Early life and career.

Neusner was born in Hartford, Connecticut to Reform Jewish parents. He graduated from William H. Hall High School in West Hartford. He then attended Harvard University, where he met Harry Austryn Wolfson and first encountered Jewish religious texts. After graduating from Harvard in 1953, Neusner spent a year at the University of Oxford.  Neusner then attended the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, where he was ordained as a Conservative Jewish rabbi. After spending a year at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, he returned to the Jewish Theological Seminary and studied the Talmud under Saul Lieberman, who would later write a famous, and highly negative, critique of Neusner's translation of the Jerusalem Talmud. He graduated in 1960 with a master's degree. Later that year, he received a doctorate in religion from Columbia University.  Afterward, he briefly taught at Dartmouth College. Neusner also held positions at University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Brown University, and the University of South Florida.  In 1994, Neusner began teaching at Bard College, working there until 2014. After leaving Bard College, he founded the Institute for Advanced Theology with Bruce Chilton.  He was a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He was the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.

Scholarship.

Rabbinic Judaism.

Neusner's research centered on rabbinic Judaism of the Mishnaic and Talmudic eras. His work focused on bringing the study of rabbinical text into nonreligious educational institutions and treating them as non-religious documents.  He was a pioneer in the application of "form criticism" approach to Rabbinic texts. Much of Neusner's work focused on deconstructing the prevailing approach that viewed Rabbinic Judaism as a single religious movement within which the various Rabbinic texts were produced. In contrast, Neusner viewed each rabbinic document as an individual piece of evidence that can only shed light on the more local Judaisms of such specific document's place of origin and the specific Judaism of the author. His 1981 book "Judaism: The Evidence of the Mishnah" is the classic statement of his work and the first of many comparable volumes on the other documents of the rabbinic canon.  Neusner's five-volume "History of the Jews in Babylonia", published between 1965-1969, is said to be the first to consider the Babylonian Talmud in its Iranian context. Neusner studied Farsi and Middle Persian to do so.  Neusner's method of studying documents individually without contextualizing them with other Rabbinic documents of the same era or genre led to a series of studies on the way Judaism creates categories of understanding, and how those categories relate to one another, even as they emerge diversely in discrete rabbinic documents.  Neusner, with his contemporaries, translated into English nearly the entire Rabbinic canon. This work has opened up many Rabbinic documents to scholars of other fields unfamiliar with Hebrew and Aramaic, within the academic study of religion, as well as in ancient history, culture and Near and Middle Eastern Studies. His translation technique utilized a "Harvard-outline" format which attempts to make the argument flow of Rabbinic texts easier to understand for those unfamiliar with Talmudic reasoning.  Neusner's enterprise was aimed at a humanistic and academic reading of classics of Judaism. Neusner was drawn from studying text to context. Treating a religion in its social setting, as something a group of people do together, rather than as a set of beliefs and opinions.

Theological works.

In addition to his historical and textual works, Neusner also contributed to the area of Theology. He was the author of ""Israel:" Judaism and its Social Metaphors" and "The Incarnation of God: The Character of Divinity in Formative Judaism".

Jewish studies.

In addition to his scholarly activities, Neusner was involved in Jewish Studies and Religious Studies. Neusner saw Judaism as "not particular but exemplary, and Jews not as special but (merely) interesting."

Interfaith work.

Neusner wrote a number of works exploring the relationship of Judaism to other religions. His "A Rabbi Talks with Jesus" attempts to establish a religiously sound framework for Judaic-Christian interchange. It earned the praise of Pope Benedict XVI and the nickname "The Pope's Favorite Rabbi". In his book "Jesus of Nazareth," Benedict referred to it as "by far the most important book for the Jewish-Christian dialogue in the last decade."  Neusner also collaborated with other scholars to produce comparisons of Judaism and Christianity, as in "The Bible and Us: A Priest and A Rabbi Read Scripture Together". He collaborated with scholars of Islam, conceiving "World Religions in America: An Introduction", which explores how diverse religions have developed in the distinctive American context.  Neusner composed numerous textbooks and general trade books on Judaism. The two best-known examples are "The Way of Torah: An Introduction to Judaism" (Belmont 2003); and "Judaism: An Introduction".  Throughout his career, Neusner established publication programs and series with various academic publishers. Through these series, through reference works that he conceived and edited, and through the conferences he sponsored, Neusner advanced the careers of dozens of younger scholars from across the globe.

Political views.

Neusner called himself a Zionist, but also said "Israel’s flag is not mine. My homeland is America." He was culturally conservative, and opposed feminism and affirmative action.  Neusner was a signer of the conservative Christian Cornwall Declaration on Environmental Stewardship, which expresses concern over the "unfounded or undue concerns" of environmentalists such as "fears of destructive manmade global warming, overpopulation, and rampant species loss".

Critical assessment of Neusner's work.

Although he was highly influential, Neusner was criticized by scholars in his field of study.  Some were critical of his methodology, and asserted that many of his arguments were circular or attempts to prove "negative assumptions" from a lack of evidence, while others concentrated on Neusner's reading and interpretations of Rabbinic texts, finding that his account was forced and inaccurate.  Neusner's view that the Second Commonwealth Pharisees were a sectarian group centered on "table fellowship" and ritual food purity practices, and his lack of interest in wider Jewish values or social issues, has been criticized by E. P. Sanders, Solomon Zeitlin and Hyam Maccoby.  Some scholars questioned Neusner's grasp of Rabbinic Hebrew and Aramaic. The most famous and biting criticism came from Neusner's former teacher, Saul Lieberman, about Neusner's translation of the Jerusalem Talmud. Lieberman wrote: "...one begins to doubt the credibility of the translator [Neusner]. And indeed after a superficial perusal of the translation, the reader is stunned by the translator's ignorance of rabbinic Hebrew, of Aramaic grammar, and above all of the subject matter with which he deals." Ending his review, Lieberman states "I conclude with a clear conscience: The right place for [Neusner's] English translation is the waste basket" while at the same time qualifying that "[i]n fairness to the translator I must add that his various essays on Jewish topics are meritorious. They abound in brilliant insights and intelligent questions." Lieberman highlights his criticism as being of Neusner's "ignorance of the original languages," which Lieberman claims even Neusner was originally "well aware of" inasmuch as he had previously relied on responsible English renderings of rabbinic sources, e.g., Soncino Press, before later choosing to create his own renderings of rabbinic texts.

Personal life.

Neusner died on October 8, 2016 at the age of 84.

Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.

Jacob Neusner (né le à Hartford (Connecticut) et mort le à Rhinebeck (État de New York) ), est l'une des grandes figures contemporaines de la science du judaïsme et du judaïsme conservateur américain.


Life.

According to the testimony in his "Chronicle" (especially in view of his statement that he had heard from eyewitnesses of the great conflagration at St. Gall in 937), the date of his birth is usually placed about 980; he died 21 October but the year of his death is unknown (1036?–1060?). The same "Chronicle" indicates Alsace as his birthplace, though we do not know with certainty either the place of his birth, or his family origin. His boyhood was spent at St. Gall where he had for tutor Notker Labeo the German, one of the most learned scholars of his time. From him Ekkehard acquired a profound knowledge of the Latin and Greek classics; he also studied mathematics, astronomy, and music, and was acknowledged while living as a scholar of note even outside the monastery. After the death of Notker Labeo (1022), Ekkehard was called to Mainz by Archbishop Aribo, where he became director and teacher in the cathedral school, and held both offices until the death of his patron (1031), distinguishing himself as head of the school; indeed, he was noted as a successful teacher and promoter of learning.  A treatise on the "Jube me, Domine, benedicere", inscriptions, and benediction prayers remain as evidences of his literary activity. Emperor Conrad II, when at Ingelheim near Mainz, distinguished him by marks of personal favour (Easter, 1030). Shortly after his return to St. Gall, Abbot Tietbald died (1034) and Norbert of Stavelot, who introduced the reforms of Cluny, was elected to succeed him. A dissension, therefore, arose among the monks, the seniors being dissatisfied with the new reforms.

Writings.

"Casus sancti Galli".

During the time of the Cluny controversy at St. Gall, Ekkehard began to work on the ancient abbey chronicle, the famous "Casus S. Galli", begun by Ratpert and continued to Abbot Salomon (883), and carried it on from that date to Notker (972). This work is a most important document for the contemporary history of St. Gall It is also the main source of our knowledge concerning the Ekkehards. The "Casus" is mostly a compilation of anecdotes and traditions concerning distinguished monks. They contain, however, many historical errors and misrepresentations, and the Latin contains medieval idioms. Nevertheless, owing to the excellence and simplicity of the narrative, they are a valuable source of contemporary history, especially of its culture.

"Liber Benedictionum".

