Causes.

The scandal was considered useful by opponents of Germany's foreign policies. Wilhelm II dismissed "Iron" Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and his Realpolitik system of treaties and agreements in 1890, replacing Bismarck's clear rule with a muddle and his foreign policies with a confrontational, expansionist "Weltpolitik". The anti-imperialist Eulenburg became the most prominent member of Wilhelm II's entourage, having been promoted from a member of the diplomatic corps to an ambassador. Like many others, Bismarck noticed that the nature of the relationship between Wilhelm II and Eulenburg could "not be confided to paper" and felt, alongside those others, that even these activities in the private sphere were not to be exposed to the public. Beyond that, the "Auswärtiges Amt" suffered what the British historian John C. G. Röhl called a "culture of intrigue" with German diplomats forever forming factions to plot against one another. The two dominant factions in the early 20th century were the Bülow-Eulenburg clique, headed by Bernhard von Bülow and his close friend Eulenburg, who were rapidly eclipsing the faction headed by Friedrich von Holstein, the powerful director of the Political Department at the "Auswärtiges Amt". Holstein had known Eulenburg since June 1886 and had once been his ally when the two had plotted against Bismarck in 1889-1890, but starting around 1894, Eulenburg and Holstein had begun to come into conflict with each other. The close friendship between Eulenburg and the Kaiser meant that Holstein tended to lose his arguments with Eulenburg. As a trump card to destroy his rival Eulenburg, Holstein had contacted Maximilian Harden to inform him that Eulenburg was a homosexual.  Harden, imperialist head of the periodical "Die Zukunft", felt similarly about the direction of German foreign policy, and in 1902 personally threatened to expose Eulenburg unless he retired from his ambassadorship in Vienna; Eulenburg did so, withdrawing from public life until 1906. Harden reaffirmed his threat after Germany at the Algeciras Conference of 1906 recognized Morocco as being within the French sphere of influence, in what was for Germany a major foreign policy fiasco, and Eulenburg responded by moving to Switzerland. In May 1906, Holstein sent Eulenburg an extremely insulting and rude letter alongside a challenge to fight a duel to the death. After Eulenburg declined to fight the duel, Holstein decided to destroy Eulenburg by attacking him in his Achilles heel, namely by exposing his homosexuality.  Between 1906 and 1907, six military officers committed suicide after blackmail, while in the preceding three years, around twenty officers were convicted by courts-martial, all for homosexual acts. A "Gardes du Corps" officer was charged with homosexuality, an embarrassment because the elite Corps was commanded by Lieutenant General Wilhelm Graf von Hohenau, a blood relative to the kaiser. Worse than these sexual scandals, in Harden's eyes, was Eulenburg's decision to return to Germany and be admitted to the Order of the Black Eagle; he did not change his mind when Prince Friedrich Heinrich of Prussia declined to be admitted to the Order of Saint John because of his own homosexual proclivities.

Outing.

Harden outed Eulenburg on April 27, 1907, confirming the identity he previously had parodied as "the Harpist" (Eulenburg), after outing "Sweetie" General Kuno Graf von Moltke in 1906. Wilhelm II, informed of the growing story, responded by requiring the resignation of three of fifteen prominent aristocrats, Hohenau, Moltke, and Count Johannes von Lynar, listed as homosexual by the Berlin vice squad; however, the actual list, not shown to Wilhelm II, contained several hundred names.  Moltke's lawyer attempted to file criminal libel against Harden, but was dismissed and civil libel was suggested. Eulenburg denied any culpability and presented a self-accusation of violating the applicable Paragraph 175 to his district attorney who, as hoped and expected, cleared Eulenburg of all charges in July. Meanwhile,, manager of the Royal Theatre, von Stückradt, the crown prince's equerry, and Bernhard Prince von Bülow, imperial chancellor, were accused of having homosexual tendencies or engaging in homosexual activities.

"Moltke v. Harden".

This trial was held from October 23 to 29, 1907.  Testifying against Moltke were Lily von Elbe, his former wife of nine years, a soldier named Bollhardt, and Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld. Elbe described the lack of conjugal relations, happening only on the first and second night of their marriage, Moltke's overly close friendship with Eulenburg with whom he was always spending too much time, and her ignorance of homosexuality. Elbe's testimony was sensational for the time and attracted much media attention as she spoke openly of her sexual needs and how difficult it was for her to be married to a man like Moltke who had no sexual interest in her, causing her to attack him several times in desperation. At the time, Germany had a very conservative culture where the existence of female sexuality was never spoken of in public, and Elbe's testimony was noteworthy for the first time where the subject of female sexuality was addressed in Germany. The revelation that his young wife had attacked General von Moltke without him defending himself was seen at the time as confirming that Moltke was not manly, as the expectation was that a Prussian officer and a “real man” would have beaten his wife if she struck him, which in turn confirmed the belief that Moltke was gay. Moltke's lawyers counterattacked using the subject of Elbe's sexuality, arguing that any woman who spoke openly of her sexuality was a deranged “hysterical nymphomaniac” who could not be trusted. Bollhardt described attending champagne-filled parties at Lynar's villa at which he saw both Hohenau and Moltke. Hirschfeld, a prominent German sexologist who was himself homosexual, had observed the trial and testified that Moltke most certainly had a feminine side and was homosexual even if he had never committed sodomy. On October 29, the court found Moltke homosexual and Harden innocent of libel.  However, the trial was voided on procedural grounds, and the state prosecutor decided to allow a criminal libel trial.

"Bülow v. Brand".

November 6, 1907. Adolf Brand, founder of the first homosexual periodical, "Der Eigene" ("The Unique"), had printed a pamphlet which described how Bülow had been blackmailed for his sexuality and had kissed and embraced Scheefer at male gatherings hosted by Eulenburg, and thus was morally obliged to publicly oppose Paragraph 175. Brand was found guilty of libel and sentenced to 18 months in prison.

"Harden v. Moltke".

December 18–25, 1907. Elbe, through a diagnosis of classical hysteria, and Hirschfeld, by retracting his earlier testimony, were discredited and Harden was convicted of libel and sentenced to four months imprisonment.

"Harden v. Städele".

April 21, 1908. Now motivated by political goals, morals, and vengeance, Harden set out to prove Eulenburg's homosexuality by having Anton Städele publish an article claiming Harden took hush money from Eulenburg. Harden then sued his accomplice for libel, Städele was found guilty and charged a hundred mark fine, repaid by Harden. During the trial, however, Georg Riedel and Jacob Ernst testified to having had sexual relations with Eulenburg. Eulenburg was charged with perjury and brought to trial on May 7, 1908. Two weeks later Harden's conviction was overturned and a second trial begun.

"Eulenburg".

June 29, 1908. After the first of 41 witnesses, including Ernst and ten witnesses who described watching Eulenburg through a keyhole in 1887, the trial was delayed because of Eulenburg's ill health. It was moved to his hospital bed on July 17, but was delayed again. The trial was postponed indefinitely in 1919; until that point Eulenburg had twice-yearly undergone a medical examination to determine if he was well enough to stand trial.

"Moltke v. Harden".

April, 1909. The trial date was originally set for November 24th, 1908, but was postponed. With little press, Harden was again convicted and fined six hundred marks plus the forty thousand marks of court costs, while Moltke was rehabilitated in the public eye.

Effects.

The stress of the trials caused most participants to fall ill during 1908.  In November 1908, the chief of the Military Secretariat [Dietrich von Hülsen-Haeseler] died of a heart attack while performing a "pas seul" dressed in a woman's ballet tutu for Wilhelm II and his hunting party, requiring further damage control in the form of a cover up.  The Eulenburg affair has been held up as one example of homosexuality being used as a means to attain certain political goals. As Eulenburg's wife later commented, ""They are striking at my husband, but their target is the kaiser.""  Harden later told Hirschfeld that the affair was the greatest political mistake of his life. Like many later observers, attributing the affair as the root cause of World War I and the fall of the Second Reich, inevitable without Eulenburg's moderating influence.

The Harden–Eulenburg affair, often simply Eulenburg affair, was the controversy in Germany surrounding a series of courts-martial and five civil trials regarding accusations of homosexual conduct, and accompanying libel trials, among prominent members of Kaiser Wilhelm II's cabinet and entourage during 1907–1909.

L’affaire Harden-Eulenburg ou affaire Eulenburg désigne le scandale qui secoua le deuxième Reich de 1907 à 1909 à la suite d'une campagne de presse contre l’entourage présumé homosexuel de l’empereur Guillaume II et les procès qui s’ensuivirent. Cette affaire, qui connut un vaste retentissement, est considérée par certains historiens comme un scandale majeur qui ébranla l’Empire allemand.


Early life and family.

Guido de Marco was born in Valletta to Emanuele and Giovanna (née Raniolo) de Marco. He was educated at St. Joseph High School, St. Aloysius' College and the University of Malta. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in Philosophy, Economics and Italian in 1952, becoming a Doctor of Laws in 1955.  De Marco and his future wife, Violet Saliba, met as students. He proposed to her on February 5, 1951, as he walked her home from Valletta to Pietà. De Marco and Violet Saliba married in 1956; the couple had three children: Giannella, Fiorella and Mario. Mario, who served as parliamentary secretary for tourism at the time of his father's death, said he was a family man who devoted time to his children and grandchildren.

Political career.

In 1962, de Marco resigned his position at the Attorney General's Office, entering the political arena - later to contest a general election. The successful criminal lawyer would henceforth dedicate much of his life to the Nationalist and Maltese cause. He became a lecturer, and later a professor of criminal law at the University of Malta.  His political career began with his election to the House of Representatives in 1966. He was returned to Parliament at every general election he contested up to 1998. He was appointed secretary general of the Nationalist party in 1972 and became the party's deputy leader in 1977. He was elected as a representative at the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe of 1967, remaining a member for almost twenty years. During his career as Minister for the Interior and Justice, De Marco's efforts led to the integration into domestic law of important international conventions, particularly the European Convention on Human Rights. As Minister for the Interior, he pioneered the reforms and modernisations in the Police Force, being instrumental in the founding of the Police Academy.  As Minister for Foreign Affairs he submitted Malta's application for membership of the European Communities. It was one of his first acts as Minister for Foreign Affairs, occurring on 16 July 1990. He was a major player in the consolidation of Malta's contributions to international organisations, including the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations. In 1990 he also served as President of the United Nations General Assembly.

