Examples.

Every tree is a median graph. To see this, observe that in a tree, the union of the three shortest paths between pairs of the three vertices "a", "b", and "c" is either itself a path, or a subtree formed by three paths meeting at a single central node with degree three. If the union of the three paths is itself a path, the median "m"("a","b","c") is equal to one of "a", "b", or "c", whichever of these three vertices is between the other two in the path. If the subtree formed by the union of the three paths is not a path, the median of the three vertices is the central degree-three node of the subtree.  Additional examples of median graphs are provided by the grid graphs. In a grid graph, the coordinates of the median "m"("a","b","c") can be found as the median of the coordinates of "a", "b", and "c". Conversely, it turns out that, in every median graph, one may label the vertices by points in an integer lattice in such a way that medians can be calculated coordinatewise in this way. Squaregraphs, planar graphs in which all interior faces are quadrilaterals and all interior vertices have four or more incident edges, are another subclass of the median graphs. A polyomino is a special case of a squaregraph and therefore also forms a median graph.  The simplex graph κ("G") of an arbitrary undirected graph "G" has a vertex for every clique (complete subgraph) of "G"; two vertex of κ("G") are linked by an edge if the corresponding cliques differ by one vertex of "G". The simplex graph is always a median graph, in which the median of a given triple of cliques may be formed by using the majority rule to determine which vertices of the cliques to include.  No cycle graph of length other than four can be a median graph. Every such cycle has three vertices "a", "b", and "c" such that the three shortest paths wrap all the way around the cycle without having a common intersection. For such a triple of vertices, there can be no median.

Equivalent definitions.

In an arbitrary graph, for each two vertices "a" and "b", the minimal number of edges between them is called their "distance", denoted by "d"("x","y"). The "interval" of vertices that lie on shortest paths between "a" and "b" is defined as A median graph is defined by the property that, for every three vertices "a", "b", and "c", these intervals intersect in a single point:  Equivalently, for every three vertices "a", "b", and "c" one can find a vertex "m"("a","b","c") such that the unweighted distances in the graph satisfy the equalities and "m"("a","b","c") is the only vertex for which this is true.  It is also possible to define median graphs as the solution sets of 2-satisfiability problems, as the retracts of hypercubes, as the graphs of finite median algebras, as the Buneman graphs of Helly split systems, and as the graphs of windex 2; see the sections below.

Distributive lattices and median algebras.

In lattice theory, the graph of a finite lattice has a vertex for each lattice element and an edge for each pair of elements in the covering relation of the lattice. Lattices are commonly presented visually via Hasse diagrams, which are drawings of graphs of lattices. These graphs, especially in the case of distributive lattices, turn out to be closely related to median graphs.  In a distributive lattice, Birkhoff's self-dual ternary median operation satisfies certain key axioms, which it shares with the usual median of numbers in the range from 0 to 1 and with median algebras more generally: The distributive law may be replaced by an associative law: The median operation may also be used to define a notion of intervals for distributive lattices: The graph of a finite distributive lattice has an edge between vertices "a" and "b" whenever "I"("a","b") = {"a","b"}. For every two vertices "a" and "b" of this graph, the interval "I"("a","b") defined in lattice-theoretic terms above consists of the vertices on shortest paths from "a" to "b", and thus coincides with the graph-theoretic intervals defined earlier. For every three lattice elements "a", "b", and "c", "m"("a","b","c") is the unique intersection of the three intervals "I"("a","b"), "I"("a","c"), and "I"("b","c"). Therefore, the graph of an arbitrary finite distributive lattice is a median graph. Conversely, if a median graph "G" contains two vertices 0 and 1 such that every other vertex lies on a shortest path between the two (equivalently, "m"(0,"a",1) = "a" for all "a"), then we may define a distributive lattice in which "a" ∧ "b" = "m"("a",0,"b") and "a" ∨ "b" = "m"("a",1,"b"), and "G" will be the graph of this lattice.

