Early life and education.

István Tisza was the son of Kálmán Tisza de Borosjenő, prime minister of Hungary between 1875–1890 from the Liberal Party. The Tiszas were originally a Calvinist untitled lower nobility (regarded as equivalent to the British gentry). His mother, Ilona Degenfeld-Schomburg, was a Hungarian-German aristocrat from Baden-Württemberg (born: Helene Johanna Josepha Mathilde Gräfin von Degenfeld-Schonburg).  The young Stephen raised in a puritanical and authoritarian Calvinist environment with high expectations. Stephen has studied at home until the age of twelve, then he entered the Calvinist Gymnasium (a college-preparatory school) of Debrecen. Tisza took legal studies in Budapest, international law in Heidelberg University, economics in Humboldt University of Berlin, where he received PHD, and political science in Oxford University, where he received a doctorate in political science. Initially, he became acquainted with the practical issues of public administration at the Ministry of the Interior. Several studies on the agricultural issue were published in the Budapest Review. After serving 1 year as a volunteer hussar in the Royal Hungarian Honvéd army, he got the rank of hussar officer. He settled in Bihar County and took an active part in the political and economic life of the county as a committee member and honorary chief notary of Bihar county.

Political career.

Tisza as member of the parliament.

He then took care of the family land at Bihar County and Geszt for five years. He won his first parliamentary electoral mandate in 1886 with the Liberal Party in Vízakna (Now: Ocna Sibiului, Romania), a Transylvanian electoral district, and he represented the district until 1892. He won his second seat in 1892 as representative of Újbánya district (Now: Nová Baňa, Slovakia). In 1896 he won the seat of Ugra district (Now: Ungra, Romania) and he became also a member of the economic committee of Hungarian parliament, where he plunged himself into the macroeconomic discussions.  In the 1890s he served a number of sinecures which provided extraordinary income, a common situation among prestigious European politicians of the time. He was the president of the Hungarian Industrial and Commercial Bank (Magyar Ipar- és Kereskedelmi Bank) and was a member of the boards of numerous joint-stock companies and industrial enterprises. Despite the financial crisis of the 1890s, under his control many of these enterprises became the fastest emerging companies of the realm, some of them became unavoidable enterprises in their own sectors. His instructions and rule transformed the mediocre Hungarian Industrial and Commercial Bank into the largest Bank of Hungary within a decade.  His uncle, the childless Lajos Tisza received the title of Count from Emperor Franz Joseph in 1897. However, Lajos Tisza conferred his new title on his nephew Stephen with the consent of the Monarch on 16 February 1897.

Prime minister for first time, 1903–1905.

He was chairman and board member of several financial institutions (eg the Hungarian Industrial and Commercial Bank) and many industrial companies, but resigned from all of his memberships before he was appointed as Prime minister.

Target of Leftist and socialist circles.

In this period he managed to get the remains of Francis II Rákóczi repatriated from Turkey and interred in the cathedral of Kassa, today Košice. On April 19, 1904, nationwide strike of railroad workers broke out, which paralyzed the Hungarian economy. Tisza solved the crisis quickly but drastically: the organizers of the strike were arrested, and participant railway workers were recruited into the Hungarian Honvéd army. The Parliament approved the increase of conscriptees. The police crushed a Socialist gathering for peasants in Bihar, leaving 33 dead and several hundred wounded.

Target of anti-Semite circles.

Tisza often used his influence in parliament to grant titles to wealthy Jewish families, especially successful industrialists and bankers, and set them and their success as an example for the people. Many families of young middle class were Jews or baptized Jews. Tisza often gathered influential men of Jewish extraction to advise him. He even offered many positions in his cabinet to Jews. His first appointment was Samu Hazai as Minister of War. Two years later he picked János Teleszky as minister of finance. The third Jewish member of his cabinet was János Harkányi, minister of trade. Tisza appointed Samu Hazai as Minister of War during his second premiere. They all served for the duration of Tisza's seven years in office. The Liberal Party passed legislation for Jewish emancipation in 1867, and appointed many Jewish origin MEPs to the parliament (both the upper and lower houses). In return, many Jews supported the party. Many districts of Budapest, where Jews made up half of the voters, reliably voted for the Liberal candidate. Similarly to the policy of his father, István Tisza allowed the unrestricted immigration of Jewish refugees from the Russian Empire, who fled from the Tzarist pogroms. His philosemitic political attitude made him a target of anti-Semite politicians and political circles.

Target of radical nationalists.

During the era, only 54.5% (1910 census) of the population of kingdom of Hungary considered themselves as Hungarians. Tisza's party (The Liberal Party of Hungary) urgently needed the support of minorities to maintain the majority of the party in the Hungarian parliament. The liberal party was the most popular political force in the electoral districts where the ethnic minorities represented the local majority. However his main political opponents (The nationalist Party of Independence and '48 and Catholic People's Party) could collect mandates only from the Hungarian majority electoral districts.

"Election by handkerchief" and the victory of nationalist opposition.

He passed a modification to the rules of the House of Parliament on 18 November 1904 to crush the obstruction of the opposition. In earlier era, the members of the parliament had unrestricted time to give speech or talk in the parliament.  From the first his ministry was exposed to the most unscrupulous opposition, exacerbated by the new and stringent rules of procedure which Tisza felt it his duty to introduce if any business were to be done. The motion for their introduction was made by the deputy Gábor Daniel, supported by the premier, and after scenes of unheard-of obstruction and violence (16–18 November) the speaker, in the midst of an ear-splitting tumult, declared that the new regulations had been adopted by the house, and produced a royal message suspending the session. But the Andrássy group, immediately afterwards, separated from the Liberal Party, and the rest of the year the Opposition made the legislation impossible. By January 1905 the situation had become ex lex or anarchical. Tisza stoutly stood by his rules, on the ground that this was a case in which the form must be sacrificed to the substance of parliamentary government.  Dezső Perczel, the President of the House, called for immediate voting on the modification. It is not clear what exactly happened, but some sources say that the Speaker of the House of Parliament waved a handkerchief, signalling for the governing party to vote "yes"; this act later became known as the "election by handkerchief", which became a large scandal and, as a consequence, Kálmán Széll and Gyula Andrássy left the Liberal Party and the opposition unified into the "Federal Opposition". The political powers polarised and in new elections the 30 years of governing by the Liberal Party was ended, with the side effect that the party was dissolved.  After the defeat of his Liberal Party by the nationalist coalition in the 1905 elections, Tisza only took part in the operations of the Upper House of Parliament (similar to House of Lords in Britain), staying away from political struggles. However, his political opponent the governing Independence and '48 Party was unable to withhold positions to protect the interests of Hungary so it resigned on 25 April 1909.

National Party of Work, electoral victory in 1910.

On 19 February 1910, Tisza established the National Party of Work (Nemzeti Munkapárt) which subsequently won the election of 1910. He did not desire to form a government, primarily due to his conflict with Franz Ferdinand who sought to centralise the Habsburg Monarchy with universal suffrage. Tisza opposed this initiative, as he believed that this would lead to the weakening of the Magyar supremacy over ethnic minorities in Hungary. In addition, he claimed "demagogues (i.e. Communists and agrarian socialist movements) would manipulate peasants with the majority of the votes to put in power such groups whose aims are against democracy, supported by the urban intellectuals". Tisza was supported by Franz Josef, but he feared a repeat of the faults of his first prime ministry and thus called for Károly Khuen-Héderváry to form the new government. Despite Tisza was not prime minister again until 1913, as the founder of the National Party of Work, his power and influence on the ruling majority party was completely absolute. In this way Tisza could remain the keyfigure of Hungarian politics and legislation behind the curtains, even without having premiership.

Act of Protection.

As Speaker of the House of Representatives from 22 May 1912 to 12 June 1913 Tisza supported the reform of the common Austro-Hungarian army to enhance the military power of the dual monarchy. The Hungarian side was fighting for more Hungarian interests (i.e. use of the Magyar language in the army). Tisza and his party refused the idea of universal suffrage. According to his threatening prediction, the majority votes of peasants - manipulated by primitive demagogues - would result in the domination of groups whose goals are just contrary to the ideals of metropolitan intellectuals and socialists who call for democracy. The Socialists strongly opposed his acts and decided to organize a protest march. Socialist agents organised a worker rebellion on 22 May 1912 (Blood-Red Thursday), calling for Tisza to resign as President of the House and calling for universal suffrage. On the next day, the protesters and workers marched toward the Parliament building, meanwhile the events transformed to violence, protesters broke the shop windows in the surrounding streets, automobiles and tramcard were damaged by the masses. However the protesters were stopped by the storm of hussar cavalry units, and they were arrested by the police. Six people died in the clashes, nearly two hundred were injured and three hundred were arrested. This event became known as "Blood-Red Thursday" in the contemporary press and later in the history books.  Tisza tried to solve the question of ethnic minorities based on a clerical approach (like the representation of Orthodox and Greek Catholic Church in The Upper House of the parliament).  He was convinced that the challenging foreign situation called for military preparation and he strongly pushed against opposition obstruction. He did not allow the opposition to speak up regarding rules of House of Parliament. Referring to an act of 1848, he called for the police force to force out numerous opposition representatives. He managed to pass the Act of Protection, resulting in the removal of some members of the opposition party.  As a result, Gyula Kovács, an opposition party representative, tried to assassinate Tisza in the Parliament Building on 7 June 1912. His shots missed and the marks are still visible in the Hungarian Parliament Building to this day. With his last shot Kovács shot himself, but he survived. Tisza then continued the session.

Prime minister for second time, 1913–1917.

Tisza became prime minister again on 7 June 1913.

Freedom of the press.

