History.

The Watlington area is likely to have been settled at an early date, encouraged by the proximity of the Icknield Way. The toponym means "settlement of Waecel's people" and indicates occupation from around the 6th century. A 9th-century charter by Æthelred of Mercia records eight'manses' or major dwellings in Watlington. The Domesday Book of 1086 identified the area as an agricultural community valued at £610. Medieval documents indicate that the modern street plan was in existence in the 14th century, as "Cochynes-lane" (Couching Street), and Brook Street are recorded.  There are records of inns in Watlington since the 15th century. In 1722 the town's market was listed as being held on a Saturday. By the end of the 18th century the town had six inns, all of which were bought up in the next few years by a local brewing family, the Haywards. The number of licensed premises increased until late in the 19th century when George Wilkinson, a Methodist bought six of them and closed them down. Today Watlington has three public houses: the Carriers Arms, The Chequers and The Fat Fox Inn.  Parliamentarian troops were billeted at Watlington during the English Civil War. It is thought that John Hampden stayed in the town the night before the Battle of Chalgrove Field.  In 1664–65 the Town Hall was built at the expense of Thomas Stonor. Its upper room was endowed by Stonor as a grammar school for boys, and in 1731 Dame Alice Tipping of Ewelme gave a further endowment to increase the number of pupils. In 1842 the town Vestry established a National School, which shared the same rooms in the Town Hall. In 1843 a National School for girls was built next to St Leonard's church. In 1872 the boys' and girls' schools were absorbed into a new Board school, which like its predecessors was affiliated to the National Society for Promoting Religious Education. In 1927 the school was divided into separate junior and senior schools. In 1956 a new secondary school – the Icknield School – opened for senior pupils and the primary school took over the old premises. The Icknield School is now Icknield Community College.  By 1895 the Town Hall, no longer used as a school, was in disrepair. In 1907 it was restored by public subscription. It is a landmark at the meeting point of three roads in the centre of the town.  Since 1990 Watlington has been twinned with the town of Mansle in the Poitou-Charentes region of France.  The Watlington Hoard, a collection of silver items dating back to the time of Alfred the Great in the 9th century, was rediscovered in Watlington by James Mather, an amateur metal-detectorist, in 2015. The hoard was subsequently excavated, and eventually purchased by the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford for £1.35m.

Watlington Hill.

The town of Watlington lies at the foot of Watlington Hill, a 240-metre peak on the western edge of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.  The Ridgeway National Trail walking route, which is part of the longer Icknield Way, passes nearby between the town and the hill.  Due to its close proximity and easy access to the Chilterns, Watlington is a popular gateway to the many outdoor activities in the area, including hill walking, cycling and birdwatching, especially of the red kite, which is well established in the vicinity.  Watlington Hill is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna, and is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) as part of Watlington and Pyrton Hills. It is managed by the National Trust. The nearby Shirburn Hill is another SSSI in the area.  The Watlington White Mark, a spire mark, is cut into the chalk soil of Watlington Hill. This was designed by local squire Edward Horne, who felt that the parish church of St Leonard, when viewed from his home, would be more impressive if it appeared to have a spire. He therefore had this unusual folly cut into the chalk soil in 1764, and it continues to this day to be maintained by the local residents. The mark is wide at its base and long.

Churches.

Church of England.

The oldest parts of the Church of England parish church of St Leonard are Norman, including a diapered tympanum that was over the north door until this was dismantled for the building of the north aisle. The church was extensively rebuilt in the 14th century, and the arcade of the south aisle survives from this period. The south chapel is 15th century, built for Maud Warner as a memorial for her husband Richard, a woolman. The tower is also Mediaeval. A few Decorated Gothic and Perpendicular Gothic windows survive, but in the 1870s some were moved to different positions within the church.  In 1763 Edward Horne, a local landowner, obtained permission to build a burial vault east of the Warner chapel and south of the chancel. In 1877 the architects H.J. Tollit and Edwin Dolby restored St Leonard's. The church is a Grade II* listed building.  The west tower had a ring of six bells until 1909, when two recently cast ones were hung and increased it to eight. Henry I Knight of Reading, Berkshire cast the fourth bell in 1587. Ellis I Knight cast the sixth bell in 1635. Henry II Knight cast the third and fifth bells in 1663. Charles and John Rudhall of Gloucester cast the seventh bell in 1785. Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry cast the tenor bell in 1869 and the treble and second bells in 1905.  St Leonard's parish is now part of the Benefice of Icknield, along with the parishes of Britwell Salome, Pyrton and Swyncombe.

Roman Catholic.

During the English Reformation Oxfordshire had numerous recusant Roman Catholics. In 1549 William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton was sent to Oxfordshire with 1,500 troops to enforce the Reformation. Grey ordered William Boolar, a Catholic of Watlington, to be hanged as an example. Despite persecution, a number of local landowning families including the Stonors remained Catholic, and they and their chaplains supported small numbers of other Catholics in the area.  In 1930 Fr. William Brown, the chaplain at Stonor Park, brought about the building of the Roman Catholic church of the Sacred Heart in Watlington.  The present Roman Catholic church in Watlington is dedicated to St Edmund Campion, a Jesuit priest who was executed at Tyburn in 1581.

Non-conformist.

During the 17th and 18th centuries several nonconformist denominations existed in Watlington, with Quakers, Baptists and Seventh Day Baptists most prominent in different periods. Methodist preachers visited Watlington by invitation from 1764, with John Wesley himself preaching in the town in 1766, 1774 and 1775.  The current Wesleyan chapel was built in 1812, and now forms part of the Oxford Methodist Circuit.

Education.

Early years and primary education in Watlington is provided by Watlington Primary School.  Lower secondary education for students up to the age 16 from Watlington and many of the surrounding villages is provided by Icknield Community College, a mixed-sex comprehensive school.  Icknield Community College does not provide sixth form education, and instead works with three partnership schools in the area, Henley College in Henley-on-Thames, Lord Williams's School in Thame, and Wallingford School in Wallingford, as well as sending students to many other sixth forms and colleges in the area.

Amenities.

Watlington Town FC is a Non-League football club. Its first team plays in North Berks Football League Division 1.  Watlington has a cricket club. Its first eleven plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division 2.  The Watlington Club (previously the Watlington Memorial Club) provides facilities for the sports of tennis, squash and lawn bowls.  Watlington has a Women's Institute.

Notable people.

Decathlete Peter Gabbett was born in Watlington in 1941.  Actors Jeremy Irons and Sinéad Cusack have a home in Watlington.  First World War Royal Naval veteran Bill Stone lived in Watlington until he was 106.

In popular culture.

Five episodes of the TV series "Midsomer Murders" have been filmed partly in Watlington, with the library featuring as Midsomer Library.  At least one episode of the TV series "Inspector Morse" was filmed partly in Watlington, with the nearby Shirburn Castle featuring as the Balcombe family home in the episode Happy Families.  The 2014 film "Fury", starring Brad Pitt, was partly filmed in and near Watlington.  The pivotal balloon-accident-scene in the opening chapter of the novel "Enduring Love" by Ian McEwan takes place on an escarpment of the Chiltern Hills above Watlington.

Transport.

The M40 motorway is about from Watlington, with access at junctions 5 and 6.  There are frequent coach services to Oxford and London, and to London's Heathrow and Gatwick airports, from M40 junction 6 at nearby Lewknor.  Bus routes serving Watlington have been reduced in the 2010s because of funding cuts by Oxfordshire County Council. Earlier services to Thame, Wallingford and Reading have been discontinued. The only remaining service is the Thames Travel route T1 between Chinnor and Oxford, calling at Watlington, although services only extend to Oxford city centre at peak times, otherwise terminating at Cowley. There are no evening or Sunday bus services.  In 1872 the Watlington and Princes Risborough Railway was opened. Its Watlington terminus is in fact in Pyrton parish, from Watlington. In 1883 the Great Western Railway took over control of the line. In 1957 British Railways closed Watlington station and withdrew all passenger services between Watlington and, which was still being used by the local Chinnor Cement Works. In 1961 BR withdrew all services from the line, the track was lifted and the line left abandoned. Watlington railway station site remains, as does the station building, the corrugated iron carriage shed, and the brickwork of the goods shed.

Watlington is a market town and civil parish about south of Thame in Oxfordshire, near the county's eastern edge and less than from its border with Buckinghamshire. The parish includes the hamlets of Christmas Common, Greenfield and Howe Hill, all of which are in the Chiltern Hills. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 2,727.

Watlington est une petite ville de marché et une paroisse civile de l'Oxfordshire, en Angleterre. Elle est située dans le sud-est du comté, à une dizaine de kilomètres au sud de la ville de Thame, près des Chilterns. Administrativement, elle relève du district du South Oxfordshire. Au recensement de 2011, elle comptait.


Biography.

