Early history.

Archeologists place the earliest human settlement of the Samoan archipelago at around 2900–3500 years before present. This date is based upon the ancient Lapita pottery shards found throughout the islands, the oldest evidence being in Mulifanua as well as in Sasoa'a, Falefa. This area of Polynesia, Samoa and Tonga, contains evidence from dates of similar times, suggesting the area was settled during the same period. Whatever occurred between 750 BC and AD 1000 remains a mystery, though this may have been the period of great migrations that led to the settlement of present-day Polynesia. Another mystery is that the making of pottery suddenly stopped; there is no oral tradition among the people of Samoa that explains this but some theories suggest the lack of available pottery-making materials in Polynesia meant the majority of pottery was imported during migration and not locally sourced or made.  Samoa's history early was interwoven with that of certain chiefdoms of Fiji as well as the history of the kingdom of Tonga. The oral history of Samoa preserves the memories of many battles fought between Samoa and neighboring islands. Too, intermarriage of Tongan and Fijian royalty to Samoan nobility has helped build close relationships between these island nations that exist to the present; these royal blood ties are acknowledged at special events and cultural gatherings. Other Samoan folklore tells of the arrival of two maidens from Fiji who brought the tools necessary to create the art of tatau, or in English tattoo, whence came the traditional Samoan "malofie" (also known as "pe'a" for men and as "malu" for women).  The foundation of the cultural tradition of Samoa, the fa'asamoa, came with the rise of the warrior queen Nafanua. Her rule instituted traditions of the fa'amatai or local family and village and regional chiefly systems, a decentralized system. Her niece Salamasina continued under this system and their time is considered a golden age of Samoan cultural traditions. Linguistically, the Samoan language belongs to the Polynesian sub-branch of the Austronesian language family, whose origin is thought to be in Taiwan.  According to oral tradition, Samoa shares the common Polynesian ancestor of Tagaloa. The very earliest history of Samoa concerns a political center in the easternmost Samoan islands of Manu'a, under the rule of the Tui Manu'a. In the Cook Islands to the east, the tradition is that Karika, or Tui Manu'a 'Ali'a, came to the Cook Islands from Manu'a; suggesting that it was from Manu'a and Samoa that the rest of Polynesia as settled.

After European contact.

18th century.

Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century but did not intensify until the arrival of the British missionaries. In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to see the islands. This visit was followed by the French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811), the man who named them the "Navigator Islands" in 1768. In 1787 Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse visited Samoa, where at Tutuila Island, in what is now American Samoa, there was a conflict leading to deaths on both sides, including the deaths of twelve Frenchmen.

19th century.

European and Tahitian and Cook Islander Missionaries and traders, led by John Williams (missionary) began arriving around 1830. Coming via Tahiti, they were known in Samoa as the Lotu Taiti. The Rev. John Williams was helped by the Ali'i Malietoa Vainu'upo to establish the Lotu Taiti, which became the Christian Congregational Church of Samoa.  The United States Exploring Expedition (1838–42) under Charles Wilkes reached Samoa in 1839 and appointed an Englishman, John C. Williams, son of the missionary, as acting U.S. consul. However this appointment was never confirmed by the U.S. State Department; John C. Williams was merely recognized as "Commercial Agent of the United States". A British consul was already residing at Apia.  In 1855 J.C. Godeffroy & Sohn expanded its trading business into the Samoan Islands, which were then known as the Navigator Islands. During the second half of the 19th century German influence in Samoa expanded with large plantation operations being introduced for coconut, cacao and hevea rubber cultivation, especially on the island of 'Upolu where German firms monopolized copra and cocoa bean processing. British business enterprises, harbour rights, and consulate office were the basis on which Britain had cause to intervene in Samoa. The United States began operations at the harbor of Pago Pago on Tutuila in 1877 and formed alliances with local native chieftains, most conspicuously on the islands of Tutuila and Manu'a (which were later formally annexed as American Samoa).  In the 1880s Great Britain, Germany and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trade posts. The rivalry between these powers exacerbated the indigenous factions that were struggling to preserve their ancient political system. The islands were divided among the three powers in the 1890s, And between the United States and Germany in 1899.

The First Samoan Civil War and the Samoan crisis.

The First Samoan Civil War was fought roughly between 1886 and 1894, primarily between rival Samoan factions, although the rival powers intervened on several occasions with military forces. There followed an eight-year civil war, where each of the three powers supplied arms, training, and in some cases, combat troops to the warring Samoan parties. The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a larger-scale war seemed imminent, until a massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict.  Robert Louis Stevenson arrived in Samoa in 1889 and built a house at Vailima. He quickly became passionately involved in the attendant political machinations. His influence spread to the Samoans, who consulted him for advice, and he soon became involved in local politics. These involved the three colonial powers battling for control of Samoa - America, Germany and Britain - and the indigenous factions struggling to preserve their ancient political system. He was convinced that the European officials appointed to rule the Samoans were incompetent, and after many futile attempts to resolve the matter, he published "". The book covers the period from 1882 to 1892. This was such a stinging protest against existing conditions that it resulted in the recall of two officials, and Stevenson feared for a time it would result in his own deportation.

The Second Samoan Civil War and the Siege of Apia.

The Second Samoan Civil War reached a head in 1898 when Germany, Great Britain and the United States disputed over who should control the Samoan Islands.  The Battle of Apia occurred in March 1899. Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to powerful chief Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. Over several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were defeated.  American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899; including the USS "Philadelphia". Following the initial defeat at Apia, Mata'afa's rebels defeated a combined American, British and Tanu allied force at Vailele on 1 April 1899, with the allies in retreat. According to a war correspondent associated with the Auckland Star newspaper, the aftermath saw Mata'afa's warriors leaving American and British corpses on the field being severed of their heads. Germany, Britain and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities by partitioning the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899. With Tanu and his American and British allies' inability to defeat him in war, the Tripartite resulted in Mata'afa being promoted to Ali'i Si'i, the high chief of Samoa.

Division of islands.

The Samoa Tripartite Convention of 1899, a joint commission of three members composed of Bartlett Tripp for the United States, C. N. E. Eliot, C.B. for Great Britain, and Freiherr Speck von Sternburg for Germany, agreed to divide the islands.  The Tripartite Convention gave control of the islands west of 171 degrees west longitude to Germany, (later known as Western Samoa), containing Upolu and Savaii (the current Samoa) and other adjoining islands. These islands became known as German Samoa. The United States was given control the eastern islands of Tutuila and Manu'a, (present-day American Samoa). In exchange for Britain ceding claims in Samoa, Germany transferred their protectorates in the North Solomon Islands and other territories in West Africa. It does not appear that any Samoans were consulted about the partition and the monarchy was also abolished.

Independence.

From 1908, with the establishment of the Mau movement ("opinion movement"), Western Samoans began to assert their claim to independence. The Mau movement began in 1908 with the ‘Mau a Pule' resistance on Savai'i, led by orator chief Lauaki Namulau'ulu Mamoe. Lauaki and Mau a Pule chiefs, wives and children were exiled to Saipan in 1909. Many died in exile.  World War I broke out in August 1914, and soon after, New Zealand sent an expeditionary force to seize and occupy German Samoa. Although Germany refused to officially surrender the islands, no resistance was offered and the occupation took place without any fighting. New Zealand continued the occupation of Western Samoa throughout World War I. Under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germany relinquished its claims to the islands.  In November 1918, the Spanish flu strongly hit the territory. 90% of the 38,302 native inhabitants were infected and 20% died. The American Samoa population was largely spared this devastation, due to vigorous efforts of its governor, John Martin Poyer. This led to some Samoan citizens petitioning in January 1919 for transfer to U.S. administration, or at least to the central British administration. The petition was recalled a few days later.  The Mau movement gained momentum with Samoa's royal leaders becoming more visible in supporting the movement but opposing violence. On 28 December 1929 Tupua Tamasese was shot along with eleven others during an otherwise peaceful demonstration in Apia. Tupua Tamasese died the following day; his final words included a plea that no more blood be shed.  New Zealand administered Western Samoa, or Samoa i Sisifo in the Samoan language, first as a League of Nations Mandate and then as a United Nations Trust Territory until the country received its independence on 1 January 1962 (from New Zealand) as Western Samoa. Samoa's first prime minister following independence was paramount chief Fiame Mata'afa Faumuina Mulinu'u II.  Samoa i Sisifo was the first Polynesian people to be recognized as a sovereign nation in the 20th century. Samoa became one of the Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. In 1977, Queen Elizabeth II visited Samoa during her tour of the Commonwealth.  A conflict briefly emerged between Samoa and American Samoa following Samoa's decision to drop the adjective "Western" from its name. The change was made by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Western Samoa adopted on 4 July 1997. The step caused "surprise and uproar" in neighboring American Samoa, as for some American Samoans the change of name implied a claim to be the "real" Samoa and implied that American Samoa was just an American appendix. Some in the American territory said it implied that there was only one Samoa. Two members of American Samoa's legislature traveled to Apia in September 1997 to meet with Samoan head of State Malietoa Tanumafili II, and lobbied to have the name change reversed in order to maintain peace and good relations. An American Samoan petition to the United Nations for a ban on Samoa's using the name Samoa was seriously discussed and ten American Samoan representatives sponsored an unsuccessful bill aimed at preventing American Samoa from recognizing independent Samoa's new name. The proposed American Samoan bill was criticized by independent Samoa's Prime Minister Tofilau Eti Alesana who called the bill "rash and irresponsible".  In 2002, New Zealand's prime minister Helen Clark formally apologized for two incidents during the period of New Zealand's administration: a failure in 1918 to quarantine the, which carried the 'Spanish 'flu' to Samoa, leading to an epidemic which devastated the Samoan population, and the shooting of leaders of the non-violent Mau movement during a ceremonial procession in 1929.  In 2007, Samoa's first head of state, His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II, died at age 95. He held this title jointly with Tupua Tamasese Lealofi until the latter's death in 1963. Malietoa Tanumafili II was Samoa's Head of State for 45 years. He was the son of Malietoa Tanumafili I, who was the last Samoan king recognized by Europe and the Western World.  Samoa's current head of state is His Highness Tui-Atua Tupua Tamasese Tupuola Efi, who was anointed the head of state title with the unanimous endorsement of Samoa's Parliament, a symbol of traditional Samoan protocol in alignment with Samoan decision-making stressing the importance of consensus in the 21st century.

