Match des Étoiles de la Ligue majeure de baseball 1997

Rosters.

Players in "italics" have since been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame.

Game.

Game summary.

The American League jumped out to a 1-0 lead in the 2nd inning led by a home run by Edgar Martínez of the Seattle Mariners. No one would score after that until the 7th inning when Javy López of the Atlanta Braves would tie the game with a home run of his own. However, in the bottom of the 7th, Bernie Williams of the New York Yankees walked and then Sandy Alomar, Jr. of the Cleveland Indians hit a home run to give the American League the lead and the win, as they held on to defeat the National League 3-1. Interestingly, all the runs were driven in and scored by players either born (Alomar, López & Williams) or raised (Martinez) in Puerto Rico. Winning pitcher José Rosado's family roots are also from that island.  The loudest ovation of the All-Star Game, which came early in the player introductions, was reserved for Kenny Lofton, whom the Indians had traded to the Atlanta Braves prior to the start of the 1997 season. Lofton was on the National League roster, but was injured and did not play. Also in the pregame ceremonies, Albert Belle, who was representing the Chicago White Sox, was booed for leaving the Indians as a free agent the previous winter.  Unlike past years, the performance of "O Canada", this year by the McAuley Boys, was not televised. Instead, the Fox network, airing its first All-Star Game, went into a commercial break, resulting in angry phone calls from Canadian television viewers. The Canadian National Anthem was later shown on tape delay after the game in the Cleveland area. Country star LeAnn Rimes sang the National Anthem following the commercial break. To commemorate the 50th anniversary of baseball's breaking of the color barrier, the ceremonial first pitch featured former Indian Larry Doby, the first African-American player to play in the American League.  One of the more colorful moments in All-Star Game history occurred during an at bat with Randy Johnson of the Seattle Mariners pitching and Larry Walker of the Colorado Rockies at the plate. The teams of the two former Montreal Expos teammates had faced each other about one month prior. However, when Johnson started on June 12, Walker chose not to play, explaining that, "I faced Randy one time in spring training and he almost killed me." In this All-Star Game, Walker batted against Johnson, who theatrically threw over his head. Ever adaptable, Walker placed his batting helmet backwards and switched sides in the batters' box to stand "right-handed" for one pitch. He ended the at bat by drawing a walk. The incident momentarily drew mirth and laughter from players in both dugouts, fans and announcers, and comparisons to Johnson pitching against John Kruk in the 1993 All-Star Game, in which he also threw over his head. In spite of garnering a reputation of avoiding Johnson, Walker batted.393 (11 hits in 28 at bats) against him in his career, nearly double the rate of all left-handed batters at.199.  Alomar was named MVP of the game, becoming the first player to win the All Star Game MVP award as a member of the host team (Pedro Martínez in 1999 and Shane Bieber in 2019 would later win MVP awards in their home ballparks). After the game, Major League Baseball CEO Paul Beeston presented Alomar with the MVP Award in lieu of the Commissioner of Baseball, who would not be named until after the next All-Star Game, when then-Chairman of the Executive Committee Bud Selig was officially named Commissioner.  This was the last All-Star Game in which the Milwaukee Brewers were a member of the American League. The Brewers moved to the National League for the 1998 season.

The 1997 Major League Baseball All-Star Game was the 68th playing of the midsummer classic between the all-stars of the American League (AL) and National League (NL), the two leagues comprising Major League Baseball. The game was held on July 8, 1997, at Jacobs Field in Cleveland, the home of the Cleveland Indians of the American League. The game resulted in the American League defeating the National League 3-1. The game marked the fifth time the All-Star Game was held in Cleveland and first since 1981. It was also the first All-Star game held at Jacobs Field, which opened three years earlier.

Le match des Étoiles de la Ligue majeure de baseball 1997 ("1997 MLB All-Star Game") est la de cette opposition entre les meilleurs joueurs de la Ligue américaine et de la Ligue nationale, les deux composantes de la MLB.


History.

Carrington was platted in 1882 by M. D. Carrington, and named for him. Carrington has been the county seat since 1883. A post office has been in operation at Carrington since 1883.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land. Carrington's zip code is 58421. The area code is 701 area code. Carrington has 5 local phone codes. 307, 649, 650, 652, and 653.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 2,065 people, 951 households, and 540 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 1,057 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 98.1% White, 0.1% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.7% of the population.  There were 951 households, of which 22.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.3% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 38.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.11 and the average family size was 2.81.  The median age in the city was 46 years. 21.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.7% were from 25 to 44; 26.8% were from 45 to 64; and 24.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.2% male and 51.8% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,268 people, 961 households, and 594 families living in the city. The population density was 1,531.9 people per square mile (591.7/km). There were 1,057 housing units at an average density of 713.9 per square mile (275.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 98.81% White, 0.18% African American, 0.49% Native American, 0.09% from other races, and 0.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.22% of the population.  There were 961 households, out of which 31.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.8% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.1% were non-families. 35.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.97.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 18.7% from 45 to 64, and 23.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $31,197, and the median income for a family was $41,654. Males had a median income of $31,250 versus $19,722 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,012. About 7.0% of families and 8.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8% of those under age 18 and 11.0% of those age 65 or over.

Local media.

Television.

Midcontinent Communications provides cable service to the city of Carrington and New Rockford. Dakota Central Telecommunications provides cable service to Carrington, Jamestown, and other nearby communities.

Education.

The city of Carrington is served by Carrington Elementary School and Carrington High School. Prairie View Adventist School is also in Carrington.

Transportation.

Two federal highways pass through Carrington. U.S. 281 runs North and South through the area. U.S. 52 runs east and west co-signed with ND 200 and to U.S. 281 then runs northwest and southeast route. ND 200 runs east and west through the area.  Highways that run through Carrington include U.S. 52, U.S. 281, ND 200, and Foster County CR 1605. The city is also served by both the Canadian Pacific Railway and the Red River Valley and Western Railroad.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Carrington has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Carrington is a city in Foster County, North Dakota, United States. It is the county seat of Foster County. The population was 2,065 at the 2010 census. Carrington was founded in 1883.

La ville de est le siège du comté de Foster, dans l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Life.

Caroline-Françoise Coulomb was born in Paris in 1828. Her family was of wealthy Protestant landowners. She was well-educated in the Greek and Latin classics, modern languages and music. In 1848 she married M. de Barrau de Muratel, an embassy attaché, and during her marriage lived in the Montagnet chateau at Montagne-Noire du Tarn, above Sorèze. Caroline de Barrau was simultaneously pro-republican and elitist. Although both cosmopolitan and an early feminist, she was a patriot during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). She converted her Montagnet chateau into a hospital, where she brought forty wounded from the battlefield of the Loire. They were infected by smallpox, but thirty-nine survived. She took an interest in psychic phenomena. Dr. Charles Richet said he met Madame Blavatsky through her, and she also belonged to the circle of Dr. Paul Gibier.

Educationalist.

Caroline de Barrau became interested in educational issues, and won the respect of Élisa Lemonnier, founder of schools for professional training of women, while raising her own children. She gathered children of both sexes around her daughter and two sons, and chose teachers to work under her direction. The improvised school was very successful. Caroline de Barrau moved to Paris when needed for the education of her children and other pupils, and opened her home to young medical students, mostly foreign. She gave some of them financial support. Caroline de Barrau thought that women were prohibited from attending public universities in France more by custom than for legal reasons. The solution was to prepare women adequately for university study, and then enroll them. Her daughter Emilie, with other young women "intellectually prepared for work of university grade, appeared at the proper time and place for enrollment." They were admitted to study medicine at the University of Paris.  The Berry family, headed by a civil servant named Gabriel Berry, lived with the Barrau family in their spacious villa in Paris and shared their commitment to giving their children an advanced education. Madame Berry managed domestic arrangements while Madame de Barrau formulated the educational theories and plans. The Berrys were the in-laws of Theodore Stanton. His sister Harriot Stanton Blatch visited them in Paris in 1881, and described Caroline de Barrau as "an exceptional daughter of France of the aristocratic, protestant element." Harriot recorded, "It was during this visit in Paris that Madame de Barrau broached the idea that... I should return for the winter to study economics at the famous School of Political Economy" in Paris. In 1883 Caroline de Barrau escorted Susan B. Anthony around Paris. Anthony was grateful for the fact that she spoke English.  In 1884 the French Chamber's budget commission considered eliminating all inspectresses general of nursery schools. The women's teachers' journal "L'Ami de l'enfance", co-edited by Pauline Kergomard and Charles Defodon, raised the alarm. Defodon praised the inspectorate as a French tradition that made use of women's distinctive maternal talents. Caroline de Barrau noted that nursery schools had been founded as an initiative of women which the state then chose to support. She disparaged the regime by comparison to its predecessors, who had introduced inspectresses general. The unsatisfactory compromise was to dismiss or retire four of the inspectresses and retain the other four. In 1886–87 she and her friend Pauline Kergomard founded the "Union française pour le sauvetage de l'Enfance" (French union for rescuing children). This society gave aid to children who had been abandoned.

