Platforms.

Google Drive was introduced on April 24, 2012 with apps available for Windows, macOS, and Android, as well as a website interface. The iOS app was released later in June 2012.

Computer apps.

Google Drive is available for PCs running Windows 7 or later, and Macs running OS X Lion or later. Google indicated in April 2012 that work on Linux software was underway, but there was no news on this as of November 2013. In April 2012, Google's then-Senior Vice President Sundar Pichai said that Google Drive would be tightly integrated with Chrome OS version 20. In October 2016, Google announced that, going forward, it would drop support for versions of the computer software older than 1 year. In June 2017, Google announced that a new app called Backup and Sync would replace the existing separate Google Drive and Google Photos desktop apps, creating one unified app on desktop platforms. Originally intended for release on June 28, its release was delayed until July 12. In September 2017, Google announced that it would discontinue the Google Drive desktop app in March 2018 and end support in December 2017.

Backup and Sync.

In July 2017, Google announced their new downloadable software, Backup and Sync. It was made mainly to replace the Google Drive desktop app, which was discontinued. Its main function is for the user to be able to set certain folders to constantly sync onto their Google account's Drive. The synced folders and files count against the shared quota allocated between Gmail, Google Photos, and Google Drive.

Mobile apps.

Google Drive is available for Android smartphones and tablets running Android 4.1 "Jelly Bean" or later, and iPhones and iPads running iOS 8 or later.  In August 2016, Google Drive ended support for Android devices running Android 4.0 "Ice Cream Sandwich" or older versions, citing Google's mobile app update policy, which states: "For Android devices, we provide updates for the current and 2 previous Android versions." According to the policy, the app will continue to work for devices running older Android versions, but any app updates are provided on a best-efforts basis. The policy also states a notice will be given for any planned end of service.  On May 4, 2020 Google rolled out a new feature update in its Google Drive app version 4.2020.18204 for iOS and iPadOS, known as Privacy Screen, which requires Face ID or Touch ID authentication whenever the app is open.

Website interface.

Google Drive has a website that allows users to see their files from any Internet-connected computer, without the need to download an app.  The website received a visual overhaul in 2014 that gave it a completely new look and improved performance. It also simplified some of the most common tasks, such as clicking only once on a file to see recent activity or share the file, and added drag-and-drop functionality, where users can simply drag selected files to folders, for improved organization.  A new update in August 2016 changed several visual elements of the website; the logo was updated, the search box design was refreshed, and the primary color was changed from red to blue. It also improved the functionality to download files locally from the website; users can now compress and download large Drive items into multiple 2 GB.zip files with an improved naming structure, better Google Forms handling, and empty folders are now included in the.zip, thereby preserving the user's folder hierarchy.

Storage.

Individual user account storage.

Google gives every user 15 GB of free storage though Google One, Google Docs, Google Sheets and Google Slides files do not count towards the storage limit. This cloud storage is also shared with Gmail and Google Photos. An unlimited number of photos at maximum 16 megapixels and videos at maximum 1080p resolutions are stored for free using the "High quality" setting in Google Photos. Using the "Original quality" setting uses Google Drive quota.  Users can purchase additional space through either a monthly or yearly payment. The option of yearly payments was introduced in December 2016, and is limited to the 100 GB, 200 GB or 2 TB storage plans. Furthermore, the yearly payments offer a discount. In May 2018, Google announced that storage plans (including the free 15 gigabyte plan) would be moved over to Google One. , these are the storage plans offered by Google:

Chromebook promotions.

Chromebook users can obtain 100 GB of Google Drive storage free for 2 years as long as the promotion is activated within 180 days of the Chromebook device's initial purchase. This is available in all countries where Google Drive is available. Offer can only be redeemed once per device. Used, open-box and refurbished devices are not eligible for the offer.

G Suite storage.

Google offers 30 GB of Drive storage for all G Suite Basic customers, and unlimited storage for those using G Suite Business or G Suite for Education, as long as there are at least 5 members. Associations with less than 5 members get 1 TB per user.

Storage scheme revisions.

Before the introduction of Google Drive, Google Docs initially provided 15 GB of storage free of charge. On April 24, 2012, Google Drive was introduced with free storage of 5 GB. Storage plans were revised, with 25GB costing $2.49/month, 100GB costing $4.99/month and 1TB costing $49.99/month.  Originally, Gmail, Google Docs and Picasa had separate allowances for free storage and a shared allowance for purchased storage. Between April 2012 and May 2013, Google Drive and Google+ Photos had a shared allowance for both free and purchased storage, whereas Gmail had a separate 10 GB storage limit, which increased to 25 GB on the purchase of any storage plan.  In September 2012, Google announced that a paid plan would now cover total storage, rather than the paid allocation being added to the free; e.g. a 100 GB plan allowed a total of 100 GB rather than 115 GB as previously.  In May 2013, Google announced the overall merge of storage across Gmail, Google Drive and Google+ Photos, giving users 15 GB of unified free storage between the services.  In March 2014, the storage plans were revised again and prices were reduced by 80% to $1.99/month for 100 GB, $9.99/month for 1TB, and $99.99/month for 10 TB. This was much cheaper than competitors Dropbox and OneDrive offered at the time.  In 2018, the paid plans were re-branded as "Google One" to emphasize their application beyond Google Drive, along with the addition of a $2.99/month plan for 200 GB, and increasing the $9.99 plan to 2 TB at no additional charge.  In most cases during these changes, users could continue with their existing plans as long as they kept their accounts active and did not make any adjustments to the plan. However, if the account lapsed for any reason, users had to choose from current plans.

Features.

Sharing.

Google Drive incorporates a system of file sharing in which the creator of a file or folder is, by default, its owner. The owner can regulate the public visibility of the file or folder. Ownership is transferable. Files or folders can be shared privately with particular users having a Google account, using their "@gmail.com" email addresses. Sharing files with users not having a Google account requires making them accessible to "anybody with the link". This generates a secret URL for the file, which may be shared via email or private messages. Files and folders can also be made "public on the web", which means that they can be indexed by search engines and thus can be found and accessed by anyone. The owner may also set an access level for regulating permissions. The three access levels offered are "can edit", "can comment" and "can view". Users with editing access can invite others to edit.

Third-party apps.

A number of external web applications that work with Google Drive are available from the Chrome Web Store. To add an app, users are required to sign into the Chrome Web Store, but the apps are compatible with all supported web browsers. Some of these apps are first-party, such as Google Docs, Sheets and Slides. Drive apps operate on the online files and can be used to view, edit and create files in various formats, edit images and videos, fax and sign documents, manage projects, create flowcharts, etc. Drive apps can also be made the default for handling file formats supported by them. Some of these apps also work offline on Google Chrome and Chrome OS.  All of the third-party apps are free to install. However, some have fees associated with continued usage or access to additional features. Saving data from a third-party app to Google Drive requires authorization the first time.  The Google Drive software development kit (SDK) works together with the Google Drive user interface and the Chrome Web Store to create an ecosystem of apps that can be installed into Google Drive. In February 2013, the "Create" menu in Google Drive was revamped to include third-party apps, thus effectively granting them the same status as Google's own apps.  In March 2013, Google released an API for Google Drive that enables third-party developers to build collaborative apps that support real-time editing.

File viewing.

The Google Drive viewer on the web allows the following file formats to be viewed:  Files in other formats can also be handled through third-party apps that work with Google Drive, available from the Chrome Web Store.

File limits.

Files that are uploaded, but not converted to Google Docs, Sheets, or Slides formats, may be up to 5 TB in size. There are also limits, specific to file type, listed below:

Quick Access.

Introduced in the Android app in September 2016, Quick Access uses machine learning to "intelligently predict the files you need before you've even typed anything". The feature was announced to be expanded to iOS and the web in March 2017, though the website interface received the feature in May.

Search.

Search results can be narrowed by file type, ownership, visibility, and the open-with app. Users can search for images by describing or naming what is in them. For example, a search for "mountain" returns all the photos of mountains, as well as any text documents about mountains. Text in images and PDFs can be extracted using optical character recognition. In September 2016, Google added "natural language processing" for searching on the Google Drive website, enabling specific user search queries like "find my budget spreadsheet from last December". In February 2017, Google integrated Drive and the Google Search app on Android, letting users search for keywords, switch to an "In Apps" tab, and see any relevant Drive files.

Backups.

In December 2016, Google updated the Android app and website with a "Backups" section, listing the Android device and app backups saved to Drive. The section lets users see what backups are stored, the backups' sizes and details, and delete backups.  In June 2017, Google announced that a new app, "Backup and Sync", would be able to synchronize any folder on the user's computer to Google. The app was released on July 12, 2017.

Metadata.

A Description field is available for both files and folders that users can use to add relevant metadata. Content within the Description field is also indexed by Google Drive and searchable.

Accessibility to the visually impaired.

In June 2014, Google announced a number of updates to Google Drive, which included making the service more accessible to visually impaired users. This included improved keyboard accessibility, support for zooming and high contrast mode, and better compatibility with screen readers.

