Geography.

The city is divided into a northern (locally known as the "Holy") and a southern part by the A20 motorway. On the east the city is (currently in part) separated from Schiedam by the A4 motorway. Other places nearby are Maassluis to the west, Schipluiden and Delft to the north, Schiedam and Rotterdam to the east and Spijkenisse in the south-west, on the other side of the Nieuwe Maas. The A20 connects Rotterdam to Hoek van Holland. The (the tunnel that runs under the Nieuwe Waterweg) connects the A20 to the A15.  The centre of the town is on the west side of the old harbour, which is originally a stream ('De Vlaarding') from the peat lands north and east of the town, running to the Meuse estuary.

History.

The area around Vlaardingen was already settled by about 2900 to 2600 BC. In 1990, a skeleton dated at about 1300 BC was dug up in the periphery of Vlaardingen; some human nuclear DNA was identified, the oldest found anywhere in the Netherlands. Although in the Roman Age a stronghold or maybe even a vicus "Flenio" must have been found in nowadays Vlaardingen, between roughly 250 CE and 700 CE the region seems to have been uninhabited, like much of the west of the Netherlands. In 726 or 727 the area is again mentioned as "In Pagio Marsum", where a little church was established, around which Vlaardingen formed. The church is mentioned on a list of churches Willibrord, the "Apostle to the Frisians", inhered to the Abbey of Echternach.  In 1018 Vlaardingen was a stronghold of Dirk III, who levied an illegal toll on ships on the Meuse river. An army sent by German Emperor Henry II in order to stop this practice was defeated by Dirk III in the (First) Battle of Vlaardingen. In 1047, his successor Dirk IV repelled another such attack (Second Battle of Vlaardingen). The first of these battles was commemorated in 2018 by a historical reenactment  The flood disaster of December 21, 1163 (Saint Thomas Flood), ended the growth of Vlaardingen. The Counts of Holland moved away and its development stagnated.  It is known that in 1273 Vlaardingen was granted city rights by Floris V, Count of Holland. Older city rights are possible, but not provable.  In 1574, during the Eighty Years War of Dutch independence, a group of Watergeuzen burnt down Vlaardingen as commanded by William of Orange to prevent the Spanish from capturing the town. Vlaardingen later became a shipbuilding area and a significant harbour for the herring fishing industry. The fishing boats (originally "haringbuizen", later also "sloepen" and "loggers") ceased to use Vlaardingen in the years after World War II.  In 1855 the former municipality of Zouteveen was merged into the municipality Vlaardingerambacht which in turn was merged with Vlaardingen during the occupation of the Netherlands in the Second World War by the Germans in 1941.  Because of the industrialization in and close to Vlaardingen, the city suffered from heavy air pollution and, sometimes, pathogenic smog during the 1970s. One day, a high school had to be closed because of the smog. Many environmental groups arose in and around Vlaardingen as it was seen as one of the most polluted cities of the country. Vlaardingen consists of 8 districts/neighbourhoods:

Politics.

Mayor: (PvdA)  Seats in the city council after the municipal elections in 2010:

Economy.

A Unilever research centre is located in Vlaardingen (located next to the former Sunlight factory, later called Lever Faberge Sourcing Unit Vlaardingen). There are still some ship repair business(es) in Eastern Vlaardingen beside the Nieuwe Maas River. The was for many years the largest privately owned artificial harbour in the world. The last major herring factory, Warmelo & Van Der Drift, left Vlaardingen in the middle of 2012 to relocate to Katwijk aan Zee. There are still some ferry terminals (DFDS Seaways, sailing to Felixstowe and Immingham and P&O Ferries sailing to Hull).

Attractions.

Monuments.

Historical buildings in the town include the "Grote Kerk" (Big Church), the "Waag" (Weighing Bridge) next to the church and the old town hall (used for weddings), all on the "Markt", the former marketplace, the "Visbank" (Fish Auction) at the harbour and the "Oude Lijnbaan" (Old Ropewalk, where ropes were made). The "Grote Kerk" was probably established between 1156 and 1164 and has been expanded, damaged and rebuilt. To the north of the old harbour is the old Aeolus) windmill, which operates and sells ground cereals. The harbour is a marina and open-air museum with old ships. At the harbour is the "" (before: " Visserijmuseum" and the "Visserij en Vlaardings Museum"), a museum dedicated to commercial sea fishing and lore. A war memorial to the crew of a Wellington bomber from No. 142 Squadron RAF killed when it was shot down over Vlaardingen in March 1942 has been erected in "Wijkpark Holy-Noord" in June 2012.  On "Emaus Cemetery" in Vlaardinger Ambacht six members of the resistance group "Geuzen" are buried. They were executed in March 1941. Nine adjacent headstones are symbolic for nine other members of the "Geuzen" who were also executed and buried elsewhere.

Events.

The "Vlaardings Loggerfestival" ("Logger" is a traditional ship used for herring fishery, the customary English name is "Lugger") is held on the first Saturday of June. The festival used to be called "Haring en Bierfeest" (translation: herring and beer festival), but in 2003 the mayor decided to rename it. In 2015, the name "Haring en Bierfeest" reappeared again.  Since 1987, the "Geuzenpenning" is an award that is yearly bestowed by a local foundation in cooperation with the town's municipality to human rights activists from all over the world.

Notable residents.

People who are born in or (have) lived in Vlaardingen:

Vlaardingen () is a city in South Holland in the Netherlands. It is located on the north bank of the Nieuwe Maas river at the confluence with the Oude Maas. The municipality administers an area of, of which is land, with residents in.

Flardingue (en néerlandais : "Vlaardingen" ) est une ville et une commune néerlandaise en Hollande-Méridionale située sur la Nouvelle Meuse. La commune fait partie du partenariat collaboratif de la région urbaine de Rotterdam et la région métropolitaine de Rotterdam-La Haye.


Geography.

The village is on a highlands terrace southeast of Innsbruck, crossed by numerous river valleys, below the Patscherkofel (). Aldrans is on the ancient salt road, which connected Hall in Tirol and Mühlbachl—now the regional road Landesstraße L 38 (Elbögener Straße); the road L 32 (Innsbrucker Straße) connects the village with Innsbruck. Its nearness to the city it makes a residential centre. Part of the municipal boundaries are Prockenhöfe, Wiesenhof, Rans and "Herzsee", a lake that is mainly used for fish breeding.  Neighbour municipalities are: Ampass, Ellbögen, Igls, Innsbruck, Lans, Rinn, Sistrans.

History.

Origin.

The origin of Aldrans as a settlement could date back to the late Bronze Age, after the discovery of a handle of a sword and other objects of Iron Age and La Tène culture. The first mention of the village is reported in a 955 document as "Alarein". In 1157 the village is mentioned in documents relating a donation, among the Counts of Andechs and the Tegernsee Abbey. In 1312, in a document, is mentioned "Alrains" derived from the old name of "Allrainer Veld". In the Middle Ages Aldrans was part of an important market, in cooperation with Ampass, because situated on the salt road benefiting from the transit trade. In the thirteenth century the territory was divided between the Sovereign and the Abbey of "Wilten".  The population was passionate of drama so much that, in 1750 and in 1757 play competitions, called "Martinsspiele", were organized and it was active the "Theatre of the Amazons" which were part only women. Aldrans in the nineteenth century was developed as a summer resort and in 1884 was directly connected to Innsbruck with a road.  At the edge of the village a broadcasting station was constructed in 1927. It was shut down on March 1., 1984 and afterward dismantled.  Aldrans figures in Thomas Bernhard's story "Amras".

Coat-of-arms.

The coat of arms represents the wings of an eagle in the air which form a lily leaf on a gold background. The wings of the eagle remember the insignia of the Counts of "Andechs", and the lily leaf that of the Abbey of "Tegernsee"; the emblem refers to the donation that took place in 1157. The emblem was adopted November 20, 1979.

Main sights.

In 1365 is the citation of a church in Aldrans, in 1426 began the construction of a new church in baroque style, inaugurated in 1482 and dedicated to Saint Martin. The church was transformed in the eighteenth century in Gothic style and in 1893 was destroyed by a fire, which devastated part of the village, than was rebuilt in Gothic style. In 1965 it was enlarged and in 1967 was elevated to parish.

Transport.

Aldrans is linked with Innsbruck with the "Mittelgebirgsbahn" (Highlands railways) Line 6 or with local buses from Innsbruck within 15 minutes.

Aldrans is a municipality in the Innsbruck-Land District, Tyrol (Austria) at an altitude of, which had an area of and 2,496 inhabitants as January 2015.

Aldrans est une commune du district d'Innsbruck-Land, au Tyrol (Autriche). Elle comportait environ (en 2001). Aldrans se situe à l'est de la ville d'Innsbruck.


Toponymy.

Cardigan is an anglicisation of the Welsh "" ("Ceredig's land"), the surrounding territory its Norman castle once controlled. Ceredig was supposedly one of the sons of Cunedda Wledig, who Welsh legend records invaded from the north to recover lands in Roman Britain from invading Irishmen in late antiquity.  The Welsh name'refers to its position by the mouth (') of the River Teifi.

History.

Roman Britain.

The nearest known Roman forts were at Loventium and Bremia at the gold mines near Llanio above the River Teifi on the Sarn Helen road.

Middle ages.

The present town grew up near the medieval forts established to control the access of the Teifi and its confluents to Cardigan Bay on the Irish Sea. A castle was built by Roger de Montgomery in 1093 after a Norman army conquered Ceredigion. Its hinterland was regained by Owain Gwynedd, Cadwaladr ap Gruffydd, and Gruffydd ap Rhys in October 1136 after their victory at Crug Mawr over Norman forces army led by Roberts fitz Martin and fitz Stephen and Maurice FitzGerald. The town itself held out until 1164. Rhys ap Gruffydd fortified the town and was credited with the establishment of the castle near the bridge over the Teifi. In 1176, he instituted the first eisteddfod. Contestants came from all over the British Isles to compete for chairs in music and poetry. Lord Rhys' grandson Maelgwn razed the castle and sacked the town.  In 1199 the town received its first charter and became an important trade centre. In 1227 a weekly market was established which continues to this day. Welsh rule over Cardigan continued, for some periods under royal lordship, until it was annexed to the English crown in 1283 when the country of Cardiganshire was created. The town wall was built in the 1240s and the castle was rebuilt. St Mary's Church was established as a Benedictine Priory and parish church in mediaeval times and survived the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The castle ceased being the administrative centre of the county with the Act of Union in 1536 and by the early 17th century was already falling into ruins.