Calendar usage in Samoa.

As European traders began commercial (and later domination) activities in the Samoan Islands, they imposed their datekeeping system on their transactions. Thus by the 19th century, Samoan calendars were aligned with those of the other Asiatic countries to the west and south. However, in 1892, American traders convinced the king to alter the country's dating system to align with the United States; thus the country lived through 4 July 1892, twice. But 119 years later, the economic geography of the island had changed, and most business was being done with Australia and New Zealand. To make the jump back to the Asian date Samoa and Tokelau skipped 30 December 2011.

The Samoan Islands were first settled some 3,500 years ago as part of the Austronesian expansion. Samoa's early and more current history is strongly connected with the histories of Tonga and Fiji, which are in the same region, and with whom it shares historical, genealogical, and cultural traditions.

L'histoire des Samoa débute lorsque des immigrants des Fidji arrivèrent dans l'archipel il y a environ ans et initièrent à partir de là le peuplement du reste de la Polynésie, tout d'abord vers l'est, puis vers le nord et le sud.


Biography.

Martinez de Pasqually, whose biography is continually being researched, due to the lack of documentation, appears in the history of French freemasonry in 1754.  His exact date and place of birth, as well as his true nationality is unknown. Some say he was of Jewish descent, without being able to establish this with certainty.  Certain similarities between Pasqually's theurgy and Portuguese hermetic thought led philosopher Sampaio Bruno (1857-1915) to argue that he was probably of Portuguese origin. In 1772 Pasqually went to collect an inheritance in the island of Hispaniola. Grainville, one of his fervent disciples, came from the Caribbean. In any case, at the time he went to Saint Domingue, the French colony which was soon to become Haiti, he was traveling back and forth to a French colony and Spanish colony, not a Portuguese holding. He died within two years and appears to have influenced early mystic groups in the Caribbean. Others again claim he was born in Grenoble. In reality, we know nothing with certainty of his origin. His activities before 1760 are also poorly understood. This is largely due to the fact that he used several different names and signatures on official documents during his lifetime.

Elus Cohens.

For twenty years, spanning from 1754 to 1774, the year of his death, Pasqually worked ceaselessly to establish and promote his "Ordre des Chevaliers Maçons Élus Coëns de l'Univers".  In 1754 he founded the "Chapter of Scottish Judges" in Montpellier.  In 1761, he became affiliated with the lodge "La Française" in Bordeaux and founded a Cohen Temple there.  In 1764 " La Française" was reorganized by him as "Française Élue Écossaise" to indicate that it now had a Chapter of superior degrees.  In 1766 the directors of the Masonic province of Bordeaux declared that they were abolishing all constitutions relating to higher grades apart from the first three (Regular Blue- or St. John's degrees of: Apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master). As a result, all the works of the Chapter were suspended. This same year Martinez travelled to Paris and found a new and explicit Elus Cohen-temple together with Bacon de Chivalerie, Jean-Baptiste Willermoz, Fauger d'Ignéacourt, the Count of Lusignan, Henri de Loos, Grainville, and several others that were to play important parts in the history the Order.  In 1767, he established the "Sovereign Tribunal" who would direct the whole Order of the Elus Coens.  In 1768 he met with Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin. The personality and teachings of Pasqually made a deep and lasting impression on Saint-Martin. Conversely, Pasqually himself was influenced by Saint-Martin who decided to leave his military career in 1771 and become the personal secretary of Martinez, replacing Abbe Pierre Fournié. From this period the notable development of the rituals of the order starts and Pasquallys drafting of his magnum opus, the "Treatise on the Reintegration of Beings", the main doctrinal foundation of the Martinist theosophy and theurgy.  In 1772 Martiez, embarked on a trip to Santo Domingo to receive an inheritance, and subsequently died there in 1774. Thereafter, the Order disintegrates.  In 1776, the Coens Temples of La Rochelle, Marseilles, and Libourne fall into the grasp of the Grand Lodge of France.  In 1777, the rites are no longer in operation and institutional use, except from some circles in Paris, Versailles and Eu.  Finally, in 1781, Sebastien Las Casas, third and last 'Grand Sovereign' of the Elus Cohens (successor of Caignet de Lester, who died in 1778) ordered the closure of the eight remaining temples that still recognize his authority. Neither Las Casas nor Caignet played a very important role in the orders development.  Despite the official closure, the Elus Coens continued to both practice theurgy, and to conduct initiations. On the other hand, the theosophical teaching of Martinez was not lost, in masonry, it spreads even long after the death of the leader through the Masonic system established by Willermoz shortly after death his master.  Besides Willermoz and Saint-Martin, the last known personal disciple of Martinez was Abbe Pierre Fournié. It was around 1768 that he met the teacher who would make him turn around his life completely, and of whom would be employed as secretary. Initiated as an Elus Coën, the tonsured cleric Fournié resides mainly in Bordeaux, where he mediates the correspondences between different members of the Order.  In 1776, Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin is quoted as describing him as an Elus Cohen exceptionally favored in supernatural manifestations; the source is Fournié himself in his own work What we've been, what we are and what we become (1802), in fear of saying too much. At the time of the revolution Fournié emigrated to England, where he remained until his death, and in this period, from 1818 to 1821, he befriends the Theosophist of Munich Franz von Baader.

The structure of the Elus Cohens.

This doctrine, he intended for an elite chosen from the ranks of his contemporary masons, and gathered under the banner of the 'Elus Coens' (Elect Priests). Quickly this order gained quite the reputation in French masonic circles, but the theurgic operations remained reserved for the higher degrees. Martinez did not, to a greater extent, graft his system solely on freemasonry. Until 1761, it is to be located in Montpellier, Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Avignon.  In 1761 he built a special temple in Avignon, where he resided himself until 1766. At that time, the Order of the Elect Coens is worked as a high-degree system superimposed on the Blue Lodges: The first class has three symbolic degrees, and that of'maître parfait élu', then the grades Coens proper: apprentice Coën, fellowcraft Coën, and master Coën, Grand Master Coën or Grand Architect, Chevalier d'Orient or Knight Zorobabel, Commandeur d'Orient or Commander Zorobabel, and finally the last degree, the supreme consecration of Reaux Croix.  In 1768, Jean-Baptiste Willermoz is ordained Reau-Croix by Bacon Chivalerie. Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin commenced the system in 1765, rising quickly to Commander of the Orient. The years 1769 and 1770 saw the Coen-groups multiply extensively in France. In 1772, Saint-Martin was ordained Reau-Croix.

Recent discoveries on Pasqually's ancestry.

According to the researches of George C. and the elements discovered by Michele Friot and Nahon, namely a certificate of Catholicism (published in "Bulletin de la Société Martines de Pasqually", Bordeaux) and the letters from Martinez regarding the Guers affair, neither Martinez nor his father could be Jewish. The third reason is that at the time, Jews were not accepted as Freemasons in France. These facts disprove the hypothesis proposed by the late Martinist-scholar Robert Amadou who proposed that Martinez was a Spanish Jew "(Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin et le Martinisme," Paris, Éditions Le Griffon d'or, 1946).  The theory of Martinez being Portuguese is also contested: The fact that Martinez traveled to Santo Domingo to receive an inheritance, does not support the theory of Portugal as his ethnic background. The island of St. Domingo (Hispaniola) was never under Portuguese rule, seeing that the French settlers, the 'Frères de la Côte Français' seized control over areas gradually abandoned by the Spaniards.  In a word, the western part was under French sovereignty and that of the Spaniards was located to the east. (Henri Bernard Catus May 27, 2009). The place of residence for Martinez, namely Leogane and Port-au-Prince, was French and occupied by the regiment of Foix, the same military operation from which Saint-Martin himself was recruited.  The wife of Martinez is believed to come from the very rich French settlers of the island; Collas de Mauvignié originally from Gornac near Bordeaux. Martines married Collas Angelique Marguerite, daughter of Anselm Collas on August 27, 1767 at Gornac.  However, if Martinez spoke French very well, he wrote very badly. His son, according to a police report, spoke Spanish very well. The hypothesis of a Spanish origin should therefore be retained. Research done in Grenoble by G.C. on all civil records on marriage certificates shows that Martinez is not registered in Grenoble. But it is possible that children born in the military forces at the time were not recorded in parish registers. Grenoble keeps track of a document stating that Captain Pasqually was stationed there, but it may be a namesake at the recovery of bodies of troops from Spain and used in the French army.  De Grainville was one of the most loyal of secretaries of Martinez, and also attained the degree of Reaux-Croix. He was born June 21, 1728, in the island of Bourbon (now Reunion Island), a native of Normandy (historical archives of the Army Château de Vincennes Paris). He ended his military career in 1780 with the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Doctrine.

The doctrine of Martinez is described as a key to any eschatological cosmology. God, the primordial Unity, had a desire to "emanate" beings from his own nature, but Lucifer, who wanted to exercise his own creative power, fell victim to his own faults. In his fall, which included his followers, he found himself trapped within an area designated by God to serve as their prison. God sent man, in an androgynous body and endowed with glorious powers, to keep Lucifer's rebels at bay and work towards their reconciliation. Adam prevaricated himself and fell into the very prison he was to contain, becoming a physical and mortal being, and was so thus forced to try to save both himself and the original creation. It can be done via inner perfection with the help of Christ, but also by the theurgic operations that Martinez taught to the "men of desire" he found worthy of receiving his initiation.  Through these rites, the disciple is to enter into relations with angelic entities that appear in the operations as "passes". These are to appear mostly in the form of characters or hieroglyphs of spirits invoked by the operator, as proofs that he is on the proper way of "reintegration".

