Definition.

If there is a rebellion against the authority (for example the internationally recognized government of the country) and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents, the rebellion is an insurgency. However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. For example, during the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America was not recognized as a sovereign state, but it was recognized as a belligerent power and so Confederate warships were given the same rights as US warships in foreign ports.  When insurgency is used to describe a movement's unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. However, when it is used by a state or another authority under threat, "insurgency" often also carries an implication that the rebels' cause is illegitimate, and those rising up will see the authority itself as being illegitimate.  The use of the term insurgency recognizes the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, but the term brigandry implies no political motivation. If an uprising has little support (for example, those who continue to resist towards the end of an armed conflict when most of their allies have surrendered), such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands.  The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other areas covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The first is that international law traditionally does not encroach on matters that are solely the internal affairs of a sovereign state, but recent developments such as the responsibility to protect, are starting to undermine the traditional approach. The second is that at the Hague Conference of 1899, there was disagreement between the Great Powers who considered "francs-tireurs" to be unlawful combatants subject to execution on capture, and smaller states, which maintained that they should be considered lawful combatants. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause from the diplomat who drafted the clause.  The Third Geneva Convention, as well as the other Geneva Conventions, is oriented to conflict involving nation-states and only loosely addresses irregular forces: The United States Department of Defense (DOD) defines it as this: "An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a constituted government through use of subversion and armed conflict."  This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and the insurgents. It is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents.  The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote "Street Without Joy", said that "revolutionary warfare" (guerrilla warfare plus political action) might be a more accurate term to describe small wars such as insurgencies. Insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya as often called the "Malayan insurgency" or "the Troubles" in Northern Ireland. Insurgencies have existed in many countries and regions, including the Philippines, Indonesia, Afghanistan, Chechnya, Kashmir, Northeast India, Yemen, Djibouti, Colombia, Sri Lanka, and Democratic Republic of the Congo, the American colonies of Great Britain, and the Confederate States of America. Each had different specifics but shared the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of a highly organized movement:

Insurgency and civil wars.

According to James D. Fearon, wars have a rationalist explanation behind them, which explains why leaders prefer to gamble in wars and avoid peaceful bargains. Fearon states that intermediate bargains can be a problem because countries cannot easily trade territories with the spread of nationalism. Furthermore, wars can take the form of civil wars. In her article "Why Bad Governance Leads to Civil Wars," Barbara F. Walter has presented a theory that explains the role of strong institutions in preventing insurgencies that can result in civil wars. Walter believes that institutions can contribute to four goals. Institutions are responsible for checking the government, creating multiple peaceful routes to help the government solve problems, making the government committed to political terms that entails preserving peace, and lastly, creating an atmosphere where rebels do not need to form militias. Furthermore, Walter adds that if there is a conflict between the government and the insurgents in the form of a civil war, this can bring about a new government that is accountable to a wider range of people - people who have to commit to a compromise in political bargains. According to Walter, although the presence of strong influential institutions can be beneficial to prevent the repetition of civil wars, autocratic governments are less likely to accept the emergence of strong institutions due to its resulting constraint of governmental corruption and privileges. In her book, "Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in Salvador", Elisabeth Jean Wood explains that participants in high-risk activism are very aware of the costs and benefits of engaging in civil wars. Wood suggests that "participants in the 1964 Freedom Summer campaign in the US South ran high risks of bodily harm in challenging the long-standing practices of racial exclusion in Mississippi”. There are many selective incentives that encourage insurgency and violent movements against the autocratic political regimes. For example, the supply of safety as a material good can be provided by the insurgents which abolishes the exploitation of the government and thus forms one of the main incentives. The revolutionary power can help manifest a social political network that in return provides access to political opportunities to diverse candidates who share a collective identity and cultural homogeneity. Also, civil wars and insurgencies can provide employment and access to services and resources that were once taken over by the autocratic regimes.

Tactics.

Insurgencies differ in their use of tactics and methods. In a 2004 article, Robert R. Tomes spoke of four elements that "typically encompass an insurgency":  Tomes' is an example of a definition that does not cover all insurgencies. For example, the French Revolution had no cell system, and in the American Revolution, little to no attempt was made to terrorize civilians. In consecutive coups in 1977 and 1999 in Pakistan, the initial actions focused internally on the government rather than on seeking broad support. While Tomes' definition fits well with Mao's Phase I, it does not deal well with larger civil wars. Mao does assume terrorism is usually part of the early phases, but it is not always present in revolutionary insurgency.  Tomes offers an indirect definition of insurgency, drawn from Trinquier's definition of counterinsurgency: "an interlocking system of actions—political, economic, psychological, military—that aims at the [insurgents' intended] overthrow of the established authority in a country and its replacement by another regime."  Steven Metz observes that past models of insurgency do not perfectly fit modern insurgency, in that current instances are far more likely to have a multinational or transnational character than those of the past. Several insurgencies may belong to more complex conflicts, involving "third forces (armed groups which affect the outcome, such as militias) and fourth forces (unarmed groups which affect the outcome, such as international media), who may be distinct from the core insurgents and the recognized government. While overt state sponsorship becomes less common, sponsorship by transnational groups is more common. "The nesting of insurgency within complex conflicts associated with state weakness or failure..." (See the discussion of failed states below.) Metz suggests that contemporary insurgencies have far more complex and shifting participation than traditional wars, where discrete belligerents seek a clear strategic victory.

Terrorism.

Many insurgencies include terrorism. While there is no accepted definition of terrorism in international law, United Nations-sponsored working definitions include one drafted by Alex P. Schmid for the Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism. Reporting to the Secretary-General in 2002, the Working Group stated the following: Yet another conflict of definitions involves insurgency versus terrorism. The winning essay of the 24th Annual United States Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Strategic Essay Contest, by Michael F. Morris, said [A pure terrorist group] "may pursue political, even revolutionary, goals, but their violence replaces rather than complements a political program." Morris made the point that the use, or non-use, of terrorism does not define insurgency, "but that organizational traits have traditionally provided another means to tell the two apart. Insurgencies normally field fighting forces orders of magnitude larger than those of terrorist organizations." Insurgencies have a political purpose, and may provide social services and have an overt, even legal, political wing. Their covert wing carries out attacks on military forces with tactics such as raids and ambushes, as well as acts of terror such as attacks that cause deliberate civilian casualties.  Mao considered terrorism a basic part of his first part of the three phases of revolutionary warfare. Several insurgency models recognize that completed acts of terrorism widen the security gap; the Marxist guerrilla theoretician Carlos Marighella specifically recommended acts of terror, as a means of accomplishing something that fits the concept of opening the security gap. Mao considered terrorism to be part of forming a guerilla movement.

Subversion.

While not every insurgency involves terror, most involve an equally hard to define tactic, subversion. "When a country is being subverted it is not being outfought; it is being out-administered. Subversion is literally administration with a minus sign in front." The exceptional cases of insurgency without subversion are those when there is no accepted government that is providing administrative services.  While it is less commonly used by current U.S. spokesmen, that may be due to the hyperbolic way it was used in the past, in a specifically anticommunist context. U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk did in April 1962, when he declared that urgent action was required before the "enemy's subversive politico-military teams find fertile spawning grounds for their fish eggs."  In a Western context, Rosenau cites a British Secret Intelligence Service definition as "a generalized intention to (emphasis added) "overthrow or undermine parliamentary democracy by political, industrial or violent means." While insurgents do not necessarily use terror, it is hard to imagine any insurgency meeting its goals without undermining aspects of the legitimacy or power of the government or faction it opposes. Rosenau mentions a more recent definition that suggests subversion includes measures short of violence, which still serve the purposes of insurgents. Rarely, subversion alone can change a government; this arguably happened in the liberalization of Eastern Europe. To the Communist government of Poland, Solidarity appeared subversive but not violent.

Political rhetoric, myths and models.