Early modern period.

Until the 16th century, Cardigan had been a small, walled town with some river traffic. A small Benedictine priory operated until the Reformation and the more important abbey of St Dogmael's was also nearby. With Wales formally annexed by England through the Laws in Wales Acts, political and domestic stability boosted economic prosperity through the increase in maritime trade. At the end of the 16th century the port's principal trade was fishing, but over the next century trade expanded to include a range of imports and exports, and a Customs House was established to collect revenues.  During the Civil War, the town's castle was held for a time by the Royalists. In the 17th century, the residence erected around the old priory was famed as the home of Orinda (Catherine Philips), the friend of Jeremy Taylor.  The herring fishery developed and by the beginning of the 18th century there was a large merchant fleet. Exports included herring and salmon, slate, bark for tanning, corn and ale. Imports included oranges, manufactured goods, building materials and coal. Industries that developed included shipbuilding, brickworks, a foundry, ropemakers and sailmakers.  A county jail was erected in 1793.  In 1819, the ship "Albion" left Cardigan for New Brunswick, carrying the first Welsh settlers to Canada; on board were 27 Cardigan families, many of whom were farmers.

Commercial centre.

In the 18th and early 19th century, Cardigan was the commercial centre of its county and the most important port in South Wales, exporting slate, oats, barley, and butter. In 1815, it possessed 314 ships totaling. This was seven times as many vessels as Cardiff and three times as many as Swansea. It had a thriving shipbuilding industry, with over 200 vessels being built both in Cardigan and downstream in the village of Llandudoch (St Dogmaels). By mid-century, it was connected with the Welsh rail network but its harbour was obstructed by a sand bar that made it dangerous for vessels over 300 tons burden except during the high spring tides.  Rural industries and craftsmen were an important part of life in a country town. Information recorded in "Trade Directories" show that in 1830 there were "Thirteen boot makers, three bakers, one miller, four blacksmiths, seven carpenters, two coopers, six tailors, five dressmakers and milliners, two straw hat makers, two weavers, three curriers, three saddlers, two whitesmiths, four glaziers, five maltsters, two printers, two tanners and one stonemason". The houses were mostly of slate and the streets narrow, steep, and irregular, with a grammar school erected in 1804 and a national school in 1848. The town also had a public library.  The Guildhall with open ground behind was built during 1858–60; erected on the site of the old grammar school, a house and a coach-house owned by Abraham Morgan. The cost of building was £1,880 5s for the front buildings, and £2,174 15s for the markets. By the mid-19th century there were more than 60 taverns in the town. The decline of the port was hastened by the coming of the railway in 1886. The river silted up and larger vessels could no longer reach the port, which had largely become inactive by the early part of the 20th century. Plans for dredging came to nothing.  For the last 40 years of the 20th century, a factory in the town made 35,000 pairs of jeans per week for Marks & Spencer, but closed in 2002 with the loss of 400 jobs when M&S sourced from overseas. A new jeans manufacturer - the Hiut Denim Company - opened in 2012, employing some of the original staff and in 2017 became globally recognised for its connection with Meghan Markle. In 2006 and 2008, the town undertook a coordinated programme of building works, sympathetically restoring many of the shop facades in the town centre. The quayside has been rebuilt with a new civic area and landing stage.  Until 2011, traders in Cardigan were represented by the Chamber of Commerce. Cardigan Traders' Group was set up in that year, attracting half of the members of the Chamber of Commerce. The new group was set to meet in February 2011 to decide how to proceed.  Cardigan was named one of the best places to live in Wales in 2017.

Geography.

Cardigan lies astride the Afon Teifi and includes the last bridging point of the river before the sea northwest. It is northwest of Cardiff and from London. The majority of the town was north of the river before the 20th century. Afon Mwldan which flows south to the west of the town centre has suffered from pollution. The town and rivers are prone to flooding. An earthquake of magnitude 4.4 was felt in the community on 17 February 2018; this was the biggest UK earthquake in ten years.  Local Glaciolacustrine clay from brickpits in Bath House Road and on the site of King George's field was used for brickmaking until the early 20th century.

Climate.

Cardigan experiences a maritime climate with comfortable summers and cold winters. The nearest Met Office weather station for which online records are available is at Aberporth approximately east-northeast.  Typically, fewer than 3 days of the year will reach a value above. The highest temperature recorded at Aberporth was, on 19 July 2006. On average 18.3 nights will report air frost and the coldest night of the year should fall to. The coldest month was January 1963, with a mean minimum temperature of.  Rainfall averages around per year, with at least falling on 146.4 days.

Cardigan Castle.

In 1176, Cardigan Castle became the site of the first competitive Eisteddfod. Cardigan also hosted the National Eisteddfod of Wales in 1942 and 1976. The castle was for many years privately owned and became run down and derelict. The town council itself showed little interest in saving it. However, a group of volunteers and the local Catholic priest, Seamus Cunane, working separately, did raise its profile. Ceredigion County Council bought it in 2003. The castle and house underwent restoration in 2014.  The castle is open to the public. There is luxury accommodation for hire, a heritage centre with education facilities, a restaurant, an events and open-air concert area, and there are rooms for hire for classes.

Listed buildings.

Including the castle (Grade I-listed) and the old bridge (Grade II*), there are over 100 listed buildings in Cardigan community, most in the town itself.

Demographics.

Cardigan is the second largest town in Ceredigion with 4,203 inhabitants (2001), reducing slightly to 4,184 at the 2011 census.  It is a Welsh language-speaking community.At the 2001 census more than 69% of the residents were recorded as being able to speak or understand spoken Welsh, with 45% able to speak, read and write in the language. In 2011 54.6% were able to speak Welsh. In 1176, and again 800 years later, the National Eisteddfod was held in the town (also in 1942). In 2003 the community, together with the Welsh Language Board, set up a language action plan designed to provide opportunities for people of all ages to get together to speak Welsh. The county council, Twf, Mudiad Ysgolion Meithrin, the Urdd, Cardigan town council, the local Young Farmers, Menter Aberteifi and the board are now working together in pursuit of this objective.

Local government.

Cardigan is an ancient borough which had its own municipal council from the early nineteenth century. In 1889, Cardiganshire County Council was formed although the former county town was rarely the venue for its meetings. Levi James, one of the town's two inaugural county councillors, was immediately made an alderman and became the second chairman of the council. Cardigan is a significant regional administrative centre for West Wales.  Cardigan Town Council comprises thirteen councillors who represent the local community. Following the 2017 election the council was unique in Wales for having a female majority (seven women, six men).

Amenities.

The town has a hospital, college, modern arts centre (with three-screen cinema), theatre and recently refurbished 19th century guildhall housing market stalls; for shopping there are supermarkets, town centre shops and several trading estates.

Education.

Cardigan's college, "Coleg Ceredigion", is located north of the town centre and educates 700 full-time and 2,000 part-time students in both Welsh and English languages, and is Ceredigion's only further education college. The college became a constituent college of the University of Wales Trinity Saint David. In a special ceremony at the Guildhall, the university's vice-chancellor, Prof Medwin Hughes, chair of the university council, Ven Randolph Thomas and Dr. Brinley Jones, president of UWTSD officially welcomed Coleg Ceredigion to the UWTSD group.  The college and Cardigan Secondary School, "Ysgol Uwchradd Aberteifi" share the same site. "Ysgol Gynradd Gymunedol Aberteifi" was established in 2008 when the former Cardigan Infant and Cardigan Junior schools were combined. The school educates more than 300 pupils.

Worship.

The parish church is dedicated to St Mary.  Cardigan is the site of Our Lady of Cardigan, a Roman Catholic shrine, also known as the shrine to Our Lady of the Taper.  Other churches include:

Leisure activities.

There is a leisure centre in the grounds of the college offering sport and fitness facilities, and a swimming pool and leisure complex (a registered charity opened in 1977) in Napier Street. A public library was situated in 'Canolfan Teifi' near the Guildhall and Corn Exchange, but, in July 2017 moved to the local Council Offices on Morgan street.

Sport.

Cardigan Rugby Football Club was founded in 1876 and plays in WRU Division Two West. It is a feeder club for the Llanelli Scarlets.  Cardigan Golf Club is a 6,500-yard 18 hole clifftop course at Gwbert, north of the town. The current clubhouse was opened in 1977 but the links course originated with 9 holes in 1895.  A blue plaque was put up at Cardigan Quay in 2018 to honour multiple powerboat champion, boat-builder and commentator Jonathan Jones in his home town.

River.

Moorings in the River Teifi are under the control of Afon Teifi Fairways and there is some deepwater mooring on the south bank downstream of the old bridge. Other midstream moorings exist from Cardigan downstream to the estuary and there are occasional slipways on both sides of the river. There is an activity centre by the old bridge for kayaking in the river when tide and river conditions permit.  Cardigan Lifeboat Station is situated at Poppit Sands on the Teifi estuary, having been operational since 1849 apart from the period 1872–1931. Its boathouse and shop are open to the public during the summer months.

Annual events.

Barley Saturday, an agricultural event, has been held in the town on the Saturday following the last Friday in April since the 19th century. Historically the farmers from the surrounding area would come to the town to hire workers and to inspect stallions that are put out to stud. In modern times the horses have become the centre of attention. After judging, the horses are paraded through the town followed by vintage tractors, cars and motorbikes.  In August there is a wine and food festival.

Infrastructure.