"Save to Google Drive" browser extension.

Google offers an extension for Google Chrome, "Save to Google Drive", that allows users to save web content to Google Drive through a browser action or through the context menu. While documents and images can be saved directly, webpages can be saved in the form of a screenshot (as an image of the visible part of the page or the entire page), or as a raw HTML, MHTML, or Google Docs file. Users need to be signed into Chrome to use the extension.

Mobile apps.

The main Google Drive mobile app supported editing of documents and spreadsheets until April 2014, when the capability was moved to separate, standalone apps for Google Docs, Google Sheets, and Google Slides. The Google Drive app on Android allows users to take a photo of a document, sign, or other text and use optical character recognition to convert to text that can be edited. In October 2014, the Android app was updated with a Material Design user interface, improved search, the ability to add a custom message while sharing a file, and a new PDF viewer.

Encryption.

Before 2013, Google did not encrypt data stored on its servers. Following information that the United States' National Security Agency had "direct access" to servers owned by multiple technology companies, including Google, the company began testing encrypting data in July and enabled encryption for data in transit between its data centers in November. However, as of 2015, Google Drive does not provide client-side encryption.

Professional editions.

Google Drive Enterprise.

Google Drive for Work was a business version, as part of G Suite (formerly Google Apps for Work), announced at the Google I/O conference on June 25, 2014, and made available immediately. The service features unlimited storage, advanced file audit reporting, and eDiscovery services, along with enhanced administration control and new APIs specifically useful to businesses. Users can upload files as large as 5 TB. A press release posted on Google's Official Enterprise Blog assured businesses that Google would encrypt data stored on its servers, as well as information being transmitted to or from them. Google delivers 24/7 phone support to business users and has guaranteed 99.9% uptime for its servers.  In September 2015, Google announced that Google Drive for Work would be compliant with the new ISO/IEC 27018:2014 security and privacy standard, which confirmed that Google would not use data in Drive for Work accounts for advertising, enabled additional tools for handling and exporting data, more transparency about data storage, and protection from third-party data requests.  In March 2017, Google introduced Drive File Stream, making it possible for G Suite customers on Windows and macOS computers to search their Drive folders and download specific files on-demand rather than downloading all files during installation, potentially preventing large amounts of data from "gobbling up your hard drive". Additionally, the feature guesses what files users need in the future and downloads those files as well.  In July 2018, Google announced a new version, called Drive Enterprise, for businesses that don't want to buy the full G Suite. Drive Enterprise includes Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides which permits collaborative editing of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, drawings, forms, and other file types. Drive Enterprise also allows users to access and collaborate on Microsoft Office files and 60+ other file types. The pricing of Drive Enterprise is based on usage, with $8 per active user per month, plus $0.04 per GB per month.

Google Drive for Education.

Google Drive for Education was announced on September 30, 2014. It was made available for free to all Google Apps for Education users. It includes unlimited storage and support for individual files up to 5TB in size in addition to full encryption.

Team Drives.

In September 2016, Google announced Team Drives, now named 'Shard Drives' (not to be confused with 'Shared with Me') is a new way for teams to collaborate. Sharing and file ownership are managed for the entire team rather than one individual, and new users instantly get access to all files and information. In November, Google opened an Early Adopter Program, allowing G Suite Business and G Suite for Education customers to sign up, although Google noted that some functionality isn't yet supported by Team Drives.

Docs, forms, Sheets and Slides.

Google Docs, Google Sheets, Google Slides, and Google Forms constitute a free, web-based office suite offered by Google and integrated with Google Drive. It allows users to create and edit documents, spreadsheets, and presentations online while collaborating in real-time with other users. The three apps are available as web applications, as Chrome apps that work offline, and as mobile apps for Android and iOS. The apps are compatible with Microsoft Office file formats. The suite also consists of Google Drawings and Google Fusion Tables (retired in December 2019). While Forms and Tables are only available as web applications, Drawings is also available as a Chrome app. The suite is tightly integrated with Google Drive, and all files created with the apps are by default saved to Google Drive.

Updates.

Updates to Docs, Sheets, Slides, and Forms have introduced features using machine learning, including "Explore", offering search results based on the contents of a document, answers based on natural language questions in a spreadsheet, and dynamic design suggestions based on contents of a slideshow, and "Action items", allowing users to assign tasks to other users. While Google Docs has been criticized for lacking the functionality of Microsoft Office, it has received praise for its simplicity, ease of collaboration and frequent product updates.  In order to view and edit Docs, Sheets, or Slides documents offline, users need to be using the Google Chrome web browser. A Google Chrome#Extensions|Chrome extension, "Google Docs Offline", allows users to enable offline support for Docs, Sheets and Slides files on the Google Drive website.  Google also offers an extension for the Google Chrome web browser called "Office editing for Docs, Sheets and Slides" that enables users to view and edit Microsoft Office documents on Google Chrome, via Docs, Sheets and Slides apps. The extension can be used for opening Office files stored on the computer using Chrome, as well as for opening Office files encountered on the web (in the form of email attachments, web search results, etc.) without having to download them. The extension is installed on Chrome OS by default.

Drawings.

Google Drawings allows users to collaborate creating, sharing, and editing images or drawings. Google Drawings can be used for creating charts, diagrams, designs, flow-charts, etc. It contains a subset of the features in Google Slides but with different templates. Its features include laying out drawings precisely with alignment guides, snap to grid, auto distribution, and inserting drawings into other Google documents, spreadsheets, or presentations.

Reception.

Features.

In a review of Google Drive after its launch in April 2012, Dan Grabham of "TechRadar" wrote that the integration of Google Docs into Google Drive was "a bit confusing", mainly due to the differences in the user interfaces between the two, where Drive offers a "My Drive" section with a specific "Shared with me" view for shared documents. He stated that "We think the user interface needs a lot more work. It's like a retread of Google Docs at the moment and Google surely needs to do work here". He considered uploading files "fairly easy", but noted that folder upload was only supported through the Google Chrome web browser. The lack of native editing of Microsoft Office documents was "annoying". Regarding Google Drive's computer apps, he stated that the option in Settings to synchronize only specific folders was "powerful". He wrote that Drive was "a great addition to Google armoury of apps and everything does work seamlessly", while again criticizing the interface for being "confusing" and that the file view was "not quite intuitive enough" without file icons. Grabham also reviewed the mobile Android app, writing that "it's a pretty simple app that enables you to access your files on the move and save some for offline access should you wish", and praised Google Docs creation and photo uploading for being "easy". He also praised that "everything is easily searchable".  A review by Michael Muchmore of "PC Magazine" in February 2016 praised the service as "truly impressive" in creating and editing files, describing its features as "leading" in office-suite collaboration. He added that "Compatibility is rarely an issue", with importing and exporting options, and that the free storage of 15 gigabytes was "generous". However, he also criticized the user interface for being confusing to navigate, and wrote that "Offline editing isn't simple".  The Android version of Google Drive has been criticized for requiring users to individually toggle each file for use offline instead of allowing entire folders to be stored offline.

Ownership and licensing.

Immediately after its announcement in April 2012, Google faced criticism over Google Drive privacy. In particular, privacy advocates have noted that Google has one unified set of Terms of Service and Privacy Policy agreements for all its products and services. In a "CNET" report, Zack Whittaker noted that "the terms and service have come under heavy fire by the wider community for how it handles users' copyright and intellectual property rights". In a comparison of Terms of Service agreements between Google Drive and competing cloud storage services Dropbox and OneDrive, he cited a paragraph stating that Google has broad rights to reproduce, use, and create derivative works from content stored on Google Drive, via a license from its users. Although the user retains intellectual property rights, the user licenses Google to extract and parse uploaded content to customize the advertising and other services that Google provides to the user and to promote the service. Summarized, he wrote that "According to its terms, Google does not own user-uploaded files to Google Drive, but the company can do whatever it likes with them". In a highly critical editorial of the service, Ed Bott of "ZDNet" wrote that language in the agreements contained "exact same words" as Dropbox used in a July 2011 Privacy Policy update that sparked criticism and forced Dropbox to update its policy once again with clarifying language, adding that "It's a perfect example of Google's inability to pay even the slightest bit of attention to anything that happens outside the Googleplex". Matt Peckham of "Time" criticized the lack of unique service agreements for Drive, writing that "If any Google service warrants privacy firewalling, it’s Google Drive. This isn’t YouTube or Calendar or even Gmail——the potential for someone’s most sensitive data to be snooped, whether to glean info for marketing or otherwise, is too high. [...] Google ought to create a privacy exception that “narrows the scope” of its service terms for Google Drive, one that minimally states the company will never circulate the information generated from searching your G-Drive data in any way."  In contrast, a report by Nilay Patel of "The Verge" stated that "all web services should be subject to harsh scrutiny of their privacy policies—but a close and careful reading reveals that Google's terms are pretty much the same as anyone else's, and slightly better in some cases", pointing to the fact that Google "couldn't move files around on its servers, cache your data, or make image thumbnails" without proper rights. In comparing the policies with competing services, Patel wrote that "it's clear that they need the exact same permissions—they just use slightly more artful language to communicate them".