Legacy.

After World War 2 Robert Ambelain created a new "Martinist Order of the Élus Cohen" as a revival of the Order of Pasqually. This was officially closed, as publicly announced in the Martinist magazine "L'Initiation", in 1964.  However, several strains of martinist-orders have continued to operate the Elus Cohens in succession of the Ambelain resurgence.  Today the Elus Cohens is mainly worked in two different manners, one in the fashion of Robert Ambelain, heavily influenced by his own Gnostic Church, the rite of Memphis-Misraim and his personal take on the kabbalah.  There also exists another manner of operation, where Pasquallys original system is practiced more in tune with the intents of the system as it were in the 1770s, where neo-gnostic tendencies and kabbalah is removed, in favor of the original doctrines. In France one such circle is supposed to exist, but not in public.  Officially, Ordre Reaux Croix is working the Elus Cohens in a similar manner, and also including women, as Pasqually himself did on two occasions.

Jacques de Livron Joachim de la Tour de la Casa Martinez de Pasqually (1727?–1774) was a theurgist and theosopher of uncertain origin. He was the founder of the l'Ordre de Chevaliers Maçons Élus Coëns de l'Univers - Commonly referred to as the 'Elus Cohens' in 1761. He was the tutor, initiator and friend of Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin and Jean-Baptiste Willermoz, and therefore regarded as the originator of Martinism.

Joachim Martinès de Pasqually (1727(?)-1774) est un thaumaturge, un voyageur d'origine incertaine et, selon René Guénon, l'un des derniers représentants d'un ésotérisme occidental sur le point de s'éteindre. Il fut le fondateur de l'Ordre des chevaliers-maçons Élus Coëns de l'Univers, en 1761, et l'inspirateur de Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin et de Jean-Baptiste Willermoz. Le courant appelé martinisme, bien que revendiquant une filiation remontant à Martinès, est cependant sans rapport avec lui.


Life and reign.

Constance's father Conan IV had reunited the Duchy of Brittany in wars with Henry II of England. After the wars with Henry II, Conan IV faced rebellions from some Breton nobles. He appealed to Henry II for assistance in putting down those rebellions.  In 1166, Henry invaded Brittany in order to punish the local barons' revolt. In order to gain complete control over the duchy, he forced Conan IV into abdicating in Constance's favor and betrothing her to his fourth legitimate son Geoffrey. Five-year-old Constance succeeded him as Duchess of Brittany.  She spent her youth at the English court.  In February 1171, Conan IV died. Although his daughter Constance was the heiress of the Earldom of Richmond, she did not enter her inheritance until 1183/1184.  In 1181, twenty-year-old Constance was forced into marriage with Geoffrey. On August 19, 1186, Geoffrey was trampled to death in a riding accident during a tournament in Paris. Constance thereafter became the effective ruler of Brittany.  However, on 3 February 1188, Henry II of England arranged for Constance to marry Ranulf de Blondeville, 6th Earl of Chester, one of the most powerful earls in England. Though Ranulf used, not consistently, the style "Duke of Brittany", he never had the control of the duchy, and is not known to have played an important role there, and the Bretons, as well as Constance, never acknowledged him as Duke "jure uxoris", and excluded him from the government of the Duchy.  In 1191, King Richard I of England officially proclaimed his nephew, Constance's son Arthur as his heir in a treaty signed with Philip II of France.  To promote her son Arthur's position and inheritance, Constance included him in the government of the Duchy in 1196. In response to this act that thwarted his projects, Richard summoned her to Bayeux and had her abducted by Ranulf in Pontorson and imprisoned in Saint-James de Beuvron. He spread the rumour that Constance had been imprisoned for matrimonial reasons. As a result, rebellions were sparked across Brittany on her behalf and Arthur was sent to Brest. Richard demanded that hostages were delivered to him in exchange for Constance's freedom. The Bretons agreed but Constance and the hostages remained imprisoned and rebellions went on. Richard eventually bowed to growing pressure and had the Duchess released in 1198. Back in Brittany, Constance had her marriage annulled.  On 1 June 1199, Pope Innocent III eventually decided that the Archbishopric of Dol should be subordinated to the Metropolitan of Tours and deprived the Archbishop of his title and pallium. The Archbishopric then became a Bishopric again. Constance disagreed with this decision that gave an advantage to Philip Augustus over Brittany and was consequently excommunicated.  Constance took Guy of Thouars as her next husband in September or October 1199.  Between 1198 and the time of her death delivering twin daughters, Constance ruled with her son Arthur as co-ruler. Throughout these years, Constance advised her son towards a French alliance, pursuing the policy of her late husband Geoffrey II.

Family.

As a girl, Constance could not inherit the duchy at her father's death if she had a brother. A charter by Margaret, Constance's mother, seems to show that she and Conan had more than one child. However, two charters made by Constance and her son Arthur towards 1200 mention a brother of Constance, William ""clericus"". As a boy, William should logically have inherited the duchy after Conan. According to Everard, Henry II's forcing Constance's father into abdicating in 1166 was meant to prevent any son of the Duke from inheriting the duchy.  Constance and Geoffrey had three children:  Constance and Guy had two daughters:  Several sources indicate that Constance might have had a third daughter by Guy:

Death and Burial.

Constance died, age 40, on 5 September 1201 at Nantes. She was buried at Villeneuve Abbey near Nantes, which she had founded earlier that year.  Constance's cause of death is debated. The "Chronique de Tours" indicate that she died of leprosy but this statement is doubtful. It is also believed that she died from complications of childbirth, shortly after delivering twin daughters.

Media.

Constance is a character in the play "King John" by William Shakespeare, in which she has several very eloquent speeches on grief and death. On screen, she has been portrayed by Julia Neilson in the silent short "King John" (1899), which recreates John's death scene at the end of the play, Sonia Dresdel in the "BBC Sunday Night Theatre" version (1952), and Claire Bloom in the BBC Shakespeare version (1984). In the ITC series "The Adventures of Robin Hood", she appeared in five episodes variously played by Dorothy Alison (series 1 and 2), Pamela Alan (series 3) and Patricia Marmont (series 4). She was also played by Paula Williams (as a girl) and Nina Francis (as an adult) in the BBC TV drama series "The Devil's Crown" (1978).

Constance (Breton: "Konstanza"; 1161c. 5 September 1201) was Duchess of Brittany from 1166 to her death in 1201 and Countess of Richmond from 1171 to 1201. Constance was the daughter of Duke Conan IV by his wife, Margaret of Huntingdon, a sister of the Scottish kings Malcolm IV and William I.

Constance (née vers 1161 – morte en septembre 1201 à Nantes), fille du duc de Bretagne Conan IV et de Marguerite d'Écosse, duchesse de Bretagne de 1166 à sa mort en 1201, et comtesse de Richmond de 1171 à 1201.


Geography.

Situation.

Aalen is situated on the upper reaches of the river Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Jura which lies to the south and south-east, and close to the hilly landscapes of the Ellwangen Hills to the north and the "Welland" to the north-west.  The west of Aalen's territory is on the foreland of the eastern Swabian Jura, and the north and north-west is on the Swabian-Franconian Forest, both being part of the Swabian Keuper-Lias Plains. The south-west is part of the Albuch, the east is part

Geology.

Aalen's territory ranges over all lithostratigraphic groups of the South German Jurassic: Aalen's south and the "Flexner" massif are on top of the White Jurassic, the town centre is on the Brown Jurassic, and a part of Wasseralfingen is on the Black Jurassic. As a result, the town advertises itself as a "Geologist's Mecca".  Most parts of the territory are on the "Opalinuston-Formation" (Opalinum Clay Formation) of the Aalenian subdivision of the Jurassic Period, which is named after Aalen. On the "Sandberg", the "Schnaitberg" and the "Schradenberg" hills, all in

Extent of the borough.

The maximum extent of the town's territory amounts to in a north–south dimension and in an east–west dimension. The area is, which

Adjacent towns.

The following municipalities border on Aalen. They are listed clockwise, beginning south, with their respective linear distances to Aalen town centre given in brackets:  Oberkochen

Boroughs.

Aalen's territory consists of the town centre "(Kernstadt)" and the municipalities merged from between 1938 (Unterrombach) and 1975 (Wasseralfingen, see mergings section). The municipalities merged in the course of the latest municipal reform of the 1970s are also called "Stadtbezirke" (quarters or districts), and are "Ortschaften" ("settlements") in terms of Baden-Württemberg's

Spatial planning.

Aalen forms a "Mittelzentrum" ("medium-level centre") within the Ostwürttemberg region. Its designated catchment area includes the following municipalities of the central

Climate.

As Aalen's territory sprawls on escarpments of the Swabian Jura, on the Albuch and the Härtsfeld landscapes, and its elevation has a range of, the climate varies from district to district.  The weather station the following data originate from is located between the town centre and Wasseralfingen at about and has been

History.

Civic history.

First settlements.

Numerous remains of early civilization have been found in the area. Tools made of flint and traces of Mesolithic human settlement dated between the 8th and 5th millennium BC were found on several sites on the margins of the Kocher and Jagst valleys. On the "Schloßbaufeld" plateau (appr. ), situated behind "Kocherburg" castle near Unterkochen,

Roman era.

After abandoning the Alb Limes (a "limes" generally following the ridgeline of the Swabian Jura) around 150 AD, Aalen's territory became part of the Roman Empire, in direct vicinity of the then newly erected Rhaetian Limes. The Romans erected a castrum to house the cavalry unit "Ala II Flavia milliaria"; its remains are known today as "Kastell Aalen" ("Aalen Roman fort"). The site is west of today's town

Foundation.