In 1992, Salmivalli completed a master's degree in psychology from the University of Turku. She earned her doctoral degree in psychology from the University of Turku in 1998. Her research, on social and personality factors of school bullying, won the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters doctoral dissertation award in 1999.  Salmivalli joined the psychology faculty at the University of Turku as an adjunct professor in 2001, becoming a full professor of psychology in 2004. She has held several visiting professorships, including positions at the University of Stavanger in Norway; at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia; and at Shandong Normal University in Jinan, China.  In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Finland, the Prime Minister's office appointed Salmivalli to lead a 13-member science panel to advise on efforts to mitigate the long-term effects of the pandemic.

Research.

Salmivalli conducts research within the fields of developmental psychology and prevention research, focusing on children's and adolescent's peer relations and evidence-based interventions to prevent peer adversities such as school bullying. She has published widely on the role of the peer group in bullying and on interventions aiming to change the peer dynamics contributing to bullying.

KiVa.

In 2006, Salmivalli began leading a team of researchers tasked by Finland's Ministry of Education and Culture to develop and evaluate a bullying intervention program. The resulting program, named KiVa (short for "kiusaamista vastan", Finnish for "against bullying"), includes lessons on emotions, healthy relationships, and bystander responses to bullying. The program also outlines a specific protocol for school staff to follow when they encounter incidents of bullying.  KiVa is Finland's national bullying prevention program; as of 2016, it had been implemented in over 2,300 Finnish schools. It is also used at schools in more than countries around the world, including Chile, Italy, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.  KiVa's effectiveness has been evaluated in a number of longitudinal studies. One study of more than 7,000 Finnish students found significant improvements among students' bullying and mental health at schools involved in KiVa, compared to control schools.

Awards and honours.

Salmivalli was named Psychologist of the Year by the Finnish Psychological Association in 2009. In 2017, the Minister of Education and Culture, Sanni Grahn-Laasonen, presented Salmivalli with the Finnish Science Prize, worth €100,000.

Christina Salmivalli (born September 18, 1967) is a professor of psychology and the deputy head of the INVEST research flagship at the University of Turku in Finland. Salmivalli is recognized as an expert on peer relations and school bullying.

Christina Salmivalli (née le ) est une psychologue finlandaise. Professeure de psychologie à l'université de Turku en Finlande, Salmivalli est reconnue comme une experte du harcèlement scolaire.


Biography.

Sigrid Maria Schauman was born on 24 December 1877 at Chuguyev, in the Kharkov Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine), the daughter of general Fredrik Waldemar Schauman and Elin Maria Schauman. Her mother was the daughter of the Bishop of Porvoo, Finland. After living in Radom, Poland, the Schaumans returned to Finland in 1885 as the mother had died in 1884. In 1899 Sigrid began her studies in the Finnish Association of Arts Drawing School in Helsinki, where her teachers included Carl Jahn and Helene Schjerfbeck. In 1901 she participated for the first time in a group exhibition at the Ateneum.  In 1904 Schauman's brother, Eugen Schauman, murdered the Governor-General of Finland, Nikolai Bobrikov. After this she moved to Copenhagen, Denmark, and continued studying in Florence and in Paris, where she was at the Academie de la Palette in 1910 before travelling in Egypt.  She married Edvard Wolff, but he died shortly after the birth of their daughter Elisabeth in 1913.  In 1920 Schauman started work in the newspaper "Dagens Press" (from 1922 "Svenska Pressen", from 1945 "Nya Pressen") as an art critic, and worked for the newspaper for almost 30 years, publishing over 1500 art reviews, interviews and travel reports.  In 1939 she visited Rome and Paris.  After World War II, Schauman worked as a teacher in the Free School of Arts from 1945 to 1946. She retired in 1949, but continued painting on a grant provided by the City of Helsinki and an artist's pension from the State of Finland.  During the 1950s Schauman frequently travelled in France and Italy. She was a founding member of the Prisma group of artists in 1956.  Schauman's weakening eyesight prevented her from continuing to paint in the late 1960s. Even a year before her death, Schauman participated in a retrospective exhibition held in honour of her 100th birthday in the Amos Anderson Art Museum. In the same year, she was awarded the Prince Eugen Medal by the King of Sweden for her artistic contributions.  Sigrid Schauman published a biographical book "Min bror Eugen: En gestalt ur Finlands frihetskamp" ("My brother Eugen Schauman") in 1964.

Sigrid Maria Schauman (born 24 December 1877 in Chuguyev, Kharkov Governorate, Russian Empire [now Ukraine] — died 22 February 1979 in Helsinki, Finland) was a Finnish artist and art critic.

Sigrid Maria Schauman, née le à Chuguyev, gouvernorat de Kharkov, Empire russe [aujourd'hui Ukraine] et morte le à Helsinki, Finlande, est une artiste et critique d'art finlandaise.


History.

Origins.

While showmen pitching miraculous cures have been around since classical times, the advent of mixed performance and medicine sales in western culture originated during the Dark Ages in Europe after circuses and theatres were banned and performers had only the marketplace or patrons for support. Mountebanks traveled through small towns and large cities, selling miraculous elixirs by offering small street shows and miraculous cures. Itinerant peddlers of dubious medicines appeared in the American colonies before 1772, when legislation prohibiting their activities was enacted. Increasingly elaborate performances were developed to appeal to a largely rural population.

Nineteenth century.

Over the course of the nineteenth century, traveling mountebanks gave way to more polished medicine shows, which availed themselves of a burgeoning patent medicine industry. At least 1,500 patent medicines were recorded by 1858, affording enterprising drifters a specific product to sell. These "medicines" seldom treated the specific symptoms of an illness, instead relying on stimulants or other drugs to produce a pleasurable effect. Alcohol, opium and cocaine were typical ingredients, and their addictive qualities provided an additional incentive for consumers to continue buying them, while their supposed medicinal benefit afforded a sufficient excuse. By 1900, the patent medicine industry was an $80 million business. Also contributing to the rise of the medicine show was the expansion of the advertising industry, through which shows were able to procure inexpensive posters, fliers, handbills, and other merchandising to promote their products. Other forms of advertising included the use of memorable jingles, sensational testimonials, and scare tactics.  Medicine shows combined various forms of popular entertainment with sales pitches from a self-proclaimed "doctor" who sold an astounding cure-all medicine or device. Shows played either outdoors from a wagon, platform or tent, or indoors in a theatre or opera hall. Admission was usually free or nominal. Pitchmen would make grandiose claims about their product's efficacy, sometimes planting testimonials in the audience. The speaker's goal was to create a need, or fear, then offer his unique medicine as the only cure. Alternating entertainment with sales pitches wore down the audience's resistance, until the crowd was saturated with a desire for the product. The show would continue to run as many days as possible, then move on to the next town. A show might remain in a given location between one night and six weeks, depending on how the troupe behaved itself.  Medicine shows often brought entertainment to rural communities that might not have any other sort of performances for years at a time. Whatever the quality of the medical advice, spectators got their money's worth from the free entertainment. Some shows followed circuits covering the entire United States, though most shows focused on the rural midwest and south, where the inhabitants were considered particularly gullible.

Hamlin's Wizard Oil Company and Kickapoo Indian Medicine Company.

The two largest, most successful American medicine shows were Hamlin's Wizard Oil Company, founded in Chicago by John and Lysander Hamlin, and the Kickapoo Indian Medicine Company, founded in 1881 by Charles Bigelow and John Healey. Hamlin's Wizard Oil Company troupes travelled in specially designed wagons, with built-in organs and space for musical performers. Their appeal was clean, moral, musical entertainment for the whole family. Part of their advertising included songsters, or small booklets of song lyrics and Wizard Oil advertising. The Kickapoo Indian Medicine Company created traveling shows based around sham Indian presentational ceremonies, such as war dances and marriages. "Representatives" of the Kickapoo tribe translated for the Indians and sold Sagwa, the most famous patent medicine. The company also presented other forms of entertainment, such as vaudeville shows, trained dog acts, dances, and acrobatics.

20th century.

As reliable commercial pharmaceuticals were produced on an industrial level in the early 20th century, the reputation of and market for home remedies began to dwindle, and medicine shows came to rely ever more on their entertainment value. But as America's population became less rural and more urbanized, the availability of other forms of entertainment, such as motion pictures, vaudeville and later radio, led to the gradual disappearance of the traveling medicine show. By the 1930s few such companies continued to tour in the United States. Even fewer shows endured the economic and social upheaval of the Great Depression and World War II. Those that survived into the 1950s found themselves competing with television and came to be regarded as relics of an earlier, more innocent era. This novelty, far more than the availability of the remedies peddled, provided the chief support for the last of the traveling medicine shows.

The Hadacol Caravan.

One of the most famous of the 20th-century traveling shows was the Hadacol Caravan, sponsored by Louisiana State Senator Dudley J. LeBlanc and his LeBlanc Corporation, makers of the dubious patent medicine/vitamin tonic Hadacol, known for both its alleged curative powers and its high alcohol content. The stage show, which ran throughout the Deep South in the 1940s with great publicity, featured a number of notable music acts and Hollywood celebrities and promoted Hadacol, which was sold during intermission and after the show. Admission to the show was paid in boxtops of the vitamin tonic, sold in stores throughout the southern United States. The Caravan came to a sudden halt in 1951, when the Hadacol enterprise fell apart in a financial scandal.

