Gameplay.

Each player is dealt a hand of cards that represent story elements: objects, people, events, and "aspects" often involved in fairy tales (for instance, there are cards for "crown", "key", "stepmother", "a death", "time passes", "sleeping", et cetera). These "Storytelling" cards represent ingredients of a fairy tale, i.e. words or phrases that are likely to appear in fairy tales. From a different deck of cards, each player is also dealt a single "Happy Ever After" ending card, to be kept secret from other players until it is used. The object of the game for each player is to use their cards in telling a story, finishing the story by using their Happy Ever After card.  One player at a time is the storyteller. (The 2nd edition rules suggest the starting storyteller could be the "player with the longest beard", or any other method upon which the players agree.) Whenever a story ingredient is mentioned, if any player has a Storytelling card for that ingredient, he or she can play it and become (or continue being) the storyteller. A player may be required to draw extra Storytelling cards (for example, when they are the storyteller and are interrupted by another player who becomes the new storyteller, or if he or she hesitates for too long while telling the story). If the storyteller ends the story with the ending on their Happy Ever After card, and is out of cards, he or she wins. Players are expected to cooperate (to some extent) in order to avoid contradictions in the story as it develops, for the story to make sense, and (according to the rulebook) that any ending to the story is "satisfying".

Expansions.

Expansions contain 55 additional cards. 2nd Edition expansions include:  3rd Edition expansions include:  The 3rd edition also has a "Writer's Handbook" available, in trade paperback format.

Awards and critical reception.

Zy Nicholson reviewed the second edition of "Once Upon a Time" for "Arcane" magazine, rating it a 7 out of 10 overall. Nicholson comments that "Although I'm well aware that the first edition (now sold out) did receive some rave reviews, I'm going to award this a respectable but cautious score."  Spike Y. Jones reviewed "Once Upon a Time" for "Pyramid" #6 (March/April, 1994) and stated that "The rules are simple enough that children and grandparents can all play at the same time, and the game is so engrossing that even people who look down on your roleplaying activities would be willing to join you in a bit of this sort of storytelling. Whether you're buying "Once Upon A Time" for yourself, or to give to a gaming friend or non-gaming relative, this is one card game which won't sit on a shelf gathering dust." Commenting on the second edition for "Pyramid" #18, reviewer Derek Pearcy said the game "is a brilliant example of what we should be getting in this new game market" and "not only is this game easy to learn, not only is it fast, fun, and an Idea Whose Time Has Come, but... girls think it rocks" commenting upon "the occasional insulting lip-service [many game companies have paid] to their female readership."  In 1999 "Pyramid" magazine named "Once Upon a Time" as one of "The Millennium's Best Card Games" and also as one of "The Millennium's Most Underrated Games". Editor Scott Haring stated "the game's just as good for kids as it is for adults."  In his 2007 essay on the game in Hobby Games: The 100 Best, British author and game designer Marc Gascoigne stated that "Once Upon a Time" is "one of the best ways [he had] ever found to grab a non-gamer by their imagination and fling them into our world".  Other awards include:

Once Upon a Time is a card game produced by Atlas Games, originally released in 1994 with a second edition published in 1995 and the current third edition in 2012. One object of "Once Upon a Time" is to tell a fairy tale as a group. While the story is developed by the whole group, the competitive aspect of the game is that each player has an individual goal of using all of the "Storytelling" cards he or she has in hand, and finishing the story with their own special "Happy Ever After" card. Only one player at a time is the current storyteller, giving him or her a chance to play their Storytelling cards, while the other players have a chance to "interrupt" the story and become the storyteller if, for example, the storyteller mentions something on one of the interrupting player's cards.

Il était une fois... est un jeu de société de Richard Lambert, Andrew Rilstone et James Wallis, à l'origine édité par Halloween Concept sous licence Atlas Games, puis par Darwin Project. Il existe trois éditions du jeu, les deux premières sont rigoureusement identiques en termes de fonctionnement et de contenu, seules la boîte et les illustrations des cartes diffèrent. La troisième édition, éditée depuis 2006 par Play Factory, conserve les visuels de Stéphane Poinsot de l'édition précédente mais passe les cartes au format tarot dans un nouveau packaging.


Etymology and meaning.

The Sanskrit word "saṃskāra" (संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready" and "mental impression, recollection". The first context is at the etymological foundation of Sanskara term for rites of passage, while it is the second context, as a form of disposition, impression or behavioral inclination, that is at the etymological root of Sanskara word as a psychological concept in Indian philosophies.  The concept of Samskara is also discussed as "Vasana" (Sanskrit: वासना vāsanā), particularly in the Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism. "Vasana" also means "impression, inclination of anything remaining unconsciously in the mind".

Context.

"Samskara", or "Sankhara," is a significant concept across major schools of Hindu philosophy as well as Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Indian philosophy differ on the specific mechanisms about how "samskara" operates at the subconscious level. For example, Buddhism considers "samskara" as "causal continua" while being consistent with its "there is no self, no soul" premise, whereas the Vedic traditions within Hinduism consider "samskara" as "relational properties" (an impression, mark, impulse, tendency or a form of psychological potential energy within) that rests inside the "self, soul" of every person. In Yoga, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism, "samskara" constitute an affective and motivational field that contributes to the value structure within the person. They subconsciously or consciously endorse the basic inner drives that propel a human being in future action, future premises, future thoughts or future judgments.  Das states that the "Samskara rites of passage" is a subset of actions in a human being's life, where going through the rite within the traditions of Hinduism, affects the individual internally as well as externally in how society perceives the person. This occurs in the form of impressions and imprint within, that is "samskara".

Hinduism.

The Hindu schools differ in the details, but all posit that "samskara" are formed in every individual by a number of ways. This includes perceptions (what one sees, hears, touches, tastes, smells), "chitta" cognition (what one feels and thinks), willful actions, and also intentions before and during the action. Training and study, in these schools, is a form of exposition, introspective realization and in many cases practice or repetition to make the "impression, imprint" part of one's nature, where the practice reinforces the dispositions ("samskara") and dispositions reinforce the practice, in a circular feedback. Scholars state that David Hume's "impressions" theory is similar to Samskara theory of Hinduism. The Hindu schools rely on "samskara" theory as one of the pillars for their epistemology ("pramana"), wherein they explain how and why man knows anything, remembers anything, expects anything, feels fulfillment, feels frustration, feels freedom and joy, or feels suffering and pain. "Samskara" are the impressions and dispositions that develop and accumulate deep inside a person, according to these schools, from perception, inference, choices, preparation, practice, interaction with others, thoughts, intent, willful actions and such karma. These manifest, state Hindu philosophies, as habits, behavior, tendencies, psychological predispositions and dispositions.  Actions, studies, diligent preparation and inner resolutions trigger Samskaras – hidden impressions or dispositions – in the psyche of an individual, and these influence how the individual acts, perceives self and the manner in which the individual responds or accepts the karmic circumstances and the future. Ian Whicher explains that, in the philosophical theories of Hinduism, every karma (action, intent) leaves a "smnskara" (impression, impact, imprint) in the deeper structure of human mind. This impression then awaits volitional fruition, in the form of hidden expectations, circumstances or unconscious sense of self-worth. It manifests as tendency, karmic impulse, subliminal impression, habitual potency or innate dispositions.

Samkhya-Yoga.

In Samkhya and Yoga schools, Sankhara, also spelled as Samskara, are impressions or residues that affect an individual's Gunas (behavior attributes). These impressions constitute part of the mechanistic foundation behind ancient Indian scholars' explanation on how karma theory works in practice. Samskara are explained as dispositions, character or behavioral traits either as default from birth or Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through Yoga, through conscious shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through practice.  In Yoga school of Hinduism, all actions and intents lead to impressions and memories, whether they are active or hidden, conscious or unconscious. A person may not remember his or her past karma, yet the impressions shape his character, the habits, the circumstances, the essence of that person because of the impressions left by the karma. These tendencies, subtle traces and innate characteristics, states the Yoga school, continue to affect the person's present actions, assumptions, attitudes ("bhava"), mind ("buddhi"), moral response and interactions with everyone, everything and self. Vyasa, Patanjali and other ancient Indian scholars refer to these as karmic residues ("karmasaya"). Personality, states Patanjali, is the sum total combination of all these impressions and subtle traces ("samskaras"). Individuals tend to do what they did in past, man forms habit and oft returns to those habits, and behaviors tend to repeat because of these "samskaras", according to these Yoga scholars.

Vedanta.

These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-preparedness" in Vedantic psychology. All physical, verbal and mental activity, according to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, creates "Samskara", or traces inside a person. These "Samskaras" together then manifest as inner personality and external circumstances, and depending then on individual's response thereof, these then bear "phala" (fruit). In the state where an individual realizes Self and reaches "jivanmukti" (moksha), Shankara, Mandana, Sarvajnatman and other Vedanta scholars suggest that the causes of impressions such as ignorance disappear, the individual reaches inner resolution and complete acceptance of self, thus becoming free of samskaras and consequent blissful state of existence.

Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika.

In Nyaya school of Hinduism, "Bhavana" (Sanskrit: भावना) is synonymous with "Samskara", a property that manifests as impressions or traces on the soul. It is a key concept in Nyaya philosophy, and it applies the idea to both living and non-living world. For example, the "vega" (velocity) of "vayu" (wind) is its samskara, in Nyaya literature. The concept is intimately related to Nyaya's search and reason-driven explanation of causes behind what happens in living and non-living world, and why. All voluntary actions, state Nyayayikas, have a cause, and these are guided by Samskara. For example, a newborn child voluntarily and instinctively acts to reach for the mother's breast. This action, explain Nyaya texts, must have a cause, but the newborn has neither been provided that knowledge nor has the value of the mother's breast been explained by another, nor has the newborn formed any Samskara in the new life. The newborn has that knowledge, that instinct, from some impression, some trace within "from a prior experience". That is an example of "Samskara", assert the Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika scholars.  In Nyaya school of Hinduism, the existence of Samskara cannot be directly perceived, only inferred. Further, not all Samskara are psychological. Some simply manifest as memories, premises or beliefs shaped "from a prior experience".