The second important literary work of Ekkehard is his "Liber Benedictionum". It comprises metrical inscriptions for the walls of the Mainz cathedral, and benedictions (also in verse) for use in choir-service and at meals, also poems in honour of the festivals of various saints, partly from his own pen and partly by Notker Labeo. In poetical merit these works are inferior enough, nevertheless they betray a very fair knowledge of Latin. The glosses from his pen, both on his own manuscripts and others belonging to the abbey, remain as proof of his lifelong zeal in pursuit of knowledge. He was also skilled in music, especially ecclesiastical music, always diligently and successfully cultivated at St. Gall.

Ekkehard IV ( 980 – c. 1056) was a monk of the Abbey of Saint Gall and the author of the "Casus sancti Galli" and "Liber Benedictionum".

Ekkehard IV de Saint-Gall ou Eckhard, Eckhart Ekkehart (né vers 980, mort après 1057 à Saint-Gall) est un érudit, chroniqueur et poète latin. Il est l’élève de Notker Labeo à Saint-Gall. Entre 1022 et 1031, à la demande de l'archevêque Aribon, il est écolâtre de Mayence, puis revient à Saint-Gall.


Nuclear triad.

A nuclear triad refers to a strategic nuclear arsenal which consists of three components, traditionally strategic bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). The purpose of having a three-branched nuclear capability is to significantly reduce the possibility that an enemy could destroy all of a nation's nuclear forces in a first-strike attack; this, in turn, ensures a credible threat of a second strike, and thus increases a nation's nuclear deterrence.

Main delivery mechanisms.

Gravity bomb.

Historically, the first method of delivery, and the method used in the only two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, was a gravity bomb dropped by a plane. In the years leading up to the development and deployment of nuclear-armed missiles, nuclear bombs represented the most practical means of nuclear weapons delivery; even today, and especially with the decommissioning of nuclear missiles, aerial bombing remains the primary means of offensive nuclear weapons delivery, and the majority of US nuclear warheads are represented in bombs, although some are in the form of missiles.  Gravity bombs are designed to be dropped from planes, which requires that the weapon be able to withstand vibrations and changes in air temperature and pressure during the course of a flight. Early weapons often had a removable core for safety, known as in flight insertion (IFI) cores, being inserted or assembled by the air crew during flight. They had to meet safety conditions, to prevent accidental detonation or dropping. A variety of types also had to have a fuse to initiate detonation. US nuclear weapons that met these criteria are designated by the letter "B" followed, without a hyphen, by the sequential number of the "physics package" it contains. The "B61", for example, was the primary bomb in the US arsenal for decades.  Various air-dropping techniques exist, including toss bombing, parachute-retarded delivery, and laydown modes, intended to give the dropping aircraft time to escape the ensuing blast.  The earliest gravity nuclear bombs (Little Boy and Fat Man) of the United States could only be carried, during the era of their creation, by the special "Silverplate" limited production (65 airframes by 1947) version of the B-29 Superfortress. The next generation of weapons were still so big and heavy that they could only be carried by bombers such as the six/ten-engined, seventy-meter wingspan B-36 Peacemaker, the eight jet-engined B-52 Stratofortress, and jet-powered British RAF V bombers, but by the mid-1950s smaller weapons had been developed that could be carried and deployed by fighter-bombers.

Ballistic missile.

Missiles using a ballistic trajectory usually deliver a warhead over the horizon, at distances of thousands of kilometers, as in the case of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Most ballistic missiles exit the Earth's atmosphere and re-enter it in their sub-orbital spaceflight.  Placement of nuclear missiles on the low Earth orbit has been banned by the Outer Space Treaty as early as 1967. Also, the eventual Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) that served a similar purpose—it was just deliberately designed to deorbit before completing a full circle—was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the SALT II treaty.  An ICBM is more than 20 times as fast as a bomber and more than 10 times as fast as a fighter plane, and also flying at a much higher altitude, and therefore more difficult to defend against. ICBMs can also be fired quickly in the event of a surprise attack.  Early ballistic missiles carried a single warhead, often of megaton-range yield. Because of the limited accuracy of the missiles, this kind of high yield was considered necessary in order to ensure a particular target's destruction. Since the 1970s modern ballistic weapons have seen the development of far more accurate targeting technologies, particularly due to improvements in inertial guidance systems. This set the stage for smaller warheads in the hundreds-of-kilotons-range yield, and consequently for ICBMs having multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRV). Advances in technology have enabled a single missile to launch a payload containing several warheads. The number of independent warheads capable of deployment from ballistic missiles depends on the weapons platform the missile is launched from. For example, one D5 Trident missile carried by an is capable of launching eight independent warheads, while a has missiles capable of deploying 10 warheads at a time. MIRV has a number of advantages over a missile with a single warhead. With small additional costs, it allows a single missile to strike multiple targets, or to inflict maximum damage on a single target by attacking it with multiple warheads. It makes anti-ballistic missile defense even more difficult, and even less economically viable, than before.  Missile warheads in the American arsenal are indicated by the letter "W"; for example, the W61 missile warhead would have the same physics package as the B61 gravity bomb described above, but it would have different environmental requirements, and different safety requirements since it would not be crew-tended after launch and remain atop a missile for a great length of time.

Cruise missile.

A cruise missile is a jet engine or rocket-propelled missile that flies at low altitude using an automated guidance system (usually inertial navigation, sometimes supplemented by either GPS or mid-course updates from friendly forces) to make them harder to detect or intercept. Cruise missiles can carry a nuclear warhead. They have a shorter range and smaller payloads than ballistic missiles, so their warheads are smaller and less powerful.  The AGM-86 ALCM is the US Air Force's current nuclear-armed air-launched cruise missile. The ALCM is only carried on the B-52 Stratofortress which can carry 20 missiles. Thus the cruise missiles themselves can be compared with MIRV warheads. The BGM/UGM-109 Tomahawk submarine-launched cruise missile is capable of carrying nuclear warheads, but all nuclear warheads were removed.  Cruise missiles may also be launched from mobile launchers on the ground, and from naval ships.  There is no letter change in the US arsenal to distinguish the warheads of cruise missiles from those for ballistic missiles.  Cruise missiles, even with their lower payload, have a number of advantages over ballistic missiles for the purposes of delivering nuclear strikes:  U.S. and Soviet intermediate-range, ground-launched cruise missiles were eliminated under the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty from 1987 to 2019, following U.S. withdrawal.

Other delivery systems.

Other delivery methods included artillery shells, mines such as the Medium Atomic Demolition Munition and the novel Blue Peacock, nuclear depth charges, and nuclear torpedoes. An 'Atomic Bazooka' was also fielded, designed to be used against large formations of tanks.  In the 1950s the US developed small nuclear warheads for air defense use, such as the Nike Hercules. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the United States and Canada fielded a low-yield nuclear-tipped air-to-air rocket, the AIR-2 Genie. Further developments of this concept, some with much larger warheads, led to the early anti-ballistic missiles. The United States have largely taken nuclear air-defense weapons out of service with the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. Russia updated its nuclear tipped Soviet era anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system, known as the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system in 1995. It is believed that the, in development (2013) successor to the nuclear A-135, the A-235 Samolet-M will dispense with nuclear interception warheads and instead rely on a conventional "hit-to-kill" capability to destroy its target.  Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (erroneously referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty to combine sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.  Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are a new potential method of nuclear delivery. They can be potentially combined with ICBM MIRVs such as RS-28 Sarmat.

Costs.

According to an audit by the Brookings Institution, between 1940 and 1996, the US spent $ in present-day terms on nuclear weapons programs. 57 percent of which was spent on building delivery mechanisms for nuclear weapons. 6.3 percent of the total, $ in present-day terms, was spent on weapon nuclear waste management, for example, cleaning up the Hanford site with environmental remediation, and 7 percent of the total, $ was spent on the manufacturing of nuclear weapons themselves.

Technology spin-offs.

Strictly speaking however not all this 57 percent was spent solely on "weapons programs" delivery systems.

Launch vehicles.

For example, two such delivery mechanisms, the Atlas ICBM and Titan II, were re-purposed as human launch vehicles for human spaceflight, both were used in the civilian Project Mercury and Project Gemini programs respectively, which are regarded as stepping stones in the evolution of US human spaceflight. The Atlas vehicle sent John Glenn, the first American into orbit. Similarly in the Soviet Union it was the R-7 ICBM/launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, on 4 October 1957, and the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of the R-7, the Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. A modernized version of the R-7 is still in use as the launch vehicle for the Russian Federation, in the form of the Soyuz spacecraft.

Weather satellites.

The first true weather satellite, the TIROS-1 was launched on the Thor-Able launch vehicle in April 1960. The PGM-17 Thor was the first operational IRBM (intermediate ballistic missile) deployed by the US Air Force (USAF). The Soviet Union's first fully operational weather satellite, the Meteor 1 was launched on 26 March 1969 on the Vostok rocket, a derivative of the R-7 ICBM.

Lubricants.