Inspired by the Western European model, Tisza's cabinet introduced for the first time in the history of Hungarian journalism the legal category of defamation, libel and "scare-mongering", thus the press became actionable before the courts. Journalists and newspapers had to pay compensations for the victims of defamation and libel. Despite these institutions and laws worked well in Western Europe and in the United States, the contemporary Hungarian newspapers and journalists considered it as the violation of the Freedom of Speech and the Freedom of Press.

Croatia.

Count István Tisza tried to solve the Hungarian-Croatian issue, which had long lasted at that time, to clarify the relationship; for this matter, he met Count Tivadar Pejácsevich, Count of Verovce, Croatian Ban, and a year later, Baron Lomnica, Ivan Skerlecz, the new Croatian Ban.  Tisza maintained his conciliatory position, promising to reestablish the Croatian Constitution, which was suspended in May 1912. Tisza appointed his old family friend, the Šokci origin aristocrat, Baron Ivan Skerlecz as the new ban of Croatia. Negotiations between the Croatian representatives and Tisza bore fruit and allowed the restitution of the Croatian constitutional government in November 1913.

Foreign policy and the Great War.

A few days before the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, which resulted in World War I, Tisza supported a strong stand against Serbia. However, after the assassination he was against going to war against Serbia, a rare view in Austria-Hungary. He knew the army's strength, and he was afraid that with the increase of more Slavic territories the equilibrium inside the monarchy would be upset. Moreover, he was afraid that Romania would attack Transylvania. The loss of the alliance with the German Empire would have meant the end of Austria-Hungary as a Great Power, so he gave in and supported the war. He then became a relentless supporter of the war until its end.  Tisza believed Romania to be an enemy from the beginning. He was afraid that if Romania attacked Hungary then the Romanians in Transylvania would revolt against Hungary. In the end, 40,000 soldiers were moved to protect Transylvania.  During the war, the reformists became more and more powerful, but he continued to oppose them. At the time, Tisza was seen as forcing the continuation of the war and was losing a great deal of support. He opposed the ideas of the new Emperor, Karl I, and was asked to resign; he did so on 23 May 1917. However, he retained great political influence, and was able to delay the enactment of universal suffrage.  During this period of international insecurity, he wanted to solidify the government. During this period, he appointed Baron Stephan Burián von Rajecz who planned to increase the prestige of the monarchy and to get parity with Germany but also to negotiate peace with the help of the Americans. He would fail in the latter, after Germany announced in 1916 that it intended to start full submarine warfare, leading the US to prepare for war.  By late October 1918, the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, and the surrender of Germany, were imminent and there was nothing that foreign minister Burián (who was still in that role) could do to change the course of history.  Towards the end of the war, Tisza had wanted to convince the Serbs and Bosnians to achieve autonomy within Austria-Hungary. As a "homo regius" ("king's man"), he went to Sarajevo to attempt this, but without success.

His judgement from abroad during and after the war.

It is clear that after the outbreak of World War I, all opposing sides pointed to the other side as the party guilty of initiating the greater war. The British newspaper "New Europe" printed a comment that Hungary was the only responsible party for the war, ""where Hungary′s responsibility is greater than Austria′s"" and that Tisza was the militaristic politician who dragged all sides into war. As a consequence the "Little Entente" took this view and pushed to punish Hungary at the end of the war. Later, the propaganda of these nations augmented and even invented Tisza's guilt, claiming that he took pains to point out in a report of 8 July that "there should at any rate be no question of the annihilation or annexation of Serbia, and that if Serbia gave way, Austria-Hungary must be content." According to recent findings these accusations are without merit.  The accusations are rooted in the common belief that Tisza carried out a policy of forced Magyarization towards the ethnic minorities in Hungary. His minority policy was (directly or indirectly) often confused with the policy of his radical nationalist political opponents in the 1906 -1910 period (like the Party of Independence and '48).

His view on the war.

Tisza opposed the expansion of the empire on the Balkan (see Bosnian crisis in 1908), because "the Dual Monarchy already had too many Slavs", which would further threaten the integrity of the Dual Monarchy.  In March 1914, Tisza wrote a memorandum to Emperor Francis Joseph. His letter had strongly apocalyptic predictive and embittered tone. He used exactly the hitherto unknown "Weltkrieg" (means World War) phrase in his letter. "It is my firm conviction that Germany's two neighbors [Russia and France] are carefully proceeding with military preparations, but will not start the war so long as they have not attained a grouping of the Balkan states against us that confronts the monarchy with an attack from three sides and pins down the majority of our forces on our eastern and southern front."  On the day of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Tisza immediately traveled to Vienna where he met Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Berchtold and Army Commander Conrad von Hötzendorf. They proposed to solve the dispute with arms, attacking Serbia. Tisza proposed to give the government of Serbia time to take a stand as to whether it was involved in the organisation of the murder and proposed a peaceful resolution, arguing that the international situation would settle soon. Returning to Budapest, he wrote to Franz Joseph saying he would not take any responsibility for the armed conflict because there was no proof that Serbia had plotted the assassination. Tisza opposed a war with Serbia, stating (correctly, as it turned out) that any war with the Serbs was bound to trigger a war with Russia and hence a general European war. He thought that even a successful Austro-Hungarian war would be disastrous for the integrity of Kingdom of Hungary, where Hungary would be the next victim of Austrian politics. After a successful war against Serbia, Tisza adumbrated a possible Austrian military attack against Kingdom of Hungary, where the Austrians want to break up the territory of Hungary. He did not trust in the Italian alliance, due to the political aftermath of the Second Italian War of Independence. He felt the threat of Romania and Bulgaria after the Balkan wars and was afraid of Romanian attack from the east. He was also not sure about the stand of the Germans. Germany's stand was of ultimate importance due to the security of the state. During a conversation between Franz Joseph and Conrad von Hötzendorf, Conrad asked, "If Germany's reply is that they are on our side, do we engage in war with Serbia?" The emperor replied, "Then yes", "But what if they reply differently?", "Then the Monarchy will be alone".  Kaiser Wilhelm II supported the war, promised to neutralize a Romanian attack, and put pressure on Sofia. After this, Tisza still sought a peaceful solution, but most of all he wanted to wait for the result of the official examination into the assassination. The only proposal of Tisza, which was accepted, was that the Monarchy should not annihilate Serbia completely in order to avoid Russian support for Serbia. The council finally addressed an ultimatum to the Serbian government and immediately started the mobilisation of troops.  After sending the ultimatum, his view changed. The ultimatum was obsolete within 48 hours, so Tisza wrote: "it was a difficult decision to take a stand to propose war, but now I am firmly convinced of its necessity" He was, however, still opposed to the annexation of Serbia to the Monarchy, but failed. On 4 August 1914 Russia, Germany, Britain and France also entered the war, enlarging it to a world war.  Tisza did not resign from the Prime Ministry, as he thought remaining in this position was the best way he could represent Hungarian interests inside Austria-Hungary, as he had connections in Vienna. Moreover, his resignation would have sent a message of weakness to the Entente at the outbreak of war.  His initial opposition to the conflict, only became public after the end of World War 1, on 17 October 1918, when he spoke in the Parliament. He said, "the Monarchy and the Hungarian nation were longing for peace all the way until there were proofs that the enemy was systematically trying to humiliate and destroy us as soon as possible (...) As we have found proofs that the Serbian government took part in organising the assassination, we could not but address an ultimatum to Serbia... where we stipulated that the war is preventive."

The struggle of a WW1 political leader in the trenches.

The 57 years old Tisza joined to the 2nd Hussar Regiment of Hungary - which served on the Italian front - as a hussar colonel, and personally led his hussar units during the attacks.  Tisza at the front: "Tisza already felt the not too friendly atmosphere surrounding him at the first days of his joining up to the regiment and at first he tried to ease the general mood by informal behavior. (...) He has made an effort from the beginning to use an informal tone both with the staff of officers and -of course within the limits of the service regulations- with the rank and file. To better get to know each other with his fellow officers, every day he invited some young officers to his table, this way he tried to establish better personal relations with his environment. The troops had slowly started to recognize him as "tough to the upwards and humane to the downwards" kind of a commander. He distributed his tobacco provisions among the officers and he used his commander pay to improve the catering of the troops, and these of course left a good impression on everybody. Tisza's paternalistic attitude towards his subordinates also manifested itself in civil law cases: he helped with his personal influence in getting done of those petitions what he considered fair, he interceded with notaries, judges, alispáns (deputy-lieutenants) for advancing the home affairs of his men, due to this both the officers and the troops more and more came to like and embrace him. Tisza himself also felt that the front service had been quite useful and productive since on the one hand he could personally experience the dangers of the battleground an on the other hand-at least he was thinking that way and there is a lot of truth in it-he could truly become familiar with the real nature of the simple, peasant origin soldiers. He wrote about peasant soldiers in this way in a letter to Archduke Joseph: "I’ve got to truly know the ordinary [peasants] people now. This is the most extraordinary race of the world that can only be loved and respected. How unfortunate that the political intelligentia doesn’t do anything else, just corrupts this great and God-blessed people."

Assassination attempts.