Growth.

On November 12, 2013, Google announced that Google Drive had 120 million active users, a figure that the company was releasing for the first time.  On June 25, 2014 at the Google I/O developer conference, Sundar Pichai announced that Google Drive now had 190 million monthly active users, and that it was being used by 58% of the Fortune 500 companies as well as by 72 of the top universities.  On October 1, 2014, at its Atmosphere Live event, it was announced that Google Drive had 240 million monthly active users. "The Next Web" noted that this meant an increase of 50 million users in just one quarter.  On September 21, 2015, it was announced that Google Drive had over one million organizational paying users.  In March 2017, Google announced that Google Drive had 800 million active users.  In May 2017, a Google executive stated at a company event that there were over two trillion files stored on Google Drive.

Downtime issues.

Although Google has a 99.9% uptime guarantee for Google Drive for G Suite customers, Google Drive has suffered downtimes for both consumers and business users. During significant downtimes, Google's App Status Dashboard gets updated with the current status of each service Google offers, along with details on restoration progress. Notable downtimes occurred in March 2013, October 2014, January 2016, September 2017, and January 2020.  When the January 2016 outage was resolved, a Google spokesperson told "The Next Web":  At Google, we recognize that failures are statistically inevitable, and we strive to insulate our users from the effects of failures. As that did not happen in this instance, we apologize to everyone who was inconvenienced by this event. Our engineers are conducting a post-mortem investigation to determine how to make our services more resilient to unplanned network failures, and we will do our utmost to continue to make Google service outages notable for their rarity. In an outage that affected all of Google's services for 5 minutes in August 2013, CNET reported that global Internet traffic dropped 40%.

Spam issues.

Google Drive allows users to share drive contents with other Google users without requiring any authorization from the recipient of a sharing invitation. This has resulted in users receiving spam from unsolicited shared drives. Google is reported to be working on a fix.

Google Drive is a file storage and synchronization service developed by Google. Launched on April 24, 2012, Google Drive allows users to store files on their servers, synchronize files across devices, and share files. In addition to a website, Google Drive offers apps with offline capabilities for Windows and macOS computers, and Android and iOS smartphones and tablets. Google Drive encompasses Google Docs, Google Sheets, and Google Slides, which are a part of an office suite that permits collaborative editing of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, drawings, forms, and more. Files created and edited through the office suite are saved in Google Drive.

Lancé le, Google Drive compte d'utilisateurs actifs en. Google Drive remplace Google Docs une fois actif. Les documents existant déjà sur Google Docs sont automatiquement transférés sur Google Drive. Il sert à synchroniser, partager et modifier les données entre plusieurs ordinateurs et/ou utilisateurs.


History.

Kanda Shrine was first built in the second year of the Tenpyō Era (730 AD), in the fishing village of Shibasaki, near the modern Ōtemachi district. In order to accommodate the expansion of Edo Castle, the shrine was later moved to the former Kanda ward in 1603, then moved once again to its modern site on a small hill near Akihabara in 1616. The shrine has been rebuilt and restored many times. The current structure was destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and rebuilt in 1934 with concrete, and thus survived the Tokyo firebombing of World War II, unlike many of Japan's historical structures. Restoration is being done on Kanda Shrine, and work continues today.  Due to its proximity to the Akihabara Electric Town, the shrine has become a mecca for the technophiles who frequent Akihabara. The Kanda Shrine sells talismans specifically for blessing electronic devices against the types of harm that could come to them.

Architecture.

The two-storey main gate, Zuishin-mon (隨神門), marks the entrance to Kanda Shrine. Zuishin-mon was reconstructed in 1995 with cypress wood, and is built with an irimoya styled roof. The shrine building is constructed in the Shinto style of Gongen-zukuri. It is painted vermilion, and decorated with gold and lacquered interiors. Many sculptures of its enshrined kami can be found on the building grounds.

Enshrined Kami.

The three major kami enshrined are Daikokuten, Ebisu, and Taira no Masakado. As Daikokuten and Ebisu both belong to the Seven Gods of Fortune, Kanda Shrine is a popular place for businessmen and entrepreneurs to pray for wealth and prosperity.  Taira no Masakado was a land-owning government official who led a massive insurrection against the Heian government and declared himself the "New Emperor" (新皇). He was later elevated to the status of a local kami out of a mixture of fear and reverence. He is an important figure in the shrine's history. After his defeat in 940 AD, he was decapitated by Fujiwara no Hidesato and his severed head was brought to the Shibasaki (Edo) area in a wooden bucket (首桶) and buried on a low hill near the shrine's location today. Locals who respected his defiance, and fearing his curse, enshrined him in Kanda Shrine, and his spirit is said to watch over the surrounding areas. It was rumored that when his shrine fell into disrepair, Masakado's angry spirit wrought natural disasters and plagues upon the nearby lands. It is also said that Tokugawa Ieyasu felt uncomfortable to have his castle built close to such a powerful spirit, and so decided to move Kanda Shrine to its modern location.  During the Meiji period, the Emperor Meiji was faced with public pressure to include Kanda Shrine in the, but hesitated to do so because of the shrine's association with Taira no Masakado, who was seen as a dangerous anti-government demagogue. This was temporarily resolved by removing Taira no Masakado as an enshrined kami. However, Masakado's spirit proved so popular amongst the commoners, that it was symbolically returned to the shrine after the Second World War.

Festivals.

Kanda festival (Kanda Matsuri) is one of the three major Shinto festivals of Tokyo, started in 1600 by Tokugawa Ieyasu to celebrate his decisive victory at the battle of Sekigahara. At the time, the festival was important enough to be named a state festival, and its highly decorated mikoshi were paraded down the main streets and into Edo castle, so that even the "shōgun" could observe the celebrations. Today, it is held in honor of the enshrined kami, and celebrated around May 15 of every odd year.  Daikoku festival is also held at Kanda Shrine in January.

Cultural references.

In the anime "Love Live!" the character Nozomi Tojo serves as a shrine maiden at the Kandamyoujin shrine. Announced via Twitter in early 2015, the administrators of the Kandamyoujin shrine have in turn adopted the character as the official mascot of the shrine.  Kanda Shrine is popularly known as the hangout for Zenigata Heiji, a fictional policeman who thwarted criminals by throwing coins. Heiji's beat is "Myōjin-shita", or "beneath the (Kanda) Myōjin shrine." Several monuments have been erected at the shrine in his honor.

, is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. The shrine dates back 1,270 years, but the current structure was rebuilt several times due to fire and earthquakes. It is situated in one of the most expensive estate areas of Tokyo. Kanda Shrine was an important shrine to both the warrior class and citizens of Japan, especially during the Edo period, when "shōgun" Tokugawa Ieyasu paid his respects at Kanda Shrine. Due in part to the proximity of the Kanda Shrine to Akihabara, the shrine has become a mecca for technophiles who frequent Akihabara.

Le, anciennement, est un sanctuaire shinto situé à Chiyoda, l'un des vingt-trois arrondissements de Tokyo, au Japon. Le sanctuaire a mille deux cent soixante-dix ans d'âge mais la structure principale a été reconstruite plusieurs fois à cause d'incendies ou de séismes. Il est situé dans une des zones résidentielles les plus chères de Tokyo. Le sanctuaire Kanda est un sanctuaire important à la fois pour la classe des guerriers et aussi pour l'ensemble des Japonais, en particulier au cours de l'époque d'Edo, quand le shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu s'y est rendu.


Musée Jean Cocteau collection Séverin Wunderman

Design.

The decision to create the museum was made by the Menton city council in December 2003. An international competition was held by the council in 2007, with a winner for the design of the museum announced in June 2008. The foundation stone was laid in December 2008, with the shell completed in January 2011. The competition to design the museum building was won by French architect Rudy Ricciotti, an exponent of 'hedonist architecture' in the 1980s. Ricciotti had previously designed the new Islamic art wing at the Louvre, among other cultural commissions. Ricciotti's design was directly inspired by Cocteau's life and work, he has said of the museum's design that "Black and white no longer serve as colours here...they create an interplay of structural forces calling to mind both the artist’s works on paper and the poet’s personality, his zones of light and darkness, his enigmatic self-mythology fueled by contrasts." The distinctive facade of the building has been variously described as "...like a fierce set of teeth or a string of alabaster forearms holding up the sky" and "...like a spider, with jagged black pillars sprawling leg-like over the building".  Among the financial backers of the museum was Pierre Bergé, partner of the late Yves Saint Laurent. The museum took eight years to create, and is 29,000 sq ft in size.

Collection.