WD-40 was first used by Convair to protect the outer skin, and more importantly, the paper thin "balloon tanks" of the Atlas missile from rust and corrosion. These stainless steel fuel tanks were so thin that, when empty, they had to be kept inflated with nitrogen gas to prevent their collapse.

Thermal isolation.

In 1953, Dr. S. Donald Stookey of the Corning Research and Development Division invented Pyroceram, a white glass-ceramic material capable of withstanding a thermal shock (sudden temperature change) of up to 450 °C (840 °F). It evolved from materials originally developed for a US ballistic missile program, and Stookey's research involved heat-resistant material for nose cones.

Satellite assisted positioning.

Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs, this spurred development of triangulation methods that ultimately culminated in GPS. The motivation for having accurate launch position fixes, and missile velocities, is twofold. It results in a tighter target impact circular error probable and therefore by extension, reduces the need for the earlier generation of heavy multi-megaton nuclear warheads, such as the W53 to ensure the target is destroyed. With increased target accuracy, a greater number of lighter, multi-kiloton range warheads can be packed on a given missile, giving a higher number of separate targets that can be hit per missile.

Global positioning system.

During a Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a "Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS)". It was at this meeting that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the DNSS program was named "Navstar", or Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging.  During the development of the submarine-launched Polaris missile, a requirement to accurately know the submarine's location was needed to ensure a high circular error probable warhead target accuracy. This led the US to develop the Transit system. In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in Transit.  The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the US Navy developed the Timation satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by the latter Global Positioning System. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.  While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear-deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.  Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The USAF, with two-thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (such as Russian SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.  In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study, Project 57, was worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born". That same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in GPS" and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The Navy Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock into orbit.  Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. The SECOR system included three ground-based transmitters from known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969. Decades later, during the early years of GPS, civilian surveying became one of the first fields to make use of the new technology, because surveyors could reap benefits of signals from the less-than-complete GPS constellation years before it was declared operational. GPS can be thought of as an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground-based transmitters have been migrated into orbit.

Nuclear weapons delivery is the technology and systems used to place a nuclear weapon at the position of detonation, on or near its target. Several methods have been developed to carry out this task.

Un vecteur nucléaire est un moyen de transport (aéronef, navire, missile, artillerie, etc.) capable de transporter une charge nucléaire au lieu de détonation.


Biography.

Sand was born in Linz, Austria, to Polish Jewish survivors of the Holocaust. His cultural background was grounded in Yiddish culture. His father, having taken an aversion to rabbis, abandoned his Talmudic studies at a yeshiva and dropped attendance at synagogues, after his mother was denied a front seat after her husband's death, and they could not afford the seat price. Both his parents had Communist and anti-imperialist views and refused to accept compensation from Germany for their suffering during the Second World War. Sand spent his first two years in a displaced persons camp near Munich, and moved with the family to Jaffa in 1948, where his father got a job as night porter in the headquarters of the local Communist party. He was expelled from high school at the age of sixteen, studied electronics by night and found employment by day in a radio repair business. Drafted in 1965, he served at the communist kibbutz of Yad Hanna. According to one interview, "Sand spent the late 1960s and early 1970s working a series of odd jobs, including several years as a telephone lineman." He completed his high-school work at age 25 and spent three years in the military. The Six-Day War, in which he served – his unit conquered at heavy loss the Abu Tor area in East Jerusalem – pushed him towards the radical left. After the war he served in Jericho, where, he says, Palestinians trying to return to the country were gunned down if they infiltrated at night, but were arrested if caught doing so by day. Such experiences, one incident in particular, left him with a sense that he had lost his homeland. Quitting the Union of Israeli Communist Youth (Banki), he joined the more radical, and anti-Zionist, Matzpen in 1968. He resigned from Matzpen in 1970 due to his disillusionment with the organisation.  Declining an offer by the Israeli Maki Communist Party to be sent to do cinema studies in Poland, Sand graduated with a BA in History from Tel Aviv University in 1975. Determined to "abandon everything" Israeli, he moved to France, where, from 1975 to 1985, after winning a scholarship, he studied and taught in Paris, receiving an MA in French History and a PhD for his thesis on Georges Sorel and Marxism. Since 1982, Sand has taught at Tel Aviv University as well as at the University of California, Berkeley, and the École des hautes études en sciences sociales in Paris.  In 1983, according to one source, Sand "took part in a heated exchange over Zeev Sternhell's "Ni droite, ni gauche: l’idéologie fasciste en France", and later drew the ire of Claude Lanzmann with his 2002 book in Hebrew, "Film as History", in which he not only passed scathing judgement on Lanzmann's "Shoah", but also revealed that the film had been secretly funded by the Israeli government."

Views.

While acknowledging "the affinity between Jews and the holy land," Sand has said that "I don't think the religious affinity to the land gives you historical right." Still, he supports Israel's existence "not because of historical right, but because of the fact that it exists today and any effort to destroy it will bring new tragedies." He explained that he doesn't call himself a Zionist, but "a post-Zionist and non-Zionist because the justification of this land is not historical right."  Comparing the Palestinians to children of rape, Sand has said that Israel "raped a population. And not only a population – we destroyed this society, in constituting the Israeli state." He opposes the law of return and the right of return. Still, "Israel has to be the state of Israelis. That is the only way we can continue to live in the Middle East." He argues that before Hitler, Jews were overwhelmingly against Zionism, and the concept of "Eretz Israel" was not about an earthly homeland but about something more spiritual. He also opposes the one-state solution because, while "very very popular in leftist circles," it is "not serious" because Israelis, being "one of the most racist societies in the western world," will never accept it. Thus he supports a "two state solution on the borders of ’67, taking out most of the settlers. I don’t think it will be a big problem." His position on the formation of a national identity extends to Palestinians, who did not, in his view, exist as a people before the rise of Zionism.

Criticism of gene studies.

In 2010, when Harry Ostrer, a professor of genetics at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, announced the results of a DNA study showing "powerful genetic markers of Jewish ancestry," Sand told Science Magazine that "Hitler would certainly have been very pleased." Writing in "The Chronicle of Higher Education", Josh Fischman commented that Sand's argument in "The Invention of the Jewish People" that Jews arose from multiple conversions among various communities in Europe and elsewhere contradicted work by Harry Ostrer which argued that "geographically and culturally distant Jews still have more genes in common than they do with non-Jews around them," and that such genes were of Levantine origin," including the area where modern Israel is situated. Ostrer himself took offense at Sand's attack on his work: "Bringing up Hitler was overheated and misconstrues my work," he said. Sand reiterated his criticism, writing in an email to Fischman that "It is a shame for somebody who defines himself as a Jew to look for a Jewish gene."  Geneticist Dr. Eran Elhaik has published two research papers which cite Sand's work extensively. The first, "The Missing Link of Jewish European Ancestry: Contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian Hypotheses", came out in December 2012 argued that genetic evidence points to a "mosaic of Near Eastern-Caucasus, European, and Semitic ancestries" within the founding population of modern European Jews. The theory proved highly controversial, and was contested by a number of historians and several geneticists. Elhaik's second paper, in collaboration with others, similarly used Sand's work and concluded that the Ashkenazi descend from 'a heterogeneous Iranian population, which later mixed with Eastern and Western Slavs and possibly some Turks and Greeks in the territory of the Khazar Empire around the 8th century A.D.'

Book publications.

"The Invention of the Jewish People".

Sand’s best-known book in English is "The Invention of the Jewish People", originally published in Hebrew (Resling, 2008) as "" ("When and How Was the Jewish People Invented?") and translated into English the following year (Verso, 2009). It has generated a heated controversy.  Sand was criticized for presenting "dubious theories" regarding Jewish identity as historical facts. One provocative theory espoused by Sand, but challenged by other historians as "a myth with no factual basis," is the claim that Ashkenazi Jews are descended from Khazars, who purportedly converted in the early Middle Ages.  The book was in the best-seller list in Israel for nineteen weeks. It was reprinted three times when published in French ("Comment le peuple juif fut inventé", Fayard, Paris, 2008). In France, it received the "Prix Aujourd'hui", a journalists' award given to a non-fiction political or historical work. An English translation of the book was published by Verso Books in October 2009. The book has also been translated into German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic, Russian, and Slovene and as of late 2009 further translations were underway. "The Invention of the Jewish People" has now been translated into more languages than any other Israeli history book.

"The Invention of the Land of Israel".

In April 2012, a sequel, "The Invention of the Land of Israel", was published in Hebrew by Kinneret Zmora-Bitan Dvir. It was published in English in 2013.

"How I Stopped Being a Jew".

In 2013, Sand published a book entitled "How I Stopped Being a Jew" (, ). The book examines the question of Jewish identity and the distinction between being a Jew and being Israeli. It also examines the identity of Israel, with a focus on the country's relationship, as a "Jewish state," to Jews around the world and to its non-Jewish citizens. He expresses a desire to break with what he sees as a "tribal Judeocentrism" subject to the "caprices of the sleepwalking sorcerers of the tribe," expressing a deep attachment to the Hebrew language and to a secular ideal of Israel.