The A487 coastal trunk road provides links to the northeast and southwest; the A478 south to Narberth and Tenby and the A484 southeast to Swansea. A bypass was constructed to the southeast of the town in 1989–90, including a new concrete bridge (Priory Bridge) over the River Teifi. Bus services link Cardigan with most nearby towns and villages in Ceredigion, Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire.  Cardigan railway station was the terminus of the Whitland and Cardigan Railway. On 2 August 1877, The Whitland and Taff Vale Railway Company obtained authorisation to extend the line to Cardigan. Completion to Cardigan was slow; the opening was finally achieved on 1 September 1886 and on the same day the Great Western Railway took over the working of the line.  The railway station closed to passengers prior to the Beeching Axe on 10 September 1962 but remained open to goods traffic until 27 May 1963. After that, the station remained open as a coal depot until April 1965, staffed by British Railways staff until November 1964. Final closure came on 6 September 1965. The old goods shed marks the site of the former station. A local Welsh language newspaper uses the nickname of the line, "Cardi bach", as does the shuttle bus service between Cardigan and New Quay.  The section of old trackbed between Cardigan and Cilgerran is now a footpath and cycle track to the Teifi estuary woodlands and marshes and the Welsh Wildlife Centre.

Notable people.

Rugby players Owen Evans and Brynmor Williams were born in Cardigan. American politician and colonel Elisha Lawrence died in Cardigan, and actor Gareth Milton, who was born in Aberystwyth, was brought up in Cardigan.

Cardigan (, ) is a town and community in the county of Ceredigion in Wales. The town lies on a tidal reach of the River Teifi at the point where Ceredigion, formerly Cardiganshire, meets Pembrokeshire. Cardigan was the county town of the historic county and is the second-largest town in Ceredigion. The largest town, Aberystwyth, is one of the two administrative centres; the other is Aberaeron.

Aberteifi (nom officiel gallois) ou Cardigan (en anglais), une ville du comté du Ceredigion à l'ouest du pays de Galles. Le nom anglais « Cardigan » est une anglicisation basée sur la prononciation de Ceredigion.


Architecture.

The Fourplex is an example of Mediterranean Revival Style architecture. It is laid out on a rectangular plan with each floor divided into an east and a west apartment. The building is clad in smooth stucco typical of the Mediterranean style, and has a flat roof. The south elevation is symmetrical and features an enclosed entry porch having a pointed horseshoe arch in a Moorish style, decorated with wooden false beams.  Above the entry porch is a rectangular salient holding a pair of arched windows divided by a spiraled-column mullion. The windows are inset in a deep blind arch. Both the porch and the salient have tiled pent roofs. Flanking the entry porch are large tri-partate windows surrounded by highly decorated frames; above each of these is a pair of blind arches with decorative ceramic tiles inset in tympanums. Each arch has a double hung window, one over, and a corbelled wrought-iron balconet. The east and west sides of the building have stuccoed balconies at the first and second floor, chimneys servicing both levels, and flanking windows. The north elevation (rear) is fairly plain, except for an interesting arrangement of windows and a rear door.

Building facts.

The Francis Marion Stokes Fourplex is located at 2253 N.W. Pettygrove St, in the same block as historic Pettygrove House, a Victorian house built in 1892 and former home to Francis Pettygrove, the man who named Portland as a prize in a coin-toss.  The Fourplex is located on a lot. Each of the two floors has of living space divided into two apartments per floor.

The Architect.

Francis Marion Stokes designed the building in 1926 for Esther Kuhn of Portland, Oregon. Stokes became owner of the building the same year and lived in it, in Unit #2, from 1929 until his death in 1975. Most of Stokes' work, which had a considerable influence on Portland's architecture, was completed during the 46 years that he lived in the Fourplex.

National Register.

The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in February 1996. Prior to its listing on the Register, the Fourplex was also known as the Kuhn Apartments.

The Francis Marion Stokes Fourplex is a historic residential building located in the Northwest district of Portland, Oregon, United States.

Le Quadruplex de Francis Marion Stokes est un bâtiment historique situé dans le de Portland aux États-Unis. 'Quadruplex' signifie, dans ce contexte, un immeuble résidentiel comprenant quatre appartements.


Club career.

Born in Leça da Palmeira, Nené made his professional debuts with S.L. Benfica in 1968, and remained a key fixture with the club until his retirement almost twenty years later, at nearly 37. In the 1972–73 season, he was a star player for a side which became Primeira Liga champion without a single defeat (28 matches won – 23 consecutively – out of 30): the team scored 101 goals, breaking 100 for only the second time in its history.  Nené was the Portuguese Footballer of the Year in 1971 and also runner-up in 1972, which was achieved whilst competing with teammate Eusébio. He ranked second in Benfica's scoring lists in European competitions with 28 goals in 75 appearances, and played in the 1982–83 UEFA Cup finals, in an aggregate loss to R.S.C. Anderlecht.  As a player, Nené won 11 national championships with his only club. After ending his career, with overall totals of 577 games and 361 goals, he became a youth coach at the Estádio da Luz.

International career.

Nené earned 66 caps for Portugal, ranking joint-ninth (with Simão Sabrosa) in the goalscoring charts at 22. He was their record appearance maker until 1994, when it was broken by FC Porto's João Domingos Pinto.  Nené made his debut on 21 April 1971, in a 2–0 home win against Scotland for the UEFA Euro 1972 qualifiers. Selected for the Euro 1984 tournament, he netted the game's only goal against Romania in the last group stage encounter, becoming the oldest player to score in the European championship finals at 34 years and 213 days; his effort led the national team to the semi-finals versus hosts France, where he played as a substitute but could not help avoid the 2–3 extra time defeat.  Nené's record was only broken 24 years later, when Ivica Vastić scored for Austria at Euro 2008 against Poland.

Tamagnini Manuel Gomes Batista (born 20 November 1949), known as Nené (), is a retired Portuguese professional footballer. A prolific striker, he played his entire career with Benfica, appearing in nearly 600 official games for the club and winning 19 titles, a record for several years.

Tamagnini Manuel Gomes Baptista, plus communément appelé Tamagnini Nené ou simplement Nené, né le à Leça da Palmeira est un footballeur portugais. Il évoluait au poste d'attaquant.


Plot.

After pulling a harmless prank, Homer is banned from Moe's Tavern and must find another bar. Homer eventually settles for an airline pilots' bar, where he is mistaken for a pilot and put in the cockpit of an airplane, which he promptly wrecks. In exchange for his silence about its mistake, the airline gives the Simpson family free tickets to any of the lower 48 states.  The idea of plane travel fills Marge with anxiety because she has a fear of flying. After several failed attempts to avoid the trip, she has a panic attack on the plane, so the trip is postponed. To conquer Marge's phobia, Homer rents fiction films with airplane themes. This backfires when one film shows the survivors of a plane crash surviving by eating the dead crew and passengers.  When Marge shows signs of lingering flight-related trauma, Lisa convinces her to undergo psychotherapy with Dr. Zweig. She uncovers the roots of Marge's fear: the moment she realized her father was not a pilot, but a flight attendant. Her shame is eased when Zweig assures her that male flight attendants are now very common and that her father could be considered a pioneer.  Thinking she has finally conquered her fear of flying, Marge boards a plane with Homer. The plane skids off the runway and lands in a body of water.

Production.

"Fear of Flying" was directed by Mark Kirkland, and written by David Sacks. The story of the episode came about when Sacks came into the writers' room with an idea for an episode where Marge goes to a therapist "for one reason or another". Sacks and the other writers then structured the rest of the plot around that storyline. Anne Bancroft was called in to voice Zweig. Before Bancroft recorded her part, the animators based Zweig's design on a temp track from cast member Tress MacNeille as the therapist. After Bancroft had recorded her part, Zweig was redesigned to fit with Bancroft's voice. They added split glasses and a streak of silver in her hair to give her a more mature look.  The staff were able to get the central cast of the American sitcom "Cheers", with the exception of Kelsey Grammer, to reunite and guest star in the episode. The staff could not arrange the script to allow time in the episode for Grammer, who already had a recurring role on "The Simpsons" as Sideshow Bob, to voice Frasier Crane (although the character does have a non speaking cameo in the episode). Ted Danson guest starred as Sam, Woody Harrelson as Woody, Rhea Perlman as Carla, John Ratzenberger as Cliff, and George Wendt as Norm.

Cultural references.

Homer enters the Cheers bar in a scene which is a parody of a typical episode of the comedy series "Cheers". All of the speaking characters are voiced by the actors who played them in "Cheers". Ironically, Frasier Crane remains silent despite being played by "The Simpsons" veteran Kelsey Grammer, the voice of Sideshow Bob. Marge's dream sees her in the role of Maureen Robinson from "Lost in Space", while Homer plays Dr. Zachary Smith and Lisa plays the Robot. The scene where Marge and Jacqueline Bouvier duck down when a biplane shoots at them in a cornfield is a parody of Alfred Hitchcock's film "North by Northwest".  Homer's Mount Lushmore caricature resembles Eustace Tilley, the mascot of "The New Yorker". Homer's line about getting out of Springfield is lifted from "It's a Wonderful Life", while Homer's all-time favorite song is revealed to be "It's Raining Men" by The Weather Girls. Marge referring to Dr. Zweig as "Lowenstein" is a reference to the 1991 film "The" "Prince" "of" "Tides".

Reception.

In its original broadcast, "Fear of Flying" finished 48th (tied with "Dateline NBC") in the ratings for the week of December 12 to December 18, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 9.6. The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week, beaten only by "Beverly Hills, 90210", and "Married... with Children".  Since airing, the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics.  In July 2007, Simon Crerar of "The Times" listed the "Cheers" cast's performance as one of the thirty-three funniest cameos in the history of the show.  Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book "I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide", said it was "a good Marge-centric episode with plenty of clever set pieces – the tributes to "Cheers" and "Lost in Space" are fantastic", and noted that "Marge's father looks suspiciously like Moe".  Ryan Keefer at DVD Verdict said that "with the cast of "Cheers" appearing (except for Grammer, ironically) and a funny spoof of "North by Northwest", the episode is much better than you would expect", and gave it a B+.  Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD that it was "another show I didn’t recall fondly but that works exceedingly well. I hadn’t realized how many quotes I’ve stolen from this one: the name 'Guy Incognito', the dog with the puffy tail, 'a burden coupled with a hassle'. The show makes little sense in regard to continuity since Marge has flown during prior shows, but it’s consistently very funny and entertaining."  "The Phoenix" named Anne Bancroft one of the twenty best guest stars to appear on the show.