In arguing against the term Global War on Terror, Francis Fukuyama said the United States was not fighting terrorism generically, as in Chechnya or Palestine. Rather, he said the slogan "war on terror" is directed at "radical Islamism, a movement that makes use of culture for political objectives." He suggested it might be deeper than the ideological conflict of the Cold War, but it should not be confused with Samuel Huntington's "clash of civilizations." Addressing Huntington's thesis, Fukuyama stressed that the US and its allies need to focus on specific radical groups rather than clash with global Islam.  Fukuyama argued that political means, rather than direct military measures, are the most effective ways to defeat that insurgency. David Kilcullen wrote "We must distinguish Al Qa'eda and the broader militant movements it symbolises – entities that use terrorism – from the tactic of terrorism itself."  There may be utility in examining a war not specifically on the tactic of terror but in co-ordination among multiple national or regional insurgencies. It may be politically infeasible to refer to a conflict as an "insurgency" rather than by some more charged term, but military analysts, when concepts associated with insurgency fit, should not ignore those ideas in their planning. Additionally, the recommendations can be applied to the strategic campaign, even if it is politically unfeasible to use precise terminology.  While it may be reasonable to consider transnational insurgency, Anthony Cordesman points out some of the myths in trying to have a worldwide view of terror:  Social scientists, soldiers, and sources of change have been modeling insurgency for nearly a century if one starts with Mao. Counterinsurgency models, not mutually exclusive from one another, come from Kilcullen, McCormick, Barnett and Eizenstat. Kilcullen describes the "pillars" of a stable society, while Eizenstat addresses the "gaps" that form cracks in societal stability. McCormick's model shows the interplay among the actors: insurgents, government, population and external organizations. Barnett discusses the relationship of the country with the outside world, and Cordesman focuses on the specifics of providing security.  Recent studies have tried to model the conceptual architecture of insurgent warfare using computational and mathematical modelling. A recent study by Juan Camilo Bohorquez, Sean Gourley, Alexander R. Dixon, Michael Spagat, and Neil F. Johnson entitled "Common Ecology Quantifies Human Insurgency", suggests a common structure for 9 contemporary insurgent wars, supported on statistical data of more than 50,000 insurgent attacks. The model explains the recurrent statistical pattern found in the distribution of deaths in insurgent and terrorist events.

Kilcullen's pillars.

Kilcullen describes a framework for counterinsurgency. He gives a visual overview of the actors in his model of conflicts, which he represents as a box containing an "ecosystem" defined by geographic, ethnic, economic, social, cultural, and religious characteristics. Inside the box are, among others, governments, counterinsurgent forces, insurgent leaders, insurgent forces, and the general population, which is made up of three groups:  Often, but not always, states or groups that aid one side or the other are outside the box. Outside-the-box intervention has dynamics of its own.  The counterinsurgency strategy can be described as efforts to end the insurgency by a campaign developed in balance along three "pillars": security, political, and economical.  "Obviously enough, you cannot command what you do not control. Therefore, "unity of command" (between agencies or among government and non-government actors) means little in this environment." Unity of command is one of the axioms of military doctrine that change with the use of swarming:. In Edwards' swarming model, as in Kilcullen's mode, unity of command becomes ""unity of effort" at best, and collaboration or deconfliction at least."  As in swarming, in Kilcullen's view unity of effort "depends less on a shared command and control hierarchy, and more on a shared diagnosis of the problem (i.e., the distributed knowledge of swarms), platforms for collaboration, information sharing and deconfliction. Each player must understand the others' strengths, weaknesses, capabilities and objectives, and inter-agency teams must be structured for versatility (the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks) and agility (the ability to transition rapidly and smoothly between tasks)."

Eizenstat and closing gaps.

Insurgencies, according to Stuart Eizenstat grow out of "gaps". To be viable, a state must be able to close three "gaps", of which the first is most important:  Note the similarity between Eizenstat's gaps and Kilcullen's three pillars. In the table below, do not assume that a problematic state is unable to assist less developed states while closing its own gaps.

McCormick Magic Diamond.

McCormick's model is designed as a tool for counterinsurgency (COIN), but develops a symmetrical view of the required actions for both the Insurgent and COIN forces to achieve success. In this way the counterinsurgency model can demonstrate how both the insurgent and COIN forces succeed or fail. The model's strategies and principle apply to both forces, therefore the degree the forces follow the model should have a direct correlation to the success or failure of either the Insurgent or COIN force.  The model depicts four key elements or players:  All of these interact, and the different elements have to assess their best options in a set of actions:

Barnett and connecting to the core.

In Thomas Barnett's paradigm, the world is divided into a "connected core" of nations enjoying a high level of communications among their organizations and individuals, and those nations that are disconnected internally and externally. In a reasonably peaceful situation, he describes a "system administrator" force, often multinational, which does what some call "nation-building", but, most importantly, connects the nation to the core and empowers the natives to communicate—that communication can be likened to swarm coordination. If the state is occupied, or in civil war, another paradigm comes into play: the leviathan, a first-world military force that takes down the opposition regular forces. Leviathan is not constituted to fight local insurgencies, but major forces. Leviathan may use extensive swarming at the tactical level, but its dispatch is a strategic decision that may be made unilaterally, or by an established group of the core such as NATO or ASEAN.

Cordesman and security.

Other than brief "Leviathan" takedowns, security building appears to need to be regional, with logistical and other technical support from more developed countries and alliances (e.g., ASEAN, NATO). Noncombat military assistance in closing the security gap begins with training, sometimes in specialized areas such as intelligence. More direct, but still noncombat support, includes intelligence, planning, logistics and communications.  Anthony Cordesman notes that security requirements differ by region and state in region. Writing on the Middle East, he identified different security needs for specific areas, as well as the US interest in security in those areas.  It is well to understand that counterterrorism, as used by Cordesman, does not mean using terrorism against the terrorism, but an entire spectrum of activities, nonviolent and violent, to disrupt an opposing terrorist organization. The French general, Joseph Gallieni, observed, while a colonial administrator in 1898, Both Kilcullen and Eizenstat define a more abstract goal than does Cordesman. Kilcullen's security pillar is roughly equivalent to Eizenstat's security gap:  Anthony Cordesman, while speaking of the specific situation in Iraq, makes some points that can be generalized to other nations in turmoil. Cordesman recognizes some value in the groupings in Samuel P. Huntington's idea of the clash of civilizations, but, rather assuming the civilizations must clash, these civilizations simply can be recognized as actors in a multinational world. In the case of Iraq, Cordesman observes that the burden is on the Islamic civilization, not unilaterally the West, if for no other reason that the civilization to which the problematic nation belongs will have cultural and linguistic context that Western civilization cannot hope to equal.  The heart of strengthening weak nations must come from within, and that heart will fail if they deny that the real issue is the future of their civilization, if they tolerate religious, cultural or separatist violence and terrorism when it strikes at unpopular targets, or if they continue to try to export the blame for their own failures to other nations, religions, and cultures.

Asymmetric and irregular conflicts.

Asymmetric conflicts (or irregular conflicts), as the emerging type of insurgencies in recent history, is described by Berman and Matanock in their review as conflicts where "the government forces have a clear advantage over rebels in coercive capacity." In this kind of conflicts, rebel groups can reintegrate into the civilian population after an attack if the civilians are willing to silently accept them. Some of the most recent examples include the conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq. As the western countries intervenes in the conflicts, creating asymmetry between the government forces and rebels, asymmetric conflict is the most common form of subnational conflicts and the most civil conflicts where the western countries are likely to be involved. Such interventions and their impacts can be seen in the NATO operation in Libya in 2011 and the French-led intervention in Mali in 2013.  Berman and Matanock suggested an "information-centric" framework to describe asymmetric conflicts on a local level. Three parties are involved in framework: government forces, rebels and civilians. Government forces and rebels attack each other and may inadvertently harm civilians whereas civilians can "anonymously" share local information with government forces, which would allow government forces to effectively use their asymmetric advantage to target rebels. Taking the role of civilians in this framework into consideration, the government and rebels will divert resources to provide services to civilians so as to influence their decision about sharing information with the government.  The framework is based on several assumptions: This framework leads to five major implications for counterinsurgency strategies: These implications are tested by empirical evidences from conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq and several other subnational conflicts. Further research on governance, rule of law, attitudes, dynamics and agency between allies are needed to better understand asymmetric conflicts and to have better informed decisions made at the tactical, strategic and public policy levels.

Counter-insurgency.

Before one counters an insurgency, however, one must understand what one is countering. Typically the most successful counter-insurgencies have been the British in the Malay Emergency and the Filipino government's countering of the Huk Rebellion. In the Philippine–American War, the U.S. forces successfully quelled the Filipino insurgents by 1902, albeit with tactics considered unacceptable by the majority of modern populations.