Buddhism.

Saṃskāra or Saṅkhāra in Buddhism refers to mental "dispositions". These result from past volitions, and are causes of future volitions. "Saṅkhāra" also refers to that faculty within a person wherein these dispositions are formed. Buddhism emphasizes the need to purify dispositions ("Saṅkhāra") rather than eliminate them.

Jainism.

The activities of mind, speech and body, according to Jain philosophy, lead to Asrava, that is, the influx and imprint of karmic residues to the "jiva" (soul) of the living being. These residues bind ("bandha"), forming "karma sarira", which can be stopped ("saṃvara") and released ("nirjara"). The operating mechanism, consistent with the dualism premise of Jainism, is not Saṃskāra as latent mental trace, rather "karma bandha" to the soul. The rituals and rites of passage, called Samskara in Jainism, are part of the "saṃvara" and "nirjara" initiation process, in order to free the soul from the crust of karmic residues.

In Indian philosophy and Indian religions, samskaras or sanskaras (Sanskrit: संस्कार) are mental impressions, recollections, or psychological imprints. In Hindu philosophies, "samskaras" are a basis for the development of karma theory. In Buddhism the Sanskrit term Samskara is used to describe 'formations'. In Pali it is referred to as Saṅkhāra.

Saṃskāra (sanskrit, devanāgarī: संस्कार; pāli : sankhāra ; chinois : xing ; japonais : gyō ) est un terme qui désigne dans l'hindouisme les impressions à la suite d'une action, les tendances résiduelles subconscientes ; cependant "saṃskāra" a un deuxième sens, il se traduit par : cérémonie rituelle, c'est-à-dire les actes religieux dans la vie du fidèle hindou.


Overview.

XCB was designed as a smaller, modernized replacement for Xlib, previously the primary C library for communicating with the X window system, coinciding with a more complete overhaul of the X implementation that took place during the early 2000s. The main goals of XCB are to:  The required size reduction is achieved primarily by restricting XCB's scope to handling the X protocol and omitting Xlib functionality such as its extensive utility library, much of which saw little use by applications. This results in a factor thirty reduction of the compiled library size (as of 2004). Secondary goals include making the C interface asynchronous, facilitating better multithreading and making it easier to implement extensions (via XML protocol descriptions).  The core and extension protocol descriptions are in XML, with a program written in Python creating the C bindings. (Previous versions used XSLT and M4.)  A further goal is to be able to use these protocol descriptions to create protocol documentation, more language bindings, and server-side stubs.  Massey and others have worked to prove key portions of XCB formally correct using Z notation. (Xlib has long been known to contain errors.)

Xlib compatibility.

"Xlib/XCB" provides application binary interface compatibility with both Xlib and XCB, providing an incremental porting path. Xlib/XCB uses the protocol layer of Xlib, but replaces the Xlib transport layer with XCB, and provides access to the underlying XCB connection for direct use of XCB. Xlib/XCB allows an application to open a single connection to the X display server and use both XCB and Xlib, possibly through a mixture of libraries designed for one or the other.

Example.

// Simple XCB application for opening a window and drawing a box in it To compile it using GCC, use:  and using CC:  int main(void)  XCB has a comparable, but slightly lower-level API than Xlib, as can be seen with this example.

Protocol description.

Creators of XCB have invented a specialized interface description language to model X11 protocol in language-neutral way and facilitate generation of bindings to other programming languages. libxcb itself is implemented as a code generator and a tiny C stub of utility functions.  An example:  <xcb header="bigreq" extension-xname="BIG-REQUESTS"  </xcb>

Logo.

The XCB logo was produced by Gearóid Molloy, author of the web comic "Neko the Kitty", and donated to the project.

XCB ("X protocol C-language Binding") is a library implementing the client-side of the X11 display server protocol. XCB is written in the C programming language and distributed under the MIT License. The project was started in 2001 by Bart Massey and aims to replace Xlib.

XCB (pour ) est une bibliothèque logicielle en langage C offrant une implémentation du protocole X Window System. Son objectif est de remplacer la Xlib, jugée vieillissante et inadaptée à certains usages. Le projet a démarré en 2001, sous l'impulsion de Bart Massey.


The facility.

The Cabinet Office Briefing Rooms are a group of meeting rooms in the Cabinet Office at 70 Whitehall in London, often used for different committees which co-ordinate the actions of bodies within the Government of the United Kingdom in response to instances of national or regional crisis, or during events abroad with major implications for the UK. It is popularly, but not officially referred to as COBRA, even when the acronym is spelt out by officials. Other meeting rooms in the Cabinet Office are not part of the COBR facility, including the old Treasury Board Room, which is labelled "Conference Room A", located in Kent's Treasury, a different part of the Cabinet Office building.  A single photo of one of the rooms in COBR was released in 2010 in response to a Freedom of Information Act request.

The committees.

The composition of a ministerial-level meeting in COBR depends on the nature of the incident but it is usually chaired by the Prime Minister or another senior minister, with other key ministers as appropriate, city mayors and representatives of relevant external organisations such as the National Police Chiefs' Council and the Local Government Association.  The first COBR meeting took place in the 1970s to oversee the government's response to the 1972 miners' strike. Other events that have led to meetings being convened include the 1980 Iranian Embassy siege, the 2001 foot and mouth outbreak, the 11 September 2001 attacks, the 7 July 2005 London bombings, the refugee crisis in Calais, the 2015 Paris attacks, the Manchester Arena bombing, and the COVID-19 pandemic.  In 2009, former senior police officer Andy Hayman, who sat on a committee after the 7 July 2005 London bombings and at other intervals from 2005 to 2007, was highly critical of its workings in his book "The Terrorist Hunters".  The Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies (SAGE) is a sub-committee of COBRA.

The Cabinet Office Briefing Rooms (COBR) are meeting rooms in the Cabinet Office in London. These rooms are used for committees which co-ordinate the actions of government bodies in response to national or regional crisis, or during overseas events with major implications for the UK. It is popularly referred to as COBRA.

Les (COBR, parfois appelé COBRA) sont les dispositifs de coordination des secours mis en place par le gouvernement du Royaume-Uni en cas de catastrophe ou d'attaque. Le nom désigne également le local situé à Whitehall et les comités qui y siègent.


Details.

In object-oriented programming (OOP), "inheritance" describes a relationship between two classes in which one class (the "child" class) "subclasses" the "parent" class. The child inherits methods and attributes of the parent, allowing for shared functionality. For example, one might create a variable class "Mammal" with features such as eating, reproducing, etc.; then define a child class "Cat" that inherits those features without having to explicitly program them, while adding new features like "chasing mice".  Multiple inheritance allows programmers to use more than one totally orthogonal hierarchy simultaneously, such as allowing "Cat" to inherit from "Cartoon character" and "Pet" and "Mammal" and access features from within all of those classes.

Implementations.

Languages that support multiple inheritance include: C++, Common Lisp (via Common Lisp Object System (CLOS)), EuLisp (via The EuLisp Object System TELOS), Curl, Dylan, Eiffel, Logtalk, Object REXX, Scala (via use of mixin classes), OCaml, Perl, POP-11, Python, R, Raku, and Tcl (built-in from 8.6 or via Incremental Tcl (Incr Tcl) in earlier versions).  IBM System Object Model (SOM) runtime supports multiple inheritance, and any programming language targeting SOM can implement new SOM classes inherited from multiple bases.  Some object-oriented languages, such as Java, C#, and Ruby implement "single inheritance", although protocols, or "interfaces," provide some of the functionality of true multiple inheritance.  PHP uses traits classes to inherit specific method implementations. Ruby uses modules to inherit multiple methods.

The diamond problem.

The "diamond problem" (sometimes referred to as the "Deadly Diamond of Death") is an ambiguity that arises when two classes B and C inherit from A, and class D inherits from both B and C. If there is a method in A that B and C have overridden, and D does not override it, then which version of the method does D inherit: that of B, or that of C?  For example, in the context of GUI software development, a class codice_1 may inherit from both classes codice_2 (for appearance) and codice_3 (for functionality/input handling), and classes codice_2 and codice_3 both inherit from the codice_6 class. Now if the codice_7 method is called for a codice_1 object and there is no such method in the codice_1 class but there is an overridden codice_7 method in codice_2 or codice_3 (or both), which method should be eventually called?  It is called the "diamond problem" because of the shape of the class inheritance diagram in this situation. In this case, class A is at the top, both B and C separately beneath it, and D joins the two together at the bottom to form a diamond shape.

Mitigation.

Languages have different ways of dealing with these problems of repeated inheritance.  Languages that allow only single inheritance, where a class can only derive from one base class, do not have the diamond problem. The reason for this is that such languages have at most one implementation of any method at any level in the inheritance chain regardless of the repetition or placement of methods. Typically these languages allow classes to implement multiple protocols, called interfaces in Java. These protocols define methods but do not provide concrete implementations. This strategy has been used by ActionScript, C#, D, Java, Nemerle, Object Pascal, Objective-C, Smalltalk, Swift and PHP. All these languages allow classes to implement multiple protocols.  Moreover, Ada, C#, Java, Object Pascal, Objective-C, Swift and PHP allow multiple-inheritance of interfaces (called protocols in Objective-C and Swift). Interfaces are like abstract base classes that specify method signatures without implementing any behaviour. ("Pure" interfaces such as the ones in Java up to version 7 do not permit any implementation or instance data in the interface.) Nevertheless, even when several interfaces declare the same method signature, as soon as that method is implemented (defined) anywhere in the inheritance chain, it overrides any implementation of that method in the chain above it (in its superclasses). Hence, at any given level in the inheritance chain, there can be at most one implementation of any method. Thus, single-inheritance method implementation does not exhibit the Diamond Problem even with multiple-inheritance of interfaces. With the introduction of default implementation for interfaces in Java 8 and C# 8, it is still possible to generate a Diamond Problem, although this will only appear as a compile-time error.

Multiple inheritance is a feature of some object-oriented computer programming languages in which an object or class can inherit characteristics and features from more than one parent object or parent class. It is distinct from single inheritance, where an object or class may only inherit from one particular object or class.