Based on discovery of alamannic graves, archaeologists have established the 7th century as the origination of Aalen. In the northern and western walls of St. John's church, which is located directly adjacent to the eastern gate of the Roman fort, Roman stones were incorporated. The building that exists today probably dates to the 9th century.  The first mention of Aalen was in 839, when emperor Louis the Pious reportedly permitted the Fulda monastery to exchange land with the Hammerstadt village, then known as "Hamarstat". Aalen itself was first mentioned in an inventory list of Ellwangen Abbey, dated ca. 1136, as the village "Alon",

Imperial City.

Industrial revolution.

Before the industrial revolution, Aalen's economy was shaped by its rural setting. Many citizens were pursuing farming besides their craft, such as tanning. In the mid 19th century, there were twelve tanneries in Aalen, due to the proximity of Ulm, an important sales market. Other crafts that added to the economy were weaving mills, which produced linen and woolen goods, and baking of sweet pastry and gingerbread.  In Aalen, industrialisation was a slow process. The first major increase was in the 1840s, when three factories for nails and some other factories emerged. It was the link with the railway network, by the opening of the Rems Railway from Cannstatt to Wasseralfingen in 1861, that brought more industry to Aalen, along with the royal steel mill (later "Schwäbische Hüttenwerke") in Wasseralfingen. The Rems Railway's

Nazi era.

In the federal election of 1932, the Nazi Party performed below average in Aalen with 25.8% of votes compared to 33.1% on the national level, thus finishing second to the Centre Party which had 26.6% (11.9% nationwide) of the votes, and ahead of the Social Democratic Party of Germany with 19.8% (20.4%). However, the March 1933 federal elections showed that the sentiment had changed as the Nazi Party received 34.1% (still below German average 43.9% nationwide), but by far the leading vote-getter in Aalen, followed by the Centre party at 26.6% (11.3%

Post-war era.

Aalen became part of the State of Baden-Württemberg, upon its creation in 1952. Then, with the Baden-Württemberg territorial reform of 1973, the District of Aalen was merged into the Ostalbkreis district. Subsequently, Aalen became seat of that district, and in 1975, the town's borough attained its present size (see below).  The population of Aalen exceeded the limit of 20,000, which was the requirement for to gain the status of Große Kreisstadt ("major district town") in 1946. On 1 August 1947, Aalen was declared "Unmittelbare Kreisstadt" ("immediate district town"), and with the creation of the Gemeindeordnung (municipal code) of Baden-Württemberg on 1 April 1956, it was declared "Große Kreisstadt".

Religions.

On 31 December 2008, 51.1 percent of Aalen were members of the Catholic Church, 23.9 percent were members of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church. About 25 percent belong to other or no religious community or gave no information. The district of Waldhausen was the district with the highest percentage of Roman Catholic inhabitants at 75.6 percent, and the central district was the one with the highest percentage of Evangelical-Lutheran inhabitants at 25.6 percent, as well as those claiming no religious preference at 32.5 percent.

Protestantism.

Aalen's population originally was subject to the jus patronatus of Ellwangen Abbey, and thus subject to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Augsburg.  With the assistance of the Duke of Württemberg, in 1575, the reformation was implemented in Aalen. Subsequently, Aalen has been a predominantly Protestant town for centuries, with the exception of the years from 1628 until 1632 (see reformation section). Being an Imperial City, Aalen could govern its clerical matters on its own, so Clerics, organists and choir masters were direct subjects to the council, which thus exerted bishop-like power. There was even a proper hymn book for Aalen. After the transition to Württemberg, in 1803, Aalen became seat of a deanery, with the dean church being the Town Church (with the building constructed from 1765

Catholicism.

The few Catholics of today's central district were covered by the parish of Unterkochen until the 19th century, a situation which continued for some years even after completion of St. Mary's Church in 1868, which was constructed by Georg Morlok. However, in 1872 Aalen got its proper parish again, and in 1913, a second Catholic church, Salvator's Church, was completed, and in 1969 the Holy Cross Church was also finished. In 1963, a second parish was set up, and in 1972 it got a new Church, the new St. Mary's Church, which has been erected in place of the old St. Mary's church, which had been torn down in 1968. Another church of the second parish was St. Augustine's Church, which was completed in 1970. Finally, in 1976 and 1988, St. Elizabeth's Church and St. Thomas' Church were completed. Furthermore, in 1963, the St. Michael pastoral care office was built.  Hofherrnweiler has its own Catholic church, St. Boniface's, since 1904. The villages of Dewangen, Ebnat, Hofen, Waldhausen and Wasseralfingen had remained Catholic after reformation, so old parishes and

Other christian communities.

In addition to the two major religions within Aalen, there are also free

Other religions.

Until the late 19th century, no Jews were documented within Aalen. In 1886 there were four Jews were living in Aalen, a number that rose to ten in 1900, fell to seven in 1905, and remained so until 1925. Upon the Nazis' rise to power in 1933, seven Jews, including two children, lived in Aalen. During the Kristallnacht in 1938, the vitrines of the three Jewish shops in the town were smashed

Mergings.

The present-day make up of Aalen was created on 21 June 1975 by the unification of the cities of Aalen and Wasseralfingen, with the initial name of "Aalen-Wasseralfingen". This annexation made Aalen's territory one third larger than its prior size. On 1 July 1975, the name "Aalen" was revived. Prior to this merger, the town of Aalen had already annexed the following municipalities:

Population’s progression and structure.

During the Middle Ages and the early modern period, Aalen was just a small town with a few hundred inhabitants. The population grew slowly due to numerous wars, famines and epidemics. It was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century where Aalen's growth accelerated. Whereas in 1803, only 1,932 people inhabited the town, in 1905 it had already increased to 10,442. The number continued to rise and reached 15,890 in 1939.  The influx of refugees and ethnic Germans from Germany's former eastern territories after World War II pushed the population to 31,814 in 1961. The merger with Wasseralfingen on 21 June 1975 added 14,597 persons and resulted in a total population of 65,165 people. On 30 June 2005, the population, which was officially determined by the

Politics.

Aalen has arranged a municipal association with Essingen and Hüttlingen.

Council.

Since the local election of 25 May 2014, the town council consists of 51 representatives having

Mayors.

Since 1374, the mayor and the council maintain the government of the town. In the 16th century, the town had two, sometimes three mayors, and in 1552, the council had 13 members. Later, the head of the administration was reorganized several times. In the Württemberg era,

Coat of arms and flag.

Aalen's coat of arms depicts a black eagle with a red tongue on golden background, having a red shield on its breast with a bent silver eel on it. Eagle and eel were first acknowledged as Aalen's heraldic animals in the seal of 1385, with the eagle representing the town's imperial immediacy. After the territorial reform, it was bestowed again by the Administrative District of Stuttgart on 16 November 1976.  The coat of arms' blazon reads: “In gold, the black imperial eagle, with a red

Twin towns – sister cities.

The "Twin Cities Society of Aalen" "(Städtepartnerschaftsverein Aalen e. V.)" promotes "friendly relations" between Aalen and its twin cities, which comprises mutual exchanges of

Godparenthood.

On the occasion of the 1980 "Reichsstädter Tage", Aalen took over godparenthood for the more than 3000 ethnic Germans displaced from the Wischau

Municipal finances.

According to the 2007 municipal poll by the Baden-Württemberg chapter of the German

Culture and sights.

Theatre.

The "Theater der Stadt Aalen" theatre was

Schubart Literary Award.

The town endowed the "Schubart Literary Award" "(Schubart-Literaturpreis)" in 1955 in tribute to Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart, who spent his childhood and youth

Music.

Founded in 1958, the "Music School of the Town of Aalen" today has about 1,500 students taught by 27 music instructors in 30 subjects. In 1977, a symphony orchestra was founded in Aalen, which today is called "Aalener Sinfonieorchester", and consists mostly of instructors and students of the music school. It performs three public concerts annually: The “New Year’s Concert”

Museums and memorial sites.

Museums.

In the central district of Aalen, there are two museums: The “Aalen Limes Museum" "(Limesmuseum Aalen)" is located at the place of the largest Roman cavalry fort north of the Alps until about 200 AD. It opened in 1964. The museum exhibits numerous objects from the Roman era. The ruins of the cavalry fort located beside the museum is open to museum visitors. Every other year, a Roman festival is held in the area of

Memorial sites.

There is memorial stone at the "Schillerlinde" tree above Wasseralfingen's ore pit dedicated to four prisoners of the subcamp of Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp killed there. Also in Wasseralfingen, in the cemetery a memorial with the Polish inscription "To the victims of Hitler" which commemorates the deceased forced labourers buried there.  In 1954, on the "Schillerhöhe" hill the town erected a bell tower as a memorial to Aalen's victims of both world wars and to the displacement of ethnic Germans. The tower was planned by Emil Leo, the bell was endowed by Carl Schneider. The tower is open on request. Every evening at 18:45 (before 2003: at 19:45), the memorial's bell rings.

Buildings.

Churches.

The town centre is dominated by the Evangelical-Lutheran St. Nicholas' Church in the heart of the pedestrian area. The church, in its present shape being built between 1765 and 1767, is the only major Late Baroque building in Aalen and

Historic Town Hall with "Spy".

The Historic Town Hall was originally built in the 14th century. After the fire of 1634, it was re-constructed in 1636. This building received a clock from Lauterburg, and the Imperial City of Nuremberg donated a Carillon. It features a figurine of the "Spy of Aalen" and historically displayed other figurines, however the latter ones were lost by a fire in 1884. Since then, the Spy resides inside the reconstructed tower and has become a symbol of the town. The building was used as the town hall until 1907. Since 1977, the Geological-Paleontological Museum resides in the Historic Town Hall.  According to legend, the citizens of Aalen owe the "Spy of Aalen" "(Spion

Old Town Hall.

The earliest record of the Old Town Hall was in 1575. Its outside wall features the oldest known coat of arms, which is of 1664. Until 1851, the building also housed the "Krone-Post" hotel, which coincided with being a station of the Thurn und Taxis postal company. It has housed many notable persons. Thus the so-called "Napoleon Window" with its "N"

Bürgerspital.