Feminist.

In 1866 a feminist group called the "Société pour la Revendication du Droit des Femmes" began to meet at the house of André Léo. Members included Paule Minck, Louise Michel, Eliska Vincent, Élie Reclus and his wife Noémie, Mme Jules Simon and Caroline de Barrau. Maria Deraismes also participated. Because of the broad range of opinions, the group decided to focus on the subject of improving girls' education. Caroline de Barrau was a member of the "Association internationale des femmes" (AIF) formed in 1868. By 1872 the AIF was viewed with suspicion, since the word "International" was associated with the Paris Commune, and was divided over the leadership of Marie Goegg. In June 1872 Caroline de Barrau was one of the signatories of a communiqué calling for a meeting at the home of Julie von May von Rued in Bern to organize a new association called "Solidarité: Association pour la défense des droits de la femme" (Solidarity: Association for the Defense of Women's Rights). Other signatories included Josephine Butler, Christine Lazzati, Rosalie Schönwasser, Marianne Menzzer and Julie Kühne.  At the 1877 congress in Geneva of the International Federation for the Abolition of Regulated Prostitution Caroline de Barrau reported that women workers in Paris, mostly employed seasonally, earned about two francs per day on average. This was a starvation wage. In an ordinance of 16 June 1879 the police authorized establishment of a French section of the Federation for the Abolition of Prostitution, called the "Association pour l'abolition de la prostitution réglementée", with Victor Schœlcher (1804–1893) as president. The association included feminists, radicals and abolitionists. The most active organizers of the French Association for the Abolition of Official Prostitution were the feminist leaders Maria Deraismes, Emilie de Morsier and Caroline de Barrau. For some years Caroline de Barrau led the institution of the "Libérées de Saint-Lazare", which helped former prisoners of Saint-Lazare, mostly prostitutes, to return to society.  Caroline de Barrau died in Paris in 1888.

Caroline de Barrau (1828–88) was a wealthy French educationalist, feminist, author and philanthropist. She became interested in the education of girls, created a school in Paris where her daughter was taught, and encouraged her daughter and other young women to successfully apply for admission to the University of Paris, previously a male-only institution. She belonged to international feminist associations, investigated the conditions of working women in Paris, was a leader in the campaign to eliminate state-regulated prostitution, helped prostitutes reenter society after being released from prison and provided aid to abandoned infants. She was the author of several books on women's issues.

Caroline Françoise Sophie de Barrau de Muratel, née Caroline Françoise Sophie Coulomb le à Eaubonne (Val-d'Oise) et morte le dans le 16e arrondissement de Paris, est une éducatrice, féministe, femme de lettres et une philanthrope française du.


Background.

The stories in the "Pentamerone" were collected by Basile and published posthumously in two volumes by his sister Adriana in Naples, Italy, in 1634 and 1636 under the pseudonym Gian Alesio Abbatutis. These stories were later adapted by Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm, the latter making extensive, acknowledged use of Basile's collection. Examples of this are versions of Cinderella, Rapunzel, Puss in Boots, Sleeping Beauty, and Hansel and Gretel.  While other collections of stories have included stories that would be termed fairy tales, his work is the first collection in which all the stories fit in that single category. He did not transcribe them from the oral tradition as a modern collector would, instead writing them in Neapolitan, and in many respects was the first writer to preserve oral intonations.  The style of the stories is heavily Baroque, with many metaphorical usages.  This has been interpreted as a satire on Baroque style, but as Basile praised the style, and used it in his other works, it appears to have no ironic intention.

Influence.

Although the work fell into obscurity, the Brothers Grimm, in their third edition of "Grimm's Fairy Tales", praised it highly as the first national collection of fairy tales, fitting their romantic nationalist views on fairy tales, and as capturing the Neapolitan voice. This drew a great deal of attention to the work.  This collection (Basile's Pentamerone) was for a long time the best and richest that had been found by any nation. Not only were the traditions at that time more complete in themselves, but the author had a special talent for collecting them, and besides that an intimate knowledge of the dialect. The stories are told with hardly any break, and the tone, at least in the Neapolitan tales, is perfectly caught... We may therefore look on this collection of fifty tales as the basis of many others; for although it was not so in actual fact, and was indeed not known beyond the country in which it appeared, and was never translated into French, it still has all the importance of a basis, owing to the coherence of its traditions. Two-thirds of them are, so far as their principal incidents are concerned, to be found in Germany, and are current there at this very day. Basile has not allowed himself to make any alteration, scarcely even any addition of importance, and that gives his work a special value – Wilhelm Grimm Basile's writing inspired Matteo Garrone's 2015 film, "The Tale of Tales".

Geography of the stories.

The tales of Giambattista Basile are set in Basilicata and Campania, where he spent most of his life at the local nobles. Among the places related to the stories we find the city of Acerenza and the Castle of Lagopesole, the latter connected to the fairy tale Rapunzel.

Synopsis.

The name of the "Pentamerone" comes from Greek πέντε "[pénte]", ‘five’, and ἡμέρα "[hêméra]", ‘day’. It is structured around a fantastic frame story, in which fifty stories are related over the course of five days, in analogy with the ten-day structure of the much earlier "Decameron" by Giovanni Boccaccio (1353). The frame story is that of a cursed, melancholy princess named Zoza ("mud" or "slime" in Neapolitan, but also used as a term of endearment). She cannot laugh, no matter what her father does to amuse her, so he sets up a fountain of oil by the door, thinking people slipping in the oil would make her laugh. An old woman tried to gather oil, a page boy broke her jug, and the old woman grew so angry that she danced about, and Zoza laughed at her. The old woman cursed her to marry only the prince of Round-Field, whom she could only wake by filling a pitcher with tears in three days. With some aid from fairies, who also give her gifts, Zoza found the prince and the pitcher, and nearly filled the pitcher when she fell asleep. A Moorish slave steals it, finishes filling it, and claims the prince.  This frame story in itself is a fairy tale, combining motifs that will appear in other stories: the princess who cannot laugh in "The Magic Swan", "Golden Goose", and "The Princess Who Never Smiled"; the curse to marry only one hard-to-find person, in "Snow-White-Fire-Red" and "Anthousa, Xanthousa, Chrisomalousa"; and the heroine falling asleep while trying to save the hero, and then losing him because of trickery in "The Sleeping Prince" and "Nourie Hadig".  The now-pregnant slave-princess demands (at the impetus of Zoza's fairy gifts) that her husband tell her stories, or else she would crush the unborn child. The husband hires ten female storytellers to keep her amused; disguised among them is Zoza. Each tells five stories, most of which are more suitable to courtly, rather than juvenile, audiences. The Moorish woman's treachery is revealed in the final story (related, suitably, by Zoza), and she is buried, pregnant, up to her neck in the ground and left to die. Zoza and the Prince live happily ever after.  Many of these fairy tales are the oldest known variants in existence.  The fairy tales are:

Translations.