En informatique, l’héritage multiple est un mécanisme de programmation orientée objet dans lequel une classe peut hériter de comportements et de fonctionnalités de plus d'une super-classe. Il s'oppose à l'héritage simple, dans lequel une classe ne peut hériter que d'une seule super-classe.


Early life and career.

Born in New York City, New York to a well-to-do Jewish family, Crosland attended Dartmouth College. After graduation, he took a job as a writer with the "New York Globe" magazine. Interested in the theatre, he began acting on stage, appearing in several productions with Shakespearian actress Annie Russell.  Crosland began his career in the motion picture industry in 1912 at Edison Studios in The Bronx, New York, where he worked at various jobs for two years until he had learned the business sufficiently well to begin directing short films. By 1917, he was directing feature-length films and in 1920 directed Olive Thomas in "The Flapper", one of her final films before her death in September of that year.  In 1925, Crosland was working for Jesse L. Lasky's film production company Famous Players-Lasky (later Paramount Pictures) when he was hired by Warner Bros. to work at their Hollywood studios. He had directed several silent films for Warner's including directing "Don Juan" starring John Barrymore in 1926. It was the first feature-length film with synchronized Vitaphone sound effects and musical soundtrack, though it has no spoken dialogue. He was chosen to direct Al Jolson in "The Jazz Singer" (1927). The film would make him famous as the first of the new talkies that changed the course of motion pictures.

Death.

Crosland died in 1936 at the age of 41 as a result of an automobile accident on Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles. He is interred in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery. His grave remained unmarked for 67 years until a headstone was donated by The Hollywood Underground in 2003.  His son, Alan Crosland Jr. (1918–2001), would also have a successful career as a television director. Juanita Fletcher was his mother.

Alan Crosland (August 10, 1894 – July 16, 1936) was an American stage actor and film director. He is noted for having directed the first film using spoken dialogue, "The Jazz Singer".

Alan Crosland est un réalisateur, scénariste et producteur américain né le à New York aux États-Unis, mort le, dans un accident d'automobile survenu sur Sunset Boulevard à Los Angeles (Californie). On lui attribue unanimement le premier film parlant : "Le Chanteur de jazz" en 1927.


Development.

The Schneider.

In January 1915, the French arms manufacturer Schneider sent out its chief designer, Eugène Brillié, to investigate tracked tractors from the American Holt Company, at that time participating in a test programme in England. The original French project was to provide mobility to mechanical wire-cutting machines of the Breton-Pretot type. On his return Brillié, who had earlier been involved in designing armoured cars for Spain, convinced the company management to initiate studies on the development of a "Tracteur blindé et armé" ("armoured and armed tractor"), based on the Baby Holt chassis, two of which were ordered.  Experiments on the Holt caterpillar tracks started in May 1915 at the Schneider plant with a 75 hp wheel-steered model and the 45 hp all-caterpillar Baby Holt, showing the superiority of the latter. On 16 June, new experiments followed in front of the President of the French Republic, and on 10 September for Commander Ferrus, an officer who had been involved in the study (and ultimate abandonment) of the Levavasseur tank project in 1908.  In early 1916, the first prototype of the Schneider tank was assembled in an army workshop. It featured tracks from the American-made Holt caterpillar tractors that were already used in France for towing heavy artillery. Private Pierre Lescure designed the fighting compartment. Lieutenant Fouché lengthened the tracks to improve trench-crossing ability. In this early form the prototype of the Schneider was called "Tracteur A" - not for security reasons, but because nobody knew exactly how to call such vehicles; the French word "char" was not yet applied to tanks. Eugène Brillié, the chief designer at Schneider, rejected this "Tracteur A" prototype. Instead he had invented a tail for his own tank's chassis thus providing the same trench crossing ability but for less overall weight and length.

The Saint-Chamond.

While Brillié began to assemble this second prototype which was to become the Schneider CA1, the arms manufacturer "Forges et Aciéries de la Marine et d'Homécourt" (aka "FAMH"), based at Saint-Chamond, Loire, was given an order for 400 tanks by the French government, a political move prompted by General Mourret of the Army "Service Automobile". Saint-Chamond intended to build a tank that would be partly similar to the Schneider. Brillié refused to share his patents for free, and Saint-Chamond refused to pay. As a result, the "Forges et Acieries de la Marine et d'Homecourt" company, being unable to replicate certain patented details (notably the tail) of the new Schneider tank, developed its own proprietary design: the ""Char Saint-Chamond"". It included a "Crochat-Colardeau" gasoline-electric transmission, a traction system already used on railcars in service with the French railways. Furthermore, the freedom to design a heavier and larger tracked vehicle gave Saint-Chamond the opportunity to upstage the Schneider company. This they did by installing on their "Char Saint-Chamond" a more powerful, full size 75 mm field gun plus 4 Hotchkiss machine guns instead of the two machine guns present on the Schneider tank.  Saint-Chamond's technical director was Colonel Émile Rimailho, an artillery officer who had become dissatisfied over the insufficient reward he had received for helping design the famous Canon de 75 modele 1897 field gun as well as the Modele 1904 155 mm "Rimailho" howitzer. Following his departure from the French State arsenal system (APX) and joining Saint-Chamond, Rimailho designed a 75 mm field gun similar to the Mle 1897 75 mm gun he had co-developed with Sainte-Claire Deville. It was the proprietary Canon de 75mm TR Saint-Chamond (Modele 1915), designed to fire the regular French 75 mm ammunition. Colonel Rimailho, who had a direct financial interest in selling his company's gun, induced the Ministry of War to specify that the new Saint-Chamond tank would also mount the Saint-Chamond made 75. In so doing Rimailho had also upstaged the Schneider CA1 tank which could only be fitted with a smaller Schneider-made fortress gun firing a 75 mm reduced charge ammunition. To accommodate a regular length and full size 75 mm field gun, a hull longer than on the Schneider tank was essential. The earliest Saint-Chamond prototype, a tracked vehicle longer and heavier than the Schneider tank was first demonstrated to the French military in April 1916.  When Colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, who had taken the initiative to create the French tank arm, learned that an order for 400 additional tanks had been passed on April 8, 1916, he was at first quite elated. When it later became apparent that they would be of a different type, Estienne was shocked and wrote:

Description.

As a result of Rimailho's manipulations, the new tank had become a rather cumbersome and underpowered vehicle. It lacked a rotating turret, instead using a large overhanging front compartment housing the long 75 mm gun protruding from the nose.  Within the forward fighting compartment and on the left was the driver, also the vehicle commander. On the right a machine gunner operated the front Hotchkiss machine gun. This machine gunner was also responsible for the breech operation of the 75 mm gun which he had to perform after pivoting on his seat to the left. A loader (referred to in some sources as the gunner) adjusted the gun's elevation, observing the target through a small hatch in the front of the tank, which left him vulnerable to enemy fire. Traversing the 75 mm gun required traversing the whole tank, and this was performed by the driver. A second fighting compartment at the back held one machine gunner next to the secondary driver's position, where the tank could also be driven backwards by the mechanic in an emergency. Between those two compartments stood in the open the gasoline engine and the electric generator. Narrow passageways on both sides of the engine connected the front and rear compartments. The passageways also held Hotchkiss positions, one on each side in front of the engine. Altogether, the Saint-Chamond had four Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun positions: one in the front, one in the back and one on each side of the tank.  Despite weighing 23 tons, the tank could manage a top speed of. This speed was seldom achieved in the field as the long nose was prone to digging into the ground. The relatively high maximum speed on flat ground was made possible by the "Crochat Colardeau" transmission which coupled a Panhard-Levassor 4 cylinders 90HP sleeve-valve gasoline engine to an electric generator capable of giving an output of 260 amperes under 200 volts. The generator was connected to two separate electric motors, one for each track, thus permitting perfect gradual steering of the tank.  Due to its short tracks and over-extended body, the vehicle experienced major difficulties in crossing trenches and overcoming obstacles. This led to such negative reactions by the crews in training that a special mention was passed on to General Headquarters:

Improved Saint-Chamond tanks (1918).

Originally the crew of nine men was protected by 11 mm of steel armour on the sloping front and 17 mm on the sides. Later on, the addition of an extra layer of spaced 8.5 mm armour on the front improved protection. Beginning with the 151st vehicle, the roof was also redesigned with a double slope so that satchel charges and grenades would slide off. Concurrently, the original two observation turrets in front and on top were done away with and replaced by a single low profile square turret permitting front and sides vision by the tank's driver/commander. With time, the tracks were also widened in two steps from 324 mm to 412 mm to lower their ground pressure. After Saint-Chamond tank No 210 the more effective Model 1897 field gun was installed instead of Rimailho's (profitable) 75 mm Saint-Chamond gun. At about the same time barrel-like rollers were added underneath the front and rear of the tank to help crossing trenches. This improved version was later called, unofficially, the "Modèle 18". Production slowed down in March 1918, after at least 377 had been assembled, and ceased completely in July 1918.  Initially, forty eight Saint-Chamond tanks were modified as supply and recovery vehicles that could tow the lighter Schneider tanks. Their first action as a fighting vehicle took place at Laffaux Mill on May 5, 1917. Sixteen Saint-Chamond tanks were engaged there, several of them getting stuck into some trenches, but only three were destroyed in combat. During the rest of the war, twelve groups in total were formed with Saint-Chamond tanks : "Artillerie Spéciale" Nos. 31–42. In mid-1918, since combat had left the trenches for the open fields, it was used to engage German field gun batteries ("Nahkampfbatterien") at a distance with its 75 mm cannon. The Saint-Chamond proved at last quite effective in this specialist assault gun role. The Saint-Chamond's final engagement in battle, with initially 16 tanks, took place in early October 1918, in support of the U.S. First Division near Montfaucon. As reported in Ralph Jones et al. (1933) in reference to this last engagement : "The Saint Chamond tanks were handicapped by damage to their tracks, by derailments, by the breakage of the caps of connecting rods on forward bogies and of track pins". By that time, the Renault FT tank had taken over the major role in the French tank force and had also been purchased by the American Expeditionary Forces in France.  After the war 54 were rebuilt as ammunition carriers; the remainder were scrapped. There are unsubstantiated stories about Poland using the tank against the Red Army in 1920. If true these specimens were in all probability not from the Soviet Army—the latter never had been supplied with them and the French Expeditionary Forces to Russia were only equipped with the Renault FT.