Divided into seven parts, the museum contains almost 1000 graphic works by Cocteau, with the majority of the collection from collector Severin Wunderman. Wunderman was 19 when he began collecting works by Cocteau. He had offered his collection to the University of Texas, but later withdrew the offer, keeping his collection in his own Cocteau museum in Irvine, California, which he dedicated in 1985. He would frequently lend pieces to exhibitions and shows.  The scope of the collection spans early avant-garde graphic works with pencil, pastel, and watercolours on paper, to his films, with extensive clips from his "Orphic Trilogy". As well as Cocteau's work, the museum contains a collection of 240 original photographic prints by Lucien Clergue relating to the work of Cocteau, mostly taken during the filming of Testament of Orpheus.  The work Cocteau left upon his death in 1963 was catalogued by Annie Guédras, who identified at least three dozen fakes and copies among the pieces, some of which were destined for Wunderman's donation to the museum. The museum did eventually withdraw the works in question. Guédras later felt that she was excluded from the Cocteau Committee that created the museum in the early 2000s because of her discovery.  A documentation centre for Cocteau's work is based at the museum, which contains books, magazines, journals, catalogues, and monographs on Cocteau. An Office of Graphic Art at the museum conserves the collection when not on display. The museum also features a cafe, shop, and spaces to hire.

Jean Cocteau and Menton.

From 1950 onwards, Jean Cocteau was a frequent guest at Francine Weisweiller's villa "Santo Sospir" in Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat on the French Riviera. In 1955, he was invited to attend the Classical Music Festival in nearby Menton. Delighted by the experience, he developed an attachment to the town and befriended the mayor, who suggested he decorate the town's wedding hall. In recognition of this work, which Cocteau accomplished in 1957 and 1958, Menton declared him an honorary citizen. The Cocteau hall remains to this day a popular venue for weddings in the town.  In September 1957, the mayor of Menton also offered Cocteau to create a museum in the Bastion, a then disused 17th century fort situated near the harbor. Enthusiastic about the project, the artist worked on rearranging and decorating the building in his last years, as well as selecting the pieces he wanted exhibited there. The Bastion museum opened to the public in 1966, three years after Cocteau's death.

Temporary closure.

On the night between 29 and 30 October 2018, a severe storm hit the Menton region. The museum, which is around 50 metres away from the shore, was hit by waves and its basement was flooded. The museum's management (Menton's city council) had decided to store a number of works in the basement. Those works were damaged by seawater, and the ground floor was also partially flooded. As a result of the storm, management decided to shut down the museum until further notice in order to allow for restoration of the damaged works at several locations throughout France. As of mid-April 2019, the museum was still closed "for repairs (travaux)" and Menton's tourist office informally stated that the museum might remain closed until autumn 2019, although no official expected date of reopening has ever been specified by Menton's municipality. In the meantime, a partial exhibition has been set up at the Bastion Museum. Menton's Bastion is a small fort built in 1619 overlooking the Mediterranean Sea; it withstood the October 2018 storm and subsequent floods.

The Jean Cocteau Museum/Séverin Wunderman Collection is a museum in Menton, on the French Riviera, in the Alpes-Maritimes department. Dedicated to the French artist Jean Cocteau, it incorporates the collection of American businessman and Cocteau enthusiast Séverin Wunderman.

Le musée Jean Cocteau collection Séverin Wunderman est un musée municipal consacré à l'œuvre de Jean Cocteau issu principalement de la collection de Séverin Wunderman. Il constitue la plus importante ressource publique mondiale de l’œuvre de l'artiste. Il est situé à Menton dans les Alpes-Maritimes sur la Côte d'Azur. Il a été inauguré en novembre 2011.


Background before 1868.

Until the end of the Edo period, in 1868, Shinto and Buddhism were intimately connected in what was called "shinbutsu-shūgō" (神仏習合), to the point that the same buildings were often used as both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples, and Shinto gods were interpreted as manifestations of Buddhas. However, the tendency to oppose Buddhism as a foreign import and to uphold Shinto as the native religion can be seen already during the early modern era, partly as a nationalistic reaction. In a broad sense, the term "shinbutsu bunri" indicates the effects of the anti-Buddhist movement that, from the middle of the Edo period onwards, accompanied the spread of Confucianism, the growth of studies of ancient Japanese literature and culture ("kokugaku)", and the rise of Shinto-based nationalism, All these movements had reasons to oppose Buddhism.

Policy of the Meiji government.

In a narrower sense, "shinbutsu bunri" refers to the policy of separating Shinto and Buddhism pursued by the new Meiji government with the of 1868. This order triggered the "haibutsu kishaku", a violent anti-Buddhist movement that caused the forcible closure of thousands of temples, the confiscation of their land, the forced return of many monks to lay life or their transformation into Shinto priests, and the destruction of numerous books, statues and other Buddhist artefacts. Even bronze bells were melted down to make cannons. However, the process of separation stalled by 1873, the government's intervention in support of the order was relaxed, and even today the separation is still only partially complete: many major Buddhist temples retain small shrines dedicated to tutelary Shinto "kami", and some Buddhist figures, such as the goddess Kannon, are revered in Shinto shrines. The policy failed in its short-term aims and was ultimately abandoned, but it was successful in the long term in creating a new religious status quo in which Shinto and Buddhism are perceived as different and independent.

Details of the policy.

The new government that seized power in 1868 saw "shinbutsu bunri" as a way to reduce the immense wealth and power of the Buddhist sects. At the same time, it was supposed to give Shinto, and especially its cult of the Emperor, time to grow into an effective vehicle for nationalism.  A first order issued by the Jinguji Muka in April 1868 ordered the defrocking of "shasō" and "bettō" (shrine monks performing Buddhist rites at Shinto shrines).  A few days later, the Daijōkan banned the application of Buddhist terminology such as "gongen" to Japanese "kami" and the veneration of Buddhist statues in shrines.  Next came a ban on applying the Buddhist term "Daibosatsu" (Great Bodhisattva) to the syncretic "kami" Hachiman at the Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū and Usa Hachiman-gū shrines.  In the final stage, all the defrocked "bettō" and "shasō" were told to become "shrine priests" ("kannushi") and return to their shrines. Also, monks of the Nichiren sect were told not to refer to some deities as "kami".

Consequences of the policy.

The campaign ultimately failed to destroy the influence of Buddhism on the Japanese people, who still needed funerals, graves and ancestral rites, all services traditionally provided by Buddhism. The state's first attempt to influence religious life therefore resulted in failure. In 1873, the government admitted that the effort to elevate Shinto above Buddhism had failed. However, the government did cause the diffusion of the idea that Shinto was the true religion of the Japanese, finally revealed after remaining for a long time hidden behind Buddhism.  In recent years, many historians have come to believe that the syncretism of "kami" and Buddhas (shinbutsu-shūgō) was just as authentically Japanese. The government was successful in creating the impression that Shinto and Buddhism in Japan are completely independent religions. Most Japanese today are unaware that some of their customary religious practices cannot be understood outside the context of the syncretism of kami and Buddhas. In discussing some Japanese Buddhist temples dedicated to the cult of "kami" Inari, Shinto scholar Karen Smyers comments:

"Haibutsu kishaku".

Although the government did not explicitly order the closing of temples, the destruction of Buddhist property or the defrocking of Buddhist priests and nuns, they were often interpreted as implying it, and the "haibutsu kishaku" movement soon spread across the country. The "shinbutsu bunri" policy was itself the direct cause of serious damage to important cultural properties. Because mixing the two religions was now forbidden, shrines and temples had to give away some of their treasures. For example, the giant, wooden statues of guardian beings, at the entrance of the Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū, a shrine in Kamakura, were objects of Buddhist worship and therefore illegal where they were, so they were sold to Jufuku-ji, where they still stand today. The shrine also had to destroy Buddhism-related buildings, for example its "tahōtō" tower, its, and its. Many Buddhist temples were simply closed, for example Zenkō-ji, to which the now-independent Meigetsu-in used to belong.  Another consequence of the policy was the creation of so-called "invented traditions". To avoid the destruction of material illegal under the new rules, Shinto and Buddhist priests invented traditions, genealogies and other information that justified its presence. Later, awareness of their origin was often lost, causing considerable confusion among historians.

The Japanese term indicates the separation of Shinto from Buddhism, introduced after the Meiji Restoration which separated Shinto "kami" from buddhas, and also Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines, which were originally amalgamated. It is a yojijukugo phrase.

Le terme indique en japonais l'interdiction légale du mélange des kamis et des bouddhas instituée durant la restauration Meiji. Il renvoie également aux efforts déployés par le gouvernement japonais pour créer une division claire entre les croyances autochtones shinto et le bouddhisme d'un côté, et entre les temples bouddhistes et les sanctuaires shinto de l'autre. Jusqu'à la fin de l'époque Edo, les croyances locales kamis et le bouddhisme sont très intimement liés dans ce qui s'appelle le, au point que les mêmes bâtiments sont utilisés à la fois comme sanctuaires shintoïstes et comme temples bouddhistes.


Route description.

