism, also known as "alcohol use disorder", is a broad term for any drinking of alcohol that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, withdrawal occurs when stopping, and alcohol tolerance has occurred with use. Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third-leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.  While lower quality evidence suggests a cardioprotective effect, no controlled studies have been completed on the effect of alcohol on the risk of developing heart disease or stroke. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause liver cirrhosis and alcoholism. The American Heart Association "cautions people NOT to start drinking... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."

Liquor (also hard liquor, hard alcohol, distilled alcohol, or spirit) is an alcoholic drink produced by distillation of grains, fruit, or vegetables that have already gone through alcoholic fermentation. The distillation process purifies the liquid and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content (commonly expressed as alcohol by volume, ABV). As liquors contain significantly more alcohol, they are considered "harder" – in North America, the term "hard liquor" is used to distinguish distilled alcoholic drinks from non-distilled ones, whereas the term "spirits" is used in the UK.

L'eau-de-vie (en latin "aqua vitæ" ; populairement « goutte » ou « gnôle ») est obtenue par distillation (simple ou double) d’une boisson faiblement alcoolisée ou de marc : vin de chaudière (eau-de-vie de vin), marc de vin (eau-de-vie de marc) ; boisson de fruits, de rhizomes, de grains...


History.

Nationalised service (1970s–1980s).

In 1792, under the French Revolution, the first communication network was developed to enable the rapid transmission of information in a warring and unsafe country. That was the optical telegraphy network of Claude Chappe.  In 1878, after the invention of the electrical telegraph and then the invention of the telephone, the French State created a Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. Telephone Services were added to the ministry when they were nationalised in 1889. However, it was not until 1923 that the second 'T'

Creation of France Télécom (1988–1997).

Until 1988, France Télécom was known as the "direction générale des Télécommunications", a division of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. It became autonomous in 1990. This was in response to a European directive, aimed at making competition mandatory in public services from 1 January 1998. The 2 July 1990 Bill changed France Télécom into an

'Roaring Nineties' (1997–2000).

In 1997, the capital of the new public company was successfully floated whereas the dot-com bubble phenomenon made the stock exchanges bullish. A second share offering occurred in 1998. France Télécom got behind in the internationalization launched by its international competitors

Acquisition of Orange and privatisation.

In July 1991, Hutchison Telecom, a UK subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based conglomerate Hutchison Whampoa, acquired a controlling stake in Microtel Communications Ltd, who by then had acquired a license to develop a mobile network in the United Kingdom. Hutchison renamed Microtel to Orange Personal Communications Services Ltd, and on 28 April 1994 the Orange brand was launched in the UK mobile phone market. A holding company structure was adopted in 1995 with the establishment of Orange plc. In April 1996, Orange went public and floated on the London Stock Exchange and NASDAQ, majority-owned by Hutchison (48.22%), followed by BAe (21.1%). In June 1996, it became the youngest company to enter the FTSE 100, valued at £2.4 billion.  In October 1999, the German conglomerate Mannesmann AG acquired Orange for a price equivalent to €7,900 per customer, i.e. US$33bn. Mannesmann's acquisition of Orange triggered Vodafone to make a hostile takeover bid for Mannesmann. Shortly thereafter, in February 2000, Vodafone acquired Mannesmann for US$183 billion, and decided to divest Orange because the EU regulations wouldn't allow it to hold two mobile licences.  In August 2000, France Télécom bought Orange plc from Vodafone for a total estimated cost of

NeXT scheme and rebranding to Orange (2006–present).

The NeXT scheme was the recovery plan for France Télécom which aimed at, among other things, reducing costs, especially wage costs, carrying on a converging policy for its products and services, and grouping together all the brands under a single brand, except for the activities dealing with fixed-line telephone which would stay under the designation 'France Télécom'. Consequently, this led to the disappearance of a number of brands.  From 1 June 2006, France Télécom tried to commercialize all its products under a single worldwide brand, becoming the sole brand of the France Telecom group for Internet, television and mobile services in the majority of countries in which Orange operated. Orange Business Services became the brand for all its business services offerings worldwide, replacing the Equant

Shareholders.

The major shareholders of Orange as of 31 December 2015 are the state of France through Agence des

Operations.

Mobile.

Orange is the sole brand used in the marketing of the company's mobile offers; the Itineris, Ola and Mobicarte brands have been combined since 2001, and Mobicarte became a special prepaid calling offer. As of 31 December

Landline and Internet.

Orange took over the landline and Internet businesses of France Telecom and Wanadoo in 2006. Since then, Orange is the sole brand of France Telecom for landline and Internet services worldwide, with a few exceptions, such as Mobistar in Belgium and TPSA in Poland. Orange's triple-play broadband Internet offers are supplied through the Livebox. As of 31 December 2010, Orange has 13.7 million broadband ADSL customers worldwide, 67% of whom are in France40.  The

Broadcasting.

Beginning in 2003, Orange's strategy has centred on the acquisition, creation and diffusion of content. This starts with the creation of MaLigne.tv in 2003, later renamed Orange TV, an ADSL television access service and a video on demand service. In 2004, Orange organises a television access service for mobile phones. In 2007, Orange creates and, in 2008, enters into a partnership with France Televisions to broadcast pre-recorded programming from the public national television and to roll out theme channels for sports, cinema and television series. Dubbed Content Everywhere in 2008, the content access strategy is announced simultaneously with the launch of the Orange cinema series television channels, and aims to offer customers access to all of the company's content, anywhere and from any device.

OCS.

Orange Cinema Series is launched 13 November 2008, along with Orange Sport; it comprises five channels devoted to movies (Orange Ciné Max, Ciné Happy, Ciné Choc, Ciné Novo, Ciné

Orange Sport.

Orange Sport is launched 13 November 2008. Orange secures the broadcast rights for the Saturday evening lineup of Ligue 1 matches from season 2008/2009 to season

Video on demand.

Orange offers services for video on demand access using the Orange decoder, a computer or a

Online entertainment.

In 1997 France Telecom created Goa, an online entertainment subsidiary. The site is launched as a platform for players of massively multiplayer online games. In 2002 Goa acquires the operating license for Dark Age of Camelot. In 2007 Goa ceases to be a subsidiary and is merged into Orange. In 2009 Orange refocuses Goa.com on online entertainment and gradually ceases to operate massively multiplayer online games. In August 2010 goa.com disappears to become the Orange Jeux portal.

Subsidiaries, joint ventures and holdings.

Orange is a communications access provider offering customers access through multiple platforms. The four key platforms Orange operates are:  France Télécom merged the different internal divisions managing each platform and now all operate under the Orange brand.

Orange Business Services.

Orange is present in the US through its Orange Business Services division and its venture capital historical partner Innovacom as well as

BT Group.

Orange and Deutsche Telekom merged their UK businesses in 2010 to form a joint venture branded as EE. In December 2014 Orange were in talks with BT Group regarding the

Globecast.

Globecast is a provider of transmission of satellite and production services for professional broadcast, online content and enterprise multimedia. GlobeCast World TV is a

Viaccess Orca.