For many, he was the representative of the war policy in the Monarchy, so he was an assassination target. The fourth assassination attempt against him was successful.  The first attempt was made in the Hungarian parliament in 1912 by Gyula Kovács, an opposition politician. He shot two bullets, but missed Tisza. Kovács was arrested by the police, but he was acquitted by the court, the justification was "temporary insanity".  The second was made by a soldier when Tisza was returning from the front line during the war. The bullet missed him.  The third attempt came on 16 October 1918 when János Lékai, a member of the society Galilei-circle and an anti-military group led by Ottó Korvin, tried to kill Tisza while he was leaving the Hungarian Parliament, but the revolver malfunctioned and Tisza managed to flee. The assassin was sent to prison but was released after 15 days during the Chrysanthemum Revolution.  The fourth and successful attempt came on 31 October 1918, when soldiers broke into his home, the Róheim Villa in Budapest, Hermina út 35., (today the Villa is at nr. 45.) in front of his wife and his grandniece. Some sources suggest these were disgruntled deserters who blamed Tisza for having started the war.  Subsequently, Mihály Károlyi's government initiated an investigation but the identity of the killers was not confirmed at that time, however, family members had identified individuals that they said were the killers. In the trial that followed the fall of the Communist regime and ended on 6 October 1921, Judge István Gadó established the guilt of Pál Kéri, who was exchanged with the Soviet Union; József Pogány, aka "John Pepper", who fled to Vienna, then Moscow and the USA; István Dobó; Tivadar Horváth Sanovics, who also fled; Sándor Hüttner, who died in a prison hospital in 1923; and Tibor Sztanykovszky, who was the only one to serve his 18-year sentence, being released in 1938.  Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist – who knew the two politicians personally, wrote about the assassination of István Tisza and the appointment of Mihály Károlyi as new prime minister of Hungary:

Further reading about his political views.

The detailed political views of Tisza about socialism atheism and class struggle, about parliamentarism and suffrage, about freedom of the press, about the question of nationality, about the land question, and about the Dual Monarchy and the world war: (by prof. Zoltán Maruzsa, Political scientist, ELTE University): http://tiszaistvan.hu/index.php/english

Personal life.

He married his first degree cousin, Ilona Tisza de Borosjenő. They had two children together.  His son, István died of Spanish flu on 5 November 1918, five days after the death of the father.  Tisza was a "champion duellist" who "had fought more duels than any man in Europe and had never once been seriously wounded". Having been taught by "the best masters in Germany, France and Italy", he was equally adept with sword or pistol, despite (by 1913) having had a cataract operation on one of his eyes and wearing "think horn-rimmed spectacles". In January 1913, he fought Mihály Károlyi in a 34-bout duel with cavalry sabres which lasted an hour until Tisza cut Károlyi's arm and the seconds ended the duel. A week later he fought Aladár Széchenyi, again with sabres - the duel lasted one bout, ending with Tisza wounding Széchenyi with "a long cut across the head". On about 20 August 1913, Tisza fought György Pallavacini (son-in-law and supporter of Opposition leader Gyula Andrássy) at a Budapest fencing school in a duel with "heavy cavalry sabres" and "only slight protection of the body was allowed". After nine bouts, both duellists were bleeding from cuts to their foreheads, and the seconds declared both principals unable to continue - "[t]he two men shook hands, then embraced, kissing each other on both cheeks, and declared themselves reconciled."

Honors.

István Tisza postage stamp was issued by Hungary on 1 July 1932 in the Famous Hungarians series.

Works and Publications.

Historical Studies.

- About Barras' memoirs
 - From Sadowa to Sedan
 - Wertheimer's Andrássy
 - European cruise in the 17th century
 - A few more words about Benedict's tragedy
 - Historical materialism in the Balkans

Electoral Studies.

-Preface to the volume about the political franchise
 -The Austrian election
 -The Austrian House of Representatives
 -The result of the German election
 -Hieronymi on the political franchise
 -Electoral Reform and Industrial Workers
 -On the verge of electoral reform
 -General suffrage and the dynasty

Economics.

-Theory of tax evasion (1882)
 -Hungarian agricultural policy (1883) -The Agricultural Question (1887)
 -American competition on the European wheat market (1888)
 -Sorting of our currency (1890)
 -About the Budget of 1890 (1890)
 -The Budget of 1891 (1890)
 -The Budget of 1892 (1892)
 -Currency Exchange & Gold Pricing (1893)
 -Gábor Baross and his system (1894)
 -A few more words about Baross's railway policy (1894)
 -Our export on the Austrian railways and the customs union
 -About the inflation
 -20,000 crowns

Other studies and dissertations.

-Public status of Rijeka (1883)
 -Once again on the public law status of Rijeka (1883)
 -The Fight for Parliamentarism: Speeches by Count István Tisza (1904)
 -Gyula Andrássy on art
 -Agnosticism
 -About Károly Hieronymi
 -Austrian work on the 67th anniversary of the Compromise
 -Pietreich on Protective Law
 -Compulsory insurance and local government
 -Crisis of the British House of Lords
 -One word or two about parliamentarianism
 -Nation and society
 -Gyula Wlassics in the 1867: XII. t.-c. legal nature
 -A few words in response to Ödön Polner
 -A little browsing in the field of English parliamentarism
 -A little controversy
 -Notice to the article by Mihály Réz
 -Approach of Austrian Germans
 -Nationalization and local government
 -The impact of war on the nation<br

Count István Imre Lajos Pál Tisza de Borosjenő et Szeged (archaically English: Stephen Emery Louis Paul Tisza, or in short simple form Stephen Tisza; 22 April 1861 – 31 October 1918) was a Hungarian politician, prime minister, political scientist, international lawyer, macroeconomist, member of Hungarian Academy of Sciences and champion duelist. The prominent event in his life was Austria-Hungary's entry into the First World War when he was prime minister for the second time. He was later assassinated during the Aster Revolution on 31 October 1918 - the same day that Hungary terminated its real union with Austria. Tisza supported the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary and was representative of the then "liberal-conservative consent".

Le comte István Tisza de Borosjenő et Szeged (en hongrois : ""), né le à Pest et mort le à Budapest, exerce les fonctions de Premier ministre de Hongrie de 1903 à 1905 et de 1913 à 1917. Membre de la noblesse hongroise et principal chef du Parti libéral, puis du Parti du travail, le parti qui lui succède à partir de 1910, il exerce une forte influence, non seulement sur la vie politique du royaume de Budapest, mais aussi sur la vie politique austro-hongroise à partir de 1903 et jusqu'à son assassinat le dernier jour du mois d', survenu alors que les liens séculaires entre la Hongrie et les Habsbourg se brisent définitivement.


Importance.

The Church of Saint Mercurius served as the Seat of the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria between 1300 and 1500 AD and is perhaps the only one in Cairo with its original foundation intact. It stands 31.5 meters long by 21 meters wide.  Many Coptic patriarchs resided in the church during the 11th through the 15th centuries, and later during the 16 and 18th centuries, others were consecrated in the Church of St. Mercurius. The church also came to be the final resting place for many church leaders.

Church building.

The Church of Saint Mercurius itself was demolished and turned into a sugarcane warehouse, but was rebuilt by Patriarch Abraham (974-979). Afterwards, in 1080, 47 bishops met in the church by order of the Fatimid vizier Badr Al-Gamal to establish the Coptic canons. A mob burned it to the ground in 1168, but by 1176, it had been rebuilt.  Flanking the doorway are two Corinthian columns, while situated above it are two icons, one of Jesus Christ and the other the Holy Virgin. The central sanctuary screen consists of ebony inlaid with crosses and squares of thin plated ivory. The choir holds sixty-three icons made by Orhan Karabedian, while the nave contains a beautiful "ambon" consisting of mosaiacs which rest on fifteen columns. The south sanctuary, which had been dedicated to Saint Gabriel, was converted into a baptistry, while the north sanctuary, decorated with ivory and wood, is consecrated to the Holy Virgin. A stairway off the north aisle leads to an underground shrine. Saint Barsum the Naked stayed here for twenty years, dying in 1317. A service is held in the shrine on his feast day.  Like many other old Coptic Orthodox churches that were rebuilt and restored time and again over the centuries,often re-using wood and stone-work. For this reason some parts of a church maybe of earlier date than the structure itself. Although they differ in size and architecture features they bear the unmistakable stamp of a Coptic church.

Saint Mercurius Church () in Coptic Cairo is a Coptic Orthodox church situated just to the north of the Babylon Fortress in Old Cairo among a group of important churches, and within the area known as the Abu Sayfayn Cloister is to be found three churches and a convent. One of these churches, dedicated to Saint Mercurius, and is the largest in the district of ancient Babylon.

Le monastère Saint-Mercure (en copte : ⲙⲁⲣⲕⲟⲩⲣⲓⲟⲥ ⲧⲁⲧⲣⲁⲡⲩⲗⲱⲛ ⲙ̀ⲫⲓⲟⲙ, en arabe : Dayr Abû Sayfayn) est un important monastère féminin copte orthodoxe situé dans le vieux Caire en Égypte.


History.

Much of the early collection of the Chicago Historical Society was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, but like the city, the museum rose from the ashes. Among its many documents which were lost in the fire was Abraham Lincoln's final draft of the Emancipation Proclamation. After the fire, the Society began collecting new materials, which were stored in a building owned by J. Young Scammon, a prominent lawyer and member of the society. However, the building and new collection were again destroyed by fire in 1874. The Chicago Historical Society built a fireproof building on the site of its pre-1871 building at 632 North Dearborn Street. The replacement building opened in 1896 and housed the Society for thirty-six years. The building was later added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Old Chicago Historical Society Building. Charles F. Gunther, a prominent Chicago collector, donated some items to the Society. In 1920, the Society purchased the remainder of the large history collection from his estate, with the intention of changing its focus from only a research institution into a public museum. Many of the items in Gunther's collection, in addition to Chicago, were related to Abraham Lincoln and the American Civil War. These include Lincoln's deathbed, several other pieces of furniture from the room where he died in the Petersen House, and clothing that he and his wife Mary Todd Lincoln allegedly wore the evening of his assassination. The collection also contains the table on which General Robert E. Lee signed his 1865 surrender to General Ulysses S. Grant, an official act that ended the American Civil War, at the McLean House in Appomattox, Virginia.  In 2010, the museum was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame.