The text was translated into German by Felix Liebrecht in 1846, into English by John Edward Taylor in 1847 and again by Sir Richard Francis Burton in 1893 and into Italian by Benedetto Croce in 1925. Another English translation was made from Croce's version by Norman N. Penzer in 1934. A new, modern translation by Nancy L. Canepa was published in 2007 by Wayne State University Press, and was later released as a Penguin Classics paperback in 2016.

Adaptations.

The 2015 Italian film "Tale of Tales", directed by Matteo Garrone, is generally based on stories from the collection.

The Pentamerone (Neapolitan subtitle: "Lo cunto de li cunti", "The Tale of Tales") is a seventeenth-century fairy tale collection by Italian poet and courtier Giambattista Basile.

Le Pentamerone (du grec ancien (« cinq ») et (« jour »)) ou Le Conte des contes (en napolitain : ', appelé ensuite "Il Pentamerone") est un recueil de quarante-neuf contes populaires de Giambattista Basile, écrit en napolitain et publié de manière posthume à Naples en cinq volumes, de 1634 à 1636, sous le pseudonyme anagrammatique de Gian Alesio Abbattutis.


Life.

Born at the princely court in Wolfenbüttel, Julius was the youngest surviving son of the warlike Duke Henry V of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1489–1568) and his consort Maria (1496–1541), daughter of the Swabian count Henry of Württemberg. His father, a devout Catholic, had significantly enlarged the territories of his Principality of Wolfenbüttel in the Hildesheim Diocesan Feud, but soon after entered a fierce conflict with the Schmalkaldic League which brought him close to the loss of his principality, until the Protestant forces were finally defeated in the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg.  As a younger son, Julius was expected to pursue a clerical career. He studied at the universities of Cologne and Leuven. He set out on a Grand Tour through France in 1550 and began to build up a personal collection of books, the basis of the later Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel. At the instigation of his father, Julius was appointed Prince-Bishop of Minden, by the cathedral chapter on 23 April 1553, succeeding Franz von Waldeck. He never received papal confirmation, however, and resigned after only a year.  In 1552 Julius' father Duke Henry V had joined a princely alliance against the not less warlike Hohenzollern margrave Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. During the Second Margrave War, both sides met in the 1553 Battle of Sievershausen, where both Julius' elder brothers were killed in action. Suddenly, he became heir to the principality – for the distress of his father, who noted his feeble constitution and his sympathies for French culture and the Protestant faith. Julius avoided an open conclict and temporarily withdrew to his residence at Hessen Castle. As all plans to exclude him from the line of succession had failed, he succeeded as ruling Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel upon his father's death in 1568. He moved to Wolfenbüttel Castle. Julius nevertheless turned out a capable ruler. He immediately introduced the Reformation and instituted a tax reform that improved the rights of farmers in relation to noblemen. He also founded a militia — every head of household was required to own a weapon and participate in military training — and reformed the court system. Julius also entered into an agreement in the smouldering conflict with the Hanse city of Brunswick in 1569, in which the citizens recognized his overlordship; however, the quarrels between Duchy and City continued nonetheless.  By his mercantilist policies, Duke Julius promoted trade and especially mining. Copper and lead mining in the Harz mountains flourished, and many new mines were opened. Julius himself wrote a book about the uses of marl. To enable the sale of mining products, Julius invested into the improvements of roads and rivers. In 1577 the Oker river was made navigable between the Harz range and the armouries in Wolfenbüttel. On 15 October 1576, Julius solemnly inaugurated the "Academia Julia", the first university of the state in Helmstedt, intended to train Protestant clergy for the newly reformed state according to his Lutheran Church Order. As a Protestant prince, he signed both the 1577 Formula of Concord and the Book of Concord three years later.  In 1581, he purchased the palazzo Ca' Vendramin Calergi on the Grand Canal in Venice, one of his favorite cities to visit. He paid 50,000 ducats for the palazzo to the Loredan family, who were having financial difficulties at the time. However, he sold it only two years later to Duke Guglielmo Gonzaga of Mantua. Julius also had the Dutch architect Hans Vredeman de Vries lay out a network of "grachten" in his Wolfenbüttel residence.  Julius enlarged his territories with the acquisition of the eastern exclave of Calvörde in 1571 and parts of the County of Hoya in 1582. Upon the death of his Welf cousin Duke Eric II of Brunswick-Lüneburg in 1584, Julius inherited the Principality of Calenberg. He died in 1589 and was succeeded by his eldest son Henry Julius.

Family.

Julius married Hedwig (1540–1602), a younger daughter of Elector Joachim II Hector of Brandenburg, on 25 February 1560. They had the following children who reached adulthood:

Julius of Brunswick-Lüneburg (also known as Julius of Braunschweig; 29 June 1528 – 3 May 1589), a member of the House of Welf, was Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and ruling Prince of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel from 1568 until his death. From 1584, he also ruled over the Principality of Calenberg. By embracing the Protestant Reformation, establishing the University of Helmstedt, and introducing a series of administrative reforms, Julius was one of the most important Brunswick dukes in the early modern era.

Jules, né le à Wolfenbüttel et mort le à Wolfenbüttel, était duc de Brunswick-Lunebourg de 1568 à sa mort. Il règne sur les principautés de Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel et de Calenberg. Le duc fut l'un des souverains les plus instruits de son temps ; il est connu comme étant le fondateur de l'ancienne université de Helmstedt et de la "Herzog August Bibliothek" à Wolfenbüttel.


Personal history.

Daneel was born in Calvinia, Cape Province (now in the Northern Cape) on 29 August 1904 to Marthinus and Charlotte Daneel, and was one of seven children. His father was a Dutch Reformed Church minister who had played rugby for Stellenbosch University against Bill Maclagan's 1891 British team. He also had two other relatives who played at a high level; his uncle Henry Daneel was a member of Paul Roos' 1906–07 team, while one of his cousins, Louis Louw, played on the 1912–13 tour under the captaincy of Billy Millar.  When his father was at Victoria West, Daneel attended the local school, but had to leave in his final year as he was the only senior pupil left and that the standards were not quite up to scratch. His father eventually sent him to school in Robertson, due to the boarding there being inexpensive.  He studied theology at the University of Cape Town (UCT) in 1922 and 1923, failing both years, but managed to complete his final year at Stellenbosch University in 1929.

Rugby career.

While still at school he played halfback, alternating between scrum-half and fly-half on opposite sides of the field. After arriving at the University of Cape Town (UCT) with the intention of studying theology, he came to the realization that he had no future at scrum-half and subsequently switched to number 8.  At provincial level, he represented Western Province and Transvaal. During World War II after he had already stopped playing, he was also persuaded to play for and captain Western Transvaal after their regular captain Nic Bierman became ill.  He won his first cap against New Zealand in 1928 and his last against Scotland in 1932.

Life after rugby.

On the 1931–32 Springbok tour of the UK and Ireland, he came into contact with Frank Buchman's Oxford Group and decided to give up rugby to be a part of the Moral Re-Armament, although he still coached on occasion. His work with the movement made him particularly unpopular with the government of the time.  Later he followed in his father's footsteps and himself became a religious minister and served as chief chaplain to the South African Forces during World War II.

George Murray Daneel (29 August 1904 – 19 October 2004) was a South African rugby player. He was capped eight times, scoring two tries. He was known as being the oldest Springbok rugby player.

George Murray Daneel, né le à Calvinia (Afrique du Sud) et décédé le à Franschhoek, est un joueur de rugby à XV qui a joué avec l'équipe d'Afrique du Sud évoluant au poste de troisième ligne centre.


Publication history.

Uncle Ben first appeared in "Strange Tales" #97 (June 1962), and was killed in "Amazing Fantasy" #15 later that year. Although his history as a supporting character was very brief, Uncle Ben is an overshadowing figure in Spider-Man's life, often appearing in flashbacks.

Notability of death.