I-435, a loop route of I-35, is long and intersects with nearly every other interstate highway in the Kansas City area (except for I-635 and I-670). An additional near Kansas City International Airport is signed along with I-29 and U.S. Route 71 (US 71), making I-435 the second-longest complete beltway numbered as a single Interstate Highway in the U.S., and seventh longest in the world after Cincinnati, Ohio's I-275 at, Houston, Texas's Beltway 8 at, Berlin's Bundesautobahn 10 at, and London's M25 motorway at as well as Beijing’s 7th and 8th ring roads. The majority——of I-435 is within the state of Missouri, and most of that roadway lies within the city limits of Kansas City. The first/last exit is at I-435's parent route, I-35, in Lenexa, Kansas. Going clockwise around Kansas City, the next interchange is exit 1A for Lackman Road. The milepost numbers do not start over when I-435 crosses the state line, but where it shares the same roadway as I-29, the latter's milepost (and therefore exit) numbering takes precedence.

History.

I-435 in Kansas City was built piece by piece starting in the mid-1960s and not finished until 1987.  In 1965, the first segment of I-435 was built and opened between I-35 and US-69 (which at that time was signed with Metcalf Avenue) near Overland Park, Kansas. A second segment was opened the same year between I-70 and US-50 in eastern Kansas City, Missouri, but the two were not connected.  By 1968, the eastern segment of I-435 was extended south to Gregory Boulevard and north past 23rd Street/Route 78.  By 1969, I-435 was fully built between these two segments, through southern and eastern Kansas City.  By 1971, the freeway was extended from 23rd Street/Route 78 to US-24.  In 1973, I-435 was extended north from the former terminus of US-24 across the Missouri River to I-35 in Claycomo. It now extended halfway around the city.  In 1983, a small segment was opened on the outskirts of Kansas City north between US-169 and Route 291 near Kansas City International Airport (KCI).  By 1985, this small segment was connected with the rest of the freeway. A segment was built heading almost due north from I-35 in Claycomo to Route 291/Cookingham Drive at North Reinking Road, curving due west from there to US-169. In this year, the southwest end was also extended to K-10.  In 1987, the freeway was opened all the way around the city. The northwest end was signed on I-29 for northwest, then exited, near Platte City and bore south on the west side of KCI. It crossed several small highways before crossing the Missouri River into Wyandotte County, Kansas. It continued generally south or southwest, crossed several state highways and I-70, then the Kaw River, before connecting with the former southwest end at K-10.

Interstate 435 (I-435) is an Interstate Highway beltway that encircles much of the Kansas City metropolitan area within the states of Kansas and Missouri in the United States.

L'interstate 435 est une autoroute inter-états contournant la zone métropolitaine de Kansas City. Elle se situe à la fois au Kansas et au Missouri. Elle mesure un peu plus de 80 miles de longueur.


Physical properties and deployment.

CR is a pale yellow crystalline solid with a pepper-like odor. It is slightly soluble in water and does not degrade in it. CR is usually presented as a microparticulate solid, in the form of suspension in a propylene glycol-based liquid. Contrary to its common name, it is not a gas but a solid at room temperature.  The dibenz[b,f][1,4]oxazepine moiety is present in the typical antipsychotic drug loxapine, but, unlike CR, loxapine is not reactive and is not an irritant. CR was first synthesised in 1962.  CR can be delivered either as an aerosol or a solution in water, making it able to be used in water cannons, smoke grenades, or handheld spray cans. For smoke it is usually fired in canisters (LACR) that heat up, producing an aerosol cloud at a steady rate.

Effects.

CR gas is a lachrymatory agent (LA), exerting its effects through activation of the TRPA1 channel. Its effects are approximately 6 to 10 times more powerful than those of CS gas. CR causes intense skin irritation, in particular around moist areas; blepharospasm, causing temporary blindness; and coughing, gasping for breath, and panic. It is capable of causing immediate incapacitation. It is a suspected carcinogen. It is toxic, but less so than CS gas, by ingestion and exposure. However, it can be lethal in large quantities. In a poorly ventilated space, an individual may inhale a lethal dose within minutes. Death is caused by asphyxiation and pulmonary edema.  The effect of CR is long-term and persistent. CR can persist on surfaces, especially porous ones, for up to 60 days.

Treatment.

While CS can be decontaminated with a large amount of water, use of water may exacerbate the effects of CR. Skin contaminated with CR gas may become extremely painful in contact with water for up to 48 hours after contamination.  Medical treatment is mostly palliative. The contaminated clothing has to be removed. The eyes and skin can be washed, the eye pain can be alleviated with medications.

Use.

Northern Ireland.

It started being available in police and army supplies, as a water cannon additive and as spray cans, in 1973 and was at least still so in 1981.  Republican groups in Northern Ireland have alleged that British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary units used CR gas against Republican prisoners in the 1970s. Additionally, there are British military documents now declassified and in the public domain held in the records of the UK Ministry of Defence at the National Archives, London, that suggest that the British Army did deploy and use CR gas in Northern Ireland.

Egypt.

During the 2011 protests against the military government in Egypt, Egyptian security forces allegedly used CR gas in addition to the more commonly used, less debilitating CS gas. One protester described the gas as making him feel "as if your eyes are about to fall out; then you have trouble breathing, and you lose your sight". Egyptians used yeast as a treatment for CR side effects on skin. Mohammed ElBaradei also confirmed via Twitter that "tear gas with [a] nerve agent" is being used in Tahrir Square.  The only gas that has been identified by human rights organizations in protests "is CS tear gas, typically used by police forces to disperse crowds," stated Egyptian journalist Farida Helmy. Egyptian use of CR gas has not been corroborated according to Human Rights Watch (HRW).

Philippines.

CR tear gas was used in suppression of the mutiny in Makati that was led by Sen. Antonio Trillanes. The tear gas was fired in the building and all the people in the building including reporters were affected.

Sri Lanka.

The LTTE, also known as Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka, an insurgent group in Sri Lanka used CR gas against government forces that were on an offensive to flush and defeat these insurgents during September 2008. Its use hindered the army's progress but ultimately proved ineffective in preventing the army from overrunning LTTE positions. This is one of the first few cases of insurgents using CR gas as an insurgent weapon.

Turkey.

In the June 2013 protest against the Turkish government, Turkish police allegedly used CR gas on protesters in Istanbul. Doctors in a makeshift first aid post in a Mosque judged it as such.

Ukraine.

In Ukraine, CR gas is commonly used by special forces against demonstrators. Gas is packed in a form of spray cans "Cobra 1". For example, gas has been used on demonstration dedicated to Ukraine Independence Day (Aug 24 2011). Also massive gas usage has been documented during demonstrations against Language Law Draft at Kiev on Jul 3-4 2012.

Vietnam.

It has been reported that thousands of tons of CR gas were used by the U.S. forces in Vietnam to bring Viet Cong into the open. It was also used by the North Vietnamese forces in some battles like Hue in 1968 or during the Easter Offensive in 1972.

France.

People occupying an area in Notre-Dame-des-Landes against an airport project suspect the use of CR gas by French Police and Army in April 2018.

Elsewhere.

In the late 1980s, CR was used in the townships in South Africa. It caused some fatalities, in particular among children.

CR gas or dibenzoxazepine (also referred to as DBO), or its chemical name dibenz["b","f"][1,4]oxazepine, is an incapacitating agent and a lachrymatory agent. CR was developed by the British Ministry of Defence as a riot control agent in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A report from the Porton Down laboratories described exposure as "like being thrown blindfolded into a bed of stinging nettles", and it earned the nickname "firegas".

La dibenzoxazépine, plus précisément la dibenz["b","f"][1,4]oxazépine, également appelée gaz CR est un gaz incapacitant et un gaz lacrymogène, qui a notamment été développé par le ministère de la Défense britannique avec pour objectif de l'utiliser dans la lutte anti-émeute à la fin des années 1950 et au début des années 1960.


Early life.

Wolfe is from the rural town of Negley, Ohio, near the state line with Pennsylvania. He attended Beaver Local High School in Lisbon, Ohio.  Considered only a two-star recruit by "Rivals.com", Wolfe was a standout at Beaver Local High School and is the only player in the school's history ever to be drafted by the NFL.

College career.

Wolfe played four years (2008-2011) at Cincinnati. He accumulated 162 total tackles, 37 tackles for loss, and 19.5 sacks during his tenure.  Wolfe was named Co-Big East Defensive Player of the Year as a senior.  Wolfe was the first Beaver Local High School graduate to get drafted and the first Mahoning Valley native selected.

Professional career.

Denver Broncos.