Merchandise.

The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes titled: "The Simpsons Go To Hollywood". Other episodes included in the collection set were "Flaming Moe's", "Krusty Gets Kancelled", and "Homer to the Max". "Fear of Flying" was again included in the 2003 DVD release of the same set. It was included in "The Simpsons" season 6 DVD set, which was released on August 16, 2005, as "The Simpsons – The Complete Sixth Season".

"Fear of Flying" is the eleventh episode of "The Simpsons"' sixth season. It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 18, 1994. In the episode, the family attempts to go on a vacation but soon discover that Marge is afraid of flying.

La Peur de l'avion (France) ou La Peur de voler (Québec) ("") est le de la saison 6 de la série télévisée d'animation "Les Simpson".


Réserve nationale Salinas y Aguada Blanca

History.

The area was declared a national reserve on 9 August 1979 by decree N° 070-79-AA. Lake Salinas and Lake Del Indio, both located inside the reserve, were designated as a Ramsar sites in 2003.

Geography.

Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve is located in the provinces of Caylloma and Arequipa in the region of Arequipa; and a small part in the province of Sanchez Cerro in the region of Moquegua. It spans an area of which covers the headwaters of important local rivers like Yura and Chili.  The landscape features high Andean plateaus dotted by lakes and meadows; and surrounded by volcanoes like Ubinas, Misti, Pichu Pichu and Chachani in the southwest and by mounts Chuccura and Huarancante in the north. Although initially declared an area with the aim to protect local camelids, flamingoes and Andean forests, it has since become a protected water source for the city of Arequipa. Precipitation carried by the eastern winds is captured by the local vegetation and stored in the lakes, meadows and soil; thus giving a valuable environmental service to the region.  The reserve is populated to some extent; most of its territory belongs to thirteen peasant communities and more than 100 private smallholders recognized by law.

Ecology.

The area is representative of the puna ecosystem.

Flora.

A total of 358 plant species in 155 genera and 47 families have been found in the area, mostly shrubs and herbs; only one species is a tree ("Polylepis" sp.) which forms pure stands. Some plants found in the reserve are: "Jarava ichu, Nassella depauperata, Lepidophyllum quadrangulare, Parastrephia lepidophylla, Festuca ortophylla, Nassella mexicana, Azorella compacta, Pycnophyllum molle, Werneria paposa, Calamagrostis curvula, Baccharis buxifolia, Alchemilla pinnata, Distichia muscoides, Ranunculus flagelliformis", "Myrosmodes" sp., among others.

Fauna.

Some mammals native to the reserve are: the llama, the alpaca, the vicuña, the guanaco, the taruca, the vizcacha, the puma, the Andean mountain cat, the colocolo and the Andean fox.  Among the birds native to the reserve are: the Andean goose, the crested duck, the Andean flamingo, James's flamingo, the Tamarugo conebill, the silvery grebe and the giant coot.  Two threatened species of amphibians, "Telmatobius arequipensis" and "Rhinella spinulosa", inhabit the reserve.

Activities.

Biking and trekking can be done in the numerous paths inside the reserve, while enjoying the landscape emmarked by the volcanoes of the area where mountaineering can be practiced. It is possible to visit volcanic and geothermal land features like the Chucura volcanic crater and the Umalaso hot springs.

Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve is a protected area located in the regions of Arequipa and Moquegua; Peru. The main purpose of this area is to protect the local flora, fauna and landscape formations.

La réserve nationale Salinas y Aguada Blanca se situe dans les régions péruviennes d'Arequipa (provinces d'Arequipa et Caylloma) et Moquegua (General Sánchez Cerro).


Early life.

A weak child since his birth, he suffered paralysis in one foot and was dependent on wheelchairs early in life. In a well-known portrait, which shows his Wettin and Wittelsbach relatives around him, he appears in his wheelchair. Today, this painting is shown in the Schloss Nymphenburg. His mother tried repeatedly to induce him to take monastic vows and renounce his succession rights in favour of his younger brothers, but he refused.  The early deaths of his two older brothers, Frederick Augustus (1721), who was stillborn, and Joseph Augustus (1728), made him the heir to the throne. When his father died, on 5 October 1763, Frederick Christian succeeded him as Elector.  Even before, Frederick Christian had written in his diary: ""Princes exist for their subjects, not subjects for their princes. His subjects' wealth, public credit and a well-standing army make up the true happiness of a prince,"" thereby openly declaring himself open to the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment. He was also known for his considerable musical talent.

Marriage.

In Munich on 13 June 1747 (by proxy) and again in Dresden on 20 June 1747 (in person), Frederick Christian married his cousin Maria Antonia of Bavaria. Like him, she was exceptionally talented in music and the couple had nine children.

Reign as Elector.

One of his first acts as Elector was the dismissal of the extremely unpopular prime minister, the Count Heinrich von Brühl, who had plunged Saxony into crisis, first with his failed economic policy, but particularly by his catastrophic foreign policy, which caused the Electorate to become involved in the Seven Years' War.  He began to reconstruct the wrecked finances of his country through his ""Rétablissements"": reforms of the policies of the electorate states. Through economic reconstruction, he gave new life to the devastated and plundered land which his predecessors had left him. Also introduced were measures to pare down the expenses of the court, and to simplify administration in accordance with principles of economy. Most members of his government, such as Thomas von Fritsch of Leipzig, Friedrich Ludwig Wurmb, and Christian Gotthelf Gutschmied had middle-class origins.  After a reign of only 74 days, Frederick Christian died of smallpox. He was buried in the Hofkirche of Dresden.  Because Frederick Christian's eldest son was a minor, his brother Franz Xavier and the Dowager Electress Maria Antonia took the joint regency of the Electorate until the boy's majority.

External links.

Frederick Christian (; 5 September 1722 – 17 December 1763) was the Prince-Elector of Saxony for fewer than three months in 1763. He was a member of the House of Wettin. He was the third but eldest surviving son of Frederick Augustus II, Prince-Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, by his wife, Maria Josepha of Austria.

Frédéric IV de Saxe (en allemand : "Friedrich Christian Leopold Johan George Frans Xaverius von Sachsen"), né le et mort le, est électeur de Saxe, comte palatin de Saxe et margrave de Misnie d'octobre à décembre 1763.


Plot.

In Moscow during the world chess tournament of 1925, the hero (Vladimir Fogel) and heroine (Anna Zemtsova) of the story are engaged to be married. Caught up in a society-wide chess fever, the hero forgets about his marital obligations and must beg for her forgiveness. As he kneels before his dismayed fiancée on a checkered cloth, the hero becomes distracted and starts to play chess. Enraged, the heroine throws his chess themed belongings out of the window and forces him to leave. Now separated, the heroine finds herself at a pharmacy, intending to obtain poison to kill herself. Meanwhile, the hero dejectedly sits on a bridge above a river, throwing what's left of his chess possessions into the water. Rather than throwing himself off the bridge as well, he realizes the importance of love and resolves to find the heroine and apologize. It is at this time that the heroine raises what she thinks is a vial of poison to her lips. However, she is stopped when she realizes that she was mistakenly given a chess piece by the distracted chemist. The heroine's distress is interrupted by World Chess Champion José Raúl Capablanca, who tells her that, in the company of a beautiful woman, he too hates chess. The two become friends and drive off as the hero arrives. The hero, with nothing left to do but return to chess, attends the tournament. Looking into the crowd, he is shocked to find his fiancée excitedly watching the game. He runs to her and the two embrace, united by their love for chess, and the film ends with them playing the game together.

Production.

Development.

"Chess Fever" is the directorial debut of Vsevolod Pudovkin, who had previously worked as a screenwriter, actor, and art director, and as an assistant to Lev Kuleshov. Pudovkin and Shpikovsky made this short silent comedy film in less than a month. It combines acted scenes with actual footage from the chess tournament occurring at this time and includes many cameos from Chess Champions and grandmasters. The film also features many Russian and Soviet film directors, such as Boris Barnet, Fedor Ozep, Yuli Raizman, and Yakov Protazanov.

Cultural Influence.

"Chess Fever" influenced author Vladimir Nabokov's 1930 novel "The Luzhin Defence", published in the United States as "The Defense". There are parallels within the two works, such as the main characters' inward and outward dispositions and the central love story present in both. The hero in "Chess Fever" is similar to Aleksandr Ivanovich Luzhin, the protagonist in Nabokov's novel; both are oblivious and idiosyncratic in nature, with a similar attire of checkered clothing and high degree of self-absorption. They are overcome with their obsession of chess and have difficulty merging their romantic relationships with their love for chess. Pudovkin's short film is the basis for Nabokov's novel, which went on to be made into a film.

Chess Fever () is a 1925 Soviet silent comedy film directed by Vsevolod Pudovkin and Nikolai Shpikovsky. "Chess Fever" is a comedy about the Moscow 1925 chess tournament, made by Pudovkin during the pause in the filming of "Mechanics of the Brain". The film combines acted parts with actual footage from the tournament.

La Fièvre des échecs ("Shakhmatnaïa goriachka") est une comédie soviétique de Vsevolod Poudovkine de 1925. Il s'agit d'un court métrage d'une vingtaine de minutes, muet. Il fut tourné à l'occasion du tournoi de Moscou de 1925 et utilise des images tournées à l'occasion de ce tournoi ; ainsi, on peut voir dans le film les grands maîtres qui y participaient.


Geography.

Overview.

Novosibirsk Oblast is located in the south of the West Siberian Plain, at the foothills of low Salair ridge, between the Ob and Irtysh Rivers. The oblast borders Omsk Oblast in the west, Tomsk Oblast in the north, Kemerovo Oblast in the east, and Altai Krai together with Kazakhstan (Pavlodar Province) in the south. The territory of the oblast extends for more than from west to east, and for over from north to south. The oblast is mainly plain; in the south the steppes prevail; in the north enormous tracts of woodland with great number of marshes prevail. There are many lakes, the largest ones located at the south. The majority of the rivers belong to the Ob basin, many of them falling in dead lakes. Among the largest lakes are Chany, Sartlan and Ubinskoye.

