Early life.

Roger Joseph Ebert was born in Urbana, Illinois, the only child of Annabel (née Stumm, 1911–1987), a bookkeeper, and Walter Harry Ebert (1901–1960), an electrician. He was raised Roman Catholic, attending St. Mary's elementary school and serving as an altar boy in Urbana.  His paternal grandparents were German immigrants and his maternal ancestry was Irish and Dutch. Ebert's interest in journalism began when he was a student at Urbana High School, where he was a sportswriter for "The News-Gazette" in Champaign, Illinois; however, he began his writing career with letters of comment to the science-fiction fanzines of the era. In his senior year, he was class president and co-editor of his high school newspaper, "The Echo". In 1958, he won the Illinois High School Association state speech championship in "radio speaking," an event that simulates radio newscasts.  Regarding his early influences in film criticism, Ebert wrote in the 1998 parody collection "Mad About the Movies":  Ebert began taking classes at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign as an early-entrance student, completing his high school courses while also taking his first university class. After graduating from Urbana High School in 1960, Ebert then attended and received his undergraduate degree in 1964. While at

Career.

Writing.

Ebert began his career as a film critic in 1967, writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times". That same year, he met film critic Pauline Kael for the first time at the New York Film Festival. After he sent her some of his columns, she told him they were "the best film criticism being done in American newspapers today." That same year, Ebert's first book, a history of the University of Illinois titled "Illini Century: One Hundred Years of Campus Life", was published by the University's press. In 1969, his review of "Night of the Living Dead" was published in "Reader's Digest". In addition to film, Ebert would occasionally write about other topics for the "Sun-Times", such as music; In 1970, Ebert wrote the first published concert review of singer-songwriter John Prine, who at the time was working as a mailman and performing at Chicago folk

TV career.

Also in 1975, Ebert and Gene Siskel began co-hosting a weekly film-review television show, "Sneak Previews", which was locally produced by the Chicago public broadcasting station WTTW. The series was later picked up for national syndication on PBS. The duo became well known for their "thumbs up/thumbs down" review summaries. Siskel and Ebert trademarked the phrase "Two Thumbs Up."  In 1982, they moved from PBS to launch a similar syndicated commercial

Later career.

Ebert ended his association with the Disney-owned "At The Movies" in July 2008, after the studio indicated it wished to take the program in a new direction. On February 18, 2009, Ebert reported that he and Roeper would soon announce a new movie-review program, and reiterated this plan after Disney announced that the program's last episode would air in August 2010.  On January 31, 2009, Ebert was made an honorary life member of the Directors Guild of America. His final television series, "", premiered on January 21, 2011, with Ebert contributing

Film and TV appearances.

In 1995, Ebert, along with colleague Gene Siskel, guest-starred on an episode of the animated TV series "The Critic". In the episode, Siskel and Ebert split and each wants Jay as his new partner. The episode is a parody of the film "Sleepless in Seattle". The following year, Ebert appeared in "Pitch", a documentary by Canadian film makers Spencer Rice and Kenny Hotz. He made an appearance as himself in a 1997 episode of the television series "Early Edition", which took place in Chicago. In the episode, Ebert consoles a young boy who is depressed after he sees a character called Bosco the Bunny die in a movie.  In 1999, Roger Ebert founded his own film festival, Ebertfest, in his home town of Champaign, Illinois. He was also a regular fixture at the Hawaii International Film Festival.  In 2003, Ebert made a cameo appearance in the film "Abby Singer". On May 4, 2010, Ebert was announced by the International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences as the Webby Person of the Year, having taken to the internet following his battle with cancer. On October 22, 2010, Ebert appeared on camera with Robert Osborne on

Critical style.

Ebert described his critical approach to films as "relative, not absolute"; he reviewed a film for what he thought it would be to its prospective audience, yet always with at least some consideration as to its value as a whole. He awarded four stars to films of the highest quality, and generally a half star to those of the lowest, unless he considered the film to be "artistically inept and morally repugnant," in which case it received no stars.  Metacritic later noted that Ebert tended to give more lenient ratings than most critics. His average film rating was 71%, if translated into a percentage, compared to 59% for the site as a whole. Of his reviews, 75% were positive and 75% of his ratings were better than his colleagues. Ebert had acknowledged in 2008 that he gave higher ratings on average than other critics, though he said this was in part because he considered a rating of 3 out of 4 stars to be the general threshold for a film to get a "thumbs up." Although Ebert rarely wrote outright-scathing reviews, he had a reputation for writing memorable ones for the films he really disliked, such as "North".  Ebert emphasized that his star ratings had little meaning if not considered in the context of the review itself. Occasionally, Ebert's star rating may have seemed at odds with his written opinion. Ebert acknowledged one such case in his review of "Basic Instinct 2", which he gave 1.5 stars, and about which he wrote "I cannot recommend the movie, but... why the hell can't I? Just because it's godawful? What kind of reason is that of staying away from a movie? Godawful and boring, "that" would be a reason." In his review of "The Manson Family", Ebert gave the film three stars for achieving what

Preferences.

Favorites.

Ebert indicated that his favorite film was "Citizen Kane", joking, "That's the official answer," although he preferred to emphasize it as "the most important" film. He insinuated that his real favorite film was "La Dolce Vita". His favorite actor was Robert Mitchum, and his favorite actress was Ingrid Bergman. He also considered Buster Keaton, Robert Altman,

Best films of the year.

Ebert compiled "best of the year" movie lists beginning in 1967 until 2012, thereby helping provide an overview of his critical preferences. His top choices were:  Ebert revisited and sometimes revised his opinions. After ranking "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" third on his 1982 list, it was the only movie from that year to appear on his later "Best Films of the 1980s" list (where it also ranked third). He made similar reevaluations of "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981) and "Ran" (1985). "Three Colours trilogy" ("" (1993), "" (1994), and "" (also 1994)), and "Pulp Fiction" (1994) originally ranked second and third on Ebert's 1994 list; both were included on his "Best Films of the 1990s" list, but their order had reversed.

Genres and content.

Ebert was often critical of the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system (MPAA). His main arguments were that they were too strict on sex and profanity, too lenient on violence, secretive with their guidelines, inconsistent in applying them and not willing to consider the wider context and meaning of the film. He advocated replacing the NC-17 rating with separate ratings for pornographic and nonpornographic adult films.  Ebert also frequently lamented that cinemas outside major cities are "booked by computer from Hollywood with no regard for local tastes," making high-quality independent and foreign films virtually unavailable to most American moviegoers.  Some horror movie fans accused Ebert of elitism and prejudice against the horror genre, especially because of his dismissive comments about "Dead Teenager Movies." In 2007, Ebert

Contrarian reviews.

Writing in an online magazine "Hazlitt" about Ebert's reviews, Will Sloan argued that "[t]here were inevitably movies where he veered from consensus, but he was not provocative or idiosyncratic by nature." One example of Ebert dissenting with other critics was his one-star review of the celebrated 1986 David Lynch film "Blue Velvet" ("marred by sophomoric satire and cheap shots... in a way, [director Lynch's] behavior is more sadistic than the Hopper character"). He also gave a one-star review to

Other interests.

Ebert was an admirer of director Werner Herzog, whom he supported through many years when Herzog's popularity had declined. He conducted an onstage public "conversation" with Herzog at the Telluride Film Festival in 2004, after a screening of Herzog's film "Invincible" at Roger Ebert's Overlooked Film Festival. Herzog dedicated his film "Encounters at the End of the World" (2008) to Ebert, and Ebert responded with a heartfelt public letter of gratitude. Herzog said he once exhorted Ebert to watch the television reality sitcom "The Anna Nicole Show", featuring the former "Playboy" Playmate, so he could gain a better understanding of the decline

Views on technology.

Ebert was a strong advocate for Maxivision 48, in which the movie projector runs at 48 frames per second, as compared to the usual 24 frames per second. He was opposed to the practice whereby theaters lower the intensity of their projector bulbs in order to extend the life of the bulb, arguing that this has little effect other than to make the film harder to see. Ebert was skeptical of the resurgence of 3D effects in film, which he found unrealistic and distracting.  In 2005, Ebert opined

Personal life.

At age 50, Ebert married trial attorney Charlie "Chaz" Hammelsmith (formerly Chaz Hammel-Smith) in 1992. He explained in his memoir, "Life Itself", that he "would never marry before [his] mother died," as he was afraid of displeasing her. In a July 2012 blog entry titled "Roger loves Chaz," Ebert wrote, "She fills my horizon, she is the great fact of my life, she has my love, she saved me from the fate of living out my life alone, which is where I seemed to be heading." Chaz Ebert is now vice president of the Ebert Company and has emceed Ebertfest.  Ebert was a recovering alcoholic, having quit drinking in 1979. He was a member of Alcoholics Anonymous and had written some blog entries on the subject. He was a longtime friend of, and briefly dated, Oprah Winfrey, who credited him with persuading her to syndicate "The Oprah Winfrey Show", which became the highest-rated talk show in American television history. He was also friends with film historian and critic Leonard Maltin and considered the book "Leonard Maltin's Movie and Video Guide" (final update in 2014) to be the standard of film guide books.  A supporter of the Democratic Party, Ebert publicly urged liberal filmmaker Michael Moore to give a politically charged acceptance speech at the Academy Awards: "I'd like to see Michael Moore get up there and let 'em have it with both barrels and really let loose and give them a real rabble-rousing speech." During a 1996 panel at the University of Colorado Boulder's Conference on World Affairs, Ebert coined the Boulder Pledge, by which he vowed never to purchase anything offered through the result of an unsolicited email message, or to forward chain emails or mass emails to others. Ebert endorsed Barack Obama for re-election as president in 2012.  Ebert was critical of intelligent design, and stated that people who believe in either creationism or New Age beliefs such as crystal healing or astrology are not qualified to be president. Ebert also expressed disbelief in pseudoscientific or supernatural claims in general, calling them "woo-woo," though he has argued that reincarnation is possible from a "scientific, rationalist point of view."  Discussing his beliefs, in 2009 Ebert wrote that he did not "want to provide a category for people to apply to [him]" because he "would not want [his] convictions reduced to a word," and stated, "I have never said, although readers have freely informed me I am an atheist, an agnostic, or at the very least a secular humanist – which I am." In the same blog entry, he also said "I am not a believer, not an atheist, not an agnostic. I am still awake at night, asking "how"? I am more content with the question than I would be with an answer." In March 2013, he wrote: "I support freedom of choice. My choice is to not support abortion, except in cases of a clear-cut choice between the lives of the mother and child. A child conceived through incest or rape is innocent and deserves the right to be born." He also stated: "I consider myself Catholic, lock, stock, and barrel, with this technical loophole: I cannot believe in God. I refuse to call myself an atheist, however, because that indicates too great a certainty about the unknowable". He had previously identified as Catholic in his reviews of movies about Jesus, most notably in his review of Gibson's "The Passion".  On April 25, 2011, he achieved one of his long-time goals: winning one of the weekly cartoon-caption contests in "The New Yorker" after more than 100 attempts.