"The End of the French Intellectual".

Sand's 2016 book "La fin de l'intellectuel français?" was published in English in 2018 as "The End of the French Intellectual" (with the question mark omitted). It is a critique of three contemporary French intellectuals, Michel Houellebecq, Eric Zemmour and Alain Finkielkraut.

Shlomo Sand (pronounced "Zand"; ; born 10 September 1946) is an Israeli Emeritus Professor of History at Tel Aviv University.

Shlomo Sand, né le à Linz en Autriche, est un historien israélien spécialisé dans l'histoire contemporaine. Il fait partie des nouveaux historiens israéliens. Il est professeur à l'université de Tel Aviv depuis 1985.


History.

Beginnings and "Get Even" EP (2004-2005).

Brothers Tommy Sanders and Jonny Sanders grew up playing music together at home in their early teens. Jonny later played in a band with Guitarist David Thorpe while attending Maiden Erlegh School in Reading. It was not until they all left school that they met with Bassist Peter Cattermoul and Guitarist Peter Hefferan, who had also played music together in their late teens, that the band was formed. Initially, the lineup did not include Tommy Sanders and was fronted by Peter Hefferan.  After playing just a few shows around Reading, the band were invited on a short tour with all-girl punk band Wetdog, who took them to play at The Spitz in Spitalfield Market. It was here that the band was picked up by a new indie label Stolen Recordings and where they would begin to build their reputation as an exciting live act. Just a few months later, the bands was in a studio in Hornsey making their first EP.  The band's first release, the "Get Even" EP, was limited to 500 numbered CDs, all with handmade covers.  "Rough Trade" wrote of the EP "The six tracks have folk bits, byrdsy harmony bits, kraut-rock frug-outs, punk blasts of power and superb pop moments all segued and strewn together carelessly but precisely. It's oddball and charming and would sit perfectly next to the englishness of the Mystery Jets or Wire, although they sound like neither."

"Wait, Stop, Begin" EP (2006-2007).

After the release of their first EP, the band came to the notice of Jason Lamont of CMO Management. The band continued to play more shows around London and the UK and Tommy Sanders joined the group in 2006. Sometime after this the band were approached by Lamont for management and also by William Morris Endeavor for live bookings. Songs from "Wait, Stop Begin" would appear later on the debut album "Little Death".  On 25 August 2007 the band played in the Carling Tent at Reading Festival. They also played guerilla gigs in the campsite later that day, which came to the attention of the NME who featured an article in their magazine.

"Little Death" (2008-2010).

In June 2007 they released their debut single "Come On Feet" on Stolen Recordings and were championed by Steve Lamacq on his In New Music We Trust radio show on BBC Radio 1. It also featured in EA Sports game, "UEFA Euro 2008".  Their first full-length album "Little Death", produced by Gareth Parton and the band, was released on 17 February 2008. It was described by "NME" as "perfect pop without the pretence". Pitchfork gave "Little Death" 8 out of 10 saying "Even if you'd be to admit it to your friends, "Dry Wings", with lines like, "Time for bed / Find a girl and go to bed / Close your eyes / Stars are falling from the sky," is mighty affecting—a winking galaxy of jangled wist, sweet, staggered harmonies and a gawky, yearning sense of wonder." "The Guardian" gave the album 3 out of 5 stars saying, "this eclecticism does make Little Death feel like the work of several different bands. No matter. There is imagination to spare here, as well as the occasional winning lyric." Conversely, in a review by "Vice Magazine", "Little Death" was given 0 out of 10 and winner of the "worst album of the month" category. In this review, written by Stewy Matterson, the album was described as "jangly guitar music that doesn’t actually sound like it wants to be heard by anybody apart from [the band's] mothers".  The band played several support dates with Maxïmo Park, Vampire Weekend, Pigeon Detectives and Gossip and were the headline act at Club NME at London's KOKO in September 2008. Pete and the Pirates also performed BBC 6 Music sessions on shows with Stephen Merchant (co-creator of "The Office"), George Lamb and more frequently Marc Riley.  Mr Understanding was the band's biggest track to date and featured on many TV shows including "The Inbetweeners" and also in the trailer for the film "Hamlet 2" starring Steve Coogan.

"One Thousand Pictures" (2011-2012).

The band's second album, "One Thousand Pictures", produced by Brendan Lynch, was released in the UK on 23 May 2011 to much critical acclaim - the Sunday Express and Artrocker both gave the Album 5 star reviews and Mark Beaumont from NME gave the Album an 8/10 score, describing the music as "Pop in a tar-pit – black and sticky but wonderfully pure at heart". It was also reviewed in The Guardian, Q and many other magazines and broadsheets. The band had become known for their straight-up accented vocal delivery, as noted by Johnny Dee for The Guardian, "you can practically smell the Thames on every word".  The first single from the album, "Come to the Bar", was released on 14 March 2011. The promo video was directed by Rohan Thomas and Tylie Cox and was shot at The Lexington in Angel, London. The video features an interpretive dance performance from Daniela Neugebauer and colour grading from Reuben Sutherland. The song later appeared during the end credits of the Channel 4 show "Sirens".  To promote the record the band toured the UK in April and May 2011 with a sold out show at Heaven, London on 26 May. "The Fly" reviewed "Celebrating the release of new album 'One Thousand Pictures', the band have refined their audience, marking out a clear divide between their work and that of countless indistinguishable landfill indie bands". They also played an instore show at Rough Trade East on 2 June 2011.  The second single "United" was released on 16 May 2011. The band requested footage of cats from fans through their website and mailing list to include in the video for the song. The video also features the band hanging around with various cats.  Marc Riley of BBC 6 Music has been one of the band's most prominent enthusiasts, inviting them to perform on his show on numerous occasions. The band have achieved playlists on BBC 6 Music and XFM as well as spot plays on BBC Radio 1, where Zane Lowe gave "Come to the Bar" his "Hottest Record in the World" for the song's first radio play.  "Blood Gets Thin" was used in an episode of "The Protector" and of "American Horror Story", and in a trailer for the fourth season of "Breaking Bad".  A large number of CD and vinyl copies of the album were scorched in a fire at Sony's distribution warehouse during the 2011 England riots.  The band toured the UK and Europe from September to November 2011, with a headline show at the Scala in London on 4 October and a 9,000 capacity show with Kaiser Chiefs at Kirkstall Abbey on 10 September. However, their activity was minimal during 2012, and in late October 2012, Marc Riley, on his BBC 6 Music radio show, confirmed the rumours that the band had split up. No official statement has been released.  Tommy, Jonny and Peter Cattermoul have reformed under the name Teleman.  Peter Hefferan now fronts a band called 'The 3.1419 Wonders', and recently toured with Dan le Sac, as well as singing on a track on his latest album "Space Between the Words".

Solo projects.

Some members of the band have worked on solo projects including Tommy Sanders' Tap Tap.

Pete and the Pirates were an English indie rock band from Reading, England. The band consisted of Thomas Sanders (vocals), Peter Hefferan (vocals and guitar), David Thorpe (guitar), Peter Cattermoul (bass) and Jonny Sanders (drums).

Pete and the Pirates est un groupe de rock indépendant britannique, originaire de Reading, en Angleterre. Leur premier album "Little Death" est sorti le. Le groupe est constitué de Thomas Sanders (chant), Pete Hefferan (chant et guitare), David Thorpe (guitare), Pete Cattermoul (basse) and Jonny Sanders (batterie).


Design and construction.

Designed by John Trumpy and built by the famed John H. Mathis & Company Shipbuilders in Camden, New Jersey, "Sequoia" was completed at a cost of approximately $200,000 and launched October 27, 1925. Originally named the "Sequoia II," she was the second of four successively larger yachts built between 1924 and 1931 for Mr. and Mrs. Richard McCall Cadwalader of Philadelphia. The Cadwalader’s third and fourth yachts were named "Savarona" and "Savarona II", respectively.  At 104 feet in length, "Sequoia IIs" hull was originally constructed of long-leaf yellow pine on white oak frames and her deckhouse of mahogany and teak. She is capable of comfortably sleeping eight guests in her three double and two single staterooms, has ample crew quarters and can seat 22 for formal dinners.

Richard M. Cadwalader and Emily Roebling Cadwalader.

Richard Cadwalader was a prominent Philadelphia banker and his wife, Emily Roebling Cadwalader, was an heiress to the Roebling fortune. Emily was the granddaughter of John Augustus Roebling, chief engineer and original designer of the Brooklyn Bridge, and was named after her paternal aunt, Emily Warren Roebling.  Emily Roebling Cadwalader became the driving force behind the four exceptional yachts constructed for the Cadwaladers, culminating in 1931 with the 446-foot "Savarona II".