Viaccess Orca is a provider of IPTV and OTT TV service platforms and security solutions. It is headquartered in Paris

Orange Labs.

Orange Labs (formerly France Télécom R&D) is the research and development division of Orange. This division was derived from different previous entities, such as CNET (Centre national d'études des télécommunications) created in 1944, the CCETT created in 1972, as well as other entities. In 2007, France Télécom R&D became known as Orange Labs, a global network of R&D entities.  CCETT/France Télécom R&D contributed to various international standards, such as ISO/IEC MPEG and JPEG standards or DAB and DVB standards. CCETT, IRT and Philips developed a digital audio two-channel compression system known as Musicam or

Dailymotion.

On 25 January 2011 Orange announced the acquisition of 49% of Dailymotion, a French online video platform, at a cost of €58.8 million. The group

Deezer.

In late August 2010 Orange acquired an 11% share in the streaming site Deezer. With this

Studio 37.

Created in 2007 co-produces and acquires films, unlike the Canal+ Group’s StudioCanal. The producer Frédérique Dumas starts the studio, which has an initial budget of 30 million Euros. For its growth, Orange negotiates exclusivity agreements with Warner, HBO,

Cityvox.

Cityvox is a network of websites with local content

Aire.

In January 2019 Orange acquired a minority

Cloudwatt.

Cloudwatt is a cloud services provider set up in 2012 by Orange (44%), the French government

Controversy.

Staff suicides.

Between the beginning of January 2008 and April 2011, more than 60 France Télécom employees committed suicide, (in 2008 and the early part of 2009 there were 25 ) some leaving notes blaming stress and misery at work. In October 2009, the wave of suicides led former Deputy CEO Louis-Pierre Wenes to resign under trade union pressure, to be replaced by Stéphane Richard. Faced with repeated suicides, the company promoted Stéphane Richard to chief executive officer on 1 February 2010, while Didier Lombard remained as chairman.  The suicide rate among France Télécom's 102,000 domestic employees is 15.3 per year, compared with an average

Access to some sites limited.

In 2011, following complaints by Internet users, Megaupload accused Orange of

Accusations of false advertising in France.

In November 2009, three users lodged a complaint against Orange for false advertising concerning its "Unlimited 3G Key" service. These customers criticised the operator for the misleading way in which this service is

Corruption in Tunisia.

In March 2011, the information website OWNI uncovered a

Anticompetitive practices in French overseas departments.

On 28 July 2011, the Competition Authority fined France Télécom €27.6 million for having improperly impeded the development of new competing operators in

SMS and MMS propagation of 1 January 2011 in France.

On 1 January 2011, Orange users’ SMS and MMS were sent and billed multiple times. The operator agreed to reimburse the excess costs to consumers, explaining that the error came from a "third party operator" (which turned out to be Bouygues

Controversies in UK regarding the quality of service.

On 21 March 2007 "Watchdog", a television series by the BBC focusing on consumer protection, published the results from a broadband survey they held. According to the survey Orange is the worst ISP in the UK. 68% of Orange customers that took part in the survey said they were unsatisfied with Orange's customer service, it was voted as the most unreliable broadband provider, and it had the highest number of dissatisfied customers. Two thirds of Orange customers experienced problems cancelling their Orange broadband.  In response to the problems with Orange UK broadband and 3G broadband during March 2009 and April 2009 the 3G data network has been upgraded to 3.5G and increased signal coverage. This new network can be seen in action on many mobile phones which display network for instance the Nokia N95, when the phone detects the higher speed.

Accusations of antisemitism and calls for boycott.

The French chairman and CEO of the Orange telecommunications company, Stéphane Richard said in Cairo regarding his company operations in Israel, "Believe me, I would cancel the contract tomorrow if I could. We want to end this and to fix this; we don't want it." Later, Orange announced its desire to discontinue use of its popular brand name by its Israeli operator Partner Communications Company. The president of the State of Israel Reuven Rivlin said in response "Just yesterday Israel faced attacks

Governance.

Overview of governance.

Governance of the Orange group is centred in

Chief executive officers.

The company is headed either by the chairman of the board of directors, whose title in that

Board of directors.

The Orange group is governed by a board of directors composed of a minimum of twelve members and a maximum of twenty-two members, divided as follows: three are appointed by the French State, three are elected by the employees, one is elected by the shareholders and represents employee shareholders, the fifteen other members are appointed by the shareholders. The board members serve for a term of four years.

Composition of the board of directors.

In 2011, the board of directors was composed of 15 members:

Executive committee.

The executive committee reports to the chairman and CEO. Its purpose is to coordinate the

Head office.

Orange's head office, since 2012, is based at 78, Rue Olivier de Serres in the 15th arrondissement of Paris.  The company's

Orange Foundation.

In 1987 France Telecom established the France Telecom Foundation. On 16 January 2007, the foundation changed its name to Orange Foundation. In 1990 France Telecom Foundation received the top award for corporate philanthropy from ADMICAL. In 1995 France Telecom Foundation received the top award for solidarity from ADMICAL. The board of directors of Orange Foundation consists of representatives

Sponsorship.

From 2000 to 2002, Orange was a major sponsor of Leafield-based Formula One team Arrows.  The company was the official jersey sponsor of the national basketball teams of the Central African Republic and Senegal at the 2015 FIBA Africa Championship.  Since October 2017, Orange is the new kit sponsor of the French soccer team of Olympique de Marseille for the seasons 2017/2018 until 2018/2019.

Orange S.A. (), formerly France Télécom S.A., is a French multinational telecommunications corporation. It has 266 million customers worldwide and employs 89,000 people in France, and 59,000 elsewhere. It is the tenth largest mobile network operator in the world and the fourth largest in Europe after Vodafone, Telefónica and VEON. In 2015, the group had revenue of €40 billion. The company's head office is located in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. The current CEO is Stéphane Richard. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.

Orange est une société française de télécommunications. Elle comptait à la fin de 2019 près de de clients dans le monde, des chiffres en hausse par rapport à ceux affichés en 2018. En 2019, l'entreprise est leader ou second opérateur dans 75 % des pays européens où elle est implantée et dans 83 % des pays en Afrique et au Moyen-Orient.


Etymology.

Hjalmar Frisk ("Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch", Heidelberg, 1960–1970) notes "unexplained etymology", citing "various hypotheses" found in Wilhelm Schulze, Edgar Howard Sturtevant, J. Davreux, and. R. S. P. Beekes cites García Ramón's derivation of the name from the Proto-Indo-European root *"(s)kend-" "raise".

Mythology.

Biography.

Cassandra was a princess of Troy, the daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba and the fraternal twin sister of Helenus. According to legend, Cassandra had dark brown curly hair and dark brown eyes, and although beautiful and clever, was considered insane.

Gift of prophecy.