The murder of Uncle Ben is possibly the most notable in comic book history. He is also one of the few comic book deaths that has never been reversed in terms of official continuity. He was a member of the "Big Three", referring also to Jason Todd (an associate of Batman) and Bucky (an associate of Captain America) whose notable deaths, along with Ben's, gave rise to the phrase: "No one in comics stays dead except for Bucky, Jason Todd, and Uncle Ben". Later, the revivals of both Bucky and Jason in 2005 led to the amendment, "No one in comics stays dead except Uncle Ben". The violent killing of Uncle Ben, done by a common street criminal, also shares multiple similarities to the death of Thomas and Martha Wayne, the parents of Batman, which sometimes is included in the saying.  There have been examples of Uncle Ben remaining alive in alternative timelines, including stories featured in Marvel's "What If" (one of which he forces Peter to unmask in front of J. Jonah Jameson), and a storyline of the 1994 "Spider-Man" animated series featured a universe where Uncle Ben had never died, and Peter Parker became a successful industrialist, having never really bothered to use his powers responsibly as everything always seemed to work out for him. This fact is used to defeat the rampaging Spider-Carnage by exposing him to the one person he will trust and listen to: the Uncle Ben of that reality.  A story-line in the official series "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man" seemingly suggested that Ben may be alive. This Ben, however, was actually from a parallel universe where Aunt May died in a random accident, leaving him to raise Peter. This alternate Ben came to the planet Earth of regular "Marvel" comics (the 616 reality) as part of an evil plan devised by the Hobgoblin of 2211 to defeat the Spider-Men of different eras.  During the "Clone Conspiracy" storyline, when Peter's clone Ben Reilly (who had taken Uncle Ben's first name, along with Aunt May's last, to differentiate himself from Peter) used the Jackal's technology to revive several of Peter's old enemies and allies, he offered to bring Uncle Ben back to life while trying to win Peter to his point of view. Although tempted at the offer, Peter concluded that the reason Reilly had not brought Uncle Ben back on his own was that he knew that Uncle Ben would disapprove of Reilly's actions, as his plan would see everyone on Earth granted immortality, while dependent on him to supply the medication needed to stabilize their cloned bodies.

Fictional character biography.

Ben Parker was born in Brooklyn, New York. He trained to be a military police officer, and also spent time as a singer in a band. He had known his future wife, May Reilly since their high school days, but she, in turn, was naively interested in a boy who was involved in criminal activities. When he came to her one night and proposed to her on the spot, Ben was there to expose him as a murderer, and to comfort the heart-broken May when the boy was arrested. Their relationship evolved into love, and they enjoyed a happily married life, later caring for mermaid Linda Brown. When Ben's younger brother Richard Parker and his wife Mary were killed in a plane crash, Ben and May took in their orphaned son Peter and raised him as their own.  Ben was very protective of Peter, going as far as fighting some of the bullies that tormented young Parker. Peter became friends with Charlie Weiderman in high school, a teen even more unpopular than he was. However, Charlie often provoked the trouble with the other teens. One day, he was chased to the Parker home by a group of bullies led by Rich and Ben intervened. Ben told them that if they wanted Charlie, they would have to go through him. Rich tried to, but was surprised by Ben's army training. As soon as the bullies were gone, he told the boy that he was not welcome at the house or with Peter because of his provoking the bullies and not being able to tell the truth.  In high school, a radioactive spider bite gave Peter superhuman powers. Creating the costumed identity of Spider-Man for himself, Peter sought first to exploit his newfound powers as a masked wrestler and then as a television star. Coming from a television appearance, Spider-Man saw a burglar being chased by a security guard. The guard called for Spider-Man to stop the thief, but the nascent Spidey refused on the grounds that catching criminals was not his job. The robber got away.  When Peter later returned home, he was informed by a police officer that his beloved Uncle Ben had been killed by a burglar. Outraged, he donned his Spider-Man costume and captured the man only to realize to his horror that it was the same burglar whom he could have effortlessly captured earlier at the studio. As a result, Peter considered himself morally responsible for Ben's death and resolved to fight crime as a superhero — realizing that with great power comes great responsibility — and vowing never to let another innocent person come to harm if he could help it.  Ben Parker's death was truly avenged when the burglar returned for the money once more, threatening Aunt May. The burglar died from a heart attack upon beholding his old nemesis Spider-Man once again and learning that Spider-Man and Peter Parker were one and the same person.  In "Amazing Spider-Man Family" #7, May relates to Peter her account of meeting Ben for the first time.  Ben briefly appeared in "Amazing Spider-Man" #500; after Spider-Man played a vital role in preventing the resurrection of Dormammu, an unidentified higher power provided Doctor Strange with a small box that he felt he had to give to Spider-Man as a reward for his role in events. When Peter opened the box on the roof of his apartment building, it contained a note saying "You have five minutes. Spend them as you will", followed by Ben appearing on the roof. It was revealed that this Ben - whether a ghost or Ben having been temporally relocated from the moment before his death - remembered being out for the walk that resulted in him getting shot but nothing afterwards, although he concluded that the events leading to him being on that roof were not important. In their talk Ben said that the only thing that would disappoint him about Peter is if Peter ever settled for less because he was afraid of reaching for more. This helps Peter to see that he had a good life for all its hardships, recognizing that he has always used what he has, and Ben assures Peter that he is proud of him before he vanishes.  During the 2008–2009 "Dark Reign" storyline, Uncle Ben makes an appearance in the Underworld when Hercules attends the trial of Zeus, directing Amadeus Cho as he attempted to find his parents in the afterlife. In the "Amazing Grace" storyline, Ben appears as an apparition to Spider-Man while battling a horde of demons and gargoyles, telling him that his death is not Peter's or anyone's fault. However, one enemy notices him and attacked only to disappear. This left Spider-Man puzzled if he was imagining Ben or he was really talking to his ghost.  When Ben Reilly adopted the identity of the Jackal and set up an elaborate plan to use Warren's new cloning process to make the world immortal, he attempted to win Peter's allegiance by showing him Ben's coffin and offering to bring Ben back to life. However, although tempted by the idea, Peter realized that Ben never intended to bring 'their' uncle back to life because he would have done it already, coldly informing his clone that Uncle Ben would tell Reilly that he was wrong, as he has the power without the responsibility. At the conclusion of the crisis, Peter takes a moment beside the coffin containing Ben's corpse, acknowledging that Reilly's actions were wrong but wishing that Uncle Ben was there regardless.

Other versions.

Trouble.

A version of Ben appeared in the Mark Millar, Terry Dodson 2003 limited series, "Trouble", with his brother Richie, who were involved with teenagers, May and Mary.  None of the characters' last names were revealed. The story did not become canon because of its negative reception.

Bullet Points.

In this alternate reality, a young Ben Parker is working as a military policeman. He is assigned to security for Doctor Erskine, a scientist for the Captain America program. An assassination attempt on Erskine succeeds, killing Ben in the process. Later on, May still attempts to raise Peter on her own, but without the influence of Ben, Peter grows up to be angry, cynical and mean-spirited, going on to become the Hulk of this reality when he sneaks onto the test site that Rick Jones sneaked onto in the original version of events.

House of M.

In the "House of M" reality, Ben Parker is alive and, like the rest of the world, is aware that Peter Parker is Spider-Man. After recovering Peter's journal, with entries detailing that the world is not how it should be, Ben discovers that he is killed shortly after Peter gains his powers. He later helps Peter fake his death, photographing Spider-Man apparently hanging himself.

Marvel Noir.

In the "Marvel Noir" reality, Ben Parker is a social activist who was murdered by Norman Osborne's enforcers. He had previously been a decorated pilot and veteran of World War I, but he did not take pride in his service, believing that no just cause was fought for. His nephew Peter dons his old aviator uniform and wields his service revolver during his activities as Spider-Man.

Spider-Verse.

During the "Spider-Verse" storyline, there are different versions of Uncle Ben that are featured:

Spider-Geddon.

During the "Spider-Geddon" storyline, Earth-91918 has a version of Uncle Ben who is married to a Hispanic version of Aunt May. When he is shot by a mugger, Uncle Ben gains spider powers following a blood transfusion from his nephew. When Ben became a Spider-Man, he was a ruthless hero where he once severely beat up Kraven the Hunter.

Ultimate Marvel.