"Sequoia II"s christening and early use.

Local newspapers recount that on October 26, 1925 after arriving with her party in two Rolls-Royce automobiles, Mrs. Cadwalader broke a bottle of champagne against the bow of the "Sequoia II" commemorating its service to her family. Oddly, these accounts of "Sequoia II"s christening make no mention of prohibition when discussing the champagne. The Cadwaladers sailed "Sequoia II" on various high-profile trips to the coasts of Florida during 1925 and 1926, including to West Palm Beach and Miami.  Three years after being built for the Cadwaladers, "Sequoia II" was sold to William Dunning, a Houston-based oil executive who used the vessel for various gambling trips to Cuba and business-related travel along the Mexican coastline. Dunning was forced to sell "Sequoia II" during the Great Depression.

U.S. Government service.

On March 24, 1931, the U.S. Bureau of Navigation within the Department of Commerce purchased "Sequoia II" from Dunning for approximately $40,000. "Sequoia II" initially was used to patrol the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays as a decoy vessel to attract would-be bootleggers. In hope of selling illegal liquor, bootleggers would come alongside what was seen as a wealthy family's yacht only to be arrested.

Presidential service.

Hoover Administration.

Herbert Hoover was known to have an affection for Mathis-Trumpy houseboats, such as "Sequoia", and had spent time both between his election victory and inauguration and during the early part of his administration cruising and fishing in Florida aboard the yacht "Saunterer", a 98-foot Mathis-Trumpy house boat owned by his friend, Jeremiah Milbank.  Having decommissioned the former presidential yacht "The Mayflower" in 1929, Herbert Hoover initiated "Sequoia II"s presidential service by using her on various occasions during the final years of his Administration. This included four documented voyages from 1931 to 1933 for official presidential business as well as for pleasure cruises. Various news outlets reported on the status of Hoover’s fishing trips aboard "Sequoia". During 1932, President and Mrs. Hoover spent both Christmas and New Year’s Eve aboard the "Sequoia II" as part of a ten-day fishing trip along the Georgia and Florida coastlines. Hoover used a photo of the indulgent yacht on his 1932 White House Christmas Card, when many Americans were suffering through the Depression and struggling for basic necessities.

Roosevelt Administration.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the yacht more frequently, with over fifty recorded outings between 1933 and 1935. On March 25, 1933, what was now known simply as "Sequoia" and no longer "Sequoia II," became the official presidential yacht after it was transferred from the Department of Commerce to the Naval Department. An elevator was installed to enable access for the polio-stricken President, who, like Hoover before him, enjoyed fishing aboard Sequoia and also used the vessel for important meetings and summits.  On April 23, 1933, President Roosevelt hosted British Prime Minister James Ramsay MacDonald as his first guest on the Sequoia. During a cruise to Mount Vernon they discussed the Great Depression, demilitarization, Adolf Hitler's rise and strategies for averting the threat of a potential new war with Germany. As it became clear these efforts were failing and war approached, the wooden "Sequoia" was deemed unsafe for the President, and on December 9, 1935, "Sequoia" was officially reassigned to the Secretary of the Navy and the steel-hulled was designated as the presidential yacht. For the next three decades, "Sequoia" served at the pleasure of the United States Secretary of Navy until its recommissioning in 1969 as a presidential yacht.

Truman Administration.

While serving as the yacht for the Secretary of the Navy, U.S. presidents and members of the Cabinet continued to use the Sequoia, often providing the backdrop for critical moments in American history.  President Harry S. Truman who used the as his official yacht, nevertheless called upon "Sequoia" to host the first atomic arms control talks. Just three months after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it was aboard the "Sequoia" during a November 1945 cruise down the Potomac past Mount Vernon that Truman first discussed the promise of atomic power and the need to control atomic weapons with the United States' closest allied leaders, Prime Ministers Clement Attlee of Great Britain and Mackenzie King of Canada. On September 16, 1946, then General Dwight David Eisenhower's calendar shows he met aboard the "Sequoia" with U.S. Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and British Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery. This meeting, under the guise of a cruise to Mount Vernon, initiated a series of highly classified political and military discussions from which emerged the Western European Union, which formed in 1948, followed by NATO a year later. General Eisenhower later served from 1951 to 1952 as the first Supreme Commander of NATO.

Eisenhower Administration.

On election to the presidency, Eisenhower ordered his Joint Chiefs of Staff (including Admiral Arthur W. Radford, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs) to meet on the "Sequoia" to further formulate and develop a plan for implementing Eisenhower's “New Look” defensive policy. On August 6 1953, Admiral Radford and his fellow Chiefs set sail in the Chesapeake Bay aboard the "Sequoia." The military leaders understood the President wanted a consensus and it was not until late on August 8, once the Chiefs had all signed what would be known as the "Sequoia Report", that the "Sequoia" returned to Washington. The Sequoia Report helped introduce a defensive strategy to reduce the overall size and cost of the military and rely heavily on nuclear deterrence, a doctrine that would serve as a defining turning point in U.S. strategy during the Cold War.

Kennedy Administration.

President Kennedy's use of "Sequoia" is not as well documented as that of other presidents. Government photographers did not accompany him on to the yacht, and immediately after his assassination, an order was given to destroy all personal logs associated with "Sequoia"s use during Kennedy's Administration. At the time, Paul “Red” Fay, one of President Kennedy's closest friends and confidants, served as Acting Secretary of the Navy.  During October 1962, President Kennedy held strategy meetings on "Sequoia" to discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis. On May 29, 1963, President Kennedy and the First Lady hosted a cruise to celebrate his 46th and last birthday. At 8 pm, the couple boarded "Sequoia" to the music of two orchestras. With 25 friends and family, the President and his guests danced after a meal of roast filet and Dom Perignon. In the words of Clement Norton, a close Kennedy family friend who was aboard that night, “You never can imagine anything happier or more normal or nice.” The iconic photographs documenting the President's last birthday were not taken by an official White House photographer, but by the navy officer in charge of "Sequoia" using his own Kodak Instamatic. Mary Pinchot Meyer's presence at the intimate celebration and her murder the following year have been topics of much speculation.  At the time President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, he and the First Lady were scheduled to host friends for a Sunday cruise aboard "Sequoia", two days later, on November 24, 1963. This cruise did not take place until April 1964 when the widowed Mrs. Kennedy spent an evening aboard "Sequoia" with a group of President Kennedy's closest friends. Frank Gannon, the piano player aboard that day, recounts a poignantly sad story of Mrs. Kennedy requesting him to play “Me and My Shadow” a song about being alone. On May 27, 1964, two days before what would have been President Kennedy's 47th birthday, his closest family and friends once again gathered aboard "Sequoia" for a dinner cruise documented by Kennedy speechwriter and presidential historian, Arthur Schlesinger Jr.

Johnson Administration.

In an interview after her husband had left office, former first Lady, Lady Bird Johnson, remembered the Johnson's “love affair with the "Sequoia" goes back indeed to 1949.”Having become friends with then Secretary of the Navy and soon to be Secretary of Defense, James Forrestal, the future president and First Lady had been invited guests aboard the ship on numerous occasions during the Roosevelt and Truman Administrations.  As Kennedy's vice president, Johnson made eight recorded trips aboard "Sequoia". As president, Johnson's use of "Sequoia" would increase, with more than 35 recorded trips during his 5 years in office. During 1964, President Johnson ordered FDR's elevator removed and a bar installed in its place. Johnson used "Sequoia" to lobby members of congress on critical legislative matters including civil rights and to strategize with his advisors regarding important decisions including escalation of the Vietnam war. "Sequoia" was used for hosting foreign ambassadors, as well as the leaders of Turkey and Greece who discussed the ongoing issue of Cyrpus. President Johnson frequently used "Sequoia" as a place to unwind and watch a film.

Nixon Administration.

"Sequoia"s most frequent presidential passenger was Johnson's successor, Richard Nixon. President Nixon recorded more than 80 trips aboard the yacht while in office.  On June 19, 1973, when a party of U.S. and Soviet diplomats accompanied the President and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev on a working dinner aboard the yacht. Throughout their cruise, the leaders discussed an agreement between the U.S. and U.S.S.R regarding the prevention of nuclear war, which was signed by President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev two days later on June 22, 1973 during the Washington Summit. It was aboard the Sequoia that President Nixon decided to resign and informed his family. In a 1983 interview conducted by Frank Gannon of the Nixon Foundation titled, "The Smoking Gun and the Sequoia" former president Nixon describes the August 5, 1974 cruise aboard the "Sequoia" during which he learned a Court had ordered him to release - the transcript of a tape recording that showed he approved the cover-up of the Watergate break-in.

Ford Administration.