An insurgency is a violent rebellion against authority (for example, an authority recognized as such by the United Nations) when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents (lawful combatants). An insurgency can be fought via counter-insurgency warfare, and may also be opposed by measures to protect the population and by political and economic actions of various kinds, as well as propaganda aimed at undermining the insurgents' claims against the incumbent regime. As a concept, insurgency's nature is ambiguous.

Une insurrection est un soulèvement armé ou une révolte contre le pouvoir en place. Les personnes agissant au nom d'une insurrection sont des insurgés.


History.

The town was important in the Welsh settlement of Chubut. It was named Trevelin (from "Trefelin", the Welsh for "mill town") after the first flour mill, known as "Los Andes", was established there by in 1891. Evans had previously become well known for leading expeditions into the Pampas in search of new lands and mineral reserves, which had earned him the nickname 'El Baqueano' (meaning guide or scout).  One of the tourist attractions of Trevelín is the grave of Malacara, Evans' horse, who a few years earlier in 1884 had saved his master's life by escaping down a steep ravine when his travelling party was attacked by a group of indigenous people led by Cacique (chief) Foyel. The three other Welshmen with whom he was travelling (Richard Davies, John Hughes and John Parry) were killed and buried nearby at a place now known as 'Dyffryn y Merthyron' or The Valley of the Martyrs.  Following a territorial dispute between Argentina and Chile in early 1902, the Limits Commission met in School No.18, Trevelin on 30 April of that year. The British arbiter was Sir Thomas Holdich (King's Surveyor General of India) whilst the interested parties were represented by Francisco Pascasio Moreno (Argentina) and Dr. Balmaceda (Chile). The inhabitants of the area (both the indigenous Mapuche Tehuelche "and" the Welsh colonists) voted to remain in Argentina.  The town, in the (Welsh: Cwm Hyfryd/Bro Hydref), is near the, which flows south into the Río Grande, crosses the frontier with Chile, and thereafter is known as the Río Futaleufú. The Percy River was named after Percy Wharton, an American who was settled in Cwm Hyfryd between 1885 and 1904 before returning to Los Angeles, USA.  A replica of John Evans' Los Andes Flour Mill can be found today at the Nant Fach Museum, Trevelin, in an area known as Comarca de los Alerces. The decline of the flour milling industry in the area can be dated to 1949 when the government of Juan Perón declared that the Chubut region was not appropriate for the cultivation of wheat, and therefore the land was turned over to the rearing of cattle.

Climate.

Trevelin has a cool summer humid climate (Köppen "Cfb"), but with a rainfall pattern similar to the Mediterranean climate. The climate is milder than that of other locations on the Argentine side of Northern Patagonia because of the low altitude and the direct exposure to Pacific winds. This microclimate allows for intensive agriculture, a rarity in the region where mid-summer frosts occur every year. Nighttime temperatures rarely drop below −10 °C and although snowfall is frequent, it does not cover the ground for long periods of time. Winters are stormy with frequent rain, sleet and snow while summers are cool, windy and relatively dry.  Mean annual precipitation is. The precipitation pattern resembles a Mediterranean one, where most (75%) of the precipitation is concentrated from April to August, the cooler months with a dry period from September to March. Snowfall can occur during the colder months while rainfall predominates in warmer months; hail rarely occurs.  The mean temperature in Trevelin ranges from in July, the coldest month to in January, the warmest month. Frosts can occur at any time, even in summer, which limits the range of agricultural activities.

Trevelin (; Welsh: "Trefelin") is a town in the western part of the Patagonian Argentine province of Chubut. The town lies on the eastern banks of the Rio Percy/. It is located in the department of Futaleufú, 22 kilometres south of Esquel, and had 6,395 inhabitants at the time of the and 7,908 inhabitants in the.

Trevelín est une ville de la province de Chubut, en Argentine. Elle est située en Patagonie, à à l'ouest de Rawson, la capitale de la province, dans le département de Futaleufú. Sa population s'élevait à habitants en 2001.


History.

The vehicle was initially announced as the B9X on November 5, 2004 at the South Florida Auto Show, and was renamed the B9 Tribeca in December after soliciting current and potential customer feedback. The "B" stood for Subaru's boxer (horizontally-opposed) engine, the "9" referred to an internal category code, and "Tribeca" was added so that "Subaru [could] leverage the vested equity already associated with the progressive style, art, and culture that the name TRIBECA represents," according to Subaru President and CEO Kyoji Takenaka. The Tribeca made its worldwide debut at the North American International Auto Show in January 2005 and was scheduled to go on sale in early summer 2005 for the 2006 model year, with production at the SIA plant in Lafayette, Indiana supplying vehicles for sale in the United States, Canada, and Chile.

2006–2007.

The B9 Tribeca featured a triangular grille and a rounded body shape. Subaru also used the grille styling on the Impreza, and the Japanese market Subaru R1 and R2 kei car products. As this styling motif proved controversial, all future Subaru redesigns abandoned this design language. The grille design and aviation theme was initially conceived and applied to the earlier B11S and B9 Scrambler concept vehicles by Fuore Design, an independent design consulting firm based in Spain. The grille design was reportedly "meant to convey parent-company Fuji Heavy Industries' glorious history in aviation". While the exterior design was largely complete prior to the arrival of Subaru designer Andreas Zapatinas, Zapatinas and his team were responsible for the design of the interior, and the dashboard in particular.  The Tribeca was initially powered by the 3.0-liter "EZ30" boxer engine paired with a five-speed automatic transmission.  The Tribeca was slightly reworked in 2006 for the 2007 model year. The updated model, first shown at the Chicago Auto Show, included a revised grille, struts, stabilizer bars, and spring rates. Inside, XM Satellite Radio and iPod connectors were provided. A backup camera and parking assist system were optional for the navigation system. A "Special Edition" package included a mesh grille, XM radio, and unique wheels.

Saab 9-6X.

Saab had plans to retail a version of the Tribeca, to be called the "9-6X," but the plans stopped in 2005 when Saab's parent company GM sold its 20 percent stake in FHI, part of which was acquired by Toyota. The 9-6X would have been built alongside the Tribeca at the SIA factory in the United States. Saab revised their plans to replace the 9-7X after a short two-year lifespan, and instead the Oldsmobile Bravada-based body-on-frame SUV continued production until the 2009 model year. Saab withheld its version of Tribeca from the public until a prototype 9-6X was added to the Saab museum in Trollhättan in July 2011, with nearly the same interior as the contemporary B9 Tribeca. Many of the exterior styling tweaks (including the front fenders) from the unreleased Saab 9-6X were used for the model year 2008 facelift, which was released relatively quickly after the original model's release.

2007–2014.

Subaru released the 2008 models at the New York International Auto Show in April 2007 with a facelift and a larger 3.6-liter "EZ36" flat-six engine rated at. Subaru claimed 10 percent better fuel economy while using regular-grade gasoline; the 2006 and 2007 models require premium. At the same time, Subaru dropped the "B9" identifier, renaming the vehicle the "Subaru Tribeca" in all markets where it was offered. The rear of the vehicle was also mildly redesigned with more rounded taillamps, a restyled hatch, and the rearmost side window reshaped. Interior styling was unchanged, but the second row seats were redesigned for more room and easier access to the third row.

Market.

North America.

North American market Tribecas offered two trim levels—the plain model and the Limited, which added a moonroof, leather interior, roof rails for enhanced cargo carrying and a premium audio system with six-disc in-dash CD changer. The interior colors were somewhat limited to either light ("Desert Beige") or dark ("Slate Gray"), both colors finished in either cloth (on the plain model) or leather (exclusive to the Limited model) trim. For the leather-trimmed models, no interior color choice was available; the interior color was determined by the exterior color. In 2007, the beige cloth trim was dropped and the plain model was available in just two exterior colors. The North American market 2006 to 2007 year model B9 Tribeca also had smaller wing mirrors that were upgraded to the larger European market mirrors starting in model year 2008.  The Limited trim level included an in-dash multifunction screen that displayed audio system information, trip computer functions, and outside temperatures. When equipped with the navigation package, the screen added navigation system information, maintenance intervals, controls for various vehicle settings, calendar, calculator and memo-taking functions. An alternate rear-seat DVD entertainment system and navigation package was available on models with a third-row seat, which added a video input from the rear-seat DVD entertainment system which could only be displayed on the instrument panel center screen if the parking brake was engaged.  The cargo volume was with the second row seats raised and with rear seats lowered. Seating configuration remained at standard second row seats or optional third row seats.  The vehicle was equipped with six airbags; two for the front passengers, two side impact airbags that deployed from the outer edge of the front seats and side curtain airbags that dropped in front of the front and second row side doors.  Two stereo packages were offered, either a 100-watt six-speaker system with a single-disc in-dash CD player with MP3 compatibility, or (on Limited models) a premium stereo with 160-watt, nine speakers with subwoofer and a six-disc in-dash CD changer, also MP3 compatible. Both stereos had steering wheel-mounted audio controls, and in 2007, an auxiliary audio jack was added.  In North America, the Tribeca is the only vehicle in this class that comes equipped with all-wheel drive as standard equipment. In the United States, Subaru's initial television ad campaign for the Tribeca prominently featured the Kansas song "Dust in the Wind". The Tribeca won the "Ward's" Auto 2006 "Interior of the Year" for premium-priced crossover utility vehicles in voting from automotive industry professionals. Also, it was considered Most Innovative Concept at the 2004 Detroit Auto Show. The Tribeca scored well on Insurance Institute for Highway Safety crash tests; it earned a "Top Safety Pick" ranking.