Death.

Three years before his death, Ebert wrote:  On April 4, 2013, Ebert died at age 70 at a hospital in Chicago, shortly before he was set to return to his home and enter hospice care. Reaction came from celebrities both in and out of the entertainment industry. President Barack Obama wrote, "Roger was the movies... [he could capture] the unique power of the movies to take us somewhere magical.... The movies won't be the same without Roger." Steven Spielberg stated that Ebert's "reviews went far deeper than simply thumbs up or thumbs down. He wrote with passion through a real knowledge of film and film history, and in doing so, helped many movies find their audiences.... [He] put television criticism on the map." Martin Scorsese released a statement saying, "The death of Roger Ebert is an incalculable loss for movie culture and for film criticism. And it's a loss for me personally... there was a professional distance between us, but then I could talk to him much more freely than I could to other critics. Really, Roger was my friend. It's that simple." Robert Redford called Ebert "one of the great champions of freedom of artistic expression" and said, "His personal passion for cinema was boundless, and that is sure to be his legacy for generations to come." Christopher Nolan said of Ebert, "He never became jaded... even while bringing a very thoughtful critical eye." Oprah Winfrey called Ebert's death the "end of an era."  Hundreds of people attended the funeral Mass held at Chicago's Holy Name Cathedral on April 8, 2013, where Ebert was celebrated as a film critic, newspaperman, advocate for social justice, and husband. Father Michael Pfleger concluded the service with "the balconies of heaven are filled with angels singing "Thumbs Up"."

Memorials and legacy.

A 2hr 45min public tribute, entitled "Roger Ebert: A Celebration of Life", was held on April 11, 2013, at the Chicago Theatre. It featured in-person remembrances, video testimonials, video and film clips, and gospel choirs, and was, according to the "Chicago Tribune" Mark Caro, "a laughter- and sorrow-filled send-off from the entertainment and media worlds."  In September 2013, organizers in Champaign, Illinois, announced plans to raise $125,000 to build a life-size bronze statue of Ebert in the town, which was unveiled in front of the Virginia Theatre at Ebertfest on April 24, 2014. The composition was selected by his widow, Chaz Ebert, and depicts Ebert sitting in the middle of three theater seats giving a "thumbs up."  The 2013 Toronto International Film Festival opened with a video tribute of Ebert at Roy Thomson Hall during the world premiere of the WikiLeaks-based film "The Fifth Estate". Ebert had

Awards and honors.

Ebert has received many awards during his long and distinguished career as a film critic and television host. In 2003, Ebert was honored by the American Society of Cinematographers winning a Special Achievement Award. In 2005, Ebert received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work on television. His star is located at 6834 Hollywood Blvd. In

Bibliography.

Each year from 1986 to 1998, Ebert published "Roger Ebert's Movie Home Companion" (retitled "Roger Ebert's Video Companion" for its last five installments), which collected all of his movie reviews to that point. From 1999 to 2013 (except in 2008), Ebert instead published "Roger Ebert's Movie Yearbook", a collection of all of his movie reviews from the previous two and a half years (for example, the 2011 edition,, covers January 2008 – July 2010.) Both series also included yearly essays, interviews, and other writings. He also wrote the following books:

Roger Joseph Ebert (; June 18, 1942 – April 4, 2013) was an American film critic, historian, journalist, screenwriter, and author. He was a film critic for the "Chicago Sun-Times" from 1967 until his death in 2013. In 1975, Ebert became the first film critic to win the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism.

Roger Ebert, né le à Urbana dans l’Illinois, et mort le à Chicago, est un journaliste américain. Critique de cinéma particulièrement reconnu en Amérique, sa rubrique du "Chicago Sun-Times" est reprise dans 200 journaux. Dans ses livres, sur son site web et à la télévision, il a largement contribué à promouvoir un cinéma de qualité auprès du public américain.


Early years.

Gala was born as Elena Ivanovna Diakonova (Russian: Елена Ивановна Дьяконова) in Kazan, Kazan Governorate, Russian Empire, to a family of intellectuals. Among her childhood friends was the poet Marina Tsvetaeva. She began working as a schoolteacher in 1915, at which time she was living in Moscow.

Marriage to Éluard.

In 1912, she was sent to a sanatorium at Clavadel, near Davos in Switzerland for the treatment of tuberculosis. She met Paul Éluard while in Switzerland and fell in love with him. They were both seventeen. In 1916, during World War I, she traveled from Russia to Paris to reunite with him; they were married one year later. Their daughter, Cécile, was born in 1918. Gala detested motherhood, mistreating and ignoring her child. With Éluard, Gala became involved in the Surrealist movement. She was an inspiration for many artists including Éluard, Louis Aragon, Max Ernst, and André Breton. Breton later despised her, claiming she was a destructive influence on the artists she befriended. She, Éluard, and Ernst spent three years in a "ménage à trois", from 1924 to 1927. In early August 1929, Éluard and Gala visited a young Surrealist painter in Spain, the emerging Salvador Dalí. An affair quickly developed between Gala and Dalí, who was about 10 years younger than she. Nevertheless, even after the breakup of their marriage, Éluard and Gala continued to be close.

Marriage to Dalí.

After living together since 1929, Dalí and Gala married in a civil ceremony in 1934, and remarried in a Catholic ceremony in 1958 in the Pyrenean hamlet of Montrejic. They needed to receive a special dispensation by the Pope because Gala had been previously married and she was a believer (not Catholic, but was an Orthodox Christian). Due to his purported phobia of female genitalia, Dalí was said to have been a virgin when they met on the Costa Brava in 1929. Around that time she was found to have uterine fibroids, for which she underwent a hysterectomy in 1936. She was Dalí's muse, directly inspiring and appearing in many of his works.  In the early 1930s, Dalí started to sign his paintings with his and her name as "(i)t is mostly with your blood, Gala, that I paint my pictures". He stated that Gala acted as his agent, and aided in redirecting his focus. According to most accounts, Gala had a strong libido and throughout her life had numerous extramarital affairs (among them with her former husband Paul Éluard), which Dalí encouraged, since he was a practitioner of candaulism. She had a fondness for young artists, and in her old age she often gave expensive gifts to those who associated with her.  In 1968, Dalí bought Gala the Castle of Púbol, Girona, where she would spend time every summer from 1971 to 1980. He also agreed not to visit there without getting advance permission from her in writing.  In her late seventies, Gala had a relationship with millionaire multi-platinum rock singer Jeff Fenholt, former lead vocalist of "Jesus Christ Superstar". Fenholt acted as a business representative for the Dalís in the United States, arranging sales of Dalí's work to Alice Cooper (a hologram) and The Grateful Dead. He also sold the short film "Journey Through Upper Mongolia", the short film "Blood Is Thicker Than Honey", and others. Fenholt has stated that Gala told him from her hospital bed in Spain that Dalí had assaulted her, knocking her down and breaking her hip, which later resulted in her death.

Death.

Gala died in Port Lligat in Catalonia, Spain, early in the morning of 10 June 1982, at the age of 87. In the months before her death, Gala had battled a severe case of influenza, after which she began to exhibit signs of dementia. She was interred in the Castle of Púbol, which her husband had purchased for her in 1968, in a crypt with a chessboard style pattern.

Gala as model.

Gala is a frequent model in Dalí's work, often in religious roles such as the Blessed Virgin Mary in the 1949 painting "The Madonna of Port Lligat". His paintings of her show his great love for her, and some are perhaps the most affectionate and sensual depictions of a middle-aged woman in Western art. Among the paintings she served as a model for are: "Imperial Monument to the Child-Woman, Gala" (1929); "Memory of the Child-Woman" (1932); "The Angelus of Gala" (1935); "Gala and "The Angelus" of Millet before the Imminent Arrival of the Conical Anamorphoses" (1933); "William Tell and Gradiva" (1931); "The Old Age of William Tell" (1931); "The Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus" (1958-59); "The Ecumenical Council" (1960); "Corpus Hypercubus" (1954); "Galatea of the Spheres" (1952); and others.

"Portrait of Galarina".

In "Portrait of Galarina", (1940–1945) Gala's face is shown severe and confrontational, her bared breast meant to depict bread, and the snake on the arm a gift of Dalí's sponsor Edward James.

Gala Dalí, Marchioness of Dalí de Púbol ( – 10 June 1982), usually known simply as Gala, was the Russian wife of poet Paul Éluard and later of artist Salvador Dalí, who were both prominent in surrealism. She also inspired many other writers and artists.

Gala Dalí, née Elena Ivanovna Diakonova (Елена Ивановна Дьяконова), à Kazan (Russie) le et morte à Portlligat, Espagne, le, a eu pour époux le poète Paul Éluard, pour amant Max Ernst puis s'est finalement mariée avec Salvador Dalí.


History of the rudder.

Generally, a rudder is "part of the steering apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull", that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles, and rudders. More specifically, the steering gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders, depending on their location on the ship. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types. In a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position.  Although some classify a steering oar as a rudder, others argue that the steering oar used in ancient Egypt and Rome was not a true rudder and define only the stern-mounted rudder used in ancient Han dynasty China as a true rudder. The steering oar has the capacity to interfere with handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in ancient China during the 1st century AD. In regards to the ancient Phoenician (1550–300 BC) use of the steering oar without a rudder in the Mediterranean, Leo Block (2003) writes:  A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts like a brake. The second sail, located forward, could be trimmed to offset the turning tendency of the main sail and minimize the need for course corrections by the steering oar, which would have substantially improved sail performance.  The steering oar or steering board is an oversized oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the starboard side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever, attached.

Steering oar/gear.

Ancient Egypt.

Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes (3100 BC). In the Old Kingdom (2686 BC-2134 BC) as many as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, can be traced to the fifth dynasty (2504–2347 BC). Both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. Single steering oars put on the stern can be found in a number of tomb models of the time, particularly during the Middle Kingdom when tomb reliefs suggests them commonly employed in Nile navigation. The first literary reference appears in the works of the Greek historian Herodotus (484-424 BC), who had spent several months in Egypt: "They make one rudder, and this is thrust through the keel", probably meaning the crotch at the end of the keel (see right pic "Tomb of Menna").  In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, and even remnants of actual boats.