Following President Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, Gerald Ford assumed the presidency. Ford used "Sequoia" less than Nixon. In May 1975, Ford was the first known president to host a Cabinet meeting aboard the vessel. Lasting four hours, the President and his cabinet discussed wide-ranging issues facing the United States, including a discussion regarding Congressional relations, confronting the issue of Vietnamese refugees, and the status of the U.S. Energy program in light of the 1973 oil crisis.  Later that summer, Mrs. Nelson Rockefeller, wife of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, entertained Mrs. Takeo Miki (wife of the Prime Minister of Japan) on a cruise along the Potomac during a state visit. Similarly, in October, 1975, the yacht would cruise along the Potomac to entertain Emperor Hirohito and the accompanying delegation from Japan. Another notable visitor aboard the Sequoia during the Ford years was the prime minister of Canada, Pierre Trudeau, who in 1976, had a working dinner with the President aboard "Sequoia".  President Ford celebrated his 62nd birthday on the Sequoia shortly after a surprise party given by White House staff. In 1975, Susan Ford hosted a pre-prom party aboard the yacht with a group of friends, and then celebrated her 19th birthday aboard Sequoia the following year. First Lady Betty Ford hosted a June 9, 1976 Sequoia cruise in celebration of Happy Rockefeller's 50th birthday.

Carter Administration.

After 46 years of government service, citing cost concerns — the "Sequoia" cost taxpayers an estimated $800,000 annually — President Carter ordered the "Sequoia" be sold at auction. Carter would later recall selling the yacht as a mistake. In a conversation with broadcaster Ray Suarez, Carter said: “People thought I was not being reverent enough to the office I was holding, that I was too much of a peanut farmer, not enough of an aristocrat, or something like that. So I think that shows that the American people want something of, an element of, image of monarchy in the White House.” In his 2015 autobiography ""A Full Life: Reflections at 90"" Presidential Carter wrote of selling "Sequoia, ""I was determined to be strict on expenditures for the nation, and to set an example in my personal life. I decided to sell the presidential yacht "Sequoia", and to minimize the playing of “Ruffles and Flourishes” when I arrived at public meetings. I was surprised when some of these changes proved to be quite unpopular, and to learn how much the public cherished the pomp and ceremony of the presidency."

Winston Churchill and the "Sequoia".

"Sequoia" served as refuge for presidents to relax with friends and conduct business outside of the public spotlight. As a result, no official documentary evidence exists for many events which took place aboard the yacht, and certain lore has developed, particularly regarding British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's activities aboard "Sequoia". This includes, but is not limited to, Churchill and Roosevelt planning D-day together on the large table in "Sequoia"s main salon, Churchill gifting deck chairs from the "Queen Mary" for "Sequoia"s upper deck and Churchill being the impetus behind Roosevelt decommissioning the USS "Sequoia" so that the two leaders could drink on board – alcoholic beverages were prohibited aboard commissioned naval vessels. Despite these persistent legends, Churchill was never documented as being aboard the yacht.

Private ownership.

"Sequoia" has had 7 owners since being sold by the U.S. government in 1977. Certain of the past owners sought to offset the costs of maintaining and operating the vessel by offering "Sequoia" for private charter, and others were non-profit groups seeking to maintain her for historical reasons and/or return her to Presidential service.  Thomas Malloy purchased "Sequoia" from the U.S government in May 1977 for $286,000. Three months later, Malloy resold "Sequoia" to a partnership led by Norman Pulliam for $355,000. Mr. Pulliam maintained "Sequoia" in Myrtal Beach SC and then sold her to The Ocean Learning Institute of Palm Beach, FL during March 1980 for $750,000. The institute used "Sequoia" to entertain potential donors.  The Presidential Yacht Trust, a non-profit organization, acquired "Sequoia" from the Institute for approximately $1.1 million in 1980 and brought "Sequoia" back to D.C for use by the President and his cabinet. President and Mrs. Reagan let it be known <nowiki>"</nowiki>There is some feeling in the White House that [the President] should not be on a million-dollar yacht when he has to cut programs such as food stamps and such.<nowiki>"</nowiki> Although, Reagan preferred to appear on horseback, he authorized his Cabinet's use of "Sequoia". During an August 1982 luncheon aboard "Sequoia", E.P.A. administrator Anne Gorsuch Burford (mother of future Supreme Court Justice Neil Gorsuch) announced to eight Reagan Administration officials, she was holding back Federal funds to clean up a toxic waste site near Los Angeles to avoid helping the Senate campaign of former California Gov. Brown, a Democrat. When Congress charged the EPA had mishandled such toxic waste Superfund sites and demanded records, Gorsuch refused and became the first agency director in U.S. history to be cited for contempt of Congress. During 1984 "Sequoia" received a heroes welcome as she was taken on an eight-month, 6,000-mile tour of the country.  A Congressional Resolution written to assist the Trust in bringing "Sequoia" back into government service, passed in December 1985. "Sequoia" underwent a $2 million restoration in 1986 before participating in the flotilla of vessels celebrating the centennial of the Statue of Liberty on July 4, 1986. Vice President George H.W. Bush used "Sequoia" in May 1987 to host a day of meetings with Yang Shangkun who subsequently served as President of the People's Republic of China from 1988 to 1993. "Sequoia" was designated as a National Historic Landmark in March of 1988. Political considerations dictated that if the Sequoia were to be returned to the government for use by the President, the cost should not be born by the U.S. government. The Trust was surprised by the Navy's requirement that the Trust not only pay for the yacht and its operations but also the security which would be required by the President. Unable to pay a $2 million repair bill, title to the yacht was transferred to the Virginia shipyard and Sequoia spent 6 years in storage.  Upon taking office, the Clinton White House worked closely with the Trust during 1993 and 1994 to have Kuwait purchase "Sequoia" from the Virginia yard where she was being stored and transfer title to the Trust as gift to the American people and a gesture of gratitude to the US for leading a coalition of 34 counties in liberating Kuwait after Saddam Hussein’s 1990 Iraqi invasion. A Japanese buyer was about to purchase "Sequoia" and move her to Tokyo, when The Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group LLC purchased "Sequoia" from the Virginia shipyard in September 2000 for approximately $2.0 million and made her available in Washington, D.C. for private charters until 2014.  President Clinton attended one such event aboard "Sequoia" on October 17, 2000 -- making him the 10th person who served as U.S. President to walk upon "Sequoia's" decks -- the full list includes: Herbert C. Hoover, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford, George H. W. Bush (while Vice President) and William J. Clinton.  During 2005, The Mystic Seaport Museum (located in Mystic, CT) entered into an exclusive 6-month option agreement to purchase Sequoia from the Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group but was unable to raise the $20 million needed to buy, restore and maintain the vessel. Upon the expiration of its option, the Museum's President told the New York Times, "[He] was disappointed because the Sequoia, a national historic landmark, is probably the most desirable vessel in private hands."  "Sequoia" is currently owned by FE Partners, a portfolio company of the Washington D.C. based Equator Capital Group which purchased "Sequoia" in October 2016 for $7.8 million. Equator Capital is controlled by L. Michael Cantor and is in the process of restoring the "Sequoia" at a repair yard in Belfast Maine. When asked about future plans by MegaYacht News, Cantor stated, “Once restored, our intention is to bring "Sequoia" back to Washington where she will serve as a venue to teach American presidential history and promote ocean conservation causes”  FE Partners purchased "Sequoia" after a protracted litigation with The Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group, the former owner who believed "Sequoia" to be worth significantly more than the $7.8 million purchase price and filed a January 2013 lawsuit against FE Partners to block the sale. As part of a loan agreement, the former owner had provided FE Partners with an option to purchase Sequoia for $13 million or in the event of a default under the loan agreement for $7.8 million. On August 29, 2013, a Delaware Court entered a Default Judgment against the former owner and confirmed FE Partner’s contractual right to purchase "Sequoia" for $7.8 million. On November 14, 2017, the same Delaware Court found the aggregate amount of funds which had been loaned by FE Partners to the former owner, legal fees, "Sequoia’s" 3rd part debts and the cost to repair "Sequoia" exceeded the $7.8 million purchase price. As a consequence, the Court also ruled FE Partners was not required to pay any additional funds to the former owner.  Upon purchasing "Sequoia" in October 2016, FE Partners filed a lawsuit against Chesapeake Boat Works of Deltaville, Virginia which had damaged "Sequoia" while hauling her out of the water on a marine railway during December 2014. FE Partners won a $700,000 settlement award against the Virgina shipyard on February 22, 2019, and then began the process of removing "Sequoia" from the railway, placing her on a barge and transporting the barge from Virginia to Maine. In September 2019, the "Sequoia" was first moved by barge from Deltaville, VA, to Cambridge, MD. and then during October, from Cambridge MD to Belfast ME where "Sequoia" arrived on October 22, 2019 to begin its restoration by French & Webb Inc for an undisclosed price.

Restoration.

According to MegaYacht News, the "Sequoia" restoration will require 9 to 10 months of careful planning before the refurbishment itself can start. French and his team are sourcing woods to supplement and/or replace her long-leaf yellow pine, mahogany, and teak.