Drivetrain.

Subaru chose to use an aluminum alloy horizontally-opposed "boxer" engine to minimize powertrain weight and lower the center of gravity so as to reduce body roll. The weight of the engine and automatic transmission are laterally balanced instead of being offset from left to right. The power delivery is also direct from the transmission to the front wheels, and distributed to the rear axle via a "Variable Torque Distribution" system which uses a central planetary differential gear with an electronically-controlled hydraulic clutch, with torque split 45% to the front axle and 55% to the rear axle under normal driving conditions. The rear wheels are driven through a rear differential, which is limited slip on some models. The front differential is integrated into the Subaru transmission. The boxer design also provides near-perfect vibration mitigation because the movement of each piston is exactly countered by the corresponding piston in the opposing cylinder bank, eliminating the need for a counterbalance shaft, and that the movement of the pistons is on a horizontal plane. The only vibration caused by the boxer engine is secondary caused by the cylinders being slightly offset on opposing banks. This vibration, however, is minimal and is largely absorbed by rubber engine mounts. Torque steer is also reduced with this type of power train layout. This is achieved by having the front driveshafts being of equal weight and length, and extend from the transmission to the front wheels at almost perpendicular from the transmission.  The 2006 Tribeca was initially rated at using the EPA city cycle and on the EPA highway cycle. Using the revised EPA driving cycle, the consumption increased to city and highway, with combined consumption at for both the original (3.0-litre engine) and revised (3.6-litre engine) models.

Cobb Tuning.

In 2006, Cobb Tuning released several performance upgrades for the B9 Tribeca, including a supercharger which increased output by to, a suspension tuning package, and four-piston front brakes.

Discontinuation.

Subaru announced in January 2012 that the Subaru Tribeca would stop being sold in the US and Australia, and that its production would end in December 2012. On October 18, 2013, Autoblog, Jalopnik, and Cars.com all confirmed that Subaru informed its dealers that production on the Tribeca would end in January 2014 due to slow sales.  Subaru sold just under 77,000 Tribecas total in the United States, making it one of the worst-selling vehicles in the US in 2011 and 2012. Only 1,247 Tribecas were sold in the first nine months of 2013, and placed seventh among the worst-selling vehicles in the United States for the 2013 model year with only 1,598 units sold, down 23% from 2012.  The discontinuation came as Subaru was looking at replacing the vehicle with an upscale 7-seat crossover SUV, possibly based on the Subaru Exiga, that would have competed against the Ford Explorer and Nissan Pathfinder. The replacement vehicle had been in the planning stages in an effort to attract new buyers without alienating current ones.  Subaru stated in April 2015 that the next-generation Exiga Crossover 7 for the Japanese market would not be offered in North America because of its size, and instead a larger Tribeca successor that could be built in the United States was being studied. At the 2017 LA Auto Show, Subaru revealed the Subaru Ascent, a new mid-size, crossover SUV, set to be the replacement for the Tribeca in North America in Summer 2018.

The Subaru Tribeca is a mid-size crossover SUV made from 2005 to 2014. Released in some markets, including Canada, as the Subaru B9 Tribeca, the name "Tribeca" derives from the Tribeca neighborhood of New York City. Built on the Subaru Legacy platform and sold in five- and seven-seat configurations, the Tribeca was intended to be sold alongside a slightly revised version known as the Saab 9-6X. Saab, at the time a subsidiary of General Motors (GM), abandoned the 9-6X program just prior to its release subsequent to GM's 2005 divestiture of its 20 percent stake in FHI.

Le Subaru Tribeca est un SUV du constructeur japonais Subaru. Il est apparu en Amérique du Nord en mai 2005 en tant que modèle 2006 sous le nom de B9 Tribeca, qui fut remplacé plus tard par Tribeca.


Plot.

During spring the flowers, mushrooms, and trees do their calisthenics. Some trees play a tune, using vines for harp strings and a chorus of robins. A fight breaks out between a waspish-looking hollow tree and a younger, healthier tree for the attention of a female tree. The young tree emerges victorious, but the hollow tree retaliates by starting a fire. The plants and animals try to extinguish or evade the blaze. By poking holes in clouds and making it rain, the birds manage to put out the fire, although the hollow tree perishes in the flames after getting caught up in them himself. The young tree then proposes to the female tree, with a caterpillar serving as a ring, and they embrace as a 12-color rainbow forms behind them.

Production.

In May 1932, the first three-strip Technicolor camera was completed. Herbert Kalmus wanted to test it in the animation field, giving the company time to build enough cameras to offer the whole movie industry, but could not find any interested animators. Finally Walt Disney agreed to try it as an experiment on "Flowers and Trees", which was already in production in black-and-white, and ordered the cartoon redone in color. The color animation caused the production to run over budget, potentially ruining Disney financially, but the cartoon proved so popular that the profits made up for the budget overage.

Impact.

As a result of the success of "Flowers and Trees", all future "Silly Symphonies" cartoons were produced in three-strip Technicolor. The added novelty of color helped to boost the series' previously disappointing returns. Disney's other cartoon series, the "Mickey Mouse" shorts, were deemed successful enough not to need the extra boost of color, remaining in black-and-white until "The Band Concert" (1935).  Disney's exclusive contract with Technicolor, in effect until the end of 1935, forced other animation producers such as Ub Iwerks and Max Fleischer to use Technicolor's inferior two-color process or a competing two-color system such as Cinecolor.

Accolades.

"Flowers and Trees" was the first animated film to win an Oscar at the fifth Academy Awards in 1932. It won an Oscar for best "Short Subjects, Cartoons", a category first introduced that year.

Home media.

The short was released on the 2001 Walt Disney Treasures DVD box set "".

Flowers and Trees is a 1932 "Silly Symphonies" cartoon produced by Walt Disney, directed by Burt Gillett, and released to theatres by United Artists on July 30, 1932. It was the first commercially released film to be produced in the full-color three-strip Technicolor process after several years of two-color Technicolor films. The film was a commercial and critical success, winning the first Academy Award for Best Cartoon Short Subject.

Des arbres et des fleurs ("") est le premier dessin animé en couleurs de la série "Silly Symphonies", réalisé par Burt Gillett, produit par Walt Disney et sorti le.


Life.

Aristomenes was a member of the Aepytid family, the son of Nicomedes (or, according to another version, of Pyrrhus) and Nicoteleia, and took a prominent part in stirring up the revolt against Sparta and securing the co-operation of Argos and Arcadia. He showed such heroism in the first encounter, at Derae, that the crown was offered to him, but he would accept only the title of commander-in-chief. His daring is illustrated by the story that he came by night to the temple of Athene "of the Brazen House" at Sparta, and there set up his shield with the inscription "Dedicated to the goddess by Aristomenes from the Spartans."  His prowess contributed largely to the Messenian victory over the Spartan and Corinthian forces at "The Boar's Barrow" in the plain of Stenyclarus, but in the following year the treachery of the Arcadian king Aristocrates caused the Messenians to suffer a crushing defeat at "The Great Trench." Aristomenes and the survivors retired to the mountain stronghold of Eira, where they defied the Spartans for eleven years. On one of his raids he and fifty of his companions were captured and thrown into the Caeadas, the chasm on Mount Taygetus into which criminals were cast. Aristomenes alone was saved, and soon reappeared at Eira: legend told how he was upheld in his fall by an eagle and escaped by grasping the tail of a fox, which led him to the hole by which it had entered.  On another occasion he was captured during a truce by some Cretan auxiliaries of the Spartans, and was released only by the devotion of a Messenian girl who afterwards became his daughter-in-law. At length Eira was betrayed to the Spartans (668 BC according to Pausanias), and after a heroic resistance Aristomenes and his followers had to evacuate Messenia and seek a temporary refuge with their Arcadian allies. A desperate plan to seize Sparta itself was foiled by Aristocrates, who paid with his life for his treachery. Aristomenes retired to Ialysus on Rhodes, where Damagetus, his son-in-law, was king, and died there while planning a journey to Sardis and Ecbatana to seek aid from the Lydian and Median sovereigns.

