Biography.

Sigurd Erlingsson's father was Erling Steinvegg, who claimed to be the son of King Magnus V. His claim was supported by the Bagler, a rebel group fighting the Birkebeiner supported king of Norway, Inge II. The Bagler never achieved control of all of Norway, but established their rule in Viken in the area of Oslofjord after 1204. When Erling died in 1207, he left two infant sons, Sigurd and his brother. They were passed over by the Bagler, in favour of Philip Simonsson, who became the new Bagler candidate. When Philip died in 1217, the Bagler and Birkebeiner were reconciled. The Bagler party dissolved, and the under-age Haakon IV became king of Norway, with jarl Skule Bårdsson as "de facto" ruler.  Not all Bagler were happy with the settlement. In 1218, disaffected elements raised a new rebellion. They were known as "Ribbunger" (sometimes translated to English as "Ribalds"). They tracked down Sigurd Erlingsson and declared him to be their candidate. At the time, men came of age at the age of 15 in Norway, so Sigurd was most likely under-age. As king of the "Ribbunger", he became known as "Sigurd Ribbung". The Ribbunger caused significant problems for the new regime in eastern Norway.  Fighting dragged on for several years, until Sigurd agreed to surrender to earl Skule in 1222 or 1223. As Skule's prisoner, Sigurd was present at a gathering of all the most powerful men of Norway, which was convened in Bergen in 1223 to finally settle who would be king. Sigurd was one of five candidates at the meeting, which ended by confirming King Haakon as ruler of Norway. Skule, who had also been one of the candidates, was now given Trøndelag as his part of the kingdom.  King Haakon took over more and more of the real royal power himself. Not long after, Sigurd escaped from Skule Bårdsson in Nidaros, and made his way back to the Oslofjord, where he renewed his rebellion. King Haakon was now personally in charge of quashing Sigurd's rising. Although he managed to contain Sigurd to eastern Norway, he never managed to capture him. In 1226, Sigurd died in Oslo of natural causes. After Sigurd's death, the Ribbunger sought out another of the candidates for the throne, Knut Håkonsson, and declared him to be their new king. However, the rising was now a spent force, and Knut surrendered to King Haakon in 1227, ending the Ribbung-rebellion.

Historic content.

In Norwegian civil war era it was usual that several royal sons fought against each other over power in Norway. The civil war period of Norwegian history lasted from 1130 to 1240. During this period there were several interlocked conflicts of varying scale and intensity. The background for these conflicts were the unclear Norwegian succession laws, social conditions and the struggle between Church and King. There were then two main parties, firstly known by varying names or no names at all, but finally condensed into parties of Bagler and Birkebeiner. The rallying point regularly was a royal son, who was set up as the head figure of the party in question, to oppose the rule of king from the contesting party.

Primary source.

The main source to Sigurd Ribbung's life and rebellion is Sturla Þórðarson's "Saga of Håkon Håkonsson", which was written in the 1260s.

Sigurd Erlingsson Ribbung (Old Norse: "Sigurðr ribbungr") (died 1226) was a Norwegian nobleman and pretender to the throne of Norway during the civil war era in Norway.

Sigurd Ribbung (vieux-norrois: "Sigurðr ribbungr") (né 1203, † 1226) prétendant au trône de 1217 à 1226 comme « roi des Ribbunger » sous le règne du roi Håkon IV de Norvège.


Origins.

Named after Baker Street in London, the song was included on Rafferty's second solo album, "City to City" (1978), which was his first release after the resolution of legal problems surrounding the break-up of his old band, Stealers Wheel, in 1975. In the intervening three years, Rafferty had been unable to release any material because of disputes about the band's remaining contractual recording obligations.  Rafferty wrote the song during a period when he was trying to extricate himself from his Stealers Wheel contracts; he was regularly travelling between his family home in Paisley and London, where he often stayed at a friend's flat in Baker Street. As Rafferty put it, "everybody was suing each other, so I spent a lot of time on the overnight train from Glasgow to London for meetings with lawyers. I knew a guy who lived in a little flat off Baker Street. We'd sit and chat or play guitar there through the night." Privately, Rafferty also spent a lot of time drinking, which he noted he mentions in the lyrics, "Light in your head and dead on your feet / Well, another crazy day / You'll drink the night away / And forget about everything."  The resolution of Rafferty's legal and financial frustrations accounted for the exhilaration of the song's last verse: "When you wake up it's a new morning/The sun is shining, it's a new morning/You're going, you're going home." Rafferty's daughter Martha has said that the book that inspired the song more than any other was Colin Wilson's "The Outsider" (1956). Rafferty was reading the book, which explores ideas of alienation and of creativity, borne out of a longing to be connected, at this time of traveling between the two cities.

Saxophone riff.

The album "City to City" (1978), including "Baker Street", was co-produced by Rafferty and Hugh Murphy. In addition to a searing guitar solo, played by Hugh Burns, the song featured a prominent eight-bar saxophone riff played as a break between verses, by Raphael Ravenscroft.  Rafferty claimed that he wrote the hook with the original intention that it be sung. Ravenscroft remembered things differently, saying that he was presented with a song that contained "several gaps". "In fact, most of what I played was an old blues riff," stated Ravenscroft. "If you're asking me: 'Did Gerry hand me a piece of music to play?' then no, he didn't." However, the 2011 reissue of "City to City" included the demo of Baker Street which included the saxophone part played on electric guitar by Rafferty. A very similar sax line, however, was originally played by saxophonist Steve Marcus for a song called "Half a Heart", credited to vibraphonist Gary Burton, that appeared on Marcus' 1968 album "Tomorrow Never Knows".  Ravenscroft, a session musician, was in the studio to record a brief soprano saxophone part and suggested that he record the break using the alto saxophone he had in his car. The part led to what became known as "the 'Baker Street' phenomenon", a resurgence in the sales of saxophones and their use in mainstream pop music and television advertising.  In January 2011, radio presenter Simon Lederman revealed that Ravenscroft thought the solo was out of tune. When asked during a live radio interview on BBC Radio London, "What do you think when you hear [the sax solo] now?" Ravenscroft replied, "I'm irritated because it's out of tune; yeah it's flat; by enough of a degree that it irritates me at best", and admitted he was "gutted" when he heard it played back. He added that he had not been able to re-record the take, as he was not involved when the song was mixed.

Urban myths.

According to one story, Ravenscroft received no payment for a song that earned Rafferty an income of £80,000 per annum; a cheque for £27 given to Ravenscroft bounced and was framed and hung on his solicitor's wall. However, the bouncing cheque story was denied by Ravenscroft during an interview on BBC Radio 2's "Simon Mayo Drivetime" show on 9 February 2012.  The saxophone riff was also the subject of another urban legend in the UK, created in the 1980s by British writer and broadcaster Stuart Maconie. As one of the spoof facts invented for the regular "Would You Believe It?" section in the "NME", Maconie falsely claimed that British radio and television presenter Bob Holness had played the saxophone part on the recording. Later, the claim was widely repeated.

Chart performance.

"Baker Street" reached No. 3 in the UK and No. 2 for six consecutive weeks in the US, kept out of the number-one spot by Andy Gibb's "Shadow Dancing".

Covers.

Undercover version.

British dance group Undercover covered the song on their 1992 album, "Check Out the Groove". This version reached No. 2 on the UK Singles Chart and became a top-three hit in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Switzerland. "Music & Media" wrote that "Gerry Rafferty's rainy days anthem is now transferred from the comfortable living room to the heat of clubland. The typical saxophone hook is on acid as well."

Foo Fighters version.

The US rock band Foo Fighters covered the song on their 1998 My Hero UK CD single release, on the Australian tour pack (Grey cover) release, on the Limited edition European bonus EP and as one of several bonus tracks added to the remastered tenth anniversary release of their second studio album, The Colour and the Shape, reissued in 2007. The cover does not include the saxophone riff the original is known for.

"Baker Street" is a song written and recorded by Scottish singer-songwriter Gerry Rafferty. Released as a single in 1978, it reached No. 1 in "Cash Box" and No. 2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, where it held its "Billboard" position for six weeks, behind Andy Gibb's "Shadow Dancing". It spent four weeks at No. 1 in Canada, No. 1 in Australia and South Africa, hit No. 3 in the United Kingdom, and the top 10 in the Netherlands. Rafferty received the 1978 Ivor Novello Award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically. The arrangement is known for its saxophone riff.

Baker Street est une chanson de Gerry Rafferty, son titre vient d'une rue de Glasgow en écosse Baker Street. Elle fait partie du deuxième album de Gerry Rafferty, "City to City", enregistré en 1977. Sortie en single en 1978, elle a atteint la place de aux États-Unis. L'album, y compris "Baker Street", a été coproduit par Rafferty et Hugh Murphy. Il a atteint les 5 millions d'exemplaires vendus d'après BMI.


Biography.

Kierszenbaum was born in San Diego to Argentinian microbiologists during their PHDs. His grandparent immigrated to Argentina from Poland. He grew up studying classical piano. As a kid he lived with his family in Argentina, London, South America and Europe, before eventually settling in near New Haven, Connecticut when he was eight years old. He then moved to Yale and Michigan where his was father was offered a job as a professor.  He graduated from University of Michigan with a B.A. in music theory, Spanish, and communication. He then went on to the Annenberg School of University of Southern California to complete his master's in communications management.  His sister is a classical violinist. He has four children.

Career.