Presidency.

On 4 April 1999, de Marco was appointed President of Malta. He led his country into the European Union in 2004.  He became an honorary doctor at St. Petersburg State University in 2004 "for achievements in science and politics, in particular, for his efforts to integrate Malta into the EU."

Declining health and death.

On 5 August 2010, de Marco underwent an angioplasty to widen an obstructed heart artery. The intervention developed complications which led him to a critical, but stable condition. A series of medical bulletins were issued immediately by the medical team at Mater Dei Hospital, stating that De Marco was responding to treatment and showing signs of improvement. His condition continued to improve by the hour, to the extent of being taken off life-support machines. Five days later he was discharged from Mater Dei Hospital, but monitored closely by the medical team.  On 12 August 2010, de Marco gave an interview with Maltese newspaper "The Times of Malta", in which he said: "When I came round from the coma I no longer felt I was going to die. I felt I was going to remain. I'm here to stay... for now at least."  However, in the afternoon, de Marco was rushed to Mater Dei Hospital once more, after collapsing in his home in Sliema. He died at the hospital. The news of his death shocked the nation, which was at the moment relieved with the previous improvement in his condition. The government declared three days of national mourning. A state funeral was held on Monday, August 16, 2010.  Messages of solidarity and expressions of sorrow were issued immediately by the President of the Republic, the Nationalist Party, the Labour Party, as well as from other entities and the diplomatic corps. The Maltese prime minister Lawrence Gonzi, interrupted his vacation to return to the island. Gonzi declared that "Malta lost one of the most prominent politicians in recent times. He was fundamental for the country's independence, contributed to strengthening democracy, served very important roles in strengthening our country's international relations and occupied important roles in the United Nations. His Presidency has united the country." Opposition leader Joseph Muscat called the death "a national loss." Edward Fenech Adami, De Marco's successor as President of Malta, was said to be "shaken" by the news, hailing De Marco as "a protagonist in the past forty to fifty years of Maltese history." Fenech Adami's successor, George Abela, President of Malta at the time of de Marco's death, added that "Academically, [Guido de Marco] definitely excelled," calling him a "jovial person...[who]...sang along throughout the recent Joseph Calleja concert." Abela expressed his condolences personally to the De Marco family at Mater Dei Hospital.  Tributes flowed into Malta from abroad. President of the European Parliament Jerzy Buzek called him "a highly respected politician and statesman... who was deeply respected all over Europe." Former Libyan ambassador to Malta Saad Elshlmani said "On a personal level he was more than just a friend," adding that "people in the Middle East will remember him for his great attachment to the issues of tolerance, cooperation and friendship." United States ambassador Douglas Kmiec also issued a statement: "His tenure as President of the United Nations General Assembly, and his skill and perseverance in guiding Malta to EU membership are great tributes to his statesmanship."  His funeral took place on 16 August 2010, attended by dignitaries, including Kuwaiti Prime Minister Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah, the widow of Palestinian Authority President Yasser Arafat, Suha Arafat, Italian Undersecretary for Foreign Affairs, Vincenzo Scotti, and several ambassadors.

Guido de Marco, (22 July 1931 – 12 August 2010) was a Maltese politician, who served as the sixth President of Malta from 1999 to 2004. A noted statesman and lawmaker, de Marco also served as Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior, Justice, and Minister for Foreign Affairs.

Guido de Marco, né le à La Valette et mort le, est un homme politique maltais. Il fut le sixième président de Malte du au. Il avait été auparavant ministre de l'Intérieur, de la Justice et des Affaires étrangères.


Nuclear fusion sequence and silicon photodisintegration.

After a star completes the oxygen-burning process, its core is composed primarily of silicon and sulfur. If it has sufficiently high mass, it further contracts until its core reaches temperatures in the range of 2.7–3.5 GK (230–300 keV). At these temperatures, silicon and other elements can photodisintegrate, emitting a proton or an alpha particle. Silicon burning proceeds by photodisintegration rearrangement, which creates new elements by adding one of these freed alpha particles (the equivalent of a helium nucleus) per capture step in the following sequence (photoejection of alphas not shown):  The silicon-burning sequence lasts about one day before being struck by the shock wave that was launched by the core collapse. Burning then becomes much more rapid at the elevated temperature and stops only when the rearrangement chain has been converted to nickel-56 or is stopped by supernova ejection and cooling. The star can no longer release energy via nuclear fusion because a nucleus with 56 nucleons has the lowest mass per nucleon of all the elements in the alpha process sequence. Only minutes are available for the nickel-56 to decay within the core of a massive star, and only seconds if in the ejecta. The star has run out of nuclear fuel and within minutes its core begins to contract.  During this phase of the contraction, the potential energy of gravitational contraction heats the interior to 5 GK (430 keV) and this opposes and delays the contraction. However, since no additional heat energy can be generated via new fusion reactions, the final unopposed contraction rapidly accelerates into a collapse lasting only a few seconds. The central portion of the star is now crushed into either a neutron star or, if the star is massive enough, a black hole. The outer layers of the star are blown off in an explosion known as a Type II supernova that lasts days to months. The supernova explosion releases a large burst of neutrons, which may synthesize in about one second roughly half of the supply of elements in the universe that are heavier than iron, via a rapid neutron-capture sequence known as the "r"-process (where the "r" stands for "rapid" neutron capture).

Binding energy.

The graph above shows the binding energy per nucleon of various elements. As can be seen, light elements such as hydrogen release large amounts of energy (a big increase in binding energy) when combined to form heavier elements—the process of fusion. Conversely, heavy elements such as uranium release energy when broken into lighter elements—the process of nuclear fission. In stars, rapid nucleosynthesis proceeds by adding helium nuclei (alpha particles) to heavier nuclei. Although nuclei with 58 (iron-58) and 62 (nickel-62) nucleons have the very highest binding energy per nucleon, converting nickel-56 (14 alphas) to the next element, zinc-60 (15 alphas), is a decrease in binding energy per nucleon and actually consumes energy rather than releasing any. Accordingly, nickel-56 is the last fusion product produced in the core of a high-mass star. Decay of nickel-56 explains the large amount of iron-56 seen in metallic meteorites and the cores of rocky planets.

In astrophysics, silicon burning is a very brief sequence of nuclear fusion reactions that occur in massive stars with a minimum of about 8–11 solar masses. Silicon burning is the final stage of fusion for massive stars that have run out of the fuels that power them for their long lives in the "main sequence" on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. It follows the previous stages of hydrogen, helium, carbon, neon and oxygen burning processes.

En astrophysique, la fusion du silicium (parfois appelée improprement combustion du silicium) est une phase de fusion nucléaire de quelques semaines (typiquement une à trois semaines) de la fin de vie d'une étoile d'au moins 8 masses solaires. Cette phase commence lorsque ces étoiles ont épuisé tous les combustibles de la séquence principale du diagramme de Hertzsprung-Russell (hydrogène, hélium, carbone, néon, oxygène, magnésium...), ce qui contracte leur cœur jusqu'à le porter à une température de 2,7 à 3,5 GK — la température dépendant de la masse de l'étoile. Une fois achevée la combustion du silicium, l'étoile peut exploser en une supernova de type II ou, si sa masse du cœur est supérieure à la limite d'Oppenheimer-Volkoff (3,3 Mformula_1), conduire à la formation d'un trou noir.


College career.

Bonine was born in Columbus, Georgia but moved to Glendale, Arizona where he attended Mountain Ridge High School. After graduating he attended Glendale Community College 1999–2001. In his second year he was named to the Arizona Community College Athletic Conference's First Team. At Glendale, he attracted the attention of the Arizona Diamondbacks, who in 2001 drafted him in the 20th round, 608th pick overall. Bonine did not sign, and transferred to Washington State University for the 2001–2002 season, going 8–8 with a 6.36 earned run average (ERA) and being named an honorable mention for the All-Pac-10 team.  For his senior year (2002–2003), Bonine transferred to the University of Nevada, Reno where he went 5–6 with a 5.84 ERA. Following graduation, the San Diego Padres drafted Bonine in the 23rd round; 671st overall. This time Bonine signed and was assigned to the Single-A Eugene Emeralds.

Minor leagues.

San Diego Padres (first stint).

Bonine made 31 appearances with Eugene in a relief role, going 1–2 with a 3.78 ERA and 12 saves. At the end of the season, Bonine was named to the Northwest League's All-Star team. For 2004, the Padres sent Bonine to the Single-A Fort Wayne Wizards, where he posted a 1.98 ERA over five starts before being promoted to the Single-A Lake Elsinore Storm. There he started 21 games with mixed results: a 5–10 record and an ERA over 5. Returning to the Storm for the 2005 season, Bonine went 5–6 with an ERA of 6.47, but pitched a gem in the post-season: a 4–1 win over the San Jose Giants in which he threw 8 innings. The Padres assigned Bonine to the Triple-A Portland Beavers, where he made one appearance. In December 2005, the Detroit Tigers selected Bonine in the Rule 5 draft and he was sent to the Single-A Lakeland Tigers.

Detroit Tigers.

Bonine spent the 2006 season in Lakeland where he pitched both as starter and reliever. Over the course of 42 appearances he amassed a 4–5 record, plus one save, with an ERA of 3.90. Pleased, the Tigers promoted Bonine to the Double-A Erie SeaWolves for the 2007 season, where he posted a 14–5 record with a 3.90 ERA. His walks-per-9 innings average (1.34) led the Eastern League. For the 2008 season, the Tigers promoted Bonine to the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens, where got off to a 9–2 start before being called up to the majors to replace struggling pitcher Dontrelle Willis and made his major league debut on June 14, 2008, against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Tigers optioned Bonine back to Erie after a July 9, 2008, start against the Cleveland Indians.  Bonine started the 2009 with the Tigers, but was sent down to Mud Hens on April 27 to make room for Joel Zumaya, who returned from the disabled list. In four appearances Bonine posted a 9.00 ERA but did not earn a decision. In Toledo Bonine got off to a strong start, going 0–0 with a 1.88 ERA over his first four starts. At the end of the season, he filed for free agency.

Philadelphia Phillies.

On November 12, 2010, Bonine signed a minor league deal with the Philadelphia Phillies.

Arizona Diamondbacks.