Ancient Rome.

Roman navigation used sexillie quarter steering oars that went in the Mediterranean through a long period of constant refinement and improvement, so that by Roman times ancient vessels reached extraordinary sizes. The strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period.  By the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds (Zwammderdam, Woerden 7). A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage. The boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, and diverse other ship types. Also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern. According to new research, the advanced Nemi ships, the palace barges of emperor Caligula (37-41 AD), may have featured 14 m long rudders.

Sternpost-mounted rudder.

Ancient China.

The world's oldest known depiction of a sternpost-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a Chinese junk dating from the 1st century AD during the Han Dynasty, predating their appearance in the West by a thousand years. In China, miniature models of ships that feature steering oars have been dated to the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC). Sternpost-mounted rudders started to appear on Chinese ship models starting in the 1st century AD. However, the Chinese continued to use the steering oar long after they invented the rudder, since the steering oar still had limited practical use for inland rapid-river travel. One of oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted rudder in China can be seen on a 2-foot-long tomb pottery model of a junk dating from the 1st century AD, during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). It was discovered in Guangzhou in an archaeological excavation carried out by the Guangdong Provincial Museum and Academia Sinica of Taiwan in 1958. Within decades, several other Han Dynasty ship models featuring rudders were found in archaeological excavations. The first solid written reference to the use of a rudder without a steering oar dates to the 5th century.  Chinese rudders are attached to the hull by means of wooden jaws or sockets, while typically larger ones were suspended from above by a rope tackle system so that they could be raised or lowered into the water. Also, many junks incorporated "fenestrated rudders" (rudders with holes in them, supposedly allowing for better control). Detailed descriptions of Chinese junks during the Middle Ages are known from various travellers to China, such as Ibn Battuta of Tangier, Morocco and Marco Polo of Venice, Italy. The later Chinese encyclopedist Song Yingxing (1587–1666) and the 17th-century European traveler Louis Lecomte wrote of the junk design and its use of the rudder with enthusiasm and admiration.  Paul Johnstone and Sean McGrail state that the Chinese invented the "median, vertical and axial" sternpost-mounted rudder, and that such a kind of rudder preceded the pintle-and-gudgeon rudder found in the West by roughly a millennium.

Medieval Near East.

Arab ships also used a sternpost-mounted rudder. On their ships "the rudder is controlled by two lines, each attached to a crosspiece mounted on the rudder head perpendicular to the plane of the rudder blade." The earliest evidence comes from the "Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Marifat al-Aqalim" ('The Best Divisions for the Classification of Regions') written by al-Muqaddasi in 985:

Medieval Europe.

Oars mounted on the side of ships evolved into quarter steering oars, which were used from antiquity until the end of the Middle Ages in Europe. As the size of ships and the height of the freeboards increased, quarter steering oars became unwieldy and were replaced by the more sturdy rudders with pintle and gudgeon attachment. While Steering oars were found in Europe on a wide range of vessels since Roman times, including light war galleys in Mediterranean,the oldest known depiction of a pintle-and-gudgeon rudder can be found on church carvings of Zedelgem and Winchester dating to around 1180. While earlier rudders were mounted on the stern by the way of rudderposts or tackles, the iron hinges allowed for the first time to attach the rudder to the entire length of the sternpost in a really permanent fashion. However, its full potential could only to be realized after the introduction of the vertical sternpost and the full-rigged ship in the 14th century. From the age of discovery onwards, European ships with pintle-and-gudgeon rudders sailed successfully on all seven seas. Many historians' consensus considered the technology of stern-mounted rudder in Europe and Islamic World, which was introduced by travelers in the Middle Ages, was transferred from China. However, Lawrence Mott in his master thesis stated that the method of attachment for rudders in the Chinese and European worlds differed from each other, leading him to doubt the spread of the Chinese system of attachment

Modern rudders.

Conventional rudders have been essentially unchanged since Isambard Kingdom Brunel introduced the balanced rudder on the SS "Great Britain" in 1843 and the steering engine in the SS "Great Eastern" in 1866. If a vessel requires extra maneuverability at low speeds, the rudder may be supplemented by a manoeuvring thruster in the bow, or be replaced entirely by azimuth thrusters.

Boat rudders details.

Boat rudders may be either outboard or inboard. Outboard rudders are hung on the stern or transom. Inboard rudders are hung from a keel or skeg and are thus fully submerged beneath the hull, connected to the steering mechanism by a rudder post that comes up through the hull to deck level, often into a cockpit. Inboard keel hung rudders (which are a continuation of the aft trailing edge of the full keel) are traditionally deemed the most damage resistant rudders for off shore sailing. Better performance with faster handling characteristics can be provided by skeg hung rudders on boats with smaller fin keels.  Rudder post and mast placement defines the difference between a ketch and a yawl, as these two-masted vessels are similar. Yawls are defined as having the mizzen mast abaft (i.e. "aft of") the rudder post; ketches are defined as having the mizzen mast forward of the rudder post.  Small boat rudders that can be steered more or less perpendicular to the hull's longitudinal axis make effective brakes when pushed "hard over." However, terms such as "hard over," "hard to starboard," etc. signify a maximum-rate turn for larger vessels. Transom hung rudders or far aft mounted fin rudders generate greater moment and faster turning than more forward mounted keel hung rudders. Rudders on smaller craft can be operated by means of a tiller that fits into the rudder stock that also forms the fixings to the rudder foil. Craft where the length of the tiller could impede movement of the helm can be split with a rubber universal joint and the part adjoined the tiller termed a tiller extension. Tillers can further be extended by means of adjustable telescopic twist locking extension.  There is also the barrel type rudder, where the ship's screw is enclosed and can be swiveled to steer the vessel. Designers claim that this type of rudder on a smaller vessel will answer the helm faster.

Aircraft rudders.

On an aircraft, the rudder is a directional control surface along with the rudder-like elevator (usually attached to the horizontal tail structure, if not a slab elevator) and ailerons (attached to the wings) that control pitch and roll, respectively. The rudder is usually attached to the fin (or vertical stabilizer), which allows the pilot to control yaw about the vertical axis, i.e., change the horizontal direction in which the nose is pointing. The rudder's direction in aircraft since the "Golden Age" of flight between the two World Wars into the 21st century has been manipulated with the movement of a pair of counter-moving foot pedals by the pilot, while during the pre-1919 era rudder control was most often operated with a center-pivoted, solid "rudder bar" that usually had pedal and/or stirrup-like hardware on its ends to allow the pilot's feet to stay close to the ends of the bar's rear surface.  In practice, both aileron and rudder control input are used together to turn an aircraft, with the ailerons imparting roll and the rudder imparting yaw and also compensating for a phenomenon called adverse yaw. A rudder alone will turn a conventional fixed-wing aircraft, but much more slowly than if ailerons are also used in conjunction. Use of rudder and ailerons together produces coordinated turns, in which the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is in line with the arc of the turn, neither slipping (under-ruddered), nor skidding (over-ruddered). Improperly ruddered (uncoordinated) turns at low speed can precipitate a spin that can be dangerous at low altitudes.  Sometimes pilots may intentionally operate the rudder and ailerons in opposite directions in a maneuver called a slip. This may be done to overcome crosswinds and keep the fuselage in line with the runway, or to more rapidly lose altitude by increasing drag, or both. The pilots of Air Canada Flight 143 used a similar technique to land the plane as it was too high above the glideslope.  Any aircraft rudder is subject to considerable forces that determine its position via a force or torque balance equation. In extreme cases these forces can lead to loss of rudder control or even destruction of the rudder, as on American Airlines Flight 587 (the same principles also apply to water vessels, of course, but it is more important for aircraft because they have lower engineering margins). Maximum rudder deflection is controlled by a rudder travel limiter. The largest achievable angle of a rudder in flight is called its blowdown limit; it is achieved when the force from the air or blowdown equals the maximum available hydraulic pressure.  In multi-engined aircraft where the engines are positioned off the centre line, the rudder may be used to compensate for the yaw effect of asymmetric thrust, which can occur if the engines are not producing an equal amount of power or in the event of engine failure. Further, on large jet airliners, the rudder is mainly used to align the aircraft with the runway during crosswind landing and take-off.  For taxiing and during the beginning of the take-off, aircraft are steered by a combination of rudder input as well as turning the nosewheel or tailwheel. At slow speeds the nosewheel or tailwheel has the most control authority, but as the speed increases the aerodynamic effects of the rudder increases, thereby making the rudder more and more important for yaw control. In some aircraft (mainly small aircraft) both of these mechanisms are controlled by the rudder pedals so there is no difference to the pilot. In other aircraft there is a special tiller controlling the wheel steering and the pedals control the rudder, and a limited amount of wheel steering (usually 5 degrees of nosewheel steering). For these aircraft the pilots stop using the tiller after lining up with the runway prior to take-off, and begin using it after landing before turning off the runway, to prevent over correcting with the sensitive tiller at high speeds. The pedals may also be used for small corrections while taxing in a straight line, or leading in or out of a turn, before applying the tiller, to keep the turn smooth.

Trim tab.

Trim tabs are small surfaces connected to the trailing edge of a larger control surface, such as a rudder on an aircraft, that are used to control the trim of the controls, i.e., to counteract aerodynamic forces and stabilise the aircraft in a particular desired attitude without the need for the operator to constantly apply a control force. This is done by adjusting the angle of the tab relative to the larger surface.  Changing the setting of a trim tab adjusts the neutral or resting position of a control surface (such as an elevator or rudder). As the desired position of a control surface changes (corresponding mainly to different speeds), an adjustable trim tab will allow the operator to reduce the manual force required to maintain that position—to zero, if used correctly. Thus the trim tab acts as a servo tab. Because the center of pressure of the trim tab is further away from the axis of rotation of the control surface than the center of pressure of the control surface, the movement generated by the tab can match the movement generated by the control surface. The position of the control surface on its axis will change until the torque from the control surface and the trim surface balance each other.

A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium (generally air or water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw and p-factor and is not the primary control used to turn the airplane. A rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull (watercraft) or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a flat plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the craft's stern, tail, or after end. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag. On simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels. In typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics.

Le gouvernail est un dispositif mobile destiné au contrôle directionnel d'un bateau et plus généralement de tout engin se déplaçant sur ou dans l'eau.


Early life and art.