During high school he co-founded independent record label Arb Recordings for the hip-hop duo Maroon he co-founded under the moniker Mk Chilly Dog. The band existed 1985–1994.  Through the university he got an internship at the PolyGram Music Group mailroom. During 1989-1991 he was hired as an international publicity manager at Warner Bros Records because he speaks Spanish. Then he worked a publicist in the international division of A&M Records and after the record label was sold, by 1998 he was working for its new owner Interscope Records (Universal's unit) as an international markets manager. Later he was promoted to head of international operations and was responsible for discovering and signing non-American artists. His idea to promote t.A.T.u's single All The Things She Said, whose lyrics he wrote, in Japan through karaoke bars led to 1.7 mil copies sold in the country. He promoted Eminem and Limp Bizkit on the European market.  In 2005 he founded the music management record label and publishing form Cherrytree Music Company.  He was working as president Of A&R Pop/Rock at Interscope Records and head of international operations at Interscope Geffen A&M Records. There he signed Lady Gaga, LMFAO, Disclosure and t.A.T.u..  He parted his way with Interscope in 2015.

Music.

His first contribution as a musician was for 200 km/h in the Wrong Lane. The most successful records he co-wrote were for Lady Gaga's debut album The Fame.  His pseudonym, "Cherry Cherry Boom Boom", is referred to in the Lady Gaga songs "Christmas Tree", "Eh, Eh (Nothing Else I Can Say)", "The Fame", "I Like It Rough" and "Starstruck". Also in the song "I Wanna Touch You" by Colby O'Donis and "White Flag" by Far East Movement featuring Kayla Kai, from their album "Free Wired". It is also referenced in some of Space Cowboy's music such as his singles "Falling Down", "I Came 2 Party" (that featured Cinema Bizarre), and the first part of his pseudonym "cherry cherry" is referred to in "Not in Love" by Natalia Kills.  Martin featured in a remix of Far East Movement's "Like a G6" with Colette Carr called "G6 (V6 Reflip)". He also features in backing vocals on "Not In Love", a track from Natalia Kills's debut album, "Perfectionist".

Martin Kierszenbaum, also known by his pseudonym Cherry Cherry Boom Boom, is an American music persona. As a songwriter and producer he worked for Lady Gaga, Sting, Madonna, Mylene Farmer, Keane, Tokio Hotel, Far East Movement, Robyn, Feist, Flipsyde, Ivy Levan, Ai Colette Carr, Alexandra Burke and Natalia Kills. He owns The Cherrytree Music Company which developed the careers of Lady Gaga, LMFAO, Disclosure, Ellie Goulding, La Roux and t.A.T.u.. Under the alias Cherry Cherry Boom Boom he releases electronic music and remixes.

Martin Kierszenbaum, né à La Jolla en Californie, aussi connu sous le pseudonyme Cherry Cherry Boom Boom (en allemand : Kirschbaum pour cerisier), est à la tête des A&R à Interscope Records et président d'Interscope, filiale d'empreinte pour "Cherrytree Records".


History.

The club briefly rose to the highest level when playing in the Kreisliga Odenwald in 1921–22 and the Bezirksliga Main-Hessen for one season in 1932–33, but quickly disappeared back into lower-tier competition again. The club made two failed attempts (1933 and 1942) to qualify for the Gauliga Hessen (I), one of 16 regional top-flight divisions established in the 1933 reorganization of German football under the Third Reich. Following World War II, the club was reestablished and played briefly as SG Bürstadt.  Kickers enjoyed their greatest success during its sponsorship by OLI and stirred some excitement through the 1970s and 1980s as an overachieving side playing in Hesse's tier III leagues with occasional brave forays into the Regionalliga Süd (II) and 2. Bundesliga where they were the smallest club playing at that level. In 1973, they won the national amateur championship with a 3–0 victory over SC Victoria Hamburg. They made two more failed final appearances in 1976 and 1986, losing in turn to HSV Holzwickede (0–1) and BVL Remscheid (1–2 aet). VfR is one of the relatively few German clubs that have sold their naming rights to an outside sponsor, an arrangement that ended with the bankruptcy of OLI in 1982.  Their run of success ended in the 1990s with a series of poor finishes in the Amateur Oberliga Hessen (III) early in the decade. Beginning with the 1993–94 season, they bounced between the Oberliga Hessen (IV) and Landesliga Hessen-Süd (V) for nearly a decade before finally collapsing in 2002 and voluntarily accepting relegation all the way down to Bezirksliga (VII).  After a drop to the ninth tier in 2008–09 the club has recovered again and moved back up to the Gruppenliga (VII) in 2011–12, followed by promotion to the Verbandsliga in 2013. The team won the league title in the Verbandsliga in 2014 as well but, instead of accepting promotion to the Hessenliga the club withdrew to the tier eight Kreisoberliga Bergstraße instead for financial reasons.

Honours.

The club's honours:

Recent seasons.

The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

Kickers VfR Bürstadt is a German association football club playing out of Bürstadt, Hesse. The team was founded 1 February 1910 as SC 1910 Bürstadt and took on the name VfR on 23 August 1919. Between 1973 and 1983 they played as VfR Oli Bürstadt in recognition of sponsoring firm Otto Limburg Bürstadt-Bobstadt.

Le VfR Bürstadt est un club allemand localisé, à Bürstadt dans la Hesse. Entre 1973 et 1983, ce club joua sous le nom de "VfR Oli Bürstadt" à la suite d'un sponsoring.


Overview.

The Colon Cemetery is one of the most important cemeteries in the world and is generally held to be one of the most important in Latin America in historical and architectural terms, second only to La Recoleta in Buenos Aires. Prior to the opening of the Colon Cemetery, Havana's dead were laid to rest in the crypts of local churches and then, beginning in 1806, at Havana's newly opened Espada Cemetery located in the Barrio de San Lazaro and near the cove of Juan Guillen close to the San Lázaro Leper Hospital and the Casa de Beneficencia. When locals realized there would be a need for a larger space for their community for the deceased (due to a cholera outbreak in 1868), planning began for the Colon Cemetery.  The Colón is a Catholic cemetery and has elaborate monuments, tombs and statues by 19th and 20th century artists. Plots were assigned according to social class, and soon became a means for patrician families to display their wealth and power with ever more elaborate tombs and mausoleums. The north main entrance is marked by a gateway decorated with biblical reliefs and topped by a marble sculpture by José Vilalta Saavedra: Faith, Hope and Charity. Some of the most important and elaborate tombs lie between the main gate and the Capilla Central. The Monumento a los Bomberos (Firemen’s Monument) built by Spanish sculptor Agustín Querol and architect Julio M Zapata, commemorates the twenty eight firemen who died when a hardware shop in La Habana Vieja caught fire in 1890  In front of the main entrance, at the axes of the principal avenues Avenida Cristobal Colón, Obispo Espada and Obispo Fray Jacinto, stands the Central Chapel modelled on Il Duomo in Florence is the octagonal Capilla Central (central chapel), the Capilla del Amor (Chapel of Love), built by Juan Pedro Baró for his wife Catalina Laza. On every side rectangular streets lead geometrically to the cemetery’s 50,000 hectares. The area of the cemetery is defined by rank and social status of the dead with distinct areas: priests, soldiers, brotherhoods, the wealthy, the poor, infants, victims of epidemics, pagans and the condemned. The best preserved and grandest tombs stand on or near the central avenues and their axes.  With more than 800,000 graves and 1 million interments, space in the Colon Cemetery is currently at a premium and as such after three years remains are removed from their tombs, boxed and placed in a storage building.  Yet for all its elegance and grandeur the Colon Cemetery conceals as much as it displays. Empty tombs and desecrated family chapels disfigure the stately march of Cuban family memorials even in the most prominent of the avenues, and away from the central cross-streets are in ruin. Many of these are the tombs of exiled families, whose problems with caring for their dead have been complicated by residency outside of Cuba since the Revolution of 1959.

History.

María Argelia Vizcaino writes: "The first stone was placed on October 30, 1871 and before its extension completed in 1934, it had a capacity of 504,458.22 square meters. Rectangular in shape as a Roman-Byzantine-style Roman camp, with sidewalks, streets and listed roads, facilitating access to the visitor, (which in republican times was provided with a free map). Enrique Martínez y Martínez tells us in «Cuba Arquitectura y Urbanismo»: “It was the most remarkable religious construction that was made in the city during the nineteenth century”.  The square located on the central street between the chapel and the huge doorway was called Christopher Columbus, because it was planned to erect a monument to the Discoverer next to the remains, which ironically never happened of the Cathedral of Havana, being the first bust erected throughout the continent (1828) and the only one that exists in the whole world with a beard. So the cemetery dedicated to the great Admiral, full of famous sculptures lacks one by which he was given his name."

Architecture.

The Cementerio Colón measures 620 by 800 meters (122.5 acres). Designed by the Galician architect Calixto Arellano de Loira y Cardoso, a graduate of Madrid’s Royal Academy of Arts of San Fernando, became the Colón’s first resident when he died and before his work was completed. It was built between 1871 and 1886, on former farm land. Laid out in a grid similar to El Vedado by numbered and lettered streets it becomes an urban microcosm of the city.  The cemetery is laid out parallel to the last stretch of the Almendares river and against the grid of El Vedado. It is on the north axis, thus its main streets are on the four cardinal points of the compass. Symbolized by a Greek cross, it represents the four directions of the earth and the spread of the gospel to all directions as well as the four platonic elements. We find Greek crosses against a yellow background along the perimeter fence enclosing the cemetery, as well as part of the design diagram of the cemetery, which employs several Greek crosses at different scales thus forming an architectural tapestry. The main avenues, Avenida Cristobal Colón, Obispo Espada and Obispo Fray Jacinto, at six hundred by eight hundred meters, forms the first cross at the scale of the city (red cross-areal photo).

Interments.