Cassandra was given the gift of prophecy, but was also cursed by the god Apollo so that her true prophecies would not be believed. Many versions of the myth relate that she incurred the god's wrath by refusing him sex, after promising herself to him in exchange for the power of prophecy. In Aeschylus' "Agamemnon", she bemoans her relationship with Apollo: <poem>Apollo, Apollo! God of all ways, but only Death's to me, Once and again, O thou, Destroyer named, Thou hast destroyed me, thou, my love of old!</poem>  And she acknowledges her fault <poem>I consented [marriage] to Loxias [Apollo] but broke my word.... Ever since that fault I could persuade no one of anything.</poem>  Latin author Hyginus in Fabulae says: In some versions of the myth, Apollo curses her by spitting into her mouth.  Cassandra had served as a priestess of Apollo and taken a sacred vow of chastity to remain a virgin for life.  Her cursed gift from Apollo became an endless pain and frustration to her. She was seen as a liar and a madwoman by her family and by the Trojan people. In some versions, she was often locked up in a pyramidal building on the citadel on the orders of her father, King Priam. She was accompanied there by the wardress, who cared for her under orders to inform the King of all of his daughter's "prophetic utterances".  According to legend, Cassandra had instructed her twin brother Helenus in the art of prophecy. Like her, Helenus was always correct whenever he had made his predictions, but he was believed.  Cassandra made many predictions, all disbelieved except one, when she foresaw who Paris was and proclaimed that he was her abandoned brother. Cassandra foresaw that Paris’ abduction of Helen for his wife would bring about the Trojan War and warned Paris not to go to Sparta. Helenus echoed her prophecy, but his warnings were ignored. Cassandra saw Helen coming into Troy when Paris returned home from Sparta. Though the people rejoiced, Cassandra furiously snatched away Helen's golden veil and tore at her hair, for she foresaw that Helen's arrival would bring the city's destruction in the Trojan War.

Fall of Troy and aftermath.

Cassandra foresaw the destruction of Troy. In various accounts of the war, she warned the Trojans about the Greeks hiding inside the Trojan Horse, Agamemnon's death, her own demise at the hands of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, her mother Hecuba's fate, Odysseus's ten-year wanderings before returning to his home, and the murder of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra by the latter's children Electra and Orestes. Cassandra predicted that her cousin Aeneas would escape during the fall of Troy and found a new nation in Rome. However, her warnings were all disregarded.  Coroebus and Othronus came to the aid of Troy during the Trojan War out of love for Cassandra and in exchange for her hand in marriage, but both were killed. According to one account, Priam offered Cassandra to Telephus’s son Eurypylus, in order to induce Eurypylus to fight on the side of the Trojans. Cassandra was also the first to see the body of her brother Hector being brought back to the city.  In "The Fall of Troy", told by Quintus Smyrnaeus, Cassandra had attempted to warn the Trojan people that Greek warriors were hiding in the Trojan Horse while they were celebrating their victory over the Greeks with feasting. They disbelieved her, calling her names and degrading her with insults. She grabbed an axe in one hand and a burning torch in her other, and ran towards the Trojan Horse, intent on destroying the Greeks herself, but the Trojans stopped her. The Greeks hiding inside the Horse were relieved, but alarmed by how clearly she had divined their plan.  At the fall of Troy, Cassandra sought shelter in the temple of Athena. There she embraced the wooden statue of Athena in supplication for her protection, but was abducted and brutally raped by Ajax the Lesser. Cassandra clung so tightly to the statue of the goddess that Ajax knocked it from its stand as he dragged her away. One account claimed that even Athena, who had worked hard to help the Greeks destroy Troy, was not able to restrain her tears and her cheeks burned with anger. In one account, this caused her image to give forth a sound that shook the floor of the temple at the sight of Cassandra's rape, and her image turned its eyes away as Cassandra was violated, although others found this account too bold. Ajax's actions were a sacrilege because Cassandra was a supplicant at the sanctuary, and thus under the protection of the goddess. He further defiled the temple with sexual intercourse by raping her.  Odysseus insisted to the other Greek leaders that Ajax should be stoned to death for his sacrilege, which had enraged Athena and the other gods. Ajax avoided their wrath, because none of them dared to punish him after he clung, as a supplicant, to Athena's altar and swore an oath proclaiming his innocence. Athena was furious at the Greeks' failure to punish Ajax, and she avenged herself with the help of Poseidon and Zeus. Poseidon sent storms and strong winds to destroy much of the Greek fleet on their way home from Troy. Athena herself inflicted a terrible death on Ajax, although the sources differ as to the manner of his death. The Locrians had to atone for Ajax's crimes by sending two maidens to Troy every year for a thousand years to serve as slaves in Athena's temple. However, if they were caught by the inhabitants before they reached the temple, they were executed.  In some versions, Cassandra intentionally left a chest behind in Troy, with a curse on whichever Greek opened it first. Inside the chest was an image of Dionysus, made by Hephaestus and presented to the Trojans by Zeus. It was given to the Greek leader Eurypylus as a part of his share of the victory spoils of Troy. When he opened the chest and saw the image of the god, he went mad.

Captivity and death.

Cassandra was then taken as a "pallake" (concubine) by King Agamemnon of Mycenae. Unbeknown to Agamemnon, while he was away at war, his wife, Clytemnestra, had betrayed him by taking Aegisthus as her lover. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus then murdered both Agamemnon and Cassandra. Some sources mention that Cassandra and Agamemnon had twin boys, Teledamus and Pelops, both of whom were killed by Aegisthus.  Cassandra was sent to the Elysian Fields after her death, because her soul was judged worthy due to her dedication to the gods, and her piety during her life.  Cassandra was buried either at Amyclae or Mycenae. The two towns disputed the possession of her grave. Heinrich Schliemann was certain that he had discovered Cassandra’s tomb when he had excavated Mycenae, because he found the remains of a woman and two infants in one of the circle graves at Mycenae.

"Agamemnon" by Aeschylus.

The play "Agamemnon" from Aeschylus's trilogy "Oresteia" depicts the king treading the scarlet cloth laid down for him, and walking offstage to his death. After the chorus's ode of foreboding, time is suspended in Cassandra's "mad scene". She has been onstage, silent and ignored. Her madness that is unleashed now is not the physical torment of other characters in Greek tragedy, such as in Euripides' "Heracles" or Sophocles' "Ajax".  According to author Seth Schein, two further familiar descriptions of her madness are that of Heracles in "The Women of Trachis" or Io in "Prometheus Bound". She speaks, disconnectedly and transcendent, in the grip of her psychic possession by Apollo, witnessing past and future events. Schein says, "She evokes the same awe, horror and pity as do schizophrenics". Cassandra is one of those "who often combine deep, true insight with utter helplessness, and who retreat into madness."  Eduard Fraenkel remarked on the powerful contrasts between declaimed and sung dialogue in this scene. The frightened and respectful chorus are unable to comprehend her. She goes to her inevitable offstage murder by Clytemnestra with full knowledge of what is to befall her.

Modern adaptations.