The Ultimate Marvel version of Ben Parker differs slightly from the original iteration. Younger than his original counterpart, he is also a former hippie who wears his hair in a ponytail and teaches Peter Parker to be nonviolent. Ben also reminisces about the period he lived on a commune. After Peter went out for a walk, Peter learned from a police officer that Ben was murdered.

What If?

Uncle Ben was featured in various issues of "What If".

Derailed Alt-Ben Parker.

In an alternate reality shown in "Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man", an alternate reality was witnessed where May died in a random accident, prompting Peter to go into show business with Ben as his agent to make money. Peter's focus on his career prompts him to eventually leave home, simply paying Ben a percentage out of respect for their old relationship rather than any actual concern. This Ben was eventually 'derailed' into the 616 reality by the Hobgoblin of 2211 as part of her plan against the Spider-Men of various eras, leaving him shocked when he witnessed his destroyed house and the still-living May Parker. Confronting her, he ended up in a fight with Jarvis, with whom she at the time has a relationship with, but wandered away in confusion. Lacking direction, Ben wandered into an alleyway where he encountered a shadowy figure who offered him a gun, telling Ben that any action he takes would simply create another universe where he took the opposite action, so he might as well do what felt good. After this Hobgoblin was erased from history by a Retcon Bomb of her own invention, the Spider-Man of 2211 met with what he presumed to be the same Ben Parker to take him back to his own timeline. In a surprise twist, deciding he rather wanted to "stick around for a while", this Ben Parker shoots this future Spider-Man. At the same time, another Ben Parker was shown dead in the alley, meaning one Ben Parker had killed the other and taken his place.  It was revealed that the Ben Parker who had died in the alleyway was the Uncle Ben of the alternate reality, while the Ben Parker who killed Spider-Man 2211 was, in fact, the Chameleon of 2211; the Chameleon had attempted to convince Ben to resort to murder, but Spider-Man correctly guessed that there were no circumstances under which Ben would do such a thing.

Franklin Richards' Uncle Ben.

Franklin Richards of the Fantastic Four often refers to Benjamin Grimm, the Thing, as "Uncle Ben" (Grimm is the best friend of Franklin's father Reed Richards). Franklin Richards and Peter Parker also have the same middle name, Benjamin, as the Thing and Ben Parker are their namesakes. Spider-Man is aware of this, and told Franklin, "Uncle Bens are always right".

Son of Spider-Man.

In "The Amazing Spider-Man" #498-500, Spider-Man falls through time, encountering all of his enemies from the past, and sees himself in the future. The future Peter Parker tells him that he should tell Mary Jane Watson and their son that he loves them every day. "Our son is called Ben", he says, "but it would pretty much have to be, wouldn't it?" However, because of the way time-travel in the Marvel universe works, this is only a potential future and not necessarily a definite one (this future being even more unlikely after the events of "").

The Other Uncle Ben.

Like her father, Spider-Girl also has an Uncle Ben. However, unlike her dad, May never knew her uncle: Ben Reilly, Spider-Man's clone. If Spider-Girl has any children in the future, they too would have an Uncle Ben - May's baby brother. Ironically in the aftermath of "Spider-Verse", the Earth-3145's Ben Parker himself would stay on her world, and has a chance to be his grandfather, something that the other Ben Parkers were unable to achieve on account of their deaths.

Benjamin Franklin Parker, usually called Uncle Ben, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is the husband of May Parker and paternal uncle of Peter Parker (Spider-Man). Uncle Ben first appeared in "Strange Tales" #97 (June 1962), and was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko. Modeled after American founding father Benjamin Franklin, the character plays an influential role in the Spider-Man comic books, beginning with "Amazing Fantasy" #15 (August 1962).

Benjamin Franklin Parker, aussi appelé oncle Ben, est un personnage de fiction de l'univers Marvel, oncle de Peter Parker, alias Spider-Man. Il apparaît pour la première fois dans le numéro 15 de "Amazing Fantasy" en août 1962, créé par Stan Lee et l'artiste Steve Ditko.


Etymology.

Carl Linnaeus derived the name of this genus from the Latin term for mythological dragons.

Gliding.

The lizards are well known for their "display structures" and ability to glide long distances using their wing-like, patagial membranes supported by elongated thoracic ribs to generate lift forces. The India flying lizard is capable of gliding from tree to tree found in the Western Ghats and hill forests of southern India. The flying dragon lizard avoids danger by opening two large winglike flaps of skin and steers, brakes with its tail.

Species.

The following 42 species are recognized:  "Nota bene": a binomial authority in parentheses indicates that the species was originally described in a genus other than "Draco".

Reproduction.

The only time a female flying lizard ventures to the ground is when she is ready to lay her eggs. She descends the tree she is on and makes a nest hole by forcing her head into the soil. She then lays 2–5 eggs before filling the hole and guards the eggs for approximately 24 hours, but then leaves and has nothing more to do with her offspring.

In fiction.

"Draco dussumieri" features prominently in Poornachandra Tejaswi's Kannada novel "Carvalho" (ಕರ್ವಾಲೊ, "Karvālǒ"). In this story, middle aged scientist Carvalho, searches for this flying lizard (considered very rare in this novel) in the forests of the Western Ghats in the Indian state of Karnataka, and finally the lizard flies down a steep cliff off thick forest.  The titular monster from Toho's 1958 film "Varan the Unbelievable" is based on that of a "Draco" lizard.

Draco is a genus of agamid lizards that are also known as flying lizards, flying dragons or gliding lizards. These lizards are capable of gliding flight; their ribs and their connecting membrane may be extended to create "wings" (patagia), the hindlimbs are flattened and wing-like in cross-section, and a flap on the neck (the gular flag) serves as a horizontal stabilizer and are sometimes used in warning to others. "Draco" are arboreal insectivores.

Draco est un genre de sauriens de la famille des Agamidae. Les espèces de ce genre sont appelées Dragons volants.


Models.

In the mid-1980s, a group of growth theorists became increasingly dissatisfied with common accounts of exogenous factors determining long-run growth. They favored a model that replaced the exogenous growth variable (unexplained technical progress) with a model in which the key determinants of growth were explicit in the model. The work of Kenneth Arrow (1962),, and Miguel Sidrauski (1967) formed the basis for this research. Paul Romer (1986),, and omitted technological change; instead, growth in these models is due to indefinite investment in human capital which had a spillover effect on the economy and reduces the diminishing return to capital accumulation.  The AK model, which is the simplest endogenous model, gives a constant-savings rate of endogenous growth and assumes a constant, exogenous, saving rate. It models technological progress with a single parameter (usually A). It uses the assumption that the production function does not exhibit diminishing returns to scale to lead to endogenous growth. Various rationales for this assumption have been given, such as positive spillovers from capital investment to the economy as a whole or improvements in technology leading to further improvements. However, the endogenous growth theory is further supported with models in which agents optimally determined the consumption and saving, optimizing the resources allocation to research and development leading to technological progress. Romer (1987, 1990) and significant contributions by Aghion and Howitt (1992) and Grossman and Helpman (1991), incorporated imperfect markets and R&D to the growth model.

AK model.

The AK model production function is a special case of a Cobb–Douglas production function:  This equation shows a Cobb–Douglas function where "Y" represents the total production in an economy. "A" represents total factor productivity, "K" is capital, "L" is labor, and the parameter formula_2 measures the output elasticity of capital. For the special case in which formula_3, the production function becomes linear in capital thereby giving constant returns to scale:

Versus exogenous growth theory.

In neo-classical growth models, the long-run rate of growth is exogenously determined by either the savings rate (the Harrod–Domar model) or the rate of technical progress (Solow model). However, the savings rate and rate of technological progress remain unexplained. Endogenous growth theory tries to overcome this shortcoming by building macroeconomic models out of microeconomic foundations. Households are assumed to maximize utility subject to budget constraints while firms maximize profits. Crucial importance is usually given to the production of new technologies and human capital. The engine for growth can be as simple as a constant return to scale production function (the AK model) or more complicated set ups with spillover effects (spillovers are positive externalities, benefits that are attributed to costs from other firms), increasing numbers of goods, increasing qualities, etc.  Often endogenous growth theory assumes constant marginal product of capital at the aggregate level, or at least that the limit of the marginal product of capital does not tend towards zero. This does not imply that larger firms will be more productive than small ones, because at the firm level the marginal product of capital is still diminishing. Therefore, it is possible to construct endogenous growth models with perfect competition. However, in many endogenous growth models the assumption of perfect competition is relaxed, and some degree of monopoly power is thought to exist. Generally monopoly power in these models comes from the holding of patents. These are models with two sectors, producers of final output and an R&D sector. The R&D sector develops ideas that they are granted a monopoly power. R&D firms are assumed to be able to make monopoly profits selling ideas to production firms, but the free entry condition means that these profits are dissipated on R&D spending.