Other narratives.

Another tradition represents him as captured and slain by the Spartans during the war. Though there seems to be no conclusive reason for doubting the existence of Aristomenes, his history, as related by Pausanias, following mainly the Messeniaca of the Cretan epic poet Rhianus (about 230 BC), is evidently largely interwoven with fictions. These probably arose after the foundation of Messene in 369 BC. Aristomenes's statue was set up in the stadium there: his bones were fetched from Rhodes and placed in a tomb surmounted by a column, and more than five centuries later heroic honours were still paid to him, and his exploits were a popular subject of song.  According to explorer Richard Francis Burton, one story about Aristomenes, in which he had been thrown into a pit and had to escapebeing set free by Archidameiais the principal inspiration for one of the voyages of Sinbad the Sailor in the Arabian Nights.

In literature.

Aristomenes is the hero of "Messene Redeemed" (1940), a verse drama by F. L. Lucas, based on Pausanias, about Messenian history.

Aristomenes () was a king of Messenia, celebrated for his struggle with the Spartans in the Second Messenian War (685–668 BC), and his resistance to them on Mount Eira for 11 years. At length the mountain fell to the enemy, while he escaped and, according to legend, was snatched up by the gods; in fact he died at Rhodes.

Aristomène fut un roi et général de Messénie vers 684 av. J.-C. Il souleva ses compatriotes contre les Lacédémoniens, et participa à la seconde guerre de Messénie. Deux fois il fut fait prisonnier, jeté au Céadas, et chaque fois il s'échappa de manière miraculeuse. Il remporta de grandes victoires et soutint dans un siège de onze ans (682-671 av. J.-C.), mais ne put empêcher l'asservissement de sa patrie.


History.

1973-2007: Growth.

The first Mercure hotel was established in 1973 in Saint-Witz, France. In 1975, Mercure was acquired by the group Accor (then Novotel-SIEH) and became Novotel's complementary midscale brand in the group's strategy.  In 1983, Mercure launched the " where 80% of the wines were selected by Mercure's oenologists, and 20% were selected by the hoteliers.  In 1989, Mercure opened its 100th hotel. In 1991, following Accor's acquisition of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits, the Altea hotels acquired through this deal became Mercure hotels. Many hotel brands purchased by Accor throughout the 1990s (Parthénon, Libertel, Jardins de Paris, Frantour, All Seasons) were turned into Mercure hotels. By 2001, 655 Mercure hotels were in operation worldwide.

Since 2007: Global refurbishment.

In 2007, following the launch of Accor's new brands Mercure MGallery, Pullman and All Seasons, the group allocated several of its Mercure-branded locations to the development of those new brands. Foreign wines were also introduced for the first time in the ".  In 2010, Mercure launched a global refurbishment program ('). The rooms were modernized, and the cost of renovation was minimized thanks to new industrial methods ("modules"). A design catalogue enabled hoteliers to choose from a variety of style options. The'became Cave & Saveurs. Breakfast became gluten-free with local products only.  In 2011, Accor signed a deal with Jupiter Hotels in the UK to turn 24 hotels into Mercure hotels. In 2012, Mercure opened in China the first Grand Mercure branded Mei Jue for the Chinese market. In 2015, Mercure launched in Colombia and opened 3 Grand Mercure in Brazil.  In February 2017, Mercure launched a Facebook bot to share local stories with its customers. In 2019, 2 Mercure hotels in Paris introduced their homemade beers made from hop that grew on the hotels' rooftops. The Mercure Paris Boulogne installed a vertical farm on its rooftop where it grows the food served in the restaurant of the hotel.

Description.

Mercure is a midscale hotel brand specialized in traditional hotels managed by committed hoteliers and owned by Accor. Grand Mercure is the international premium brand of Mercure. Mercure manages 810 hotels in 63 countries (2018).

Mercure is a midscale hotel brand specialized in traditional hotels managed by committed hoteliers, and owned by Accor. Created in 1973 in France, the brand was acquired by Accor in 1975. Mercure manages 810 hotels in 63 countries (2018).

Mercure est une marque hôtelière milieu de gamme détenue par le groupe Accor. Créée en 1973, Mercure trouve ses racines dans l'hôtellerie traditionnelle avec des implantations dans les centres-villes, les quartiers d'affaires et les destinations de loisirs. À l'international, Mercure décline ses établissements haut de gamme sous la marque Grand Mercure. Fin, Mercure compte plus de 810 hôtels dans 63 pays.


Overview.

As the summer times approach, the "natives", who had left the village years ago for several reasons, return accompanied by their "new" families, doubling (sometimes tripling) the population of the village and giving Aldeia this friendly and cordial atmosphere which cannot be depicted by words. Aldeia da Ponte The inhabitants are under the patronage of Santa Maria Magdalena, holy patron of the village. In spite of appearances, a modest economic life subsists in the village; farmers, builders, carpenters and tradesmen are still quite numerous. Aldeia Da ponte provides a typical example of the small villages which cultural and historical legacies are far being uninteresting. You can choose to admire several curiosities such as a Roman Bridge that crosses the Cesarâo River and the centuries (this bridge was built to connect Alfaiates - an important military place in Roman times - and the military camp located in Aldeia which gave its name to the village.). The "Padres Marianos" Convent, the old school buildings or The Matriz Church are as many places which reveal the past. Shall I tell you about the many chapels standing here and there around the village among which the Souls Chapel, St Antonio’s Chapel, Santo Cristo’s or Santa Barbara’s dominating the village and the river. Nevertheless, there is a site, which more than any other one, attracts the crowd. Standing up proudly and robustly at the very entrance of the village, you cannot miss it: The “Bull Square”

Geographical situation.

Aldeia da Ponte is located in the Beira-Alta area, which, as its name indicates, is a mountainous area. The village is situated half way between two cities: Vilar Formoso in the Northeast and Sabugal in Southwest. You can reach Aldeia from Vilar Formoso by taking the road EN 332 over 25 km. Coming from Southwest, you can cover the 25 km which separate Sabugal from Aldeia by taking the road EN 233.3. The village is crossed by the Cesarâo River (known also under the name of Ribeira of Aldeia), it is an affluent of the Coâ River which crosses the Beira-Alta area from south to north.

Principal festivities of the village.

First Monday of each month, a Market is held which enables people to take news from one another. May 3, celebration of Santo Christo. June 13, celebration of Santo Antonio that is nowadays celebrated on August 13 when the “natives” are back for the summer holidays. Second Sunday of August Great Bullfight with Horses From August 10 and during the 4 or 5 following days, spectacles and balls take place in the former bull square that is the central place of the village. It remains a privileged place for meetings where the youngest and the less young people, villagers or neighbours share cordial moments, while dancing, singing or having a drink in one of the village pubs. August 15 Capeia Arraiana, a particular bullfight, typical of this area, a flooding crowd invades the village on this very day. A few days after are held friendly confrontations between the frontier villagers in a Capeia Arraiana (called “festival”).

Aldeia da Ponte is a village in the District of Guarda and part of the Sabugal Municipality, Portugal. The population in 2011 was 317, in an area of 36.69 km2.

Aldeia da Ponte est une freguesia du Portugal, rattachée au concelho (« municipalité ») de Sabugal et située dans le district de Guarda et la région Centre.


Contents.