Surviving example.

The last Saint-Chamond tank remaining in existence, an improved mid-1918 model, alongside other French tanks of World War I (Schneider CA1 and Renault FT), is preserved at the Musée des Blindés at Saumur, France. It had survived, together with a Schneider CA1 tank of the same vintage, at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds Ordnance Museum in Maryland and was donated by the U.S. to the French government in 1987. Between 2015 and 2017 it was restored to running condition and repainted in a World War I camouflage scheme, at a cost of €120,000. It took part in various displays throughout 2017 to mark the centenary of the first use of tanks by the French army.  A full-size replica in polystyrene foam, built by students of the Lycée Le Corbusier at Tourcoing, is on display outdoors at the "Historial de la Grande Guerre" museum in Péronne, France.

The Saint-Chamond, named after the commune of Saint-Chamond, was the second French heavy tank of the First World War, with 400 manufactured from April 1917 to July 1918. Although not a tank by the present-day definition, it is generally accepted and described as such in accounts of early tank development. Born of the commercial rivalry existing with the makers of the Schneider CA1 tank, the Saint-Chamond was an underpowered and fundamentally inadequate design. Its principal weakness was its Holt caterpillar tracks. They were much too short in relation to the vehicle's length and heavy weight (23 tons). Later models attempted to rectify some of the tank's original flaws by installing wider and stronger track shoes, thicker frontal armour and the more effective 75mm Mle 1897 field gun. Altogether 400 Saint-Chamond tanks were built, including 48 unarmed caisson tanks. The Saint-Chamond tanks remained engaged in various actions until October 1918, belatedly becoming more effective since combat had moved out of the trenches and onto open ground. Eventually, the Saint-Chamond tanks were scheduled to be entirely replaced by imported British heavy tanks.

Le Saint-Chamond est le deuxième char d'assaut produit pour l’armée française au cours de la Première Guerre mondiale. Il est beaucoup plus lourd et plus long, mais aussi mieux armé que le premier, le char Schneider CA1. Quatre cents exemplaires sont fabriqués par la Compagnie des forges et aciéries de la marine et d’Homécourt (FAMH) à Saint-Chamond. Né de la rivalité entre d'une part la firme de Saint-Chamond, et d'autre part de la société Schneider, il se révèle assez peu efficace sur des terrains bouleversés par les tranchées et les impacts de l'artillerie. Cependant en 1918, lors de la reprise de la guerre de mouvement en rase campagne, son canon de est utilisé pour attaquer à distance l’artillerie de campagne adverse. La principale faiblesse du char Saint-Chamond était son train de chenilles beaucoup trop court et sujet à de fréquents déraillements. La guerre prend fin avant que les chars Saint-Chamond ne soient entièrement remplacés par des chars lourds britanniques.


Gameplay.

The gameplay of "Kingdom Hearts II" is similar to the action RPG and hack and slash gameplay of the first "Kingdom Hearts" game, though developers made an effort to address some of the complaints of no map and camera bugs with the previous game. The player directly controls Sora from a third-person camera angle, though first-person perspective is available via Select button. Most of the gameplay occurs on interconnected field maps where battles take place. The game is driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next, usually told via cutscenes, though there are numerous side-quests available that provide bonuses to characters.  Like many traditional role-playing video games, "Kingdom Hearts II" features an experience point system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player and allies culminate experience to "level up", in which the playable characters grow stronger and gain access to new abilities.  Combat in "Kingdom Hearts II" is in real-time and involves heavy hack and slash elements with button presses which initiate attacks by the on-screen character. A role-playing game menu on the screen's bottom left, similar to those found in "Final Fantasy" games, provides other combat options such as using magic or items, summoning beings to assist in battle, or executing combination attacks with other party members. A new feature is the "Reaction Command", special enemy-specific attacks that are triggered when the player presses the triangle button at the correct time during battle. Reaction Commands can be used to defeat regular enemies or avoid damage, and are sometimes necessary to complete a boss battle. In addition to the main character, two party members are usually present who also participate in combat. Although these characters are computer-controlled, the player is allowed to customize their behavior to a certain extent through the menu screen, such as attacking the same enemy Sora targets.  In response to criticism, the "Gummi Ship" feature of the first game was re-imagined to be "more enjoyable". Although retaining its basic purpose of travel, the system was completely redone to resemble a combination of rail shooter and "Disney theme park ride". In the world map, the player must now control the Gummi Ship from a top-down view and fly to the world the player wishes to enter. Worlds are no longer open from the beginning—the player must unlock the routes to them by entering a new level, controlling the ship from a third-person point of view, and battling enemy ships. After the route is opened, travel to the world is unimpeded, unless it is blocked again due to a plot-related event. The player may also gain new Gummi Ships from completing routes, which is also a new feature from the first game.

Drive Gauge.

One of the new features is a meter known as the "Drive Gauge". The Drive Gauge has dual functions: to transform Sora into a "Drive Form" or to summon a special character. While in a Drive Form, Sora bonds with party members to become more powerful and acquire different attributes; all but two Forms also allow the use of two Keyblades. When a Drive is executed, Sora's combat statistics are heightened. Drive Forms also give Sora new abilities that can be used in normal form, called "Growth Abilities." Sora's first two Drive Forms only combine power with one party member; later-obtained Drive Forms require him to bond with both party members. When allies are used in a Drive, they are temporarily removed from battle for its duration. Unlike the HP and MP gauges, the Drive Gauge is not refilled at save points.  Like in the first game, Sora can summon a Disney character to aid him in battle. Summons will replace the two computer-controlled characters and fight alongside Sora for as long as the Drive Gauge allows, or until Sora's HP runs out. Instead of being limited to only one action, Summons now have a menu of their own and are capable of performing solo or cooperative actions with Sora. These actions are performed by pressing the triangle button. The Summon ability and each Drive Form are leveled up separately and by different criteria; obtaining higher levels allows for extended use and in the case of Drive Forms, access to new abilities.

Plot.

Setting.

"Kingdom Hearts II" begins one year after the events of "Kingdom Hearts" and "Chain of Memories". The game's setting is a collection of various levels (referred to in-game as "worlds") that the player progresses through. As in the first game, the player can travel to various Disney-based locales, along with original worlds specifically created for the series. While Disney-based worlds were primarily derived from the Disney animated features canon in the first game, "Kingdom Hearts II" introduces worlds that are based on live-action franchise "Pirates of the Caribbean" as well. Each world varies in appearance and setting, depending on the Disney film on which it is based. The graphics of the world and characters are meant to resemble the artwork style of the environments and characters from their respective Disney films. Each world is disconnected from the others and exists separately; with few exceptions, players travel from one world to another via a Gummi Ship.  Some worlds featured in the previous games reappear, but with new and expanded areas. There are also new worlds that are introduced, including the Land of Dragons (based on "Mulan"), Beast's Castle ("Beauty and the Beast"), Timeless River ("Steamboat Willie"), Port Royal (""), Pride Lands ("The Lion King"), and Space Paranoids ("Tron"). Twilight Town, an original world first seen in "Chain of Memories", has a greater role as the introductory world. The World That Never Was is a new world that serves as the headquarters of Organization XIII.

Characters.

The three protagonists of the game are Sora, a 15-year-old boy chosen as a wielder of the Keyblade, a mystical key-shaped weapon that can combat darkness; Donald Duck, the court magician of Disney Castle; and Goofy, the captain of the Disney Castle guards. Both Donald and Goofy are under orders from their missing king, Mickey Mouse, to accompany Sora and his Keyblade. which refers to Sora and his Keyblade. Other original characters include Riku, who is briefly playable at the game's climax, and Kairi, Sora's friends from his home world of Destiny Islands; Roxas, a boy who can also wield the Keyblade and is playable in the game's beginning sequence; Naminé, a girl with the power to manipulate memories; and DiZ, a man in red robes with a vendetta against Organization XIII, who is later revealed to be Ansem the Wise, the mentor of Xehanort.  As in the previous games, there are numerous appearances of characters from both Disney and Square Enix works. While some make a return from "Kingdom Hearts", new characters from Disney fiction are also introduced, such as Scar from "The Lion King" and Scrooge McDuck. Pete appears as a persistent enemy who works with the resurrected Maleficent. Nearly twenty characters from "Final Fantasy" games appear, notably Auron of "Final Fantasy X", Tifa from "Final Fantasy VII", and the return of Squall Leonhart, Cloud, and Sephiroth. It was stated that although the first game strictly stuck to characters Tetsuya Nomura designed, this time around they were going to "take some risks", implying that characters not directly designed by Nomura might make an appearance. Other new characters to series are Vivi of "Final Fantasy IX", Seifer Almasy of "Final Fantasy VIII" and Setzer of "Final Fantasy VI".  The various worlds that Sora explores often have an optional party character from the film on which the world is based. Such party members include Fa Mulan, the woman who passes as a man in order to take her ailing father's place in the army; Jack Sparrow, a pirate who seeks to reclaim his ship, the Black Pearl; Simba, the self-exiled lion who is the rightful king of the Pride Land; and "Tron", a security program in Hollow Bastion's computer network who seeks to end the dictatorship of the Master Control Program.  Organization XIII, a group of powerful Nobodies—the "empty shells" left over when a strong-hearted person becomes a Heartless—introduced in "", is established as the primary group of antagonists early on. Xemnas, the leader of Organization XIII, serves as the main antagonist and final boss of the game. Villains unique to the worlds are still prevalent, and are often presented as challenges that Sora's group must overcome.

Story.