Implications.

An endogenous growth theory implication is that policies that embrace openness, competition, change and innovation will promote growth. Conversely, policies that have the effect of restricting or slowing change by protecting or favouring particular existing industries or firms are likely, over time, to slow growth to the disadvantage of the community. Peter Howitt has written: Sustained economic growth is everywhere and always a process of continual transformation. The sort of economic progress that has been enjoyed by the richest nations since the Industrial Revolution would not have been possible if people had not undergone wrenching changes. Economies that cease to transform themselves are destined to fall off the path of economic growth. The countries that most deserve the title of “developing” are not the poorest countries of the world, but the richest. [They] need to engage in the never-ending process of economic development if they are to enjoy continued prosperity.

Criticisms.

One of the main failings of endogenous growth theories is the collective failure to explain conditional convergence reported in empirical literature.  Another frequent critique concerns the cornerstone assumption of diminishing returns to capital. Stephen Parente contends that new growth theory has proved to be no more successful than exogenous growth theory in explaining the income divergence between the developing and developed worlds (despite usually being more complex).  Paul Krugman criticized endogenous growth theory as nearly impossible to check by empirical evidence; “too much of it involved making assumptions about how unmeasurable things affected other unmeasurable things.”

Endogenous growth theory holds that economic growth is primarily the result of endogenous and not external forces. Endogenous growth theory holds that investment in human capital, innovation, and knowledge are significant contributors to economic growth. The theory also focuses on positive externalities and spillover effects of a knowledge-based economy which will lead to economic development. The endogenous growth theory primarily holds that the long run growth rate of an economy depends on policy measures. For example, subsidies for research and development or education increase the growth rate in some endogenous growth models by increasing the incentive for innovation.

La théorie de la croissance endogène, ou plus exactement, les théories de la croissance endogène, ont pour objet d'expliquer la croissance économique à partir de processus et de décisions macroéconomiques. Elle est apparue en réponse aux modèles de croissance exogène, en particulier le modèle de Solow, qui fondait la croissance économique sur le progrès technique, mais n'expliquait pas l'origine de ce progrès. Le premier modèle de croissance endogène a été publié par Paul Romer en 1986, dans un article intitulé "Increasing Returns and Long Run Growth". Cette théorie a été développée principalement par Paul Romer, Robert E. Lucas, et Robert Barro. Ce sujet est devenu un domaine d'étude majeur des sciences économiques.


Background.

In 1962, RCA Victor decided it was time for Cooke to record a live album, and a warm January night at the Harlem Square Club in Miami was picked to record. The Harlem Square Club was a small downtown nightspot in Miami's historically African-American neighborhood of Overtown, and was packed with the singer's most devoted fans from his days singing gospel. RCA found the results too loud, raw and raucous — not the Cooke the label was trying to break as an international pop star — and shelved the recordings for over two decades.  In 1985, executive Gregg Geller discovered the tapes and quickly issued "Live at the Harlem Square Club, 1963" that year. "Sam was what we've come to call a crossover artist: He crossed over from gospel to pop, which was controversial enough in its day. But once he became a pop artist, he had a certain mainstream image to protect," Geller said in 2013. "The fact is, when he was out on the road, he was playing to a predominantly, almost exclusively black audience. And he was doing a different kind of show — a much more down-home, down-to-earth, gut-bucket kind of show than what he would do for his pop audience."  Three mixes of the album have been released. The original 1985 mix contains a louder audience response, creating a "claustrophobic, frenzied power" and also features some minor instrumental studio overdubbing which was not used in subsequent mixes. The version included on the 2000 box set, "The Man Who Invented Soul", turns the audience elements down, cleaning up Cooke's vocals as well as the music. The 2005 remaster generally splits the difference between these two releases. However, the 2005 version has a defect. Around the 0:56 mark of "Twistin' the Night Away", the song skips. It is not known why this defect is present, or why it has not been fixed as of today.

Reception.

"Live at the Harlem Square Club, 1963" has generally been considered among the best live LPs ever released. In the year of its release (1985), it was ranked at number 11 on "The Village Voice" Pazz & Jop critics poll, as well as being named number 7 on "NME" albums of the year. Steve Leggett for AllMusic feels that "Not only is this one of the greatest live soul albums ever released, it also reveals a rougher, rawer, and more immediate side to Sam Cooke that his singles only hinted at, good as they were [...] the crucial key is and was always Cooke's vocals, and while he was a marvelously smooth, versatile, and urbane singer on his official pop recordings, here he explodes into one of the finest sets of raw secular gospel ever captured on tape. It is essential listening in any version."  In 2012, "Rolling Stone" ranked the album at number 439 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. "Cooke was elegance personified, but he works this Florida club until it's hotter than hell, while sounding like he never breaks a sweat [...] when the crowd sings along with him, it's magic," said "Rolling Stone". The album appears in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".

Track listing.

All tracks composed by Sam Cooke; except where indicated

1985 version.

Total Time 37:29  (actually tracks 13 through 21 on the CD)

2000 "The Man Who Invented Soul" version.

Total Time 38:44

2005 version.

Total Time 38:49

Personnel.

All credits adapted from "The RCA Albums Collection" (2011) liner notes.

Live at the Harlem Square Club, 1963 is the second live album by the American singer-songwriter Sam Cooke. The album was released in June 1985 in the United States by RCA Records. Initially recorded on January 12, 1963 to be released as a live album entitled One Night Stand, the concert at Miami's Harlem Square Club was not released until 1985. RCA Victor, at the time, viewed the album as too gritty and raw and possibly damaging to his pop image, and quietly kept the recordings in their archive.

Live at the Harlem Square Club, 1963, est le album, et second album live, du chanteur de soul Sam Cooke, enregistré lors d'un concert à Miami au début de l'année. Il fait figure de classique, dans sa tension et l'émotion que le chanteur, libre, dégage. Les titres, tous composés par Cooke à l'exception du medley, figuraient sur les précédents LPs du chanteur.


Structure.

Phycocyanin shares a common structural theme with all phycobiliproteins. The structure begins with the assembly of phycobiliprotein monomers, which are heterodimers composed of α and β subunits, and their respective chromophores linked via thioether bond.  Each subunit is typically composed of eight α-helices. Monomers spontaneously aggregate to form ring-shaped trimers (αβ), which have rotational symmetry and a central channel. Trimers aggregate in pairs to form hexamers (αβ), sometimes assisted with additional linker proteins. Each phycobilisome rod generally has two or more phycocyanin hexamers. Despite the overall similarity in structure and assembly of phycobiliproteins, there is a large diversity in hexamer and rod conformations, even when only considering phycocyanins. On a larger scale phycocyanins also vary in crystal structure, although the biological relevance of this is debatable.  As an example, the structure of C-phycocyanin from "Synechococcus vulcanus" has been refined to 1.6 Angstrom resolution. The (αβ) monomer consists of 332 amino acids and 3 thio-linked phycocyanobilin (PCB) cofactor molecules. Both the α- and β-subunits have a PCB at amino acid 84, but the β-subunit has an additional PCB at position 155 as well. This additional PCB faces the exterior of the trimeric ring and is therefore implicated in inter-rod energy transfer in the phycobilisome complex. In addition to cofactors, there are many predictable non-covalent interactions with the surrounding solvent (water) that are hypothesized to contribute to structural stability.  R-phycocyanin II (R-PC II) is found in some "Synechococcus" species. R-PC II is said to be the first PEB containing phycocyanin that originates in cyanobacteria. Its purified protein is composed of alpha and beta subunits in equal quantities. R-PC II has PCB at beta-84 and the phycoerythrobillin (PEB) at alpha-84 and beta-155.  As of March 7, 2018, there are 44 crystal structures of phycocyanin deposited in the Protein Data Bank.