The "Bürgerspital" ("Civic Asylum") is a timber-frame house erected on "Spritzenhausplatz" ("Fire Engine House Square") in 1702. Until

Limes-Thermen.

On a slope of the "Langert" mountain, south of the town, the "Limes-Thermen" ("Limes Thermae") hot

Market square.

The market square is the historic hub of Aalen and runs along about from the town hall in the south to the Historic Town Hall and the Old Town Hall in the north, where it empties into "Radgasse" alley. Since 1809, it is site of the weekly market on Wednesday and Saturday. About in front of the "Reichsstädter Brunnen" fountain at the town hall, the coats of arms of Aalen, its twinned cities and of the Wischau linguistic enclave are paved into the street as mosaic.

Radgasse.

The "Radgasse" ("Wheel Alley") features Aalen's oldest façade. Originally a small pond was on its side. The buildings were erected between 1659

Tiefer Stollen.

The former iron ore pit "Wilhelm" at Braunenberg hill was converted into the "Tiefer Stollen" tourist mine in order to remind of the old-day miners' efforts and to maintain it as a memorial of early industrialisation in the Aalen area. It has a mining museum open for visitors, and a mine railway

Observatory.

The Aalen Observatory was built in 1969 as school observatory for the Schubart Gymnasium. In 2001, it was converted to a public observatory. Since then, it has been managed by the "Astronomische

Windpark Waldhausen.

The "Windpark Waldhausen" wind farm began operations in early 2007. It consists of seven REpower MM92

Aalbäumle observation tower.

The tall "Aalbäumle" observation tower is built atop "Langert" mountain. This popular hiking destination was built in 1898 and was remodelled in 1992. It features a good view over Aalen and the Welland region, up to the Rosenstein mountain and Ellwangen. Beneath the tower, an adventure playground and a cabin is located. A flag on the tower signals whether the cabin's restaurant is open.

Natural monuments.

The Baden-Württemberg State Institute for Environment, Measurements and Natural Conservation has laid out six protected landscapes in Aalen (the "Swabian Jura escarpment between Lautern and Aalen with adjacent territories", the "Swabian Jura escarpment between Unterkochen and Baiershofen", the "Hilllands around Hofen", the "Kugeltal and Ebnater Tal valleys with parts of Heiligental valley and adjacent territories", "Laubachtal valley" and "Lower Lein Valley with side valleys"),

Sports.

The football team, VfR Aalen, was founded in 1921 and played in the 2nd German League between 2012 and 2015, after which they were relegated to 3. Liga. Its playing venue is the Scholz-Arena situated in the west of the town, which bore the name "Städtisches Waldstadion Aalen" ("Civic Forest Stadium of Aalen") until 2008. From 1939 until 1945, the VfR played in the Gauliga Württemberg, then one of several parallel top-ranking soccer leagues of Germany.  The KSV Aalen wrestles in the Wrestling Federal

Regular events.

Reichsstädter Tage.

Since 1975, "Reichsstädter Tage" ("Imperial City days") festival is held annually in the town centre on the second weekend in September. It is deemed the largest festival

Roman Festival.

The international Roman Festival "(Römertage)" are held biannially on the site of the

Aalen Jazz Festival.

Annually during the second week of November, the Aalen Jazz Festival brings known and unknown artists to Aalen. It has already featured musicians like Miles Davis, B. B. King, Ray Charles, David Murray, McCoy Tyner, Al Jarreau, Esbjörn Svensson and Albert Mangelsdorff. The festival is complemented by individual concerts in spring and summer, and, including the individual concerts, comprises around 25 concerts with a total of about 13,000 visitors.

Economy and infrastructure.

In 2008 there were 30,008 employees liable to social insurance living in Aalen. 13,946 (46.5 percent) were employed in the manufacturing sector, 4,715 (15.7 percent) in commerce, catering, hotels and transport, and 11,306 (37.7 percent) in other services. Annually 16,000 employees commute to work, with about 9,000 living in the town and commuting out.  Altogether in Aalen there are about 4,700 business enterprises, 1,100 of them being registered in the trade register. The others comprise 2,865 small enterprises and 701 craft enterprises.  In Aalen, metalworking is the predominant industry, along with machine-building. Other industries include optics, paper, information technology, chemicals, textiles, medical instruments, pharmaceuticals, and food.  Notable enterprises include "SHW Automotive" (originating from the former "Schwäbische Hüttenwerke" steel mills and a mill of 1671 in Wasseralfingen), the "Alfing Kessler" engineering works, the precision tools manufacturer "MAPAL Dr. Kress", the snow chain manufacturer "RUD Ketten Rieger & Dietz" and its subsidiary "Erlau", the "Gesenkschmiede Schneider" forging die smithery, the "SDZ Druck und Medien" media company, the "Papierfabrik Palm" paper mill, the alarm system manufacturer "Telenot", the laser show provider "LOBO electronic" and the textile finisher "Lindenfarb", which all have their seat in Aalen. A branch in Aalen is maintained by optical systems manufacturer Carl Zeiss headquartered in nearby Oberkochen.

Transport.

Rail.

Aalen station is a regional railway hub on the Rems Railway from Stuttgart, the Brenz Railway from Ulm, the Upper Jagst Railway to Crailsheim and the Ries Railway to Donauwörth. Until 1972, the Härtsfeld Railway connected Aalen with Dillingen an der Donau via Neresheim. Other railway stations within the town limits are "Hofen (b Aalen)", "Unterkochen", "Wasseralfingen"

Bus.

Aalen also is a regional hub in the bus network of OstalbMobil, the transport network

Street.

The junctions of "Aalen/Westhausen" and "Aalen/Oberkochen" connect Aalen with the Autobahn A7 (Würzburg–Füssen). Federal roads ("Bundesstraßen") connecting with Aalen are B 19 (Würzburg–Ulm), B 29 (Waiblingen–Nördlingen) and B 290 (Tauberbischofsheim–Westhausen). The Schwäbische Dichterstraße ("Swabian

Air transport.

Stuttgart Airport, offering international connections, is about away, the travel time by train is

Bicycle.

Bicycle routes stretching through Aalen are the "Deutscher Limes-Radweg" ("German Limes Bicycle Route") and the "Kocher-Jagst" Bicycle Route.

Public facilities.

Aalen houses an Amtsgericht (local district court), chambers of the Stuttgart Labour Court, a notary's office, a tax office and an employment agency. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district office, of the Aalen Deanery of the Evangelical-Lutheran Church and of the "Ostalb" deanery of the Roman

Media.

The first local newspaper, "Der Bote von Aalen" ("The Herald of Aalen"), has been published on Wednesdays and Saturdays since 1837.  Currently, local newspapers published in Aalen are the "Schwäbische Post", which obtains its supra-regional pages from the Ulm-based

Education.

A Latin school was first recorded in Aalen in 1447; it was remodeled in 1616 and also later in various buildings that were all situated near the town church, and continued up through the 19th century. In the course of the reformation, a "German school" was established in tandem, being a predecessor of the latter Volksschule school type. In 1860, the "Ritterschule" was built as a "Volksschule" for girls; the building today houses the "Pestalozzischule". In 1866, a new building was erected for the Latin school and for the Realschule established in 1840. This building,

TV and radio transmission tower.

The Südwestrundfunk broadcasting company operates the Aalen transmission tower on the

Things named after Aalen.

The following

Aalen () is a former Free Imperial City located in the eastern part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, about east of Stuttgart and north of Ulm. It is the seat of the Ostalbkreis district and is its largest town. It is also the largest town in the Ostwürttemberg region. Since 1956, Aalen has had the status of Große Kreisstadt (major district town). It is noted for its many half-timbered houses constructed from the 16th century through the 18th century.

Aalen est une ville d'Allemagne (Bade-Wurtemberg), au pied du Jura souabe. Sa population est de 66 813 habitants. Elle a donné son nom en géologie à l'un des étages du Jurassique, l'Aalénien.


Details and evolution.

The Celtaquatre was presented to the public in April 1934 and entered production a month later. Unfortunately its arrival coincided with that of Citroën's Traction Avant. The Renault's launch was therefore overshadowed by Citroën's powerful publicity machine.  The car was powered by a four-cylinder 1463 cc side-valve engine, for which a maximum of 34 hp @ 3,500 rpm was claimed. Power passed to the rear wheels via a classic three speed transmission. The suspension was based on rigid axles front and back, which was seen as a rather minimalist at a time when competitor vehicles from volume automakers such as the Peugeot 301 were being delivered with independent front suspension. However, the 8CV Celtaquatre was also much more aggressively priced than the 8CV 301: At the Paris Motor Show in October the list price for a Celtaquatre with a standard "berline" (saloon) body was given as ₣16,900 francs, while the Peugeot 301 "berline normale" was priced at ₣20,500 francs.  In 1935, adjustments were made to the bonnet, with horizontal chrome-lined openings in place of the earlier three shutters. Two-tone paintwork was standard. A supplement of ₣400 francs was required for a single colour.  In 1936, the Celtaquatre lost its roundness to acquire a more aerodynamic shape. Appearance of two new body types: a Cabriolet and a Coupé Cabriolet. In 1937, the Celtaquatre received an American-inspired V-shaped grill which was retained throughout the rest of the model's production.  In 1938, a new bumper design appeared with straight slats. The coupé was discontinued.  In 1939, after production of 44,000 units, the Celtaquatre was replaced by the Juvaquatre.  By 1940, most of the Celtaquatre cars remaining in stock were delivered to the French Army.  In July 1941, the very last 13 Celtaquatre cars were transformed into a small series of Novaquatre.

The Renault Celtaquatre was a small family car produced by the French manufacturer Renault between 1934 and 1938. Although French, it took some of its styling cues from American cars of the time. Its rounded silhouette gave it the nickname “Celtaboule” ("Celtaball").

La Celtaquatre est une automobile fabriquée par Renault de 1934 à 1938. Le, une Celtaquatre tourne sur l'anneau de vitesse du circuit de Montlhéry pendant, à la moyenne de.