Sora, Donald, and Goofy have been in suspended animation for the past year to regain their lost memories. Roxas, Sora's Nobody, is trapped in a virtual simulation of Twilight Town created by DiZ to merge him with his original self to restore Sora's power. DiZ's plans are threatened when Nobodies led by Axel, Roxas's former friend in Organization XIII, infiltrate the virtual town to extract Roxas. However, Roxas is able to repel the Nobodies and finally merge with Sora. Sora, Donald, and Goofy awaken in the real Twilight Town and meet King Mickey and Yen Sid, who send them on another journey; their goal is to find Riku and uncover the Organization's plans. Afterward, Maleficent is resurrected and joins with Pete to continue her quest for power.  Sora travels to familiar and unfamiliar worlds, where he resolves several problems caused by Organization XIII, the Heartless, and various local villains. During a visit to Hollow Bastion, they reunite with Mickey, who explains that the Heartless "Ansem" they defeated is an imposter named Xehanort, whose Nobody, Xemnas, is the Organization's leader. The Organization also reveal that they seek the power of Kingdom Hearts, creating one from the hearts Sora has released from the Heartless with his Keyblade, to regain their lost hearts; in addition, Sora discovers that the Organization is holding Kairi hostage to force him to comply. Sora revisits the worlds to solve lingering problems and new complications while seeking a path to Organization XIII's base of operations in the World That Never Was. Throughout his endeavors, Sora is secretly aided by a hooded figure whom Sora believes to be Riku.  Following a lead, Sora, Donald, and Goofy enter a passageway to the World That Never Was through Twilight Town, where Axel sacrifices himself to give them safe passage. Sora finds Kairi and Riku, the latter of whose appearance has been changed to that of Xehanort's Heartless as a result of capturing Roxas. Mickey encounters DiZ, who reveals himself to be the true Ansem, Xehanort's mentor. Ansem uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts' power, but a system overload causes the device to self-destruct, both engulfing Ansem and miraculously returning Riku to his original form. Atop of the Castle That Never Was, Sora and company battle Xemnas, who uses what remains of Kingdom Hearts to fight them. After Sora and Riku destroy Xemnas, the two become trapped in the realm of darkness, where they discover a portal to the realm of light in a bottled letter sent by Kairi, allowing them to return to the Destiny Islands and reunite with their friends. In a post-credits scene, Sora, Kairi, and Riku receive and read a letter from Mickey, the contents of which are hidden from the player.

Development.

Development plans for "Kingdom Hearts II" began around the completion of "Kingdom Hearts Final Mix", but specific details were undecided until July 2003. Nomura noted several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel. One such obstacle was the development team's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more, which required Disney's approval. The game was developed by Square Enix's Product Development Division-1, with most of the original staff from the first game. The game was originally supposed to have been released after "Kingdom Hearts". Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained. To bridge the gap between the two games, "Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories" was developed. To explain the loss of all the abilities from the first game at the beginning of "Kingdom Hearts II", Nomura had Sora's memories scrambled in "Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories". Many aspects of the gameplay were reworked for this sequel. Some changes were made due to user feedback and others were meant to be included in previous games but were omitted either because of time or technological constraints. The camera was switched to the right analog stick of the DualShock controller instead of the shoulder buttons and the Gummi Ship travel was reworked. The combat system was completely redone and did not use any animations from the first game. Because Sora had matured, Nomura wanted his fighting style to reflect that. Other changes included more integration between exploration and battles. The variations in combat styles associated with each Drive Form and the introduction of the Reaction Command were added to give players more choices in battles. The inclusion of worlds based on live-action Disney films was aided by technology that generated the character models from live-action pictures.

Audio.

Musical score.

Like the first game, "Kingdom Hearts II" features music by Yoko Shimomura and Hikaru Utada. The Original Soundtrack for "Kingdom Hearts II" was composed by Shimomura and released on January 25, 2006. The opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged and orchestrated by Kaoru Wada and performed by the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra. The main vocal theme for the original Japanese release was "Passion", written and performed by Utada. The English version of "Passion", "Sanctuary", was used in the Western releases. Utada's involvement was announced on July 29, 2005. According to Nomura, the vocal theme ties in even more closely with the game's story than "Hikari" ("Simple and Clean") did with "Kingdom Hearts" and "Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories". The CD single for "Passion" was released on December 14, 2005 and "Sanctuary" was first previewed on MTV's official website in early 2006.

Voice cast.

"Kingdom Hearts II" features well-known voice actors for both the Japanese and English versions. Many of the original voice actors from the first "Kingdom Hearts" reprised their roles; Miyu Irino and Haley Joel Osment as Sora, Mamoru Miyano and David Gallagher as Riku, and Risa Uchida and Hayden Panettiere as Kairi. New voice actors included Kōki Uchiyama and Jesse McCartney as Roxas, Iku Nakahara and Brittany Snow as Naminé, and Genzō Wakayama and Christopher Lee as DiZ. A special effort was made to preserve the official voice actors from the Disney movies used in "Kingdom Hearts II". Many actors reprised their Disney roles for the game, including Ming-Na Wen as Mulan, James Woods as Hades, Bruce Boxleitner as Tron, Chris Sarandon as Jack Skellington and Zach Braff as Chicken Little. Some voice actors from the related television series or direct-to-video sequels were chosen over original voice actors where applicable, such as Robert Costanzo as Philoctetes rather than Danny DeVito or Cam Clarke as Simba instead of Matthew Broderick. Some characters were given new voice actors in the English version; Ansem, Aerith, Leon, Sephiroth and Hercules, who were originally voiced by Billy Zane, Mandy Moore, David Boreanaz, Lance Bass, and Sean Astin respectively in the first game, were voiced by Richard Epcar, Mena Suvari, Doug Erholtz, George Newbern, and Tate Donovan (Hercules' original voice actor), and newcomer Tifa was voiced by Rachael Leigh Cook.

Content editing.

Besides English translation and localization, the international version of "Kingdom Hearts II" differs from the original Japanese version in the content of gameplay and several scenes. The Hydra boss in the "Hercules"-themed world Olympus Coliseum had its green blood from the original Japanese version (which was taken from the film) changed into black and purple smoke in the English version. In one cutscene, Hercules fights the Hydra and uses his sword on its head, which eventually releases green blood from its mouth in the Japanese version; this was later changed into drool in the English version. There is also a scene in Disney Castle where, after chasing Donald around for missing a date, Daisy Duck pounds him on the backside in the Japanese version, whereas she merely tells him off inaudibly in the English version.  Xigbar's telescopic sight was changed from a crosshair and black shading around the sides to three glowing circles. An attack animation was also altered; in the Japanese version, Xigbar combines his two hand-held guns to create a sniper rifle, which is used to shoot the player's party during the telescoping sight sequence. In the English version, Xigbar does not combine his guns, but twirls them around and shoots at Sora with a single gun. The death of Organization XIII member Axel was slightly edited; in the original, he bursts into flames during his suicide attack, while in the English version he simply fades away after using up all of his power.  Port Royal, based on "", contains the most content edits. Cutscenes were edited to remove some of the violence, such as William Turner threatening to commit suicide while aiming a gun at his neck, as in the film. Unlike the Japanese version, the undead pirates do not catch fire when affected by Fire magic, and their muskets were modified to resemble crossbows, though the crossbows still fire with an audible musket shot sound effect.

Promotion.

An unlockable trailer in "Kingdom Hearts" and "Kingdom Hearts Final Mix" hinted at the possibility of a sequel. Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when the video game website Quiter stated that "an internal (and anonymous source) at Square Japan" confirmed that development of "Kingdom Hearts II" had begun. It was not until "Kingdom Hearts II" was announced, along with "Chain of Memories", at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed. Initial details were that it would take place some time after "Chain of Memories", which takes place directly after the first game. Other details included the return of Sora, Donald, and Goofy, as well as new costumes. Information about Mickey Mouse's involvement was kept to a minimum.  At the 2004 Square Enix E3 Press conference, producer Shinji Hashimoto said that many mysteries of the first game would be answered. Square Enix launched the official Japanese website in May 2005, followed by the English website in December 2005. The websites featured videos and information regarding characters and worlds. Commercials were aired in Japan which highlighted the numerous Disney characters in the game. Although the game was announced in September 2003, a release date for the game was not set until two years later. Nomura admitted that the game was announced too early and information regarding the game was not released until a debut period was in sight.

Release.

Within a week of its Japanese release, "Kingdom Hearts II" shipped one million copies, selling almost 730,000 copies. The NPD Group reported that "Kingdom Hearts II" was the highest-selling console game in North America during March 2006 with 614,000 copies. In the month after its release in North America, "Kingdom Hearts II" sold an estimated one million copies. GameStop listed the game as their best-selling title for the first quarter of 2006. The game was also on IGN's "Top 10 Sellers in 2006". By December 2006, over 3.5 million copies of "Kingdom Hearts II" had been shipped worldwide with 700,000 in PAL regions, 1.1 million in Japan, and 1.7 million in North America. By March 31, 2007, Square Enix had shipped over 4 million units worldwide.

Reception.

"Kingdom Hearts II" received critical acclaim upon release, garnering positive reviews. The game received numerous awards and high ratings among reviews including a Satellite Award in 2006 for "Outstanding Game Based on Existing Medium". It tied with "Resident Evil 4" as "Famitsu"s "Game of the Year" 2005. "Famitsu"s readers ranked the game 29th on their "All Time Top 100" feature, ten places below "Kingdom Hearts". It was ranked number one on IGN's 2006 "Reader's Choice" for PlayStation 2 games. "Eurogamer" ranked it 34th on their "Top 50 Games of 2006" list. Video game magazine "Electronic Gaming Monthly" awarded it "Best Sequel" of 2006, and "Game Informer" listed it among the "Top 50 games of 2006". "VideoGamer.com" featured it 10th in their article "Top 10: Role playing games". "GamePro" named it the 25th best RPG title of all time. "Kingdom Hearts II" also received a near-perfect score, 39/40, from the Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu".  Critics commended many aspects of the game. GameSpy praised the quality of the voice acting and cited the graphics as "on par with the best of Square's productions to date." They also commented on the realistic and accurate character models for the characters from "Pirates of the Caribbean". IGN rated the graphics a 9/10 and stated that the "worlds look very much like their filmed counterparts." Japanese gaming site Gpara.com also praised the look of the worlds. G4 awarded "Kingdom Hearts II" "Best Voice Over" and "Best Soundtrack" in their 2006 "G-Phoria" awards show.  Like its predecessors, the gameplay received mixed reviews. Many compliments were directed at the new camera controls and combat interactions between party members. "GamePro" stated that the beginning was "sluggishly slow", but praised the action-oriented combat. GameSpot said that the fixed camera system and new gameplay dynamics improved the experience, but they felt the game was far too easy and that there was too much button-mashing. IGN also commented on the button-mashing aspect of the gameplay and criticized the party member's artificial intelligence, citing it as "absolutely terrible", but praised the story, presentation, and new battle features. Gpara.com had positive comments about the ease of combo attacks and complimented the steady pacing of the story and gameplay.