On November 6, 2012, Bonine signed a minor league deal with the Arizona Diamondbacks. He was released on April 20, 2013.

San Diego Padres (second stint).

On April 20, 2013, Bonine signed a minor league contract with the San Diego Padres.

Eddie Keith Bonine (born June 6, 1981) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the Detroit Tigers from 2008–2010.

Eddie Keith Bonine (né le à Columbus en Géorgie, États-Unis) est un lanceur droitier de baseball qui évolue en Ligue majeure de baseball avec les Tigers de Détroit de 2008 à 2010.


Geography.

Communities.

Population figures as of January 2012. The communities of Bosen and Eckelhausen form a common district Bosen/Eckelhausen.  Nohfelden is located in the Hunsrück-Hochwald National Park.

Climate.

The annual rainfall is, which is in the upper tenth of the values recorded by the measuring stations of the German Weather Service. The driest month is April; It rains the most in December. The rainiest month is about 1.8 times more rainy than the driest month. The seasonal precipitation fluctuations are in the upper third in Germany.

History.

Surface finds from the Celtic and Roman times were discovered or excavated in Bosen, Eisen, Eiweiler, Mosberg-Richweiler, Neunkirchen (Nahe), Nohfelden, Selbach, Sötern, Türkismühle, Walhausen and Wolfersweiler. The Nohfelden castle was first mentioned in 1286 and a Nohfelden magistracy in 1372.  Since the early Middle Ages (around 1200) until July 1879 and in the years 1946/47, when Nohfelden was moved from Rhineland-Palatinate to Saarland, the historical development of the 13 districts has differed. Around 1790, lordship was divided among the following four areas:  The French Revolution and the following occupation of the entire left bank of the Rhine in 1794 abolished the four lordships. New administrative divisions were created under French rule. The 13 districts of the municipality Nohfelden belonged to the Saar Department and were assigned to five "Mairien" (mayoralties):  After the defeat of Napoleon in October 1813, France reverted to its boundaries of January 1, 1792 by peace treaty. Among others all communities in present-day Nohfelden were assigned to the newly formed principality of Birkenfeld.  The Principality of Birkenfeld was divided into the three districts Birkenfeld, Oberstein, and Nohfelden. Each district comprised 3 mayoralties (Bürgermeisterei). The district of Nohfelden consisted of three mayoralties: Nohfelden, Neunkirchen, and Achtelsbach.  In 1819 the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg named the territory it had received adjacent to the Principality of Birkenfeld as the Principality of Lichtenberg, based in Sankt Wendel, however, it was already ceded to the Kingdom of Prussia. The Principality of Birkenfeld was now completely surrounded by the Prussian Rhine Province.  As a result of the abdication and the renunciation of the succession to the throne of Frederick Augustus II, Grand Duke of Oldenburg on November 11, 1918, the Principality became the Birkenfeld district of the Rhine Province. The Saar region was separated from Germany and now administered by France.  In 1935 the Saar was reunited with the German Reich under the name the name "Saarland", once again shuffling the administrative areas.  The end of the Second World War in 1945 ushered in another substantial reorganization. Bosen, Eckelhausen, Eisen, Eiweiler, Gonnesweiler, Hirstein, Mosberg-Richweiler, Neunkirchen, Schwarzenbach, Selbach, Sötern, Steinberg-Deckenhardt, Türkismühle, and Walhausen were assigned to the new "Amt" Türkismühle in the Sankt Wendel district. In the joint meeting the mayors of all the towns, with the exception of Hirstein, supported the establishment of a new administrative grouping headquartered in Türkismühle, in the absence of suitable facilities for the temporary administrative headquarters in Gonnesweiler. Due to its geographic location Hirstein preferred a connection to the Namborn. In 1947 the municipality of Hirstein was spun off from the district of Türkismühle and incorporated into the administrative district of Namborn.  With the Restructuring Act of 1973, the formerly independent communities were united. The legal successor of the Nohfelden Amt was the municipality (Gemeinde) of Nohfelden with the 13 districts: Bosen, Eckelhausen, Eisen, Eiweiler, Gonnesweiler, Mosberg-Richweiler, Neunkirchen, Nohfelden, Selbach, Sötern, Türkismühle, Walhausen and Wolfersweiler.

Community partnerships.

Since 1996 Nohfelden has been a partner municipality with Jeleśnia, Poland. In April 2006 ten years of partnership was celebrated in Nohfelden with a large delegation from Jelesnia.

Culture and points of interest.

Kunst- und Kulturzentrum am Bostalsee, Bosener Mühle: located between the districts of Bosen and Eckelhausen directly on the lake. The Center offers year-round comprehensive courses in almost all areas of artistic design for all ages (drawing or painting, ceramics, plastic figures, stone sculptures, prints, mixed media, calligraphy). The courses are led by well-known professional lecturers. The annual cultural program also offers numerous events from other cultural areas (literary readings, concerts, cabaret, etc.).  Jewish cemeteries: In Gonnesweiler and Sötern are two of the oldest Jewish cemeteries in Saarland (created around 1800). During the National Socialist era the cemeteries were massively damaged and numerous gravestones removed.  Nohfelder herb garden: Doctor Karl-Heinz Potempa created a private garden containing poisonous and medicinal herbs more than 30 years ago. The garden offers over 400 plants, trees and shrubs and is one of the largest herb garden in Germany. Visits and guided tours are possible from the beginning of May to the end of September.  Englischer Garten in Gonnesweiler: A landscaped garden, which was created in English style, leads past the Nepomuk Chapel and offers a circular route, which is also suitable for wheelchair users. Nahequelle with wild area: This is the source of the river Nahe. The Nahequelle is the starting point for the Nahequelle path. It is a family-friendly destination with wild area with animals such as peacocks, goats, ducks, geese and deer.  Hinkelstein Walhausen: An old menhir in Walhausen, dating back to 2000–1800 BC. According to legend, buried under the multi-ton Hinkelstein is a golden carriage with the war chest of Attila the Hun.  Schaumeiler in Walhausen: The kiln, built in 1998, recalls the pre-industrial production of charcoal. On the historic kiln site you get an insight into the design of a kiln. Peterberg observatory: On the -high Peterberg amateur astronomers have the opportunity to gain insights into the infinite galaxy.  Street of Sculptures: The street of sculptures, started by Leo Kornbrust in 1972 stretches over a distance of around. Here you can visit stones and sculptures of renowned artists. Along many scenic points, the Street of Sculptures also passes the Bostalsee.

Museums.

Museum of Fashion and Costume ("Museum für Mode und Tracht"): The only museum in the Saarland that deals with historic clothing and fashion. Currently clothing and fashions are displayed with the accompanying underwear and accessories from 1845 to 1920. Approximately 200 exhibits are displayed on an exhibition area of 123 m2. The Saarland Folk Dance and Traditional Costume Association opened the museum in Nohfelden in September 2005. It is located in the old Amtshaus at the castle.

Historic buildings.

Nohfelden Castle (Veldenz Castle): The Nohfelden landmark, built in 1285 by Wilhelm Bossel von Stein. After a lavish restoration, only the 20-meter-high keep can be seen, which serves as a wonderful lookout tower. Numerous events take place annually at the castle. The castle summer season starts on May 1 and lasts until October. In this romantic setting, there is also the opportunity for weddings.  Wolfersweiler Protestant church: A historic church from 1788 whose tower foundations date back to the 12th century. The tower itself is from 1586. It is a simple village church with old wooden stalls and a Stumm organ from 1834. Guided tours of church and organ are offered and there are regular concerts. From May to October, the church is open during the day. In the winter months it is possible to visit by appointment. St. Nepomuk Chapel Gonnesweiler: In 1748 the nobleman Florent Joseph de Latre de Feignis had the Nepomuk chapel built. This historic building, which survived even the French Revolution, had to be demolished in 1970, as the main street adjacent to the chapel was extended. Volunteer citizens of the Cultural Association began reconstructing the Nepomuk Chapel in 2005, but at a different location  Jagdgut Bocksborn zu Gonnesweiler: built in 1894 by the Saarbrücken engineer Fritz von Rexroth. It served as a residential, recreational and working accommodation, but above all to accommodate the hunting guests. Today it is a private residence.  Waldkapelle in Selbach: It is idyllically situated by the forest, so many cyclists and hikers come by to take a break and light a candle. It was built in 1954.  Kathreinenkapelle in Selbach: built in the 16th century and is the oldest surviving building in the municipality Nohfelden, it has the oldest surviving late baroque cross in the northern Saarland.  Peterbergkapelle Eiweiler: In 1983, today's Peterberg Chapel was built on the foundations of a dilapidated chapel.

Recreation.

Bostalsee Recreation Center is popular with surfing and sailing fans. In addition to hiking on the approximately long circular route, there are also opportunities along the lake to fish, swim, row, dive, pedal boat or just relax at a sunset on the lake.  Center Parks Bostalsee Built in 2013, Center Parks is located directly on the 120-hectare Bostalsee. In addition to indoor miniature golf there is also a miniature golf course located directly on the water. High wire course, archery, petting zoo, swimming pool and bowling attract many visitors.  Golfpark Bostalsee in Eisen Golfpark Eisen offers a beginner's course and 3 public courses. The whole park is idyllically situated and only away from the Bostalsee. It extends over a wide area with pond and habitat areas, open streams, bunkers and beautifully staged green areas. Buchwald in Nohfelden The 250-year-old larch, a demonstration charcoal kiln, and the largest Douglas fir in southwest Germany are worth seeing in the extensive Beech forest. In addition, it is ideal for hikers and cyclists who can explore the region using the good signage.  Biergarten and Bosiland The former event hall has now been converted into an indoor playground. Here children can play, have fun and celebrate birthdays while the parents relax and enjoy the view of the lake. Located directly on the Bosiland is a Bavarian-style beer garden, offering up to 3500 seats and ideal for a short break after a tour around the lake.  Freizeitpark Neunkirchen/Nahe The amusement park has an observation tower, a miniature golf course and a large play area for children and families. In addition, the park offers fitness activities in the leisure facility through an outdoor fitness station with seven machines.

Transportation.