Chief Thundercloud and Peg Leg Sam.

One of the last great medicine shows had its swan song in the summer of 1972, when the two-man show of Chief Thundercloud (pitchman Leo Kahdot, a Potawatomi from Oklahoma) and Peg Leg Sam (harmonicist-singer-comedian Arthur Jackson) played at a carnival in Pittsboro, North Carolina. It was the last show of the year for them; Kahdot died that winter.

"Doc" Scott’s Last Real Old Time Medicine Show.

Perhaps the last of the medicine shows was run by Tommy Scott, who staged as many as three hundred shows per year until about 1990. As a teenager in the 1930s, Scott joined the ""Doc" Chambers Medicine Show", established by M. F. Chambers in the late nineteenth century. Scott sang, played guitar, performed ventriloquism and blackface acts, and pitched Chambers's Herb-O-Lac herbal laxative. When Chambers retired in the late 1930s, Scott took charge of the show, performing for many years with his wife, Mary, and his sidekick, Gaines Blevins, known as "Old Bleb". Scott's daughter, Sandra, performed in the show as a singer, bass player, and acrobat, and from the 1960s onward managed the business end of the show. Herb-O-Lac eventually gave way to a mentholated skin liniment, which Scott dubbed Snake Oil. For decades, the show toured arenas and senior centers as ""Doc" Scott's Last Real Old Time Medicine Show". From the 1960s to the 1980s, the show also solicited donations for charitable organizations such as the Lions Club and the Optimist Club.

In popular culture.

The 1930 film "The Medicine Man" mixes comedy and melodrama with a medicine show coming into a small town.  In the 1932 Fleischer Studios cartoon "Betty Boop, M.D.", Betty, Bimbo and Koko are the owners of a traveling medicine show. They are selling "Jippo", an all-purpose health tonic, which appears to be water pumped from a fire hydrant, although consuming it has a number of bizarre effects.  In the 1933 Krazy Kat cartoon "The Medicine Show", Krazy runs a medicine show where he performs some acts and sells bottled liquids which have a variety of uses.  James Thurber's eponymous "Doc Marlowe" (published in "Let Your Mind Alone!", in 1937) is a retired snake oil salesman in a traveling show, later selling the product as "Blackhawk Liniment". In a typical Thurber twist, Marlowe cheats in a small way at cards and in other games of chance, but his massages with snake-oil (a harmless but expensive preparation) are in fact highly effective.  In the 1949 film "The Inspector General", the character played by Danny Kaye works for a medicine show, selling "Yakov's Golden Elixir".  Several modern musical acts have named themselves after this old-time phenomenon, including Old Crow Medicine Show, Dr. West's Medicine Show and Junk Band, Moondog Medicine Show, Dr. Hook & The Medicine Show and MV & EE Medicine Show. The name was also used in the titles of The Dream Syndicate's album "Medicine Show", Big Audio Dynamite's song "Medicine Show", Moxy Früvous's song "The Incredible Medicine Show", and The Band's song "W.S. Walcott Medicine Show". Throughout 2010 and 2011, the hip hop artist Madlib released a 12-part mix series with the title "Madlib Medicine Show".  Science fiction author Orson Scott Card titled his online sci-fi journal "The Intergalactic Medicine Show".  British comedy trio The Goodies perform a scene as part of "The Goodies Traveling Medicine Show" in the episode of their TV series entitled "Hospital For Hire". The scene includes a planted shill (Tim Brooke-Taylor) being pulled from the audience to 'prove' that the mystery elixir cured all ailments.  In Rockstar's video game "Red Dead Redemption", one of the main characters plays the role of an early 20th-century hustler peddling what John Marston refers to as snake oil.  "Your Song", by Elton John, also mentions a man who makes "potions in a traveling show".  In 1970 two original members of The Open Theater, Barbara Vann and James Barbosa, founded Medicine Show Theatre Ensemble also in New York. It moved around a number of times in its early years, having permanent performing spaces in 14 different locations until finally settling on West 52nd Street, where it remains today. Its work has consisted of new plays, original adaptations of classic books, reconstructions of classic musicals (especially those by Cole Porter) which were thought to have been lost, and clever adaptations of famous works, like inserting Cole Porter songs into Shakespeare plays and turning them into musical comedies.  On the 1974 album "Everything You Know Is Wrong" by the comedy troupe The Firesign Theatre, the recording's narrator plays a wire recording of "Dr. Firesign's" medicine show, in which "Professor Archer" promotes "Chief Dancing Knockout's Pyramid Pushover Paste" and "Don Brouhaha's Inca Hell-Oil Tonic". Archer and his assistant prepare and ingest a hallucinogenic potion with these ingredients which leads to an encounter with an Indian shaman. The entertainment consists of a play parodying "Uncle Tom's Cabin".  The song "Gypsys, Tramps & Thieves", performed by Cher, is about a girl who was "born in the wagon of a traveling show". Her father would sell bottles of snake oil medicine called "Doctor Good".  The music video for the Michael Jackson and Paul McCartney song "Say, Say, Say" shows McCartney, his wife, and Jackson performing a traditional medicine show.  In the "Grampa vs. Sexual Inadequacy" episode of "The Simpsons", Homer and Grampa Simpson travel across country, giving medicine shows for their aphrodisiac, "Simpson and Son's Tonic".  Performing as medicine pitchman J. Phineas Flusterbeck, magician Mark Nilsen presents shows based on the old medicine shows. He pitches "Blue Root Elixir", which (according to a fabricated biography) "restored his confidence in the gullibility of the American public".  Magician "Pop" Haydn models his magic shows after old-time medicine shows, complete with the selling of several products such as "Pop Haydn's Miracle Oil", which he claims to have received from "Placebo Indians".  The 1977 live-action/animated musical film "Pete's Dragon" features a medicine showman called Dr. Terminus (played by Jim Dale), and local townspeople being first skeptical, then duped, by his claimed healing abilities.

Medicine shows were touring acts (traveling by truck, horse, or wagon teams) that peddled "miracle cure" patent medicines and other products between various entertainments. They developed from European mountebank shows and were common in the United States in the nineteenth century, especially in the Old West (though some continued until World War II). They usually promoted "miracle elixirs" (sometimes referred to as snake oil), which, it was claimed, had the ability to cure disease, smooth wrinkles, remove stains, prolong life or cure any number of common ailments. Most shows had their own patent medicine (these medicines were for the most part unpatented but took the name to sound official). Entertainments often included a freak show, a flea circus, musical acts, magic tricks, jokes, or storytelling. Each show was run by a man posing as a doctor who drew the crowd with a monologue. The entertainers, such as acrobats, musclemen, magicians, dancers, ventriloquists, exotic performers, and trick shots, kept the audience engaged until the salesman sold his medicine.

Les medicine shows, que l'on peut traduire par « spectacles de médecine », étaient des spectacles itinérants (voyageant en camion, en train, à cheval ou en chariot) avec comme objectif de colporter des médicaments estampillés « remède miracle » et d'autres produits au milieu de toutes sortes de divertissements. Ils se sont développés à partir de spectacles européens de charlatans et étaient courants aux États-Unis au, en particulier au moment de la Conquête de l'Ouest (bien que certains se soient poursuivis jusqu'à la Seconde Guerre mondiale). Ils promouvaient généralement les « élixirs miracles » (parfois appelés "serpent oil", « huile de serpent », l'équivalent de « poudre de perlinpinpin »), qui, prétendait-on, avaient la capacité de guérir les maladies, de lisser les rides, d'éliminer les taches, de prolonger la vie ou de guérir un certain nombre de maladies courantes. La plupart des "medicine shows" avaient leur propre médicament « breveté » (ces médicaments étaient pour la plupart non brevetés mais en ont pris le nom pour paraître « officiel »). Les divertissements comprenaient souvent un "freak show", un cirque de puces savantes, des pièces musicales, des tours de magie, des histoires drôles ou des contes. Chaque spectacle était dirigé par un homme se faisant passer pour un médecin qui attirait la foule avec un monologue. Les artistes, tels que les acrobates, les magiciens, les danseurs, les ventriloques, les hommes musclés, les artistes exotiques ou les tireurs au fusil, maintenaient le public attentif jusqu'à ce que le bonimenteur vende ses produits.


History.

Wish was started by Piotr Szulczewski, a former Google engineer, as a software company called ContextLogic. In September 2010, ContextLogic received $1.7 million in investments and involved Yelp CEO Jeremy Stoppelman.  In May 2011, Szulczewski invited college friend Danny Zhang to relaunch the company as Wish. It was created as an application that allowed shoppers to create wish lists of their favorite products before matching them with merchants. They also earned revenue with a Pay-per-click model by advertising on Facebook.  In 2013, Szulczewski met with Hans Tung, an investor with GGV Capital in Menlo Park, California and noted that a large number of sales were coming from Florida, Texas and the Mid-West rather than New York or California. Wish became an e-commerce site after asking merchants to host their products directly on the Wish application, with Wish taking a portion of each sale.  In 2017, Wish signed a multi-year partnership with the NBA's Los Angeles Lakers. Wish conducted a World Cup campaign in 2018, that featured Neymar Junior, Paul Pogba, Tim Howard, Gareth Bale, Robin Van Persie, Claudio Bravo and Gianluigi Buffon.  In 2018, Wish was the most-downloaded shopping application worldwide. The company doubled its revenue to $1.9 billion. As of 2019 it is the third-biggest e-commerce marketplace in the United States by sales.  In August 2019, Wish received a Series H funding round, led by equity firm General Atlantic, taking the company's assets to $11.2 billion. JD.com is an investor in Wish.