Spectral characteristics.

C-phycocyanin has a single absorption peak at ~621 nm, varying slightly depending on the organism and conditions such as temperature, pH, and protein concentration "in vitro". Its emission maximum is ~642 nm. This means that the pigment absorbs orange light, and emits reddish light. R-phycocyanin has an absorption maxima at 533 and 544 nm. The fluorescence emission maximum of R-phycocyanin is 646 nm.

Ecological Relevance.

Phycocyanin is produced by many photoautotrophic cyanobacteria. Even if cyanobacteria have large concentrations of phycocyanin, productivity in the ocean is still limited due to light conditions.  Phycocyanin has ecological significance in indicating cyanobacteria bloom. Normally chlorophyll "a" is used to indicate cyanobacteria numbers, however since it is present in a large number of phytoplankton groups, it is not an ideal measure. For instance a study in the Baltic Sea used phycocyanin as a marker for filamentous cyanobacteria during toxic summer blooms. Some filamentous organisms in the Baltic Sea include "Nodularia spumigena" and "Aphanizomenon flosaquae".  An important cyanobacteria named spirulina ("Arthrospira plantensis") is a micro algae that produces C-PC.  There are many different methods of phycocyanin production including photoautotrophic, mixotrophic and heterotrophic and recombinant production. Photoautotrophic production of phycocyanin is where cultures of cyanobacteria are grown in open ponds in either subtropical or tropical regions. Mixotrophic production of algae is where the algae are grown on cultures that have an organic carbon source like glucose. Using mixotrophic production produces higher growth rates and higher biomass compared to simply using a photoautotrophic culture. In the mixotrophic culture, the sum of heterotrophic and autotrophic growth separately was equal to the mixotrophic growth. Heterotrophic production of phycocyanin is not light limited, as per its definition. "Galdieria sulphuraria" is a unicellular rhodophyte that contains a large amount of C-PC and a small amount of allophycocyanin. "G. sulphuraria" is an example of the heterotrophic production of C-PC because its habitat is hot, acidic springs and uses a number of carbon sources for growth. Recombinant production of C-PC is another heterotrophic method and involves gene engineering.  Lichen-forming fungi and cyanobacteria often have a symbiotic relationship and thus phycocyanin markers can be used to show the ecological distribution of fungi-associated cyanobacteria. As shown in the highly specific association between Lichina species and Rivularia strains, phycocyanin has enough phylogenetic resolution to resolve the evolutionary history of the group across the northwestern Atlantic Ocean coastal margin.

Biosynthesis.

The two genes cpcA and cpcB, located in the cpc operon and translated from the same mRNA transcript, encode for the C-PC α- and β-chains respectively. Additional elements such as linker proteins, and enzymes involved in phycobilin synthesis and the phycobiliproteins are often encoded by genes in adjacent gene clusters, and the cpc operon of Arthrospira platensis also encodes a linker protein assisting in the assembly of C-PC complexes. In red algae, the phycobiliprotein and linker protein genes are located on the plastid genome.  Phycocyanobilin is synthesised from heme and inserted into the C-PC apo-protein by three enzymatic steps. Cyclic heme is oxidised to linear biliverdin IXα by heme oxygenase and further converted to 3Z-phycocyanobilin, the dominant phycocyanobilin isomer, by 3Z-phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Insertion of 3Z-phycocyanobilin into the C-PC apo-protein via thioether bond formation is catalysed by phycocyanobilin lyase.  The promoter for the cpc operon is located within the 427-bp upstream region of the cpcB gene. In "A. platensis", 6 putative promoter sequences have been identified in the region, with four of them showing expression of green fluorescent protein when transformed into "E. coli". The presence of other positive elements such as light-response elements in the same region have also been demonstrated.  The multiple promoter and response element sequences in the cpc operon enable cyanobacteria and red algae to adjust its expression in response to multiple environmental conditions. Expression of the cpcA and cpcB genes is regulated by light. Low light intensities stimulate synthesis of CPC and other pigments, while pigment synthesis is repressed at high light intensities. Temperature has also been shown to affect synthesis, with specific pigment concentrations showing a clear maximum at 36 °C in Arthronema africanum, a cyanobacterium with particular high C-PC and APC contents.  Nitrogen and also iron limitation induce phycobiliprotein degradation. Organic carbon sources stimulate C-PC synthesis in Anabaena spp., but seem to have almost no effector negative effect in A. platensis. In the rhodophytes Cyanidium caldarium and Galdieria sulphuraria, C-PC production is repressed by glucose but stimulated by heme.

Biotechnology.

Pure phycocyanin extractions can be isolated from algae. The basic segregation order is as follows. The rupturing of the cell wall, with mechanical forces (freeze thawing) or chemical agents (enzymes). Then, C-PC is isolated with centrifugation and purified with ammonium sulfate precipitation or chromatography -either ion or gel-filtration. After, the sample gets frozen and dried.<br>.

Applications.

Phycocyanin can be used in many practices, it is particularly used medicine and foods applications. It can also be used in genetics, where it acts a tracer due to its natural fluorescence.

Medicine.

Anti-oxidation and Anti-inflammation.

Phycocyanin has both anti-oxidant and anti-inflammation properties. Peroxyl, hydroxyl, and alkoxyl radicals are all oxidants scavenged by C-PC. C-PC, however, has a greater effect on peroxyl radicals. C-PC is a metal binding antioxidant as it prevents lipid peroxidation from occurring. The peroxyl radicals are stabilized by the chromophore (a subunit of C-PC). For hydroxyl radicals to be scavenged, it must be done in low light and with high C-PC levels. Hydroxyl radicals are found at inflamed parts of the body. C-PC, being an anti-oxidant, scavenges these damage-inducing radicals, hence being an anti-inflammation agent.

Neuroprotection.

Excess oxygen in the brain generates Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). ROS causes damages to brain neurons, leading to strokes. C-phycocyanin scavenges hydrogen peroxide, a type of ROS species, from the inside of astrocyte, reducing oxidative stress. Astrocytes also increase the production of growth factors like BDNF and NDF, therefore, enhance nerve regeneration. C-PC also prevents astrogliosis and glial inflammation.

Hepatoprotection.

C-phycocyanin is found to have hepatotoxicity protection. Vadiraja et al. (1998) found an increase in the serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) when C-PC is treated against heptatoxins such as Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) or R-(+)-pulegone. C-PC protects the liver by the means of the Cytochrome-P450 system. It can either disturb the production of menthofuran or disturb formation of α, β-unsaturated- γ-ketoaldehyde. Both of which are key components of the cytochrome P-450 system that produced a reactive metabolite that produce toxins when it binds to liver tissues. Another possible protection mechanism by C-PC can be the scavenging of reactive metabolites (or free radicals if the cause is CCl4).

Anti-cancer.

C-phycocyanin (C-PC) has anti-cancer effects. Cancer happens when cells continue to grow uncontrollably. C-PC has been found to prevent cell growth. C-PC stops the formation of tumour before the S phase. DNA synthesis is not performed due to the tumour cell entering G0, resulting in no tumour proliferation. Furthermore, C-PC induces apoptosis. When cells are treated with C-PC, ROS (Radical Oxygen Species) are made. These molecules decrease BCl-2 (regulator of apoptosis) production. Here, BCl-2 inhibits proteins called caspases. Caspases are part of the apoptosis pathway. When BCl-2 decreases, the expression of caspases increases. As a result, apoptosis occurs. C-PC alone is not enough to treat cancer, it needs to work other drugs to overcome the persistence nature of tumour cells.

Food.