The community is crossed by the A62 motorway which, with the interchange "Nohfelden-Türkismühle", has the connectivity to the local road network. The B41 is also a heavily traveled federal highway through the town. The international airports of Saarbrücken, Zweibrücken and Frankfurt-Hahn can be reached by car in less than an hour.  The Türkismühle station provides a connection to the Nahe Valley Railway ("Nahetalbahn") on the Saarbrücken-Frankfurt/Main route. It is less than two hours the Frankfurt airport by train, and around 45 minutes to Saarbrücken.

Nohfelden is a municipality in the district of Sankt Wendel, in Saarland, Germany. It is situated approximately north of Sankt Wendel, and southwest of Idar-Oberstein. It was formed during administrative reform in January, 1974 from the merger of 13 previously independent municipalities.

Nohfelden (en Sarrois "Nofelde") est une commune située dans l'Arrondissement de Saint-Wendel, dans le Lander de la Sarre en Allemagne.


History.

The club was created in 1997 as part of Santos, in a partnership with Fundação Pró-Esportes de Santos (Fupes). They won two national competitions, which are the Liga Nacional in 2007, the Copa do Brasil in 2008. The club won the Copa Mercosul in 2006, and the Campeonato Paulista in 2007. The Campeonato Paulista organized by LINAF was won by Santos in 2009, beating Corinthians in the final. Santos competed in the 2009 Copa Libertadores, winning the competition after beating Universidad Autónoma of Paraguay 9–0 in the final, played on October 18. They won the 2009 Copa do Brasil on December 1, 2009, after beating Botucatu 3–0 in the final, played at Estádio do Pacaembu. In 2010, they won again the Copa Libertadores, after beating Everton 1–0 in Arena Barueri, and in 2011 they won the Campeonato Paulista again, after they beat Centro Olímpico in the final.

Closure 2012.

The women's section was closed in 2012. The club's president Luis Álvaro de Oliveira Ribeiro closed down the women's team and the men's futsal team because an alleged lack of sponsorship meant they were not self-sustaining. It was attributed to the effort of holding male star player Neymar at Santos.

2015 Reestablishment.

In 2015 incoming Santos president Modesto Roma Júnior reinstated the women's team, as part of wider reforms aimed at repairing the previous regime's financial mismanagement.

Stadium.

Santos play their home games at Estádio Vila Belmiro, hence the club's nickname Sereias da Vila, meaning Vila's Mermaids. The stadium has a maximum capacity of 16,798 people.

Santos Futebol Clube, commonly known as Santos or Sereias da Vila, is a Brazilian women's Association football club, based in the city of Santos, São Paulo state, Brazil. They won the Campeonato Brasileiro de Futebol Feminino once, the Copa do Brasil twice and the Copa Libertadores Femenina twice.

Le Santos Futebol Clube est un club de football comprenant une section féminine entre 1997 et 2012 puis depuis 2015.


History.

Soviet occupation and rise of the Communists.

When King Michael, supported by the main political parties, overthrew Ion Antonescu in August 1944, breaking Romania away from the Axis and bringing it over to the Allied side, Michael could do nothing to erase the memory of his country's recent active participation in the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Romanian forces fought under Soviet command, driving through Northern Transylvania into Hungary proper, and on into Czechoslovakia and Austria. However, the Soviets treated Romania as conquered territory, and Soviet troops remained in the country as occupying forces under the pretext that Romanian authorities could not guarantee the security and stability of Northern Transylvania.  The Yalta Conference had granted the Soviet Union a predominant interest in Romania, the Paris Peace Treaties failed to acknowledge Romania as a co-belligerent, as the Romanian army had fought

Romanian People's Republic.

Early years.

The early years of Communist rule in Romania were marked by repeated changes of course and by numerous arrests and imprisonments as factions contended for dominance. The country's resources were also drained by the Soviet's SovRom agreements, which facilitated shipping of Romanian goods to the Soviet Union at nominal prices.  On 11 June 1948, all banks and large businesses were nationalized.  In the Communist leadership, there appear to have been three important factions, all of them Stalinist, differentiated more by their respective personal histories than by any deep

Gheorghiu-Dej era.

Gheorghiu-Dej, a committed Stalinist, was unhappy with the reforms in Nikita Khrushchev's Soviet Union after Stalin's death in 1953. He also balked at Comecon's goal of turning Romania into the "breadbasket" of the East Bloc, pursuing an economic plan based on heavy industry and energy production. The government closed Romania's largest labor camps, abandoned the Danube–Black Sea Canal project, halted rationing and hiked workers' wages. These factors combined to put Romania under Gheorghiu-Dej on a relatively independent and nationalist route.  Gheorghiu-Dej identified with Stalinism, and the more liberal Soviet government threatened to undermine his authority. In an effort to reinforce his position, Gheorghiu-Dej pledged cooperation with any state, regardless of political-economic system, as long as it recognized international equality and did not interfere in other nations' domestic affairs. This policy led to a tightening of Romania's bonds with

Persecution, the labour camp system and anti-communist resistance.

Once the Communist government became more entrenched, the number of arrests increased. The General Directorate of People's Security, or 'Securitate', was in fact established in 1948 with the aim "to defend the democratic conquest and to ensure the security of the Romanian People’s Republic against the plotting of internal and external enemies".  All strata of society were involved, but particularly targeted were the prewar elites, such as intellectuals, clerics, teachers, former politicians (even if they had left-leaning views) and anybody who could potentially form the nucleus of anti-Communist resistance. According to figures, in the years between 1945 and 1964, 73,334 people were arrested.  The existing prisons were filled with political prisoners, and a new system of forced labor camps and prisons was created, modeled after the Soviet Gulag. A decision to put into practice the century-old project for a Danube-Black Sea Canal served as a pretext for the erection of several labor camps, where numerous people died. Some of the most notorious prisons included Sighet, Gherla, Pitești and Aiud, and forced labor camps were set up at lead mines and in the Danube Delta.  One of the most notorious and infamous brainwashing experiments in Eastern Europe's history took place in Romania, in the political prison of Piteşti, a small town, about 120 km northwest of Bucharest. This prison is infamous in Romania still for the so-called 'Piteşti experiment' or Piteşti phenomenon, conducted there between 1949 and 1952. The prison in Pitești and the Pitesti experiment

The Ceaușescu government.

Gheorghiu-Dej died in 1965 and, after a power struggle, was succeeded by the previously obscure Nicolae Ceaușescu. During his last two years, Gheorghiu-Dej had exploited the Soviet–Chinese dispute and begun to oppose the hegemony of the Soviet Union. Ceaușescu, supported by colleagues of Gheorghiu-Dej such as Maurer, continued this popular line. Relations with Western countries and many other states began to be strengthened in what seemed to be the national interest of Romania. The forced Soviet (mostly Russian) cultural influence in the country which characterized the 1950s was stopped and Western media was allowed to circulate in Romania instead.

First years.

On 21 August 1965, following the example of Czechoslovakia, the name of the country was changed to "Socialist Republic of Romania" ("Republica Socialistă România, RSR") and PMR's old name was restored ("Partidul Comunist Român, PCR"; "Romanian Communist Party").  In his early years in power, Ceaușescu was genuinely popular, both at home and abroad. Agricultural goods were abundant, consumer goods began

Human rights issues.

Concerned about the country's low birthrates, Nicolae Ceaușescu enacted an aggressive natalist policy, which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people. This period has later been depicted in movies and documentaries (such as "4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days", "Children of the Decree"). To counter the sharp decline of the population, the Communist Party decided that the Romanian population should be increased from 23 to 30 million inhabitants. In October 1966, Decree 770 was authorized by Ceaușescu.  These pro-natalist measures had some degree of success, as a baby boom resulted in the late 1960s, with the generations born in 1967 and 1968 being the largest in the country's history. The natalist policies

Industrialization.

Ceaușescu's Romania continued to pursue Gheorghiu-Dej's policy of industrialization. Romania made progress with the economy. From 1951 to 1974, Romania's gross industrial output increased at an average annual rate of 13 percent. Several branches of heavy industry were founded, including the machine-tool, tractor, and automotive industries; large-tonnage shipbuilding; the manufacture of electric diesel locomotives; and the electronics and petrochemical industries.  Prior to the mid-1970s, Bucharest, as most other cities, was developed by expanding the city, especially towards the south, east and west. High density residential neighbourhoods were built on the outskirts of the city, some (such as Drumul Taberei, Berceni, Titan or Giurgiului) of architectural and urban planning value. Conservation plans were made, especially during the 1960s and early 1970s, but all were halted after Ceaușescu embarked on what is known as "The Small Cultural Revolution" ("Mica revoluție culturală"), after visiting North Korea and the People's Republic of China and then delivering a speech known as the July Theses. In the late 1970s, the construction of the Bucharest Metro system was started. After two years, 10 km of network were already complete and after another 2 years,

1980s: severe rationing.

Romania continued to make progress. High rates of growth in production created conditions for raising living standards of the people. From 1950 to the mid-1980s, average net wages increased more than eightfold. The consumption fund increased 22-fold, and a broad program of building cultural facilities and housing was carried out. Over 80 percent of the country's population had moved to new apartments during this period.  Despite all this, living standards in the country remained some of Europe's lowest and as early as 1981, there were clear signs of public discontent, such as riots and an angry mob throwing rocks at Ceaușescu's helicopter while it made a flight to Transylvania that October. Ceaușescu desired to repay Western loans, and thus enacted a harsh austerity policy, including rationing of food, gas, heating and electricity. People in cities had to turn to natural gas containers (""butelii"") or charcoal stoves, even though they were connected to the gas mains. With full-scale food rationing in place, the Communist Party published official guidelines on how Romanians could eat nutritiously while reducing their calorie intake by 25%. There was a

Systematization: demolition and reconstruction.

Systematization () refers to the program of urban planning carried out under Ceaușescu's regime. After a visit to North Korea in 1971, Ceaușescu was impressed by the "Juche" ideology of that country, and began a massive campaign shortly afterwards.  Beginning in 1974, systematization consisted largely of the demolition and reconstruction of existing villages, towns, and cities, in whole or in part, with the stated goal of turning Romania into a "multilaterally developed socialist society".

Last years: increased social control.

Control over society became stricter and stricter, with an East German-style phone bugging system installed, and with Securitate recruiting more agents, extending censorship and keeping tabs and records on a large segment of the population. By 1989, according to CNSAS (the Council for Studies of the Archives of the Former Securitate), one in three Romanians was an informant for the Securitate. Due to this situation, income from tourism dropped substantially, the number of foreign tourists visiting Romania dropping by 75%, with the three main tour operators that organized trips in Romania leaving the country

Pollution.