Building.

After 36 years in the Henry Ives Cobb structure on North Dearborn Street, the museum and library moved to the current structure in Lincoln Park. The current home of the museum was designed by Graham, Anderson, Probst & White and constructed in 1932 by the WPA, with the aim of creating an expanded public museum. The 1932 Federal-style structure has been expanded twice. The first addition, clad in limestone, opened in 1972 and was designed by Alfred Shaw and Associates. The second addition, designed by Holabird and Root, was made in 1988 and included refacing the earlier expansion in red brick to give a unified look to all three portions of the building. Both expansions occurred on the west side of the 1932 structure, leaving intact its original porticoed entrance facing Lincoln Park. The main entrance and reception hall, however, was moved to the new western addition facing Clark street. The 1988 extension, in addition to expanded exhibition galleries, also contains the museum's store and public cafe.

Activities.

The museum explores both Chicago and American history. Exhibitions draw primarily on the museum's own collection, which numbers approximately 22 million holdings. "Chicago: Crossroads of America" is a 16,000-square-foot space that explores the city's development and its relationship to and influence on American history. Nearly 600 objects document the people and events of the past 200 years. "Facing Freedom" focuses on eight American conflicts over freedom from the 1850s to the 1970s. The Abraham Lincoln alcoves highlight the sixteenth president's election, his leadership during the Civil War, and his assassination. The adjoining Portrait Gallery features an installation on Chicago during the time of Lincoln. The "Sensing Chicago" exhibition invites children to use their senses to discover the past. The Lobby displays museum treasures, including a 1978 Chevrolet Monte Carlo lowrider. The newly restored dioramas are housed in the Tawani Foundation Diorama Hall. The Chicago dioramas feature Chicago's rise from a desolate frontier outpost to the bustling city that hosted the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. The Chicago Room, which overlooks the plaza in Lincoln Park behind the museum building, displays a collection of stained glass.  Temporary exhibitions feature objects and artifacts from the collection, covering everything from Chicago art to the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender Chicagoans to the city's fashion history. On October 14, 2013, the Chicago History Museum announced a project asking the public to furnish ideas for a future exhibition and reducing the most-often-submitted ideas to one assignment through a series of public votes. According to the American Alliance of Museums, this is the first crowdsourcing project allowing the public to give an exhibition assignment to an American museum.  On January 19, 2006, the first passenger car to operate on the Chicago 'L' system in 1893 was transported to its new display location at the Chicago History Museum. Passengers could ride the 1893 'L' from the Loop to Hyde Park station for 5 cents to attend the World's Columbian Exposition upon the line's opening. The vehicle, known as L Car #1, was cosmetically restored to its 1893 appearance before being transported to the museum where it was lifted into an opening created through a wall on the museum's second floor. The car's interior features include mahogany and rattan seats and etched glass windows. The L car joins the "Pioneer", the first locomotive to operate in Chicago; a redesigned exhibition space to showcase the car and locomotive opened on September 30, 2006, as part of a larger remodeling project.  The Museum houses Chicago's most important collection of materials related to local history. The extensive research library includes books and other published materials, manuscripts, paintings, sculptures, and photos. It is open to the public, including students working on school projects. The costume collection numbers more than 50,000 pieces and dates from the 18th century to the present. It contains numerous couture pieces, items created by well-known Chicago manufacturers and designers, and garments worn by notable residents.  The Museum offers a variety of programs, publications, and online resources related to Chicago and American history. This includes print and online editions of its collaborative effort the "Encyclopedia of Chicago". The Museum's Chicago Fire mobile app has content equivalent to a 400-page book with more than 350 illustrations, drawn from the museum's collection. The app also offers of 10 distinct Chicago areas and 54 fire-related landmarks. The app uses GPS guidance that helps the user view photos of nearby sites from the era of the Great Chicago Fire. The Museum also publishes "Chicago History" magazine. Written by historians and heavily illustrated, this publication focuses on Chicago's complex past and the people who have shaped it. Additionally, more than 50,000 images from its collection have been digitized as part of Explore Chicago Collections.  Every year, the Chicago History Museum recognizes important Chicagoans and Chicago organizations with its Making History Awards.

Chicago History Museum (formerly known as the Chicago Historical Society (CHS)) was founded in 1856 to study and interpret Chicago's history. It is located in Lincoln Park at 1601 North Clark Street at the intersection of North Avenue in the Old Town Triangle neighborhood. The CHS adopted the name, Chicago History Museum, in September 2006 for its public presence.

Le musée d'histoire de Chicago (en anglais : "Chicago History Museum" ; anciennement la Chicago Historical Society), est un musée fondé en 1856 à Chicago dans le quartier de Lincoln Park au coin de Clark Street et de North Avenue près du zoo de Lincoln Park. Il rassemble des costumes, des peintures, des sculptures et des photographies sur l'histoire de la ville et du pays. En plus de ses expositions, le musée abrite une bibliothèque, ouverte au public.


Background.

With their previous albums "Kid A" (2000) and "Amnesiac" (2001), recorded simultaneously, Radiohead replaced their guitar-led rock sound with a more electronic style. For the tours, the band learned how to perform the music live, combining synthetic sounds with rock instrumentation. Songwriter Thom Yorke said: "Even with electronics, there is an element of spontaneous performance in using them. It was the tension between what's human and what's coming from the machines. That was stuff we were getting into." Radiohead did not want to make a "big creative leap or statement" with their next album.  In early 2002, after the "Amnesiac" tour had finished, Yorke sent his bandmates CDs containing demos of songs he was considering for Radiohead's sixth album. The three CDs, "The Gloaming", "Episcoval" and "Hold Your Prize", comprised electronic music alongside piano and guitar sketches. Radiohead had tried to record some of the songs, such as "I Will", for "Kid A" and "Amnesiac", but were not satisfied with the results. They spent May and June 2002 arranging and rehearsing the songs before performing them on their tour of Spain and Portugal in July and August.

Recording.

In September 2002, Radiohead moved to the Ocean Way Recording studios in Hollywood, Los Angeles, with producer Nigel Godrich and artist Stanley Donwood. The location was suggested by Godrich, who had used the studio to produce records by Travis and Beck and thought it would be a "good change of scenery" for Radiohead. Yorke said: "We were like, 'Do we want to fly halfway around the world to do this?' But it was terrific, because we worked really hard. We did a track a day. It was sort of like holiday camp."  Radiohead had created "Kid A" and "Amnesiac" through a years-long process of recording and editing that drummer Philip Selway described as "manufacturing music in the studio". For their next album, the band sought to capture a more immediate, "live" sound. Yorke told MTV: "The last two studio records were a real headache. We had spent so much time looking at computers and grids, we were like, that's enough, we can't do that any more. This time, we used computers, but they had to actually be in the room with all the gear. So everything was about performance, like staging a play."  Most electronic elements were not overdubbed but recorded live in the studio. Multi-instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood used the music programming language Max to sample and manipulate the band's playing; for example, he used it to process his guitar on "Go To Sleep", creating a random stuttering effect. He continued to use modular synthesisers and the ondes Martenot, an early electronic instrument similar to a theremin"." After having used effects pedals heavily on previous albums, he challenged himself to create interesting parts without effects.  Radiohead tried to work quickly and spontaneously, avoiding procrastination and overanalysis. Yorke was forced to write lyrics differently, as he did not have time to rewrite them in the studio. For some songs, he returned to the method of cutting up words and arranging them randomly he had employed for "Kid A" and "Amnesiac". Greenwood said: "We didn't really have time to be stressed about what we did. We got to the end of the second week before we even heard what we did on the first two days, and didn't even remember recording it or who was playing things. Which is a magical way of doing things." The approach protected against the tension of previous sessions; guitarist Ed O'Brien told "Rolling Stone" that "Hail to the Thief" was the first Radiohead album "where, at the end of making it, we haven't wanted to kill each other".  Inspired by the Beatles, Radiohead tried to keep the songs concise. The opening track, "2 + 2 = 5", was recorded as a studio test, and was finished in two hours. Radiohead struggled to record "There There"; after rerecording it in their Oxfordshire studio, Yorke was so relieved to have captured the song he wept, feeling it was the band's best work. Radiohead had recorded an electronic version of "I Will" in the "Kid A" and "Amnesiac" sessions, but abandoned it as "dodgy Kraftwerk"; components of this recording were used to create "Like Spinning Plates" on "Amnesiac". For "Hail to the Thief", the band sought to "get to the core of what's good about the song" and not be distracted by production details or new sounds, settling on a stripped-back arrangement.  Radiohead recorded most of "Hail to the Thief "in two weeks, with additional recording and mixing at Radiohead's studio in Oxfordshire, England in late 2002 and early 2003. In contrast to the relaxed Los Angeles sessions, which Godrich described as "very fruitful", mixing and sequencing the album created conflict. Yorke said: "We finished it and nobody could let go of it. 'Cause there was a long sustained period during which we lived with it but it wasn't completely finished, so you get attached to versions and we had big rows about it." Godrich estimated that rough mixes from the Los Angeles sessions were used for a third of the final album.

Lyrics and themes.