The Colon Cemetery has a monument to the firefighters who lost their lives in the great fire of May 17, 1890.  As baseball is a leading sport in Cuba, the cemetery has two monuments to baseball players from the Cuban League. The first was erected in 1942 and the second in 1951 for members of the Cuban Baseball Hall of Fame.  In February 1898, the recovered bodies of sailors who died on the United States Navy battleship "Maine" were interred in the Colon Cemetery. In December 1899 the bodies were disinterred and brought back to the United States for burial at Arlington National Cemetery.  Also buried here are three British Commonwealth servicemen who are commemorated by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission; a Canadian Army officer of World War I, and a Royal Engineers officer and Royal Canadian Navy seaman of World War II. The remains of the casualties are located in the mausoleum of the Anglo-American Welfare Association, with the names inscribed on the central memorial which also forms the entrance to the underground ossuary.

El Cementerio de Cristóbal Colón, also called La Necrópolis de Cristóbal Colón, was founded in 1876 in the Vedado neighbourhood of Havana, Cuba to replace the Espada Cemetery in the Barrio de San Lázaro. Named for Christopher Columbus, the cemetery is noted for its many elaborately sculpted memorials. It is estimated the cemetery has more than 500 major mausoleums. Before the Espada Cemetery and the Colon Cemetery were built, interments took place in crypts at the various churches throughout Havana, for example, at the Havana Cathedral or the Iglesia del Espíritu Santo in Havana Vieja.

Le cimetière Christophe Colomb (ou "Necrópolis de Cristóbal Colón" en espagnol) est une nécropole située à Cuba dans le quartier "El Vedado" de La Havane et fondée en 1876. Classé monument national, elle est avec ses 57 hectares la plus étendue du pays et renferme un grand nombre d'œuvres architecturales et sculpturales.


Early life.

Tryon was born on 20 July 1942, in New Zealand. He studied at the University of Canterbury, where he completed a thesis on the indigenous languages of the Loyalty Islands, an archipelago of New Caledonia. He achieved fluency in French as a student and developed a fascination with the culture and history of the French regions of the South Pacific.  He moved to Australia during the mid-1960s, where he taught at Australian National University.

Vanuatu.

Much of Tryon's research focused on the New Hebrides, the colonial name for Vanuatu. He was a specialist on Vanuatu and its linguistic diversity. Tryon began his fieldwork in there in 1969. From 1970 to 1971, Tryon conducted the first systematic study of the more than 100 languages of Vanuatu. Rather than focusing on grammar, Tryon collected lists of vocabulary words from languages throughout the islands to determine the relationships between the languages.  His 1970–1971 study established the existence of 117 indigenous languages spoken in Vanuatu in the early 1970s. The languages of the islands were found to be members of the Austronesian language family. He used the cutoff of 81% shared cognates to differentiate a distinct language from a dialect. Some of the languages studied by Tryon have since become extinct. For example, the Sowa language, which was spoken by just 20 people living in one village near Ranwadi on Pentecost Island at the time, became extinct when the last speaker died in 2000.  In 1972, he published "Pacific Linguistics volume (C-50)", which contained his surveys, research and a 292-word list collected from 179 Ni-Vanuatu communities. The book also contained maps, showing where he language was spoken on each island. Tryon presented his findings at the First International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics, which was held in Honolulu, Hawaii, in 1974. Tryon's final survey on Vanuatu's 117 languages was published in 1976.  Tryon's surveys have considered to be essential to any researcher studying Vanuatu's languages. They still form the basis for much of the current knowledge on Vanuatu's linguistic heritage, according to John Lynch, a professor emeritus in linguistics at the University of the South Pacific.  Tryon headed the Vanuatu Fieldworker Programme from the early 1980s until 2009. The Vanuatu Fieldworker Programme invited men from villages throughout the country to a meeting in Port Vila once a year. Each annual meeting explored a specific cultural topic. The participants, who eventually included more than fifty men, made audio recordings of their community's cultural traditions and folklore. The researchers and the men recorded the material in Bislama. All recordings and other records from the Vanuatu Fieldworker Programme were archived at the Vanuatu Cultural Centre in Port Vila.  Much of Tryon's research from the 1970s to the 2010s continued to focus on Vanuatu. He published an extensive collection of papers and other academic research on the country and its languages.

Solomon Islands.

He also conducted extensive research on the languages of the Solomon Islands, beginning in 1978. Tryon and his research partner, Brian Hackman, travelled throughout the country, conducting a systematic study of the nation's languages. Their work resulted in the publication of a volume on the languages of the Solomon Islands, published in 1983.

Later work.

In 1995, Tryon released the "Comparative Austronesian Dictionary", a five-volume set published by Mouton de Gruyter. The work was the result of years of research. Tryon wrote the introductory articles for the set. The Dictionary contains annotated wordlists for 1310 meanings, which organised semantic domain from 80 Austronesian languages, stretching from Madagascar to the Pacific, including 40 languages from the Oceania region. Each list, which was assembled by a specialist in that particular language, also included a written introduction to the language by the specialist.  He and Jean-Michel Charpentier co-authored the 2004 book, "Pacific Pidgins and Creoles", which explored the history of the pidgin and creole languages in the Pacific islands.  Tryon served as the Deputy Director of the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at the Australian National University during portions of the 1990s and 2000s. He became increasingly interested both the sociology and governments of the various South Pacific nations and territories during the time, which was reflected in his research. Tryon also became a Constitutional Advisor to the government of Vanuatu.  The government of France awarded him the Legion of Honour in recognition of his contributions to French culture and language in the Pacific as well as his commitment to Australia–France relations.

Death.

Tryon died from melanoma in Canberra, Australia, on 15 May 2013, at the age of 70. Dignitaries in attendance at his funeral in Canberra included Acting Prime Minister of Vanuatu Ralph Regenvanu.

Darrell T. Tryon (20 July 1942 – 15 May 2013) was a New Zealand-born linguist, academic, and specialist in Austronesian languages. Specifically, Tryon specialised in the study of the languages of the Pacific Islands, particularly Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, and the French-speaking Pacific.

Darrell Tryon (né le, décédé le ) est un professeur de linguistique néo-zélandais à l'Université nationale australienne, en particulier à l'Institut sur l'Asie et le Pacifique ("Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies"). Son domaine de recherche porte sur les langues austronésiennes, notamment celles du Vanuatu et des îles Salomon, ainsi que sur les créoles et les pidgins du Pacifique.


Biography.

Cuypers was born in Roermond, the son of a church painter, and grew up in surroundings in which interest for art was encouraged. After he studied at the urban college in Roermond, he moved to Antwerp in 1844 to study architecture at the Royal art academy. He was taught by Frans Andries Durlet, Frans Stoop and Ferdinand Berckmans, all pioneers of the neo-Gothic architecture in Belgium. Cuypers was a good student; in 1849, he gained the "Prix d'Excellence" of the academy.  After a tour in the German Rheinland, he returned to Roermond, where he was appointed a town architect in 1851. In 1852, he opened a workshop where ecclesiastical art was manufactured.  Cuypers' ecclesiastical work was initially strongly influenced by 13th century French architecture and by the writings of his friends Eugene Viollet-le-Duc and J. A. Alberdingk Thijm. Cuypers built many churches throughout the Netherlands, in which the French influence played a prominent role. Highlights from these first period are the Lambert's Church in Veghel and the Sint-Catharinakerk (Eindhoven)}Catharina Church in Eindhoven, among others. From 1870 onwards Cuypers' style became more influenced by the native Gothic styles of the Netherlands as well as Gothic styles from other countries like Norway and Italy. He also experimented with centralizing ground-plans and other non-conventional layouts. In this second part of his career he built some of his best work. After 1883 he was assisted by his son Joseph Cuypers in much of his work.  Cuypers led many restorations. His conceptions concerning restorations has been frequently criticized; restoration often implied that the building was awfully damaged, but Cuypers tried to satisfy an idealized image of the style or the idea how the original builders had intended a building to be rather than to preserve the architectural evolution of the building. An early example of this is the extensive restoration of the Munster Church in Roermond, where Cuypers replaced original towers by new ones. From 1875 he led the restoration of the eastern front of the Mainz Cathedral, which he executed according to his own plans in Romanesque style. In doing so, he created as an opposite pole to the western tower group the high, gothic likely eastern tower helmet, replacing a bell floor and the Moller iron cupola.  Pierre Cuypers was the uncle of Eduard Cuypers who trained in his practice as a young man. Other relatives who became architects are his grandsons Pierre Cuypers jr. and Theo Taen.  Cuypers was a practising Roman Catholic and a member of the Lay Dominicans. As such, he was buried in the Dominican habit. He died in his home town of Roermond, aged 93.

Special festivities in connection with the "Cuypers year".

The year 2007-2008 has been proclaimed "Cuypersjaar" (Cuypers year) in the Netherlands. A great number of activities and exhibitions are organized around this theme including an exhibition on Cuypers' architecture at the Netherlands Architecture Institute in Rotterdam and Maastricht.

Petrus Josephus Hubertus "Pierre" Cuypers (16 May 1827 – 3 March 1921) was a Dutch architect. His name is most frequently associated with the Amsterdam Central Station (1881–1889) and the Rijksmuseum (1876–1885), both in Amsterdam. More representative for his oeuvre, however, are numerous churches, of which he designed more than 100. Moreover, he restored many monuments.

Petrus Josephus Hubertus Cuypers, dit Pierre Cuypers, né le à Ruremonde et mort le dans la même ville, est un architecte néerlandais. Son nom est souvent attaché à deux édifices situés à Amsterdam qu'il réalise : le Rijksmuseum et la gare centrale.


Phonology.

Anuta has an extremely small consonant inventory. This is as a result of several phoneme mergers such as /f/ with /p/ and /s/ with /t/. Vowels have a short and long form.  The allophonic variation is one of the Tikopian influences.  The length of a vowel makes a difference in phonetics in Polynesian languages.  In other times, long vowels are to emphasis.  The stress in Anutan normally falls on the first syllable.