Sébillot came from an old Breton family and a line of doctors. His father Pierre Sébillot was cited for his devotion during the cholera epidemic of 1832 at Saint-Cast-le-Guildo, and became mayor of Matignon in 1848.  After studying at the communal college of Dinan, Sébillot moved to Rennes to study jurisprudence, which he completed in Paris in 1863. Very interested in painting, he also took courses with Augustin Feyen-Perrin and in 1870 he exhibited at the Salon a canvas entitled "Rochers à Marée Basse" (Rocks at Low Tide), which was also later shown at London in 1872. Sébillot continued his painting until 1883, during which time fourteen of his works were shown at the Paris Salon and two at the Vienna World Fair in 1873. His inspiration was largely taken from the Breton landscape. He also contributed to several journals as an art critic: "Le Bien Public", "La Réforme", "L'Art français" and "L'Art libre".

Writings.

In parallel with his art work Sébillot began a literary career with the publication in 1875 of "La République, c’est la tranquillité" the success of which was such that it was republished twice in the same year. It was at that time that he met the folklorist François-Marie Luzel who translated the book into Breton.  After this he published new works regularly. In 1877, he created "La Pomme", an association of Bretons and Normans, of which he became president the following year. In 1889, a monthly journal of the same name was created. In 1881 he initiated with Charles Leclerc the publication "Collection des Littératures populaires de toutes les nations" (Collection of the Popular Literatures of all Nations), to which he contributed "La littérature orale de la Haute-Bretagne" (Oral Literature of Upper Brittany). In 1882, came the creation of the "Société des Traditions populaires", which organized the "Dîners de ma Mère l'Oye", meetings of folklorists which gave rise to the journal of the same name. From 1886 he became the general secretary of the association and assumed the direction of the journal.  In 1889, he participated in the first Congress of Popular Traditions in Paris, and was named principal private secretary to the Ministry of Labour, when his brother-in-law, Yves Guyot was named Minister for Labour. He remained in this job until 1892, an ideal position from which to collect the information which would later be the subject of his book "Les Travaux publics et les mines dans les traditions et superstitions de tous les pays" (Public Works and the Mines in the Traditions and Superstitions of all Lands), in 1894. The following year, he collected the list of his publications (books and articles), under the title "Autobibliographie".  In 1905, he was named President of the "Société d'anthropologie".

Paul Sébillot (6 February 1843 in Matignon, Côtes-d'Armor, France – 23 April 1918 in Paris) was a French folklorist, painter, and writer. Many of his works are about his native province, Brittany.

Paul Sébillot (Matignon, Côtes-d'Armor, - Paris, le ) est un ethnologue, écrivain et peintre français, originaire de Bretagne. Nombre de ses travaux sont consacrés à son pays d’origine.


Life.

De Heem was born in Utrecht as "Johannes van Antwerpen". He studied first under his father David de Heem the Elder (1570–1631), then under Balthasar van der Ast. He lived in Leiden from about 1625 to 1629, where he studied in 1629 under David Bailly (1584- c. 1657).  He moved to the Southern Netherlands and joined the Guild of Saint Luke of Antwerp in 1635 or 1636 and became a burgher of that city in 1637. However he was often absent, as attested by the duties he had to pay for this. His remarkable talent gained him a considerable reputation. He could hardly satisfy the demand. De Heem was considered one of the greatest painters of his time. He was well paid and a portrait of Prince William III surrounded by a cartouche of flowers and fruit was sold for 2000 guilders, one of the highest prices ever paid for a painting during the Dutch Golden Age. His sons worked together with him in his workshop on the commissions for new paintings. He retouched their work and put his signature on the paintings.  He remained in Antwerp until 1667, when he moved back to Utrecht, where records trace his presence from 1668 to 1671. He left Utrecht in 1671 when French troops were approaching the city. It is not known when he finally returned to Antwerp, but his death there is recorded in the guild books.  Van Heem married twice, first with Alette van Weede with whom he had three surviving children on her death in 1643, one of which, Cornelis, would become a still life painter. He married a second time in 1644 with Anna Catherina Ruckers with whom he had six more children, one of whom was Jan who would also become a still life painter.  Apart from his two sons, he had several apprentices: Michiel Verstylen, Alexander Coosemans, Thomas de Klerck, Lenaert Rougghe, Theodor Aenvanck, Andries Benedetti, Elias van den Broeck, Jacob Marrel, Hendrik Schoock and Abraham Mignon.

Work.

De Heem was one of the greatest painters of still lifes in the Netherlands, combining a brilliance and harmony of colour along with an accurate rendering of objects: flowers, in all their variety; European and tropical fruits; lobsters and oysters; butterflies and moths; stone and metal; snails and sea shells.  His still lifes included fruit pieces, vanitas still lifes and flower pieces, but he is best known for his ornate or sumptuous still lifes, the so-called 'pronkstillevens'. Some of his works are displays of abundance; others, only a festoon or a nosegay.  Often he would convey a moral or illustrate a motto: a snake lying coiled under grass; a skull on plants in bloom. Gold and silver cups or tankards are suggestive of the vanity of earthly possessions. Salvation is seen allegorically as a chalice amid blossoms, and death as a crucifix in a wreath. Sometimes de Heem painted, alone or with others, Madonnas or portraits in garlands of fruit or flowers.  His signature varied: his initials (J. De Heem f.), or Johannes (IOANNES DE HEEM F.), or his father's name adjoined to his own (J. D. De Heem f.). Occasionally he provided a date (such as A. i65i), especially with his best work.

Collections.

Of the one hundred or more of his pictures seen in European galleries, only 18 are dated. An early work shows a chased tankard with a bottle, a silver cup and a lemon on a marble table, dated 1640, in the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. A similar work of 1645, with the addition of fruit, flowers and a distant landscape, is at Longford Castle. A chalice in a wreath, with a radiant bouquet among wheat sheaves, grapes and flowers, is a masterpiece of 1648 in the Belvedere of Vienna. A wreath around a life-sized Madonna, dated 1650, in the museum of Berlin, shows that de Heem could paint brightly and harmoniously on a large scale. The Prado Museum owns a "Table" dated around 1651 and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum houses "Flowers in a glass Vase with Fruit" circa 1665.  In the Alte Pinakothek in Munich is a celebrated work of 1653 in which creepers mingle beautifully with gourds, blackberries, orange, myrtle and peach, and further enlivened with butterflies, moths and beetles. A landscape with a blooming rose tree, a jug of strawberries, a selection of fruit, and a marble bust of Pan, dated 1655, is in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. Some of his works are kept at the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium in Brussels. A 1645 still life of a feast of fruit and lobster is in the gallery at the Allen Memorial Art Museum in Oberlin, Ohio. A simple still life of pewter goblets can be seen in the Barber Institute in Birmingham UK.

Family.

A number of de Heems, of whom Jan Davidsz. was the most distinguished, painted works in similar styles, that are often hard to distinguish. These include a brother, two sons, of whom Cornelis became particularly successful, and at least one grandson by each son.  This family of painters started with the unknown father of David de Heem the Elder (1570–1631) and an unknown brother. This anonymous brother had a son, Jan or Johannes de Heem (c. 1603 - † probably after 1659), a painter of still lifes, flowers and fruits.  David de Heem the Elder had two sons, also painters: Jan Davidsz. de Heem (1606- † before 26 April 1684) and David Davidsz. de Heem (1610 - † after 1669).  Jan Davidsz. de Heem had three sons, all painters; from a first marriage: David Janszoon de Heem (29 November 1628 - †?), Cornelis de Heem (1631–1695) and from a second marriage Jan de Heem (1650 - †?).  Cornelis de Heem had one son who was a painter: David Corneliszoon de Heem (1663–1718).

Jan Davidsz. de Heem or in-full "Jan Davidszoon de Heem", also called "Johannes de Heem" or "Johannes van Antwerpen" or "Jan Davidsz de Hem" (c. 17 April 1606 in Utrecht – before 26 April 1684 in Antwerp), was a still life painter who was active in Utrecht and Antwerp. He is a major representative of that genre in both Dutch and Flemish Baroque painting.

Jan Davidszoon (souvent graphié Davidsz) de Heem est un peintre néerlandais de natures mortes, né en 1606 à Utrecht et mort en 1684 à Anvers.


History.

This cartridge was based on the 7.65mm Borchardt of 1893, the most successful semi-automatic pistol cartridge in production at the time, due to its use in the Borchardt C-93 pistol. The 7.63mm Mauser is sometimes confused with the later 7.65mm Parabellum (.30 Parabellum), also a bottlenecked pistol cartridge used in the Luger Parabellum. It has been manufactured from the 1890s until the present by various ammunition manufacturers.  Firearms chambered for the 7.63mm Mauser cartridge include the pistol for which it was designed, the Mauser C96 in all variants and copies, the Astra Model 900 and variants, the Schwarzlose Model 1898, the 1911-pattern Star models A and M, and a handful of pre-World War II submachine guns such as the Swiss Bergmann M/20 exported to China and Japan and SIG's unique MKMO.  Several Soviet pistol and submachine gun developments of the late 1920s were designed to use the 7.63mm Mauser cartridge. The Mauser cartridge thus became the basis for the 7.62mm Tokarev as officially adopted by the Soviet Union. Although the case dimensions of the two cartridges are nearly identical, the 7.62mm Tokarev has a stronger powder charge and is generally not suited for use in Mauser C96 pistols or other firearms chambered for 7.63mm Mauser. However, the slightly less powerful 7.63mm Mauser could be used safely in firearms chambered for the more powerful 7.62mm Tokarev. This became important later during World War II on the Eastern Front when the Germans began using captured 7.62×25mm weapons, notably the PPSh-41 and PPS, and fed them with 7.63mm Mauser rounds. During the Finnish-Soviet Winter War and World War II, the cartridge was issued by Finnish and German forces for use in captured Soviet submachine guns, due to its inherent substitutability for the Soviet 7.62×25mm round. According to Finnish military archives, the Finnish Army ordered one million rounds of 7.63mm Mauser from FN for this purpose.

Contemporary usage.

Some 7.63mm Mauser ammunition is still manufactured by Fiocchi, Sellier & Bellot, and Prvi Partizan. Reloadable boxer-primed cartridge cases can be formed from 9mm Winchester Magnum by simply resizing and trimming. Alternately, they can be formed from 5.56mm NATO with the additional step of inside neck-reaming. These cases bulge slightly on firing, and proper Mauser stripper clips are squeezed in a vise in order to secure an adequate grip on the smaller rims. For the Mauser, the use of.311" or.312" bullets produce the best accuracy - the Hornady 85 grain.311" XTP being a particularly good choice, but Tokarev TT-33 and Czech CZ-52 pistols have tighter barrels and chambers and function better with.310" bullets of the sort intended for the 7.65mm Luger and.30 Carbine rounds.