Natural resources.

As of 2007, the oil reserves of the region amounted to 204 million tons. In addition, Novosibirsk Oblast had free gas reserves of 600 million cubic meters, solute gas reserves of 5.2 billion cubic meters, and gas condensate reserves of 121,000 tons. Most of the oil and gas reserves are located in the Severny and Kyshtovsky districts.  The following metals can be found in the region: zirconium dioxide (0.7 million tons), titanium dioxide (2.9 million tons), bauxite (2,068,000 tons), and tin (588,000 tons). In addition, there are twenty-three fields of alluvial placer gold in the region (nineteen of which were being developed and prospected in 2006) and seven residual soil gold fields suitable for open-cut mining in the southeast.  Novosibirsk Oblast has 5.527 million tons of high-quality anthracite, as well as 2.720 million tons of long-flame and coking coal. Most of these are located in the Iskitim and Toguchin districts. The north part of the region also has peat fields with estimated reserves of 7.6 billion tons. Prospected mineral water reserves in the region amount to 6,948 cubic meters per day. The popular Karachinskaya mineral water originates from the region.  The oblast has 4,531,800 hectares of forests, with 509.88 million cubic meters of timber reserves. Most of the region's forests consist of softwood. Softwood forests cover an area of 3,481,300 hectares, while softwood timber is spread out over 387.96 million cubic meters. Coniferous forests - located mostly near the Ob River and the Salair Ridge - cover an area of 1,011,900 hectares with timber reserves of 121.39 million cubic meters. The economic potential of the forests is reduced by the fact that most of them are located in the north of the region, in areas that are difficult to access.

Climate.

Novosibirsk Oblast has a continental climate. Average temperature is in January and in July. Annual precipitation is.

History.

During the Middle Ages the region was populated by Siberian Tatar and Teleut tribes. Being constantly raided by Kalmyk nomads throughout the first centuries of the exploration of Siberia future Novosibirsk Oblast did not attract many Russian colonists, who preferred to settle around more northerly Tomsk. The first Russian village Maslyanino was founded in 1644. In 1716, officer Ivan Butkeyev built the Berd fortress that later became the city of Berdsk, the main center of future colonization and development of the region. Like many other parts of Siberia, the Berd lands became a safe haven for political dissents, fugitive serfs and religious sects from all across Russia.  For the most parts of its history, the Novosibirsk Oblast belonged to the Tomsk administration, initially as a part of the Tomsk uyezd of the Tobolsk Governorate and later, starting with 1804, the separate Tomsk Governorate. The turning point in history of the region was the construction of the Trans-Siberian and the Turkestan–Siberian railways. Founded in 1893, Novosibirsk, then Novonikolayevsk, became a transport hub of sub-regional importance and surpassed other major Siberian cities like Omsk and Tomsk in mere decades. In 1920, the capital of the Tomsk Governorate was moved to Novonikolayevsk, in 1921 the Novonikolayevsk Governorate was established. In 1925, most of the Siberian governorates were united as the Siberian Krai with Novosibirsk as the capital. In 1930, it was split into West Siberian (Novosibirsk) and East Siberian (Irkutsk) krais, the former existed until 1937. The Novosibirsk Oblast was finally established on September 28, 1937. Kemerovo and Tomsk became separate from it only in 1943–1944.

Politics.

During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Novosibirsk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.  The Charter of Novosibirsk Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Novosibirsk Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.

Demographics.

Population:

Settlements.

According to the 2010 Census, the ethnic composition of the oblast was 93.1% Russians; 1.2% Germans; 0.9% Ukrainians; 0.9% Tatars; 0.4% Kazakhs; 0.2% Belarusians; 0.4% Armenians; 0.3% Azeris; and 0.5% Uzbek. Additionally, 124,859 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.  2009 - 1.59 | 2010 - 1.60 | 2011 - 1.59 | 2012 - 1.71 | 2013 - 1.75 | 2014 - 1.77 | 2015 - 1.82 | 2016 - 1.82(e)  Major urban centers in 2006 were Novosibirsk (with a population of 1,379,000), Berdsk (91,900), Iskitim (63,800), Kuybyshev (48,500).  In 2016, Novosibirsk became the first oblast in Russia to ban immigrants from select nations from working in jobs such as construction, agriculture, teaching, medicine, and professional jobs. Immigrants already working in Novosibirsk Oblast have to leave after the next three months by the time the ban takes effect in December 2016.

Religion.

According to a 2012 survey 24.9% of the population of Novosibirsk Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% of the population adheres to the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery), and 1% to Islam. In addition, 32% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 25% is atheist, and 11.1% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

Economy.

Novosibirsk Oblast's gross regional product in 2007 was $14,950.2 million. GRP per capita was 144,869 roubles; somewhat under the national average of 198,817 roubles. For many years, the region experienced relatively high rates of industrial output growth: between 1999 and 2008 industrial output grew 170%, exceeding the Russian average growth by 23%.

Industry.

Major industrial activities—accounting for over 80% of the total shipped products and services—are basic metals and fabricated metal products, electricity, gas and water supply, fuel extraction, food products and beverages.  Manufacturing accounted for 67.4% of the region's industrial output in 2007. The most notable sector was food products, beverages and tobacco (20.7%). The region produced a total of 278,100 tons of whole milk products, 144,100 tons of bread and baked goods, 6,300 tons of pasta, 54,100 tons of meat, 518.7 million decaliters of mineral water (including the popular Karachinskaya mark), 137,300 tons of mixed fodder and 218,700 tons of flour.  The basic metals and fabricated metal products sector contributed 10.3% of total industrial output. The region produced 190,800 tons of steel pipes, 405,700 tons of rolled ferrous metals, 36,100 tons of steel, 1.300 tons of welding electrodes and 1,100 tons of construction frames and products. Notable companies in this sector include OAO Novosibirsk Electrode Plant, OAO Novosibirsk Tin Mill and OAO Kuzmin Novosibirsk Metals Plant.  In the mechanical engineering sector, electrical and optical machinery and equipment accounted for 7.2% of total industrial output; machinery and equipment (exclusive of weapons or ammunition) accounted for 3.7%, while electrical machinery and transport equipment accounted for 4.5%. One of the largest companies is the aircraft-maker Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association, which assembles Su-34 fighters, among others.  In 2007, the region produced $12,190,000 worth of high-voltage electric equipment, $3,820,000 worth of low-voltage electric equipment, $1,350,000 worth of computers and spare parts, 71,000 kW equivalent of generators for steam, gas and hydraulic turbines, 296,200 units of electric razors, 154,600 units of chandeliers and suspensions, 1,616,000 units of capacitors, 3,608,000 units of semiconductor instruments, 1,077,000 units of integral microchips, 218 units of large electric machines, 854 units of direct current electric machines and 5,000 kilovolts-amperes equivalent of prefabricated transforming stations. Notable companies in this sector include OAO Novosibirsk Electric Locomotive Repair Plant, OAO Sibselmash Scientific Production Association, NPO ELSIB, OAO Novosibirsk Railroad Switch Plant, OAO Tyazhstankogidropress, OAO Novosibirsk Instrument Plant and OAO Novosibirsk Soyuz Electrovacuum Holding plant. All of the aforementioned companies are located in the regional capital, Novosibirsk.

Energy.

Novosibirsk Oblast enjoys an electricity surplus: electricity output in 2007 was 14.0 billion kWh, while consumption was 12.5 billion kWh. During the summer, 30% of the region's electricity needs is satisfied by the Novosibirsk Hydroelectric Power Station, which has a capacity of 455 MW. Another important source of electricity is thermal power. The largest thermal power plant is Combined Heat and Power Station No. 5 with generation capacity of 1,200 MW. Most of the power plants and the distribution infrastructure are operated by the company OJSC Novosibirskenergo.  The amount of oil produced in the region in 2007 was 2,495,000 tons, while coal production was 1,795,000 tons.

Trade and investment.

In the 2005/2006 ranking "Best Legal Conditions for Investment"–conducted by the Expert RA rating agency–Novosibirsk Oblast received the third place among all 89 federal subjects of Russia.  In 2007, the oblast received $88.8 million in foreign investment. The largest company receiving foreign investment was NPO ELSIB.

Novosibirsk Oblast (, "Novosibirskaya oblast") is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) located in southwestern Siberia. Its administrative and economic center is the city of Novosibirsk. The population was 2,788,849 as of the 2018 Census.

L'oblast de Novossibirsk (en, "") est une subdivision administrative de la Fédération de Russie (oblast) située dans le sud-ouest de la Sibérie. Sa capitale est Novossibirsk.


Structure of the Legislature.

The Legislature of Quebec was created by the British North America Act, 1867. It consisted of the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. The Lieutenant Governor was appointed by the Governor General of Canada for a term of five years. The Legislative Assembly consisted of sixty-five members, elected in single-member constituencies by first-past-the-post elections. The Legislative Assembly was to last for four years, subject to being dissolved earlier by the Lieutenant Governor. The Legislative Council consisted of twenty-four members, appointed for life by the Government of Quebec.  The elections for the Second Legislature were conducted under the election law of the former Province of Canada, which were continued until such time as the Legislature of Quebec enacted a new election law, designed specifically for Quebec.

Elections and qualifications.

Right to vote.

The right to vote in elections to the Legislative Assembly was not universal. Only male British subjects (by birth or naturalisation), aged 21 and older, were eligible to vote, and only if they met a property qualification. For residents of cities and towns, the qualification was being the owner, tenant or occupant of real property assessed at three hundred dollars, or at an assessed yearly value of thirty dollars. For residents of townships and parishes, the requirements were either an assessment of two hundred dollars, or an assessed yearly value of twenty dollars.  Women were expressly prohibited from voting, "for any Electoral Division whatever".  Judges and many municipal and provincial officials were also barred from voting, particularly officials with duties relating to public revenue. Election officials were also barred from voting.  Voting at elections was done by open ballotting, where voters publicly declared their vote to the poll officials.