Services.

The Wish platform employs browsing technologies which personalise shopping visually for each customer rather than relying on a search bar format. More than 1 million merchants list their products on Wish’s platform to sell directly to consumers, eliminating distributor fees for the sellers while providing shoppers with low-priced merchandise. The bulk of merchandise available through the app comes from China and other overseas distributors. Products are usually smaller items which are cheaper to ship, aided by an agreement between China Post and the U.S. Postal Service which lowers costs of shipping for goods weighing less than 2kg. Wish offers Express Shipping in 5 days, or 6-8 days in some cases, as well as standard shipping that takes 2-3 weeks, for customers who prioritize savings over speed of delivery.  Wish’s ‘wheel of fortune’ style game, Blitz Buy, integrates a layer of gamification to offer consumers additional discounts on top-selling items. The Wish application is available for download on iOS and Android and has been the most downloaded shopping app in the United States.

Criticism.

Wish has been criticized for listing poor quality or counterfeit goods, like other major e-commerce sites which feature independent sellers. Customers have complained about lack of communication from sellers and quality. As a result, Szulczewski has hired Connie Chang of Facebook to organize a community of about 10,000 Wish users to expose unsatisfactory dealers in exchange for free goods and discounts.  It is possible to purchase items from Wish which are illegal in the purchaser's country. In January 2020, a man from Nelson, UK was sentenced to 11 months in prison for purchasing a stun gun via Wish.

Wish is an American online e-commerce platform that facilitates transactions between sellers and buyers. Wish was founded in 2010 by Piotr Szulczewski (CEO), James Prendergast (COO) and Danny Zhang (former CTO).

Wish est une plateforme de commerce en ligne, fondée en 2010 par Piotr Szulczewski, James Prendergast et Danny Zhang, qui facilite les transactions entre vendeurs et acheteurs.


Early life.

Henry was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina and raised partly in Washington, D.C. His father was in the military, and his mother, Willow Dean Kearse, was an educator. Henry attended Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia as a business major-turned-actor in the early 2000s, and received his master's degree from Yale School of Drama.

Career.

2007–2015: Early career.

Henry began his career on stage, with roles in numerous plays and musicals. In 2007, he starred as Tybalt in Shakespeare in the Park's production of "Romeo and Juliet". Henry also appeared in Tarell Alvin McCraney's trilogy of plays, titled "The Brother/Sister Plays". In 2011, he received further success as a part of the original cast of the musical "The Book of Mormon."  Henry made guest appearances in the television series "Law & Order", "The Good Wife", and "Boardwalk Empire". He made his feature film debut in the 2015 comedy film "Puerto Ricans in Paris".

2016–present: Breakthrough.

In 2016, Henry received critical acclaim and recognition for his starring role as Alfred "Paper Boi" Miles in the FX comedy-drama series "Atlanta". For his performance in the series, he received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series. From 2016 to 2017, he appeared as Tavis Brown in the HBO comedy series "Vice Principals". In 2017, Henry guest starred as Ricky in the NBC drama series "This is Us", for which he received a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series.  In 2018, he starred in the Broadway revival of "Lobby Hero", which earned him a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play.  Also in 2018, Henry made his film breakthrough, with starring roles in the dystopian thriller film "Hotel Artemis", the heist film "Widows", the romantic drama film "If Beale Street Could Talk", and the animated superhero film "".  In 2019, he co-starred in the psychological thriller films "Joker" and "Don't Let Go" as well as the horror film "Child's Play", the latter being a remake of the 1988 film.

Personal life.

Henry's mother, Willow Deane Kearse, died in early 2016. The "Atlanta" episode "Woods" was dedicated to Kearse.

Brian Tyree Henry (born March 31, 1982) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Alfred "Paper Boi" Miles in the FX comedy-drama series "Atlanta" (2016–present), for which he received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series.

Brian Tyree Henry (né le 31 mars 1982) est un acteur américain. Il est surtout connu pour son rôle de ""Paper Boi"" dans la série dramatique FX "Atlanta" (2016-présent), pour laquelle il a reçu une nomination aux Primetime Emmy Award pour le meilleur acteur dans une comédie.


History.

Interdisciplinary area studies became increasingly common in the United States of America and in Western scholarship after World War II. Before that war American universities had just a few faculty who taught or conducted research on the non-Western world. Foreign-area studies were virtually nonexistent. After the war, liberals and conservatives alike were concerned about the U.S. ability to respond effectively to perceived external threats from the Soviet Union and China in the context of the emerging Cold War, as well as to the fall-out from the Decolonization of Africa and Asia.  In this context, the Ford Foundation, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Carnegie Corporation of New York convened a series of meetings producing a broad consensus that to address this knowledge deficit, the U.S. must invest in international studies. Therefore, the foundations of the field are strongly rooted in America. Participants argued that a large brain trust of internationally oriented political scientists and economists was an urgent national priority. There was a central tension, however, between those who felt strongly that, instead of applying Western models, social scientists should develop culturally and historically contextualized knowledge of various parts of the world by working closely with humanists, and those who thought social scientists should seek to develop overarching macrohistorial theories that could draw connections between patterns of change and development across different geographies. The former became area-studies advocates, the latter proponents of modernization theory.  The Ford Foundation would eventually become the dominant player in shaping the area-studies program in the United States.  In 1950 the foundation established the prestigious Foreign Area Fellowship Program (FAFP), the first large-scale national competition in support of area-studies training in the United States. From 1953 to 1966 it contributed $270 million to 34 universities for area and language studies. Also during this period, it poured millions of dollars into the committees run jointly by the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies for field-development workshops, conferences, and publication programs. Eventually, the SSRC-ACLS joint committees would take over the administration of FAFP.  Other large and important programs followed Ford's. Most notably, the National Defense Education Act of 1957, renamed the Higher Education Act in 1965, allocated funding for some 125 university-based area-studies units known as National Resource Center programs at U.S. universities, as well as for Foreign Language and Area Studies fellowships for graduate students.  Meanwhile, area studies were also developed in the Soviet Union.

Controversy within the field.

Since their inception, area studies have been subject to criticism—including by area specialists themselves. Many of them alleged that because area studies were connected to the Cold War agendas of the CIA, the FBI, and other intelligence and military agencies, participating in such programs was tantamount to serving as an agent of the state. Some argue that there is the notion that U.S concerns and research priorities will define the intellectual terrain of area studies. Others insisted, however, that once they were established on university campuses, area studies began to encompass a much broader and deeper intellectual agenda than the one foreseen by government agencies, thus not American centric.  Arguably, one of the greatest threats to the area studies project was the rise of rational choice theory in political science and economics. To mock one of the most outspoken rational choice theory critics, Japan scholar Chalmers Johnson asked: Why do you need to know Japanese or anything about Japan's history and culture if the methods of rational choice will explain why Japanese politicians and bureaucrats do the things they do?  Following the demise of the Soviet Union, philanthropic foundations and scientific bureaucracies moved to attenuate their support for area studies, emphasizing instead interregional themes like "development and democracy". When the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies, which had long served as the national nexus for raising and administering funds for area studies, underwent their first major restructuring in thirty years, closing down their area committees, scholars interpreted this as a massive signal about the changing research environment.

Fields.

Fields are defined differently from university to university, and from department to department, but common area-studies fields include: Due to an increasing interest in studying translocal, transregional, transnational and transcontinental phenomena, a Potsdam-based research network has recently coined the term "TransArea Studies" (POINTS – Potsdam International Network for TransArea Studies).  Other interdisciplinary research fields such as women's studies (also known as gender studies), disability studies, and ethnic studies (including African American studies, Asian American studies, Latino/a studies, and Native American studies) are not part of area studies but are sometimes included in discussion along with it.  Area studies is sometimes known as regional studies. The Regional Studies Association is an international association focusing on these interdisciplinary fields.

Institutions.

Some entire institutions of higher education (tertiary education) are devoted solely to area studies such as School of Oriental and African Studies, part of the University of London, or the Tokyo University of Foreign Studies in Japan. At the University of Oxford, the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies (SIAS)School of Interdiscplinary Area Studies, Oxford and St Antony's College specialise in area studies, and hosts a number of post-graduate teaching programmes and research centres covering various regions of the world. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, is the only institution with immense contribution towards popularising area studies in India. An institution which exclusively deals with Area Studies is the GIGA (German Institute for Global and Area Studies) in Germany. Additionally, Lund University in Sweden offers the largest Asian Studies masters program in Northern Europe and is dedicated to promoting studies related to South Asia through its SASNet.