The "Germania" begins with a description of the lands, laws, and customs of the Germanic people (chapters 1–27); it then describes individual tribes, beginning with those dwelling closest to Roman lands and ending on the uttermost shores of the Baltic, among the amber-gathering Aesti, the Fenni, and the unknown tribes beyond them.  Tacitus says (chapter 2) that physically, the Germanic peoples appear to be a distinct nation, not an admixture of their neighbors, since nobody would desire to migrate to a climate as horrid as that of Germania. They are divided into three large branches, the Ingaevones, the Irminones, and the Istaevones, deriving their ancestry from three sons of Mannus, son of Tuisto, their common forefather. In chapter 4, he mentions that they all have common physical characteristics, blue eyes ("truces et caerulei oculi" = "sky-coloured, azure, dark blue, dark green), reddish hair (" rutilae comae" = "red, golden-red, reddish yellow"), and large bodies, vigorous at the first onset but not tolerant of exhausting labour, tolerant of hunger and cold, but not of heat or thirst.  In chapter 7, Tacitus describes their government and leadership as somewhat merit-based and egalitarian, with leadership by example rather than authority, and punishments are carried out by the priests. He mentions (chapter 8) that the opinions of women are given respect. In chapter 11, Tacitus describes a form of folk assembly rather similar to the public Things recorded in later Germanic sources: in these public deliberations, the final decision rests with the men of the tribe as a whole.  Tacitus further discusses the role of women in chapters 7 and 8, mentioning that they often accompany the men to battle and offer encouragement. He says that the men are often highly motivated to fight for the women because of an extreme fear of losing them to captivity. Tacitus says (chapter 18) that the Germans are mainly content with one wife, except for a few political marriages, and specifically and explicitly compares this practice favorably to other barbarian cultures, perhaps since monogamy was a shared value between Roman and Germanic cultures. He also records (chapter 19) that adultery is very rare, and that an adulterous woman is shunned afterward by the community regardless of her beauty. In chapter 45, Tacitus mentions that the tribe to the north of the Germans, the Sitones, "resemble [the Suevi Scandinavians] in all respects but one - woman is the ruling sex."  The latter chapters of the books describe the various Germanic tribes, their relative locations, and some of their characteristics. Many of the tribes named correspond with other (and later) historical records and traditions, while the fate of others is less clear.

Purpose and sources.

Ethnography had a long and distinguished heritage in classical literature, and the "Germania" fits squarely within the tradition established by authors from Herodotus to Julius Caesar. Tacitus himself had already written a similar—albeit shorter—essay on the lands and tribes of Britannia in his "Agricola" (chapters 10–13). The work can appear moralizing at points, perhaps implicitly comparing the values of Germanic tribes and those of his Roman contemporaries, although a direct comparison between Rome and Germania is not explicitly presented in the text. In writing the work, Tacitus might have wanted to stress the dangers that the Germanic tribes posed to the Empire.  Tacitus' descriptions of the Germanic character are at times favorable in contrast to the opinions of the Romans of his day. He holds the strict monogamy and chastity of Germanic marriage customs worthy of the highest praise, in contrast to what he saw as the vice and immorality rampant in Roman society of his day (chapter 18), and he admires their open hospitality, their simplicity, and their bravery in battle. All of these traits were highlighted perhaps because of their similarity to idealized Roman virtues. One should not, however, think that Tacitus' portrayal of Germanic customs is entirely favorable; he notes a tendency in the Germanic people for what he saw as their habitual drunkenness, laziness, and barbarism, among other traits.  The ethnonym "Germani" as used by Tacitus does not necessarily coincide with the modern linguistic definition of Germanic peoples as any people speaking a Germanic language, and the details of the classification "Germani" have been debated in scholarship, e.g. the possibility that the Batavians may therefore have been Celtic-speaking. Tacitus nevertheless shows no lack of precision in stating that the Nervii are not actually Germanic as they claim to be (chapter 28). He also notes in chapter 43 that a certain tribe called the Cotini actually speaks a Gallic tongue, and likewise the Osi speak a Pannonian dialect.  Tacitus himself had never travelled in the Germanic lands; all his information is second-hand at best. Ronald Syme supposed that Tacitus closely copied the lost "Bella Germaniae" of Pliny the Elder, since the "Germania" is in some places outdated: in its description of the Danubian tribes, says Syme, "they are loyal clients of the Empire... Which is peculiar. The defection of these peoples in the year 89 during Domitian's war against the Dacians modified the whole frontier policy of the Empire." While Pliny may have been the primary source, scholars have identified others; among them are Caesar's "Gallic Wars", Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Posidonius, Aufidius Bassus, and numerous nonliterary sources, presumably based on interviews with traders and soldiers who had ventured beyond the Rhine and Danube borders, and Germanic mercenaries in Rome.

Reception.

One of the minor works of Tacitus, "Germania" was not widely cited or used before the Renaissance. In antiquity, Lucian appears to imitate a sentence from it. It was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages. In the West, it was cited by Cassiodorus in the sixth century and used more extensively by Rudolf of Fulda in the ninth. In the East, it was used by the anonymous author of the Frankish Table of Nations in the early sixth century and possibly by the Emperor Maurice in his "Strategikon" later that century. In the ninth century, the Frankish Table was incorporated into the "Historia Brittonum", which ensured a wide diffusion to at least some of the "Germania"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s information. Guibert of Nogent, writing his autobiography around 1115, quotes "Germania".  "Germania" survives in a single manuscript that was found in Hersfeld Abbey ("Codex Hersfeldensis") in 1425. This was brought to Italy, where Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope Pius II, first examined and analyzed the book. This sparked interest among German humanists, including Conrad Celtes, Johannes Aventinus, and Ulrich von Hutten and beyond.  The peoples of medieval Germany (the Kingdom of Germany in the Holy Roman Empire) were heterogenous, separated in distinct tribal kingdoms, such as the Bavarians, Franconians, and Swabians, distinctions which remain evident in the German language and culture after the unification of Germany in 1871 (aside from Austria) and the establishment of modern Austria and Germany. During the medieval period, a self-designation of "Germani" was virtually never used; the name was only revived in 1471, inspired by the rediscovered text of "Germania", to invoke the warlike qualities of the ancient Germans in a crusade against the Turks. Ever since its discovery, treatment of the text regarding the culture of the early Germanic peoples in ancient Germany remains strong, especially in German history, philology, and ethnology studies, and to a lesser degree in Scandinavian countries, as well. Beginning in 16th-century German humanism, German interest in Germanic antiquity remained acute throughout the period of Romanticism and nationalism. A scientific angle was introduced with the development of Germanic philology by Jacob Grimm. Because of its influence on the ideologies of Pan-Germanism and Nordicism, Jewish-Italian historian Arnaldo Momigliano in 1956 described "Germania" and the "Iliad" as "among the most dangerous books ever written". Christopher Krebs, a professor at Stanford University, claims in a 2012 study that "Germania" played a major role in the formation of the core concepts of Nazi ideology. The mainstream German reception is much less sensationalist and sees Tacitus's description as more patronizing than laudatory, a predecessor of the classical noble savage concept which started in the 17th and 18th centuries in western European literature. Krebs has been criticized harshly for leaving out anything "not leading to Himmler" and especially leaving out the important influence of Tacitus Germania on e.g. Scandinavism or Abbé Sieyès notion of the third estates nor the rather different interpretation between fascist allies Germany and Italy.

" Codex Aesinas".

The "Codex Aesinas" is believed to be portions of the Codex Hersfeldensis – the lost Germania manuscript brought to Rome from Hersfeld Abbey. It was rediscovered in 1902 by priest-philologist Cesare Annibaldi in the possession of Count Aurelio Balleani of Iesi.  Temporarily transferred to Florence for the controls at the state body of the fine arts, the manuscript was severely damaged during the 1966 flood. It was later restored and brought back to Iesi, and in 1994, the "Codex Aesinas" was given to the National Library in Rome, catalogued as "Cod. Vitt. Em. 1631".

References.

Notes Bibliography  Further reading

The Germania, written by the Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus around 98 and originally entitled On the Origin and Situation of the Germans (), was a historical and ethnographic work on the Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire.

La Germanie ou L’Origine et le Pays des Germains (en latin "De Origine et Situ Germanorum") est un court traité de l'historien romain Tacite écrit aux alentours de l'an 98 et consacré aux tribus germaniques vivant au-delà des frontières de l'Empire romain. Tacite y brosse un portrait ambigu des « barbares »: la description de leur cruauté et de leur sauvagerie constitue aussi, en creux, une critique de l'indolence et du luxe latin.


Around the world.

Starting in Spain at the Prime Meridian and heading eastwards, the parallel 40° north passes through:

United States.