Qualification for the Legislative Assembly.

Candidates for the Legislative Assembly had to meet a significant property qualification. A candidate had to own real property in the Province of Canada, worth at least £500 in British sterling, over and above any encumbrances on the property.

Qualification for the Legislative Council.

The qualifications for the members of the Legislative Council were the same as for the members of the Senate of Canada.  Those requirements were:  The provisions of the "British North America Act, 1867" did not explicitly bar women from being called to the Senate of Canada. However, until the Persons Case in 1929, it was assumed that women could not be called to the Senate, and were thus also barred from the Legislative Council. In any event, no woman was ever appointed to the Legislative Council.

Events of the Second Legislature.

The Conservatives under Premier Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau won a substantial majority in the 1871 election, although with a somewhat reduced seat count. In spite of their electoral success, the Conservatives began to fracture between an ultramontane Catholic wing and the traditional Parti Bleu supporters, who were more business oriented. Chauveau continued in office until 1873, when he resigned upon being appointed to the Senate of Canada.  Chauveau was succeeded as Conservative leader and Premier by Gédéon Ouimet, who was had been elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1867 and served in Chauveau's Cabinet as Attorney General. Shortly into Ouimet's term a major political scandal broke, the Tanneries scandal, which turned on a land transaction carried out by the government. Ouimet and three other members of the Cabinet resigned.  Ouimet was replaced as party leader and premier by Charles Boucher de Boucherville in 1874. De Boucherville replaced almost the entire Cabinet.  In addition to the political instability associated with the Tanneries scandal, the Second Legislature was also marked by a high number of by-elections. Over the course of four years, there were twenty-four by-elections in the sixty-five seat Legislative Assembly. Most of the by-elections were triggered by the 1874 federal election, the first federal election after the abolition of the dual mandate, which had allowed individuals to hold seats in both the federal Parliament and the provincial Assembly. Several members of the Legislative Assembly resigned their provincial seats to run federally. Amongst those who moved to federal politics was the young Wilfrid Laurier, who had been elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1871 for the riding of Drummond et Arthabaska. A number of other by-elections were triggered by the changes to the provincial Cabinet under the three premiers. At that time, a member of the Assembly who was brought into Cabinet part-way through the term of the Assembly had to resign and stand for re-election.  One significant legislative measure passed by the de Boucherville government was electoral reform. The general elections of 1867 and 1871 had been conducted under the electoral laws of the former Province of Canada. In the 1875 session, the government passed a new election law to replace the old statute and create an electoral framework designed solely for Quebec. One of the key changes was that the new elections law introduced the secret ballot in Quebec elections, replacing the old open ballot system which had previously been used, and which had required voters to publicly declare their vote to the polling officials.  In 1875, Premier De Boucherville called a general election. The Conservatives were returned to office, albeit with a somewhat reduced majority.

Legislative Assembly.

Party standings.

The 1871 election returned a majority in the Legislative Assembly for the Conservative Party, led by Premier Chauveau.

Members of the Legislative Assembly.

The following candidates were elected to the Legislative Assembly in the 1871 election. The Premiers of Quebec are indicated by Bold italics. The Speakers of the Legislative Assembly are indicated by small caps. Cabinet Ministers are indicated by "Italics".

By-elections.

There were twenty-four by-elections during the term of the Second Legislature. Cabinet ministers are indicated by "italics".

Legislative Council.

Party standings.

The Legislative Council continued to have a strong Conservative majority during the term of the Second Legislature.

Members during the Second Legislature.

The Premier of Quebec is indicated by Bold italics. The Speakers of the Legislative Council are indicated by small caps. Cabinet members are indicated by "italics".  Vacancies of less than one month are not shown.
 † Died in office.
 ‡ Resigned on abolition of the dual mandate.

Executive Council during Second Legislature.

There were three different ministries during the term of the Second Legislature, under Premiers Chauveau (1871-1873), Ouimet (1873-1874), and Boucher de Boucherville (1874-1875).

First Quebec Ministry: Chauveau Cabinet (1871-1873).

Premier Chauveau continued the same membership in his Cabinet following the 1871 election. Chauveau and four of the ministers were Members of the Legislative Assembly, while three were Members of the Legislative Council. In addition to being premier, Chauveau held other portfolios.

Second Quebec Ministry: Ouimet Cabinet (1873-1874).

Following Chauveau's resignation as premier, the Quebec Conservative party chose Gédéon Ouimet as party leader and thus Premier of Quebec. No general election was called. Ouimet installed a new Cabinet. Ouimet and four of the Cabinet ministers were Members of the Legislative Assembly, while two sat in the Legislative Council.

Third Quebec Ministry: Boucher de Boucherville Cabinet (1874-1875).

As a result of the Tanneries scandal, Premier Ouimet and three Cabinet ministers resigned. The Conservative party chose Boucher de Boucherville to be premier. He replaced almost all of the Cabinet, retaining only Robertson as Treasurer. All of the Cabinet ministers were members of the Legislative Assembly, except the Speaker of the Legislative Council abs Boucher de Boucherville himself.

Leader of the Opposition.

Henri-Gustave Joly de Lotbinière continued as Leader of the Opposition throughout the Second Legislature.

Legislative sessions.

The Legislature had four annual sessions:  The Legislature did not meet again prior to its dissolution on June 7, 1875.

The Second Legislature of Quebec was the provincial legislature of Quebec, Canada from 1871 to 1875, following the general election of 1871.

La du Québec a été élue lors de l'élection générale québécoise de 1871 tenue en juin et. La législature a duré jusqu'au au moment de la dissolution de l'Assemblée nationale afin de tenir les troisièmes élections générales. Cette législature a vu se succéder les gouvernements Chauveau (1867-1873), Ouimet (1873-1874) et Boucher de Boucherville (1874-1878).


History.

The OLPC program has its roots in the pedagogy of Seymour Papert, an approach known as constructionism, which espoused providing computers for children at early ages to enable full digital literacy. Papert, along with Nicholas Negroponte, were at the MIT Media Lab from its inception. Papert compared the old practice of putting computers in a computer lab to books chained to the walls in old libraries. Negroponte likened shared computers to shared pencils. However, this pattern seemed to be inevitable, given the then-high prices of computers (over $1,500 apiece for a typical laptop or small desktop by 2004).  In 2005, Negroponte spoke at the World Economic Forum, in Davos. In this talk he urged industry to solve the problem, to enable a $100 laptop, which would enable constructionist learning, would revolutionize education, and would bring the world's knowledge to all children. He brought a mock-up and was described as prowling the halls and corridors of Davos to whip up support. Despite the reported skepticism of Bill Gates and others, Negroponte left Davos with committed interest from AMD, News Corp, and with strong indications of support from many other firms. From the outset, it was clear that Negroponte thought that the key to reducing the cost of the laptop was to reduce the cost of the display. Thus, when, upon return from Davos, he met Mary Lou Jepsen, the display pioneer who was in early 2005 joining the MIT Media Lab faculty, the discussions turned quickly to display innovation to enable a low-cost laptop. Convinced that the project was now possible, Negroponte led the creation of the first corporation for this: the Hundred Dollar Laptop Corp.  At the 2006 Wikimania, Jimmy Wales announced that the One Laptop Per Child Project would be including Wikipedia as the first element in their content repository. Wales explained, "I think it is in my rational self interest to care about what happens to kids in Africa," elaborating in his fundraising appeal: At the 2006 World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) announced it would back the laptop. UNDP released a statement saying they would work with OLPC to deliver "technology and resources to targeted schools in the least developed countries".  Starting in 2007, the Association managed development and logistics, and the Foundation managed fundraising such as the Give One Get One campaign ("G1G1").  Intel was a member of the association for a brief period in 2007. Shortly after OLPC's founder, Nicholas Negroponte, accused Intel of trying to destroy the non-profit, Intel joined the board with a mutual non-disparagement agreement between them and OLPC. Intel resigned its membership on January 3, 2008, citing disagreements with requests from Negroponte for Intel to stop dumping their Classmate PCs.  In 2008, Negroponte showed some doubt about the exclusive use of open-source software for the project, and made suggestions supporting a move towards adding Windows XP, which Microsoft was in the process of porting over to the XO hardware. Microsoft's Windows XP, however, is not seen by some as a sustainable operating system. Microsoft announced that they would sell them Windows XP for $3 per XO. It would be offered as an option on XO-1 laptops and possibly be able to dual boot alongside Linux. In response, Walter Bender, who was the former President of Software and Content for the OLPC project, left OLPC and founded Sugar Labs to continue development of the open source Sugar software which had been developed within OLPC. No significant deployments elected to purchase Windows licenses. Charles Kane became the new President and Chief Operating Officer of the OLPC Association on May 2, 2008. In late 2008, the NYC Department of Education purchased some XO computers for use by New York schoolchildren.  Advertisements for OLPC began streaming on the video streaming website Hulu and others in 2008. One such ad has John Lennon advertising for OLPC, with an unknown voice actor redubbing over Lennon's voice.  In 2008 OLPC lost significant funding. Their annual budget was slashed from $12 million to $5 million which resulted in a restructuring on January 7, 2009. Development of the Sugar operating environment was moved entirely into the community, the Latin America support organization was spun out and staff reductions, including Jim Gettys, affected approximately 50% of the paid employees. The remaining 32 staff members also saw salary reductions. Despite the downsizing, OLPC continued development of the XO-1.5 laptops.  In 2010, OLPC moved its headquarters to Miami. The Miami office currently oversees sales and support for the XO-1.5 laptop and its successors, including the XO Laptop version 4.0 and the OLPC Laptop.  Funding from Marvell, finalized in May 2010, revitalized the foundation and enabled the 1Q 2012 completion of the ARM-based XO-1.75 laptops and initial prototypes of the XO-3 tablets. OLPC is currently taking orders for mass production of the XO 4.0, and has shipped over 3 million XO Laptops to children around the world.