Cassandra is an enduring archetype. Modern invocations of Cassandra are most frequently an example of a Cassandra complex. To emphasize such a situation, Cassandra's name is frequently used in fiction when the prophecy comes up, especially true prophecy that is not believed. This can include the names of people, objects, or places.  Cassandra has been used as a metaphor and allegory in psychological and philosophical tracts. For example, Florence Nightingale's book "Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth" has a section named for Cassandra, using her as a metaphor for the helplessness of women that she attributes to over-feminization (further examples are located on the Cassandra complex page).  The Cassandra myth itself has also been retold several times by modern authors of novels and dramatizations, including works by Eric Shanower, Lindsay Clarke, Christa Wolf, Lesya Ukrainka, Woody Allen, Marion Zimmer Bradley, David Gemmell, and Hector Berlioz. Several songs have also referred to her, such as "Cassandra" (1982), by Swedish pop band ABBA, and Al Stewart's, "Helen & Cassandra" (1988).

Cassandra or Kassandra (Ancient Greek: Κασσάνδρα,, also ), (sometimes referred to as Alexandra), was a priestess of Apollo in Greek mythology cursed to utter true prophecies, but never to be believed. In modern usage her name is employed as a rhetorical device to indicate someone whose accurate prophecies are not believed.

Dans la mythologie grecque, Cassandre (en grec ancien / ) est la fille de Priam (roi de Troie) et d'Hécube. Certaines sources en font également la sœur jumelle du devin Hélénos. Elle porte parfois le nom d'Alexandra en tant que sœur de Pâris-Alexandre. Elle reçoit d'Apollon le don de dire l'avenir mais, comme elle se refuse à lui, il décrète que ses prédictions ne seront jamais crues, même de sa famille. Dans d'autres sources, comme chez Hyginus et Apollodore, Cassandra n'a tenu aucune promesse; les pouvoirs lui ont été offerts dans une tentative pour la séduire et c'est quand ceux-ci échouent à la faire l'aimer qu'Apollon maudit Cassandra.


History.

1990–1999.

Following a Coldcut tour in Japan with Norman Cook, a.k.a. Fatboy Slim, then of Beats International, the label lifted its moniker and aesthetic from the Japanese TV shows of the 1950s and 1960s based on the Ninja. With their first releases in the early 1990s, Ninja Tune went on to, according to Pitchfork, "usher in trip-hop/instrumental hip hop".  After Coldcut's success with their first label, "Ahead of Our Time", contractual issues prevented them from releasing anything under their own name. Ninja Tune's inaugural release was Coldcut's (under the name Bogus Order) house break collection "Zen Brakes Vol. 1" in 1990. The label got a bigger name for itself when Coldcut, as DJ Food, released their funky hip hop jazz-breaks album, "Jazz Brakes Vol. 1", which, according to "Record Collector", "blew up" in the DJ circuit. DJ Food's "Jazz Brakes" series were intended as musical "food" or, in other words, source material for DJs and producers who worked with breaks and beats.  In 1992, Peter Quicke stepped aboard as label manager, as did Patrick Carpenter, a.k.a. PC, who joined Coldcut as sound engineer. PC would become a crucial member of Ninja Tune, and from "Jazz Brakes Vol. 4" onwards, an integral part of the DJ Food production team.  Steinski, a big inspiration behind Coldcut's initial forays into music, released his first Ninja Tune EP as Steinski and Mass Media in the same year. The single, in the words of Pitchfork, "builds on a catchy loop of the Jackson 5's 'It's Great to Be Here' and creates one of the few anti-Gulf War protest songs of the era, transforming [ U.S. President George H. W. ] Bush's speech into a pop hook ('Regrettably, we now believe/ That only force

2000–2010.

In 2000, Ninja Tune celebrated its first decade of music with "Xen Cuts", a three CD, 6 x LP box set that provided a collection of their artists. The mostly downtempo affair featured the likes of Latyrx (Lyrics Born and Lateef), The Herbaliser, Kid Koala and Luke Vibert, Clifford Gilberto, Amon Tobin and Funki Porcini.  Also in 2000, Kid Koala released "Carpal Tunnel Syndrome", "a playfully arranged montage of quirky sound bites, rhythmic scratching and fluid hip hop beats". Relying as heavily upon comedy albums and sound effects records as jazz and funk vinyl for sample material, the release, which was called brilliant and humorous received much critical success. Kid Koala cut two further highly acclaimed albums for Ninja, 2003's "Some of My Best Friends Are DJs" and 2006's "Your Mom's Favorite DJ".  In 2001, Roots Manuva delivered his second album, "Run Come Save Me", which was deemed one of the albums of the year by "The Independent", and "not just a landmark UK hip hop album, but a landmark hip hop album period" by Mojo. The album charted at number 33 in the UK Charts. "Witness (1 Hope)", the first single off the album, charted at No. 45, and was declared by AllMusic as being "the best British rap single since Tricky's 'Aftermath'". "Run Come Save Me" won a nomination for the 2002 Mercury Music Award, and was called by "The Times" "Too maverick, too brilliantly original a talent to be tethered by mere genre or geography."  Also in 2001 Cornwall's Luke Vibert joined Ninja Tune. Growing up amongst contemporaries Aphex Twin and Tom Middleton/Global Communication, Vibert had made a name for himself in experimental electronica, though his name has always been hard to pin down: he

2010–present.

In 2010, Ninja Tune celebrated 20 years of releasing music. A book entitled Ninja Tune: "20 Years of Beats and Pieces" was released on 12 August 2010, and an exhibition was held at Black Dog Publishing's Black Dog Space in London showcasing artwork, design and photography from the label's 20-year history. A "stunning futurespective" compilation album was released on 20 September in two formats – a regular version consisting of two 2-disc volumes, and a limited edition (of 3,500 copies), containing six CDs, six 7" vinyl singles, a hardback copy of the book, a poster and additional items. It featured new music from Amon Tobin (also as Two Fingers), Roots Manuva, The Cinematic Orchestra, Kid Koala, Mr Scruff, The Bug, King Geedorah, Zomby, Bonobo, Toddla T, Daedelus, Dorian Concept, Floating Points, Wagon Christ, cLOUDDEAD and many others. It also included new remixes from Switch, Autechre, Benga, Cut Chemist, Modeselektor, Roots Manuva, Diplo, Gold Panda, Mark Pritchard, Rustie, Prefuse 73, 808 State, Joe Goddard, King Jammy, The Orb, Micachu, Gaslamp Killer, Kronos Quartet, Mala, El-P (and El-B) and many more. In The Independent's "Album of the Week" review, the compilation was deemed "a glorious celebration of Ninja Tune's audio splendour".  As part of the 20th anniversary, Ninja Tune produced 20 different events around the world. Ninja Tune sold out Royal Albert Hall in London, with The Cinematic Orchestra, Amon Tobin and Dorian Concept all presenting a one-off orchestral performance with the London Metropolitan Orchestra arranged by composer Ilan Eshkeri. For a separate London event, Ninja also placed a legendary rave in 3 rooms in a car park behind the Tate Modern with all of their artists in one place for first time (artists included Coldcut, Mr Scruff, Roots Manuva, Toddla T, The Bug, Daedelus, Kid Koala, Bonobo, Dj Food + DK, Mark Pritchard, DJ Kentaro, Dorian Concept, XXXchange (Spank Rock), DELS, Floating Points, Jammer, Dark Sky and Offshore). For the Ninja XX gig in New York, the label's venue (Santos Party House) was shut down unexpectedly, moving the event at the last minute to the Bowery (CITATION: Brooklyn Vegan, 28 October 2010).  In October 2011, Ninja Tune's massive "Ninja Tune XX" campaign won "Innovative Marketing Campaign of the Year" at the 2011 AIM Awards.  It was around this time that Ninja Tune began expanding its roster in an interesting new direction, co-signing underground labels with whom they felt artistically aligned. In February 2010, LA-based producer Flying Lotus, a.k.a. Steven Ellison, announced his Brainfeeder imprint had struck up a partnership for Ninja Tune to handle manufacturing, marketing and distribution for Brainfeeder everywhere outside the US. In April 2010, Sheffield-born producer and DJ Toddla T (who'd originally arrived at Ninja having produced parts of Roots Manuva's 2008 album, "Slime & Reason", which reached number 22 in the UK Charts) also signed his Girls Music record label to Ninja