The 7.63×25mm Mauser (.30 Mauser Automatic) round was the original cartridge for the Mauser C96 service pistol. This cartridge headspaces on the shoulder of the case. It later served as the basis for the 7.62mm Tokarev cartridge commonly used in Soviet and Eastern Bloc weapons.

Le 7,63 × 25 mm Mauser fut, dès l'an 1896, la première cartouche à être utilisée comme munition du pistolet Mauser C96.


History.

The territory on which Granby is found was described as natural prairies and forests composed of ash, fir, maple, hemlock and birch, there was also a small swamp a kilometer and half uphill. The area was inhabited sporadically by nomadic First Nations.  In 1792, Loyalists were granted permission to colonize the Eastern Townships. On January 29, 1803, the Executive Council of Quebec conceded the "Township of Granby" to Colonel Henry Caldwell and his 97 associates. John Horner, the first inhabitant who settled on the site of the current town arrived in 1813. Horner built a sawmill near the Yamaska River. Twelve years later, in 1825, he opened a general store with Richard Frost. Frost traced the official plans later that same year.  Granby became an incorporated municipality in 1816, and a town in 1971.  Field areas have been exploited for agricultural use and the North Yamaska river's flow has been used for its hydraulic energy since the construction of a first dam in 1815 by large industrial companies; the use of dams along the stream has provoked the formation of a large shallow swamp, called Lac Boivin, often cited as one of Granby's landmarks.  In May 2006, the citizens of Granby and Granby Township held a referendum on a possible merger. A majority of citizens of the two municipalities approved the merger, which took effect on January 1, 2007.

Geography.

Granby is a flat region located approximately halfway between Montreal and Sherbrooke along Autoroute 10; historically a land covered by forests and prairies, it has transformed into an urbanized core surrounded by fields and suburban neighborhoods. The North Yamaska river, which crosses lake Boivin (this lake took shape after the construction of a series of dams and later changed into a large swamp praised for its biodiversity. It connects to nearby villages by a network of roads and has two access points from the highway at exit 68 (through Saint-Alphonse-de-Granby) and 74 (via Bromont).

Parks and green spaces.

It is notable that Granby possess many parks and fountains upon its territory, notable ones are parks Daniel-Johnson, Victoria, Terry Fox, Miner, Pelletier, and Kennedy.

Economy and attractions.

Granby is a regional centre for industries (textile, lumber, dairy products) and commercial zone, but is also a tourist town, due to the presence of the important Granby Zoo, founded by the Mayor Horace Boivin. It hosts a "Fête des Mascottes" ("Mascot Festival") each year in July.  Granby is the host of the yearly "Festival de la chanson de Granby" ("Granby Song Festival") in which many well-known artists, such as Jean Leloup and Luc De Larochellière, have first gained public exposure.  The international classic car show takes place at parc Daniel-Johnston, with over 2500 antiques, vintage, hot rods, muscle cars and classic imports cars every summer. Granby's annual classic car show  Granby is also home to the Galeries de Granby regional shopping mall which has 106 stores.  The Autodrome Granby, one of Canada's largest dirt oval racing tracks, hosts professional racing teams every Friday night from May to September. Winner of many prizes Autodrome Granby is known worldwide in the racing community.

Sports.

Granby is the location of the annual Challenger Banque Nationale de Granby of the ATP Challenger Tour, which takes place at the Club de Tennis des Loisirs de Granby.  The Granby Inouk of the Quebec Junior AAA Hockey League are based in Granby. The Inouk play their home games at the Leonard Grondin Arena.  Granby is also home to the Ligue de Baseball Senior Élite du Québec's Granby Guerriers. The Guerriers play their home games at Napoléon Fontaine Stadium.  From 1981 to 1997, Granby was home to a QMJHL team, originally called the Granby Bisons but changed to the Granby Prédateurs in 1995. The team won the Memorial Cup in 1996. In 1997, the franchise relocated to Sydney, Nova Scotia and became the Cape Breton Screaming Eagles. Both teams played at Léonard Grondin Arena.

Transportation.

The public transit department of the town is Transport urbain Granby. Until 1956, it was the eastern terminus of the Montreal and Southern Counties Railway's Montreal-Granby Line.

Climate.

Granby has a humid continental climate. It has significant variations of temperature with four distinct seasons. Summers are warm but short and winters are very cold. Transitional seasons have significant variations of temperature between adjacent months. Precipitation is quite high, resulting in rainy summers and snowy winters.

Twin towns – sister cities.

Granby's twinned are:  <br

Granby is a town in southwestern Quebec, located east of Montreal. The population as of the Canada 2011 Census was 63,433. Granby is the seat of La Haute-Yamaska Regional County Municipality. It is the fourth most populated town in Montérégie after Longueuil, Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, and Brossard. The town is named after John Manners, Marquess of Granby; today it is most famous for the Granby Zoo and its landmark fountain of Lac Boivin.

Granby (se prononce populairement ) est une ville, située dans la MRC de La Haute-Yamaska en Montérégie, au Québec, au Canada et dans la région touristique des Cantons-de-l'Est.


Club career.

Early career.

D'Alessandro was born in the La Paternal section of Buenos Aires, Argentina. He joined the labor force as a pizza delivery boy before becoming a professional footballer. Known as "El Cabezón" ("The Big Headed") for how large his big head looks on his small frame rather than any ego connotations, he emerged through the River Plate youth system that has produced much of Argentina's top talent over the years. He followed the likes of Santiago Solari and Pablo Aimar through the ranks, together with Javier Saviola, with whom he shared the limelight in the 2001 Youth World Championship. With the River Plate senior team, he won the 2001–02 and 2002–03 Primera División titles.

Spell in Europe.

D'Alessandro attracted attention from European clubs following his success and performances at the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship. He eventually transferred to Wolfsburg in July 2003 for a club record €9 million. On 21 September 2005, D'Alessandro scored the Bundesliga's 40,000th goal since its creation in 1963, netting the fourth goal in a 4–2 victory over Hannover 96.  On 31 January 2006, to the surprise of most fans, D'Alessandro joined English Premier League club Portsmouth on loan for the remainder of the season. His main objective with his new club was to blend in with new teammates and help his club to avoid relegation. On Easter Monday, 17 April, he scored his first goal in English football – a contender for goal of the season – in Portsmouth's 2–1 defeat away to Charlton Athletic.  Portsmouth survived and manager Harry Redknapp sought to sign D'Alessandro on a permanent basis. But he was attracting the attention of many European clubs with strong interest from the likes of Atlético Madrid and Benfica. On 17 June he ended the speculation regarding his career by completing a season-long loan switch to La Liga outfit Real Zaragoza, citing his desire to play in Spain as a major factor in his decision. On 6 June 2007, he signed a contract at Zaragoza, keeping him at the club until 2011.

Return to South America.

In 2008, he joined his former River Plate manager Ramón Díaz at Argentine club San Lorenzo. However, after Díaz left the club, D'Alesandro opted to move to Brazil to play for Internacional. Playing for the former Copa Libertadores champions, he described as a "step forward" in his career.  On 13 December 2008 it was reported on ESPN Deportes that the Los Angeles Galaxy had made a $10 million offer to Internacional for D'Alesandro but was declined. Their vice president Fernando Carvalho was quoted; "The offer came from the Los Angeles Galaxy of the United States. I didn't even want to listen to the details. The offer was for more money than we paid for D'Alessandro, who arrived here for five million euro, but we want to keep the Argentinian." D'Alessandro has become one of Internacional's most idolized players of all time along the likes of Falcão, Valdomiro, and Fernandão. In 2008, he was part of Inter's Sulamericana Championship. In 2009 Internacional finished in second place in both the Brasileirão and Copa do Brasil. In 2010, D'Alessandro led Internacional to their second Libertadores Championship, and was elected the best player in South America for that year; in the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup, he also helped Internacional to a third-place finish, and was awarded the Bronze Ball as the tournament's third best player. In 2011 D'Alessadro had personally an even better year, but Internacional only managed to win the State Gaucho Championship. 2012 was a bad year for both Internacional and D'Alessandro. Furthermore, rumours of him leaving to play in China caused a major distraction; after long drawn out drama he stayed but soon was injured. In 2013 his game improved again, and while Inter only won the State Championship, he was praised as the only positive factor of the team that year. 2014 started well; D'Alessandro continued to play well and led Inter to their 4th straight Gaucho Championship.  On 3 February 2016, he returned to River Plate after 12 and a half years on a loan deal. He won his second Recopa Sudamericana and the Copa Argentina during his stay at the club. After that, he returned to Internacional de Porto Alegre on Dec 2016, and his successful career continues in this latter.

International career.

D'Alessandro won the 2001 Under-20 World Championship with the Argentine youth side, held in Buenos Aires; due to his performances alongside his club teammate Javier Saviola, he was awarded the Silver Ball as the tournament's second best player. D'Alessandro had originally started the tournament as a substitute, but injuries in the team allowed him a place in the team during the later games. José Pekkermann give him the key to lead the Argentinian attack and the accounting with Javier Pedro Saviola Who Was great technical and mobility skills helps Argentina to won the title after beating Ghana 3–0 in the final. He has represented Argentina's senior side on 28 occasions, scoring 4 times between 2001–2011. He also represented Argentina's under-23 side at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens, where Argentina won a gold medal.  D'Alessandro also took part in the 2004 Copa América with Argentina. He scored his only goal of the tournament in the group stage, in Argentina's 6–1 victory over Ecuador In the final, against rivals Brazil, he missed Argentina's first penalty in the resulting shootout, following a 2–2 draw after extra time; Argentina were defeated 4–2 in the shootout.  On 20 August 2010, Argentine coach Sergio Batista recalled D'Alessandro to the national team for a friendly against Spain, which was played on 7 September 2010 at the Monumental Stadium River Plate.

Style of play.

A talented attacking midfielder, D'Alessandro is best known for his dribbling ability, creativity, and technical skill, and is capable beating players with body feints and tricks, such as the dragback ("boba"), nutmeg, or the Blomqvist shuffle; he is also an accurate free-kick taker. D'Alessandro is also known for his short passing ability, which makes him a capable assist provider.  In 2001, he was named one of the 100 best young footballers in the world by "Don Balón", and he was also labelled one of Maradona's potential heirs by the media and by Maradona himself; despite his precocious talent however, he was not able to fully fulfill the potential he demonstrated in his youth.

Andrés Nicolás D'Alessandro (born 15 April 1981) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for Brazilian club Internacional.