Versions and merchandise.

"Kingdom Hearts II" has been released in four different versions. The first three are the normal regional releases in Japan, North America, and PAL regions, which only differ nominally in content editing and localization. The European and Australian PAL releases were reformatted to run at 50 Hz to fit the definition size of PAL encoding systems. The fourth version has additional content and was released under the title "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix". Like the previous titles, both Square and Disney released numerous types of merchandise before and after the game came out. Merchandise ranged from toys and figurines to clothing items and books. The game has also been adapted into both manga and novel series. Prior to the game's release, an "Ultimania" book titled "Kingdom Hearts Series Ultimania α ~Introduction of Kingdom Hearts II~" came out. It provides extended information on the first two "Kingdom Hearts" games, as well as information on the unreleased "Kingdom Hearts II". After the release of the game, "Kingdom Hearts II Ultimania", which focuses on the game itself, came out. Another book, titled "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ Ultimania", was released after the "Final Mix" version came out. Released along with "Final Mix", "Kingdom Hearts -Another Report-" was a hardback book which includes game information, visuals by Shiro Amano, and a director interview. In North America, BradyGames published two strategy guides—a standard guide and a limited edition version. The latter version was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy's Journal along with 400 stickers.

"Final Mix".

Because the first game was re-released, there was speculation whether Tetsuya Nomura would do the same with "Kingdom Hearts II". In a "Weekly Shōnen Jump" interview with Nomura, he expressed interest in a possible international version of "Kingdom Hearts II," although there were no definite plans. He said that should a "Final Mix" version arise, he had a "trump card" in mind, with such features as the Mushroom Heartless found in the first "Kingdom Hearts" game. In September 2006, Square Enix announced "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix", featuring new scenes and gameplay elements. Like the first re-release, this version would combine English audio with Japanese text and also use the "Sanctuary" theme song instead of "Passion". New cutscenes, however, used Japanese voice acting, as they mostly featured Organization XIII members from "Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories" who did not yet have English voice actors; these scenes were later re-dubbed into English for the "HD 2.5 Remix" release.  "Kingdom Hearts II" was re-released in Japan on March 29, 2007 as a 2-disc set titled "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+". The first disc contains "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix" with a new secret movie and additional battles and items. The second disc contains "Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories", a 3D PlayStation 2 remake of "" with extra scenes and voice acting. The battle system maintains the card gameplay, with the addition of Reaction Commands from "Kingdom Hearts II". Like the first game's Final Mix, the two games serve as a canonical update to the series. The book "Kingdom Hearts -Another Report-" was included along with the game for those who reserved a copy. Based on Amazon.com figures, "Final Mix+" was the number one PlayStation 2 game in sales during the week of its release in Japan. Nomura cited the presence of "Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories" to explain why "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+" was so popular. Nevertheless, in a "Famitsu" poll in July 2011, "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix" was voted the most popular entry so far.  It was released for the first time outside Japan as part of "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix".

Printed adaptations.

A manga series based on the game started its serialization in the June 2006 issue of the magazine "Monthly Shōnen Gangan", published by Square Enix. The artist is Shiro Amano, who also did the "Kingdom Hearts" and "Chain of Memories" manga series. The first volume was released in Japan in December 2006. As a result of Amano working in the "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days" manga, the series has been on hiatus and resumed publication in October 2012. Tokyopop licensed the manga and released volume one in North America on July 3, 2007. The second volume was released the following year.  The game has also been novelized by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano. The first volume, titled "Roxas—Seven Days", was released on April 22, 2006 and covers Roxas' story to when Sora wakes up and leaves Twilight Town. The novel depicts extra scenes that were added in the "Final Mix" version, such as interaction between Organization XIII members and between Axel, Naminé and Riku. The second book, "The Destruction of Hollow Bastion", was released on July 16, 2006, the third book, "Tears of Nobody," revolving around Roxas' past, was released on September 29, 2006, and the fourth book, "Anthem—Meet Again/Axel Last Stand," came out in February 2007.

"HD 2.5 Remix".

In the credits of "HD 1.5 Remix", clips of "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix" were shown, hinting at its inclusion in another collection. On October 14, 2013, Square Enix announced "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix", a second compilation exclusively for the PlayStation 3 after "HD 1.5 Remix", that includes both "Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix" and "Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix" in HD and trophy support. Additionally, the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from "" and was released in Japan on October 2, 2014, North America on December 2, 2014, Australia on December 4, 2014, and Europe on December 5, 2014.

References.

Notes Citations

"Kingdom Hearts II" is the third game in the "Kingdom Hearts" series. It picks up one year after the events of "". Sora, the protagonist of the first two games, returns to search for his lost friends while battling the sinister Organization XIII, a group of antagonists previously introduced in "Chain of Memories". Like the previous games, "Kingdom Hearts II" features a large cast of characters from Disney and Square Enix.

' est le troisième jeu de la série '. L'histoire se déroule un an après les évènements de ', et Sora, le protagoniste des deux premiers jeux, part à la recherche de ses amis perdus. Tout comme les précédents opus,'contient un large panel de personnages tirés des films de Disney et des jeux vidéo de la série '. L'Organisation XIII, un groupe introduit dans ', réapparaît pour entraver les progrès de Sora.


Need for detonators.

The need for detonators such as blasting caps came from the development of safer explosives. Different explosives require different amounts of energy (their activation energy) to detonate. Most commercial explosives are formulated with a high activation energy, to make them stable and safe to handle so they will not explode if accidentally dropped, mishandled, or exposed to fire. These are called secondary explosives. However they are correspondingly difficult to detonate intentionally, and require a small initiating explosion. This is provided by a detonator.  A detonator contains an easy-to-ignite primary explosive that provides the initial activation energy to start the detonation in the main charge. Explosives commonly used in detonators include mercury fulminate, lead azide, lead styphnate, tetryl, and DDNP. Blasting caps and some detonators are stored separately and not inserted into the main explosive charge until just before use, keeping the main charge safe. Early blasting caps also used silver fulminate, but it has been replaced with cheaper and safer primary explosives. Silver azide is still used sometimes, but very rarely due to its high price.  Detonators are hazardous for untrained personnel to handle since they contain primary explosive. They are sometimes not recognized as explosives due to their appearance, leading to injuries.

Types.

Ordinary detonators.

Ordinary detonators usually take the form of ignition-based explosives. While they are mainly used in commercial operations, ordinary detonators are still used in military operations. This form of detonator is most commonly initiated using a safety fuse, and used in non time-critical detonations e.g. conventional munitions disposal. Well known detonators are lead azide [Pb(N)], silver azide [AgN] and mercury fulminate [Hg(ONC)].

Electrical detonators.

There are three categories of electrical detonators: instantaneous electrical detonators (IED), short period delay detonators (SPD) and long period delay detonators (LPD). SPDs are measured in milliseconds and LPDs are measured in seconds. In situations where nanosecond accuracy is required, specifically in the implosion charges in nuclear weapons, exploding-bridgewire detonators are employed. The initial shock wave is created by vaporizing a length of a thin wire by an electric discharge. A new development is a slapper detonator, which uses thin plates accelerated by an electrically exploded wire or foil to deliver the initial shock. It is in use in some modern weapons systems. A variant of this concept is used in mining operations, when the foil is exploded by a laser pulse delivered to the foil by optical fiber.

Non-electric detonators.

A non-electric detonator is a shock tube detonator designed to initiate explosions, generally for the purpose of demolition of buildings and for use in the blasting of rock in mines and quarries. Instead of electric wires, a hollow plastic tube delivers the firing impulse to the detonator, making it immune to most of the hazards associated with stray electric current. It consists of a small diameter, three-layer plastic tube coated on the innermost wall with a reactive explosive compound, which, when ignited, propagates a low energy signal, similar to a dust explosion. The reaction travels at approximately 6,500 ft/s (2,000 m/s) along the length of the tubing with minimal disturbance outside of the tube. Non-electric detonators were invented by the Swedish company Nitro Nobel in the 1960s and 1970s, and launched to the demolitions market in 1973.

Electronic detonators.

In civil mining, electronic detonators have a better precision for delays. Electronic detonators are designed to provide the precise control necessary to produce accurate and consistent blasting results in a variety of blasting applications in the mining, quarrying, and construction industries. Electronic detonators may be programmed in millisecond or sub-millisecond increments using a dedicated programming device.

Wireless detonators.

Wireless electronic detonators are beginning to be available in the civil mining market. Encrypted radio signals are used to communicate the blast signal to each detonator at the correct time. While currently expensive, wireless detonators can enable new mining techniques as multiple blasts can be loaded at once and fired in sequence without putting humans in harm's way.

Number 8 blasting caps.

A number 8 test blasting cap is one containing 2 grams of a mixture of 80 percent mercury fulminate and 20 percent potassium chlorate, or a blasting cap of equivalent strength. An equivalent strength cap comprises 0.40-0.45 grams of PETN base charge pressed in an aluminum shell with bottom thickness not to exceed to 0.03 of an inch, to a specific gravity of not less than 1.4 g/cc, and primed with standard weights of primer depending on the manufacturer.

Types of blasting caps.

Pyrotechnic fuse blasting cap.