Area studies (also regional studies) are interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions. The term exists primarily as a general description for what are, in the practice of scholarship, many heterogeneous fields of research, encompassing both the social sciences and the humanities. Typical area study programs involve international relations, strategic studies, history, political science, political economy, cultural studies, languages, geography, literature, and other related disciplines. In contrast to cultural studies, area studies often include diaspora and emigration from the area.

Les études régionales désignent un ensemble de domaines de recherche interdisciplinaires se rapportant à des régions géographiques ou culturelles particulières s'opposant ainsi aux études dites mondiales. Elles dialoguent avec les "études sur les aires culturelles" ou "études aréales", terme forgé à partir de la traduction anglaise "," qui sont tournées vers les études culturelles, alors que les études régionales ont davantage une approche géographique. Le terme existe principalement comme une description générale des nombreux domaines de recherche hétérogènes, englobant à la fois les sciences sociales et les sciences humaines. Les principales disciplines impliquées dans les études régionales sont les relations internationales, les études stratégiques, l'histoire, les sciences politiques, l'économie politique, les études culturelles, les langues, la géographie, la littérature et d'autres disciplines connexes.


History of the Los Angeles Police Department

Histoire du Los Angeles Police Department

Early history.

During the California Gold Rush, Los Angeles was known for its violence, gambling and "vice" and lack of effective civil law enforcement. It was reputed to have the highest murder rate in the United States at the time and the countryside was infested with bandits. Most men went armed with pistols and knives and lynching was often the method used to dispose of lawbreakers, courts being few and ineffective. The first specific Los Angeles police force was founded in 1853 as the Los Angeles Rangers, a volunteer California State Militia company that assisted the existing County Sheriff in enforcing the law until disbanded in 1857. The Rangers were supplemented from 1853 by the Los Angeles Guards, a local volunteer California State Militia company that lasted until 1880 and by the Los Angeles City Guards (1855–1861). The first paid police force was created in 1869, when six officers were hired to serve under City Marshal William C. Warren. Warren was shot by one of his deputies, Joe Dye, in 1870 in a quarrel over a reward. To replace Warren, the newly created Board of Police Commissioners selected Jacob F. Gerkens. The latter was replaced within a year by saloon owner Emil Harris, the second of fifteen police chiefs from 1876 to 1889.  The first chief to remain in office for any time was John M. Glass; appointed in 1889, he served for eleven years and was a driving force for increased professionalism in the force. By 1900, there were 70 officers, one for every 1,500 people; in 1903, with the start of the Civil Service, this force was increased to 200, although training was not introduced until 1916. The rapid turnover of chiefs was renewed in the 1900s as the office became increasingly politicized; from 1900 to 1923 there were sixteen different chiefs. The longest-lasting was Charles E. Sebastian, who served from 1911 to 1915 before going on to become mayor.  In 1910 the department promoted the first sworn female police officer with full powers in the United States, Alice Stebbins Wells. Georgia Ann Robinson became the first African-American female police officer in the country in 1916.

World Wars.

During World War I the force became involved with federal offenses, and much of the force was organized into a special Home Guard. In the postwar period, the department became highly corrupt along with much of the city government; this state lasted until the late 1930s. Two police chiefs did work within a mandate for anti-corruption and reform. August Vollmer laid the ground for future improvements but served for only a single year. James E. Davis served from April 1, 1926 to December 29, 1929 and from August 10, 1933 to November 18, 1938. In his first term he fired almost a fifth of the force for bad conduct, and instituted extended firearms training and also the dragnet system of policing. In his second term Davis instituted a "Red Squad" to attack Communists and their offices.  With the replacement of Mayor Frank L. Shaw in 1938, the city gained a reformist mayor in Fletcher Bowron. He forced dozens of city commissioners out, as well as more than 45 LAPD officers. Bowron also appointed the first African American and the first woman to the Police Commission. The modernizer Arthur C. Hohmann was made chief in 1939 and resigned in 1941 after a strike at the North American Aviation plant in Inglewood, in which he refused to use the LAPD as strikebreakers.  During World War II, under Police Chief Clemence B. Horrall, the force was heavily depleted by the demands of the armed forces; new recruits were given only six weeks training (twelve was normal). Despite the attempts to maintain numbers the police could do little to control the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots. War Emergency personnel were given a "WE" designation with their badge numbers to distinguish them from other officers.  Among the department's more notorious cases of the Horrall years was the January 15, 1947 murder of Elizabeth Short, known as the Black Dahlia. Horrall and Assistant Chief Joe Reed resigned in 1949 under threat of a grand jury investigation related to the Brenda Allen scandal. Several of Horrall and Reed's more enduring actions, among others, were to approve a radio show about the LAPD titled "Dragnet" in the same year, with Jack Webb starring in the program, and the 1946 founding of the LAPD's secret "Gangster Squad" aimed to stop the rising threat of the American Mafia and organized crime (led by the local Los Angeles crime family) in the city.

1950–1965.

Horrall was replaced by a retired Marine general, William A. Worton, who acted as interim chief until 1950, when William H. Parker was chosen in tight competition with Thad Brown. Parker advocated police professionalism and autonomy from civilian administration, especially as concerned internal affairs. The Bloody Christmas scandal in 1951 led to calls for civilian accountability and an end to police brutality in the city itself.  Parker served until his death in 1966 from a heart attack, the longest period in office of any chief. The motto "To Protect and to Serve" was introduced in 1955. During this period, the LAPD set the standards of professionalism echoed in the contemporaneous TV series "Dragnet" and "Adam-12". The most serious challenge in this period was the 1965 Watts riots following accusations of mistreatment and police brutality toward minority communities by the City and the LAPD. For six days, buildings and businesses were looted and set on fire, and sniping also took place before the California Army National Guard were deployed to assist the overwhelmed LAPD in restoring order. Over 34 people died in the Watts riot and $40 million in damage was caused as almost 1,000 buildings were damaged or destroyed. Most of the physical damage was confined to white-owned businesses that were said to have caused resentment in the neighborhood due to perceived unfairness.

1978–2002.

The successor to Davis, Daryl F. Gates, came into office just as Proposition 13 reduced the department's budget, cutting police numbers to less than 7,000 in seven years, just as drug and gang crime reached unprecedented highs. To combat the rising tide of gang-related violence, Gates introduced Operation Hammer in 1987, which resulted in an unprecedented number of arrests, mostly of black American and Hispanic youths. Gates retired in 1992, just after the Rodney King-related 1992 Los Angeles riots in April and May and the damaging Christopher Commission Report, and was replaced by Willie L. Williams, the fiftieth chief, the first African-American officer to hold the office and the first non-internal appointee for almost 40 years. In 1997, Williams was replaced by Bernard Parks, during whose term the LAPD was rocked by the Rampart Division/CRASH corruption scandal. In 1997, one of the biggest challenges for the LAPD and LAPD SWAT was the North Hollywood shootout in which two bank robbers armed with automatic rifles and wearing body armor shot twelve responding officers and two civilians. The suspects were eventually defeated by SWAT units after a gun battle that lasted nearly an hour.  In November 1997, the Department did something for the first time in forty years in taking over another police department—the MTA Transit Police. Originally touted as a merger process, this became a political football with members of the City Council fighting the mayor's "one city—one police department" plan to eliminate all of the smaller, specialized police forces (Transit Police, Airport Police, School Police, Park Rangers, etc.). In the end, only about 130 of the originally slated 200 officers of the MTA Transit Police came to the LAPD, with about the same number going to the LASD (Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department). After less than five years, the MTA removed LAPD from the transit policing contract it had established with LAPD and LASD, and LASD was given the entire MTA contract. As of 2006, only 96 of those officers remained with the LAPD.  In 2002, after a loss of approximately 1,700 officers in two years, mostly to other Southern California police departments and in the face of an unprecedented homicide rate, Mayor Hahn moved to have the Board of Police Commissioners refuse to accept Parks' application for another five-year term. Parks appealed to the City Council who refused to take up his cause. Parks initially threatened a lawsuit, but thought better of it and considered a run for City Council in the near future instead. Parks promptly left office, several months before his five-year term was up. Former Deputy Chief Martin Pomeroy was selected as an interim Chief until a permanent replacement could be found. Also in 2002, voters in the City passed the Proposition Q—Citywide Public Safety Bond to expand, renovate and replace existing police and fire facilities. This $600 million bond program included replacement of the West Valley, Rampart, Hollenbeck, and Harbor Police Stations; adding a new Emergency Operations Center; replacing the Parker Center Jail; adding a new Operations Valley Bureau/Valley Traffic Division; and adding two new Area Police Stations—20th (Olympic Area) and 21st (Topanga Area) Police Stations.

William J. Bratton as Chief.