Morphology.

Anuta shows many morphological similarities with Futunic languages and are related to Polynesian morphology.

Grammar.

Anuta follows the word order SVO. PAV (patient-verb-agent) ergative constructions are also common.  Anuta distinguishes personal pronouns into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person and single, dual, and plural. Dual and plural 1st person are separated into exclusive and inclusive categories which depends on the words placement in the sentence.  2nd person pronouns should always be attached with either the particles ko, e, mo, or te.  When the pronoun is standing alone, usually in a response of a question, it is attached with the particle ko.  "Mea ko ai?" ("who is it?")  "Ko au" ("it is I") Similar to personal pronouns, possessive pronouns are divided into 1st, 2nd and 3rd person, single, dual and plural. Dual and plural also being separated into exclusive and inclusive. However, whether the object is singular or plural will change the singular form of the pronouns.  Two ways of possessive construction. One, the possessive pronoun is directly attached to the object or two, directly attached to the dual or plural forms.  In singular possessive pronouns, when the object changes from singular to plural the /t/ drops.

Verbs.

Any of the verbs in Anutan can be used as a noun by attaching "te".  Tense markers:  These tense markers may be attached to verbs without personal pronouns. Usually placed between the noun and the verb.  If time is unimportant in the context of the sentence, tense markers will be dropped.

Numerals.

Numbers in Anuta are usually with tense markers.  Anutan use decimal counting systems. Tens use the same unit term "pua" making twenty "pua rua", thirty "pua toru" and so forth. After tens, the number indicated in the tens are marked with "maa" meaning "and". Eleven would be "puangapuru maa tai" meaning "ten and one". The same goes for twenty's, thirty's, etc.  If the object of counting are humans the word "toko" will be placed in front of the number if it is enumerated.  Counting fish would be marked with "mata" but is limited to ten or more.

Resources.

A 200-word word list is available at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database.

The Anuta language (or "Anutan", locally "te taranga paka-Anuta") is a Polynesian Outlier language from the island of Anuta in the Solomon Islands. It is closely related to the Tikopia language of the neighboring island of Tikopia, and it bears significant cultural influence from the island. The two languages have a high degree of mutual intelligibility, although Anutans can understand Tikopians better than the reverse.

L’anuta est une langue polynésienne parlée par 267 locuteurs à Anuta, une exclave polynésienne des Îles Salomon. Il est proche du tikopia.


Early studies.

Moldavite was introduced to the scientific public for the first time in 1786 as "chrysolites" from Týn nad Vltavou in a lecture by Josef Mayer of Prague University, read at a meeting of the Bohemian Scientific Society (Mayer 1788). Zippe (1836) first used the term "Moldavite", derived from the Moldau (Vltava) river in Bohemia (the Czech Republic), from where the first described pieces came.

Origin.

In 1900, Franz Eduard Suess pointed out that the gravel-size moldavites exhibited curious pittings and wrinkles on the surface, which could not be due to the action of water, but resembled the characteristic markings on many meteorites. He attributed the material to a cosmic origin and regarded moldavites as a special type of meteorite for which he proposed the name of tektite. Because of their difficult fusibility, extremely low water content, and chemical composition, the current consensus among earth scientists is that moldavites were formed about 14.7 million years ago during the impact of a giant meteorite in the present-day Nördlinger Ries crater. Splatters of material that was melted by the impact cooled while they were actually airborne and most fell in Bohemia. Currently, moldavites have been found in an area that includes southern Bohemia, western Moravia, the Cheb Basin (northwest Bohemia), Lusatia (Germany), and Waldviertel (Austria). Isotope analysis of samples of moldavites have shown a beryllium-10 isotope composition similar to the composition of Australasian tektites (australites) and Ivory Coast tektites (ivorites). Ninety-nine percent of all moldavite finds have come from the South Bohemian localities, one percent were found in South Moravian localities. Only tens of pieces were found in the Lusatian area (near Dresden), Cheb basin area (West Bohemia) and Northern Austria (near Radessen). Principal occurrences of moldavites in Bohemia are associated with Tertiary sediments of the České Budějovice and Třeboň Basins. The most prominent localities are concentrated in a NW-SE strip along the western margin of the České Budějovice Basin. The majority of these occurrences are bound to the Vrábče Member and Koroseky Sandy Gravel. Prominent localities in the Třeboň Basin are bound to gravels and sands of the Domanín Formation.  In Moravia, moldavite occurrences are restricted to an area roughly bounded by the towns of Třebíč, Znojmo and Brno. The colour of Moravian moldavites usually differs from their Bohemian counterparts, as it tends to be brownish. Taking into account the number of pieces found, Moravian localities are considerably less productive than the Bohemian ones; however, the average weight of the moldavites found is much higher. The oldest (primary) moldavite-bearing sediments lie between Slavice and Třebíč. The majority of other localities in southern Moravia are associated with sediments of Miocene as well as Pleistocene rivers that flowed across this area more or less to the southeast, similar to the present streams of Jihlava, Oslava and Jevišovka.

Properties.

The chemical formula of moldavite is SiO(+AlO). Its properties are similar to those of other types of glass, and reported Mohs hardness varies from 5.5 to 7. Moldavite can be transparent or translucent with a mossy green color, with swirls and bubbles accentuating its mossy appearance. Moldavites can be distinguished from green glass imitations by observing their "worm-like" inclusions of lechatelierite.

Use.

The total amount of moldavite scattered around the world is estimated at 275 tons.  There are three grades of moldavite: high quality, often referred to as museum grade, medium quality and regular grade. All three grades can be told apart by their appearance. The regular grade pieces are usually darker and more saturated in their green colour, and the surface is seen as closely spaced pitting or weathering. This type sometimes appears to have been broken apart from a larger chunk.  The museum grade has a distinct fern-like pattern and is much more translucent than the regular grade. There is usually a fairly big difference in the price between the two. High-quality moldavite stones are often used for hand-crafted jewellery.  There is a moldavite museum, Muzeum Vltavínů, in Český Krumlov, Czech Republic. The Moldavite Association was established in Ljubljana, Slovenia in 2014. The association researches, exhibits and promotes moldavites and other tektites around the world and has member geologists from more than 30 countries worldwide.

Moldavite () is a forest green, olive green or blue greenish vitreous silica projectile rock formed by a meteorite impact probably in southern Germany (Nördlinger Ries Crater) that occurred about 15 million years ago. It is a type of tektite.

La moldavite est un matériau vitreux de teinte vert olive à vert sombre, qui peut se former lors d'un impact de météorite. La moldavite est parfois vendue comme pierre ornementale, taillée et polie, sous le nom de ou de pseudo-chrysolite. Le nom de cette gemme ne se réfère pas à la région de Moldavie mais à la localité tchèque de Týn nad Vltavou, située dans la partie sud de la Bohême et anciennement connue sous son nom allemand "Moldautein", où la moldavite est particulièrement abondante.


Club career.

Saprissa.

Born in San Isidro de El General, Navas made his professional debut with Deportivo Saprissa on 6 November 2005, in a league match against Asociación Deportiva Carmelita. He was the first-choice keeper in his two final seasons with the club, winning six national championships and the 2005 CONCACAF Champions' Cup. Navas was also part of the Saprissa team that finished in 3rd place at the 2005 FIFA Club World Championship.

Albacete.

In July 2010, Navas signed with Albacete Balompié of the Segunda División in Spain exactly 20 years after countryman Luis Conejo, who occupied the same position. He played in 36 games out of 42 during his first season, but his team suffered relegation after finishing in last position.

Levante.

In the 2011–12 campaign, Navas reached La Liga, being loaned to Levante UD for a year. He made his debut in the competition on 13 May 2012 in the last round, playing in a 3–0 home win against Athletic Bilbao that confirmed the club's first ever qualification for the UEFA Europa League, and joined the Valencian club on a three-year contract in July of that year. Despite initially being back-up to Gustavo Munúa, Navas was the first-choice goalkeeper for Levante in the 2013–14 season, and was nominated as the league's best goalkeeper alongside Thibaut Courtois of Atlético Madrid and Willy Caballero of Málaga CF, going on to win the prize. In March 2014, he was La Liga Player of the Month, the first goalkeeper to win the accolade. He finished the season as the goalkeeper with the most saves (267) in La Liga, finishing fourth in the Zamora Trophy conceding 39 goals in 36 games despite playing for a 'lower ranked' team.

Real Madrid.

2014–15.

On 3 August 2014, Real Madrid triggered Navas' €10 million buyout clause, and he signed a six-year contract with the club. His first competitive call-up was on 12 August, sitting on the bench as Iker Casillas played in the 2014 UEFA Super Cup, which Real Madrid won 2–0 against Sevilla at the Cardiff City Stadium. Navas was given his debut for the club on 23 September, in a 5–1 victory over Elche at the Santiago Bernabéu. He was given his Champions League debut on 26 November, keeping a clean sheet in a 0-1 away win against Swiss side FC Basel. On 20 December, he was on the bench as his team won the Club World Cup, defeating Club Atlético San Lorenzo in the final in Morocco. His performances for Levante in the previous La Liga season and Costa Rica in the 2014 World Cup led him win Player of the Year at the 2014 CONCACAF Awards, becoming the first Costa Rican and first goalkeeper to do so.

2015–16.