The parallel 40° north forms the boundary between the states of Kansas and Nebraska. On 30 May 1854, the Kansas–Nebraska Act created the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska divided by the parallel 40° north. Both territories were required to determine for themselves whether to permit slavery. Open conflict between free-state and pro-slavery forces in the Kansas Territory was one of the root causes of the American Civil War.  The parallel 40° north formed the original northern boundary of the British Colony of Maryland. A subsequent royal grant gave the Colony of Pennsylvania land north of the 40th parallel but mistakenly assumed it would intersect the Twelve Mile Circle, which it does not. Pennsylvania's border was thus unclear and the colony pushed for a border far south of the 40th parallel. The Mason–Dixon Line was drawn between 1763 and 1767 as the compromise boundary between the overlapping claims of these two colonies. The parallel 40° north passes through the cities of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Columbus, Ohio; as well as northern suburbs of Indianapolis, Indiana and Denver, Colorado and the southern suburbs of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The parallel goes directly through the John Glenn Columbus International Airport, with runway 10L-28R lying immediately north of the line, runway 10R-28L lying slightly south of it, and the line going through the northernmost edges of the terminal. It also passes through the main campus of The Ohio State University; specifically, it cuts directly across the Oval greenspace, between University Hall and the William Oxley Thompson Memorial Library. Ohio Stadium, one of the largest stadiums in the world, barely misses the parallel 40° north (6 seconds above 40° north).  Baseline Road in Boulder, Colorado, traces the parallel 40° north.  Thistle, Utah, a ghost town since 1983, is slightly (30 seconds) below 40° north.

The 40th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 40 degrees north of the Earth's equatorial plane. It crosses Europe, the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, the Pacific Ocean, North America, and the Atlantic Ocean.

En géographie, le nord est le parallèle joignant les points de la surface de la Terre dont la latitude est égale à 40° nord.


Overview.

Psychology borders on various other fields including physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of the humanities. The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient Egypt. Very high level of work on mind-sciences one can find in Vedic scriptures of Sanatana Dharm (Hinduism) from the dated back of unknow history there was application of certain principle as a part in yogic practices of India.  Psychology was a branch of the domain of philosophy until the 1870s, when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany. Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, in Leipzig Germany, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Germany. Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as "a psychologist" (a notable precursor of Wundt was Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752-1812) who designated himself "Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic" in 1783 and gave lectures on scientific psychology at the Old University of Münster, Germany). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated with classical conditioning).  Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the 1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law, and other fields. Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s.

Early psychological thought.

Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, heart, soul, spirit, brain, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (described in a medical/surgical context). Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only two contain incantations to ward off evil.  Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (fl. 550 BC) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the "psuchẽ" (psyche) (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms – "nous", "thumos", "logistikon", etc. The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the "Republic"), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. "Peri Psyches", better known under its Latin title, "De Anima"). Plato's tripartite theory of the soul, Chariot Allegory and concepts such as "eros" defined the subsequent Western Philosophy views of the psyche and anticipated modern psychological proposals, such as Freud's id, ego and super-ego and libido; to the point that "in 1920, Freud decided to present Plato as the precursor of his own theory, as part of a strategy directed to define the scientific and cultural collocation of psychoanalysis". Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind. The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic.  In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC–61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments or opposing spirits of either veracity or perversity  Walter M Freeman proposes that Thomism is the philosophical system explaining cognition that is most compatible with neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal "Mind and Matter" entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and Intention According to Aquinas."  In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. In the 6th century AD,

Beginnings of modern psychology.

Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Christian, Jewish and Persian translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions in the Islamic Golden Age, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.

Etymology and early usage of word.

The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547–1628), often known under the Latin form Rodolphus Goclenius), who published the "Psychologia hoc est: de hominis perfectione, animo et imprimis ortu hujus..." in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450–1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae." Although

Enlightenment psychological thought.

Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes (1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his "Meditations on First Philosophy" (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his "Passions of the Soul" (1649) and "Treatise on Man" (completed in 1632 but, along

Transition to contemporary psychology.

Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Franz Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis XVI which included American ambassador Benjamin Franklin, chemist Antoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin (later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless. Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind’ by the power of expectancy

Emergence of German experimental psychology.

Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. Whether it could become an independent scientific discipline was questioned already earlier on: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) declared in his "Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science" (1786) that psychology might perhaps never become a "proper" natural science because its phenomena cannot be quantified, among other reasons. Kant proposed an alternative conception of an empirical investigation of human thought, feeling, desire, and action, and lectured on these topics for over twenty years (1772/73-1795/96). His "Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View" (1798), which resulted from these lectures, looks like an empirical psychology in many respects.  Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) took issue with what he viewed as Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–18 78) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics.  Meanwhile, individual differences in reaction time had become a critical issue in the field of astronomy, under the name of the "personal equation". Early researches by Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (1784–1846) in Königsberg and Adolf Hirsch led to the development of a highly precise chronoscope by Matthäus Hipp that, in turn, was based on a design by Charles Wheatstone for a device that measured the speed of artillery shells (Edgell & Symes, 1906). Other timing instruments were borrowed from physiology (e.g., Carl Ludwig's kymograph) and adapted for use by the Utrecht ophthalmologist Franciscus Donders (1818–1899) and his student Johan Jacob de Jaager in measuring

Psychoanalysis.

Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the German-speaking world at this time. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria." He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Freudian psychoanalysis is particularly notable for the emphasis it places on the course of an individual's sexual development in pathogenesis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness – yet operative as part of the complete personality. Hidden agendas, a bad conscience, or a sense of guilt, are

Early American.

Around 1875 the Harvard physiology instructor (as he then was), William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory for use with his courses. The laboratory was never used, at that time, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, "contra" Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function, or it would not have been naturally selected in humans. The same year James was contracted by Henry Holt to write a textbook on the "new" experimental psychology. If he had written it quickly, it would have been the first English-language textbook on the topic. It was twelve years, however, before his two-volume "The Principles of Psychology" would be published. In the meantime textbooks were published by George Trumbull Ladd of Yale (1887) and James Mark Baldwin then of Lake Forest College (1889).  William James was one of the founders of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1885, which studied psychic phenomena (parapsychology), before the creation of the American Psychological Association in 1892. James was also president of the British society that inspired the United States' one, the Society for Psychical Research, founded in 1882, which investigated psychology and the paranormal on topics such as mediumship, dissociation, telepathy and hypnosis, and it innovated research in psychology, by which, according to science historian Andreas Sommer, were "devised methodological innovations such as randomized study designs" and conducted "the first experiments investigating the psychology of eyewitness testimony (Hodgson and Davey, 1887), [and] empirical and conceptual studies illuminating mechanisms of dissociation and hypnotism"; Its members also initiated and organised the International Congresses of Physiological/Experimental psychology.  In 1879 Charles Sanders Peirce was hired as a philosophy instructor at Johns Hopkins University. Although better known for his astronomical and philosophical work, Peirce also conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the "American Journal of Science" (see Cadwallader, 1974). Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the "Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences", in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the "American Journal of Psychology", which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. In 1888 Hall left his Johns Hopkins professorship for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University, where he remained for the rest of his career.  Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened at the University of Pennsylvania (in 1887, by James McKeen Cattell), Indiana University (1888, William Lowe Bryan), the University of Wisconsin (1888, Joseph Jastrow), Clark University (1889, Edmund Sanford), the McLean Asylum (1889, William Noyes), and the University of Nebraska (1889, Harry Kirke Wolfe). However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when it became the home of

Early French.

Jules Baillarger founded the Société Médico-Psychologique in 1847, one of the first associations of its kind and which published the "Annales Medico-Psychologiques". France already had a pioneering tradition in psychological study, and it was relevant the publication of "Précis d'un cours de psychologie" ("Summary of a Psychology Course") in 1831 by Adolphe Garnier, who also published the"Traité des facultés de l'âme, comprenant l'histoire des principales théories psychologiques" ("Treatise of the Faculties of the Soul, comprising the history of major psychological theories") in 1852. Garnier was called "the best monument of psychological science of our time" by Revue des Deux Mondes in 1864.  In no small measure because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napoléon (president, 1848–1852; emperor as "Napoléon III", 1852–1870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (1792–1867), Thédodore Jouffroy (1796–1842), and Paul Janet (1823–1899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napoléon III after the débacle of the Franco-Prussian War, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. From the 1870 forward, a steadily increasing interest in positivist, materialist, evolutionary, and deterministic approaches to psychology developed, influenced by, among others, the work of Hyppolyte Taine (1828–1893) (e.g., "De L'Intelligence", 1870) and Théodule Ribot (1839–1916) (e.g., "La Psychologie Anglaise Contemporaine", 1870).  In 1876, Ribot founded "Revue Philosophique" (the same year as "Mind" was founded in Britain), which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the "new" psychology (Plas, 1997). Although not a working experimentalist himself, Ribot's many books were to have profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially his "L'Hérédité Psychologique" (1873) and "La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine" (1879). In the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory (1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring

Early British.