USS "Sequoia" is the former presidential yacht used during the administrations of Herbert Hoover through Gerald Ford and then sold by Jimmy Carter.

L'USS "Sequoia" est un ancien yacht présidentiel des États-Unis, devenu propriété privée depuis 1977. Il est depuis 1987 enregistré comme National Historic Landmark.


History.

Adak Island has been the home to Aleut peoples since ancient times. Russian explorers in the 18th century also visited the island but made no permanent settlements. During World War II, the Imperial Japanese Army took control of two of the westernmost Aleutian Islands—Attu and Kiska—in the incorporated territory of Alaska, the first foreign enemy to occupy American soil since the War of 1812. The Japanese also attacked the American base at Dutch Harbor by air. The Japanese campaign coincided with the more well-known Battle of Midway. In response, the United States military began a campaign to oust the Japanese. Since the nearest U.S. military presence was in Cold Bay, Alaska, the U.S. began to construct bases in the western Aleutian Islands from which to launch operations against the Japanese. Adak Island was chosen as the site of an airfield, and flight operations began in September 1942. On May 11, 1943, four days after the initial invasion date was delayed by bad weather, American soldiers landed on Attu Island and defeated the Japanese garrison there, at the cost of 2,300 Japanese and 550 American lives. Expecting a similar battle for Kiska Island, U.S. and Allied soldiers landing there August 15, 1943, found the occupiers had been stealthily evacuated by Japanese naval forces since the end of May, 1943. Even so, over 313 Allied soldiers died from friendly fire, mines, and other anti-personnel devices during Allied operations to take back Kiska. In 1953, remains of 236 Japanese dead who had been buried in Adak Cemetery were reburied in Japan's Chidorigafuchi National Cemetery.  After the war was over, the approximately 6,000 American military men who served on Adak during World War II recalled Adak's cold, foggy, windy weather; mud; Quonset huts; few women and no trees; and a volcano that from time to time would issue puffs of smoke. Fresh food was a rarity. Adak Naval Air Station continued to be a military base during the Cold War but was designated a Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) site in 1995 and closed in March 1997. Shortly thereafter, the town of Adak was incorporated at the site of the former base. Down from a peak population of 6,000, the island recorded a 2010 census population of 326 residents, all in the city of Adak, in the northern part of the island. In 1980, the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge was created and much of Adak Island lies within its boundaries.  The Alaska Department of Fish and Game introduced approximately 200 caribou to the island to help prevent emergency famine. The now large caribou herd is a popular hunting destination.

Climate.

Adak has a subpolar oceanic climate (Koppen Cfc), characterized by persistently overcast skies, moderated temperatures, high winds, significant precipitation and frequent cyclonic storms.  At Adak, overcast conditions average nearly 75% of the time during June and July, dropping back to approximately 50% of the time from October through February. Adak averages 173 days per year with fog. The foggiest months are July and August when an average of 26 of the 31 days have fog. This number drops dramatically toward the winter season where the months of December through March have, on average, fewer than ten days with fog during any one month.  Gales occur in all months of the year at Adak with the greatest chance from December through March. A peak gust of 109 knots occurred at Adak in March 1954.  Adak's average temperatures range from 20 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit, with a record high of 75 °F (August 1956) and a record low of 3 °F (January 1963 and February 1964).  Average annual precipitation is about 54.8 inches. October to January are the wettest months due to especially frequent and intense mid-latitude cyclonic storms, while May to July represent markedly drier months; thunderstorms, common in mid-latitude continental areas, are virtually unknown here. November is the average wettest month, while July is the average driest month. Average snowfall is 100 inches, falling primarily on the upper reaches of the volcanoes. Adak has an average of 341 days per year with measurable precipitation.

Education.

Adak is served by the Aleutian Region Schools. The Adak School serves grades K-12 and has around 20 students.

Economy.

A land exchange between Aleut Corp., the U.S. Navy, and the Department of the Interior has transferred most of the naval facilities to the Aleut Corp. A portion of the Island will remain within the National Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, managed by U.S. Fish & Wildlife. Adak currently provides a fueling port and crew transfer facility for foreign fishing fleets—an airport, docks, housing facilities and food services are available. A grocery and ship supply store and restaurant opened in February 1999. Aleut Corporation maintains the facilities. Contractors are performing an environmental clean-up. Alaskan-owned Norquest-Adak Seafood Co. processes Pacific cod, pollock, mackerel, halibut, albacore and brown king crab. Four residents hold a commercial fishing permit, primarily for groundfish. The January 2006 National Geographic magazine presented pictures of the Sea-based X-band Radar in tow around Cape Horn to Adak for the purpose of anti-ballistic missile space surveillance. This operation required about one hundred technicians. Google Earth pictures the long-time Naval Air Base infrastructure to be located at.

Transportation.

Because of its naval aviation past, Adak has an unusually large and sophisticated airport for the Aleutian Islands. The Adak Airport is currently operated by the State of Alaska Department of Transportation. Adak Airport has a control tower, an Instrument Landing System and two runways; and respectively. Both runways are asphalt paved, wide and at an elevation of.  Alaska Airlines operates twice-weekly Boeing 737-700 combi aircraft passenger and cargo jet service from Anchorage. At present, flights operate each Wednesday and Saturday (weather permitting). Occasionally, extra seasonal flights are operated to meet the demand of the fishing season. The Adak Airport was historically served for many years by Reeve Aleutian Airways (RAA) with scheduled passenger flights to Anchorage operated with Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprop combi aircraft during the 1970s followed by Boeing 727-100 jet combi aircraft during the 1980s and 1990s.  Other facilities in Adak include three deep water docks and fueling facilities. The city has requested funds to greatly expand the Sweeper Cove small boat harbor, including new breakwaters, a 315-foot (96 m) dock and new moorage floats  There are approximately of paved and primitive roads on Adak, all privately owned by the Aleut Corporation.

Flora.

The Aleutian shield fern is an endangered species found only on this island.

Geology.

Adagdak and Mount Moffett volcanoes are located on Adak. The igneous rock type adakite is named after Adak.

Adak Island (, ) is an island near the western extent of the Andreanof Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. Alaska's southernmost town, Adak, is located on the island. The island has a land area of, measuring on length and on width, making it the 25th largest island in the United States.

L'île Adak ("Adaax" en aléoute) est une île proche de l'extrémité occidentale des îles Andreanof, archipel appartenant aux îles Aléoutiennes situées en Alaska (États-Unis).


Fallschirm Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring

History.

The "Fallschirm-Panzerkorps Hermann Göring" was activated in early October 1944, and the Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier Division 2 Hermann Göring, along with its sister Panzer division, "Hermann Göring" Panzer Division, was transferred to the command of the corps. The Panzerkorps was then transferred to the East Prussia–Kurland region to halt the Soviet offensive which had already achieved the isolation of Army Group North in the Kurland Pocket and was now aimed at the capture of East Prussia. The Panzerkorps was involved in heavy defensive fighting near Gumbinnen, and when the Soviet assault petered out in late November, the Panzerkorps set up static defensive lines.  The massive Soviet Vistula-Oder Offensive trapped the "Hermann Göring" Panzerkorps in the Heiligenbeil Pocket along with the rest of the 4th Army. In February, the Heer's élite "Großdeutschland" Panzergrenadier Division was attached to the corps.  Despite several breakout attempts, the Panzerkorps had to be evacuated by sea to Swinemünde in Pomerania. Upon landing, it was thrown back into combat, defending the Oder-Neisse line against Soviet attacks through mid-March. To bolster the corps' strength, the elite "Brandenburg" Panzergrenadier Division was attached to the unit.  In April, the remnants of the "Hermann Göring" Panzerkorps was sent to Silesia, and in heavy fighting was slowly pushed back into Saxony. On April 22, the Fallschirm-Panzer-Division 1. "Hermann Göring" was one of two divisions that broke through the inter-army boundary of the Polish 2nd Army (Polish People's Army or LWP) and the Soviet 52nd Army, in an action near Bautzen, destroying parts of their communications and logistics trains and severely damaging the Polish (LWP) 5th Infantry Division and 16th Tank Brigade before being stopped two days later.  By early May, the Panzerkorps was positioned near the Saxon capitol of Dresden. The remains of the corps began breakout attempts to the west, in order to surrender to the Americans who were currently halted on the Elbe. Despite breakout attempts, the corps was encircled, and although several small groups successfully made it through to the west, the majority of the corps surrendered to the Soviets on 8 May 1945.

Fallschirm-Panzergrenadier-Division 2 "Hermann Göring" was formed on 24 September 1944 in the area of Radom. It subsequently was joined with the Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring to form the Fallschirm Panzer Corps Hermann Göring. After heavy fighting against the Soviet Army in Prussia, Pomerania, Silesia, and Saxony, the Corps surrendered to Soviet troops on May 8, 1945.