The Denver Broncos selected Wolfe in the second round (36th overall) of the 2012 NFL Draft. Wolfe was the fourth defensive tackle drafted in 2012. On May 21, 2012, the Denver Broncos signed Wolfe to a four-year, $5.20 million contract that includes $3.09 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $2.22 million.  In his first NFL game in the regular season against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Wolfe came out with 3 tackles and a sack for a loss of 9 yards.  Wolfe finished his rookie season with 40 tackles, six sacks, and two passes defensed. His six sacks were third most on the team, behind Von Miller and Elvis Dumervil.  Wolfe had a tough sophomore season. In a preseason game against the Seattle Seahawks, Wolfe suffered a spinal cord injury and was carted off the field. That, along with two bouts of food poisoning, led to him losing 20 pounds, and he was therefore not as productive on the field. On November 29, Wolfe suffered a seizure on the bus ride to the airport for their Kansas City Chiefs matchup. (After the season, it was reported that the seizure was related to the spinal cord injury.) Despite hopes that he might return to the field, he was eventually placed on Injured Reserve. Without Wolfe, the Broncos reached Super Bowl XLVIII where they lost to the Seattle Seahawks.  The 2015 season was the best of Wolfe's career. After serving a four-game suspension for a PED violation, Wolfe returned to establish himself as one of the best run stuffers in the game, which eventually led to him being named AFC Defensive Player of the Week after the Broncos defense completely neutralized the undefeated Green Bay Packers offense in Week 8.  On January 15, 2016, Wolfe signed a four-year extension with the Broncos worth $36.7 million.  On February 7, 2016, Wolfe was part of the Broncos team that won Super Bowl 50. In the game, the Broncos defeated the Carolina Panthers by a score of 24–10. He had five tackles and 0.5 sacks in the Super Bowl.  In 2016, Wolfe posted a career high in tackles with 51, and in passes defended with four.  The Broncos finished the 2016 season with a 9–7 record and missed the playoffs for the first time in Wolfe's career.  On December 5, 2017, Wolfe was placed on injured reserve with a neck injury.  On December 2, 2019, Wolfe was placed on injured reserve after suffering a dislocated elbow in Week 13.

Baltimore Ravens.

On March 31, 2020, Wolfe signed a one-year, $3 million deal with the Baltimore Ravens.

Comments concerning NFL protests.

During the discussion concerning kneeling during the national anthem, Wolfe sent comments to ESPN stating the following: this is the "greatest country in the world and if you don't think we are the greatest country in the world and you reside here, then why do you stay?"

NFL statistics.

Playoffs.

"Source":

Derek Wolfe (born February 24, 1990) is an American football defensive end for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at the University of Cincinnati and was selected 36th overall by the Denver Broncos in the 2012 NFL Draft.

Derek Wolfe (né le à Lisbon est un joueur américain de football américain. Il joue actuellement avec les Broncos de Denver.


Échelle internationale de température de 1990

Details.

CCT ITS-90 is designed to represent the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale (referencing absolute zero) as closely as possible throughout its range. Many different thermometer designs are required to cover the entire range. These include helium vapor pressure thermometers, helium gas thermometers, standard platinum resistance thermometers (known as SPRTs, PRTs or Platinum RTDs) and monochromatic radiation thermometers.  Although the Kelvin and Celsius scales are defined using absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water (273.16 K and 0.01 °C), it is impractical to use this definition at temperatures that are very different from the triple point of water. Accordingly, ITS-90 uses numerous defined points, all of which are based on various thermodynamic equilibrium states of fourteen pure chemical elements and one compound (water). Most of the defined points are based on a phase transition; specifically the melting/freezing point of a pure chemical element. However, the deepest cryogenic points are based exclusively on the vapor pressure/temperature relationship of helium and its isotopes whereas the remainder of its cold points (those less than room temperature) are based on triple points. Examples of other defining points are the triple point of hydrogen (−259.3467 °C) and the freezing point of aluminium (660.323 °C).  Thermometers calibrated per ITS-90 use complex mathematical formulas to interpolate between its defined points. ITS-90 specifies rigorous control over variables to ensure reproducibility from lab to lab. For instance, the small effect that atmospheric pressure has upon the various melting points is compensated for (an effect that typically amounts to no more than half a millikelvin across the different altitudes and barometric pressures likely to be encountered). The standard even compensates for the pressure effect due to how deeply the temperature probe is immersed into the sample. ITS-90 also draws a distinction between “freezing” and “melting” points. The distinction depends on whether heat is going "into" (melting) or "out of" (freezing) the sample when the measurement is made. Only gallium is measured while melting; all the other metals are measured while the samples are freezing.  A practical effect of ITS-90 is that the triple points and the freezing/melting points of its thirteen chemical elements are precisely known for all temperature measurements calibrated per ITS-90 since these thirteen values are fixed by its definition. Only the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW) is known with absolute precision—regardless of the calibration standard employed—because the very definitions of both the Kelvin and Celsius scales are fixed by international agreement based, in part, on this point.

Limitations.

There are often small differences between measurements calibrated per ITS-90 and thermodynamic temperature. For instance, precise measurements show that the boiling point of VSMOW water under one standard atmosphere of pressure is actually 373.1339 K (99.9839 °C) when adhering "strictly" to the two-point definition of thermodynamic temperature. When calibrated to ITS-90, where one must interpolate between the defining points of gallium and indium, the boiling point of VSMOW water is about 10 mK less, about 99.974 °C. The virtue of ITS-90 is that another lab in another part of the world will measure the very same temperature with ease due to the advantages of a comprehensive international calibration standard featuring many conveniently spaced, reproducible, defining points spanning a wide range of temperatures.  Although “International Temperature Scale of 1990” has the word “scale” in its title, this is a misnomer that can be misleading. ITS-90 is not a scale; it is an "equipment calibration standard". Temperatures measured with equipment calibrated per ITS-90 may be expressed using any temperature scale such as Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit, or Rankine. For example, a temperature can be measured using equipment calibrated to the kelvin-based ITS-90 standard, and that value may then be converted to, and expressed as, a value on the Fahrenheit scale (e.g. 211.953 °F).  ITS-90 does not address the highly specialized equipment and procedures used for measuring temperatures extremely close to absolute zero. For instance, to measure temperatures in the nanokelvin range (billionths of a kelvin), scientists using optical lattice laser equipment to adiabatically cool atoms, turn off the entrapment lasers and simply measure how far the atoms drift over time to measure their temperature. A cesium atom with a velocity of 7 mm/s is equivalent to a temperature of about 700 nK (which was a record cold temperature achieved by the NIST in 1994).  Estimates of the differences between thermodynamic temperature and the ITS-90 () were published in 2010. It had become apparent that ITS-90 deviated considerably from PLTS-2000 in the overlapping range of 0.65 K to 2 K. To address this, a new He vapor pressure scale was adopted, known as PTB-2006. For higher temperatures, expected values for are below 0.1 mK for temperatures 4.2 K – 8 K, up to 8 mK at temperatures close to 130 K, at 0 K (by definition) at the triple point of water (273.16 K), but rising again to 10 mK at temperatures close to 430 K, and reaching 46 mK at temperatures close to 1150 K.

Defining points.

The table below lists the defining fixed points of ITS-90.

The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) published by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT) of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) is an equipment calibration standard for making measurements on the Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales. ITS-90 is an approximation of the thermodynamic temperature scale that facilitates the comparability and compatibility of temperature measurements internationally. It specifies fourteen calibration points ranging from to ( to ) and is subdivided into multiple temperature ranges which overlap in some instances. ITS-90 is the latest (as of 2014) of a series of International Temperature Scales adopted by CIPM since 1927. Adopted at the 1989 General Conference on Weights and Measures, it supersedes the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (amended edition of 1975) and the 1976 "Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale". CCT has also adopted a "mise en pratique" (practical instructions) in 2011. The lowest temperature covered by ITS-90 is 0.65 K. In 2000, the temperature scale was extended further, to 0.9 mK, by the adoption of a supplemental scale, known as the Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 (PLTS-2000).

Le musée d'art contemporain Astrup Fearnley (en norvégien : "Astrup Fearnley Museet for Moderne Kunst") est un musée privé d'art contemporain situé à Oslo, en Norvège, fondé et ouvert au public en 1993 et installé depuis 2012 dans un nouveau bâtiment dû à Renzo Piano.


Early life and education.

Paul Davis Ryan was born in Janesville, Wisconsin, the youngest of four children of Elizabeth "Betty" Ann (née Hutter), who later became an interior designer, and Paul Murray Ryan, a lawyer. He is a fifth-generation Wisconsinite. His father was of Irish ancestry and his mother of German and English descent. One of Ryan's paternal ancestors settled in Wisconsin prior to the Civil War. His great-grandfather, Patrick William Ryan, founded an earthmoving company in 1884, which later became P. W. Ryan and Sons and is now known as Ryan Incorporated Central. Ryan's grandfather, Stanley M. Ryan, was appointed United States Attorney for the Western District of Wisconsin. In 2018, while filming a segment for the PBS series "Finding Your Roots", Ryan learned that he is 3 percent Ashkenazi Jewish.  Ryan attended St. Mary's Catholic School in Janesville, then attended Joseph A. Craig High School, where he was elected president of his junior class, and thus became prom king. As class president Ryan was a representative of the student body on the school board. Following his second year, Ryan took a job working the grill at McDonald's. He was on his high school's ski, track, and varsity soccer teams and played basketball in a Catholic recreational league. He participated in several academic and social clubs including

Early career.