Andrés Nicolás D'Alessandro, né le à La Paternal (quartier de Buenos Aires en Argentine), est un footballeur argentin qui évolue au poste de milieu offensif. Il est international argentin depuis 2003.


Geography.

Location.

The municipality lies in Rhenish Hesse and belongs to the "Verbandsgemeinde" of Alzey-Land, whose seat is in Alzey.  Gau-Odernheim lies on the little river Selz, which snakes its way along the Petersberg (mountain). The nearest towns are Alzey (8 km) with both the district and "Verbandsgemeinde" seats, and Wörrstadt (12 km). The state capital Mainz, 30 km away, can be reached easily on the Autobahn A 63. As a winegrowing centre, Gau-Odernheim lies in Germany's biggest winegrowing district and in the middle of the Rheinhessen wine region. Because it is near the Frankfurt Rhine Main Region, the municipality is also a bedroom community and therefore has many new development areas and new citizens.

Neighbouring municipalities.

Gau-Odernheim's neighbours are Bechtolsheim, Biebelnheim, Framersheim, Hillesheim and Dittelsheim-Heßloch.

Constituent communities.

Gau-Odernheim has a main centre with the outlying centre ("Ortsteil") of Gau-Köngernheim

History.

In the ninth century the relics of Rufus of Metz were transferred to the local church in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz.  In 1268, the vast holdings owned by the Lords of Bolanden between the Donnersberg and the Rhine were shared out among offspring, among whom an open feud later broke out, which claimed some participants’ lives. At the battlefield near "Ottenheim", as Gau-Odernheim was then known, at the boundary of the divided land, a so-called stone "Sühnekreuz" (“atonement cross”) was put up. In the Middle Ages, though, nobody wanted to have anything to do with an atonement cross; such a place was shunned and was eerie. Thus, the "Ottenkreuz" was eventually forgotten. Under the earth, bushes and thorny hedges it lay until those seeking it unearthed it at last. Until 2008, it could be seen on the right side of the road from Gau-Odernheim to Hillesheim; however, after a number of attempts had been made to steal the "Ottenkreuz", it was secured, and beginning in 2010, those wishing to see it will be able to do so at the Gau-Odernheim town hall.  In 1286, Rudolf von Habsburg, the King of the Romans, granted Gau-Odernheim Imperial town freedoms. The master craftsman Erhart Falckener, who was known for his Late Gothic church furnishings, lived in Gau-Odernheim, according to a signature on a work from 1510. It is believed that he and his fellow craftsmen would have found ample work to do here, as on 1 August 1479, the whole village, but for six houses, burnt down. Sometime before 1731, the local lordship had passed to the Sturmfeder von Oppenweiler lordly family. Winegrowing was already being done in 850 on the Petersberg's south slopes.  When the railway was built in 1896, Odernheim had its name changed to Gau-Odernheim to avoid any confusion with Odernheim am Glan.  Gau-Odernheim was an early Rhenish-Hessian National Socialist hotbed. In 1938, the municipality prided itself in “having been the first place in Rhenish Hesse in which Adolf Hitler’s idea had already gained a foothold in the years 1923 and 1924, and wherefrom it was spread into the nearer and further environs”. As early as half a year before the Machtergreifung, the municipality made Adolf Hitler an honorary citizen.  Since 7 June 1969, the outlying centre of Gau-Köngernheim has been part of the municipality.

Gau-Köngernheim.

Gau-Köngernheim had its first documentary mention in the 9th century in a donation of cropland in "Cuningeroheim" in 804 to Lorsch Abbey. Other forms of the name over the ages were "Chuningernheim" (1190), "Kungernheim" (1268), "Kongernheim" (1323) and "Konigernheim" (1464). To distinguish it from the other Köngernheim that lay just under 11 km away, it was called "Bös-Köngernheim". In 1896 Gau-Köngernheim acquired its current name, the reason being that both municipalities were on the same railway line, which was dedicated that same year.

Politics.

Municipal council.

The council is made up of 20 council members, who were elected at the municipal election held on 7 June 2009, and the honorary mayor as chairman.  The municipal election held on 7 June 2009 yielded the following results:

Coat of arms.

The municipality's arms might be described thus: Or a king's head and chest affronty couped gules crowned of the same and crined argent, conjoined to the shoulders wings elevated sable.  The king's head and chest with wings are already seen in the municipality's oldest seal, dating from 1286. The charge remained essentially unchanged until the 17th century when it was replaced with the Imperial eagle, but in 1698, the old composition was restored, albeit this time with a female figure as a supporter behind the escutcheon, no longer seen in the current arms, which have been borne since 1961.  Although the coat of arms seen in this article shows the king with black hair (“crined sable”), the blazon given here indicates silver hair (“crined argent”). The arms shown on the municipality's own website, and at Heraldry of the World, show the king with silver hair.

Town partnerships.

Pulnoy lies near Nancy.

Culture and sightseeing.

Buildings.

Gau-Köngernheim.

In the "Nachrichtliche Verzeichnis der Kulturdenkmäler Rheinland-Pfalz für den Landkreis Alzey-Worms", in which the state lists the district's cultural monuments, the following monuments can be found in Gau-Köngernheim:

Natural monuments.

In the vineyards on the Lieberg in Gau-Odernheim can be found the greatest assemblage of wild tulips north of the Alps. For blossoming time in late April, the local conservation group stages the "Wildtulpenfest" (“Wild Tulip Festival”) each year on their "Natur-Erlebnis-Platz" (“Nature Adventure Square”).

Economy and infrastructure.

The municipality is mainly characterized by winegrowing and agriculture. Moreover, there are a car dealer in the community, four food markets and two butcher shops. One of these butcher shops was cited in 2004 by the magazine "Der Feinschmecker" as “2004’s best butcher”. In 2006, the "Fleischwurst" made at the very same butcher shop was chosen by the "Zentralgenossenschaft des Deutschen Fleischergewerbes" (“Central Coöperative of the German Butcher’s Trade”) as one of the four best in all Germany.  Also resident in Gau-Odernheim is the three-time winner of the Rhineland-Palatinate state government's multimedia contest in 2001, 2002 and 2005/2006 for, among other things, a school administration system for Alzey-Worms district schools and a canteen supervision programme for all-day schools.

Transport.

For a place of its size, the transport links to Gau-Odernheim can be described as very good. The Autobahn A 63 can be reached after a 4.5 km drive to the Biebelnheim interchange, and also the Alzey interchange on the A 61 is only 6 km from Gau-Odernheim. The A 63 links Gau-Odernheim with Mainz and Kaiserslautern. Ludwigshafen and the Rhine-Neckar area can be reached over the A 61. Towards the north, the A 61 is a link to Koblenz, Mönchengladbach and the Netherlands.  On the other hand, Gau-Odernheim no longer has any railway link, but all buses that run from Mainz or Worms to Alzey stop in Gau-Odernheim, that is to say, the bus links can be called acceptable. Over a former stretch of railway track in Gau-Odernheim's municipal area in 2005, a local road bypass was built. The four roundabouts thereby created have led to Gau-Odernheim now sometimes being called jokingly "Gau-Kreiselheim", "Kreisel" being one word in German for “roundabout”.

Other.

In the local dialect, Gau-Odernheim is called "Orem", with a long O and unstressed E ().

Gau-Odernheim (until 1896 simply "Odernheim") is an "Ortsgemeinde" – a municipality belonging to a "Verbandsgemeinde", a kind of collective municipality – in the Alzey-Worms district in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.

Gau-Odernheim est une municipalité d'Allemagne en Rhénanie-Palatinat. Entre 830 et 840 les reliques de l'évêque Ruf de Metz ont été transférées dans une abbaye du village sous le règne de Lothaire.


War with the North.

The Venedotian Code of the Welsh laws compiled by Iorwerth ap Madog in the early 13th century contains a list of the privileges of the men of Arfon. Among the privileges is the right to march in the van of Gwynedd's army, and this is stated to originate from their spirited actions in a war between Rhun of Gwynedd and the Cymric Men of the North () from the kingdoms of Alt Clut and Gododdin or Manaw Gododdin.  Taliesin's "Marwnad Rhun" () also tells of the war and Rhun's death in it. In his comprehensive discussion of the works by and attributed to Taliesin, John Morris-Jones notes that the particulars of the "marwnad" are everywhere consistent with the historical record and nowhere inconsistent, and likely a product of the 6th century, a view shared by notable skeptics such as Thomas Stephens.  The Venedotian Code says that the northern prince Elidyr Mwynfawr ap Gorwst Priodawr () had been slain at Aber Mewydus (now called 'Cadnant', or 'Battle Brook') in Arfon, not far from Rhun's "llys" () at Llanbeblig. Elidyr's powerful relatives in the North invaded Gwynedd in retaliation, burning Arfon in the process. The Northern host was led by Clydno Eiddin; Nudd the Generous, son of Senyllt; Mordaf the Generous, son of Serfan; and Rhydderch Hael, son of Tudwal Tudelyd.  These are all notable men of the era who are listed in the royal genealogies of the "Bonedd Gwŷr y Gogledd", as is Elidyr Mwynfawr. According to one of the "Triads of the Horses", Elidyr was also the husband of Rhun's sister Eurgain.  Rhun then assembled an army and proceeded to the banks of the Gweryd (the banks of the River Forth or the Firth of Forth, which William Forbes Skene says was still called the 'Weryd' in 1165) in the North. The final outcome is not given in the Venedotian Code, but Rhun and his army remained in the North for a considerable length of time. The outcome according to Taliesin's "Marwnad Rhun" is the death of Rhun ap Maelgwn in battle. He was succeeded by his son Beli ap Rhun as King of Gwynedd.  The reason why Elidyr was in Gwynedd and the circumstance of his death are not known, though it is certain from their actions that his northern relatives blamed someone in Gwynedd. There are later stories that add speculations, for example by asserting that Elidyr was contesting Rhun's succession to Maelgwn Gwynedd's throne, but these are nothing more than speculation.

Caerhun.

Caerhun () is the site of the 2nd century minor Roman fort of Canovium, situated along the Roman road between the larger Roman forts of Deva (at modern Chester) and Segontium (near modern Caernarfon). It is supposed to have been one of Rhun's strongholds, and while definitive evidence of this is lacking, it is circumstantially supported by archeological research and the antiquity of the name Caerhun. Furthermore, it guards an important crossing of the River Conwy at Tal-y-Cafn which leads to the pass at Bwlch-y-Ddeufaen, an entrance to "Eryri" (), the defensive heartland of the Kingdom of Gwynedd. Its military significance would certainly have been noticed by both defenders and potential aggressors.