La Fallschirm Panzergrenadier Division 2 "Hermann Göring" était une division d'infanterie parachutiste motorisée de l'Armée allemande ("Wehrmacht") dans la Luftwaffe pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale


Location.

St Patrick's Street runs in a curve from Saint Patrick's Bridge to Daunt Square, where it meets Grand Parade. The street obtains its curved shape due to its location over an arm of the River Lee.

History.

The street dates from the late 18th Century as the city expanded beyond the walls of the ancient city which was centered on North & South Main Street. During the 1780s many of the streets that now form the city centre of Cork were formed by the spanning of the river channels between the islands of the Lee.  Parts of Patrick Street were extensively damaged during the Irish War of Independence in an event known as the "Burning of Cork" in 1920. This included the Munster Arcade and Grant's department store.  From 1898 to 1931, the street was served by the Cork Electric Tramways and Lighting Company. Services started on 22 December 1898, however it closed on 30 September 1931 due to increasing popularity of bus services operated by The Irish Omnibus Company, and the takeover of the company's electricity plant by the Electricity Supply Board.  In 2004, the street was redeveloped by architect Beth Gali in order to make the street more friendly to pedestrians. This included repaving of the street and widening of pedestrian pavements in order to create plazas.  Between March and April 2018, Cork City Council banned afternoon traffic on Patrick Street, with only public transport traffic allowed between 3:00 p.m. and 6:30 p.m. This was lifted within a few weeks due to a reported impact on city centre traders.

Businesses and landmarks.

The street is home to a number of retail and department stores, including Brown Thomas, Dunnes Stores, Marks & Spencer and Penneys, at the northern end of the street. The Roches Stores building, built at the northern end of the street in the mid 1920s, housed the Roches Stores department store from the early 20th century until leased by Debenhams Ireland, who operated it from 2006 until 2020. The opposite (southwestern) end of the street includes smaller units, with jewellery stores such as Pandora, video game stores like GameStop, and health store Holland & Barrett.  In the early 21st century, the street saw various modernisation and rejuvenation projects. These included the opening of Opera Lane in 2010, the redesigning of shop facades in 2016, and the development of the former Capitol Cinema site in 2017.  A monument to Fr. Theobald Mathew, the Apostle of Temperance, stands at the northern end of the street facing St. Patrick's Bridge over the River Lee. The monument dates back to October 1864.

St Patrick's Street () is the main shopping street of the city of Cork in the south of Ireland. Since its redevelopment in 2004, it has twice won the award as Ireland's best shopping street. St Patrick's Street is colloquially known to some locals as "Pana".

St Patrick's Street ("Sráid Naomh Pádraig" en irlandais), aussi surnommée "Pana" est la principale rue commerçante de la ville de Cork en Irlande. Depuis sa rénovation en 2004 elle a gagné deux fois le titre de meilleure rue commerçante de la république d'Irlande.


Biography.

Born in San Francisco on November 1, 1874, Duncan was the third of the four children of Joseph Charles Duncan, a banker, and Mary Isadora Gray, the youngest daughter of Thomas Gray, a California state senator. Their other children were Elizabeth, Augustin, and Isadora, a noted dancer, In 1891, at the age of 17, he developed a theory of movement which he called kinematics, "a remarkable synthesis of the movements of labor and of daily life." He believed that the importance of labor was the development of the worker, not production or earnings.  In 1898 he and his family left America and lived for a time in London, Berlin, Athens, and Paris. In 1900 he met the German poet Gusto Graeser in Paris and was deeply impressed by his ideas of natural and simple life. Duncan's theory of movement led him to work particularly closely with his sister Isadora, a noted dancer. Duncan became particularly fond of Greece; he and his Greek wife, Penelope Sikelianos, lived in a villa outside Athens which was furnished in a historically accurate manner, with many of the furnishings handmade by Raymond, whose craftwork included ceramics, weaving, and carpentry. No one was permitted to enter the villa in modern dress, and they themselves dressed in classical Greek attire both at home and abroad (which caused some consternation in 1907 Berlin).  In 1909 Raymond and Penelope returned to the United States for a series of performances of classical Greek plays, touring Philadelphia, Chicago, Kansas City, San Francisco, Portland, and other cities. The couple also gave lectures and classes on folk music, weaving, dancing, and Greek music. They then spent several months in the Pacific Northwest with the Klamath Indians. While they were visiting New York in early 1910, their son Menalkas Duncan was taken to the Children's Society by the New York City police when he was found on the street wearing classical attire.  In 1911 Duncan and Penelope returned to Paris and founded a school, the Akademia, at 31 Rue de Seine, which offered free courses in their specialty areas of dance, arts, and crafts; they later opened a similar school in London. Both schools were based on the idea of the Platonic Academy and both were "an open house for every new effort in theatre, literature, music and art." Duncan's ultimate goal was a "complete technique of living" which, by synthesizing work, the arts, and physical movement, would result in the further development of man.  Duncan also wrote poetry and plays, newspapers, and editorials expounding his philosophy of "actionalism."  He printed his books on his own printing press using a typeface that he designed himself, including "La Parole est dans le désert" (1920), "Poemes de parole torrentielle" (1927), "L'Amour à Paris" (1932), and "Etincelles de mon enclume" (1957). Duncan's work on his printing press was featured in an interview at the academy for a 1955 documentary by Orson Welles, "Around the World with Orson Welles: St.-Germain-des-Prés".Nouec Vihan  At the age of 73, he proposed creating the city of "New Paris York" at latitude 45N, longitude 36W (in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean) as a symbol of cooperation and inter-cultural communication.

Raymond Duncan (November 1, 1874, San Francisco, California – August 14, 1966, Cavalaire-sur-Mer, France) was an American dancer, artist, poet, craftsman, and philosopher, and brother of dancer Isadora Duncan.

Raymond Duncan, né à San Francisco le et mort à Cavalaire-sur-Mer le, est un philosophe, artiste, poète, artisan et danseur américain, frère de la danseuse Isadora Duncan.


Name.

"Snorri" is an Old Norse name derived from the word "", meaning "a fight." "Þorfinnsson" is a patronymic, meaning "son of Þorfinnr", (see "Icelandic naming conventions"). Snorri was named for his great-grandfather, Snorri Þórðarson, or after Snorri Þorbrandsson who was not a kinsman but a participant in Karsefni's expedition

Family.

There is speculation about the birth date of Snorri Thorfinnsson. Birth years such as 1005, 1009, and 1012 have been postulated, but all sources agree that he was born between 1005 and 1013. According to the Vinland sagas, when Snorri was 3 years old, his family left Vinland because of hostilities with indigenous peoples (called "Skrælingar" by the settlers, meaning "barbarians"). The family returned to the Glaumbær farm in Seyluhreppur. Snorri Thorfinnsson had two children; a daughter named Hallfrid, and a son named Thorgeir. Hallfrid was the mother of Thorlak Runolfsson, bishop of Skálholt in the south of Iceland. One of the descendants of Snorri's brother Thorbjorn, Bjorn Gilsson, was also a bishop of Hólar. Thorgeir was the father of Yngvild who was the mother of Brand Sæmundarsson, bishop of Hólar. The sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen claimed descent from Snorri Thorfinnsson in the 19th century.

Christianisation of Iceland.

In the 13th century texts Snorri Thorfinnsson and Snorri Thorrgrimsson are considered the two main figures responsible for the early Christianisation of Iceland. Consequently, they were portrayed by various writers of the 13th and 14th century as "Christian chieftain models". According to "Grœnlendinga saga", Snorri had built the first church of Glaumbaer, which would later increase Christian influence in the area. His descendants became the first Bishops of Iceland, and published the first Christian Code of Iceland.

Genealogy.

Below is the genealogy of descendants of Snorri, as given in the close of each saga, "Grœnlendinga saga" ch. 9 and "Eiríks saga" ch. 14. It is supplemented with further ancestral information from ("Eiríks saga" ch. 7 and "Landnámabók"), a more complete family tree for which, see Thorfinn Karlsefni.

Snorri Thorfinnsson (Old Norse and Icelandic: Snorri Þorfinnsson or Snorri Karlsefnisson) probably born between 1004 and 1013, and died "c." 1090) was the son of explorers Þorfinnur Karlsefni and Guðríður Þorbjarnardóttir. He is considered to be the first white child to be born in the Americas, apart from Greenland. He became an important figure in the Christianisation of Iceland.

Snorri Thorfinnsson ("Snorri Þorfinnsson" en islandais), probablement né entre 1005 et 1013, et mort autour de 1090, est le fils des explorateurs Thorfinn Karlsefni et Gudrid Thorbjarnardottir. Sa naissance aurait eu lieu à Vinland, faisant de lui le premier enfant blanc né en Amérique du Nord. Selon les sagas du Vinland lui et sa famille se seraient installés à Glaumbær, en Islande, quand Snorri avait trois ans.