Design.

As the imprint grew, Ninja grew into an 'anti-corporate' brand, supporting the work of visual artists, filmmakers, and mavericks of all media, running its own club nights and helping disseminate the work of its artists across the globe. From its very beginnings, Ninja Tune sought a strong visual identity, thanks to Michael Bartalos (whose original logo was a monochrome woodcut of a hooded ninja brandishing his long sword) and Mark Porter, Matt Black's friend from Oxford, Ninja's first art director who defined the logo and overall aesthetic (in addition to creating Ninja's striking yellow and black in-house record bags), and subsequently became Art Director at The Guardian. It was the arrival of Kevin Foakes as in-house designer in 1994 that developed the logo to its current international recognition, and became largely responsible for some of the label's most iconic artwork. Working as Openmind, Foakes has designed many of Ninja's album sleeves, including memorable covers for Amon Tobin, Coldcut and Funki Porcini's 2002 album "Fast Asleep". He's also commissioned acclaimed outside talent for a number of key projects.  Foakes' Ninja logo has found its way in diverse remix forms onto DJ bags (the "Wax Sack"), cigarette lighters, T-shirts, turntable slip-mats, iPod skins (bearing the slogan "Remember vinyl?"), sunglasses by Japanese company Less Than Human and the label's own brand of cigarette rolling papers ("Ninja Skins"). French urban vinyl specialists Rolito also marketed a Foakes-designed toy Ninja, who came armed with a 3" CD of Ninja Tunes.  Ewan Robertson (a.k.a. Offshore) and Oscar Bauer, were integral co-designers for Ninja Tune or Big Dada, responsible for iconic covers such as the Wiley 'black playground' image for "Playtime Is Over", the Roots Manuva slime-head for "Slime & Reason" and Bonobo's "Black Sands" triptych.  Some Ninja Tune artists, meanwhile, design their own sleeves, such as Mr Scruff, whose cartoon illustrations are emblazoned across much of his catalogue and merchandise. Another prodigious cartoonist who designs his own sleeves is Kid Koala, whose "Nufonia Must Fall" graphic novel was published in 2003 by ECW Press in association with Ninja Tune, and whose 2000 debut album, "Carpal Tunnel Syndrome", and its 2003 follow-up "Some of My Best Friends Are DJs" came accompanied by Koala-illustrated comic books.  Other

Solid Steel.

Pre-dating Ninja Tune is the legendary and world-famous radio show Solid Steel, which Coldcut set up in 1988 and joined at a later date by DJ Food and DK. What initially began as a radio show on then-pirate Kiss FM went on to become a weekly 2-hour mix show broadcast online and syndicated to numerous radio stations around the world, with highlights available as a podcast on iTunes. Solid Steel is

Big Dada.

Hip hop label Big Dada was set up by journalist and writer Will Ashon in 1997. Big Dada was created with a similarly open-minded remit to sister label Ninja Tune, traversing the boundaries between hip hop, grime and ragga. Born out of a frustration over acts going unappreciated elsewhere, Big Dada swiftly cemented itself as a force in its own right. The name came up in reference to Ashon's love of Kool Keith, who he'd described in print as the "Mac Dada", as a combination of mac daddy and Dadaism.  Big Dada began releasing 12"'s in the summer of 1997, the first couple of which were produced by

Brainfeeder.

Brainfeeder is an independent record label based in Los Angeles, California, founded by Warp

Werkdiscs.

Werkdiscs (formerly spelt as Werk Discs) is a British independent record label based in London. Originally a club

Ntone.

In 1994, Ninja Tune's first sister imprint was Ntone, a label that initially specialised in avant-garde music and in more electronically inclined ambience. Artists on the roster included Animals on Wheels, Cabbageboy, Hexstatic and Neotropic. Ntone was, in the words of Peter Quicke, "for ambient and techno and other stuff that didn't quite fit Ninja Tune, but which we really liked, and didn't want to restrict ourselves from releasing." A collision of spacey dub and chilled ambient house, the first release was "AntiStatic" (TONE 1) by Hex released in February 1994, and last one "Sunflower Girl" (NTONE 45) by Neotropic in 2001.

Ninja Tune is an English independent record label based in London. It has a satellite office in Los Angeles. It was founded by Matt Black and Jonathan More, better known as Coldcut and managed by Peter Quicke and others.

Ninja Tune est un label indépendant de musique électronique qui a été créé en Angleterre en 1990 par les deux DJ Matt Black et Jonathan More, mieux connus sous le nom de Coldcut. Le label a diffusé le travail en studio et en "live" de nombreux DJ et producteurs du monde de la musique électronique. La musique du label est difficile à qualifier. On peut toutefois y entendre de l'électronique, du jazz, de l'ambient, du hip-hop, du breakbeat, souvent en même temps. Une importante agence existe à Montréal au Québec.


Genera.

The following list of 33 genera consists of "Neckia", which was resurrected in 2014, plus the 32 genera that were described in the most recent revision of Ochnaceae. The classification is from Schneider et alii (2014).

Description.