With the departure of Casillas from Real Madrid, Navas inherited his number 1 shirt for the 2015–16 La Liga season. Madrid agreed to transfer Navas to Manchester United in part-exchange for David de Gea on 31 August 2015, but the deal collapsed because the documents were not submitted to FIFA before the Spanish transfer deadline.  Madrid thrashed Real Betis in their home opener by a score of 5–0 with a fine performance from Navas making several saves as well as stopping a penalty. He was a regular starter when the team won the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League. Navas became the very first Costa Rican and Central American to ever play in, and win, the men's Champions League final. He set a new record for Real Madrid in the UEFA Champions League by not conceding a single goal in his first 8 appearances; 6 of these were in the 2015–16 season. He also usurped Edwin van der Sar to reach the second spot in clean sheets behind Jens Lehmann in the all-time list. He was the most consistent keeper in the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League season conceding only 3 goals in 11 appearances, keeping 9 clean sheets.

2016–17.

He was the starting goalkeeper when Madrid won the 2016–17 La Liga and the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League. On 29 January 2017 after the 3–0 win at home to Real Sociedad in La Liga, Navas became the first player from Costa Rica to reach 100 La Liga appearances. His performances during the double trophy winning season led him to win the Player of the Year for the second time at the 2017 CONCACAF Awards.

2017–18.

Navas made his 100th appearance for Madrid during the 2–0 second leg home win over Barcelona. During the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League, he started eleven games, as Madrid won their third consecutive and 13th overall Champions League title beating Liverpool 3–1 in the final. The win against Liverpool saw Navas claim his 100th victory for Madrid in only 141 appearances. Navas produced some fine performances in the Champions League including a superb display against Bayern Munich in their semi-final second leg clash which helped Real Madrid qualify to the final. He made 8 saves during the game, his highest tally in a Champions League knock-out game. Bayern Munich manager Jupp Heynckes praised Navas after the game as the reason for Real Madrid's qualification.

2018–19.

Navas’ fifth season at Real Madrid began with the much-anticipated arrival of Thibaut Courtois to compete for the number 1 goalkeeping spot. Despite Courtois’ arrival, Navas was selected to play in the 2018 UEFA Super Cup which resulted in a 2–4 loss to city rivals Atlético Madrid. Navas then went on to start the opening game of La Liga, comfortably keeping his first clean sheet of the season with a 2–0 win over Getafe CF. His performances in the last Champions League campaign led him to be voted as the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League Goalkeeper of the Season beating off competition from then Roma goalkeeper Alisson Becker and Juventus goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon. On 9 January 2019 Navas made his 150th appearance in all competitions for Madrid in their 3-0 home win against Leganés in the Copa del Rey. On 6 April 2019 Navas became the first ever non-Spanish goalkeeper to reach 100 La Liga appearances for Real Madrid.

Paris Saint-Germain.

Navas joined Paris Saint-Germain on a four-year contract on 2 September 2019, becoming the first Costa Rican to play for the club. He made his Ligue 1 debut 12 days later, keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 home win against RC Strasbourg.

International career.

Youth career and early senior career.

Navas was part of the Costa Rican squad that played in the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship held in Finland. He was called up for the full national team for the first time in August 2006, to play a friendly tournament in Europe against Austria and Switzerland. He was a member of the team that won a bronze medal at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games. Navas gained his first senior cap on 11 October 2008, in a 4–1 away victory over Suriname in the third round of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which qualified the team into the next stage. Four days later at the Estadio Ricardo Saprissa, he kept his first international clean sheet in a 2–0 victory over Haiti. The team eventually reached the intercontinental play-offs for the tournament, losing narrowly to Uruguay. Navas was also a member of the Costa Rica squad that finished runners-up in the 2009 UNCAF Nations Cup.  Navas appeared with "Los Ticos" in two CONCACAF Gold Cup competitions, being named the best goalkeeper in the 2009 edition as he helped his country reach the semi-finals. He returned to help them to the quarter-finals two years later, but missed the 2013 tournament through injury, suffering the same fate again in 2015.

2014 World Cup.

Navas made his debut in the FIFA World Cup on 14 June 2014, appearing in a 3–1 group stage win against Uruguay in Fortaleza, and started the other two group games only conceding a single goal as Costa Rica qualified for the knockout stages as group winners for the very first time.  On 29 June, in the round of 16 match against Greece, Navas was named man of the match after several saves in normal time and a save from Theofanis Gekas' kick during the penalty shootout, which led to Costa Rica reaching the quarter-finals for the first time ever. He ended the tournament with three clean sheets from five matches, as the country was knocked out by the Netherlands after a penalty shootout, where he was named man of the match for the third time, the only goalkeeper to do so. He was also one of three nominees for the Golden Glove Award, losing out to Manuel Neuer of Germany.

2018 World Cup.

In May 2018, Navas was named in the final squad for the 2018 World Cup. He started all three group games making 10 saves and conceding five goals.

Style of play.

Often rated by several pundits as one of the best goalkeepers in the world, and considered by some in the sport as the best in the history of CONCACAF, Navas is an energetic keeper, who is primarily known for his agility, speed, and athleticism in goal, as well as his quick reflexes and excellent shot-stopping ability, which enables him to compensate for his relative lack of height. He has also drawn praise in the media for his decisive performances in important matches, and his penchant for producing difficult and crucial saves for his team in key moments. In 2017, former goalkeeper Manuel Almunia praised Navas, describing him as "the prototype model" goalkeeper, also adding: "He's spectacular between the posts, he's brave, skillful and very agile. He maintains his concentration and he's also intelligent... For me he deserves all the respect he gets for what he's done."  In 2020, Navas cited compatriot Lester Morgan as his goalkeeping idol.

Personal life.

Navas is a Catholic. He spoke about his faith saying, "God for me comes first. Before every game I kneel, I open my arms and pray... My favourite passage of the Bible is Galatians 1:10 which says: "If I were still trying to please man, I would not be a servant of Christ." On 3 December 2014, Navas announced that he had obtained Spanish citizenship.  A documentary film, "Hombre de Fe" (Man of Faith), based on the life of Navas was released on 28 December 2017.

Honours.

Club.

Saprissa  Real Madrid  Paris Saint-Germain

International.

Costa Rica

Keilor Antonio Navas Gamboa (; born 15 December 1986), known as Keylor Navas, is a Costa Rican professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for French club Paris Saint-Germain and the Costa Rica national team.

Keylor Navas, né le à San Isidro de El General, est un footballeur international costaricien évoluant au poste de gardien de but au Paris Saint-Germain. Il possède également la nationalité espagnole depuis 2014.


Before colonization.

Prior to English colonization, the area that is now northeastern New England was populated by bands of the Abenaki, who lived in sometimes-large villages of longhouses. Depending on the season, they would either remain near their villages to fish, gather plants, engage in sugaring, and trade or fight with their neighbors, or head to nearby fowling and hunting grounds; later they also farmed tobacco and the "three sisters": corn, beans, and squash. The seacoast was explored in the early years of the 17th century by English and French explorers, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith.

Early English settlement.

Permanent English settlement began after land grants were issued in 1622 to John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges for the territory between the Merrimack and Sagadahoc (Kennebec) rivers, roughly encompassing present-day New Hampshire and western Maine. Settlers, whose early leaders included David Thomson, Edward Hilton and his brother William Hilton, began settling the New Hampshire coast as early as 1623, and eventually expanded along the shores of the Piscataqua River and the Great Bay. These settlers were mostly intending to profit from the local fisheries. Mason and Gorges, neither of whom ever came to New England, divided their claims along the Piscataqua River in 1629. Mason took the territory between the Piscataqua and Merrimack, and called it "New Hampshire", after the English county of Hampshire.  Conflicts between holders of grants issued by Mason and Gorges concerning their boundaries eventually led to a need for more active management. In 1630, Captain Walter Neale was sent as chief agent and governor of the lower settlements on the Piscataqua (including Strawbery Banke, present-day Portsmouth), and in 1631 Captain Thomas Wiggin was sent to govern the upper settlements, comprising modern-day Dover, Durham and Stratham. After Mason died in 1635, the colonists and employees of Mason appropriated many of his holdings to themselves. Exeter was founded in 1638 by John Wheelwright, after he had been banished from the neighboring Massachusetts Bay Colony for defending the teachings of Anne Hutchinson, his sister-in-law. In the absence of granting authority from anyone associated with the Masons, Wheelwright's party purchased the land from local Indians. His party included William Wentworth, whose descendants came to play a major role in colonial history. Around the same time, others unhappy with the strict Puritan rule in Massachusetts settled in Dover, while Puritans from Massachusetts settled what eventually became Hampton.  Because of a general lack of government, the New Hampshire settlements sought the protection of their larger neighbor to the south, the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1641, they collectively agreed to be governed from Massachusetts, provided the towns retained self-rule, and that Congregational Church membership was not required for their voters (as it was in Massachusetts). The settlements formed part of that colony until 1679, sending representatives to the Massachusetts legislature in Boston. Mason's heirs were in the meantime active in England, seeking to regain control of their territory, and Massachusetts was coming under increasing scrutiny by King Charles II. In 1679 Charles issued a charter establishing the Province of New Hampshire, with John Cutt as its first president.

First royal charters.

In January 1680 Cutt took office, ending Massachusetts governance. However, Cutt and his successor, Richard Waldron, were strongly opposed to the Mason heirs and their claims. Consequently, Charles issued a second charter in 1682 with Edward Cranfield as governor. Cranfield strongly supported the Mason heirs, making so many local enemies in the process that he was recalled in 1685. In 1686 the territory was brought into the Dominion of New England, an attempt to unify all of the New England colonies into a single government. The New Hampshire towns did not suffer as much under the rule of Sir Edmund Andros as did Massachusetts. After word of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston, Massachusetts authorities conspired to have Andros arrested and sent back to England. This left the New Hampshire towns without any colonial administration, just as King William's War erupted around them. Subjected to significant French and Indian raids, they appealed to Massachusetts Governor Simon Bradstreet, who oversaw them until William III and Mary II issued new, separate charters in 1691 for both Massachusetts and New Hampshire.