Criticism.

At the World Summit on the Information Society held by the United Nations in Tunisia from November 16–18, 2005, several African representatives, most notably Marthe Dansokho (a missionary of United Methodist Church), voiced suspicions towards the motives of the OLPC project and claimed that the project was using an overly "U.S. mindset", pointing out that the presented solutions were not applicable to specifically "African problems". Dansokho said the project demonstrated misplaced priorities, stating that African women would not have enough time to research new crops to grow. She added that clean water and schools were more important. Mohammed Diop specifically criticized the project as an attempt to exploit the governments of poor nations by making them pay for hundreds of millions of machines and the need of further investments into internet infrastructure. Others have similarly criticized laptop deployments in very low income countries, regarding them as cost-ineffective when compared to far simpler measures such as deworming and other expenses on basic child health.  Lee Felsenstein, a computer engineer who played a central role in the development of the personal computer, criticized the centralized, top-down design and distribution of the OLPC.

Cost.

The project originally aimed for a price of 100 US dollars. In May 2006, Negroponte told the Red Hat's annual user summit: "It is a floating price. We are a nonprofit organization. We have a target of $100 by 2008, but probably it will be $135, maybe $140." A BBC news article in April 2010 indicated the price still remained above $200.  In April 2011, the price remained above $209. In 2013, more than 10% of the world population lived on less than US$2 per day. The latter income segment would have to spend more than a quarter of its annual income to purchase a single laptop, while the global average of ICT spending is 3% of income. Empirical studies show that the borderline between ICT as a necessity good and ICT as a luxury good is roughly around the "magical number" of US$10 per person per month, or US$120 per year.  John Wood, founder of Room to Read (an NPO which builds schools and libraries), emphasizes affordability and scalability over high-tech solutions. While in favor of the One Laptop per Child initiative for providing education to children in the developing world at a cheaper rate, he has pointed out that a $2,000 library can serve 400 children, costing just $5 a child to bring access to a wide range of books in the local languages (such as Khmer or Nepali) and English; also, a $10,000 school can serve 400–500 children ($20–$25 a child). According to Wood, these are more appropriate solutions for education in the dense forests of Vietnam or rural Cambodia.  The Scandinavian aid organization FAIR proposed setting up computer labs with recycled second-hand computers as a cheaper initial investment. Negroponte argued against this proposition, stating the expensive running cost of conventional laptops. Computer Aid International doubted the OLPC sales strategy would succeed, citing the "untested" nature of its technology. CAI refurbishes computers and printers and sells them to developing countries for £42 a piece (compare it to £50 a piece for the OLPC laptops).

Teacher training and ongoing support.

The OLPC project has also been criticized for allegedly adopting a "one-shot" deployment approach with little or no technical support or teacher training, and for neglecting pilot programs and formal assessment of outcomes in favor of quick deployment. Some authors attribute this unconventional approach to the OLPC promoters' alleged focus on constructivist education and 'digital utopianism'. Mark Warschauer, a Professor of University of California at Irvine and Morgan Ames, at the time of writing, a PhD candidate at Stanford University, have pointed out that the laptop by itself does not completely fill the need of students in underprivileged countries. The "children’s machines", as they have been called, have been deployed to several countries, for example Uruguay, Peru, and in the US, Alabama, but after a relatively short time, their usage has declined considerably, sometimes because of hardware problems or breakage, in some cases, as high as 27% to 59% within the first two years, and sometimes due to a lack of knowledge on the part of the users on how to take full advantage of the machine.  However, another factor has recently been acknowledged: a lack of a direct relation to the pedagogy needed in the local context to be truly effective. Uruguay reports that only 21.5% of teachers use the laptop in the classroom on a daily basis, and 25% report using it less than once a week. In Alabama, 80.3% of students say they never or seldom use the computer for class work, and Peru, teachers report that in the first few months, 68.9% use the laptop three times per week, but after two months, only 40% report such usage. Those of a low socio-economic level tend to not be able to effectively use the laptop for educational purposes on their own, but with scaffolding and mentoring from teachers, the machine can become more useful. According to one of the returning OLPC executives, Walter Bender, the approach needs to be more holistic, combining technology with a prolonged community effort, teacher training and local educational efforts and insights.  The organization has been accused of simply giving underprivileged children laptops and "walking away". Some critics claim this "drive-by" implementation model was the official strategy of the project. While the organisation has learning teams dedicated to support and working with teachers, Negroponte has said in response to this criticism that "You actually can" give children a connected laptop and walk away, noting experiences with self-guided learning.

Technology.

The XO, previously known as the "$100 Laptop" or "Children's Machine", is an inexpensive laptop computer designed to be distributed to children in developing countries around the world, to provide them with access to knowledge, and opportunities to "explore, experiment and express themselves" (constructionist learning). The laptop is manufactured by the Taiwanese computer company Quanta Computer.  The rugged, low-power computers use flash memory instead of a hard drive, run a Fedora-based operating system and use the SugarLabs Sugar user interface. Mobile ad hoc networking based on the 802.11s wireless mesh network protocol allows students to collaborate on activities and to share Internet access from one connection. The wireless networking has much greater range than typical consumer laptops. The XO-1 has also been designed to be lower cost and much longer-lived than typical laptops.  In 2009, OLPC announced an updated XO (dubbed "XO-1.5") that takes advantage of the latest component technologies. The XO-1.5 includes a new VIA C7-M processor and a new chipset providing a 3D graphics engine and an HD video decoder. It has 1GB of RAM and built-in storage of 4 GB, with an option for 8 GB. The XO-1.5 uses the same display, and a network wireless interface with half the power dissipation.  Early prototype versions of the hardware were available in June 2009, and they are available for software development and testing available for free through a.  An XO-1.75 model was developed that used a Marvell ARM processor, targeting a price below $150 and date in 2011.  The XO-2 two sheet design concept was canceled in favor of the one sheet XO-3.  An XO-3 concept resembled a tablet computer and was planned to have the inner workings of the XO 1.75. Price goal was below $100 and date was 2012.  As of May 2010, OLPC was working with Marvell on other unspecified future tablet designs. In October 2010, both OLPC and Marvell signed an agreement granting OLPC $5.6 million to fund development of its XO-3 next generation tablet computer. The tablet was to use an ARM chip from Marvell.  At CES 2012, OLPC showcased the XO-3 model, which featured a touchscreen and a modified form of SugarLabs "Sugar". In early December 2012, however, it was announced that the XO-3 would not be seeing actual production, and focus had shifted to the XO-4.  The XO-4 was launched at International CES 2013 in Las Vegas The XO Laptop version 4 is available in two models: XO 4 and XO 4 Touch, with the latter providing multi-touch input on the display. The XO Laptop version 4 uses an ARM processor to provide high performance with low power consumption, while keeping the industrial design of the traditional XO Laptop.

Software.

The laptops include an anti-theft system which can, optionally, require each laptop to periodically make contact with a server to renew its cryptographic lease token. If the cryptographic lease expires before the server is contacted, the laptop will be locked until a new token is provided. The contact may be to a country-specific server over a network or to a local, school-level server that has been manually loaded with cryptographic "lease" tokens that enable a laptop to run for days or even months between contacts. Cryptographic lease tokens can be supplied on a USB flash drive for non-networked schools. The mass production laptops are also tivoized, disallowing installation of additional software or replacement of the operating system. Users interested in development need to obtain the unlocking key separately (most developer laptops for Western users already come unlocked). It is claimed that locking prevents unintentional bricking and is part of the anti-theft system.  In 2006, the OLPC project was heavily criticised over Red Hat's non-disclosure agreement (NDA) with Marvell concerning the wireless device in OLPC, especially in light of the OLPC project being positioned as an open-source friendly initiative. An open letter for documentation was inked by Theo de Raadt (a recipient of the 2004 Award for the Advancement of Free Software), and the initiative for open documentation has been supported by Richard Stallman, the President of the Free Software Foundation. De Raadt later clarified that he finds an issue with OLPC having proprietary firmware files that are not allowed to be independently re-distributed (even in the binary form) by third-party operating systems like OpenBSD, as well as receiving no documentation to write the necessary drivers for the operating system. De Raadt has pointed out that the OpenBSD project requires no firmware source code, and no low-level documentation to work on firmware, only requiring the binary distribution rights and documentation to interface with the said binary firmware that runs outside of the main CPU, a quite simple request that is generally honoured by many other wireless device vendors like Ralink. Stallman fully agreed with de Raadt's request to open up the documentation, since Stallman is known to hold an even stronger and more idealistic position in regards to the proprietary components, and requires that even the firmware that runs outside of the main CPU must be provided in its source code form, something de Raadt does not require. De Raadt later has had to point out that such more idealistic and less realistic position has instead been misattributed to OpenBSD's more practical approach to make it look unreasonable, and stood on record that OpenBSD's position is much easier to satisfy, yet it nonetheless remained unresolved.  OLPC's dedication to "Free and open source" was questioned with their May 15, 2008, announcement that large-scale purchasers would be offered the choice to add an extra cost, special version of the proprietary Windows XP OS developed by Microsoft alongside the regular, free and open Linux-based operating system with the SugarLabs "Sugar OS" GUI. Microsoft developed a modified version of Windows XP and announced in May 2008 that Windows XP would be available for an additional cost of 10 dollars per laptop. James Utzschneider, from Microsoft, said that initially only one operating system could be chosen. OLPC, however, said that future OLPC work would enable XO-1 laptops to dual boot either the free and open Linux/Sugar OS or the proprietary Microsoft Windows XP. Negroponte further said that "OLPC will sell Linux-only and dual-boot, and will not sell Windows-only <nowiki>[XO-1 laptops]</nowiki>". OLPC released the first test firmware enabling XO-1 dual-boot on July 3, 2008. This option did not prove popular. As of 2011, a few pilots had received a few thousand total dual-boot machines, and the new ARM-based machines do not support Windows XP. No significant deployment purchased Windows licenses. Negroponte stated that the dispute had "become a distraction" for the project, and that its end goal was enabling children to learn, while constructionism and the open source ethos was more of a means to that end. Charles Kane concurred, stating that anything which detracted from the ultimate goal of widespread distribution and use was counterproductive.