The following description is excerpted from the descriptions of Medusagynaceae, Quiinaceae, and Ochnaceae s.s. in "The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants", with some information from other sources, as indicated.  Mostly shrubs and small trees, plus a few trees of moderate size, and in "Sauvagesia", a few herbs.  Leaves simple, except pinnately compound in "Krukoviella", and in Quiinoideae, often pinnately lobed or compound on juvenile plants. Pinnate leaves are typical of "Rhytidanthera". The leaves are often coriaceous and conspicuously serrate. Stipules present, except "Medusagyne".  Venation often scalariform (ladder-like) in appearance, with parallel and closely spaced secondary and tertiary veins. Petioles absent or short, sometimes resembling a pulvinus.  Unisexual flowers are common in "Medusagyne" and in Quiinoideae (except "Froesia"), but restricted to a clade of three genera in Ochnoideae. Unisexual flowers are found in "Schuurmansia", "Schuurmansiella", and "Euthemis". The flowers are always unisexual in "Schuurmansiella".  In polygamous species, flowers have been assessed as bisexual on the basis of morphology only. Pollen produced by apparently hermaphroditic flowers has, in a few cases, been found to be inaperturate, rendering the flower functionally female.  Sepals 3 to 5, often unequal, sometimes accrescent.  Petals 4 or 5, or rarely 3, 6, 7, or 8, often contort, free or fuzed at base only, sometimes reflexed over the sepals.  Fertile stamens 5 to 10 or numerous, rarely one. Filaments sometimes persistent, sometimes narrowed near the anthers.  Anthers basifixed or slightly dorsifixed, usually dehiscing by one or two apical or subapical pores, sometimes latrorsely by longitudinal slits. In "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae, an enlarged septum separates the thecae.  Staminodes often present, free or connate, sometimes petaloid, sometimes enveloping the fertile stamens.  Nectar not produced. Flowers usually buzz-pollinated.  Ovary superior, longitudinally ribbed in "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae; unribbed in Ochnoideae. Carpels completely fused or nearly separate; 2-15, or up to 25 in "Medusagyne". Style apical or gynobasic.  Fruit sometimes winged; rarely a nut or drupe, often berry-like; usually a septicidal capsule, or else the ovary separating to form blackish drupelets on a usually reddish, accrescent receptacle.  Seeds albuminous or exalbuminous, winged or not. The seed coat often includes a layer of cristarque cells. These are sclereids, each containing calcium oxalate crystals in the form of a druse.

Classification.

Until near the end of the 20th century, Ochnaceae was regarded as a rather odd family, difficult to place with a high degree of certainty. Even into the 21st century, some authors treated the genus "Strasburgeria" as the closest relative of Ochnaceae, and some even placed it within the family. In the APG III system, "Strasburgeria" is grouped with "Ixerba" to form the family Strasburgeriaceae in the rosid order Crossosomatales.  More rarely, the genus "Diegodendron" was thought to be close to "Strasburgeria" and Ochnaceae. Molecular phylogenetic studies have strongly supported the inclusion of "Diegodendron" in the rosid order Malvales, and it is sometimes treated as a monospecific family therein. Otherwise, it has been placed in Bixaceae, tho there is reason to suspect that it might be closer to Sphaerosepalaceae.  All of the genera mentioned above, as well as Ochnaceae, were long regarded as anamalous taxa of uncertain affinity. All had been placed, at one time or another, with Ochnaceae, near Theaceae, a family now included in the basal asterid order Ericales.  In 2012, an analysis of chloroplast DNA resolved Ochnaceae as sister to a group of five families known as the clusioids. This result had only weak bootstrap support. The clusioids were once regarded as a group of four families, but Clusiaceae was divided in 2009 and the name Calophyllaceae was resurrected for one of the resulting segregates.  There are only a few morphological characters that unite the clusioids with Ochnaceae. The petal aestivation is often contort in the clusioids, and usually so in Ochnaceae. In both groups, the flowers usually bear numerous stamens, and in the ovary, the placentation is mostly axile. In the ovules, the nucellus is often thin, and the outer integument is usually thicker than the inner.

Taxonomy.

Ochnaceae is divided into three subfamilies: Medusagynoideae, Quiinoideae, and Ochnoideae.  A molecular phylogenetic study resolved Medusagynoideae and Quiinoideae as sister subfamilies, but this result had only weak statistical support. In both subfamilies, the flowers are polystemonous. Except for the genus "Froesia", many or all of the flowers are unisexual. The anthers contain a massive septum between the thecae that persists after anther dehiscence. The styles radiate outward from the ovary. At anthesis, the ovary is sculpted with longitudinal ribs.  Medusagynoideae consists of a single species, "Medusagyne oppositifolia". It is endemic to the island of Mahé in the Seychelles.  Quiinoideae comprises about 48 species in four genera: "Froesia", "Quiina", "Touroulia", and "Lacunaria". It is restricted to tropical America. "Froesia" is distinct from the other three genera. Its flowers are always bisexual, and the fruit consists of three structures that resemble follicles, except that they are not quite entirely separate from each other.  The subfamily Ochnoideae was revised in 2014 as Ochnaceae sensu stricto. In that treatment, 27 genera were described. An additional genus, "Neckia", was resurrected in that same year, based on the results of a molecular phylogenetic study. Amaral and Bittrich (2014) divided Ochnoideae into three tribes: Luxemburgieae, Sauvagesieae, and Ochneae. The genus "Testulea" was included in the tribe Sauvagesieae. No subtribes were recognized.  In 2014, a second reclassification of Ochnoideae was published, based on cladistic analysis of DNA sequences. In that paper, Schneider et alii divided Ochnoideae into four tribes: Testuleeae, Luxemburgieae, Sauvagesieae, and Ochneae. Their circumscription of the tribes was the same as that of Amaral and Bittrich (2014), except that "Testulea" was removed from Sauvagesieae into its own tribe, Testuleeae. Inclusion of "Testulea" in Sauvagesieae renders that tribe paraphyletic over Luxemburgieae.  "Testulea" consists of a single species, "Testulea gabonensis", that is endemic to Gabon. It is unique in Ochnoideae in that its leaves have a brochidodromous pattern of venation and its flowers are tetramerous. In addition, only one of the stamens is fertile. The others are modified into staminodes and united into a column for up to ⁄ of their length.  The tribe Luxemburgieae consists of two genera: "Philacra" and "Luxemburgia". "Philacra" is native to Venezuela and northern Brazil. "Luxemburgia" is from Brazil.  The tribe Sauvagesieae is pantropical in distribution, and consists of 16 genera, most of them small. The largest, by far, is "Sauvagesia", with 38 species, 35 of which are restricted to the neotropics. "Sauvagesia" is heterogeneous, and might be paraphyletic, even with "Neckia" removed from it. Relationships in the tribe Sauvagesieae are not well understood, and for this reason, it has not been divided into subtribes.  The tribe Ochneae is found in most of the tropics, but is most abundant in Africa and tropical America. It is distinguished from the rest of Ochnoideae by the absorption of the endosperm before the seed reaches maturity. Its nine genera belong to three subtribes: Lophirinae, Elvasiinae, and Ochninae.  The subtribe Lophirinae consists of a single genus, "Lophira". It has two species, both confined to tropical Africa. It produces an unusual fruit, in which two of the sepals become greatly enlarged and form wings that facilitate seed distribution by wind.  The subtribe Elvasiinae consists of two genera, "Perissocarpa" and "Elvasia", both confined to the American tropics. "Perissocarpa" has never been sampled for a molecular phylogenetic study.  The subtribe Ochninae consists of six genera: "Campylospermum, Ouratea, Idertia, Brackenridgea, Rhabdophyllum," and "Ochna". The largest of these, "Ouratea", is confined to the New World and contains all of the New World species in Ochninae. All of the genera in Ochneae appear to be monophyletic, as defined by Amaral and Bittrich (2014), but in one molecular phylogenetic study, "Ouratea" and "Ochna" received only weak bootstrap support in the maximum likelihood analysis. "Idertia" and "Brackenridgea" are probably sister genera, but no other relationships have been resolved among the genera of Ochninae.