Chief William J. Bratton came to the LAPD after having prior experience as Chief of Police for the NYPD, the NY City Transit Police, the Boston Police and the MBTA Transit Police. Bratton came in a manner very different from his most recent outsider predecessor, Chief Parks. Prior to his arrival, Bratton requested all captains and above submit resumes and biographies for consideration in his new administration. Bratton made his initial goals to fully implement the Federal Consent decree (left from the Parks administration), to implement a dramatic reduction in Part I crime and to create a world class counter-terrorism Bureau within LAPD (during Parks' tenure, a year after 9/11, officers still had no WMD training nor equipment; however, Parks had successfully implemented a "no US flag pin" policy for wear on officer's uniforms). Bratton later added community oriented policing to his list of goals. In 2005, the LAPD began showing action-packed mini-movies online and at movie theaters to promote recruiting. The movies feature real LAPD officers and what they do. Bratton retired as Chief of the LAPD on October 31, 2009 and became the chief executive officer of Altegrity Security Consulting, a private security firm based in Virginia.  On May 17, 2005, Los Angeles voters rejected a proposal (Proposition A) that would have merged LAPD and the Los Angeles Airport Police. The argument against this proposal was that officers of the Los Angeles Airport Police had more extensive training in airport law enforcement and security operations. LAPD officers would have needed more training in this new function. At the request of Airport Police, LAPD officers are assigned on an overtime basis to security checkpoints in the terminals at LAX. This assignment became available to LAPD officers and supervisory personnel due to staff shortages at the Airport Police.  In 2006, the Department temporarily relocated two LAPD stations, Hollenbeck and Harbor, to Temporary Stations, while the existing stations were demolished and new ones built on the same sites. Also in 2006, a longtime goal of the Department, to replace Parker Center, began moving towards fruition with demolition of the old Caltrans building at 2nd/ Spring Streets to make way for a new Police Administration Building. The Department broke ground for two new Community Police Stations as well as a replacement of three older stations. The groundbreaking for the 20th (Olympic Area) Police Station, was on May 4, 2006. Groundbreaking for the 21st (Topanga Area) Police Station, was on May 11, 2006.  Replacement Rampart Station was built on the site of the former Central Receiving Hospital (police hospital) that had been located on 6th Street and Valencia Street. As a sidenote, exteriors from Rampart division on Rampart and Benton were filmed for the "Adam-12" television series. The department does not permit the interiors of police stations filmed for motion picture purposes, so interiors were filmed at Universal Studios in Universal City, California.  The 21st (Topanga Area) Police Station opened on January 4, 2009 and was formed from parts of the existing West Valley Area and Devonshire Area in the Operations-Valley Bureau. The 20th Area Police Station area will be formed from portions of Wilshire, Hollywood and Rampart Police Station areas. Three additional police stations are planned for additions in the next ten years (2007–2016), one each for the South, West and Central Bureaus of the Department.  In 2006, Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa initiated gradual increases in trash collection fees paid by property owners to hire about 1,000 LAPD officers over the next five years.  On November 17, 2009, Charles L. Beck was sworn in by Mayor Villaraigosa to succeed William J. Bratton as the Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department. A 32-year veteran of the department, he is known for commanding and rehabilitating the Rampart Division after the Rampart Scandal.  On February 7, 2008, when LAPD responded to a call that an emotionally disturbed man killed three of his family members, the man shot two SWAT officers, one of whom was killed. Officer Randal Simmons was the first SWAT officer to be killed in the line of duty since the founding of SWAT.

The Los Angeles Police Department was formed in 1869, and has since become the third-largest law enforcement agency in the United States. They have been involved in various events in history, such as the Black Dahlia murder case, and the Rampart scandal.

L'histoire du Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) démarre lors de sa création en 1869. Ce service de police devient depuis la troisième plus grande agence d'application de la loi aux États-Unis. Il a été impliqué dans divers événements de l'histoire, comme l'affaire du Dahlia noir et le tristement célèbre scandale Rampart.


Observations.

Following the March 2016 discovery that Gonggong was an unusually slow rotator, the possibility was raised that a satellite may have slowed it down via tidal forces. The indications of a possible satellite orbiting Gonggong led Csaba Kiss and his team to analyze archival Hubble observations of Gonggong. Their analysis of Hubble images taken on 18 September 2010 revealed a faint satellite orbiting Gonggong at a distance of at least. The discovery was announced on 17 October 2016, though the satellite was not given a proper provisional designation. The discovery team later also identified the satellite in earlier archival Hubble images taken on 9 November 2009.  From follow-up Hubble observations in 2017, the absolute magnitude of the satellite is estimated to be at least 4.59 magnitudes dimmer than Gonggong, or given Gonggong's estimated absolute magnitude of 2.34.

Orbit.

Based on Hubble images of Gonggong and Xiangliu taken in 2009 and 2010, the discovery team constrained Xiangliu's orbital period to between 20 and 100 days. They better determined the orbit with additional Hubble observations in 2017. Xiangliu is believed to be tidally locked to Gonggong.  Because the observations of Xiangliu only span a small fraction of Gonggong's orbit around the Sun, it is not yet possible to determine whether Xiangliu's orbit is prograde or retrograde. Based on a prograde orbit model, Xiangliu orbits Gonggong at a distance of around and completes one orbit in 25.22 days. Using the same prograde orbit model, the discovery team has estimated that its orbit is inclined to the ecliptic by about 83 degrees, implying that Gonggong is being viewed at a nearly pole-on configuration under the assumption that Xiangliu's orbit has a low inclination to Gonggong's equator.  The orbit of Xiangliu is highly eccentric. The value of 0.29 is thought to have been caused by either an intrinsically eccentric orbit or by slow tidal evolution, in which the time for its orbit to circularize is comparable to the age of the Solar System. It may have also resulted from the Kozai mechanism, driven by perturbations either from the Sun's tidal forces, or from higher order terms in the gravitational potential of Gonggong due to its oblate shape. The orbital dynamics are thought to be similar to that of Quaoar's satellite Weywot, which has a moderate eccentricity of about 0.14.

Physical characteristics.

In order for Xiangliu's orbit to remain eccentric over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, it must be less than in diameter, corresponding to an albedo greater than 0.2. Upon its discovery, the diameter of Xiangliu was initially estimated at, under the assumption that the albedos of Xiangliu and Gonggong were equal. Photometric measurements in 2017 showed that Xiangliu is far less red than Gonggong. The color difference of = between Gonggong (V–I=) and Xiangliu (V–I=) is the largest among all known binary trans-Neptunian objects. This large color difference is atypical for trans-Neptunian binary systems: the components of most trans-Neptunian binaries display little color variation, unlike the Gonggong system.

Name.

The satellite's name is derived from Xiangliu, the nine-headed poisonous snake monster and minister of the water god Gonggong in Chinese mythology. Xiangliu is known for causing flooding and destruction. When the discoverers of Gonggong proposed choices for a public vote on its name, they chose figures that had associates that could provide a name for the satellite. Xiangliu's name was chosen by its discovery team led by Csaba Kiss, who had the privilege of naming the satellite. The names of Gonggong and Xiangliu were approved by the International Astronomical Union's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature and were simultaneously announced by the Minor Planet Center on 5 February 2020.

Xiangliu is the only known moon of the scattered-disc planetoid 225088 Gonggong. It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Csaba Kiss during an analysis of archival Hubble Space Telescope images of Gonggong. The discovery team had suspected that the slow rotation of Gonggong was caused by tidal forces exerted by an orbiting satellite. Xiangliu was first identified in archival Hubble images taken with Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 on 18 September 2010. Its discovery was reported and announced by Gábor Marton, Csaba Kiss, and Thomas Müller at the 48th Meeting of the Division for Planetary Sciences on 17 October 2016. The satellite is named after Xiangliu, a nine-headed poisonous snake monster in Chinese mythology that attended the water god Gonggong.

Xiangliu, désignation complète (225088) Gonggong Xiangliu, est un satellite naturel de l'objet transneptunien, le seul connu à ce jour ().


Games in the series.

"Aussie Rules Footy".

It was the first AFL video game. The game involves playing a game of Australian rules football from a third-person perspective, with the ability to perform the basic actions of a typical player of the sport. The game can be played by one person, or by two players against each other. There is also a kick to kick mode, and a season mode where one to six players can play multiple games in a season finishing with a grand final. It was developed by Beam Software, and was published by Mattel.

"AFL Finals Fever".

It was released for Windows PC only on 9 June 1996. You could play as one of the 16 clubs of the 1996 AFL season. It was also the last video game in the series to feature the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears as playable teams before they were merged. The game was also the first game to be developed by Blue Tongue Entertainment and was published by Cadability.

"AFL 98".

It was released in 1997 for Microsoft Windows. It was based on the 1997 season. 16 teams were available in the game and it was the first in the series to feature and. It is also the first game in the series to have commentary, which was provided by Bruce McAvaney. The game was developed by Creative Assembly and published by EA Sports.

"AFL 99".

It was released in 1998 for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows. It was based on the 1998 season and you could play as any of the 16 teams. The commentary is provided by Bruce McAvaney and Leigh Matthews. The game was developed by Creative Assembly and published by EA Sports. The game's music was composed by Jeff van Dyck.

"Kevin Sheedy AFL Coach 2002".