The "Hail to the Thief" lyrics were influenced by what Yorke called "the general sense of ignorance and intolerance and panic and stupidity" following the 2000 election of US President George W. Bush. He took words and phrases from discussion of the unfolding War on Terror and used them in the album's lyrics and artwork. He denied any intent to make a "political statement" with the songs, and told the "Toronto Star:" "I desperately tried not to write anything political, anything expressing the deep, profound terror I'm living with day to day. But it's just fucking there, and eventually you have to give it up and let it happen."  At the time the father of an infant son, Yorke adopted a strategy of "distilling" the political themes into "childlike simplicity". He took phrases from fairy tales and folklore, such as the tale of Chicken Little, and children's literature and television he shared with his son, including the 1970s TV series "Bagpuss", whose creator Oliver Postgate is thanked in the liner notes. Parenthood made Yorke concerned about the condition of the world and how it could affect future generations. Jonny Greenwood felt Yorke's lyrics expressed "confusion and escape, like 'I'm going to stay at home and look after the people I care about, buy a month's supply of food'."  Yorke also took phrases from Dante's "Inferno", the subject of his partner Rachel Owen's PhD thesis. Several songs, such as "2 + 2 = 5", "Sit Down Stand Up", and "Sail to the Moon", reference Christian versions of good and evil and heaven and hell, a first for Radiohead's music. Other songs reference science fiction, horror and fantasy, such as the wolves and vampires of "A Wolf at the Door" and "We Suck Young Blood", the reference to the "2 + 2 = 5" slogan in the dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", and the allusion to the giant of "Gulliver's Travels" in "Go to Sleep".

Title and subtitles.

The liner notes give the album's full title as "Hail to the Thief (Or, The Gloaming)." Each track also has an alternative title, an idea Radiohead took from Victorian playbills showcasing moralistic songs played in music halls. Radiohead struggled to name the album; they considered titling it "The Gloaming" (), but this was rejected for being too "poetic" and "doomy" and so became the album's subtitle. Other titles considered included "Little Man Being Erased", "The Boney King of Nowhere" and "Snakes and Ladders", which became the alternative titles for the songs "Go To Sleep", "There There" and "Sit Down. Stand Up" respectively.  The phrase "hail to the thief" was used by anti-George W. Bush protesters during the controversy surrounding the 2000 US presidential election as a play on "Hail to the Chief", the American presidential anthem. Yorke described hearing the phrase for the first time as a "formative moment". Radiohead chose the title partly to "state the bleeding obvious... that the most powerful country on earth is run by somebody who stole an election", but also in response to "the rise of doublethink and general intolerance and madness, and feeling very much like individuals were totally out of control of the situation that somehow it was a manifestation of something not really human". The title also references the leak of the album before its completion. Yorke worried it might be misconstrued to refer solely to the US election controversy, but his bandmates felt it "conjured up all the nonsense and absurdity and jubilation of the times".

Music.

"Hail to the Thief" has been described as featuring alternative rock, art rock, experimental rock, and electronic rock. The album features less digital manipulation and more conventional rock instrumentation than Radiohead's previous two albums, "Kid A" and "Amnesiac", making prominent use of live drums, guitar and piano. Yorke's voice, heavily manipulated on "Kid A" and "Amnesiac", returned to the front of the music undisguised. Several tracks use the "Pixies-like" quiet-to-loud building of tension Radiohead had employed on previous albums.  Though Yorke described "Hail to the Thief" as "very acoustic", he denied that it was a "guitar record". The album retains electronic elements such as synthesisers, drum machines and sampling, and Yorke and Jonny Greenwood are credited with playing "laptop" on the album. "Spin" critic Will Hermes found that "Hail to the Thief" "seesaws between the chill of sequencers and the warmth of fingers on strings and keys". Despite its dark themes, Radiohead saw "Hail to the Thief" as a "sparkly, shiny pop record. Clear and pretty." O'Brien felt the album captured a new "swaggering" sound, with "space and sunshine and energy".  The opening track, "2 + 2 = 5" is a rock song that builds to a loud climax. "Sit Down. Stand Up", an electronic song, was influenced by the jazz musician Charles Mingus. "Sail to the Moon" is a lullaby-like piano ballad with shifting time signatures. The lyrics allude to the Biblical story of Noah's Ark, and was written "in five minutes" for Yorke's infant son Noah. "Backdrifts" is an electronic song about "the slide backwards that's happening everywhere you look".  "Go to Sleep" begins with an acoustic guitar riff described by Colin Greenwood as "1960s English sort of folk". "Where I End and You Begin" is a rock song with "walls" of ondes Martenot and rhythm section influenced by New Order. According to Yorke, "We Suck Young Blood" is a "slave ship tune" with a free jazz break, and is "not to be taken seriously". With ill-timed, "zombie-like" handclaps, the song satirises Hollywood culture and its "constant desire to stay young and fleece people, suck their energy". "The Gloaming (Softly Open our Mouths in the Cold)" is an electronic song with "mechanical rhythms" that Jonny Greenwood built from tape loops. Greenwood described it as "very old school electronica: no computers, just analogue synths, tape machines, and sellotape." Yorke felt the song was "the most explicit protest song on the record... I feel really strongly that it's about the rise of fascism, and the rise of intolerance and bigotry and fear, and all the things that keep a population down." "There There" is a guitar-led rock song with layered percussion building to a loud climax. It was influenced by krautrock band Can, Siouxsie and the Banshees and the Pixies.  Yorke described "I Will" as "the angriest song I've ever written", with lyrics inspired by news footage of a bomb shelter containing children and families being destroyed in the first Gulf War. "A Punchup at a Wedding" is a funk-influenced song that expresses the helplessness Yorke felt in the face of world events. For "Myxomatosis", a song built on a driving fuzz bassline, Radiohead sought to recreate the "frightening" detuned synthesiser sounds of 1970s and 80s new wave bands such as Tubeway Army.  Jonny Greenwood described "Scatterbrain" as "very simple and sort of quite pretty, but there's something about the music for me, the chords for me, where it never quite resolves". The "NME" described the final track, "A Wolf at the Door" as "a pretty song, with a sinister monologue over the top of it"; Greenwood likened its lyrics to a Grimms' fairy tale. Yorke described its placement at the end of the album as "sort of like waking you up at the end... it's all been a nightmare and you need to go and get a glass of water now."

Artwork.

"Hail to the Thief's" artwork was created by longtime Radiohead collaborator Stanley Donwood. Donwood initially planned to create artwork based on photographs of phallic topiary, but the idea was rejected by Yorke. Instead, the cover art is a roadmap of Hollywood, with words and phrases taken from roadside advertising in Los Angeles, such as "God", "TV" and "oil". Donwood noted that advertising was designed to be attractive, but that there was "something unsettling" about being sold something; he took the advertising slogans out of context to "remove the imperative" and "get to the pure heart of advertising".  Other words in the artwork were taken from Yorke's lyrics and political discussion surrounding the war on terror. Among them is the phrase "burn the witch", the title of a song Radiohead worked on during the "Hail to the Thief" sessions but did not complete until their ninth album, "A Moon Shaped Pool" (2016).  Comparing the cover to the more subdued palettes of his prior Radiohead artworks, Donwood described the bright, "pleasing" colours as "ominous because all these colours that I've used are derived from the petrol-chemical industry... We've created this incredibly vibrant society, but we're going to have to deal with the consequences sooner or later."  Essayist Amy Britton interpreted the artwork as an allusion to the Bush administration's "road map for peace" plan for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Joseph Tate, likening the art to the paintings of French artist Jean Dubuffet, found it depicted a "homogenized and heavily regimented" portrayal of "capitalism's glaring visual presence: an oppressive sameness of style and color that mirrors globalization's reduction of difference." Other artworks included with the album refer to cities relevant to the war on terror, including New York, London, Grozny, and Baghdad. Early editions contained a fold-out road map of the cover.

Promotion.

According to critic Alexis Petridis, "Hail to the Thief's" marketing campaign was "by [Radiohead] standards... a promotional blitzkrieg". In April 2003, promotional posters spoofing talent recruitment posters appeared in Los Angeles and London with slogans taken from the lyrics of "We Suck Young Blood". The posters included a phone number spelling the phoneword "to thief", which connected callers to a recording welcoming them to the ""Hail to the Thief" customer care hotline". In May, planes trailing "Hail to the Thief" banners flew over the California Coachella Festival.  Yorke asked "Bagpuss" creator Oliver Postgate to create a music video for lead single "There There", but Postgate, who was retired, declined. Instead, a stop-motion animated video was created by Chris Hopewell. The video debuted on the Times Square Jumbotron in New York on 20 May 2003, and received hourly play that day on MTV2. In June, Radiohead relaunched their website, featuring digital animations on the themes of mass-media culture and 24-hour cities. In the same month, Radiohead launched radiohead.tv, where short films, music videos and live webcasts from the studio were streamed at scheduled times. Visitors late for streams were shown a test card with "1970s-style" intermission music. Yorke said Radiohead had planned to broadcast the material on their own television channel, but this was cancelled due to "money, cutbacks, too weird, might scare the children, staff layoffs, shareholders". The material was released on the 2004 DVD "The Most Gigantic Lying Mouth of All Time".

Internet leak.

On 30 March 2003, ten weeks before release, an unfinished version of "Hail to the Thief" was leaked online. The leak comprised rough edits and unmixed songs from January that year. Jonny Greenwood wrote on Radiohead's forum: "We're kind of pissed off about it, to be honest... Work we've not finished, being released in this sloppy way, ten weeks before the real version is even available... It's not [downloaders] I'm pissed off about, it's just the situation I guess. It's stolen work, fer fuck's sake." Colin Greenwood said the leak was "like being photographed with one sock on when you get out of bed in the morning", but expressed dismay at the cease-and-desist orders sent by label EMI to radio stations and fan sites playing the leaked tracks, saying: "Don't record companies usually pay thousands of dollars to get stations to play their records? Now they're paying money to stations not to play them."  EMI decided against moving the release date earlier to combat the leak. Vice president of new media Ted Mico said EMI was confident "Hail to the Thief" would sell and that the leak had brought them additional press. The leak partly influenced Radiohead's decision to self-release their next album, "In Rainbows" (2007), via a pay-what-you-want model, terming it "their leak date".