1691 charter.

Samuel Allen, a businessman who had acquired the Mason claims, was appointed the first governor under the 1691 charter. He was equally unsuccessful in pursuing the Mason land claims, and was replaced in 1699 by the Earl of Bellomont. Bellomont was the first in a series of governors who ruled both New Hampshire and the Province of Massachusetts Bay. Until 1741 the governorships were shared, with the governor spending most of his time in Massachusetts. As a result, the lieutenant governors held significant power. The dual governorship became problematic in part because of territorial claims between Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Since the southern border of the original Mason grant was the Merrimack River, and the Massachusetts charter specified a boundary three miles north of the same river, the claims conflicted, and were eventually brought to the king's attention. In 1741, King George II decreed what is now the border between Massachusetts and New Hampshire, and separated the governorships, issuing a commission to Benning Wentworth as New Hampshire governor.  Wentworth broadly interpreted New Hampshire's territorial claims, believing that territories west of the Connecticut River belonged to New Hampshire. In a scheme that was effective at lining his own pockets, he sold land grants in this territory for relatively low prices, but required parts of the grants to be allocated to himself. These grants brought New Hampshire into conflict with the Province of New York, the other claimant to the territory. King George III in 1764 ruled in New York's favor, setting off a struggle between the holders of the New Hampshire Grants and New York authorities that eventually resulted in the formation of the state of Vermont. The controversy also resulted in the replacement of Wentworth by his nephew John, who would be the last royal governor of the province.  Since the province was on the northern frontier bordering New France, its communities were frequently attacked during King William's War and Queen Anne's War, and then again in the 1720s during Dummer's War. Because of these wars the Indian population in the northern parts of the province declined, but settlements only slowly expanded into the province's interior. The province was partitioned into counties in 1769, later than the other twelve colonies that revolted against the British Empire.

American Revolution.

Twelve other colonies joined with New Hampshire in resisting attempts by the British Parliament to impose taxes. After the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775, the province recruited regiments that served in the Siege of Boston, and was the first former European colony to formally establish an independent government, as the State of New Hampshire, in January 1776.

Demographics.

From 1630 to 1780, the population of New Hampshire grew from 500 to 87,802. In 1623, the first permanent English settlements, Dover and Rye, were established, while Portsmouth was the largest city by 1773 with a population of 4,372. The black population in the colony grew from 30 in 1640 to 674 in 1773 (ranging between 1 and 4 percent of the population), but declined to 541 (or 0.6 percent of the population) by 1780.  In New Hampshire, as in other New England Colonies, the Puritan Congregational church was the established church in the colony, and in 1650, of the 109 places of worship with regular services in the eight British American colonies (including those without resident clergy), only three were located in New Hampshire and all three were Congregational. By 1750, the number of regular places of worship in New Hampshire had grown to 46 (40 Congregational, five Presbyterian, and one Anglican), and by 1776 to 125 regular places of worship (78 Congregational, 27 Presbyterian, 13 Baptist, four Friends, two Episcopal, and one New Light Congregational).  Puritan mass migration to New England began following the issuance of the royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company by Charles I of England in 1629 and continued until the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642. Following the war's conclusion in 1651, immigration to New England leveled off and the population growth owed almost entirely to natural increase rather than immigration or slave importations for the remainder of the 17th century and through the 18th century. Mass migration from New England to the provinces of New York and New Jersey began following the surrender of New Netherland by the Dutch Republic at Fort Amsterdam in 1664, and the population of New York would continue to expand more so by in-migration by families from New England in the 18th century rather than from natural increase.  Despite the initial Puritan mass migration also having a 2:1 male sex-imbalance like the British colonization of the Chesapeake Colonies, unlike the Southern Colonies in the 17th century, most Puritan immigrants to New England migrated as families (as approximately two-thirds of the male Puritan immigrants to New England were married rather than unmarried indentured servants), and in late 17th century New England, 3 percent of the population was over the age of 65 (while only 1 percent in the Chesapeake was in 1704). By the American Revolutionary War, only two percent of the New England colonial labor force were bonded or convict laborers and another two percent were black slaves, while nine percent of the colonial black population in New England were free persons of color (as compared with only three percent in the Southern Colonies). The 1783 Constitution of New Hampshire nominally abolished slavery (using language similar to a 1783 ruling by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court), while the 1790 U.S. Census still counted 158 slaves in the state (or 20 percent of the black population at the time), and the 1830 and 1840 U.S. Censuses counted three slaves and one slave respectively. In 1857, the New Hampshire General Court passed a law officially ending slavery.

The Province of New Hampshire was a colony of England and later a British province in North America. The name was first given in 1629 to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers on the eastern coast of North America, and was named after the county of Hampshire in southern England by Captain John Mason, its first named proprietor. In 1776 the province established an independent state and government, the State of New Hampshire, and joined with twelve other colonies to form the United States.

La province du New Hampshire était une colonie de la Couronne organisée le lors de la colonisation britannique des Amériques. La charte a été adoptée le, par le roi Guillaume III et la reine Marie III, les monarques du Royaume d'Angleterre et du Royaume d'Écosse, en même temps que la création de la province de la baie du Massachusetts, chacune faisant anciennement partie de la colonie de la baie du Massachusetts.


Background.

Colonial Legacy.

Until 1956, the British government, in collaboration with the Egyptian government (under a condominium governing arrangement) administered Southern Sudan and Northern Sudan as separate regions under international sovereignty. At the time, the two areas were merged into a single administrative region as part of the British strategy in the Middle East.  This act was taken without consultation with minority southern leaders, who feared being subsumed by the political power of the larger north under the British colonial rule. Additionally, the British government exhibited favoritism by supporting multiple Northern cultural components that further deepened the societal divide between the two regions.  Subsequent to their liberation in 1956, the ethic and domestic tensions against Southern Sudan further escalated during the post colonial reconstruction. There were national concerns of political inequalities, economic development and insufficient institutions that remained hidden to the international community but ravaged Sudan internally. Also, the northern government superseded the jurisdiction of Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) by committing discriminatory violence against the southern minorities under the guise of internal turmoil of democratic growth.

Perspectives.

The North.

Prior to the outbreak of the civil war, the elites of Northern Sudan had two unwavering interpretations of what led to its outbreak. Many attributed such hostilities to be the remnant of the South's colonial grievances against the British, while others viewed it to be the Southern insurgents' attempt in challenging their ruling government. Therefore, the traditional northern elites did not acknowledge the voiced resentment and rising insurgency to have been attributed to their own governance. On the contrary, the ruling class rigidly associated the conflict's persistence to be a rationalization of the South's integration of Christianity and modernity.

The South.

Contrarily, the Southern populace viewed the emergence of the civil war to be an inevitability. Following the emancipation of the region of Sudan, the Southern elites were powerless within the realms of politics and the established government. The Southern politicians were incapable of addressing the injustice against their populace because of the minimal influence and support they had within the government in Khartoum. They were not only subjected to severe animosity as an ethnic minority but also as a religious minority within the state. Since their colonial subjection by the British, the Southern Sudanese were introduced and integrated to the principles of Western thought. Although there were no notable advancements such as political equality and industrialization within their region, they interpreted the concepts from Christianity and the Western ideals by merging them into their own culture. Therefore, in addition to their limited representation in politics, the coercion by the Northern government and the cultural restriction in achieving progress were critical factors towards to onslaught of the war.

Course of the War.

Uprising.

On 18 August 1955, members of the British-administered Sudan Defence Force Equatorial Corps mutinied in Torit, and in the following days in Juba, Yei, and Maridi. The immediate causes of the mutiny were a trial of a southern member of the national assembly and an allegedly false telegram urging northern administrators in the South to oppress Southerners. The mutinies were suppressed, though survivors fled the towns and began an uncoordinated insurgency in rural areas. Poorly armed and unorganized, they were little threat to the outgoing colonial power or the newly formed Sudanese government. O'Ballance, writing in 1977, says that the 'period from 1955 to 1963 was simply one of guerilla survival, scarcely removed from banditry, and that it was successful due to a score or so of former southern army officers and warrant officers, and a small number of non-commissioned officers.'

Escalation of Military Intervention.

The insurgents gradually developed into a secessionist movement composed of the 1955 mutineers and southern students. These groups formed the "Anyanya" guerrilla army. (Anyanya is also known as "Anyanya 1" in comparison to Anyanya 2, which began with the 1974 mutiny of the military garrison in Akobo.) Starting from Equatoria, between 1963 and 1969, Anyanya spread throughout the other two southern provinces: Upper Nile and Bahr al Ghazal *and provided heavy pressure on the Northern army's ability to properly maneuver. However, the separatist movement was crippled by internal ethnic divisions between the "Nilotic" and "Equatorian" groups. O'Ballance writes that one of the Sudanese army's four infantry brigades had been stationed in Equatoria Province since 1955, being periodically reinforced as required.  However, the government was unable to take advantage of the rebel's weaknesses because of their own factionalism and instability. The first independent government of Sudan, led by Prime Minister Ismail al-Azhari, was quickly replaced by a stalemated coalition of various conservative forces, which was in turn overthrown in the coup d'état of Chief of Staff Brigadier Ibrahim Abboud in 1958.

October 1964 Protests.