Another legacy of this era was pollution: Ceaușescu's government scored badly on this count even by the standards of the Eastern European communist states. Examples include Copșa Mică with its infamous Carbon Powder factory (in the 1980s, the whole city could be seen from satellite as covered by a thick black cloud), Hunedoara, or the plan, launched in 1989, to convert the unique Danube Delta – a UNESCO World Heritage site – to plain agricultural fields.

Downfall.

Brașov Riot.

December 1989 was the last act of a finale that had started in 1987, in Brașov. The anti-communist riot in Brașov on 15 November 1987 was the main political event that announced the imminent fall of communism in Romania.  The revolt started at the enterprise of Trucks Brașov, as a strike that began on the night of 14 November, on the night-shift, and it continued the next morning with a march downtown, in front of the Council of the Romanian Communist Party.  The population heard about this event through Radio Free Europe. As Emil Hurezeanu tells it: "I remember that Neculai Constantin Munteanu, the moderator of the show, started the broadcast: 'Brașov! So Brașov! Now it started!' This was the tone of the whole broadcast. We had interviews, information, interpretations of some political interpretations, older press articles announcing

Protests in 1989 before the Revolution.

In March 1989, several leading activists of the PCR protested in a letter that criticized the economic policies of Nicolae Ceaușescu, but shortly thereafter Ceaușescu achieved a significant political victory: Romania paid off its external debt of about US$11 billion several months earlier than even the Romanian dictator had expected. Ceaușescu was formally reelected secretary general of the Romanian Communist Party—-the only political party of the Romanian Socialist Republic—-on 14 November at

Revolution.

On 16 December, a protest broke out in Timișoara in response to an attempt by the government to evict the dissident pastor László Tőkés from his church flat. Tőkés had recently made critical comments against the regime to the Hungarian media, and the government alleged that he was inciting ethnic hatred. His parishioners gathered around his home to protect him from harassment and eviction. Many passers-by, including Romanian students, spontaneously joined the protest. Subsequently, police and "Securitate" forces showed up at the scene. By 7:30 pm, the protest had spread, and the original cause became largely irrelevant. Some of the protesters attempted to burn down the building that housed the District Committee

Controversy over the events of December 1989.

For several months after the events of December 1989, it was widely argued that Ion Iliescu and the National Salvation Front (FSN) had merely taken advantage of the chaos to stage a coup. While, ultimately, a great deal did change in Romania, it is still a subject of contention among Romanians and other observers as to whether this was their intent from the outset, or merely pragmatic playing of the cards they were dealt. By December 1989 Ceaușescu's harsh and counterproductive economic and political policies had cost him the support of many government officials and even the most loyal Communist Party cadres, most of whom joined forces with the popular revolution or simply refused to support him. This loss of support from government officials ultimately set the stage for Ceaușescu's demise. The Romanian army also was a factor in the regime's fall as it suffered from severe budget cuts while vast sums were spent on the Securitate, leaving them severely discontented and unwilling to save Ceaușescu.

Politics.

RSR's political framework was a socialist republic run by a single party, the Romanian Communist Party. All of its legislative meetings took place in Bucharest.

Foreign relations.

Romania's foreign policy was aligned with all nations that were aligned with the Soviet Union. Under Ceaușescu it enjoyed strategic relations with the Western Bloc and the Non-Aligned Movement, and it was the only Eastern Bloc country not to boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.  Following the Sino-Soviet split,

Legacy.

Despite the harsh austerity measures of the 1980s in Romania being still in living memory, many Romanians respond in polls that they'd prefer a restoration of the Communist regime (as much as 53% in a 2012 poll), looking back nostalgically at an era of perceived stability and safety as opposed to the recent economic and political instability.  After the fall of the communist regime, Romania began shifting its political and economic policies from support (albeit tepid) for Moscow to aligning itself with Brussels and Washington by joining NATO in 2004 and the European Union in 2007.  The clientelistic networks that kept incompetent cadres in power were resilient after the Romanian Communist Party collapsed in 1989, allowing them to persist and generate post-communist corruption.

The Socialist Republic of Romania (, RSR) was a Marxist-Leninist one-party communist state that existed officially in Romania from 1947 to 1989. From 1947 to 1965, the state was known as the Romanian People's Republic (, RPR). The country was a Soviet-aligned Eastern Bloc state with a dominant role for the Romanian Communist Party enshrined in.

La république socialiste de Roumanie ( ou RSR) est la troisième et dernière forme constitutionnelle, du au, du régime communiste de Roumanie dirigé par le Parti communiste roumain du au. Ce régime a connu trois phases :


History.

Olba was a city of Cetis in Cilicia Aspera, later forming part of Isauria. It was situated at the foot of the Taurus Mountains, on a tributary of the Calycadnus.  According to Greek mythology, Olbe had been built by Ajax, the son of Teucer; it contained a temple of Zeus, whose priest once ruled over all Cilicia Aspera. Strabo described it: The temple would have been closed when Christianity was introduced during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.  During the 1st century BC, it was ruled by the local tyrants Zenophanes and his daughter Aba. Later, it became a Roman colony. Strabo calls it Olbe (Ὄλβη). Ptolemy calls it Olbasa (Ὄλβασα). Stephanus of Byzantium calls it Olbia (Ὀλβία).  A coin of Diocæsarea, Olbos; Hierocles ("Synecdemus", 709), Olbe; Basil of Seleucia (Mirac. S.Theclæ, 2, 8) and the Greek "Notitiæ episcopatuum", Olba. The primitive name must have been Ourba or Orba, found in Theophanes the Chronographer, hence Ourbanopolis in "Acta S. Bartholomei".  In Christian times, it was regarded as belonging to Isauria, and was the seat of a bishop.  Its ruins, north of Silifke in the Turkish province of Mersin, are called "Oura" in Turkish.

Ecclesiastical history.

Olba was a suffragan of the Metropolitan of Isauria's provincial capital Seleucia, but faded like most sees in Asia Minor. Olba maintained a sizable Christian population in the 4th and 5th centuries, when the Temple of Zeus was converted into a church.  Michel Le Quien ("Oriens christianus", II, 1031) gives four bishops between the fourth and seventh centuries; but the "Notitiæ episcopatuum" mentions the see until the thirteenth century.

Titular see.

The diocese was nominally restored as titular bishopric of the episcopal (lowest) rank under the name Olba (Latin and Curiate Italian); Latin adjective Olbiensis.  In 1927 it was suppressed, having had the following incumbents, all of the fitting Episcopal (lowest) rank:  In 1933 it was again restored as titular bishopric of Olba. It is vacant since decades, having had the following incumbents, so far of the fitting episcopal rank :

Olba or Olbe (; ) was an ancient city and bishopric in the Roman province of Isauria, in present-day southern Turkey. It is included in the Catholic Church's list of Latin titular sees.

Olba, plus tard Diokaisareia / Diocaesarea (aujourd'hui Uzuncaburç) est une ancienne cité de Cilicie (Turquie). La ville se trouve à environ à vol d'oiseau au nord-ouest de Corykos (Κώρυκος) et au nord de Séleucie (Silifke) sur un plateau élevé, à une altitude d'environ. Selon Strabon, Olba se situe dans la contrée montagneuse qui domine Kyinda et Soles. À Olba appartenait aussi la cité de Canytellis (Kanlıdivane), à 30 km environ au sud-ouest.


Bridge history.

Ferries.

The first way of crossing the Red River was by ferry linking Broadway on the west with Provencher Blvd on the east. The ferry route was cancelled in 1882 with the opening of the first bridge. It sank on the Assiniboine River later that same year.

The first bridge.

The first bridge (the "old bridge") was originally named the Broadway bridge because it connected with Broadway on the other side, which is in direct line of sight with Provencher. Construction began in 1881 and was completed in April 1882. Disaster struck three days later, wiping away two spans of the bridge, but repairs were completed later that same month. The bridge was demolished in 1917 after a proposal for a newer one.

The second bridge.

The second bridge was opened in 1918 to replace the old Broadway bridge. Instead of linking with Broadway, it was oriented slightly to the north; traffic crossing from the east was sent even further north, eventually connecting with Main Street about 500 metres from Broadway. Construction began in 1911 and was completed in 1912. Streetcars began operating on the bridge on December 3, 1925. The second bridge was dismantled in 2001 for the opening of the third (current) bridge.

The third bridge.

The third bridge (the "modern bridge") actually consists of two bridges, a vehicular bridge and a pedestrian bridge. The vehicular bridge's plan was originally designed to connect York and St. Mary Avenues to Provencher Boulevard, but it was cancelled in 1997. The lands for the St. Mary–York–Provencher connection were used for the construction of the Canadian Museum for Human Rights. The vehicular bridge was constructed in 2001 and completed in September 2003. The pedestrian bridge was constructed later, and was completed the same year.

The vehicular bridge.

The vehicular part of the modern bridge is slightly curved, unlike the old bridge which was completely straight and at a slight angle. Construction of the vehicular bridge began on July 20, 2001. Two years later, in September, the vehicular bridge was completed.

The pedestrian bridge.

The pedestrian bridge, or the "Esplanade Riel" (Named for Louis Riel), parallels the new Broadway bridge, and is a side-spar cable-stayed bridge designed by Architects Guy Préfontaine and Étienne Gaboury and Colin Douglas Stewart of Wardrop Engineering.  The Esplanade Riel features a restaurant in the middle of the bridge. Originally operated by Salisbury House, the restaurant space was home to "Chez Sophie Sur Le Pont" from summer 2013 to February 2015. The bridge's new tenant, Mon Ami Louis, opened in July 2015 as an "approachable and eschewing the haute cuisine haughtiness of French dining".  Construction on the bridge began in August 2002, and was completed in 2003, the same year as the vehicular bridge, and was officially opened in the summer of 2004.

The Provencher Bridge () is a bridge across the Red River in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The bridge links downtown Winnipeg with St. Boniface, a Winnipeg community across the Red River. The Provencher Bridge derived its name from the connecting Boulevard Provencher (Provencher Boulevard).

Le pont Provencher est un ouvrage d'art qui enjambe la rivière Rouge dans la ville de Winnipeg. Le pont Provencher fut construit en 2001, à la suite de la fermeture d'un ancien pont construit en 1918 et devenu vétuste.