Release.

"Hail to the Thief" was released on 9 June 2003 by Parlophone Records in the United Kingdom and a day later by Capitol Records in the United States. The CD was printed with copy protection in some regions; the Belgian consumer group Test-Achats received complaints that the album could not be played on some CD players. A compilation of "Hail to the Thief" B-sides, remixes and live performances, "Com Lag (2plus2isfive)", was released in April 2004.  "Hail to the Thief" reached number one in the United Kingdom and stayed on the chart for fourteen weeks. In the United States, it entered at number three in the "Billboard" 200, selling 300,000 copies in its first week, more than any previous Radiohead album. By 2008 it had sold over a million copies in the US. It is certified platinum in the UK, Canada and the US, and gold in Australia and France.

Critical reception.

"Hail to the Thief" has a score of 85 out of 100 on review aggregate site Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". Neil McCormick, writing for "The Daily Telegraph", called it "Radiohead firing on all cylinders, a major work by major artists at the height of their powers". Chris Ott of "Pitchfork" wrote that Radiohead had "largely succeeded in their efforts to shape pop music into as boundless and possible a medium as it should be," assigning it a "Best New Music" designation. "New York" critic Ethan Brown said that "Hail to the Thief" "isn't a protest album, and that's why it works so well. As with great Radiohead records past, such as "Kid A", the music – restlessly, freakishly inventive – pushes politics far into the background." Andy Kellman of AllMusic wrote that "despite the fact that it seems more like a bunch of songs on a disc rather than a singular body, its impact is substantial", concluding that the band "have entered a second decade of record-making with a surplus of momentum". In "Mojo", Peter Paphides wrote that "Hail to the Thief" "coheres as well as anything else in their canon".  James Oldham of "NME" saw "Hail to the Thief" as "a good rather than great record... the impact of the best moments is dulled by the inclusion of some indifferent electronic compositions." "Q" writer John Harris felt that some of the material "comes dangerously close to being all experimentalism and precious little substance". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" wrote that while "you could never describe "Hail to the Thief" as a bad record", it was "neither startlingly different and fresh nor packed with the sort of anthemic songs that once made [Radiohead] the world's biggest band". He felt the political lyrics and bleak mood put Radiohead in danger of self-parody. Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" wrote that while its melodies and guitar work are "never as elegiac and lyrical" or "articulate and demented" as those of "OK Computer", he felt it "flows better" and later awarded it an "honourable mention".  "Hail to the Thief" was the fifth consecutive Radiohead album nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album, and earned Godrich and engineer Darrell Thorp the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Engineered Non-Classical Album. In 2010, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Hail to the Thief" the 89th best album of the 2000s, writing that "the dazzling overabundance of ideas makes "Hail to the Thief" a triumph".

Legacy.

Radiohead have criticised "Hail to the Thief". In 2006, Yorke told "Spin": "I'd maybe change the playlist. I think we had a meltdown when we put it together... We wanted to do things quickly, and I think the songs suffered." In 2008, he posted an alternative, shorter track list on Radiohead's website. In a 2008 "Mojo" interview, O'Brien said Radiohead should have cut the album to ten tracks and that its length had alienated some listeners, and Colin Greenwood said several songs were unfinished and that the album was "a holding process". In 2013, Godrich told the "NME": "I think there's some great moments on there — but too many songs... As a whole I think it's charming because of the lack of editing. But personally it's probably my least favourite of all the albums... It didn't really have its own direction. It was almost like a homogeny of previous work. Maybe that's its strength."

Reissues.

After a period of being out of print on vinyl, EMI reissued a double LP of "Hail to the Thief" on 19 August 2008 along with "Kid A", "Amnesiac" and "OK Computer" as part of the "From the Capitol Vaults" series.  On 31 August 2009, EMI reissued "Hail to the Thief" in a 2-CD "Collector's Edition" and a 2-CD 1-DVD "Special Collector's Edition". The first CD contains the original studio album; the second CD collects B-sides and live performances previously compiled on the "COM LAG (2plus2isfive)" EP (2004); the DVD contains music videos and a live television performance. Radiohead, who left EMI in 2007, had no input into the reissue and the music was not remastered. "Pitchfork" named the "Collector's Edition" "best new reissue" and "Gagging Order" the best B-side included in the bonus material. "The A.V. Club" wrote that the bonus content was all "worth hearing, though the live tracks stand out".  The "Collector's Editions" were discontinued after Radiohead's back catalogue was transferred to XL Recordings in 2016. In May 2016, XL reissued Radiohead's back catalogue on vinyl, including Hail to the Thief.

Personnel.

Adapted from the "Hail to the Thief" liner notes.  Radiohead Additional personnel

Hail to the Thief is the sixth album by English rock band Radiohead. It was released on 9 June 2003 through Parlophone internationally and a day later through Capitol Records in the United States. It was the last album released under Radiohead's record contract with EMI, parent company of Parlophone and Capitol.

Hail to the Thief est le sixième album studio du groupe anglais de rock Radiohead, sorti en 2003. Ce disque a été produit et mixé par le producteur Nigel Godrich.


History.

The institute was established in 1924 by Mary Louise Curtis Bok, who named it in honor of her father, Cyrus Curtis, a notable American publisher. After consulting with musician friends including Josef Hofmann and Leopold Stokowski on how best to help musically gifted young people, Bok purchased three mansions on Philadelphia's Rittenhouse Square and had them joined and renovated. She established a faculty of prominent performing artists and eventually left the institute with an endowment of US$12 million ($ in current dollar terms) in 1927.

Admission.

The institute formerly served as a training ground for orchestral musicians to fill the ranks of the Philadelphia Orchestra, although composers, organists, pianists, guitarists, and singers are offered courses of study as well.  All pupils attend on full scholarship and admission is extremely competitive. With the exception of composers, conductors, pianists, organists, and guitarists, admission is granted only to the number of students to fill a single orchestra and opera company. Accordingly, enrollment is in the range of 150 to 175 students. According to statistics compiled by "U.S. News & World Report", the institute has the lowest acceptance rate of any college or university (4 percent), making it among the most selective institutions of higher education in the United States.

Administration.

Past directors.

Past directors of the institute have included:

Current administration.

Roberto Díaz is president and director of the Institute. Díaz is also a Curtis alumnus and faculty member. He was principal violist of the Philadelphia Orchestra from 1996 to 2006 and is a member of the Diaz Trio. Paul Bryan started his tenure as interim dean in January 2013.

The Curtis Institute of Music is a private conservatory in Philadelphia that offers courses of study leading to a performance diploma, Bachelor of Music, Master of Music in Opera, or Professional Studies Certificate in Opera. It is among the most selective institutes of higher education in the world with an admissions rate between 4 and 5 percent.

Linstitut Curtis de musique "(Curtis Institute of Music)" est situé à Philadelphie, aux États-Unis. Il a été créé par Mary Louise Curtis en 1924, sous la direction artistique de Leopold Stokowski (Philadelphia Orchestra) et du pianiste Josef Hofmann. L'un des premiers professeurs fut le hautboïste Marcel Tabuteau. L'organiste italien Fernando Germani y a dirigé le département d'orgue dans les années 1930. Cette école de réputation internationale recrute des jeunes musiciens de grand talent et les forme afin qu'ils atteignent un niveau professionnel.


History.

The suburb of Foxrock was developed by William and John Bentley and Edward and Anthony Fox, who, in 1859, leased the lands of the Foxrock Estate from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners and Richard Whately, the Church of Ireland Archbishop of Dublin, with the aim of creating an affluent garden suburb.  The development was facilitated by the existence of the Harcourt Street railway line, built in 1854, that put Dublin City within commuting distance. The developers donated a site to the Dublin Wicklow and Wexford Railway Company for Foxrock railway station, which opened in 1861. In 1862, the following advertisement was placed in "The Irish Times":  Beautiful building sites for mansions and pretty villas – Foxrock estate. The improvements recently made on this property, and still progressing, together with its natural attractions render these sites unrivalled for suburban residences. The scenery (green and mountain) from Brighton Road just finished, leading from the hotel at Foxrock station to Carrickmines, is magnificent. The land, being undulating, affords perfectly sheltered positions on Torquay Road, to the railway station at Stillorgan and Foxrock, as well as others elevated and more bracing. The rents required are exceedingly moderate: leases for 900 years are granted. Bricks, stones, lime and sand from the estate are sold at reduced prices to tenants. Stage coaches and omnibuses ply regularly between Foxrock station and Kingstown. Fare 3 pence and 4 pence. There is cheap and excellent shopping at Foxrock market. The railway subscription only £7 per annum. Apply to W.W. Bentley, Foxrock, or Bentley and Son, 110 College Green.  The racecourse, Leopardstown Racecourse, was completed in 1888, and is the only remaining horse-track in the greater metropolitan area. The golf club opened in 1898.

Geography.

The three main roads of the original development of Foxrock remain Brighton, Torquay and Westminster Roads. The boundaries of Foxrock as used by "An Post" extend east to take in the lands to the west of Clonkeen Road, Deansgrange Cemetery as far as Newtownpark Avenue. The N11 road runs through the area, as does a small stream.  Foxrock borders the suburbs of Carrickmines, Cornelscourt, Deansgrange and Leopardstown.

Education.

Foxrock has a number of primary schools, and one secondary school for girls only, Loreto Convent, Foxrock. Hollypark Boys and Girls primary schools also service the area.