Bugs.

The organization has been criticized for its lack of troubleshooting support. Teachers in Peru are told to handle problems in one of two ways. If the problem is a software issue, they are to flash the computer, and if it is a hardware problem, they are to report it. In the classroom environment this black-boxing approach is being criticized for causing the teachers and students to feel disconnected with, and confused by the laptop, which results, in many cases, in the laptops eventually going unused. Several defects in OLPC XO-1 hardware have emerged in the field, and laptop repair is often neglected by students or their families (who are responsible for maintenance) due to the relatively high cost of some components (such as displays).  On the software side, the Bitfrost security system has been known to deactivate improperly, rendering the laptop unusable until it is unlocked by support technicians with the proper keys. (This is a time-consuming process, and the problem often affects large numbers of laptops at the same time). The Sugar interface has been difficult for teachers to learn, and the mesh networking feature in the OLPC XO-1 was buggy and went mostly unused in the field.  The OLPC XO-1 hardware lacks connectivity to external monitors or projectors, and teachers are not provided with software for remote assessment. As a result, students are unable to present their work to the whole class, and teachers must also assess students' work from the individual laptops. Teachers often find it difficult to use the keyboard and screen, which were designed with student use in mind.

Environmental impact.

In 2005 and prior to the final design of the XO-1 hardware, OLPC received criticism because of concerns over the environmental and health impacts of hazardous materials found in most computers. The OLPC asserted that it aimed to use as many environmentally friendly materials as it could; that the laptop and all OLPC-supplied accessories would be fully compliant with the EU's Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive (RoHS); and that the laptop would use an order of magnitude less power than the typical consumer netbooks available as of 2007 thus minimizing the environmental burden of power generation.  The XO-1 delivered (starting in 2007) uses environmental friendly materials, complies with the EU's RoHS and uses between 0.25 and 6.5 watts in operation. According to the Green Electronics Council's Electronic Product Environmental Assessment Tool, whose sole purpose is assessing and measuring the impact laptops have on the environment, the XO is not only non-toxic and fully recyclable, but it lasts longer, costs less, and is more energy efficient. The XO-1 is the first laptop to have been awarded an EPEAT Gold level rating.

Anonymity.

Other discussions question whether OLPC laptops should be designed to promote anonymity or to facilitate government tracking of stolen laptops. A June 2008 "New Scientist" article critiqued Bitfrost's P_THEFT security option, which allows each laptop to be configured to transmit an individualized, non-repudiable digital signature to a central server at most once each day to remain functioning.

Distribution.

The laptops are sold to governments, to be distributed through the ministries of education with the goal of distributing "one laptop per child". The laptops are given to students, similar to school uniforms and ultimately remain the property of the child. The operating system and software is localized to the languages of the participating countries.  OLPC now also works directly with program sponsors from the public and private sectors to implement its educational program in entire schools and communities. As a non-profit organization, OLPC does require a source of funding for its program so that the laptops are given to students at no cost to child or to his/her family.

Early distributions.

Approximately 500 developer boards (Alpha-1) were distributed in mid-2006; 875 working prototypes (Beta 1) were delivered in late 2006; 2400 Beta-2 machines were distributed at the end of February 2007; full-scale production started November 6, 2007. Around one million units were manufactured in 2008.

Give 1 Get 1 program.

OLPC initially stated that no consumer version of the XO laptop was planned. The project, however, later established the laptopgiving.org website to accept direct donations and ran a "Give 1 Get 1" (G1G1) offer starting on November 12, 2007. The offer was initially scheduled to run for only two weeks, but was extended until December 31, 2007 to meet demand. With a donation of $399 (plus US$25 shipping cost) to the OLPC "Give 1 Get 1" program, donors received an XO-1 laptop of their own and OLPC sent another on their behalf to a child in a developing country. Shipments of "Get 1" laptops sent to donors were restricted to addresses within the United States, its territories, and Canada.  Some 83,500 people participated in the program. Delivery of all of the G1G1 laptops was completed by April 19, 2008. Delays were blamed on order fulfillment and shipment issues both within OLPC and with the outside contractors hired to manage those aspects of the G1G1 program.  Between November 17 and December 31, 2008, a second G1G1 program was run through Amazon.com and Amazon.co.uk. This partnership was chosen specifically to solve the distribution issues of the G1G1 2007 program. The price to consumers was the same as in 2007, at US$399.  The program aimed to be available worldwide. Laptops could be delivered in the US, in Canada and in more than 30 European countries, as well as in some Central and South American countries (Colombia, Haiti, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay), African countries (Ethiopia, Ghana, Nigeria, Madagascar, Rwanda) and Asian countries (Afghanistan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Nepal). Despite this, the program sold only about 12,500 laptops and generated a mere $2.5 million, a 93 percent decline from the year before.  OLPC no longer advertises direct to consumers, focusing instead on fundraising efforts. In 2011, they launched a new website designed by Pentagram and Upstatement.

Laptop shipments.

, OLPC reports'more than 3 million laptops' have been shipped.

Regional responses.

Uruguay.

In October 2007, Uruguay placed an order for 100,000 laptops, making Uruguay the first country to purchase a full order of laptops. The first real, non-pilot deployment of the OLPC technology happened in Uruguay in December 2007. Since then, 200,000 more laptops have been ordered to cover all public school children between 6 and 12 years old.  President Tabaré Vázquez of Uruguay presented the final laptop at a school in Montevideo on October 13, 2009. Over the last two years 362,000 pupils and 18,000 teachers have been involved, and has cost the state $260 (£159) per child, including maintenance costs, equipment repairs, training for the teachers and internet connection. The annual cost of maintaining the programme, including an information portal for pupils and teachers, will be US$21 (£13) per child.  The country reportedly became the first in the world where every primary school child received a free laptop on October 13, 2009 as part of the "Plan Ceibal" (Education Connect).  Unfortunately, even though roughly 35% of all OLPC computers went to Uruguay, a 2013 study by the Economics Institute (University of the Republic, Uruguay) of the Ceibal plan concluded that use of the laptops did not improve literacy and that the use of the laptops was mostly recreational, with only 4.1% of the laptops being used "all" or "most" days in 2012. The main conclusion was that the results showed no impact of the OLPC program on the test scores in reading and math.

United States.

Originally, OLPC announced the United States would not be part of the first-year effort. In 2008, Nicholas Negroponte said "OLPC America already has a director and a chairman and will likely be based in Washington, D.C.," however such an organization was not set up. As of 2010, Birmingham, Alabama is the largest deployment in the US. Some said the changing economic landscape forced OLPC to adjust their distribution strategy. Negroponte cited patriotism, "building critical mass", and providing a means for children all over the world to communicate.

Artsakh.

On January 26, 2012, prime minister Ara Harutyunyan and entrepreneur Eduardo Eurnekian signed a memorandum of understanding launching an OLPC program in Artsakh. The program is geared towards elementary schools throughout Artsakh. Eurnekian hopes to decrease the gap by giving the war-zoned region an opportunity to engage in a more solid education. The New York-based nonprofit, Armenian General Benevolent Union, is helping to undertake the responsibility by providing on-the-ground support. The government of Artsakh is enthusiastic and is working with OLPC to bring the program to fruition.

Nigeria.

Lagos Analysis Corp., also called Lancor, a Lagos, US-based Nigerian-owned company, sued OLPC in the end of 2007 for $20 million, claiming that the computer's keyboard design was stolen from a Lancor patented device. OLPC responded by claiming that they had not sold any multi-lingual keyboards in the design claimed by Lancor, and that Lancor had misrepresented and concealed material facts before the court. In January 2008, the Nigerian Federal Court rejected OLPC motion to dismiss LANCOR's lawsuit and extended its injunction against OLPC distributing its XO Laptops in Nigeria. OLPC appealed the Court's decision, the Appeal is still pending in the Nigerian Federal Court of Appeals. In March 2008, OLPC filed a lawsuit in Massachusetts to stop LANCOR from suing it in the United States. In October 2008, MIT News magazine erroneously reported that the Middlesex Superior Court granted OLPC's motions to dismiss all of LANCOR's claims against OLPC, Nicholas Negroponte, and Quanta. On October 22, 2010 OLPC voluntarily moved the Massachusetts Court to dismiss its own lawsuit against LANCOR.  In 2007, XO laptops in Nigeria were reported to contain pornographic material belonging to children participating in the OLPC Program. In response, OLPC Nigeria announced they would start equipping the machines with filters.

India.

India's Ministry of Human Resource Development, in June 2006, rejected the initiative, saying "it would be impossible to justify an expenditure of this scale on a debatable scheme when public funds continue to be in inadequate supply for well-established needs listed in different policy documents". Later they stated plans to make laptops at $10 each for schoolchildren. Two designs submitted to the Ministry from a final year engineering student of Vellore Institute of Technology and a researcher from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in May 2007 reportedly describe a laptop that could be produced for "$47 per laptop" for even small volumes. The Ministry announced in July 2008 that the cost of their proposed "$10 laptop" would in fact be $100 by the time the laptop became available. In 2010, a related $35 Sakshat Tablet was unveiled in India, released the next year as the "Aakash". In 2011, each Aakash sold for approximately $44 by an Indian company, DataWind. DataWind plans to launch similar projects in Brazil, Egypt, Panama, Thailand and Turkey. OLPC later expressed support for the initiative.  In 2009, a number of states announced plans to order OLPCs. However, as of 2010, only the state of Manipur had deployed 1000 laptops.

One Laptop per Child (OLPC) is a non-profit initiative established with the goal of transforming education for children around the world; this goal was to be achieved by creating and distributing educational devices for the developing world, and by creating software and content for those devices.

One Laptop per Child (OLPC), en français « un portable par enfant », est une association à but non lucratif établie en 2005 dans le Delaware aux États-Unis qui a pour but de promouvoir « l'ordinateur portable à » XO. Cet ordinateur a été développé au départ par des membres du corps enseignant du Media Lab, un département du Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).