History and motivation.

The function was first introduced in computer programming languages, but now it is also common in other fields of science and engineering. It dates back at least as far as the FORTRAN programming language and is currently found in many modern programming languages. Among these languages are: C's math.h standard library, the Java Math library,.NET's System.Math (usable from C#, VB.NET, etc.), the Python math module, the Ruby Math module, the Golang math package and elsewhere. In addition, many scripting languages, such as Perl, include the C-style codice_1 function.  The single-argument arctangent function cannot distinguish between diametrically opposite directions. For example, the anticlockwise angle from the axis to the vector, calculated in the usual way as, is (radians), or. However, the angle between the axis and the vector appears, by the same method, to be, again, even though one might expect the answers (−135°) or (225°). In addition, an attempt to find the angle between the axis and the vectors requires evaluation of, which fails on division by zero.  The function calculates one unique arc tangent value from two variables and, where the signs of both arguments are used to determine the quadrant of the result, thereby selecting the desired branch of the arc tangent of, e.g., and. Similarly, e.g.,.  When calculations are performed manually, the necessary quadrant corrections and exception handling can be done by inspection, but it is more useful to have a single function that always gives an unambiguous correct result. The function is useful in many applications involving vectors in Euclidean space, such as finding the direction from one point to another. A principal use is in computer graphics rotations, for converting rotation matrix representations into Euler angles.

Definition and computation.

The function computes the principal value of the argument function applied to the complex number. That is,. The argument could be changed by an arbitrary multiple of (corresponding to a complete turn around the origin) without making any difference to the angle, but to define uniquely one uses the principal value in the range formula_11, that is,.  In terms of the standard function, whose range is, it can be expressed as follows:  A compact expression with four overlapping half-planes is  The following expression derived from the tangent half-angle formula can also be used to define : This expression may be more suited for symbolic use than the definition above. However it is unsuitable for general floating-point computational use, as the effect of rounding errors in formula_15 expand near the region (this may even lead to a division of "y" by zero).  A variant of the last formula that avoids these inflated rounding errors: Notes:

Derivative.

As the function is a function of two variables, it has two partial derivatives. At points where these derivatives exist, is, except for a constant, equal to. Hence for or, Thus the gradient of atan2 is given by  Informally representing the function as the angle function (which is only defined up to a constant) yields the following formula for the total differential:  While the function is discontinuous along the negative -axis, reflecting the fact that angle cannot be continuously defined, this derivative is continuously defined except at the origin, reflecting the fact that infinitesimal (and indeed local) "changes" in angle can be defined everywhere except the origin. Integrating this derivative along a path gives the total change in angle over the path, and integrating over a closed loop gives the winding number.  In the language of differential geometry, this derivative is a one-form, and it is closed (its derivative is zero) but not exact (it is not the derivative of a 0-form, i.e., a function), and in fact it generates the first de Rham cohomology of the punctured plane. This is the most basic example of such a form, and it is fundamental in differential geometry.  The partial derivatives of do not contain trigonometric functions, making it particularly useful in many applications (e.g. embedded systems) where trigonometric functions can be expensive to evaluate.

Illustrations.

This figure shows values of atan2 along selected rays from the origin, labelled at the unit circle. The values, in radians, are shown inside the circle. The diagram uses the standard mathematical convention that angles increase counterclockwise from zero along the ray to the right. Note that the order of arguments is reversed; the function computes the angle corresponding to the point.  This figure shows the values of formula_21 alongside with formula_22 for formula_23. Both functions are odd and periodic with periods formula_24 and formula_25, respectively, and thus can easily be supplemented to any region of real values of formula_26. One can clearly see the branch cuts of the formula_27-function at formula_28, and of the formula_29-function at formula_30.  The two figures below show 3D views of respectively and over a region of the plane. Note that for, "rays" in the "X"/"Y"-plane emanating from the origin have constant values, but for "lines" in the "X"/"Y"-plane passing through the origin have constant values. For, the two diagrams give identical values.

Angle sum and difference identity.

Sums of formula_31 may be collapsed into a single operation according to the following identity ...provided that formula_33.  The proof involves considering two cases, one where formula_34 or formula_35 and one where formula_36 and formula_37.  We only consider the case where formula_34 or formula_35. To start, we make the following observations:  To see (4), we have the identity formula_48 where formula_49, hence formula_50. Furthermore, since formula_51 for any positive real value formula_52, then if we let formula_53 and formula_54 then we have formula_55.  From these observations have following equivalences:  Corollary: if formula_57 and formula_58 are 2-dimensional vectors, the difference formula is frequently used in practice to compute the angle between those vectors with the help of formula_31, since the resulting computation behaves benign in the range formula_11 and can thus be used without range checks in many practical situations.

Realizations of the function in common computer languages.

The realization of the function differs from one computer language to another:

The function formula_1 or formula_2 (from "2-argument arctangent") is defined as the angle in the Euclidean plane, given in radians, between the positive "x" axis and the ray to the

En trigonométrie, la fonction atan2 à deux arguments est une variante de la fonction arc tangente. Pour tous arguments réels et non nuls, formula_1 est l'angle en radians entre la partie positive de l'axe des d'un plan, et le point de ce plan de coordonnées. Cet angle est positif pour les angles dans le sens anti-horaire dit "sens trigonométrique" (demi-plan supérieur, ) et négatif dans l'autre (demi-plan inférieur, ).


Design and development.

Development of the Pe-8 began in July 1934, when the Soviet Air Forces (VVS) issued requirements for an aircraft to replace the obsolete and cumbersome Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber. These requirements specified a bomber that could carry of bombs at a speed greater than at an altitude of, figures that were twice the range, speed and service ceiling of the TB-3. The task was assigned to the Tupolev Design Bureau (OKB) where Andrei Tupolev handed the work to a team led by Vladimir Petlyakov and the project received the internal bureau designation of ANT-42. The resulting aircraft, a four-engined, mid-wing cantilever monoplane, was initially designated as the TB-7 (, "Tyazholy Bombardirovschik"—Heavy Bomber) by the VVS and owed more to the streamlined design of the Tupolev SB than to the block-like design of the TB-3.  The bomber was built mainly of duralumin, with two steel spars in the wings, although the ailerons were fabric-covered. The pear-shaped monocoque fuselage required the pilots to sit in tandem, offset to the left. In the prototype, space for a fifth engine, an auxiliary Klimov M-100, was reserved inside the fuselage, in a fairing above the wing spars and behind the pilots. It was intended to drive a supercharger that supplied pressurized air to the Mikulin AM-34FRN engines, with the installation designated ATsN-2 (—Central Supercharging Unit), an idea pioneered in 1918 by the Zeppelin-Staaken firm in the German Empire, and refined further for the Third Reich Luftwaffe's Do 217P and Hs 130E experimental bomber designs. Subsequent models of the Pe-8 omitted the internal engine, and provided seating for a flight engineer and radio operator, behind and below the pilots. The bombardier sat in the nose and manned a turret armed with a ShVAK cannon that covered a 120° cone ahead. A prominent chin gondola, nicknamed the 'beard', protruded beneath the nose. The dorsal gunner sat at the rear of the ATsN fairing with a sliding hood covering a ShKAS machine gun and another ShKAS mounted in a ventral hatch. The tail gunner had a powered turret with a ShVAK and, most unusually, there were manually operated ShVAK cannon mounted at the rear of each inner engine nacelle. Crewmen had access to these positions through the wing or by a trapdoor in the upper wing surface. The large internal bomb bay racks held up to of bombs; external racks held a single FAB-500 ("Fugasnaya AviaBomba" - high explosive bomb) bomb under each wing.  The maiden flight of the unarmed prototype, piloted by M. M. Gromov and without the ATsN installation, occurred at Khodynka Aerodrome on 27 December 1936. After successful initial trials, the ATsN system was installed for the State acceptance trials in August 1937 and the AM-34RNB engines were fitted during the tests. Gromov reported that the rudder was ineffective and that the outer engines overheated. Subsequent wind tunnel testing identified a problem with the aerodynamics of the radiators and nacelles. To solve this problem, the outer engines' radiators were moved into deep ducts under the inner nacelles. The Pe-8 now featured only two pronounced radiator intakes, one under each inner engine, each shared by both inner and outer engines, one of the distinctive and unique features of the aircraft. The rudder was also enlarged and redesigned with a smooth skin.  Construction of a second prototype began in April 1936, incorporating lessons from the first aircraft and feedback from the VVS. Designers widened the fuselage by ; the 'beard' was also widened and the tail section was modified to lessen resistance and improve rudder function. A reconfigured control system included an autopilot and the engineers redesigned portions of the electrical system. The engines were changed to the more powerful AM-34FRNVs and a redesigned undercarriage was fitted to the airframe. Two additional fuel tanks increased the craft's range. The defensive and offensive armament was revised, and the bomber's weaponry expanded to twin ShKAS guns in the nose, nacelle barbettes and tail turrets and a dorsal turret with a ShVAK; this design eliminated the ventral gun. The bomb bay was modified to allow for a single FAB-5000 bomb to be carried and provisions were added to carry VAP-500 or VAP-1000 poison gas dispensers under the wings.  The arrests of both Tupolev and Petlyakov in October 1937, during the Great Purge, disrupted the program and the second prototype did not make its first flight until 26 July 1938. Although this prototype served as the basis for the series aircraft, further modifications were made to the armament. New weaponry included a retractable ShVAK in the MV-6 dorsal turret, another ShVAK in a KEB tail turret and a Berezin UBT machine gun in each ShU barbette in each inner engine nacelle, on the underside of the wing covering he lower rear arc of fire to left and right, respectively. Another fuel tank further increased the range, and the 'beard' was removed entirely, replaced by a more streamlined nose. Authorization for production was slow for several reasons, including the Great Purge, but also due to the scarcity of resources, and a shortage of workers. Although production facilities in the Kazan Factory No. 124 were ready as early as 1937, the order to begin was not given until 1939.

Manufacture and supply problems.