It was the first AFL video game to be developed by IR Gurus. The game was released as a PC only game. In the game you assume the role of an AFL Coach, you tell your players commands such as the type of play you want them to play (attacking, defensive, Normal) and when to interchange. It sold well for a "then" IR Gurus game but not too well on the market.

"AFL Live 2003".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox. The game is based on the 2002 AFL season with team rosters. It was first released on 5 September 2002 in Australia. It was developed by IR Gurus and published by Acclaim Entertainment. It is also the first game in the series to feature a live action intro of AFL games in the 2003 season. The game was only released in Australia.

"AFL Live 2004".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox on 28 August 2003. The game is based on the 2003 AFL season with team rosters based on that year. AFL Live 2003 includes all 16 official AFL teams and 8 stadiums which were, MCG, Telstra Dome, Optus Oval, Kardinia Park, AAMI Stadium, Subiaco Oval, Gabba, SCG. It also included all 22 home and away matches and the finals series. The game was published by Acclaim with the song Lost Control by Grinspoon as the intro song. It was developed by IR Gurus.

"AFL Live: Premiership Edition".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox on 29 April 2004. The game is based on the 2004 AFL season with team rosters based on that year. It was developed by IR Gurus and was the final AFL game to be published by Acclaim Entertainment, before their bankruptcy on 1 September 2004.

"AFL Premiership 2005".

It is based on the 2005 AFL season and was released only for the PlayStation 2. This is the next edition after AFL Premiership Edition. When Acclaim shut down its operations in Australia, Sony Computer Entertainment got publishing and distributing rights to the game. Because Sony Computer Entertainment had an exclusive period with the title, initially it was only launched on PlayStation 2. However, THQ released a Microsoft Windows and Xbox version of the game. It was released on 22 September 2005 and is only available in Australia.

"AFL Premiership 2006".

AFL Premiership 2006 is the tenth game in the series. a follow-up to AFL Premiership 2005, it is based on the 2006 AFL season and was released only for the PlayStation 2. The revamped kicking system requires the players to time the button presses to kick straight, because holding it down for too long results in the ball turning in the opposite side. There are several modes: training mode (provides the basics), short match, Wizard Cup, Premiership and Finals. A newly introduced multiseason allows the management of certain team aspects. That includes things like improving player skills, trading players at the end of the season, and putting the emphasis on draft.

"AFL Premiership 2007".

It is a simulation game for the PlayStation 2 based on the AFL. The game marks the final AFL game to be developed by Australian games company IR Gurus and was published by Sony Computer Entertainment, IR Gurus seventh collaboration in the series, and was released on 28 June 2007. The game includes all 16 teams, more than 600 AFL players with updated stats and all of the major stadium. Game modes in AFL Premiership 2007 are Single Match, Season Mode, Career Mode, Mission Mode and Training Mode. It was a follow-up to AFL Premiership 2006.

"AFL Challenge".

It was released for the PlayStation Portable. The game was developed by Wicked Witch Software and co-published by Tru Blu Entertainment and Sony Computer Entertainment. It was released on 10 September 2009. The game is based on the 2009 AFL season and includes all 16 teams and players.

"AFL Live".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 based on the 2011 AFL season. It was developed by Big Ant Studios and released on 21 April 2011. The Game of the Year Edition, an updated version of the game for the 2012 AFL season was released on 6 June 2012.

"AFL Live 2".

It was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on 12 September 2013. The 2014 Season Pack was released on 30 June 2014 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on 9 July 2014. A mobile port was released on iOS on 28 May 2015 and Android on 26 September 2015.

"AFL Evolution".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It was developed by Wicked Witch Software and was released on May 5, 2017 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, with the Microsoft Windows version released on July 21, 2017 via Steam. The 2018 Season Pack was later released on May 3, 2018.

"AFL Evolution 2".

It will be released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch.  It was released for the Nintendo DS on 2 July 2009. Focused more on the League's Mascots then on the sport itself, the central component of the game is the adventure the players Mascot will experience in the themed worlds. Is an AFL simulation video game based on the 2011 AFL season for the Wii, developed by Wicked Witch Software. It was released on 19 May 2011. Is an iOS AFL simulation video game based on the 2011 AFL season, released on 14 December 2011. The 2012 AFL season update was released on 4 June 2012. It was developed by Wicked Witch Software and had similar gameplay to AFL on the Wii.

The "AFL" video game series is a series of Australian rules football video games based on the AFL. Released originally by Beam Software, it has since been developed by several other game developers.

La série de jeux vidéo AFL est une série de jeux vidéo de football australien basée sur le championnat AFL (Australian Football League). Elle débute avec le jeu "Aussie Rules Footy" développé par Beam Software, et est développée depuis lors par d'autres studios.


The problem.

Many online problems have a sub-problem called the rent/buy problem. We need to decide whether to stay in the current state and pay a certain amount of cost per time unit, or switch to another state and pay some fixed large cost with no further payment. Ski rental is one classical toy example, where the rent/buy is the entire problem. Its basic version is as follows:  You are going skiing for an unknown number of days (you do not know the exact number due to various reasons, e.g., loss of interest, accidents that break your legs, or extremely bad weather). Assume that renting skis costs $1 per day and buying skis costs $10. Every day you have to decide whether to continue renting skis for one more day or buy a pair of skis. If you know in advance how many days you will go skiing, you can decide your minimum cost. For example, if you will be skiing for more than 10 days it will be cheaper to buy skis, while if you will be skiing for fewer than 10 days it will be cheaper to rent. (If you will ski for exactly 10 days you are indifferent.) The question is what to do when you do not know in advance how many days you will ski.  Formally, the problem can be set up as follows. There is a number of days "d" (unknown to you) that you will ski. We are looking for an algorithm that minimizes the ratio between what you pay using the algorithm (that does not know "d") and what you would pay optimally if you knew "d" in advance. The problem is generally analyzed in the worst case, where the algorithm is fixed and then we look at the worst-case performance of the algorithm over all possible "d". In particular, no assumptions are made regarding the distribution of "d" (and it is easy to see that, with knowledge of the distribution of "d", a different analysis as well as different solutions would be preferred).

The break-even algorithm.

The break-even algorithm instructs you to rent for 9 days and buy skis on the morning of day 10 if you are still up for skiing. If you have to stop skiing during the first 9 days, it costs the same as what you would pay if you had known the number of days you would go skiing. If you have to stop skiing after day 10, your cost is $19 which is 90% more than what you would pay if you had known the number of days you would go skiing in advance. This is the worst case for the break-even algorithm.  The break-even algorithm is known to be the best deterministic algorithm for this problem.

Can you do better than break-even?

Yes. For example, you can flip a coin. If it comes up heads, you buy skis on day 8; otherwise, you buy skis on day 10. This is an instance of a randomized algorithm. It is easy to see that the "expected" cost is at most 80% more than what you would pay if you had known the number of days you would go skiing, "regardless" of how many days you ski. In particular, if you ski for 10 days, then your expected cost is 1/2 [7 +10] + 1/2 [9+10] = 18 dollars, only 80% excess instead of 90%.  A randomized algorithm can be understood as a composition of different algorithms, each one which occurs with a given probability. We define the expected competitive ratio on a given instance i as:  formula_1, where formula_2 is the competitive ratio for instance i, given formula_3.  Consequently, the competitive ratio of a randomized algorithm is given by the worst value of formula_4 over all given instances. In the case of the coin flipping ski-rental, we note that the randomized algorithm has 2 possible branches: If the coin comes up heads, we buy on day 8, otherwise we buy on day 10. We may call the branches formula_5 and formula_6, respectively. formula_7, for formula_8. formula_9, formula_10, and formula_11, for formula_12.  Therefore, the competitive ratio of the randomized ski-rental coin flipping algorithm is 1.8.  The best randomized algorithm against an oblivious adversary is to choose some day i at random according to the following distribution p, rent for i-1 days and buy skis on the morning of day i if you are still up for skiing. Karlin et al. first presented this algorithm with distribution formula_13 where buying skis costs $formula_14 and renting costs $1. Its expected cost is at most e/(e-1) formula_15 1.58 times what you would pay if you had known the number of days you would go skiing. No randomized algorithm can do better.

Applications.