Transport.

Harcourt Street Line.

The Harcourt Street line from central Dublin's Harcourt Street to Bray served Foxrock. A temporary platform opened in 1859 followed by the permanent station on 1 August 1861, finally closing on 1 January 1959.

Luas.

The Luas Green Line light rail system deviates from the old railway line, bypassing Foxrock. The nearest Luas stop to Foxrock (not counting the unused stop at Leopardstown Racecourse) is Carrickmines, which is where the Green Line rejoins the old railway route.

Bus.

Dublin Bus high frequency services 46A and the 145 links Foxrock Church with the City Centre.  The Aircoach Greystones service to Dublin Airport stops at Foxrock’s Roman Catholic church en route to the airport.

Foxrock () is a suburb of Dublin, Ireland. It is within the county of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, in the postal district of Dublin 18 and in the Roman Catholic parish of Foxrock.

Foxrock (en irlandais "Carraig an tSionnaigh") est une ville du sud de l'agglomération de Dublin situé dans le Comté de Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown et dans la province de Leinster. Il s’agit d’un ancien village rattaché à la ville lors de l’expansion de l’agglomération. Ce village a longtemps été le seul village d’Irlande sans pub.


Background.

Sbarbaro was born in New Orleans to an immigrant Sicilian family. Early in his career he played with the Frayle Brothers Band (possibly as early as 1911) and the Reliance Band of Papa Jack Laine. He did side work with Merritt Brunies and Carl Randall. He joined the Original Dixieland Jazz Band for their initial recordings in 1917; he became its leader in the 1940s and remained a member of the ensemble until its dissolution in the 1960s. Indeed, he was the only founding member still in the group at that time. Sbarbaro also composed for the group, writing the tune "Mourning Blues" among others. He remained a fixture of Dixieland jazz performance for most of his life, playing later in life in New Orleans with Miff Mole, Big Chief Moore, Pee Wee Erwin, and Eddie Condon. He played at the New York World's Fair in 1941 and with Connee Boswell in the 1950s. He quit music in the 1960s due to the popularity of rock & roll, and died in 1969.

Drumming techniques.

Sbarbaro's drum set had a number of nonstandard qualities. He employed wood blocks, cowbells, and Chinese tom-toms, and used a custom arrangement for his bass and snare drum. He used the technique known as "double-drumming", hitting the bass drum with the butt end of the drum stick. Sbarbaro even put stuffed animals inside drums to change their sound. He also had a kazoo attached to his set, providing some of the band's sound effects.

Antonio Sparbaro, known professionally as Tony Sbarbaro or Tony Spargo (June 27, 1897 – October 30, 1969) was an American jazz drummer associated with New Orleans jazz. He was the drummer of the Original Dixieland Jazz Band for over 50 years.

Antonio Sbarbaro, dit Tony Sbarbaro ou Tony Spargo, est un batteur et joueur de kazoo de jazz américain, né le à La Nouvelle-Orléans et mort le à Forest Hill (New York).


History.

In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U.S. government war property to fund international exchange between the U.S. and other countries. With the crucial timing of the aftermath of the Second World War and with the pressing establishment of the United Nations, the Fulbright Program was an attempt to promote peace and understanding through educational exchange. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and in return for funding an international educational program. It was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be.  On August 1, 1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, and Congress created the Fulbright Program in what became the largest education exchange program in history.  Since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis; each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U.S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were China in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, and Greece in 1948.

Program.

The Fulbright Program works two ways: U.S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country (U.S. Student Program, U.S. Scholar Program, Teacher Exchange Program, etc.) and non-U.S. citizens may go to the U.S. (Foreign Student Program, Visiting Scholar Program, Teacher Exchange Program, etc.).  Candidates recommended for Fulbright grants have high academic achievement, a compelling project proposal or statement of purpose, demonstrated leadership potential, and flexibility and adaptability to interact successfully with the host community abroad.  Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees' fields of study span the fine arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences, and professional and applied sciences.

Administration.

The program is coordinated by the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs (ECA) of the U.S. Department of State under policy guidelines established by the Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board (FSB), with the help of 50 bi-national Fulbright commissions, U.S. embassies, and cooperating organizations in the U.S.  The United States Department of State is responsible for managing, coordinating and overseeing the Fulbright program. Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs is the bureau in the Department of State that has primary responsibility for the administration of the program.  The Fulbright Foreign Scholarship Board is a twelve-member board of educational and public leaders appointed by the President of the United States that determines general policy and direction for the Fulbright Program and approves all candidates nominated for Fulbright Scholarships.  Bi-national Fulbright commissions and foundations, most of which are funded jointly by the U.S. and partner governments, develop priorities for the program, including the numbers and categories of grants. More specifically, they plan and implement educational exchanges, recruit and nominate candidates for fellowships; designate qualified local educational institutions to host Fulbrighters; fundraise; engage alumni; support incoming U.S. Fulbrighters; and, in many countries, operate an information service for the public on educational opportunities in the United States.  In a country active in the program without a Fulbright commission, the Public Affairs Section of the U.S. Embassy administers the Fulbright Program, including recruiting and nominating candidates for grants to the U.S., overseeing U.S. Fulbrighters on their grant in the country, and engaging alumni.  Established in 1919 in the aftermath of World War I, the Institute of International Education was created to catalyze educational exchange. In 1946, the U.S. Department of State invited IIE to administer the graduate student component and CIES to administer the faculty component of the Fulbright Program—IIE's largest program to date.  The Council for International Exchange of Scholars is a division of IIE that administers the Fulbright Scholar Program.  AMIDEAST administers Fulbright Foreign Student grants for grantees from the Middle East and North Africa (except Israel).  LASPAU: Affiliated with Harvard University LASPAU brings together a valuable network of individuals, institutions, leaders and organizations devoted to building knowledge-based societies across the Americas. Among other functions, LASPAU administers the Junior Faculty Development Program, a part of the Fulbright Foreign Student Program, for grantees from Central and South America and the Caribbean.  World Learning administers the Fulbright Specialist Program.  American Councils for International Education (ACTR/ACCELS) administers the Junior Faculty Development Program (JFDP), a special academic exchange for grantees from the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Southeast Europe.  The Academy for Educational Development administers the Fulbright Classroom Teacher Exchange Program and the Distinguished Fulbright Awards in Teaching Program.

Related organizations.

The Fulbright Association is an organization independent of the Fulbright Program and not associated with the U.S. Department of State. The Fulbright Association was established on Feb. 27, 1977, as a private nonprofit, membership organization with over 9,000 members. The late Arthur Power Dudden was its founding president. He wanted alumni to educate members of the U.S. Congress and the public about the benefits of advancing increased mutual understanding between the people of the United States and those of other countries. In addition to the Fulbright Association in the U.S., independent Fulbright Alumni associations exist in over 75 countries around the world.  The Fulbright Academy is an organization independent of the Fulbright Program and not associated with the U.S. Department of State. A non-partisan, non-profit organization with members worldwide, the Fulbright Academy focuses on the professional advancement and collaboration needs among the 100,000+ Fulbright alumni in science, technology and related fields. The Fulbright Academy works with individual and institutional members, Fulbright alumni associations and other organizations interested in leveraging the unique knowledge and skills of Fulbright alumni.

Notable alumni.

Fulbright alumni have occupied key roles in government, academia, and industry. Of the 325,000+ alumni:  The following list is a selected group of notable Fulbright grant recipients:

J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding.

The J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, established in 1993, is awarded by the Fulbright Association to recognize individuals or organisations which have made extraordinary contributions toward bringing peoples, cultures, or nations to greater understanding of others.  The recipients are listed below.

Bilateral Commissions.

The Fulbright Program has Commissions in 49 of the over 160 countries with which it has bilateral partnerships. These foundations are funded jointly by the U.S. and partner governments. The role of the Fulbright Commissions is to plan and implement educational exchanges; recruit and nominate candidates, both domestic and foreign, for fellowships; designate qualified local educational institutions to host Fulbrighters; and support incoming U.S. Fulbrighters while engaging with alumni. Below is a list of current commissions.

The Fulbright Program, including the Fulbright–Hays Program, is one of several United States Cultural Exchange Programs whose goal is to improve intercultural relations, cultural diplomacy, and intercultural competence between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. Via the program, competitively-selected American citizens including students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists may receive scholarships or grants to study, conduct research, teach, or exercise their talents abroad; and citizens of other countries may qualify to do the same in the United States of America. The program was founded by United States Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946 and is considered to be one of the most widely recognized and prestigious scholarships in the world. The program provides approximately 8,000 grants annually – roughly 1,600 to U.S. students, 1,200 to U.S. scholars, 4,000 to foreign students, 900 to foreign visiting scholars, and several hundred to teachers and professionals.

Le programme Fulbright est un système de bourses d'étude (les bourses Fulbright) très sélectif et basé sur le mérite, subventionné conjointement par le département d'État des États-Unis et par les gouvernements des pays désireux d'y participer.


Phosphorus in the environment.

Ecological function.

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does enter the atmosphere in very small amounts when the dust is dissolved in rainwater and seaspray but remains mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams. Over-enrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae blooms which, when they die and decay leads to eutrophication of freshwaters only. An example of this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area. These freshwater algal blooms should not be confused with those in saltwater environments. Recent research suggests that the predominant pollutant responsible for algal blooms in saltwater estuaries and coastal marine habitats is nitrogen.  Phosphorus occurs most abundantly in nature as part of the orthophosphate ion (PO), consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms. On land most phosphorus is found in rocks and minerals. Phosphorus-rich deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time, geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land. Weathering of rocks and minerals release phosphorus in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed by herbivores and the phosphorus is either incorporated into their tissues or excreted. After death, the animal or plant decays, and phosphorus is returned to the soil where a large part of the phosphorus is transformed into insoluble compounds. Runoff may carry a small part of the phosphorus back to the ocean. Generally with time (thousands of years) soils become deficient in phosphorus leading to ecosystem retrogression.