Resentment at the military government built up. On the evening of 20 October 1964, a raid by security forces on a seminar on "the Problem of the Southern Sudan" at the University of Khartoum sparked off nationwide protests and a general strike. Abboud ceded to the massive scale of civil disobedience by creating an interim government in October 1964. These events became widely known as the "October Revolution" of Sudan or the "October 1964 Revolution".  These protests included the first appearance of Islamist Hassan al-Turabi, who was then a student leader. Between 1966 and 1969, a series of Islamist-dominated administrations proved unable to deal with the variety of ethnic, economic and conflict problems afflicting the country. After a second military coup on 25 May 1969, Col. Gaafar Nimeiry became Prime Minister and promptly outlawed political parties. Also during this time, the Anyanya insurgency took advantage of the unstable situations which enabled them to send their leaders and continue their operations abroad.

Political Turmoil.

In-fighting between Marxist and non-Marxist factions in the ruling military class led to another coup in July 1971 and a short-lived administration by the Sudanese Communist Party before anti-Communist factions put Nimeiry back in control of the country. That same year, German national Rolf Steiner, who had been clandestinely advising the rebels, was captured in Kampala, Uganda and deported to Khartoum, where he was put on trial for his anti-government activities. Originally sentenced to death, he would serve three years in prison before being released following pressure from the West German Government. The Southern politicians, on the other hand, attempted to gain more political control and temporarily established multiple provisional governments in the South. They hoped to use diplomatic means to achieve autonomy and separation but due to their political factionalism, were ineffectual in comparison to the Anyanya Insurgency

Unified Southern Front.

The South was first led by the late leader Aggrey Jaden; he left the movement in 1969 due to internal political disputes. In the same year Gordon Muortat Mayen was elected unanimously as the new leader of the South. Southern Sudan in this time changed their name to the Nile Republic and resumed warfare against Khartoum, however some of the former leader Jaden's troops would not accept a Dinka leader and fought against the Anyanya. In 1971, former army lieutenant Joseph Lagu formed a successful coup d'état against Gordon Muortat with help from Israel, which pledged him their support. In doing so, the defected Equatorian commander was able to unify these troops of guerrilla fighters under his Southern Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLM). This was the first time in the history of the warfare that a separatist movement had a unified command structure with the mutual objective to secede and build an independent state. It was also the first organization that could claim to speak for, and negotiate on behalf of, the entire south when the war ended. Mediation between the World Council of Churches (WCC) and the All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), both of which spent years building up trust with the two combatants, eventually led to the Addis Ababa Agreement of March 1972 which marked the end of the conflict.

Aftermath/ Impact.

Since the beginning of their independence to the Addis Ababa Agreement, five hundred thousand people, of whom only one in five was considered an armed combatant, were killed while hundreds of thousands more were forced to leave their homes. The Addis Ababa Agreement was observed by Emperor Hail Selassie of Ethopia and led to the establishment of a regional autonomy for South Sudan. It would be known as the Southern Regional Government and would have institutions such as a Regional Assembly and Executive Counsel serving as their legislative and executive branches.  The brief interlude of peace become a relative calm and thriving period for Sudan. The agreement was able to address some of the critical grievances held by Southern Sudan to that of the Khartoum government. The immediate recognition of the region as sovereign and establishment of key political institutions were only a few examples of the major developments. Additionally, a new constitution was founded and Southern Sudan were led by localized law enforcement agencies than that from the Northern government. Despite these improvements, there was the prevention of the South's ability to have their own military and only remain autonomous under the Northern Sudanese regime.  Therefore, the agreement proved only to be a temporary respite with no definitive means of peace keeping for the Southern Sudan. With the infringements by the north increasing social unrest in the south in the mid-1970s, this led to the 1983 army mutiny that sparked the Second Sudanese Civil War. A conflict that lasted for almost 22 years and contributed to the official independence of South Sudan.

The First Sudanese Civil War (also known as the Anyanya Rebellion or Anyanya I, after the name of the rebels, a term in the Madi language which means'snake venom') was a conflict from 1955 to 1972 between the northern part of Sudan and the southern Sudan region that demanded representation and more regional autonomy. Half a million people died over the 17 years and the war was divided into four major stages: initial guerrilla warfare, the creation of the Anyanya insurgency, political strife within the government and establishment of the South Sudan Liberation Movement.

La première guerre civile soudanaise (également connue sous le nom de Rébellion Anyanya ou Anyanya I, d'après le nom des rebelles) est une guerre civile qui s'est déroulée de 1955 à 1972 entre la partie nord et sud du Soudan, qui demandait l'indépendance de la région. Environ un demi-million de personnes sont mortes lors des dix-sept années du conflit, séparé en trois étapes : la guérilla initiale, et le mouvement pour la libération du Soudan du Sud.


Geography.

Greytown lies on Nicaragua's Caribbean coast just to the south of the Mosquito Coast near the border with Costa Rica. It is located at the mouth of the San Juan River which flows east from Lake Nicaragua and is along the route of various proposals for a Nicaragua Canal to the Pacific Ocean.  The town's geography is influenced by the San Juan River delta with volcanic sediment deposits from Costa Rican volcanoes interacting with ocean currents and winds. This action fills the town's harbor with shifting sandbars and spits.

History.

San Juan del Norte was founded by the Spanish and was a small fort and customs station. Spanish explorers first reached the bay at the mouth of the San Juan River on 24 June (feast day of Saint John the Baptist) 1539 and named it San Juan del Norte (St. John of the North). A garrison was first established in 1541 as San Juan de la Cruz by Nicaraguan governor Rodrigo Contreras.  In 1707 and again in 1762, the area was captured by an alliance of Miskitos, Zambos (Afro-Indians), and English. After 1762, settlement of the area began and a 1778 commercial treaty permitted residency of Spaniards. The eastern coast of Nicaragua had long fallen under British influence with the Mosquito Coast being a protectorate from 1740 but the Spanish asserted control over San Juan del Norte. In 1796, the town was declared a free port by the Spanish but the Spanish were ousted in 1821 with the independence of Central America.  In 1841, the town was occupied by the Miskitos with British assistance and, in 1848, the town was occupied directly by the British. It was rechristened Greytown after the then Jamaican Governor Charles Edward Grey and nominally ceded to the Miskito Kingdom, a British protectorate to the north.  A year later, the town began rapid growth as the eastern terminus of a transport operation owned by American Cornelius Vanderbilt's Accessory Transit Company that carried thousands of travelers each month from the Atlantic to the Pacific side of Central America on their way to San Francisco during the California Gold Rush. Sail and steam-ships traveled from New York City and New Orleans in the United States to Greytown. From there, small boats transported passengers up the San Juan River and across Lake Nicaragua. Then, mules, horses, or stagecoaches carried them over the small isthmus between the lake and San Juan del Sur, Rivas on the Pacific where they would embark on ships traveling the coast between Panama and Nicaragua and California.  However, the town's prosperity was cut short when, on 13 July 1854, the United States Navy sloop USS "Cyane" bombarded and totally burned the town, supposedly in retaliation for local actions against American citizens. The action was a culmination of a confrontation between Americans and the townspeople over tariffs and control of transit routes. The destruction was reported around the world, including an illustration in the "Illustrated London News". Soon after, the San Juan River changed course and the town was again destroyed.  Greytown was rebuilt after its destruction and, in 1855, the American filibuster William Walker installed himself as President of Nicaragua and took control of the Accessory Transit Company's assets and revoked its charter. He himself was ousted in 1857 by elements backed by Vanderbilt. Walker and his followers attempted to retake Nicaragua in November 1857, when they entered Greytown harbor and camped at nearby Puntas Arenas. However, U.S. Marines soon surrounded the forces and captured Walker.  Vanderbilt then ceased operation of the transit service in exchange for a stipend from the rival Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the United States Mail Steamship Company, which operated similar routes across Panama. As a result, Greytown reverted to backwater status and remained a small settlement into the 20th century.  The town was legally placed under the sovereignty of Nicaragua and removed from Miskito control in 1860 but remained "de facto" under British protection through much of the remainder of the century. In 1894, Nicaraguan President José Santos Zelaya fully incorporated the region into the state, at which time Greytown had 1482 inhabitants.  In 1984, Greytown was attacked again during the Sandinista–Contra conflict in which a US helicopter, while supporting the Contras, fired on the town on 9 April 1984.  A new town was built a few kilometers to the northwest and is called both New Greytown and Nuevo San Juan del Norte.  In 2002, the municipality of San Juan del Norte was officially renamed San Juan de Nicaragua and its capital renamed Graytown by the National Assembly of Nicaragua.

Population.

As with the Mosquito Coast to the north, Greytown has a large population of speakers of English-based Mosquito Coast Creole who are of African descent.

San Juan de Nicaragua, formerly known as San Juan del Norte or Greytown, is a town and municipality in the Río San Juan department of Nicaragua.

San Juan de Nicaragua, anciennement "San Juan del Norte" ou "Greytown", est une ville du Nicaragua, dans le département du Río San Juan.


Formation.

In 1942, the Luftwaffe reorganized its fighter units based in Norway and Finland. In this context, the new fighter wing "Jagdgeschwader" 5 (JG 5—5th Fighter Wing) was created, the wing was later referred to as ""Eismeergeschwader"" (Artic Sea Fighter Wing). Creation of JG 5 happened in three stages, in January, March and July 1942. On 10 January, the "Stab" (headquarters unit) of "Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen" was detached and formed the "Geschwaderstab" of JG 5. At the same time a new Stab of "Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen" was created and placed under the command of "Oberst" (Colonel) Carl-Alfred Schumacher. "Major" Gotthard Handrick received the command position of "Geschwaderkommodore" (wing commander) of JG 5. However, Handrick assumed command of JG 5 in late April 1942. Until then, Schumacher acted in his behalf.

I. "Gruppe".

On 3 January 1942, I. "Gruppe" (1st group) of "Jagdgeschwader" 77 (JG 77—77th Fighter Wing), already stationed in Norway, was renamed to I. "Gruppe" and assigned to JG 5. The "Gruppenstab" remained unchanged and was commanded by "Major" Joachim Seegert. 1. "Staffel" (1st squadron) of JG 77 was renamed to 1. "Staffel" of JG 5, 2./JG 77 to 2./JG 5 and 3./JG 77 to 3./JG 5.