Snoopy caching: several caches share the same memory space that is partitioned into blocks. When a cache writes to a block, caches that share the block spend 1 bus cycle to get updated. These caches can invalidate the block to avoid the cost of updating. But there is a penalty of p bus cycles for invalidating a block from a cache that shortly thereafter needs access to it. We can break the write request sequences for several caches into request sequences for two caches. One cache performs a sequence of write operations to the block. The other cache needs to decide whether to get updated by paying 1 bus cycle per operation or invalidate the block by paying p bus cycles for future read request of itself. The two cache, one block snoopy caching problem is just the ski rental problem.  TCP acknowledgment: A stream of packets arrive at a destination and are required by the TCP protocol to be acknowledged upon arrival. However, we can use a single acknowledgment packet to simultaneously acknowledge multiple outstanding packets, thereby reducing the overhead of the acknowledgments. On the other hand, delaying acknowledgments too much can interfere with the TCP's congestion control mechanisms, and thus we should not allow the latency between a packet's arrival time and the time at which the acknowledgment is sent to increase too much. Karlin et al. described a one-parameter family of inputs, called the basis inputs, and showed that when restricted to these basis inputs, the TCP acknowledgement problem behaves the same as the ski rental problem.  Total completion time scheduling: We wish to schedule jobs with fixed processing times on m identical machines. The processing time of job j is p. Each job becomes known to the scheduler on its release time r. The goal is to minimize the sum of completion times over all jobs. A simplified problem is one single machine with the following input: at time 0, a job with processing time 1 arrives; k jobs with processing time 0 arrive at some unknown time. We need to choose a start time for the first job. Waiting incurs a cost of 1 per time unit, yet starting the first job before the later k jobs may incur an extra cost of k in the worst case. This simplified problem may be viewed as a continuous version of the ski rental problem.  Refactoring versus working with a poor design: In software development, engineers have to choose between the friction and risk of errors of working with an overly-complex design and reducing the complexity of the design before making a change. The extra cost of each change with the old design is the "rental" cost, the cost of refactoring is the "buy" cost. "How many times do you work with a poor design before cleaning it up?" is a ski rental problem.

In computer science, the ski rental problem is a name given to a class of problems in which there is a choice between continuing to pay a repeating cost or paying a one-time cost which eliminates or reduces the repeating cost.

En informatique, le problème de la location de skis est un problème algorithmique qui modélise la prise de décisions sans connaissance sur le futur, et en particulier de la décision "location VS achat" présent dans les algorithmes online.


Authorship.

Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz were working at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) when the future chairman of the Federal Reserve, Arthur Burns, suggested that they collaborate on a project to analyze the effect of the money supply on the business cycle. Schwartz was already gathering much of the relevant historical data at that point, while Friedman was already a professor at the University of Chicago and also at the NBER. They began work in the late 1940s and eventually published "A Monetary History" through Princeton University Press in 1963. The Depression-related chapter, "The Great Contraction," was republished as a separate book in 1965.

Content.

The book discusses the role of the monetary policy in the U.S. economy from the Civil War Reconstruction Era to the middle of the 20th century. It presents what was then a contrarian view of the role of monetary policy in the Great Depression. The prevalent view in the early 1960s was that monetary forces played a passive role in the economic contraction of the 1930s. The "Monetary History" argues that the bank failures and the massive withdrawals of currency from the financial system that followed significantly shrank the money supply (the total amount of currency and outstanding bank deposits), which greatly exacerbated the economic contraction. The book criticizes the Federal Reserve Bank for not keeping the supply of money steady and not acting as lender of last resort, instead allowing commercial banks to fail and allowing the economic depression to deepen.

Themes.

The book's main theme is the "money supply". It tracks this through three numbers:  The money supply (cash + deposits) can be computed from these three numbers. The supply shrinks when people withdraw money from the bank, banks hold more reserves, or high-powered money leaves the country (e.g., gold is exported). During a crisis, all three can happen.  Another theme is "gold". For the time period, it was the unit used for international trade with Europe. So even when the US is not on the gold standard, it plays a significant role. The authors are precise about the gold standard. The authors say the US was on the gold standard from 1879 to 1923. That is, paper money could be exchanged for bullion and international trade was settled immediately with gold. From 1923 to 1933, the authors say that international trade was "sterilized" by the Fed inflating the money rather than immediately being settled by gold. Lastly, they term the period from 1934 to 1960 (when the book was published) as a "managed standard". Paper money cannot be exchanged for bullion. The authors compare gold to a subsidized commodity, like grain.  Another theme is "silver". China and Mexico used it for their currency and the US used it for smaller coins. From 1879 to 1897, there was a populist push to switch the gold-backed dollar to silver. The US Treasury bought silver, but that didn't help when the country was on gold. Later, during the Great Depression, the US bought gold at inflated prices to help silver miners. The result was tragic for the money supplies of China and Mexico.  The authors measure the velocity of money. The authors talk about it a lot, but do not make any conclusions about it.  Lastly, a theme is "decision making at the Federal Reserve". The authors try to find out the people making the decisions and what information they had. Probably just as important is the decision making process. The NY Fed Bank initially lead the decision making process, but eventually it migrated to the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, DC. To a lesser extent, the Secretary of the Treasury's decisions are included.

Thesis.

The thesis of "Monetary History" is that the money supply affects the economy. In the final chapter, they specify 3 occasions where the Federal Reserve acted strongly during relatively calm times and present these as an experiment for the reader to judge their thesis.  The three actions by the Fed were the raising the discount rate in 1920, the raise of it in 1931, and the raise of the reserve requirement in 1937. Each of these actions caused a large contraction of the money supply over the next 12 months (9%, 14%, 3%). In fact, these were the three sharpest declines they saw in their data. In those 12 months, industrial production fell dramatically (30%, 24%, 34%). Other metrics fell at similar rates. These were 3 of the 6 worst 12-month periods for industrial production. The others were 1929-1931 (the Great Depression) and 1945, when the economy switched from wartime to peacetime production.  Having demonstrated their thesis, they can now use it. They claim that the Great Depression was due to the Fed letting the money supply shrink from 1929 to 1933.

Great Depression.

Friedman and Schwartz identified four main policy mistakes made by the Federal Reserve that led to a sharp and undesirable decline in the money supply:

Influence.

The book was the first to present the then novel argument that excessively tight monetary policy by the Federal Reserve following the boom of the 1920s turned an otherwise normal recession into the Great Depression of the 1930s. Previously, the consensus of economists was that loss of investor and consumer confidence following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a primary cause of the Great Depression.  The "Monetary History" was lauded as one of the most influential economics books of the twentieth century by the Cato Institute book forum in 2003. It was also cited with approval in a 2002 speech by then-Federal Reserve board member Ben Bernanke stating "the direct and indirect influences of the Monetary History on contemporary monetary economics would be difficult to overstate", and again in a 2004 speech as "transform[ing] the debate about the Great Depression".  The Depression-related chapter of "A Monetary History" was titled "The Great Contraction" and was republished as a separate book in 1965. Some editions include an appendix in which the authors got an endorsement from an unlikely source at an event in their honor when Ben Bernanke made this statement:  Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again.  Monetarist economists used the work of Friedman and Schwartz to justify their positions for using monetary policy as the critical economic stabilizer. This view became more popular as Keynesian stabilizers failed to ameliorate the stagflation of the 1970s and political winds shifted away from government intervention in the market into the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, the Federal Reserve was recognized as a critical player in setting interest rates to counter excessive inflation and also to prevent deflation that could lead to real economic distress.

Criticism.

The book lays most of the blame for the Great Depression upon the Federal Reserve, arguing that it did not do enough to prevent the Depression. Economists such as Peter Temin have raised questions about whether or not most monetary quantity levels were endogenous rather than exogenously determined, as " A Monetary History" argues, especially during the Depression. Paul Krugman has argued that the 2008 financial crisis has shown that, during a financial crisis, central banks cannot control broad money, and that money supply bears little relationship to GDP. According to Krugman, the same was true in the 1930s, and the claim that the Federal Reserve could have prevented the Great Depression is highly dubious.  Economic historian Barry Eichengreen, in "The Golden Fetters", has argued that because of the then internationally prevailing gold exchange standard, the Federal Reserve's hands were tied. According to Eichengreen, in order to maintain the credibility of the gold standard, the Federal Reserve could not undertake actions (such as drastically increasing the money supply) in the manner advocated by Friedman and Schwartz.  James Tobin, while appreciating the rigor with which Friedman and Schwartz demonstrated the importance of the monetary supply, questions their measures of the velocity of money and how informative this measure of the frequency of monetary transactions really is to understanding the macroeconomic fluctuations of the early-to-mid 20th century.

A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 is a book written in 1963 by Nobel Prize–winning economist Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz. It uses historical time series and economic analysis to argue the then-novel proposition that changes in the money supply profoundly influenced the U.S. economy, especially the behavior of economic fluctuations. The implication they draw is that changes in the money supply had unintended adverse effects, and that sound monetary policy is necessary for economic stability. Economic historians see it as one of the most influential economics books of the century. The chapter dealing with the causes of the Great Depression was published as a stand-alone book titled "The Great Contraction, 1929–1933".

Une histoire monétaire des États-Unis, 1867-1960 ("") est un livre écrit en 1963 par les économistes américains Anna Schwartz et Milton Friedman. À travers une étude rigoureuse de l'histoire monétaire américaine entre 1867 et 1963, les deux économistes montrent que les variations de la masse monétaire ont eu un impact décisif sur l'économie américaine durant son histoire. Le livre est notamment célèbre pour l'analyse monétariste de la Grande Dépression qu'il propose. Selon Anna Schwartz et Milton Friedman, la crise est due à une contraction de la masse monétaire de 1929 à 1933. Les deux économistes accusent la banque centrale américaine, la Federal Reserve, d’être responsable de cette diminution de la masse monétaire.