Engine supply problems complicated the construction of the aircraft. Production of the ATsN superchargers could not be organized in any systematic way and only the first four Pe-8s were equipped with them. Factory No. 124 shut down its Pe-8 production line at the beginning of 1940 while alternative engines were evaluated. Somewhere in the massive Soviet chain of command, the decision was made to proceed without the superchargers. The unavailability of the Klimov M-100 engine of the ATsN-2 installation required a design change, although this modification allowed a commander and radio operator to be carried in its place. Then, to compound the problem further, the production of AM-34FRNV engines ended in the second half of 1939. Only two or four Pe-8s were equipped with them. Eighteen of the aircraft produced by the end of 1940 were fitted with AM-35A engines. In 1940, six aircraft without engines were fitted with Mikulin AM-35A engines, while VVS officials evaluated both the Charomskiy ACh-30 and Charomskiy M-40 aircraft Diesel engines. At least nine Pe-8s were fitted with Diesel engines in 1941, but neither the ACh-30 nor the M-40 were entirely satisfactory, despite greatly increasing the range of the aircraft. All surviving Pe-8s were re-engined with AM-35As by the end of 1941. Production continued slowly at Factory No. 124; most of the factory's resources were devoted to the higher-priority Petlyakov Pe-2, a successful light bomber. At this time, most of these aircraft, re-designated as the Pe-8 after Petlyakov was killed in a Pe-2 crash on 12 January 1942, were built with out-of-production AM-35A engines.  The 1,380-kW (1,850-hp) Shvetsov ASh-82 radial engine was proposed as a replacement to alleviate the shortage of engines and this modification went into production in late 1942. The exhaust arrangements of the ASh-82 were not compatible with the gun turrets in the rear of the engine nacelles and the guns were removed, reducing the aircraft's defensive capability. At the end of 1943, the nose turret was deleted in favor of a manually operated ShKAS machine gun in a more streamlined nose. This version of the aircraft proved to have much the same range as the diesel-engined versions, but reliability was greatly improved. Production of the Pe-8s totaled 93.  The last Pe-8s were completed in 1944 as Pe-8ONs ("Osobovo Naznacheniya"—Special Mission) with Charomskiy ACh-30B engines and a fillet at the base of the vertical stabilizer. These were special VIP transports with a seating capacity of twelve and a cargo capacity of. Sources disagree if the armament was removed and, if it was, whether partly or entirely.

Operational history.

Wartime use.

When Operation Barbarossa began on 22 June 1941, only the 2nd Squadron of the 14th Heavy Bomber Regiment ("Tyazholy Bombardirovochnyy Avia Polk"—TBAP), based at Boryspil was equipped with Pe-8s, but was not ready for combat. Two of its nine Pe-8s were destroyed by German air strikes shortly after the war began, before the Pe-8s were withdrawn out of reach of German bombers to Kazan. Stalin ordered that the squadron be reformed into a regiment, and that it strike targets deep inside German territory. Theoretically, this tactic would boost Soviet morale by demonstrating the vulnerability of the enemy. The squadron was re-designated on 29 June as the 412th TBAP and began training for long-range missions. On or about 27 July it was again renamed, this time as the 432nd TBAP. On the evening of 10 August, eight M-40-engined Pe-8s of the 432nd TBAP, accompanied by Yermolaev Yer-2s of the 420th Long-Range Bomber Aviation Regiment (DBAP), attempted to bomb Berlin from Pushkino Airfield near Leningrad. One heavily loaded Pe-8 crashed immediately upon take off, after it lost an engine. Only four managed to reach Berlin, or its outskirts, and of those, only two returned to their base. The others landed elsewhere or crash-landed in Finland and Estonia. The aircraft of the commander of the 81st Long-Range Bomber Division, Combrig Mikhail Vodopianov, to which both regiments belonged, was attacked mistakenly by Polikarpov I-16s from Soviet Naval Aviation over the Baltic Sea and lost an engine; later, before he could reach Berlin, German flak punctured a fuel tank. He crash-landed his aircraft in southern Estonia. Five more Pe-8s were lost during the operation, largely due to the unreliability of the M-40s. Seven Pe-8s were lost during the month of August alone, rendering the regiment ineffective. During this period, the surviving aircraft were re-equipped with AM-35As, which gave them a shorter range, but a more reliable engine.  By 1 October 1941, the regiment mustered fourteen Pe-8s after having been replenished by new aircraft from the factory. It spent the rest of the year conducting night raids on Berlin, Königsberg, Danzig and as well as German-occupied cities in the Soviet Union. The regiment was re-designated as the 746th Separate Long-Range Aviation Regiment (—OAPDD) on 3 December. No aircraft were reported on hand two days later after this designation, but eleven were on strength on 18 March 1942. During the winter of 1941–42, the regiment was assigned the destruction of a railroad bridge over the Volga River, near Kalinin. In April 1942, one aircraft flew diplomatic personnel and mail on a non-stop flight from Moscow to Great Britain. This was a test run for a flight carrying Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov and his delegation from Moscow to London and then to Washington, D.C. and back, for negotiations to open a second front against Nazi Germany (19 May–13 June 1942). The flight crossed German-controlled airspace on the return trip without incident. From August 1941 to May 1942, the regiment flew 226 sorties and dropped of bombs. In the course of these missions, they lost 14 bombers, five in combat, and the rest from engine malfunction. The regiment received 17 Pe-8s as replacements. Sixteen aircraft were on hand on 1 May 1942, but the number had increased only to seventeen two months later; the regiment was losing aircraft almost as fast as they were being replaced.  The 890th Long-Range Aviation Regiment (—APDD) was formed on 15 June 1942 and both regiments were used to bomb German-held transportation centers of, among others, Orel, Bryansk, Kursk and Poltava. The pace of activity increased and the regiments flew as many missions in August as they had in the first ten months of the war. By the eve of the Soviet counterattack at Stalingrad, Operation Uranus, on 8 November the regiments had fourteen Pe-8s on hand. Under the command of the 45th Long-Range Bomber Aviation Division (—DBAD), they did not participate in the Stalingrad air attacks.  In 1943, from the division's primary airfield at Kratovo, southeast of Moscow, the regiments bombed transportation centers, airfields and troop concentrations. The railroad yard at Gomel was a favorite target and the regiment dropped approximately of bombs there between February and September 1943. It is not clear if these sorties were made by Pe-8s alone or in combination with other aircraft. In addition, the regiment dropped the first FAB-5000 bomb on Königsberg in April 1943, continuing the pin-prick attacks against targets deep in the German rear. In May 1943, efforts shifted to disrupt the German concentration of forces for the Battle of Kursk. In one sortie, the 109 bombers of the 45th DBAD struck the rail junction at Orsha during the evening of 4 May, most of which were not Pe-8s; the German High Command reported the destruction of 300 rail wagons and three ammunition trains.  By 1 July, the regiment had 18 Pe-8s for deployment during the early phase of the Battle of Kursk. The long-range aviation units continued to attack targets in the German rear areas at night, supporting the Soviet ground offensive in the Orel Bulge, called Operation Kutuzov, that began on 12 July. The Germans had transferred the nightfighters of the Fourth Group of the 5th Night Fighter Wing (IV./Nachtjagdgeschwader 5), flying a mix of Junkers Ju 88 and Dornier Do 217 aircraft, to counter the Soviet raids near the Orel area. Initially, the night fighters were ineffective against the Soviet raids, until the deployment of their ground radar "eyes". Once the Germans had use of their radar, after the night of 17–18 July, Soviet losses increased sharply. Although the Germans flew only fourteen sorties that night, they claimed eight kills (of course, throughout the war, night or day, the number of kills "claimed" was inevitably significantly higher than the actual number shot down, regardless of nationality or aircraft type). On the night of 20–21 July, Captain (Hauptmann) Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, commander of IV./NJG 5, claimed to have shot down three himself. The exhaust plume of the ASh-82 engine may have been a contributing factor; the engines lacked flame dampening exhausts, making their plume visible from a distance. Despite its losses, the 746th was re-designated as the 25th Long-Range Guards Aviation Regiment (GAPDD) on 18 September 1943 in recognition of its achievements.

Removal from combat.

The loss of Pe-8s to all causes—mechanical, combat, friendly fire—had steadily increased from one aircraft per 103 flights in 1942 to one per 46 sorties in 1944. Despite the losses, production kept pace with need. The number of aircraft belonging to the 45th DBAD continued to rise; 20 were on hand on 1 January 1944 and 30 on 1 June. The Pe-8s flew 276 sorties in 1944 against such targets as Helsinki, Tallinn and Pskov. Aviation historian Yefim Gordon maintains that the Pe-8 flew its last mission on the night of 1–2 August 1944, but the Statistical Digest of the VVS contradicts this claim, showing 31 Pe-8s assigned to 45th DBAD on 1 January 1945 and 32 on hand on 10 May 1945. However, during this period the 45th DBAD only had three regiments, none of which used the Pe-8 as their primary aircraft, so while the 45th DBAD may have had Pe-8s, these may not have been in use as the primary combat aircraft.  The 890th began to fly Lend-Lease B-25 Mitchells in the spring of 1944 and was itself re-designated as the 890th Bomber Aviation Regiment on 26 December 1944. The 362nd APDD was formed in early 1944 with four Pe-8s received from the other two regiments, but these were returned in the spring of 1944, when the regiment began to convert to the Lend-Lease Mitchells.

Post-war use.

After the war, the Pe-8 was used extensively as a testbed for trials involving Soviet derivatives of the German V-1 flying bomb and it was designated as the Pe-8LL for prototype piston engine trials. It was also used as a mother ship for the experimental rocket-engined Bisnovat 5 in 1948–49. Aeroflot received several of the surviving Pe-8s for polar exploration. Their military equipment removed, they had additional fuel tanks installed, were painted orange, and had their engines upgraded to either ASh-82FNs or Shvetsov ASh-73s. One landed at the North Pole in 1954 and others helped to monitor the drift ice stations NP-2, NP-3 and NP-4 during the late 1950s.

The Petlyakov Pe-8 () was a Soviet heavy bomber designed before World War II, and the only four-engine bomber the USSR built during the war. Produced in limited numbers, it was used to bomb Berlin in August 1941. It was also used for so-called "morale raids" designed to raise the spirit of the Soviet people by exposing Axis vulnerabilities. Its primary mission, however, was to attack German airfields, rail yards and other rear-area facilities at night, although one was used to fly the People's Commissar of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister) Vyacheslav Molotov from Moscow to the United States in 1942.