Early life.

Dustin Lee Hoffman was born on August 8, 1937, in Los Angeles, California, the second son of Harry Hoffman (1908–87) and Lillian (née Gold; 1909–82). His father worked as a prop supervisor (set decorator) at Columbia Pictures before becoming a furniture salesman.  Hoffman was named after stage and silent screen actor Dustin Farnum. His elder brother, Ronald, is a lawyer and economist. Hoffman is Jewish, from an Ashkenazi Jewish family of immigrants from Kiev, Russian Empire, and

Career.

Early work.

Hoffman initially hoped to become a classical pianist, having studied piano during much of his youth and in college. While at Santa Monica College, he also took an acting class, which he assumed would be easy, and "caught the acting bug." He recalls: "I just was not gifted in music. I did not have an ear." Now an aspiring actor, he spent the next ten years doing odd jobs, being unemployed, and struggling to get any available acting roles, a lifestyle he was later to portray in the film "Tootsie". He composed a song called "Shooting the Breeze", and Bette Midler wrote the words.  His first acting role was at the Pasadena Playhouse, alongside future Academy Award–winner Gene Hackman. After two years there, Hackman headed for New York City, with Hoffman soon following. Hoffman, Hackman, and Robert Duvall lived together in the 1960s, all three of them focused on finding acting jobs. Hackman remembers, "The idea

1960s: "The Graduate" and "Midnight Cowboy".

In 1966 director Mike Nichols auditioned Hoffman for a lead role in the Broadway musical "The Apple Tree" but rejected him because he could not sing well enough and gave Alan Alda the part. But Nichols was so impressed with Hoffman's overall audition he cast him as the male lead in the movie "The Graduate" (1967). Hoffman played the character of Benjamin Braddock, who returns to his wealthy parents' home in California after graduating from college. Confused about what to do with his life, he is seduced into having an affair with Mrs. Robinson, an alcoholic and a neurotic, and the wife of his father's law partner. This was Hoffman's first major role, and he received an Academy Award nomination for it but lost to Rod Steiger "In the Heat of the Night". Although "Life" magazine joked that "if Dustin

1970s: "All the President's Men", "Kramer vs. Kramer".

This was followed by his role in "Little Big Man" (1970), where Jack Crabb, his character, ages from teenager to a 121-year-old man. The film was widely praised by critics, but was overlooked for an award except for a supporting nomination for Chief Dan George. Hoffman continued to appear in major films over the next few years. "Who Is Harry Kellerman and Why Is He Saying Those Terrible Things About Me?" (1971), "Straw Dogs" (also 1971), and "Papillon" (1973).  Hoffman next starred in "Lenny" (1974), for which he was again nominated for Best Actor. "Lenny" was based on the life of stand-up comedian Lenny Bruce, who died at the age of 40, and was known for his open, free-style and critical form of comedy which integrated politics, religion, sex, and vulgarity. Expectations were high that Hoffman would win an Oscar for his portrayal, especially after his similar role in "Midnight Cowboy." Film critic Katharine Lowry speculates that director Bob Fosse "never gave him a chance" to go far enough into developing the character. "We never understand what, besides the drugs he injected, made him tick like a

1980s: "Tootsie", "Death of a Salesman", "Rain Man".

In "Tootsie" (1982), Hoffman portrays Michael Dorsey, a struggling actor who finds himself dressing up as a woman to land a role on a soap opera. His co-star was Jessica Lange. "Tootsie" earned ten Academy Award nominations, including Hoffman's fifth nomination.  Under direction by Sydney Pollack, Hoffman's role demanded "a steady bombardment of opposites—edgy then funny, romantic then realistic, soft then quivering." To film critic David Denby, Hoffman's character "embodies vulnerability and drive in perfect proportion. He has the knack of making everything he does seem perilous, and so audiences feel protective of him and root for him." Hoffman's acting was made more difficult than necessary, however, as he was not given the rehearsal time Pollack promised:  Fellow actor Gary Oldman reported that, during a telephone conversation with Hoffman, the latter recalled having made comments toward a "very powerful" industry figure who ensured that he was unable to find work in Hollywood for some time following "Tootsie". In 1983, Hoffman became a Major Donor

1990s: Continued success.

In 1991, Hoffman voiced substitute teacher Mr. Bergstrom in "The Simpsons" episode "Lisa's Substitute", under the pseudonym Sam Etic. As a reference to this episode, during the the Itchy & Scratchy movie, Lisa claims that Dustin Hoffman had a cameo in that movie but didn't use his real name.  Throughout the 1990s, Hoffman appeared in many large, studio films, such as "Dick Tracy" (1990) (where his "Ishtar" co-star Beatty plays the titular character), "Hero" (1992) and "Billy Bathgate" (1991) co-starring with Nicole Kidman (who was nominated for

2000s: Commercial success, "Kung Fu Panda".

Hoffman next appeared in "Moonlight Mile" (2002), followed by "Confidence" (2003) opposite Edward Burns, Andy García and Rachel Weisz. Hoffman finally had a chance to work with Gene Hackman in Gary Fleder's "Runaway Jury" (also 2003), an adaptation of John Grisham's bestselling novel.  Hoffman played theater owner Charles Frohman in the J. M. Barrie historical fantasia "Finding Neverland" (2004), costarring Johnny Depp and Kate Winslet. In director David O. Russell's "I Heart Huckabees" (also 2004), Hoffman appeared opposite Lily Tomlin as an existential detective team member.  Seven years after his nomination for "Wag the Dog", Hoffman got another opportunity to perform again with Robert De Niro, co-starring with Barbra Streisand and Ben Stiller in the 2004 comedy "Meet the Fockers", a sequel to "Meet the Parents" (2000). Hoffman won the 2005 MTV Movie Award for Best Comedic Performance. In 2005, he voiced a horse in "Racing Stripes", and appeared in cameo roles in Andy García's "The Lost City" and on the final episode of HBO sitcom "Curb Your Enthusiasm"s

2010s–present: Continued work.

He appears in "Little Fockers", the critically panned yet financially successful 2010 sequel to "Meet the Fockers". However, his character plays a significantly smaller role than in the previous installment.  In 2011, Hoffman reprised his role as Master Shifu in the commercially and critically successful animated film "Kung Fu Panda 2". On the review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 169 reviews, and an average rating of 6.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "The storyline arc may seem a tad familiar to fans of the original, but Kung Fu Panda 2 offers enough action, comedy, and visual sparkle to compensate." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 67 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The film was a financial success making more money than the previous film, "Kung Fu Panda". The film made $666 million at the worldwide Box Office. The film was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.  In 2012, Hoffman's audiobook recording

Filmography.

Honors and legacy.

In 1999, Hoffman was honored by the American Film Institute’s who celebrated him with the 27th Life Achievement Award. Those who praised him and celebrated his work included, Edward Norton, Jon Voight, Goldie Hawn, Cuba Gooding Jr., and Kathy Bates. Jack Nicholson presented Hoffman with the award. Upon receiving the award he quoted the poet Emily Dickinson, “Not knowing when the dawn will come, I open the door".  In 2009, Hoffman received an Honorary Cesar Medal at the César Awards.  In 2012, Dustin Hoffman received Kennedy Center Honors, with the following commendation: "Dustin Hoffman's unyielding commitment

Personal life.

Marriage and relationships.

Hoffman married Anne Byrne in May 1969. He adopted Karina (b. 1966), Byrne's child from a previous marriage, and with Byrne had daughter Jenna (born October 15, 1970). In 1970 Hoffman and Byrne were living in Greenwich Village in a building next door to a townhouse occupied at the time by members of the Weathermen, when a bomb was accidentally detonated in the townhouse's basement, killing three. In the 2002 documentary "The

Political activism.

A liberal, Hoffman has long supported the Democratic Party and Ralph Nader. In 1997 he was one of a number of Hollywood

Cancer treatment.

Hoffman was successfully

Sexual misconduct allegations.

In 2017, seven women accused Hoffman of sexual misconduct or assault.. A woman who was 17 at the time alleged that, while working as an intern on a TV production of "Death of a Salesman", Hoffman made inappropriate jokes and comments around her and asked her to give him foot massages. Hoffman released an apology to the 17 year-old intern who alleged harassment but denied wrongdoing, saying, "I have the utmost respect for women and feel terrible that anything I might have done could have put her in an uncomfortable situation," continuing, "I am sorry. It is not reflective of who I am."  In December 2017, comedian John Oliver unexpectedly interrogated Hoffman about the allegations during the 20th anniversary screening of "Wag the Dog" at the 92nd Street Y. "It's 'not reflective of who

Dustin Lee Hoffman (born August 8, 1937) is an American actor and filmmaker. He is known for his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and emotionally vulnerable characters. Actor Robert De Niro described him as "an actor with the everyman's face who embodied the heartbreakingly human". At a young age Hoffman knew he wanted to study in the arts and entered into the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and later he would decide to go into acting where he trained at the Pasadena Playhouse in Los Angeles. His first theatrical performance was 1961's "A Cook for Mr. General" as Ridzinski. During that time he appeared in several guest roles on television in shows like "Naked City" and "The Defenders". He then starred in the 1966 Off-Broadway play "Eh?" where his performance garnered him both a Theatre World Award and Drama Desk Award.

Dustin Hoffman est un acteur américain, né le. Également producteur et réalisateur, il est notamment connu pour ses prestations d'antihéros versatiles et de personnages vulnérables.


History.