Phylogeny.

The phylogenetic tree below is adapted from the one that was published in 2014. Weakly supported nodes are collapsed to form polytomies. Maximum likelihood bootstrap support is > 75%, except where indicated. "Perissocarpa" and "Indosinia" have not been sampled for DNA. Their placement on the phylogenetic tree is based on anatomy and morphology only.

Evolution.

The evolution of Ochnaceae has been unusual in that it has included two complete reversions to an actinomorphic floral symmetry and two nearly complete reversions to apocarpy, a condition in which the carpels are entirely separate. Actinomorphy and apocarpy are believed to be "primitive" character states in angiosperms. Secondary apocarpy is especially rare and has arisen most notably in Rosaceae, Apocynaceae, Sapindales, and Malvales.  The flowers are actinomorphic in "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae, but in Ochnoideae, zygomorphy is the ancestral condition. In "Testulea", "Philacra", and "Luxemburgia", the flowers develop zygomorphically in the bud. But in the four basal clades of Sauvagesieae, comprising the genera "Blastemanthus, Godoya, Rhytidanthera, Krukoviella, Cespedesia, Fleurydora, Poecilandra," and "Wallacea," the flowers develop actinomorphically in the bud, then become zygomorphic after opening by growth of certain parts of the flower. Such late zygomorphy is very rare in flowering plants. In the remaining, fifth clade of Sauvagesieae, comprising the genera "Neckia, Schuurmansia, Schuurmansiella, Euthemis, Tyleria, Adenarake, Indosinia," and "Sauvagesia", the flowers remain actinomorphic after anthesis. In the tribe Ochneae, all of the species have actinomorphic flowers.  In the subtribe Ochninae, and in the genus "Froesia", the components of the ovary (carpels) are very shortly united at the base. Otherwise, the ovary in Ochnaceae is syncarpous, consisting of carpels that are completely fuzed.  In "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae, many of the flowers are unisexual, except in "Froesia", where they are strictly hermaphrodite. In Ochnoideae, unisexual flowers are limited to a clade consisting of "Schuurmansia", "Schuurmansiella", and "Euthemis".  In "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae, as in most angiosperms, the anthers open by longitudinal slits. In Ochnoideeae, the anther dehiscence is ancestrally poricidal, with several reversions to longitudinal slits. "Testulea", "Philacra", and "Luxemburgia" have anthers that open by apical pores. So do the three most basal clades of Sauvagesieae, namely "Blastemanthus", "Fleurydora", and a clade of four genera that have five carpels and many ovules per carpel ("Godoya, Rhytidanthera, Krukoviella", and "Cespedesia"). "Poecilandra" has poricidal anther dehiscence, but in its sister genus, "Wallacea", the anthers open by longitudinal slits.  In the rest of Sauvagesieae, anther dehiscence is various. In "Schuurmansia", "Schuurmansiella", and "Adenarake", the anther dehiscence is apically longicidal. This means that the longitudinal slit is short, and does not extend far from the apical end of the anther. In some species of "Sauvagesia", the anthers split lengthwise, but the entire androecium is wrapped in petaloid staminodes, so that the pollen can escape from only the apex of the anther. This is known as a poricidal system because it functions as if the anthers were truly poricidal.  In the tribe Ochneae, anther dehiscence by longitudinal slits is restricted to "Brackenridgea" and a few species of "Ochna".  "Testulea" is peculiar in having only one fertile stamen. Its anther opens by an apical pore. The other stamens are modified into sterile staminodes that are fuzed into a column for up to ⁄ of their length.  In the genera "Froesia" and "Quiina", and in the tribe Ochneae, the endosperm is completely absorbed early in seed development. It is not clear whether the presence or absence of endosperm is the ancestral state in Ochnaceae. For a long time, the subfamily Ochnoideae was divided into two groups based on this character alone. In such a classification, the group containing endosperm would be paraphyletic over Ochneae because it would contain "Testulea", "Philacra", and "Luxemburgia".  The number of ovules per carpel varies widely in Ochnaceae. "Medusagyne" and Quiinoideae have two ovules per carpel. In "Testulea" and in a clade of four genera in Sauvagesieae ("Godoya, Rhytidanthera, Krukoviella", and "Cespedesia"), the number of ovules is 100 to 200 per carpel. For the remainder of Sauvagesieae, except "Euthemis", and for "Philacra" and "Luxemburgia", the number of ovules per carpel ranges from four to 50. "Euthemis" has two ovules per carpel.  In Ochneae, "Lophira" has 4 to 50 ovules per carpel. In the subtribes Elvasiinae and Ochninae, the number of ovules per carpel is one.

History.