The oldest and simplest type of cap, fuse caps are a metal cylinder, closed at one end. From the open end inwards, there is first an empty space into which a pyrotechnic fuse is inserted and crimped, then a pyrotechnic ignition mix, a primary explosive, and then the main detonating explosive charge.  The primary hazard of pyrotechnic blasting caps is that for proper usage, the fuse must be inserted and then crimped into place by crushing the base of the cap around the fuse. If the tool used to crimp the cap is used too close to the explosives, the primary explosive compound can detonate during crimping. A common hazardous practice is crimping caps with one's teeth; an accidental detonation can cause serious injury to the mouth.  Fuse type blasting caps are still in active use today. They are the safest type to use around certain types of electromagnetic interference, and they have a built in time delay as the fuse burns down.

Solid pack electric blasting cap.

Solid pack electric blasting caps use a thin bridgewire in direct contact (hence solid pack) with a primary explosive, which is heated by electric current and causes the detonation of the primary explosive. That primary explosive then detonates a larger charge of secondary explosive.  Some solid pack fuses incorporate a small pyrotechnic delay element, up to a few hundred milliseconds, before the cap fires.

Match or fusehead electric blasting cap.

Match type blasting caps use an electric match (insulating sheet with electrodes on both sides, a thin bridgewire soldered across the sides, all dipped in ignition and output mixes) to initiate the primary explosive, rather than direct contact between the bridgewire and the primary explosive. The match can be manufactured separately from the rest of the cap and only assembled at the end of the process.  Match type caps are now the most common type found worldwide.

Exploding bridgewire detonator or blasting cap.

This type of detonator was invented in the 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project to develop nuclear weapons. The design goal was to produce a detonator which acted very rapidly and predictably. Both Match and Solid Pack type electric caps take a few milliseconds to fire, as the bridgewire heats up and heats the explosive to the point of detonation. Explosive bridgewire or EBW detonators use a higher voltage electric charge and a very thin bridgewire,.04 inch long,.0016 diameter, (1 mm long, 0.04 mm diameter). Instead of heating up the explosive, the EBW detonator wire is heated so quickly by the high firing current that the wire actually vaporizes and explodes due to electric resistance heating. That electrically driven explosion then fires the detonator's initiator explosive (usually PETN).  Some similar detonators use a thin metal foil instead of a wire, but operate in the same manner as true bridgewire detonators.  In addition to firing very quickly when properly activated, EBW detonators are safe from stray static electricity and other electric current. Enough current and the bridgewire may melt, but it is small enough that it cannot detonate the initiator explosive unless the full high-voltage high-current charge passes through the bridgewire. EBW detonators are used in many civilian applications where radio signals, static electricity, or other electrical hazards might cause accidents with conventional electric detonators.

Slapper detonator or blasting cap.

Slapper detonators are an improvement on EBW detonators. Slappers, instead of directly using the exploding foil to detonate the initiator explosive, use the electrical vaporization of the foil to drive a small circle of insulating material such as PET film or kapton down a circular hole in an additional disc of insulating material. At the far end of that hole is a pellet of conventional initiator explosive.  The conversion efficiency of energy from electricity into kinetic energy of the flying disk or slapper can be 20–40%.  Since the slapper impacts a wide area - 40 thousandths of an inch (roughly one mm) across - of the explosive, rather than a thin line or point as in an exploding foil or bridgewire detonator, the detonation is more regular and requires less energy. Reliable detonation requires raising a minimum volume of explosive to temperatures and pressures at which detonation starts. If energy is deposited at a single point, it can radiate away in the explosive in all directions in rarefaction or expansion waves, and only a small volume is efficiently heated or compressed. The flier disc loses impact energy at its sides to rarefaction waves, but a conical volume of explosive is efficiently shock compressed.  Slapper detonators are used in nuclear weapons. These components require large quantities of energy to initiate, making them extremely unlikely to accidentally discharge.

Laser ordnance initiators.

In this type, a pulse from a laser passes down an optical fiber to strike and thus initiate a carbon-doped explosive. These initiators are highly reliable. Unintentional initiation is very difficult as the explosive can only be detonated by the attached laser, which is precisely tuned to do so, or a completely independent laser that matches.

History.

The first blasting cap or detonator was demonstrated in 1745 when British physician and apothecary William Watson, F.R.S., showed that the electric spark of a friction machine could ignite black powder, by way of igniting a flammable substance mixed in with the black powder.  In 1750, Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia made a commercial blasting cap consisting of a paper tube full of black powder, with wires leading in both sides and wadding sealing up the ends. The two wires came close but did not touch, so a large electric spark discharge between the two wires would fire the cap.  In 1832, a hot wire detonator was produced by American chemist Robert Hare, although attempts along similar lines had earlier been attempted by the Italians Volta and Cavallo. Hare constructed his blasting cap by passing a multistrand wire through a charge of gunpowder inside a tin tube; he had cut all but one fine strand of the multistrand wire so that the fine strand would serve as the hot bridgewire. When a strong current from a large battery (which he called a "deflagrator" or "calorimotor") was passed through the fine strand, it became incandescent and ignited the charge of gunpowder.  In 1863, Alfred Nobel realized that although nitroglycerin could not be detonated by a fuse, it could be detonated by the explosion of a small charge of gunpowder, which in turn was ignited by a fuse. Within a year, he was adding mercury fulminate to the gunpowder charges of his detonators, and by 1867 he was using small copper capsules of mercury fulminate, triggered by a fuse, to detonate nitroglycerin.  In 1868, Henry Julius Smith of Boston, Massachusetts, introduced a cap that combined a spark gap ignitor and mercury fulminate, the first electric cap able to detonate dynamite.  In 1875, H. Julius Smith—and then in 1887, Perry G. Gardner of North Adams, Massachusetts—developed electric detonators that combined a hot wire detonator with mercury fulminate explosive. These were the first generally modern type blasting caps. Modern caps use different explosives and separate primary and secondary explosive charges, but are generally very similar to the Gardner and Smith caps.  H. Julius Smith also invented the first satisfactory portable power supply for igniting blasting caps: a high-voltage magneto that was driven by a rack and pinion, which in turn was driven by a T-handle that was pushed downwards.  Electric match caps were developed in the early 1900s in Germany, and spread to the US in the 1950s when ICI International purchased Atlas Powder Co. These match caps have become the predominant world standard cap type.

A detonator, frequently a blasting cap, is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the latter two being the most common.

En mathématiques, une permutation de support fini est dite paire si elle présente un nombre pair d'inversions, impaire sinon. La signature d'une permutation vaut 1 si celle-ci est paire, –1 si elle est impaire.


Career.

Latham began his Super Rugby career with the New South Wales Waratahs before a move to the Queensland Reds in 1998 saw him cement his place as a starting No. 15. He went on to become the first player to win the Australian Super Rugby Player of the Year award four times (2000, 2003, 2004, 2005).  Latham made his international debut against France on the 1998 Spring Tour and represented the Wallabies at three Rugby World Cups (1999, 2003 and 2007). At the 2003 tournament, he racked up an Australian record five-try haul against the hapless Namibia in Adelaide.  At the Northern Hemisphere v Southern Hemisphere Tsunami Relief match held at Twickenham in March 2005, he scored two tries and was named man of the match.  The following March, he represented the Australian Rugby Sevens team at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, but his campaign was cut short when he suffered a rib injury.  On 12 September 2006, he became the first backline player to be awarded the John Eales Medal and was later nominated by the International Rugby Board for Player of the Year, edged out for the award by New Zealand's Richie McCaw.  Latham suffered misfortune in early 2007 when he tore his anterior cruciate ligament in pre-season training with the Queensland Reds but managed to return for his third Rugby World Cup in October that year.  After a frustrating end to 2007 and start to the 2008 Super Rugby season where he battled a knee injury his representative career in Australia came to an untimely close in his return match against the Crusaders. In what should have been his penultimate appearance for the Queensland Reds, he ruptured his pectoral muscle 13 minutes into the game, drawing an end to his playing days on Australian soil as he'd already announced a move to Worcester for the following two seasons. The contract was estimated to be worth £325,000 a year, which would have made him the second highest wage earner in the English Premiership (Newcastle Falcons prop Carl Hayman tops the list)  After leaving Worcester, he joined Kyuden Voltex, a second-division club in Japan, on a two-year contract. He was also involved in skills training and backs coaching at Kyuden, and helped them win promotion to the top division for 2012–13 before retiring in 2012.  Stephen Jones, chief rugby correspondent for "The Times" and "The Sunday Times", rated Latham as the finest fullback he has ever seen.

Chris Latham (born 8 September 1975) is a former Australian rugby union player who enjoyed a distinguished representative career with the Queensland Reds and Australia between 1998 and 2007 before signing with Worcester Warriors in the UK and later Japanese club Kyuden Voltex.

Chris Latham, né le à Narrabri, est un joueur de rugby à XV australien occupant le poste d'arrière. Avec l'équipe d'Australie, dont il porte les couleurs à entre 1998 et 2007, il remporte un titre de champion du monde lors de l'édition de 1999. Il dispute deux autres éditions, en 2003 où l'Australie s'incline en finale et en 2007. Il joue en Australie avec Waratahs puis les Queensland Reds, avant de rejoindre le championnat anglais pour évoluer avec les Worcester Warriors puis le Japon, chez les.


Early life and education.

Adeane was the son of Captain Henry Robert Augustus Adeane (1882–1914), by his wife Hon. Victoria Eugenie Bigge (d.1969). His paternal grandfather was Admiral Edward Stanley Adeane, and his maternal grandfather was Arthur Bigge, 1st Baron Stamfordham, Private Secretary to Queen Victoria and King George V. Adeane was educated at Eton College and graduated from Magdalene College, Cambridge in 1934 with a Master of Arts degree.

Career.

After graduating Adeane travelled to Canada and was aide-de-camp to Lord Bessborough, Governor General of Canada from 1934 to 1935, and then to his successor, Lord Tweedsmuir until 1936.  Adeane then returned to England and became George VI's Assistant Private Secretary from 1945 after five and a half years on active military duty, a post he held until the latter's death in 1952. He continued in that post for Queen Elizabeth until 1953 when he was promoted to Private Secretary and admitted to the Privy Council.  In 1961, during a Royal visit to Nepal, Adeane was credited with a share of a tiger kill with Sir Christopher Bonham-Carter in a royal tiger hunt. The tiger shooting role had fallen to him after the Queen had declined, the Duke of Edinburgh had been unable to shoot due to having his trigger finger in a splint and the then Foreign Secretary Alec Douglas-Home had missed twice.