The Bagirmi carried a tradition that they migrated from far to the east, which is supported by the resemblance of their language to various tribes on the White Nile. It is not entirely clear when and by whom Bagirimi kingdom was founded: some king lists trace this event to 1480, when it was supposedly founded by Mbang Abd al-Mahmud Begli, while others deem Mbang Birni Besse responsible, who is said to have founded the kingdom in 1522. He seems to have displaced the earlier Bulala, while he also began to build a palace in Massenya, the capital of the state. The fourth king, Abdullah (1568–1608), adopted Islam and converted the state into a sultanate, permitting the state to extend their authority over many pagan tribes in the area, including the area's Saras, Gaberi, Somrai, Gulla, Nduka, Nuba, and Sokoro. He and his successors continued to use the title "mbang" alongside that of "sultan".  The Shari River formed the kingdom's western boundary, with most of its interior watered by its effluents. The area was home to a kind of footworm that mutilated many of the inhabitants. Bagirmi was also continually plagued by drought, pestilence, and slave raiding both internally and externally organized. During the reign of Idris Alooma Bornu conquered Bagirmi. The Muslim Bagirmi would raid the pagan tribes of their own kingdom in order to pay the necessary tribute to Bornu. Except of slaves, including eunuchs, Bagirmi also exported animal skins, ivory and cotton, while importing copper and cowrie shells. Trade with Bornu was carried out by caravans along a route which extended north across the Sahara to Tripoli on the Libyan coast. During the reign of Mbang Muhammad al-Amin (r. 1751–1785) Bagirmi became independent again, although the tributary status remained.  Early in the 19th century, Bagirmi fell into decay and was threatened by the Sultanate of Wadai. It was finally annexed in 1871. It came to European attention following the visits of Dixon Denham (1823), Heinrich Barth (1852), Gustav Nachtigal (1872), and Matteucci and Massari (1881). When Rabih az-Zubayr's forces burned Massenya in 1893, the 25th sultan, Abd ar Rahman Gaourang, moved his government to Chekna. During the Scramble for Africa, the Third French Republic became interested in connecting its possessions across the breadth of Africa, permitting a Dakar–Djibouti railway. Rabih killed Paul Crampel, the leader of the first French expedition through the area but Emile Gentil secured a protectorate over Bagirmi from its sultan in 1897. French ambitions in the Sudan were blocked following the Fashoda Crisis the next year, and their authority over the Bagirmi itself was not secured until after the death of Rabih and his sons in 1901. Towns grew up around the French Fort Lamy at the confluence of the Logone and Shari and Fort de Cointet on the middle Shari. The population of the district was reckoned as 100,000 in 1903 and, by the time of the First World War, most of its trade was being conducted with Khartoum in Sudan through the Wadai Empire and with Yola in Nigeria along the Benue.

Legacy.

The Baguirmi language is still spoken today, with 44,761 speakers, primarily in the Chari-Baguirmi Region. The empire now exists as an informal entity in the Baguirmi Department, with its capital at Massenya. Its rulers continue to bear the title "Mbang".

The Sultanate or Kingdom of Bagirmi or Baghermi () was a kingdom and Islamic sultanate southeast of Lake Chad in central Africa. It was founded in either 1480 or 1522 and lasted until 1897, when it became a French protectorate. Its capital was Massenya, north of the Chari River and close to the border to modern Cameroon. The kings wore the title "Mbang".

Le royaume du Baguirmi est un ancien État sahélien localisé au sud-est du lac Tchad, sur le territoire du Tchad actuel. Sa capitale était Massenya. Fondé en 1522, il devient un protectorat français en 1897.


Development.

Background.

In 1970, Boeing's 747 became the first wide-body jetliner to enter service. The 747 was the first passenger jet wide enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin. Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body aircraft intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body jets. The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar wide-bodies. To defray the high cost of development, Boeing signed risk-sharing agreements with Italian corporation Aeritalia and the Civil Transport Development Corporation (CTDC), a consortium of Japanese aerospace companies. This marked the manufacturer's first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation. The initial 7X7 was conceived as a short take-off and landing airliner intended for short-distance flights, but customers were unenthusiastic about the concept, leading to its redefinition as a mid-size, transcontinental-range airliner. At this stage the proposed aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail. By

Design effort.

In the late 1970s, operating cost replaced capacity as the primary factor in airliner purchases. As a result, the 767's design process emphasized fuel efficiency from the outset. Boeing targeted a 20 to 30 percent cost saving over earlier aircraft, mainly through new engine and wing technology. As development progressed, engineers used computer-aided design for over a third of the 767's design drawings, and performed 26,000 hours of wind tunnel tests. Design work occurred concurrently with the 757 twinjet, leading Boeing to treat both as almost one program to reduce risk and cost. Both

Production and testing.

To produce the 767, Boeing formed a network of subcontractors which included domestic suppliers and international contributions from Italy's Aeritalia and Japan's CTDC. The wings and cabin floor were produced in-house, while Aeritalia provided control surfaces, Boeing Vertol made the leading edge for the wings, and Boeing Wichita produced the forward fuselage. The CTDC provided multiple assemblies through its constituent companies, namely Fuji Heavy Industries (wing fairings and gear doors), Kawasaki Heavy Industries (center fuselage), and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (rear fuselage, doors, and tail). Components were integrated during final assembly at the Everett factory. For expedited production of wing spars, the main structural member of aircraft wings, the Everett factory received robotic machinery to automate the process of drilling holes and inserting fasteners. This method of wing construction expanded on techniques developed for the 747. Final assembly of the first aircraft began in July 1979. The prototype aircraft, registered N767BA and equipped

Service entry and operations.

The 767 entered service with United Airlines on September 8, 1982. The aircraft's first commercial flight used a JT9D-powered on the Chicago-to-Denver route. The CF6-powered 767-200 commenced service three months later with Delta Air Lines. Upon delivery, early 767s were mainly deployed on domestic routes, including US transcontinental services. American Airlines and TWA began flying the 767-200 in late 1982, while Air Canada, China Airlines, and El Al began operating the aircraft in 1983. The aircraft's introduction was relatively smooth, with few operational glitches and greater dispatch reliability than prior jetliners. In its first year, the 767 logged a 96.1 percent dispatch rate, which exceeded the industry average for new aircraft. Operators reported generally favorable ratings for the twinjet's sound levels, interior comfort, and economic performance. Resolved issues were minor and included the recalibration of a leading edge sensor to prevent false readings, the replacement of an evacuation slide latch, and the repair of a tailplane pivot to match production specifications. Seeking to capitalize on its

Stretched derivatives.

Forecasting airline interest in larger-capacity models, Boeing announced the stretched in 1983 and the extended-range 767-300ER in 1984. Both models offered a 20 percent passenger capacity increase, while the extended-range version was capable of operating flights up to. Japan Airlines placed the first order for the -300 in September 1983. Following its first flight on January 30, 1986, the type entered service with Japan Airlines on October 20, 1986. The 767-300ER completed its first flight on December 9, 1986, but it was not until March 1987 that the first firm order, from American Airlines, was placed. The type entered service with American Airlines on March 3, 1988. The 767-300 and 767-300ER gained popularity after entering

Dreamliner introduction.

In the early 2000s, cumulative 767 deliveries approached 900, but new sales declined during an airline industry downturn. In 2001, Boeing dropped plans for a longer-range model, the 767-400ERX, in favor of the proposed Sonic Cruiser, a new jetliner which aimed to fly 15 percent faster while having comparable fuel costs to the 767. The following year, Boeing announced the KC-767 Tanker Transport, a second military derivative of the 767-200ER. Launched with an order in October 2002 from the Italian Air Force, the KC-767 was intended for the dual role of refueling other aircraft and carrying cargo. The Japanese government became the second customer for the type in March 2003. In May 2003, the United States Air Force (USAF) announced its intent to lease KC-767s to replace its aging KC-135 tankers. The plan was suspended in March 2004 amid a conflict of interest scandal, resulting in multiple US government investigations and the

Continued production.

In 2007, the 767 received a production boost when UPS and DHL Aviation placed a combined 33 orders for the 767-300F. Renewed freighter interest led Boeing to consider enhanced versions of the 767-200 and 767-300F with increased gross weights, 767-400ER wing extensions, and 777 avionics. Net orders for the 767 declined from 24 in 2008 to just three in 2010. During the same period, operators upgraded aircraft already in service; in 2008, the first 767-300ER retrofitted with blended winglets from Aviation Partners Incorporated debuted with American Airlines. The manufacturer-sanctioned winglets, at in height, improved fuel efficiency by an estimated 6.5 percent. Other carriers

Re-engined 767-XF.

Boeing is studying a re-engined 767-XF for around 2025, based on the 767-400ER with an extended landing gear

Design.

Overview.

The 767 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a conventional tail unit featuring a single fin and rudder. The wings are swept at 31.5 degrees and optimized for a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 (). Each wing features a supercritical airfoil cross-section and is equipped with six-panel leading edge slats, single- and double-slotted flaps, inboard and outboard ailerons, and six spoilers. The airframe further incorporates Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite material wing surfaces, Kevlar fairings and access panels, plus improved aluminum alloys, which together reduce overall weight by versus preceding aircraft.  To distribute the aircraft's weight on the ground, the 767 has a

Flight systems.

The original 767 flight deck uses six Rockwell Collins CRT screens to display Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) and engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) information, allowing pilots to handle monitoring tasks previously performed by the flight engineer. The CRTs replace conventional electromechanical instruments found on earlier aircraft. An enhanced flight management system, improved over versions used on early 747s, automates navigation and other functions, while an automatic landing system facilitates CAT IIIb instrument landings in low visibility situations. The 767 became the first aircraft to receive CAT IIIb certification from the FAA for landings with minimum visibility in 1984. On the

Interior.

The 767 features a twin-aisle cabin with a typical configuration of six abreast in business class and seven across in economy. The standard seven abreast, 2–3–2 economy class layout places approximately 87 percent of all seats at a window or aisle. As a result, the aircraft can be largely occupied before center seats need to be filled, and each passenger is no more than one seat from the aisle. It is possible to configure the aircraft with extra seats for up to an eight abreast configuration, but this is less common.  The 767 interior introduced larger overhead bins and more lavatories per passenger

Variants.