Betty Ryan reportedly urged her son to accept a congressional position as a legislative aide in Senator Kasten's office, which he did after graduating in 1992. In his early years working on Capitol Hill, Ryan supplemented his income by working as a waiter, as a fitness trainer, and at other jobs.  A few months after Kasten lost to Democrat Russ Feingold in the November 1992

U.S. House of Representatives.

Elections.

Ryan was first elected to the House in 1998, winning the 1st District seat of Republican Mark Neumann, a two-term incumbent who had vacated his seat to make an unsuccessful bid for the U.S. Senate. Ryan won the Republican primary over 29-year-old pianist Michael J. Logan of Twin Lakes, and the general election against Democrat Lydia Spottswood. This made him the second-youngest member of the House.  Reelected eight times, Ryan never received less than 55 percent of the vote in a congressional election. He defeated Democratic challenger Jeffrey C. Thomas in the 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2006 elections. In the 2008 election, Ryan defeated Democrat Marge Krupp.  In the 2010 general election, he defeated Democrat John Heckenlively and Libertarian Joseph Kexel. In 2012, under Wisconsin election law, Ryan was allowed

Pre-Speaker congressional tenure (1999–2015).

Ryan became the ranking Republican member of the House Budget Committee in 2007 and became chairman of the committee in 2011 after Republicans took control of the House. That same year, he was selected to deliver the Republican response to the State of the Union address. As of August 2012, Ryan had been the primary sponsor of more than 70 bills or amendments, and only two of those bills had become law. One, passed in July 2000, renamed a post office in Ryan's district; the other, passed in December 2008, lowered the excise tax on arrow

Speaker of the House (2015–2019).

114th Congress.

On September 25, 2015, John Boehner formally announced to House Republicans his intention to resign from the speakership and the House. Among those interested in the post, Kevin McCarthy, who had wide support among Republicans, including Boehner, and Ryan, who was set to officially nominate him, was considered the presumptive favorite. His candidacy was opposed by conservative House Republicans of the Freedom Caucus, and when it became clear that caucus members would not support his candidacy, McCarthy withdrew his name from consideration on October 8. This led many Republicans to turn to Ryan as a compromise candidate. The push included a plea from Boehner, who reportedly told Ryan that he was the only person who could unite the House Republicans at a time of turmoil. Ryan released a statement that said, "While I am grateful for the encouragement I've received,

2016 presidential election.

After Donald Trump became the presumptive Republican nominee in the 2016 presidential election on May 4, 2016, Ryan was hesitant to endorse him, stating on May 5 that he was "not ready". Ryan and Trump met in private on May 12, releasing a joint statement afterward, acknowledging their differences but stating "we recognize that there are also many important areas of common ground." On June 2, Ryan announced his support for Trump in an op-ed in "The Janesville Gazette".  The following day, June 3, amid Trump's criticism of Judge Gonzalo P. Curiel, Ryan said Trump's critique "just was out of left field for my mind," and voiced disagreement with him. On June 7, Ryan disavowed Trump's comments about Curiel because he believed they were "the textbook definition of a racist comment".

115th Congress.

Two months after the 2016 elections, Ryan was re-elected Speaker of the House on January 3, 2017, the opening day of the 115th Congress. He received 239 votes to House Democratic Leader Pelosi's 189 votes (with 5 more going to others).  On February 7, 2017, Ryan told reporters a replacement for the Affordable Care Act (ACA) would be introduced "this year" amid speculation Donald Trump would not act toward doing so until the following year. On March 9, Ryan gave a 30-minute lecture explaining the proposed replacement for the ACA, titled the American Health Care Act (AHCA). On March 30, Ryan said that he did not intend to work with Democrats on repealing and replacing the ACA, reasoning their involvement would lead to "government running health care." On April 4, Ryan confirmed renewed discussions of an ACA replacement, but

Assessment of Speaker tenure.

Following Ryan's retirement announcement, an article in "The Washington Post" stated that Ryan was "leav[ing] behind a legacy of dramatically expanded government spending and immense deficits, a GOP president unchecked, a broken immigration system, and a party that's fast abandoning the free-trade principles that he himself championed." According to the Associated Press, Ryan "achieved one of his career goals: rewriting the tax code"; however, "on his other defining aim — balancing the budget and cutting back benefit programs like Social Security, Medicare and Medicaid — Ryan has utterly failed".  Committee assignments  As Speaker of the House of Representatives, Ryan was not a chair or a member of any committee. Prior to his speakership, Ryan held the following assignments:  Caucus memberships

Constituent services.

In fiscal year 2008, Ryan garnered $5.4 million in congressional earmarks, including $3.28 million for bus service in Wisconsin, $1.38 million for the Ice Age Trail, and $735,000 for the Janesville transit system. In 2009, he successfully advocated with the Department of Energy for stimulus funds for energy initiatives in his district.  Other home district projects he has supported include a runway extension at the Rock County Airport, an environmental study of the Kenosha Harbor, firefighting equipment for Janesville, road projects in Wisconsin, and commuter rail and streetcar projects in Kenosha. In 2008, Ryan pledged to stop seeking earmarks. Prior to that he had sought earmarks less often than other representatives. Taxpayers for Common Sense records show no earmarks supported by Ryan for fiscal years 2009 and 2010. In 2012, Ryan

2012 vice presidential campaign.

Dan Balz of "The Washington Post" wrote that Ryan was promoted as a candidate for Vice President "by major elements of the conservative opinion makers, including "The Wall Street Journal" editorial page, the "Weekly Standard" and the editor of "National Review"".  On August 11, 2012, the Romney campaign announced Ryan as its choice for Vice President through its "Mitt's VP" mobile app. It was reported that Romney had offered the position to Ryan on August 1, 2012, the day after returning from a foreign policy trip to the United Kingdom, Poland, and Israel. On August 11, 2012, Ryan formally accepted Romney's invitation to join his campaign as his running mate, in front of the USS "Wisconsin" in Norfolk. Ryan is the first individual from Wisconsin as well as the first member of Generation X to run on a major party's national ticket.  Also in August 2012, the Associated Press published a story saying that while the Tea Party movement had wanted a nominee other than Romney, it had gotten "one of its ideological heroes" in the Vice Presidential slot. According to the article, Ryan supports the Tea Party's belief in "individual rights, distrust of big government and an allegorical embrace of the Founding Fathers".  According to a statistical-historical analysis conducted by Nate Silver, "Ryan is the most conservative Republican member of Congress to be picked for the vice-presidential slot since

Congressional Leadership Fund.

The Congressional Leadership Fund (CLF), a Super PAC, has been

Political positions.

Ryan's political positions were generally conservative, with a focus on fiscal policy. Ryan "played a central role in nearly all" the policy debates of the period 2010–2012. In 2012, Ryan voted against the Simpson-Bowles commission proposal to reduce the deficit, because the proposal raised taxes and failed to repeal the Affordable Care Act. While he was a self-proclaimed deficit hawk, Ryan's tenure of Speaker of the House saw a major expansion in government spending and a ballooning of deficits despite unified Republican control of Congress and the White House, no recession and no new foreign conflict.  Ryan subscribed to supply-side economics and supported tax cuts including eliminating the capital gains tax, the corporate income tax, the estate tax, and the Alternative Minimum Tax. Ryan supports deregulation, including the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act of 1999, which repealed some financial regulation of banks from the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933. During the economic recovery from the Great Recession of the late 2000s, Ryan supported the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), which authorized the Treasury to purchase toxic assets from banks and other financial institutions, and the auto industry bailout; Ryan opposed the Credit CARD Act of 2009, which expanded consumer protections regarding credit card plans, and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, which strengthened financial regulation.  In 2016, Ryan rolled out a set of anti-poverty proposals that "seek to expand work requirements for those receiving federal benefits, to give states and local jurisdictions a greater role in administering those benefits, to better measure the results of federal programs for the poor, and to crack down on waste, fraud and abuse." Ryan believes federal poverty reduction programs are ineffective and he supports cuts to welfare, child care, Pell Grants, food stamps, and other federal assistance programs. Ryan supports block granting Medicaid to the states and the privatization of social security and Medicare. Ryan supported the Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit and opposes the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA), also known as "Obamacare." Ryan supported the American Health Care Act of 2017 (AHCA), the 2017 House Republican plan to repeal and replace the ACA. In 2012, "The New York Times" said Ryan was "his party's most forceful spokesman for cutting entitlement spending."  Ryan's non-fiscal policy positions were subject to additional national attention with his 2012 candidacy for Vice President. Ryan is pro-life and opposes abortion rights. Ryan opposed the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, which provides that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action. In 2012, Ryan supported civil unions and opposed same-sex marriage.  Ryan supported school vouchers, and supported the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001 and its repeal the Every Student Succeeds Act in 2015. Ryan is unsure, and believes climate scientists are unsure, of the impact of human activity on climate change. Ryan supported tax incentives for the petroleum industry and opposed them for renewable energy. Ryan supported gun rights and opposed stricter gun control. Ryan supported the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Ryan condemned Barack Obama's decision not to block a UN resolution criticizing Israeli settlement building in the occupied Palestinian territories as "absolutely shameful". Ryan supported President Donald Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: "Jerusalem has been, and always will be, the eternal, undivided capital of the State of Israel."  Following the 2018 Russia–United States summit, in which Donald Trump stated that he believed Russian government did not interfere in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Ryan confirmed his belief that Russian government interfered and advocated for more economic sanctions against Russia for the interference.  Ryan supported U.S. involvement in the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen and used his power to block a House vote on the war in Yemen.