II. "Gruppe".

In 1941, "Luftflotte" 5 (5th Air Fleet) had created "Jagdgruppe" z.b.V. (JGr z.b.V.—"zur besonderen Verwendung"), a fighter group for special deployment, under the command of "Major" Henning Strümpell. On 3 January 1942, JGr z.b.V. became the nucleus of II. "Gruppe" of JG 5. The 13. "Staffel" of JG 77 was renamed to 4./JG 5. The 5. "Staffel" was officially created from 15. "Staffel" of JG 77, a squadron which had just been created. Creation of 6. "Staffel" was deferred until mid-March 1942. On 21 March, 1./JG 5 was renamed and became 6./JG 5. Shortly later, a new 1./JG 5 was created from 10. "Staffel" of "Jagdgeschwader" 1 (JG 1—1st Fighter Wing).

III. "Gruppe".

In January 1942, various residual "Ergänzungsjagdgruppen", supplementary fighter groups of multiple fighter wings, were consolidated in Vannes, France and formed VI. "Gruppe" (4th group) of JG 1 with three squadrons named 10., 11. and 12. "Staffel". IV."Gruppe" first major task was Operation Donnerkeil, an air superiority operation to support the "Kriegsmarine" (German Navy) Operation Cerberus. The objective of this assignment was to give the German battleships and and the heavy cruiser fighter protection in the breakout from Brest to Germany. End-February to early March 1942, IV."Gruppe" began relocating north to Trondheim. On 21 March, IV./JG 1 was renamed to III. "Gruppe" of JG 5 and placed under the command of "Hauptmann" (Captain) Günther Scholz.  7. "Staffel" (7th squadron) of JG 5 was created from the "Ergänzungsjagdgruppe" 3 of "Jagdgeschwader" 3 (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing). On 31 December 1941, the "Ergänzungsjagdgruppe" 3 was detached from JG 3 and subordinated as an autonomous "Staffel" to "Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen". On 24 April 1942, 7. "Staffel" arrived in Pechenga, also referred to as Petsamo, where it was subordinated to III. "Gruppe". 8. "Staffel" had its roots in the "Ergänzungsjagdgruppe" of "Jagdgeschwader" 26 (JG 26—26th Fighter Wing) which had been created on 22 June 1941. On 27 January 1941, the "Staffel" became 11./JG 1 and was moved to Trondheim-Lade on 6 March. There it was renamed to 8./JG 5.

1942.

Other elements came from "Jagdgeschwader" 1 in May. The unit had the responsibility for providing fighter-cover over occupied territories under "Luftflotte" 5, and also to provide fighter support for the German Army units having a war on the Arctic front in the Murmansk area.  at the start of the polar summer of 1942, "Luftflotte" 5 had been reinforced and by July 1942 possessed a total of 250 serviceable aircraft. Due to the air superiority established by II. and III./JG 5 early in the year, "Luftflotte" 5 enjoyed a numerical and considerable qualitative superiority, and the Soviet opposition amounted to just 170 serviceable combat aircraft. The command also benefited from an early-warning Freya radar network.  During the summer the Soviet air force brought in new units, including 20 IAP equipped with the new Yakovlev Yak-1, an effective counter to the Bf 109F. "Luftflotte" 5 recorded 26 combat losses in July 1942, while the VVS lost 32 of its own aircraft shot down or missing, mainly to JG 5. On 21 August, 6./JG 5 claimed 14 Soviet fighters shot down. According to Soviet records, 2 LaGG-3s and 2 I-16s were shot down over Vayenga and two aircraft made forced landings. JG 5 lost two Bf 109s, one was posted missing. JG 5 claimed some 72 victories in August, but Soviet records indicate 24 Soviet aircraft lost with another 7 damaged and 13 aircraft missing, and another 4 were shot down by ground fire. For the rest of 1942, elements of the unit were stationed in Trondheim and Kirkenes, from where they undertook attacks on the Arctic convoys.

1943.

By January 1943, the units of the wing were stationed in southern Norway and Finland and were equipped with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 aircraft. Mid-1943 saw JG 5 at its maximum strength, consisting of 14 "Staffeln"; 12 regular single-engined fighter "Staffeln" equipped with the Bf 109 and Fw 190, one Bf 110-equipped "Zerstörerstaffel", and the "Jabo" unit, 14.(J)/JG 5 with the Fw 190A. 1943 was also the last year in which JG 5's four "Gruppen" operated as a single unit. I and II. "Gruppe" left Norway and Finland in late 1943 to fight the rest of the war away from their parent "Geschwader".  In mid-1943, half of the 70 to 80 fighters of JG 5, contained in I "Gruppe" were based above the Arctic Circle, protecting supply-shipping.  On 1 September 1943, "Major" Günther Scholz succeeded "Oberstleutnant" Gotthard Handrick as "Geschwaderkommodore" (Wing Commander) of JG 5.  In November 1943, I./JG 5 was moved to Romania as protection for the Ploieşti oil refineries. It was placed under the command of "Luftflotte" 1 and then redesignated as III./JG 6; it was not replaced. IV./JG 5 was stationed on the Arctic Front and then in Southern Norway. Up to the end of the war, this unit formed the air defence against the Allied raids on the submarine bases at Trondheim and Bergen in Norway.

1944.

On 1 August 1944, Heinrich Ehrler was appointed "Geschwaderkommodore" of JG 5, replacing "Oberstleutnant" Scholz who was given the position of "Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen".  On 12 November 1944 Avro Lancaster bombers of RAF Squadrons 9 and 617 attacked the "Tirpitz" in Tromsø fjord. Ehrler, commanding officer of JG 5, scrambled a formation to intercept, but the German fighters were too late. The "Tirpitz" was sunk with the loss of a thousand sailors. Ehrler was court-martialed; he sentenced to three years and stripped of his command. Ehrler was later reinstated; he was killed flying with JG 7 on 4 April 1945. Karl Dönitz was the driving force behind the conviction. Only Ehrler's record as a fighter pilot saved him from execution.

1945.

In early January 1945 and following Ehrler's conviction by the "Reichskriegsgericht", "Oberstleutnant" Scholz, in addition to his obligations as "Jagdfliegerführer Norwegen" in Stavanger-Forus, assumed command of JG 5 again.  The German surrender at Lüneburg Heath is signed on 4 May 1945. All German armed forces in the Netherlands, in northwestern Germany, including the Frisian Islands and Heligoland and all other islands, as well forces in Schleswig-Holstein and in Denmark, lay down their arms and to surrender unconditionally. This surrender includes the last German soldiers in Norway as well as JG 5. In total, pilots of JG 5 claimed approximately 3,200 aerial victories during World War II. At the end of hostilities, losses had amounted to 435 men either killed in action or taken prisoner of war.

Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5) was a German Luftwaffe fighter wing during World War II. It was created to operate in the far north of Europe, namely Norway, Scandinavia and northern parts of Finland, all nearest the Arctic Ocean, with "Luftflotte" 5, created specifically to be based in occupied Norway, and responsible for much of northern Norway.

La Jagdgeschwader 5 (JG 5) ( de chasseurs), surnommée Eismeer (mer de glace), est une unité de chasseurs de la Luftwaffe pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Active de 1942 à 1945, l'escadre fut construite à partir de petites unités déjà présentes en 1941 et destinée aux missions visant à assurer la défense aérienne du grand nord de l'Europe : la Scandinavie et le nord de la Finlande, tous proches de l'océan Arctique, d'où son appellation.


Geography.

Mgahinga Gorilla National Park is located in the Virunga Mountains and encompasses three inactive volcanoes, namely Mount Muhabura, Mount Gahinga, and Mount Sabyinyo. In altitude the national park ranges from and is part of the Nile River watershed area. It is contiguous with Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park and the southern sector of Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.  The park is about by road south of the town of Kisoro and approximately by road west of Kabale, the largest city in the sub-region.

Climate.

The area experiences two wet rainy seasons: February to May; and September to December. The average monthly rainfall varies from in October to in July.

Biodiversity.

The national park encompasses bamboo forest, Albertine Rift montane forests, Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands with tree heath, and an alpine zone at higher altitudes.

Fauna.

Primates present in the national park include mountain gorilla ("Gorilla beringei beringei") and golden monkey ("Cercopithecus kandti").  Of the Albertine Rift's endemic birds, the following were recorded in the national park during surveys in 2004: handsome spurfowl, dusky crimson-wing, red-throated alethe, Kivu ground thrush, Rwenzori turaco, Rwenzori batis, Rwenzori double-collared sunbird, collared apalis, mountain masked apalis, Archer's ground robin, stripe-breasted tit, blue-headed sunbird, regal sunbird, strange weaver, montane nightjar, red-faced woodland warbler and Grauer's swamp warbler.

History.

Mgahinga Gorilla National Park was established in 1991 in an area that used to be a game reserve between the 1930s and 1950, but was partly converted to crop fields in lower altitudes. Biological surveys were initiated in 1989, wire traps destroyed, rangers trained and trees planted. Settlers were relocated to areas outside the national park's borders in the early 1990s.  In November 2013, the M23 Movement, a Congolese rebel group, surrendered in the park after being defeated by the Congolese Army in the M23 rebellion.

Mgahinga Gorilla National Park is a national park in southwestern Uganda. It was created in 1991 and covers an area of.

Le parc national des gorilles de Mgahinga est un parc national situé dans le sud-ouest de l'Ouganda, près de la ville de Kisoro. Il encadre notamment la protection des gorilles des montagnes.