The 767 has been produced in three fuselage lengths. These debuted in progressively larger form as the,, and 767-400ER. Longer-range variants include the 767-200ER and 767-300ER, while cargo models include the 767-300F, a production freighter, and conversions of passenger 767-200 and 767-300 models.  When referring to different variants, Boeing and airlines often collapse the model number (767) and the variant designator, e.g. –200 or –300, into a truncated form, e.g. "762" or "763". Subsequent to the capacity number, designations may append the range identifier, though -200ER and -300ER are company marketing designations and not certificated as such. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aircraft type designator system uses a similar numbering scheme, but adds a preceding manufacturer letter; all variants based on the 767-200 and 767-300 are classified under the codes "B762" and "B763"; the 767-400ER receives the designation of "B764".

767-200.

The 767-200 was the original model and entered service with United Airlines in 1982. The type has been used primarily by mainline U.S. carriers for domestic routes between major hub centers such as Los Angeles to Washington. The 767-200 was the first aircraft to be used on transatlantic ETOPS flights, beginning with TWA on February 1, 1985 under 90-minute diversion rules. Deliveries for the variant totaled 128 aircraft. There were

767-2C.

A commercial freighter version of the Boeing with wings from the -300 series and an updated flightdeck was first flown on 29 December 2014. A military tanker variant of the Boeing 767-2C

767-200ER.

The 767-200ER was the first extended-range model and entered service with El Al in 1984. The type's increased range is due to extra fuel capacity and higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of up to. The additional fuel capacity is accomplished by using the center tank's dry dock to carry fuel. The non-ER variant's center tank is what is called "cheek tanks"; two interconnected halves in each wing root with a dry dock in between. The center tank is also used on the -300ER and -400ER variants.

767-300.

The, the first stretched version of the aircraft, entered service with Japan Airlines in 1986. The type features a fuselage extension over the, achieved by additional sections inserted before and after the wings, for an overall length of. Reflecting the growth potential built into the original 767 design, the wings, engines, and most systems were

767-300ER.

The 767-300ER, the extended-range version of the, entered service with American Airlines in 1988. The type's increased range was made possible by greater fuel tankage and a higher MTOW of. Design improvements allowed the available MTOW to increase to by 1993. Power is provided by Pratt & Whitney PW4000, General Electric CF6, or Rolls-Royce RB211 engines. the 767-300ER comes in three exit configurations: the baseline configuration has four main cabin doors and four over-wing window exits, the second configuration has six main

767-300F.

The 767-300F, the production freighter version of the 767-300ER, entered service with UPS Airlines in 1995. The 767-300F can hold up to 24 standard pallets on its main deck and up to 30 LD2 unit load devices on the lower deck, with a total cargo volume of. The freighter has a main deck cargo door and crew exit, while the lower deck features two starboard-side cargo doors and one port-side cargo door. A general market version with onboard

767-400ER.

The 767-400ER, the first Boeing wide-body jet resulting from two fuselage stretches, entered service with Continental Airlines in 2000. The type features a stretch over the, for a total length of. The wingspan is also increased by through the addition of raked wingtips. The exit configuration uses six main cabin doors and two smaller exit doors behind the wings, similar to certain 767-300ER's. Other differences include an updated cockpit, redesigned landing gear, and 777-style Signature Interior. Power is provided by uprated General Electric CF6 engines.  The FAA granted approval for the

Military and government.

Versions of the 767 serve in a number of military and government applications, with responsibilities ranging

Undeveloped variants.

767-X.

In 1986, Boeing announced plans for a partial double-deck Boeing 767 design. The aircraft would have combined the Boeing with a Boeing 757 cross section mounted over

767-400ERX.

In March 2000, Boeing was to launch the 259-seat 767-400ERX with an initial order for three from Kenya Airways with deliveries planned for 2004, as it was proposed to Lauda Air. Increased gross weight and a tailplane fuel tank would have boosted its range by, and GE could offer its CF6-80C2/G2. Rolls-Royce offered its Trent 600 for the 767-400ERX and the Boeing 747X.  Offered in July, the longer-range -400ERX would have a strengthened wing, fuselage and landing gear for a 15,000 lb (6.8 t) higher MTOW, up to 465,000 lb (210.92 t). Thrust would rise to for better takeoff performance, with the Trent 600 or the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7172, also offered on the 747X. Range would increase by 525 nmi (950 km) to 6,150 nmi (11,390 km), with an additional fuel tank of 2,145 gallons (8,120 l) in the horizontal tail. The 767-400ERX would offer the capacity of the Airbus A330-200 with 3% lower fuel burn and costs. Boeing cancelled the variant development in 2001. Kenya Airways then switched its order to the 777-200ER.

Operators.

In July 2018, 742 aircraft were in airline service: 73 -200s, 632 -300 and 37 -400 with 65 -300F on order; the largest operators are Delta Air Lines (77), FedEx (60; largest cargo operator), UPS Airlines (59), United Airlines (), Japan Airlines (35), All Nippon Airways (34). The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310.  The largest 767 customers by orders have been Delta Air Lines with 117, FedEx Express (128), All Nippon Airways (96), American Airlines (88), and United Airlines (82). Delta and United are the only customers of all -200, -300 and -400 passenger variants. In July 2015, FedEx placed a firm order for 50 Boeing 767 freighters with deliveries from 2018 to 2023.

Orders and deliveries.

Boeing 767 orders

Accidents and notable incidents.

, the Boeing 767 has been in 60 aviation occurrences, including 19 hull-loss accidents. Seven fatal crashes, including three hijackings, have resulted in a total of 854 occupant fatalities.  The 767's first incident was Air Canada Flight 143, a, on July 23, 1983. The airplane ran out of fuel in-flight and had to glide with both engines out for almost to an emergency landing at Gimli, Manitoba, Canada. The pilots used the aircraft's ram air turbine to power the hydraulic systems for aerodynamic control. There were no fatalities and only minor injuries. This aircraft was nicknamed "Gimli Glider" after its landing site. The aircraft, registered C-GAUN, continued flying for Air Canada until its retirement in January 2008.  The airliner's first fatal crash, Lauda Air Flight 004, occurred near Bangkok on May 26, 1991, following the in-flight deployment of the left engine thrust reverser on a 767-300ER; none of the 223 aboard survived; as a result of this accident all 767 thrust reversers were deactivated until a redesign was implemented. Investigators determined that an electronically controlled valve, common to late-model Boeing aircraft, was to blame. A new locking device was installed on all affected jetliners, including 767s.  On October 31, 1999, EgyptAir Flight 990, a 767-300ER, crashed off Nantucket, Massachusetts, in international waters killing all 217 people on board. The United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded "not determined", but determined the probable cause to be due to a deliberate action by the first officer; Egypt disputed this conclusion. On April 15, 2002, Air China Flight 129, a 767-200ER, crashed into a hill amid inclement weather while trying to land at Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea. The crash resulted in the death of 129 of the 166 people on board, and the cause was attributed to pilot error.  The 767 has been involved in six hijackings, three resulting in loss of life, for a combined

Retirement and display.

As new 767s roll off the assembly line, older models have been retired and stored or scrapped. One complete aircraft, N102DAthe first to operate for Delta Air Lines and the twelfth example built, is currently on display. It was withdrawn from use and stored at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in 2006. The exhibition aircraft, named "The Spirit of Delta" by the employees who helped purchase it in 1982, underwent restoration at the Delta Flight Museum in Atlanta, Georgia. The restoration was completed in 2010.

The Boeing 767 is a wide-body airliner developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. The airliner was launched as the 7X7 project on July 14, 1978, the prototype first flew on September 26, 1981, and it was certified on July 30, 1982. The original 767-200 entered service on September 8 with United Airlines, and the extended-range 767-200ER in 1984. It was stretched into the in October 1986, followed by the 767-300ER in 1988, the most popular variant. The 767-300F, a production freighter version, debuted in October 1995. It was stretched again into the 767-400ER from September 2000. To complement the larger 747, it has a seven abreast cross-section, accommodating smaller LD2 ULD cargo containers. The 767 is Boeing's first wide-body twinjet, powered by General Electric CF6, Rolls-Royce RB211, or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans. JT9D engines were eventually replaced by PW4000 engines. The aircraft has a conventional tail and a supercritical wing for reduced aerodynamic drag. Its two-crew glass cockpit, a first for a Boeing airliner, was developed jointly for the 757 − a narrow-body aircraft, allowing a common pilot type rating. Studies for a higher-capacity 767 in 1986 led Boeing to develop the larger 777 twinjet, introduced in June 1995. The long 767-200 typically seats 216 passengers over 3,900 nmi (7,200 km) while the 767-200ER seats 181 over a 6,590 nautical miles (12,200 km) range. The long 767-300 typically seats 269 passengers over 3,900 nmi (7,200 km) while the 767-300ER seats 218 over 5,980 nmi (11,070 km). The 767-300F can haul over 3,225 nmi (6,025 km), and the long 767-400ER typically seats 245 passengers over 5,625 nmi (10,415 km). Military derivatives include the E-767 for surveillance, the KC-767 and KC-46 aerial tankers. Passenger 767-200s and 767-300s have been converted for cargo use. After being initially used on U.S. transcontinental routes, that was extended with ETOPS regulations from 1985 and it is frequently used on transatlantic flights.

Le Boeing 767 est un avion de ligne à réaction gros-porteur de taille moyenne construit depuis 1981 par Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Il est le premier biréacteur à fuselage large du constructeur et le premier avion de ligne à être équipé d'un cockpit à deux membres d'équipage avec une planche de bord tout écran. L'avion est équipé de deux turboréacteurs à double flux, d'un empennage conventionnel et, pour réduire la traînée aérodynamique, d'un profil de voilure supercritique. Conçu comme avion de ligne gros-porteur plus petit que les appareils précédents, tels que le 747, le 767 a une capacité allant de et une autonomie de (), selon les versions. Le développement du 767 ayant été fait en simultané avec celui d'un biréacteur à fuselage étroit, le 757, les deux appareils partagent des caractéristiques communes ; de ce fait, une certification unique permet de piloter les deux appareils.