Biological function.

The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone and the enamel of mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological membranes). It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.

Phosphorus cycling.

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.  The global phosphorus cycle includes four major processes: (i) tectonic uplift and exposure of phosphorus-bearing rocks such as apatite to surface weathering; (ii) physical erosion, and chemical and biological weathering of phosphorus-bearing rocks to provide dissolved and particulate phosphorus to soils, lakes and rivers; (iii) riverine and subsurface transportation of phosphorus to various lakes and run-off to the ocean; (iv) sedimentation of particulate phosphorus (e.g., phosphorus associated with organic matter and oxide/carbonate minerals) and eventually burial in marine sediments (this process can also occur in lakes and rivers).  In terrestrial systems, bioavailable P (‘reactive P’) mainly comes from weathering of phosphorus-containing rocks. The most abundant primary phosphorus-mineral in the crust is apatite, which can be dissolved by natural acids generated by soil microbes and fungi, or by other chemical weathering reactions and physical erosion. The dissolved phosphorus is bioavailable to terrestrial organisms and plants and is returned to the soil after their death. Phosphorus retention by soil minerals (e.g., adsorption onto iron and aluminum oxyhydroxides in acidic soils and precipitation onto calcite in neutral-to-calcareous soils) is usually viewed as the most important factor in controlling terrestrial P-bioavailability. This process can lead to the low level of dissolved phosphorus concentrations in soil solution. Various physiological strategies are used by plants and microorganisms for obtaining phosphorus from this low level of phosphorus concentration.  Soil phosphorus is usually transported to rivers and lakes and can then either be buried in lake sediments or transported to the ocean via river runoff. Atmospheric phosphorus deposition is another important marine phosphorus source to the ocean. In surface seawater, dissolved inorganic phosphorus, mainly orthophosphate (PO), is assimilated by phytoplankton and transformed into organic phosphorus compounds. Phytoplankton cell lysis releases cellular dissolved inorganic and organic phosphorus to the surrounding environment. Some of the organic phosphorus compounds can be hydrolyzed by enzymes synthesized by bacteria and phytoplankton and subsequently assimilated. The vast majority of phosphorus is remineralized within the water column, and approximately 1% of associated phosphorus carried to the deep sea by the falling particles is removed from the ocean reservoir by burial in sediments. A series of diagenetic processes act to enrich sediment pore water phosphorus concentrations, resulting in an appreciable benthic return flux of phosphorus to overlying bottom waters. These processes include (i) microbial respiration of organic matter in sediments, (ii) microbial reduction and dissolution of iron and manganese (oxyhydr)oxides with subsequent release of associated phosphorus, which connects the phosphorus cycle to the iron cycle, and (iii) abiotic reduction of iron (oxyhydr)oxides by hydrogen sulfide and liberation of iron-associated phosphorus. Additionally, (i) phosphate associated with calcium carbonate and (ii) transformation of iron oxide-bound phosphorus to vivianite play critical roles in phosphorus burial in marine sediments. These processes are similar to phosphorus cycling in lakes and rivers.  Although orthophosphate (PO), the dominant inorganic P species in nature, is oxidation state (P5+), certain microorganisms can use phosphonate and phosphite (P3+ oxidation state) as a P source by oxidizing it to orthophosphate. Recently, rapid production and release of reduced phosphorus compounds has provided new clues about the role of reduced P as a missing link in oceanic phosphorus.

Phosphatic minerals.

The availability of phosphorus in an ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatite dissolution is a key control on ecosystem productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite [Ca(PO)OH] undergoes carbonation.  Little of this released phosphorus is taken up by biota (organic form), whereas a larger proportion reacts with other soil minerals. This leads to precipitation into unavailable forms in the later stage of weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in the upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in geochemical reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of phosphorus released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in supply for plant growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.  Low-molecular-weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the activities of various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants. Several of those organic acids are capable of forming stable organo-metal complexes with various metal ions found in soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of inorganic phosphorus associated with aluminum, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The production and release of oxalic acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in maintaining and supplying phosphorus to plants.  The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on the rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such as phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of the abiotic pathways in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions. Enzymatic hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus cycle, including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic phosphorus from soil to bodies of water. Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for their phosphorus nutrition.

Phosphorus and Eutrophication.

Eutrophication is an enrichment of water by nutrient that lead to structural changes to the aquatic ecosystem such as algae bloom, deoxygenation, reduction of fish species. The primary source that contributes to the eutrophication is considered as nitrogen and phosphorus. When these two elements exceed the capacity of the water body, eutrophication occurs. Phosphorus that enters lakes will accumulate in the sediments and the biosphere, it also can be recycled from the sediments and the water system. Drainage water from agricultural land also carries phosphorus and nitrogen. Since a large amount of phosphorus is in the soil contents, so the overuse of fertilizers and over-enrichment with nutrients will lead to increasing the amount of phosphorus concentration in agricultural runoff. When eroded soil enters the lake, both phosphorus and the nitrogen in the soil contribute to eutrophication, and erosion caused by deforestation which also results from uncontrolled planning and urbanization.

Wetland.

Wetlands are frequently applied to solve the issue of eutrophication. Nitrate is transformed in wetlands to free nitrogen and discharged to the air. Phosphorus is adsorbed by wetland soils which are taken up by the plants. Therefore, wetlands could help to reduce the concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus to remit and solve the eutrophication. However, wetland soils can only hold a limited amount of phosphorus. To remove phosphorus continually, it is necessary to add more new soils within the wetland from remnant plant stems, leaves, root debris, and undecomposable parts of dead algae, bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates.

Human influences.

Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. Humans have greatly influenced the phosphorus cycle by mining phosphorus, converting it to fertilizer, and by shipping fertilizer and products around the globe. Transporting phosphorus in food from farms to cities has made a major change in the global Phosphorus cycle. However, excessive amounts of nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Waters are enriched in phosphorus from farms' run-off, and from effluent that is inadequately treated before it is discharged to waters.The input of P in agricultural runoff can accelerate the eutrophication of P-sensitive surface waters. Natural eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients; this results in excessive growth in the algal population; when this algae dies its putrefaction depletes the water of oxygen. Such eutrophication may also give rise to toxic algal bloom. Both these effects cause animal and plant death rates to increase as the plants take in poisonous water while the animals drink the poisoned water. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-phosphorus soils may be major contributing factors to this fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil Phosphorus release to surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of phosphorus input, soil type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.  Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects on soil phosphorus status. Also, application of biosolids may increase available phosphorus in soil. In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodic waterlogging, reducing conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase in phosphorus concentration in solution and phosphorus can be leached. In addition, reduction of the soil causes a shift in phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase the potential for phosphorus loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound management of such areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It is suggested that the water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken into account in the preparation of waste management regulations.  Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems by inducing anoxic conditions.

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs in only specialized, local conditions. Therefore, the phosphorus cycle should be viewed from whole Earth system and then specifically focused on the cycle in terrestrial and aquatic systems.

Le cycle du phosphore est un cycle biogéochimique mettant en jeu le phosphore. Le phosphore est un constituant indispensable de la matière organique, même si son importance pondérale est relativement faible par rapport à l'azote ou au potassium. Son rôle est lié au stockage et transfert d'énergie (ATP), et à la formation de nombreux composés structurels (acides nucléiques, nucléotides, phospholipides, coenzymes,...).


Football career.

Achiou started his playing career with ES Ben Aknoun before joining the junior ranks of USM Alger. He would eventually sign his first professional contract with the club. Achiou was an important member of the team's African Champions League run in 2003 and 2004. USM Alger made the final eight (group stage) in both those years and even made it to the semi-final in 2003 when they lost 3–2 on aggregate to eventual champions Enyimba FC.  He had numerous opportunities to join European clubs but the player could not agree on financial terms with the clubs. He had trials with Premiership-sides Fulham FC and Portsmouth FC and French clubs CS Sedan and FC Lorient. Hocine finally signed a one-year deal with Swiss club FC Aarau in the summer of 2006. He scored a goal in his first league game against FC St. Gallen. In the summer of 2007, he left FC Aarau after just one season and immediately joined his former team USM Alger. In January 2009, he joined JS Kabylie. َAfter six successful months, he returned to his former team USM Alger. In the summer of 2011, he left USM Alger definitively to join ASO Chlef. In January 2013, he joined MC Oran. In the summer of 2013, he joined USM Bel-Abbès and he led him to return to the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1. In January 2016, he joined RC Arbaâ. In January 2017, he joined WA Boufarik.

International career.

Achiou was part of the Algerian team that finished second in their group in the first round of the 2004 African Nations Cup behind Cameroon before being defeated by Morocco in the quarter-finals. Achiou had scored an important goal against Egypt in one of the group stage matches that was instrumental in helping Algeria reach the quarterfinals. Achiou also scored a goal against Zimbabwe which would be the difference in the tie-breaker against Egypt, and ultimately qualify Algeria to the quarter-finals. Achiou has 25 caps for the Algerian national team and has scored 3 goals.

Hocine Achiou (; born April 27, 1979) is a former Algerian footballer and current manager of the Algeria national under-20 football team.

Hocine Achiou est un footballeur international algérien né le à Alger. Il évoluait au poste de milieu offensif. Il compte 26 sélections en équipe nationale entre 2003 et 2009.