Although the British had the first scholarly journal dedicated to the topic of psychology – "Mind", founded in 1876 by Alexander Bain and edited by George Croom Robertson – it was quite a long while before experimental psychology developed there to challenge the strong tradition of "mental philosophy." The experimental reports that appeared in "Mind" in the first two decades of its existence were almost entirely authored by Americans, especially G. Stanley Hall and his students (notably Henry Herbert Donaldson) and James McKeen Cattell.  Francis Galton's (1822–1911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. There people were tested on a wide variety of physical (e.g., strength of blow) and perceptual (e.g., visual acuity) attributes. In 1886 Galton was visited by James McKeen Cattell who would later adapt Galton's techniques in developing his own mental testing research program in the United States. Galton was not primarily a psychologist, however. The data he accumulated in the anthropometric laboratory primarily went toward supporting his case for eugenics. To help

Early Russian.

Insofar as psychology was regarded as the science of the soul and institutionally part of philosophy courses in theology schools, psychology was present in Russia from the second half of the 18th century. By contrast, if by psychology we mean a separate discipline, with university chairs and people employed as psychologists, then it appeared only after the October Revolution. All the same, by the end of the 19th century, many different kinds of activities called psychology had spread in philosophy, natural science, literature, medicine, education, legal practice, and even military science. Psychology was as much a cultural resource as it was a defined area of scholarship  The question, "Who Is to Develop Psychology and How?", was of such importance that Ivan Sechenov, a physiologist and doctor by training and a teacher in institutions of higher education, chose it as the title for an essay in 1873. His question was rhetorical, for he was already convinced that physiology was the scientific basis on which to build psychology. The response to Sechenov's popular essay included one, in 1872–1873, from a liberal professor of law, Konstantin Kavelin. He supported a psychology drawing on ethnographic materials about national character, a program that had existed since 1847,

Second generation German.

Würzburg School.

In 1896, one of Wilhelm Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, the so-called Würzburg School, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation ("Selbstbeobachtung") in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception ("innere Wahrnehmung") in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image ("Vorstellung"). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through "Völkerpsychologie" (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation.  The Würzburgers, by contrast, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (for example a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and

Gestalt psychology.

Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named "Gestalt", a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration." It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element "Gestalt-qualität" or "form-quality."

Emergence of behaviorism in America.

As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. First among these was the increasing skepticism with which many viewed the concept of consciousness: although still considered to be the essential element separating psychology from physiology, its subjective nature and the unreliable introspective method it seemed to require, troubled many. William James' 1904 "Journal of Philosophy..." article "Does Consciousness Exist?", laid out the worries explicitly.  Second was the gradual rise of a rigorous animal psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small (1900, 1901 in "American Journal of Psychology"). Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 "Journal of Philosophy..." article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (1878–1959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat (1907, "Psychological Review Monograph Supplement"; Carr & Watson, 1908, "J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology"). Another important rat study was published by Henry H. Donaldson (1908, "J. Comparative Neurology & Psychology"). The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of conditioning in dogs (Yerkes & Morgulis, 1909, "Psychological Bulletin").  A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition

Second generation francophone.

Genevan School.

In 1918, Jean Piaget (1896–1980) turned away from his early training in natural history and began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis in Zurich. In 1919, he moved to Paris to work at the Binet-Simon Lab. However, Binet had died in 1911 and Simon lived and worked in Rouen. His supervision therefore came (indirectly) from Pierre Janet, Binet's old rival and a professor at the Collège de France.  The job in Paris was relatively simple: to use the statistical techniques he had learned as a natural historian, studying molluscs, to standardize Cyril Burt's intelligence test

Soviet Marxist Psychology.

In the early twentieth century, Ivan Pavlov's behavioral and conditioning experiments became the most internationally recognized Russian achievements. With the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922, Marxism was introduced as an overall philosophical and methodological framework in scientific research. In 1920s, state ideology promoted a tendency to the psychology of Bekhterev's reflexologist reductionism in its Marxist interpretation and to historical materialism, while idealistic philosophers and psychologists were harshly criticized. Another variation of Marxist version of psychology that got popularity mostly in Moscow and centered in the local Institute of Psychology was Konstantin Kornilov's (the Director of this Institute) reactology that became the main view, besides a small group of the members of the Vygotsky-Luria Circle

Cognitivism.

Noam Chomsky's (1957) review of Skinner's book "Verbal Behavior" (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major theoretical challenges to the type of radical (as in 'root') behaviorism that Skinner taught. Chomsky claimed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that people could produce an infinite variety of sentences unique in structure and meaning and that these could not possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be internal mental structures – states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. The issue is not whether mental activities exist; it is whether they can be shown

Scholarly journals.

There are three "primary journals" where specialist histories of psychology are published:  In addition, there are a large number of "friendly journals" where historical material can often be found. These are discussed in History of Psychology (discipline).

Today, psychology is defined as "the scientific study of behavior and mental processes." Philosophical interest in the human mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India.

L'histoire de la psychologie au sens large remonte à l'Antiquité dans la mesure où des premières traces d'une réflexion sur les phénomènes mentaux et le comportement ont été retrouvés dans des écrits datant de l'Égypte ancienne. De cette époque, en passant par la Grèce antique et les mondes chinois, indiens et arabo-musulmans jusque dans les années 1870, la psychologie était essentiellement considérée comme une branche de la philosophie et son histoire s'inscrit donc dans l'histoire de cette dernière.


As a game.

The classic poker dice game is played with 5 dice and two or more players. Each player has a total of 3 rolls and the ability to hold dice in between rolls. After the three rolls, the best hand wins.  In most variations, a straight only counts as a Bust (high-card). A Straight is less probable than a Full House, so, if counted, it should rank above a Full House, though tradition usually ranks it below Full House, as in card poker. Neither a "flush" nor a "straight flush" is a possible hand, due to the lack of suits on the dice.  In some rules, only a straight to a King is called a Straight, while a straight to an Ace is called (somewhat incorrectly) a Flush. Each one has an exact probability of 120 / 7776. Under these rules, a Straight beats a Full House (unlike in card poker, but correctly reflecting its probability) but does not beat Four of a Kind (incorrectly reflecting its lower probability). A Flush beats Four of a Kind (as in card poker, and correctly reflecting its lower probability).

Probabilities.

The poker dice hand rankings and the corresponding probabilities of rolling that hand are as follows (not sorted by probability but from highest to lowest ranking):  Busts have much lower probability than in card poker, because there are only 6 values instead of 13, making pairs and straights much more likely than with cards. In poker dice there are in fact only four possible bust hands: [A K Q J 9], [A K Q 10 9], [A K J 10 9], and [A Q J 10 9]; both other no-pair hands (i.e., in which either the A or the 9 are missing) are straights. Consequently, in some variants of the rules, straights are counted as busts.

Variants.

Marlboro once marketed a set of octahedral poker dice that included suits; each die had slightly different numberings, ranging from 7 up to ace. A similar set is currently manufactured by Koplow Games.  In 1974, Aurora produced a set of 12-sided poker dice called "Jimmy the Greek Odds Maker Poker Dice" and in 2000 Aurora/Rex Games produced a similar set under the name "Royal Poker Dice". The sets featured five 12-sided dice allowing for all 52 playing cards to be represented. The remaining 8 faces featured stars and acted as wild cards allowing for every possible poker hand to be rolled.

Poker dice are dice which, instead of having number pips, have representations of playing cards upon them. Poker dice have six sides, one each of an Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 10, and 9, and are used to form a poker hand.

Le poker d'as est un jeu de société se jouant avec 5 dés à 6 faces représentant les valeurs des 6 plus hautes cartes des jeux de cartes traditionnels occidentaux (as, roi, dame, valet, 10 et 9).