Personal life.

On 10 January 1939 Adeane married Helen Chetwynd-Stapleton (c.1920–c.1995), together they had a daughter and a son. Their son Edward Adeane, a barrister, was Private Secretary to the Prince of Wales from 1979–1985.  On 30 April 1984 Adeane died of heart failure in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was cremated at Golders Green crematorium.

Honours.

Adeane was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) in 1946, a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1947, he was promoted to Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) in 1951, and Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in 1955. In 1962 he was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) and in 1968 to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB).  In 1959, Adeane received the Grand Decoration in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria and on 20 April 1972, he was created a life peer as Baron Adeane, of Stamfordham in the County of Northumberland.

Legacy.

Adeane is portrayed on-screen in the Netflix original series "The Crown" by actor Will Keen. Following the recast of the series as of season 3, he is played by David Rintoul.

Michael Edward Adeane, Baron Adeane, (30 September 1910 – 30 April 1984) was Private Secretary to Elizabeth II for 19 years, between 1953 and 1972.

Michael Edward Adeane ( – ), baron Adeane à vie, fut le secrétaire privé et le conservateur des archives privées de la reine Élisabeth II de 1953 à 1972.


Coupe d'Europe des clubs champions de hockey sur glace

Format.

The competition featured the reigning club champions from the top six European hockey nations according to the IIHF World Ranking; these teams were known as the Super Six. Two groups of three played in a round-robin tournament, with the winners of each group facing off in a championship game. The two groups were named after international hockey legends Alexander Ragulin and Ivan Hlinka.

Participants and results (2005–2008).

2005 results.

Group A  Group B  Final

2006 results.

Alexander Ragulin division  Ivan Hlinka division  Final

2007 results.

2008 results.

Predecessors.

European Cup (1965–1997).

The European Cup, also known as the Europa Cup, was a European ice hockey club competition for champions of national leagues which was contested between 1965 and 1997.

European Hockey League (1996–2000).

The European Hockey League was a European ice hockey club competition which ran between the years 1996 and 2000.

IIHF Continental Cup (1997–present).

The Continental Cup is an ice hockey tournament for European clubs, begun in 1997 after the discontinuing of the IIHF European Cup. It was intended for teams from countries without representatives in the European Hockey League, with participating teams chosen by the countries' respective ice hockey associations.

IIHF Super Cup (1997–2000).

The IIHF Super Cup was an ice hockey event played between the champions of the two main European club tournaments at the time; it began in 1997 and ended in 2000.

Successors.

IIHF Champions Hockey League (2008–2009).

The Champions Hockey League was conducted by 14 teams of which 12 are in the group stage. It replaced the "IIHF European Champions Cup" in 2008. The league was staged for one year only.

Champions Hockey League (2014–present).

On December 9, 2013, the IIHF officially announced that they had launched a new tournament with a similar name as their previous tournament, born out of the European Trophy, starting in the 2014–15 season.

The IIHF European Champions Cup (ECC) was an annual event organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), which took place during a long weekend in early January. The winner was considered the official club champion of Europe by the IIHF. The Champions Cup was first played in 2005, as a replacement for the defunct European Cup (1965–1997), and the suspended European Hockey League (1996–2000). In the 2008–09 season, the ECC was replaced by the Champions Hockey League, which was the new official European club championship event. The new tournament was cancelled after only one season. However, another tournament with the same name was introduced in 2014.

La Coupe d'Europe des clubs champions, anciennement dénommée "Coupe des champions" de sa création en 2005 jusqu'en 2008, et aujourd'hui "Ligue des champions", est une compétition annuelle de hockey sur glace entre clubs européens organisée par la Fédération internationale de hockey sur glace (IIHF).


History.

The first fully documented use of the Grimsel Pass dates back to the 14th century, although it has been suggested that the pass was used in Roman times and also, in 1211, by troops of Berthold V, Duke of Zähringen. In 1397, the Landschaften of Pomat, Goms and Hasli, and the cities of Interlaken, Thun and Bern, signed an agreement in which it was agreed to provide for free and secure trade by the mule track over the Grimsel.  The Grimsel Pass formed, along with the Nufenen and Gries passes, a regional trade route between the Haslital and Domodossola and the Lombardy plain. Cheese and cattle were sent south, whilst wine, rice, corn and olive oil came north. This trade continued until the opening of the Gotthard railway in 1882.  The track over the pass was not upgraded to a paved road until 1894. Between the 1920s and the 1950s, several hydro-electric power plants were constructed in the area around the pass by Kraftwerke Oberhasli (KWO), which resulted in the expansion and diversion of the pass road. The KWO now promotes the pass and surrounding area as a visitor attraction, as part of its Grimselwelt tourism brand.

Geography.

The Grimsel Pass connects the cantons of Bern, to the north, and Valais, to the south, with the summit of the pass lying on the cantonal boundary. The northern slopes of the pass are in the Bernese municipality of Guttannen, whilst the southern slopes are within the Valais municipality of Obergoms.  The approach to the Grimsel Pass from the north commences in the small town of Meiringen (), from where access is possible down the Aare valley to Interlaken and Bern, and across the Brünig Pass to Obwalden and Lucerne. The approach passes the village of Innertkirchen (), where the road to the Susten Pass diverges, and continues alongside the Aare to Guttannen ().  Beyond Guttannen, and still following the river, the road passes a pair of short tunnels to Handegg (), where the lower station of the Gelmerbahn funicular, the steepest in Switzerland, is located. After Handegg the road climbs through several hairpin bends and an tunnel to the Räterichsbodensee reservoir. A further climb brings the road to the Grimselsee reservoir and the Grimsel Hospice (). Here the final climb to the summit commences, with several more sweeping hairpin bends.  At the summit are several hotels and an extensive area of parking. Here the road runs alongside the Totesee (), a natural lake that has been enlarged into a reservoir. To the west of the pass and lake is the peak of the Sidelhorn (), whilst to the east is the mountain range Schafberg ().  From the Totesee the pass road descends steeply through more hairpin bends to Gletsch() in the most upper valley of the Rhône, the Obergoms. Here connection is made with the Furka Pass, connecting with the canton of Uri, as well as the lower level route down the Rhône valley towards Brig through the Goms. A short distance down the Goms are Oberwald () and Ulrichen (). At the latter, a junction is made with Nufenen Pass, into the canton of Ticino, and the Gries Pass, to Domodossola in Italy.

Climate.

Due to the high altitude of the pass, and its continental location, the climate is cool or cold all year round, and receives a fair amount of precipitation year-round (the majority of which is snow). Snow usually falls from late September until late June, although during cool spells, it can snow at the height of summer. Most years, permanent snow fields remain at the pass, due to the temperature rarely rising above 15 °C. This area has a long winter season, with little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity. The Köppen climate classification classifies the climate here as subarctic, and abbreviates this as "Dfc".

The Grimsel Pass (; ; ) is a mountain pass in Switzerland, crossing the Bernese Alps at an elevation of. The pass connects the Haslital, the upper valley of the river Aare, with the upper valley of the Rhône. In so doing, and as the Aare is a tributary of the Rhine, the pass crosses the continental divide between the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.

Le col du Grimsel ("" en allemand) est un col de Suisse situé à d'altitude. Il relie Innertkirchen dans le Haslital (canton de Berne) à Gletsch (canton du Valais).


Biography.

Eric of Lorraine was born in Nancy on 14 March 1576 as a son of Nicolas, Duke of Mercœur and his third wife Catherine of Lorraine (1550–1606), daughter of Claude, Duke of Aumale. Some sources attribute a turbulent youth to him, which did not prevent him from being destined for a career in the Church; he was provided with the Abbey of St. Hydulphe at Moyenmoutier on 31 March 1588. He was also the commendatory abbot of the Monastery of St Vanne near Verdun. He was appointed bishop of Verdun in 1593 when he was only seventeen years of age.  By the end of the 16th century, with the religious world across western Europe undergoing the confrontation between the Protestant winds from Germany and the Counter-Reformation forces confronting them, there was a feeling that monasticism in Moyenmoutier had fallen into a sorry state. Eric undertook to restore a more orderly existence to the monks under his authority. He entrusted this task to Dom Didier de La Cour. In 1604 the resulting new constitution of the Congregation of St. Vanne and St. Hydulphe received Pope Clement VII's approval. The reforms became an important element in Catholic reform, being copied by other Catholic religious houses and congregations, most famously, in 1621, the Congregation of St. Maur.  In the following year he considered becoming a Jesuit. He went to Rome, but the Pope dissuaded him from this idea. He returned to Verdun in 1597 and, encouraged by Cardinal Bellarmine, showed himself a model bishop: he organized synods and played an important part in the reform of the Benedictine orders in Lorraine.  However, in 1605 he was involved in a scandal. He fell in love with and married a woman called Marie Dupuy (died 1640). Eric was suspended on 19 December 1605 and subsequently brought before the tribunal of the Inquisition. As punishment he was relegated to the Jesuits of Pont-à-Mousson. In his defense, he alleged that he was bewitched. As a result, Eric was exorcised before being re-established in his diocese in 1608.  In 1610, he renounced his office as bishop of Verdun in favor of his nephew Charles, and retreated to the Capuchins. He died in Nancy in 1623. Initially he was buried in the church of the convent of the Capuchins of Varangéville. In 1792 his remains were repatriated to the Church of Saint-François-des-Cordeliers.

Eric of Lorraine (14 March 1576 – 27 April 1623), count of Vaudémont, was a Bishop of Verdun and half brother of Louise of Lorraine, Queen consort of France.

Éric de Lorraine-Chaligny, né à Nancy le 14 mars 1576, mort à Nancy le 27 avril 1623, est évêque de Verdun de 1593 à 1611. Il est fils de Nicolas de Lorraine, duc de Mercœur, et de Catherine de Lorraine.