The family Ochnaceae was erected by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1811. At that time, he described "Elvasia", a new genus in the family, and he included three others: "Ochna", "Walkera", and "Gomphia". "Walkera" was described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1789, but is no longer recognized. Its type species was described as "Gomphia serrata" by Andrias Kanis in 1968, but it is now placed in the genus "Campylospermum". "Gomphia" has long been a source of confusion and it was not recognized in the most recent revision of Ochnaceae.  "Godoya" and "Sauvagesia" were known in 1811, when de Candolle erected the family Ochnaceae, but he placed them in other families. In his "Prodromus", he placed "Godoya" in the family that would later be known as Clusiaceae. He regarded "Lauradia" ("Lavradia") as separate from "Sauvagesia", and placed both of them in Violaceae. He added the genus "Castela" to Ochnaceae, but it is now part of Simaroubaceae. De Candolle believed that Simaroubaceae was closely related to Ochnaceae, but it is now placed in the order Sapindales. A few authors placed "Godoya", "Sauvagesia", and others in the family Sauvagesiaceae, until the beginning of the 21st century. Other authors, such as Adolf Engler, included them in Ochnaceae.  In 1874, Engler divided Ochnaceae into two groups, based on the absence or presence of endosperm in the mature seed. The group without endosperm corresponds to de Candolle's concept of Ochnaceae, and to the modern tribe Ochneae. The group with endosperm is now known to be paraphyletic and consists of the tribes Testuleeae, Luxemburgieae, and Sauvagesieae. In 1876, in a flora of Brazil, Engler described many new species in Ochnaceae, especially in its largest genus, "Ouratea". He described 85 species in "Ouratea", 17 of which he named as new species at that time. He also transferred 63 species to "Ouratea" from other genera.  The genera "Quiina" and "Touroulia" had been known since 1775, when they were described by Jean Baptiste Aublet, and they were variously classified by 19th century taxonomists. Jacques Denys Choisy erected the family Quiinaceae (as Quiinacées) for them in 1849, but he did not meet the requirements for valid publication of a botanical name. The name Quiinaceae was validated by Engler in Flora Brasiliensis in 1888.  The genus "Medusagyne" had been described by John Gilbert Baker in 1877, in a flora of Mauritius and the Seychelles, but it was not until 1924 that it was segregated into its own monogeneric family.  In 1893, Ernest Friedrich Gilg covered Ochnaceae, and Adolf Engler covered Quiinaceae for the first edition of Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Engler wrote a description of "Medusagyne" in a supplement to the first edition of "DNP" in 1897. He placed "Medusagyne" under the heading "Zweifelhafte, möglicherweise zu den Guttiferae gehörige Gattung" (Doubtful, possibly a genus belonging to Guttiferae). Guttiferae is an obsolete name for Clusiaceae.  In 1902, Philippe van Tieghem recognized six families in what is now the subfamily Ochnoideae. These were Luxemburgiaceae, Sauvagesiaceae, Wallaceaceae, Euthemidaceae, Lophiraceae, and Ochnaceae. Three of these, (Wallaceaceae, Euthemidaceae, and Lophiraceae) were monogeneric and were erected by van Tieghem at that time. His Luxemburgiaceae included the basal clades of what is now the tribe Sauvagesieae. Van Tieghem named a great many genera in 1902, circumscribing them very narrowly. In what is now the subtribe Ochninae, he delineated 53 genera. The most recent revision of that group divides it into six genera.  In 1925, for the second edition of "DNP", Engler and Gilg expanded on their treatment of Quiinaceae and Ochnaceae, respectively, compared to what they had written in 1893. Medusagynaceae was covered in the same volume of "DNP" by Adolf Engler and Hans Melchior.  For the second edition of "DNP", Engler recognized two genera, "Quiina" and "Touroulia", in Quiinaceae. "Lacunaria" and "Froesia" were discovered later and named in 1925 and 1948, respectively.  In that same volume, Gilg divided his Ochnaceae (equivalent to modern Ochnoideae) into 21 genera, including "Indovethia, Leitgebia, Vausagesia," and "Lauradia" (as "Lavradia"), which are now regarded as synonyms of "Sauvagesia". Eight of the modern genera, ("Philacra, Krukoviella, Fleurydora, Tyleria, Adenarake, Indosinia, Perissocarpa," and "Idertia") consist of plants that had not been uncovered by botanical exploration at that time. Gilg placed "Rhytidanthera" in synonymy under "Godoya", but "Rhytidanthera" is accepted today. He included "Campylospermum" and "Rhabdophyllum" in "Gomphia" and placed "Gomphia" in synonymy under "Ouratea". In his revision of Ochnaceae, Gilg provided a summary of van Tieghem's classification, as well as his own. Three of van Tieghem's genera, ("Campylospermum", "Rhabdophyllum", and "Rhytidanthera") are still recognized today.  In 1968, Andrias Kanis published a paper that greatly influenced subsequent work in Ochnaceae, right up to the 2014 revision. Claude H.L. Sastre named many new species in Ochnaceae, in several papers from 1970 to 2003.  In 1991, a cladistic analysis was published for Ochnaceae. In that same year, "Neckia", a 28th genus for Ochnoideae, was resurrected in a molecular phylogenetic study based on four chloroplast DNA loci, and nuclear ribosomal ITS. Seventy-nine species of Ochnaceae were sampled and a new classification was presented. Also, "Testulea" was removed from the tribe Sauvagesieae, and placed in the monotypic tribe Testuleeae.

Ochnaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Malpighiales. In the APG III system of classification of flowering plants, Ochnaceae is defined broadly, to include about 550 species, and encompasses what some taxonomists have treated as the separate families Medusagynaceae and Quiinaceae. In a phylogenetic study that was published in 2014, Ochnaceae was recognized in the broad sense, but two works published after APG III have accepted the small families Medusagynaceae and Quiinaceae. These have not been accepted by APG IV (2016).

La famille des Ochnacées est une famille de plantes dicotylédones qui comprend 300 à 500 espèces réparties en 28 genres.


Description.

Zetes and Calais were credited to have very delicate and graceful hairs which were said to give them the ability of flying. They had the biggest pride to the longest curls between the two of them and by boasting about these locks, they were very uplifted.

Family.

The Boreads were the sons of Boreas and Oreithyia, daughter of King Erechtheus of Athens. They were the brothers of Chione and Cleopatra, wife of Phineus.

Mythology.

Due to being sons of the north wind they were supernaturally gifted in different ways (depending on changes in the story from being passed down through generations and cultures) either being as fast as the wind or able to fly, having wings either on their feet or backs, depending on the myth.* According to Ovid's “Metamorphoses” their divine status showed in manhood when they sprouted wings on their backs.  They were Argonauts and played a particularly vital role in the rescue of Phineus from the harpies. They succeeded in driving the monsters away but did not kill them, at a request from the goddess of the rainbow, Iris, who promised that Phineas would not be bothered by the harpies again. As thanks, Phineas told the Argonauts how to pass the Symplegades. It is said that the Boreads were turned back by Iris at the Strophades. The islands' name, meaning "Islands of Turning", refers to this event.  Calais in one tradition is said to be the beloved of Orpheus; Orpheus was said to have been killed at the hands of jealous Thracian women whilst he wandered the countryside thinking of Calais.  Their death was said to be caused by Heracles on Tenos in revenge for when they convinced the Argonauts to leave him behind as he searched for Hylas.  Other sources imply that the sons of Boreas died chasing the harpies, as it was fated that they would perish if they failed to catch those they pursued. In some versions, the harpies drop into the sea from exhaustion and so their pursuers fall as well.  According to a rare variant of the myth by Tzetzes, the old man Phineus who was blind because of old age had two daughters named Eraseia and Harpyreia. These two lived in a very libertine and lazy life which was all wasted. Ultimately, the sisters abandoned themselves into poverty and fatal famine and were eventually snatched away by Zetes and Calais, disappearing from those places ever since.

Popular culture.

The Boreads appear in "The Heroes of Olympus" series by Rick Riordan, where they reside in Quebec City with their sister Khione and their father Boreas. After their death, their father Boreas transformed them into immortal demigods to act as his lieutenants. In the novels, Calais (referred to as "Cal") struggles with words that have more than two syllables, including his own name. He has an obsession with ice hockey and pizza. Zetes is by far the more intelligent of the two, though he has his own quirks as well. He is metrosexual and tries to woo the character Piper McLean each time he encounters her. Both Boreads are teenaged, with purple wings and silvery hair; possess a deep-seated respect for anyone named Jason (because of their role as Argonauts); and carry jagged bronze swords. The two assist their sister Khione in her bid for power, but do not ultimately ally themselves with Gaea.

The Boreads () are the "wind brothers" in Greek mythology. They consist of Zetes (also Zethes) (Ζήτης) and Calaïs (Κάλαϊς). Their place of origin was Thrace, home of their father Boreas (North wind).

Dans la mythologie grecque, les Boréades (en ), Calaïs (en ) et Zéthès (ou Zétès, Zéthée ; en ) sont les fils de Borée, le Vent du nord, et d'Orithye, une mortelle. Ils sont très appréciés pour leurs petites brises fraîches et sont détestés à cause de leurs tornades tumultueuses.