Le Petliakov Pe-8 (ANT-42, également TB-7) est un bombardier lourd quadrimoteur soviétique conçu en 1934 par le bureau de conception de V. M. Petliakov dirigé par A. N. Tupolev. La première unité vit le jour en automne 1936, effectua son premier vol le de cette même année. Les essais réalisés révélèrent qu'à des altitudes élevées le Pe-8 surpassait tous les bombardiers lourds connus en vitesse, et que ses performances de vol correspondaient à celles des meilleurs chasseurs de l'époque.


History.

In the 1950s with the development of the Eastern shore, it was decided to build a larger bridge; the old Hobart Bridge faced increasing difficulty in managing the larger volumes of traffic that came with development, and constantly raising the lift span for shipping was disruptive. The total cost of the new bridge in conjunction with approach ramps and Lindisfarne Interchange was in the area of A£7 million. Construction commenced in May 1960 and the bridge was first opened to traffic (2 lanes only) on 18 August 1964. The bridge was completed with all four lanes operational on 23 December 1964. It was officially opened on 18 March 1965 by Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester. During peak construction a labour force of over 400 men was employed on site.

Disaster.

On Sunday 5 January 1975, at 9:27 p.m. Australian Eastern Summer Time, the Tasman Bridge was struck by the bulk ore carrier "Lake Illawarra", bound for the Electrolytic Zinc Company with a cargo of of zinc concentrate. It caused two pylons and three sections of concrete decking, totalling, to fall from the bridge and sink the ship. Seven of the ship's crewmen were killed, and five motorists died when four cars drove over the collapsed sections before the traffic was stopped. A major press shot showed a Holden Monaro HQ GTS, which was owned by Frank and Sylvia Manley, along with an older EK Holden station wagon, driven by a local man, Murray Ling, perched balancing on the ledge.  The depth of the river at this point () is such that the wreck of "Lake Illawarra" still lies on the bottom, with concrete slab on top of it, without presenting a navigation hazard to smaller vessels.  The breakage of an important arterial link isolated the residents in Hobart's eastern suburbs – the relatively short drive across the Tasman Bridge to the city suddenly became a journey via the estuary's next bridge at Bridgewater. The only other vehicular crossing within Hobart after the bridge collapsed was the Risdon Punt, a cable ferry which crossed the river from East Risdon and Risdon, some five kilometres upstream from the bridge. However, it was totally inadequate, carrying only eight cars on each crossing, and although ferries provided a service across the Derwent River, it was not until December 1975 that a two lane, Bailey bridge was opened to traffic, thereby restoring some connectivity.  The separation of Hobart saw an immediate surge in the small and limited ferry service then operating across the river. In a primary position to provide a service were the two ships of Robert Clifford, a Tasmanian mariner. He had introduced the locally-built ferries "Matthew Brady" and "James McCabe" to the river crossing, from the Central Business District of Hobart to the eastern shore, shortly before the collision. These two ships were soon joined by the "Cartela", a wooden vessel of 1912 vintage, and other ships, including Sydney Harbour ferries, pressed into service by the Tasmanian Government, to ferry thousands of commuters across the river.  Following successful rebuilding of the Bridge, Clifford's organisation saw the ferry traffic fade quickly, but by then he had diversified into further building of ships.  On 20 June 2007, a crane toppled whilst carrying out works on the bridge, and precariously hung for a number of hours off the side of the barriers.

Reconstruction.

Reconstruction of the Tasman Bridge commenced in October 1975. An important factor of the reconstruction is the improved safety measures. Some examples: On top of the new safety measures implemented, the bridge was further upgraded to hold a fifth lane. This upgrade included the construction of a lane management system which would enable the new middle lane to function as a reversible lane. The system consists of a traffic light system and a sign above each lane, pictured right. The signs, in conjunction with the traffic light system, employ a pulley system to periodically pull the signs over their appropriate lanes.  The middle lane points towards the city side (or western shore) during a.m. peak hours and points back towards the eastern shore during p.m. peak hours. The lane generally points towards the eastern shore during non-peak hours.  The Tasman Bridge repair took two years and cost approximately $44 million. The bridge officially reopened on 8 October 1977.

Replacement.

In 2010, Clarence Alderman Richard James stated that it was time to consider the replacement of the Tasman Bridge with a new bridge of suspension or cable stay design, citing that the current bridge was facing a greatly reduced lifespan due to damage to the internal steel structure caused by the Tasman Bridge disaster. Richard James has suggested a timeframe of no more than 20 years, however Alderman James is not a qualified engineer.

The Tasman Bridge is a five-lane road bridge that carries the Tasman Highway (A3) across the Derwent River and the Southern rail line, located near the central business district of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. Including approaches, the bridge has a total length of and it provides the main traffic route from the CBD (on the western shore) to the eastern shore. The bridge has a separated pedestrian footway on each side. There is no dedicated lane for bicycles; however, steps to the pedestrian footway were replaced with ramps in 2010.

Le Tasman Bridge est un pont à poutres qui franchit la Derwent River à Hobart dans l'État de Tasmanie en Australie. Il assure la plus grande partie du trafic entre le centre-ville, sur la rive ouest et la rive est où se trouvent l'aéroport international de Hobart et le stade Bellerive Oval.


Background.

Etymology.

The term ""groyne"" is derived from the Old French "groign", from Late Latin "grunium", "snout".

History.

In 1720s, first wooden groyne was built to protect Brighton's coatline. In 1867, first concrete groyne was built in East Street and it is a free promanade of 195 ft length.

Mechanics.

Beach evolution and sadimentation accretion.

A groyne gradually creates and maintains a wide area of beach on its updrift side by trapping the sediments suspended in the ocean current, this processes is called accretion of sand and gravel or beach evolution. It reduces erosion on the other downdrift side by reducing the speed and power of the waves striking the shore. It is a physical barrier to stop sediment transport in the direction of longshore drift (also called longshore transport). If a groyne is correctly designed, then the amount of material it can hold will be limited, and excess sediment will be free to move on through the system. However, if a groyne is too large it may trap too much sediment, which can cause severe beach erosion on the down-drift side.

Groyne fields.

Groynes are generally placed in series, generally all perpendicular to the shore. The areas between groups of groynes are groyne fields.

Terminal groyne syndrome.

A poorly designed groyne (too long and not suited to the unique features of the coast) can also accelerate the erosion of the downdrift beach, which receives little or no sand from longshore drift. This process is known as terminal groyne syndrome, because in a series of groynes it occurs after the terminal groyne (last groyne on the downdrift side of the beach or coastline).

Headland groyne / Headland breakwater.

Breakwater is a manmade offshore structure built parallel to the shore and remains unattached to the shore, when groyne is built to attach the breakwater to shore it is called "headland groyne", "bulkhead groyne", "headland breakwater", "T-head groyne" or "T-shaped groyne". Breakwater, which is a manmade structure, is similar to the naturally formed barrier island.

Usage.

Coastal management.

A groyne's length and elevation, and the spacing between groynes is determined according to local wave energy and beach slope. Groynes that are too long or too high tend to accelerate downdrift erosion, and are ineffective because they trap too much sediment. Groynes that are too short, too low, or too permeable are ineffective because they trap too little sediment. If a groyne does not extend far enough landward, water (for example at a high tide combined with a storm surge) may flow past the landward end and erode a channel bypassing the groyne, a process known as "flanking".

River management.

River groynes (spur dykes, wing dykes, or wing dams) are often constructed nearly perpendicular to the riverbanks, beginning at a riverbank with a root and ending at the regulation line with a head. They maintain a channel to prevent ice jamming, and more generally improve navigation and control over lateral erosion, that would form from meanders. Groynes have a major impact on the river morphology: they cause autonomous degradation of the river.  They are also used around bridges to prevent bridge scour.

Types.

Groynes can be distinguished by how they are constructed, whether they are submerged, their effect on stream flow or by shape.

By their planview shape.

Groynes can be built with different planview shapes. Some examples include straight groynes, hockey stick or curved, inverted hockey stick groynes, tail or checkmark shaped groynes, L head, straight groynes with pier head (seaward end raised on the stilts, since the pier head is raised on the stilts it does not act as the breakwater), T-head (headland groyne, breakwater attached to the shore with straight groyne, the head/breakwater itself could be shaped straight, Y-shaped, arrow or wing shaped head).

By the cross-section based on material used.

Wooden groynes, sheetpile groynes, sand filled bags groynes, rubbble mound or gabion groynes, etc.

By permeability.

Groynes can be permeable, allowing the water to flow through at reduced velocities, or impermeable, blocking and deflecting the current.

By whether they are submerged.

Groynes can be submerged or not under normal conditions. Usually impermeable groynes are non-submerged, since flow over the top of solid groynes may cause severe erosion along the shanks. Submerged groynes, on the other hand, may be permeable depending on the degree of flow disturbance needed.

By their effect on stream flow.

Groynes can be attracting, deflecting or repelling.

A groyne (in the U.S. groin), built perpendicular to the shore, is a rigid hydraulic structure built from an ocean shore (in coastal engineering) or from a bank (in rivers) that interrupts water flow and limits the movement of sediment. It is usually made out of wood, concrete or stone. In the ocean, groynes create beaches, prevent beach erosion caused by longshore drift where this is the dominant process and facilitate beach nourishment. There is also often cross shore movement which if longer than the groyne will limit its effectiveness.

Un épi est un ouvrage hydraulique rigide construit au bord de l'océan ou sur une berge de rivière pour freiner les courants d'eau et limiter les mouvements de sédiments. Dans l'océan, les épis permettent de créer des plages ou évitent de les voir emportées par l'érosion du littoral. Dans une rivière, les épis évitent l'érosion et les dérives de glace, ce qui aide la navigation. Les épis au bord de l'océan sont construits généralement perpendiculaires à la côte, depuis la partie supérieure de la plage jusqu'à s'enfoncer plus ou moins loin dans la mer. Certains épis sont construits totalement sous l'eau (épis submergés). Les épis sont généralement construits en bois, en béton ou avec des amas de roches placés dans une solide structure de grosses poutres en bois. Les épis sont souvent utilisés pour limiter l'érosion car ils sont moins onéreux qu'une digue classique et nécessitent peu d'entretien. Ils sont souvent utilisés en groupe ou en combinaison avec une ou plusieurs digues. Mais d'un point de vue esthétique, les épis peuvent donner aux plages (notamment celles de sable fin) un aspect artificiel et laid.