C-phycocyanin (C-PC) can be used as a natural blue food colouring. This food colourant can only be used for low temperature prepared goods because of its inability to maintaining its blue colouring in high heats unless there is an addition of preservatives or sugars. The type of sugar is irrelevant, C-PC is stable when there is high sugar content. Knowing so, C-PC can be used for numerous types of foods, one of which being syrups. C-PC can be used for syrups ranging from green to blue colours. It can have different green tints by adding yellow food colourings.

Market.

Phycocyanin market is expected to grow in the period 2019-2028 as a phycocyanin blue pigment got approval from FDA in 2013 which has opened a lot of opportunities for this market and it is anticipated to reach a 1 Billion USD during forecast period 2019-2028.

Phycocyanin is a pigment-protein complex from the light-harvesting phycobiliprotein family, along with allophycocyanin and phycoerythrin. It is an accessory pigment to chlorophyll. All phycobiliproteins are water-soluble, so they cannot exist within the membrane like carotenoids can. Instead, phycobiliproteins aggregate to form clusters that adhere to the membrane called phycobilisomes. Phycocyanin is a characteristic light blue color, absorbing orange and red light, particularly near 620 nm (depending on which specific type it is), and emits fluorescence at about 650 nm (also depending on which type it is). Allophycocyanin absorbs and emits at longer wavelengths than phycocyanin C or phycocyanin R. Phycocyanins are found in Cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae). Phycobiliproteins have fluorescent properties that are used in immunoassay kits. Phycocyanin is from the Greek "phyco" meaning “algae” and "cyanin" is from the English word “cyan", which conventionally means a shade of blue-green (close to "aqua") and is derived from the Greek “kyanos" which means a somewhat different color: "dark blue". The product phycocyanin, produced by "Aphanizomenon flos-aquae" and Spirulina, is for example used in the food and beverage industry as the natural coloring agent 'Lina Blue' or 'EXBERRY Shade Blue' and is found in sweets and ice cream. In addition, fluorescence detection of phycocyanin pigments in water samples is a useful method to monitor cyanobacteria biomass.

La phycocyanine (du grec "phyco" signifiant « algue » et "cyanine" venant de la couleur « cyan », qui est dérivé du grec « kyanos » et signifie bleu-vert) est l'association de protéines de la famille des phycobiliprotéines, et de pigments hydrosolubles de la photosynthèse, les phycocyanobilines. Toutes les phycobiliprotéines sont solubles dans l'eau et ne peuvent donc exister à l'intérieur d'une membrane, contrairement aux complexes protéines-pigments des végétaux supérieurs, (porteurs de caroténoïdes, et de chlorophylles), mais peuvent s'agréger pour former des complexes collecteurs de lumière, nommés phycobilisomes, qui adhèrent à la membrane thylakoïdale.


History.

The history of the municipality of Pacaraima is linked to the demarcation of the border with Venezuela by the Brazilian Army, originating around the landmark known as BV-8, gateway to Brazil from Venezuela. Also noteworthy is the deployment of a Special Border Squadron in the region.  However, colonization would intensify with the full arrival of Brazilians, mainly from the Northeast Region of Brazil, attracted by the dream of easy enrichment with the garimpo. Free cross-border mobility made it necessary to formalize the demarcation and protection of that frontier.  The pioneer Brazilians in the region are considered their pioneers, although they are accidental founders and almost unknown to the municipality. Once known as Vila Pacaraima, or simply BV-8, adopting the name of the landmark, the village was part of the then Federal Territory of Roraima, present state of Roraima.  Pacaraima was emancipated by State Law No. 96, dated October 17, 1995, and the municipality was formed by the dismemberment of Boa Vista, the state capital. Its installation took place on January 1, 1997, with the inauguration of the first mayor elected by direct vote, the agronomist engineer Hiperion de Oliveira and the nine councilors that compose the City Council, in an election held on October 3, 1996.  The municipal headquarters functions until today as a commercial warehouse, attracting several buyers of basic consumer goods from the neighboring municipality.

Urban infrastructure.

Access to the city of Pacaraima takes the highway BR-174, which is paved and with good state of conservation. The distance to Boa Vista is 220 kilometers (about 136 miles).  There is a regular bus service available to the municipality from Boa Vista. There are also services of autonomous drivers that make the route. Pacaraima is connected to the state power grid, with energy coming from Macágua, Venezuela.

Tourism.

The seat of the municipality of Pacaraima, on the border of Brazil and Venezuela, is embedded in a region of valleys surrounded by mountains. The mountainous region is one of the mildest in Roraima. The indigenous peoples themselves administer some tourism services provided to visitors. Some attractions:

Geography.

The municipality of Pacaraima, with a height of 920 m, is considered the highest municipality in the state of Roraima and throughout the Northern Region of Brazil.

Climate.

Pacaraima has a tropical monsoon climate ("Am", according to the Köppen climate classification), with average annual compensated temperature of. In most months of the year there is significant rainfall, there is only a short dry season and it is not very effective.  March, the hottest month, has an average temperature of. While July, the coldest month, presents of average temperature. The average annual rainfall is.

Pacaraima () is a municipality located in the northwest of the state of Roraima in Brazil. It is second most northern municipality in Brazil, behind Uiramutã.

Pacaraima est une ville brésilienne du nord de l'État du Roraima. Sa population était estimée à habitants en 2014. La municipalité s'étend sur km2. Elle se situe sur la frontière avec le Venezuela.


Early life.

Gee was born in Plymouth, Devon and studied Geography at St Catherine's College, Oxford. He did postgraduate study at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.

Career.

In the early 1990s Gee worked on U2's Zoo TV and Zoo Radio, and collaborated with Mark Neale on several projects (many through London production company Kudos Productions), including "The Memory Palace", an experimental multi-media project combining film and live performance for the Expo '92.  In 1996 he directed a twenty-seven-minute short film commissioned by progressive house band Spooky for parts of their album "Found Sound" (namely the tracks "Central Heating", "Bamboo", "Aphonia", "Lowest Common Denominator", "Hypo-Allergenic"/"Interim"). The film was displayed on a continuous loop outside the Centre Georges Pompidou as part of its re-opening.  Gee followed the band Radiohead whilst they were on tour for their highly acclaimed 1997 album "OK Computer". Gee's 1998 documentary of the tour, "Meeting People Is Easy", was nominated for a Grammy award for Best Long Form Music Video.  His short films including "Tel Aviv City Symphony" (commissioned by onedotzero), the documentary "JC-03" (about John Cale at work) and the dance film "Torsion" (choreographed by Russell Maliphant) have been shown internationally as part of touring packages by the British Council, onedotzero and Film and Video Umbrella. Gee has also made music videos for British bands including Radiohead and Blur.  In April 2006 the Creative Commons-licensed film project A Swarm of Angels announced that Gee has joined the project team as Director of Photography. In 2007, he made "Western Lands", a ten-minute film about climbing the Old Man of Hoy. In November 2010 Grant received funding from the UK Film Council to develop the project "New Career In A New Town: David Bowie In Berlin", a music documentary on David Bowie's Berlin period.  Gee's 2007 documentary, "Joy Division", told the story of the eponymous Manchester band and was made in collaboration with writer Jon Savage. On critical aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film scored 86% on the website Tomatometer. In "Variety", Robert Koehler wrote that the documentary was "emotionally deeper" than the biopic directed by Anton Corbijn, "Control".  In January 2011, Gee completed his film "Patience: After Sebald" based on Sebald's book "The Rings of Saturn", which was accepted by the Vancouver International Film Festival and the New York Film Festival. In "The Observer", Philip French called it a "modest, immensely enjoyable documentary".  In 2015, Gee's documentary film "Innocence of Memories", made in collaboration with Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk and based on his novel "The Museum of Innocence", was screened as a special event in the Venice Days section at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival.

Grant Robert Gee (born 24 October 1964) is a British film maker, photographer and cinematographer. He is most noted for his 1998 documentary "Meeting People Is Easy" about the British alternative rock group Radiohead.

Grant Gee, né en 1964, est un réalisateur anglais spécialisé dans le clip. Il a notamment réalisé: Il a par ailleurs réalisé le documentaire Meeting People Is Easy en 1998 qui retrace la tournée de Radiohead lors de la tournée de leur album OK Computer.