Post-congressional life.

In March 2019, Ryan joined the board of directors of Fox Corporation, the owner of Fox News Channel and the Fox broadcast network. He has since joined the faculty of the University of Notre

Personal life.

Ryan married Janna Christine Little, a tax attorney and graduate of Wellesley College and George Washington University Law School, in December 2000. Little, a native of Madill, Oklahoma, is the granddaughter of Reuel Little, who helped found the American

Further reading.

Works about Ryan  Works by Ryan

Paul Davis Ryan (born January 29, 1970) is an American retired politician who served as the 54th speaker of the United States House of Representatives from October 2015 to January 2019. He was also the 2012 vice presidential nominee of the Republican Party, running unsuccessfully alongside Mitt Romney.

Paul Davis Ryan, né le à Janesville (Wisconsin), est un homme d'État américain, membre du Parti républicain. Élu pour le premier district du Wisconsin à la Chambre des représentants depuis 1999, il est élu président de la commission du budget de la chambre basse en 2011. Désigné candidat du Parti républicain à la vice-présidence des États-Unis pour l'élection présidentielle de 2012, il est le colistier de Mitt Romney : le ticket est battu par le président et vice-président sortants, Barack Obama et Joe Biden.


Early life.

Martini was born in Oderzo, Veneto and received his early training in drawing and painting from his father, who was a portrait painter and a professor of drawing at the Istituto Technico in Treviso.

Career.

Much of his career was spent illustrating famous literary works. In 1895 he began the first series of illustrations for Luigi Pulci's "Morgante Maggiore" and for Alessandro Tassoni's "La secchia rapita". During this time he had his first exhibit which was a series of fourteen paintings from the anthology "La corte dei miracoli" at the Venice Biennale in 1897, where his drawings of beggars were described as "picturesquely grotesque". In 1898 he moved to Monaco and worked as an illustrator for the magazines Dekorative Kunst and "Jugend". In 1901 he illustrated an edition of "La Divina Commedia". Beginning in July 1905, he produced 132 ink illustrations, which were described as "macabre", for the stories of Edgar Allan Poe which he worked on until 1909 and "inaugurated a period of great creative intensity within the graphics of literary inspiration." His work was clearly influenced by such artists as Albrecht Dürer, Urs Graf, Pieter Bruegel, Lucas Cranach, Albrecht Altdorfer, and Joseph Sattler whose work he had studied.  In 1907, he had his first solo show in London and met the publisher William Heinemann who went on to use some of Martini's illustrations. The death of his father in 1910, brought him back to Italy where he moved with his mother to a country home near Treviso. There he continued to illustrate great literary works such as Shakespeare's "Hamlet" and poems for Paul Verlaine. From 1915 to 1920 he devoted time to painting, mostly pastels, in the theme of woman-butterfly and did a series of "elegant" lithographs titled "Farfalle" (Butterflies) which were good examples of his proto-Surrealism.  At the outbreak of World War I, Martini designed a series of "frightening" propaganda postcards called "Danza Macabra Europea", to be distributed to the allies against the Austro-Hungarian empire. From 1912 to 1923 he continued to illustrate literary works and was commissioned to paint Marchesa Luisa Casati, Countess Revedin and Paola D'Ostheim and others. He continued to have many exhibits in London, Liverpool, Bologna, Milan and at the Venice Biennale. In 1923, he wrote "Vita d'artista". He had innovative ideas about theater and set design which he illustrated and published in the book "Il Tetiteatro" in 1923. The next year he met and married artist Maria Petringa and she became a source of inspiration for many of his works.

Later years.

He became disappointed and resentful toward Italian critics who, in the late twenties, seemed to ignore his work so he moved to Paris in 1928. From 1929 to 1934 he produced a large number of paintings, which he called "paintings with the colors of the sky". Although his wife remained in Italy, they corresponded and saw each other periodically and he returned to Italy in 1934. Around 1940 he published a satirical journal, "Perseus", with drawings and cartoons. In 1946 he was awarded a diploma of honor by the Museum of Fine Arts in Nancy. He did a series of lithographs for "Life of the Virgin and other poems" by Rainer Maria Rilke which he finished in 1952. Alberto Martini continued to paint "with considerable expressive effect" until the end. He died in Milan on November 8, 1954.

Alberto Martini (November 24, 1876 – November 8, 1954) was an Italian painter, engraver, illustrator and graphic designer. Critics have described Martini's range of work from "elegant and epic" to "grotesque and macabre" and consider him one of the precursors of Surrealism.

Alberto Martini, né Alberto Giacomo Spiridione Martini le à Oderzo et mort à Milan le, est un peintre, graveur et illustrateur italien, considéré comme un précurseur du surréalisme.


Route description.

I-635 begins at an intersection with I-20 in southeast Dallas, and travels northward through Balch Springs into Mesquite, where it intersects U.S. Highway 80 (US 80) and I-30. The route then turns to the northwest, continuing near the border between Dallas and Garland. later is takes a general westward turn as it intersects US 75 at the High Five Interchange. The section from I-35E to US 75 (Central Expressway) is one of the busiest stretches of road in the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex, at virtually all hours of the day and night. The route continues west, intersecting the Dallas North Tollway and its original terminus, I-35E in Farmers Branch. The freeway then continues to the northwest, intersecting the President George Bush Turnpike in Irving before arriving at its final terminus at SH 121 at the north entrance to the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport.

History.

I-635 was originally designated by the Texas Department of Transportation in 1959 as a loop around the eastern side of Dallas, connecting with I-35E to the northwest and southwest sides of the city.  In January 1969, the first section to open to motorists was a section from US 75 (now SH 310) near Hutchins to Barnes Bridge in Mesquite. In February 1970, the highway from US 75 westward to I-35E northwest of Dallas opened to traffic. The I-635 designation was truncated on December 2, 1971 when I-20 was rerouted south of Dallas, taking over of I-635's former route.  The connecting section of I-20 from the west was not completed until 1978. Initially, the section between I-35E and US 80 in southeast Dallas was concurrent with I-20. When the outlet for I-20 from southeast of Dallas to Terrell was completed, the I-635 designation was removed from I-35E to its intersection with I-20. On April 1, 1968, Texas State Highway Loop 635 was designated from I-35E and I-635 to Spur 459 at the north entrance of DFW Airport. Spur 459 became part of a rerouted SH 121 on July 31, 1969. On July 31, 1974, Loop 635 was redesignated as part of I-635, and this section was opened in the 1980s.

Later changes.

The High Five construction project (so called because it is five levels and rises almost above the lowest level), a rebuild of the interchange of I-635 and US 75, was opened for traffic in February 2006. This interchange carries over 500,000 vehicles per day and was built as the largest interchange in the state of Texas to handle this vehicle load.

Express project.

A $2.7 billion project was started on May 16, 2011, to widen I-635 and dig subsequent high-occupancy toll (HOT) lane tunnels beneath the primary roadway from I-35E to the High Five Interchange, a length of. Construction time was estimated in 2011 at five years and was completed and opened for traffic on September 10, 2015. The new freeway features tolled express lanes, known as TEXpress lanes, in between the main lanes or underneath them. The cost to drive on them fluctuates based on the current flow of traffic at the time. The project is among several billion dollar plus projects in the planning phase in and around downtown Dallas along with the rebuild of the I-35E & I-30 "Mixmaster".

Interstate 635 (I-635) is a partial loop around Dallas, Texas, in the United States between I-20 in Balch Springs and State Highway 121 (SH 121) at the north entrance of the Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport in Grapevine. It intersects I-35E at exits 27B–C, but does not connect with I-35W. Portions of I-635 and I-20 are collectively designated as the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway; known locally as the LBJ Freeway, or simply LBJ. The roadway is named after Lyndon B. Johnson, the former U.S. Senator from Texas, 37th Vice President, and the 36th President of the United States.

L'interstate 635 est une autoroute inter-États auxiliaire de l'interstate 20 et l'interstate 35E contournant la ville de Dallas par le nord-est. Elle est très achalandée sur toute sa longueur, qui est de 37 miles. Elle possède de plus 8 voies sur toute sa longueur.