Rhun in literature.

The story of "The Dream of Rhonabwy" in the 12th century Red Book of Hergest is a prose literary tale where the main character travels to the time of King Arthur in a dream. There he sees the famous men from many historical eras. In a passage where 24 knights arrive to seek a truce with the famous Arthur, Arthur considers the request by assembling his counselors where "a tall, auburn, curly-headed man" was standing. Rhonabwy asks who he is, and is told that he is Rhun ap Maelgwn Gwynedd, a man who may join in counsel with anyone, because there was none in Britain better skilled in counsel than he.  "Marwnad Rhun" (), once believed to be the work of Taliesin but no longer accepted as such, laments Rhun's death in battle during that War with the North.  Rhun appears in two of the medieval "Welsh Triads", as one of the 'Fair Princes of the Isle of Britain', and as one of the 'Golden-banded Ones of the Isle of Britain'.

Literary missteps.

The "Tale of Taliesin" is a legendary story about Taliesin printed in the "Mabinogion", and based in part on the forgeries of the "Iolo Manuscripts" by Iolo Morganwg. The story tells of events where Taliesin is placed in difficult or impossible situations but invariably overcomes all obstacles, usually through feats of magic. In one passage, Maelgwn Gwynedd sends his son Rhun on a mission to seduce the wife of Elffin ap Gwyddno. However, Elffin's court bard Taliesin knew of Maelgwn's plan because he was a seer, and arranged for a servant to replace his patron's wife, to the ultimate embarrassment of his patron's opponent Maelgwn.  One of the "Triads" mentions a certain Rhun ap Beli () who was famed for his military exploits. The name is repeated elsewhere in medieval poetry, such as in Hywel Foel's (fl. c. 1240 – 1300) "awdl" lamenting the capture and imprisonment of Owain ap Gruffudd, where he likens Owain to Rhun: "Who if free, like Rhun the son of Beli, Would not let Lloegria burn his borders". There is no confirming evidence that such a person existed, and it is contradicted by records such as the royal genealogies, which have Rhun as the father (not the son) of Beli. Scholars such as Thomas Stephens have concluded that this is a mistake, and that the intended person was someone else.

Rhun ap Maelgwn Gwynedd (died c. 586), also known as Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn Gwynedd (), sometimes spelt as 'Rhûn', was King of Gwynedd (reigned c. 547 – c. 586). He came to the throne on the death of his father, King Maelgwn Gwynedd. There are no historical records of his reign in this early age. A story preserved in both the Venedotian Code and an elegy by Taliesin says that he waged a war against Rhydderch Hael of Alt Clut and the kings of Gododdin or Manaw Gododdin. The small scattered settlement of Caerhun in the Conwy valley is said to be named for him, though without strong authority. Rhun also appears in several medieval literary stories, as well as in the "Welsh Triads". His wife was Perwyr ferch Rhûn "Ryfeddfawr" and their son was Beli ap Rhun "Hîr".

Rhun ap Maelgwyn (492? - †582?) (En latin : "Rugenus", en anglais : "Run"), surtout connu sous le nom de Rhun "Hir" ("le Long"), était un roi de Gwynedd, un royaume qui fait aujourd'hui partie du Pays de Galles.


Origins.

Gaétan Picon, born in 1809, was a scholar who had an apprenticeship at the distilleries of Aix-en-Provence, Toulon and Marseille. In 1837, after taking a trip to Algeria where he had been in the French Army, he invented Picon. The aperitif was placed in the category of "bitters" and was 39% alcohol by volume (ABV).  At the time, Gaétan Picon had created the first distillery to produce "African bitters" in an Algerian village. He then went on to open a number of other distilleries in Constantine, Bône and Algiers.  In 1862, the French government invited industry to take part in the Universal Exhibition in London. Jean-Baptiste Nouvion, the sub-prefect of Philippeville, urged Gaétan Picon to bring his aperitif to the exhibition. But, failing to convince the manufacturer to take part, the sub-prefect stubbornly took it upon himself (without telling Mr. Picon) to ship a case of African Amer to London. The product ended up crowned with a bronze medal in the bitter aperitif category, greatly adding to Gaétan Picon's eventual fortune.  In 1872, Gaétan Picon returned to France, creating the first factory for the production of Picon in Marseille, which is still in use today. In 1937, the company published a book called "Histoire d'un Siècle Picon (1837–1937)"; the company slogan at the time was "Il n'est plus une partie du globe où n'ait pénétré le Picon!" (literal translation: "There is no longer any part of the world where Picon hasn't penetrated"). The slogan involves a common pun in French.

Today.

Since 1995 Picon has diversified, and now makes two different aperitifs:  In the 1970s, the strength of Picon was reduced to 25% ABV. In 1989, it was reduced yet again to 18% ABV.  In 2003 the drink was mainly sold (70%) in the north and east of France. The total production was 4 million bottles.  Picon Punch is a mixed drink featuring Amer Picon (or another Amer substitute), created by Basque immigrants in the United States. It is primarily served in American Basque regions such as Boise, Idaho; Bakersfield, California; and throughout Northern Nevada.  The unavailability of Picon in America has led to two drinks regularly used as substitutes: Torani Amer (available primarily in California) and Amer Boudreau, a DIY drink created by Seattle-based mixologist, bartender and author Jamie Boudreau to the specifications of the pre-1970 recipe for Picon.

Picon is a caramel-coloured, flavoured bitters drunk as an apéritif, which traditionally accompanies beer in the east and north of France.

Le Picon est un amer d'origine marseillaise, de couleur caramel qui accompagne traditionnellement la bière dans l'Est et le Nord de la France, en Belgique, au Luxembourg ainsi qu'en Suisse. Le terme « Picon » est une marque commerciale distribuée par Moët Hennessy Diageo, coentreprise () des groupes LVMH et Diageo.


Background.

The ECPYouth, until 2013 known as European Christian Political Youth Network (ECPYN) was established in July 2004 in Kortenberg (Belgium) by PerspectieF, Youth of the ChristenUnie (Netherlands) and other European Christian political youth organisations, such as the Christian Peoples Alliance Youth (United Kingdom). The founding of ECPYouth was one of the results of the International Summer School where young people from all over Europe participated.

Activities.

Since the International Summer School in Kortenberg in 2004 summer schools are held annually around a specific theme or political issue and offers participants lectures, workshops and excursions. ECPYN/ECPYouth organized summer schools in 2005 in Lunteren, (Netherlands), in 2006 in Birstonas (Lithuania), in 2007 in Würzburg (Germany), in 2008 in Chişinău (Moldova), in 2009 in Risan (Montenegro), in 2010 in Ohrid (Republic of Macedonia), in 2011 in Paris (France), in 2012 in Zagreb (Croatia), in 2013 in Helsinki (Finland), in 2014 in Brussels (Belgium), in 2015 in Cambridge (United Kingdom), in 2016 in Bern (Switzerland) and in 2017 in Odessa (Ukraine).  ECPYouth started to organize winter schools in Lviv (Ukraine) in 2011 followed by Esztergom (Hungary) in 2012; and Soest (Netherlands) in 2013.  ECPYouth organises Regional Conferences as well in different parts of Europe and youth programs on conferences of the European Christian Political Movement. Regional conferences took place in  Furthermore, ECPYouth organizes study visits. In 2012 a study visit went to Podgorica, Montenegro to study the situation of minorities, especially the Roma, Ashkali and Egyptian groups. In 2012 ECPYouth started an in-depth training program, the ECPYouth Academy, under the title 'Crossroads – Christian Democratic Political Academy'. The first round took place in Timișoara, Romania; Zagreb, Croatia; Kiev, Ukraine; and Soest, Netherlands.  In 2017 ECPYouth started holding bi-annual General Assemblies, instead of annual, one during the summer school and one in February, in the Netherlands. This was accompanied by political cafés, in 2018 on the topic of human trafficking.

The European Christian Political Youth (ECPYouth) is a political youth organisation that brings together Christian, politically active young people from all over Europe to reinforce Christian politics in Europe. It is the independent youth organization of the European Christian Political Movement.

L‘European Christian Political Youth Network (ECPYN) est une organisation rassemblant des jeunes chrétiens politiquement actifs de toute l’Europe. L'European Christian Political Youth Network a été créé en juillet de 2004 à Kortenberg, en Belgique, par le mouvement jeune de l'Union chrétienne néerlandaise () et d'autres organisations politiques européennes de jeunes chrétiens comme les jeunes chrétiens démocrates fédéraux belges, les jeunes du Parti évangélique suisse et les jeunes de l'Union démocratique fédérale suisse. La fondation de l’ECPYN est un des résultats de la première université d'été ("summerschool") du mouvement, à laquelle avaient participé des jeunes de toute l’Europe. Depuis, l'université d'été est devenu un événement annuel où s'enchaînent formations et débats politiques.


History.

In 1934, Zionist leader Menahem Ussishkin organized the re-interment of Leon Pinsker in Nicanor Cave on Mount Scopus in an attempt to build a pantheon for the great leaders of the Jewish nation. Ussishkin was buried there himself in 1941. When Mount Scopus became an enclave, cut off from Jerusalem, the implementation of this plan was no longer feasible.  During summer 1949, Theodor Herzl's remains were reinterred on a hill in West Jerusalem which faced the Mount of Olives from a distance and renamed in his honour, Mount Herzl. In November 1949, soldiers who fell during the War of Independence in the Jerusalem area were buried on the north slope of the hill.  Apart from Theodor Herzl, Mt. Herzl is the burial place of five of Israel's prime ministers: Levi Eshkol, Golda Meir, Yitzhak Shamir, Yitzhak Rabin (who is buried beside his wife Leah) and Shimon Peres. Israeli presidents are also buried on Mt. Herzl, as are other prominent Jewish and Zionist leaders.  Mt. Herzl is the venue for many commemorative events and national celebrations.  The military section was designed and landscaped by two Hungarian-born architects, Asher Hiram and Haim Giladi.

Theodor Herzl's grave.

In 1903, Theodor Herzl wrote in his will: I wish to be buried in a metal coffin next to my father, and to remain there until the Jewish people will transfer my remains to Eretz Israel. The coffins of my father, my sister Pauline, and of my close relatives who will have died until then will also be transferred there.  When Herzl died a year later, he was interred in Vienna. Forty-five years later, Herzl's remains were brought to Israel and re-interred in Jerusalem. The location of the burial site was selected by a special state commission in the top of a hill in Jerusalem. He was buried on 17 August 1949. A temporary stone marked his grave for several years until the site was developed into a national cemetery. Sixty-three entries were submitted in the competition for the design of his new tombstone. The winner was Joseph Klarwein's design, consisting of an unadorned black granite stone inscribed with the name Herzl.  The area around his tomb was expanded into the plaza where the first Independence Day ceremony was held in 1950.  Despite Herzl's wishes, his daughter Pauline and son Hans were not originally buried beside him. Their remains were moved to Mt. Herzl in 2006. A third daughter was murdered in the Holocaust and her place of burial is unknown. The small Stephen Norman Park, located between the Herzl Museum and the Herzl Educational Center, is dedicated to the memory of Herzl's only grandson, who took his own life in the United States in 1946 after learning about the fate of his family during the Holocaust and being confronted with Jewish misery in the Displaced Persons camps, and was reinterred on Mt. Herzl in December 2007. Herzl's parents and sister are also buried at Mount Herzl.

National Civil Cemetery.

Israel's main cemetery for the leaders of the country and people who sacrificed their lives for the country is located on the southern slope of Mt. Herzl, established there in 1952 when Ben Gurion decided to bury the finance minister in Helkat Gedolei Ha'Uma, close to Herzl's grave. The design of the cemetery area was continued over the following years when other famous people from the Zionist movement were brought to be buried there.

Great Leaders of the Nation.

The Great Leaders of the Nation's Plot or Memorial Park holds the graves of several Prime Ministers, Presidents, Knesset speakers and other chosen national leaders of the State of Israel. It forms a separate section of the Mount Herzl cemetery from that of the leaders of the Zionist Organization (after 1960: World Zionist Organization), which is situated nearby.  The Hebrew name Helkat Gedolei Ha'Uma () is used in common parlance either in a narrower meaning, for the State of Israel leaders' section, or in a wider one, which includes pre-state Zionist leaders.  Buried there are Presidents Zalman Shazar and Chaim Herzog, Shimon Peres and Prime Ministers Levi Eshkol, Golda Meir, Yitzhak Rabin and his wife Leah Rabin. Other notable graves are those of the first speaker of the Knesset, Yosef Sprinzak and his wife Hanna, the first Minister of Finance, Eliezer Kaplan, and Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek. Despite the national significance of the cemetery, some Israeli leaders were buried elsewhere, most notably Chaim Weizmann (buried at Weizmann House), David Ben-Gurion (buried at Midreshet Ben-Gurion) and Menachem Begin (buried at Mount of Olives).  Deciding who should be buried on Mt. Herzl has sometimes been controversial. For example, the decision to bury Ze'ev Jabotinsky, who died in 1940, on Mt. Herzl, was fiercely opposed by many Labour Party stalwarts, who claimed that Jabotinsky was an ultra-right nationalist undeserving of such an honour. Only in 1964 did Prime Minister Levi Eshkol decide in favor of burying him there, in the interest of promoting national reconciliation and setting aside political grievances. Soldiers awarded with the Medal of Valor may also be buried at Mount Herzl.  To the north of Herzl's grave is a plot reserved for the leaders of the (World) Zionist Organization, among them David Wolffsohn, Nahum Sokolow, Simcha Dinitz, and Arieh Dulzin. In the same section are the graves and cenotaphs of close relatives of Theodor Herzl.  The grave of Ze'ev Jabotinsky and his family is in a separate plot southwest of Herzl's grave.

Victims of Acts of Terror Memorial.

The Victims of Acts of Terror Memorial is the main memorial for all victims of terrorism in Israel from 1851 until today. The memorial was opened in 1997, and every year a ceremony is held on the plaza, in memory of the victims of terror. The memorial is located in the National Civil Cemetery next to Helkat Gedolei Ha'Uma.

National military cemetery.

The main Israel Defense Forces cemetery is located on the northern slope of Mt. Herzl. It was established in November 1949, when soldiers who fell in the Jerusalem area were buried here. In 1949, the government decided to turn the site into the main cemetery for IDF members who have fallen in the line of duty. The Israel Police cemetery, for police officers who have fallen in the line of duty, is also located there.  There are specific areas or monuments for following categories of fallen fighters,  All soldiers, regardless of rank or unit, are buried side by side. The gravestones are plain and unadorned, only recording name, rank, parents' names, and place and date of birth and death.

Christian, Muslim, and Druze soldiers.

The military cemetery also honours the memory of Israel's fallen Christian, Muslim, and Druze soldiers who have served in the Israeli security forces.

Garden of the Missing in Action.

The Garden of the Missing in Action is a Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Memorial and Memory Garden for soldiers of the Israel Defense Forces and those who fought for the pre-state Land of Israel whose resting places are unknown from 1914 until today. The garden was established on 29 February 2004 in a ceremony attended by army chiefs, the Israeli Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz, and members of the Jerusalem Municipality at the National Military and Police cemetery. The garden also contains memorials to those lost aboard the submarine INS "Dakar" and the 23 Who Went Down at Sea.  An annual memorial service for the Missing Soldiers of Israel takes place in the garden's main plaza on Seventh of Adar day.  The garden includes "empty graves" and stone monuments to the memory of missing soldiers. At the entrance to the garden, there is a small plaza where memorial ceremonies to the missing are held. On the north side of the plaza there is a memorial to the missing sailors of the INS Dakar submarine, which sank in the Mediterranean sea. On the north side of the plaza is a memorial wall bearing the names of all missing soldiers and fighters from 1914 until today. On the top of the wall there is a waterfall.

National Memorial Hall For Israel's Fallen.

A national memorial hall was built at the entrance to the National Military and Police cemetery to honour the memory of the 22,684 soldiers and security personnel who have fallen defending the land of Israel since 1860. It is designed in the shape of a torch rising some 18 meters and an eternal flame burns there all year long. A candle for each soldier is lit twice a year — once on the anniversary of the soldier's death, and on Memorial Day. The cost of the project was NIS40 million.

Gardens.

Above the Herzl Museum and the main plaza is the Nations Garden, where trees have been planted by visiting presidents and heads of state. There are two small observation decks looking out over Jerusalem. A menorah sculpture stands opposite the main plaza entrance.  Situated between the Herzl Museum and the Stella and Alexander Margulies Education Center, the Stephen Norman Garden is named for Herzl's grandson, Stephen Norman. He was the only member of Herzl's family to visit Palestine or to be a Zionist. It is a place for groups and students to gather to hear about Mount Herzl. On one wall of the garden, a quote from Norman, in 1945, is inscribed: "You will be amazed at the Jewish youth in Palestine...they have the look of freedom."

Museums and study centers.

Herzl Museum.

Herzl Museum, an interactive museum on the at the main entrance to Mt. Herzl, offers a glimpse into the life of Theodor Herzl, the man behind the dream of a Jewish homeland.

Yad Vashem.

Yad Vashem is in the western region of Mount Herzl on the Mount of Remembrance in Jerusalem, 804 meters above sea level and adjacent to the Jerusalem Forest. Yad Vashem is complex containing two types of sites - memorial museums and monuments, and a research institute. Memorial sites include the Holocaust History Museum and the Museum of Holocaust Art; indoor memorials such as the Children's Memorial and the Hall of Remembrance; outdoor commemorative sites such as the Valley of the Communities, the Cattle Car memorial and various sculptures; and a synagogue. The Holocaust research facilities are grouped around a research institute and include archives, a library, publishing house and an educational center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. Yad Vashem honours non-Jews who saved Jews during the Holocaust, at great personal risk, as the "Righteous among the Nations".  The Memorial Path, leading from the entrance of Yad Vashem up to the Mount Herzl national cemetery, was established in 2003 and includes plaques that mark important events from the beginning of Zionism until the creation of the state of Israel.

Zionism study center.

In 2010, work began on a Zionism Studies Center next to the Herzl museum, with the opening scheduled for 2013.

Archaeology.

Mitspe Karem () is an archaeological park located in the Jerusalem Forest on the west side of the Mount of Remembrance, near the Yad Vashem museum. There are finds from various periods, including the Early Bronze Age, Iron Age, possibly Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine period.

Mount Herzl ( "Har Hertsl"), also "Har ha-Zikaron" ( lit. "Mount of Remembrance"), is the site of Israel's national cemetery and other memorial and educational facilities, found on the west side of Jerusalem beside the Jerusalem Forest.

Le mont Herzl (en hébreu ), également Har Hazikaron ( « mont de la Mémoire ») est une colline située à l’ouest de la ville de Jérusalem qui abrite le cimetière national d'Israël. Il est situé à l'ouest de Jérusalem et porte le nom de Theodor Herzl, le fondateur du sionisme politique moderne. C'est le point culminant de Jérusalem, à d'altitude. Outre le cimetière national d’Israël, on y trouve un cimetière militaire, des mémoriaux et un musée.


Etymology.

The use of the word "atlas" in a geographical context dates from 1595 when the German-Flemish geographer Gerardus Mercator published "Atlas Sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura." (Atlas or cosmographical meditations upon the creation of the universe, and the universe as created.) This title provides Mercator's definition of the word as a description of the creation and form of the whole universe, not simply as a collection of maps. The volume that was published posthumously one year after his death is a wide-ranging text but, as the editions evolved, it became simply a collection of maps and it is in that sense that the word was used from the middle of the seventeenth century. The neologism coined by Mercator was a mark of his respect for the Titan, Atlas, the "King of Mauretania", whom he considered to be the first great geographer.

History of atlases.

The first work that contained systematically arranged maps of uniform size representing the first modern atlas was prepared by Italian cartographer Pietro Coppo in early 16th century, however it wasn't published at the time so is conventionally not considered the first atlas. Rather, this title is awarded to the collection of maps "Theatrum Orbis Terrarum" by the Brabantian cartographer Abraham Ortelius printed in 1570.

Types of atlases.

A "travel atlas" is made for easy use during travel, and often has spiral bindings so it may be folded flat (for example Geographers' A-Z Map Company famous A–Z atlases). It has maps at a large zoom so the maps can be reviewed easily. A travel atlas may also be referred to as a "road map".  A "desk atlas" is made similar to a reference book. It may be in hardback or paperback form.  There are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites) in the Solar System.  Atlases of anatomy exist, mapping out organs of the human body or other organisms.

Selected atlases.

Some cartographically or commercially important atlases include the following:

An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a bundle of maps of Earth or a region of Earth.

Un atlas géographique est un recueil de cartes géographiques, créé par le belge Gerard De Kremer, alias Gérard Mercator (1512-1594) publié par sections en 1569, 1578, 1585, 1589, 1595 et 1606. Parution de sa première carte du monde en 1538.