Convex sets and Helly families.

In a median graph, a set "S" of vertices is said to be convex if, for every two vertices "a" and "b" belonging to "S", the whole interval "I"("a","b") is a subset of "S". Equivalently, given the two definitions of intervals above, "S" is convex if it contains every shortest path between two of its vertices, or if it contains the median of every set of three points at least two of which are from "S". Observe that the intersection of every pair of convex sets is itself convex.  The convex sets in a median graph have the Helly property: if "F" is an arbitrary family of pairwise-intersecting convex sets, then all sets in "F" have a common intersection. For, if "F" has only three convex sets "S", "T", and "U" in it, with "a" in the intersection of the pair "S" and "T", "b" in the intersection of the pair "T" and "U", and "c" in the intersection of the pair "S" and "U", then every shortest path from "a" to "b" must lie within "T" by convexity, and similarly every shortest path between the other two pairs of vertices must lie within the other two sets; but "m"("a","b","c") belongs to paths between all three pairs of vertices, so it lies within all three sets, and forms part of their common intersection. If "F" has more than three convex sets in it, the result follows by induction on the number of sets, for one may replace an arbitrary pair of sets in "F" by their intersection, using the result for triples of sets to show that the replaced family is still pairwise intersecting.  A particularly important family of convex sets in a median graph, playing a role similar to that of halfspaces in Euclidean space, are the sets defined for each edge "uv" of the graph. In words, "W" consists of the vertices closer to "u" than to "v", or equivalently the vertices "w" such that some shortest path from "v" to "w" goes through "u". To show that "W" is convex, let "w""w"..."w" be an arbitrary shortest path that starts and ends within "W"; then "w" must also lie within "W", for otherwise the two points "m" = "m"("u","w","w") and "m" = "m"("m","w"..."w") could be shown (by considering the possible distances between the vertices) to be distinct medians of "u", "w", and "w", contradicting the definition of a median graph which requires medians to be unique. Thus, each successive vertex on a shortest path between two vertices of "W" also lies within "W", so "W" contains all shortest paths between its nodes, one of the definitions of convexity.  The Helly property for the sets "W" plays a key role in the characterization of median graphs as the solution of 2-satisfiability instances, below.

2-satisfiability.

Median graphs have a close connection to the solution sets of 2-satisfiability problems that can be used both to characterize these graphs and to relate them to adjacency-preserving maps of hypercubes.  A 2-satisfiability instance consists of a collection of Boolean variables and a collection of "clauses", constraints on certain pairs of variables requiring those two variables to avoid certain combinations of values. Usually such problems are expressed in conjunctive normal form, in which each clause is expressed as a disjunction and the whole set of constraints is expressed as a conjunction of clauses, such as A solution to such an instance is an assignment of truth values to the variables that satisfies all the clauses, or equivalently that causes the conjunctive normal form expression for the instance to become true when the variable values are substituted into it. The family of all solutions has a natural structure as a median algebra, where the median of three solutions is formed by choosing each truth value to be the majority function of the values in the three solutions; it is straightforward to verify that this median solution cannot violate any of the clauses. Thus, these solutions form a median graph, in which the neighbor of each solution is formed by negating a set of variables that are all constrained to be equal or unequal to each other.  Conversely, every median graph "G" may be represented in this way as the solution set to a 2-satisfiability instance. To find such a representation, create a 2-satisfiability instance in which each variable describes the orientation of one of the edges in the graph (an assignment of a direction to the edge causing the graph to become directed rather than undirected) and each constraint allows two edges to share a pair of orientations only when there exists a vertex "v" such that both orientations lie along shortest paths from other vertices to "v". Each vertex "v" of "G" corresponds to a solution to this 2-satisfiability instance in which all edges are directed towards "v". Each solution to the instance must come from some vertex "v" in this way, where "v" is the common intersection of the sets "W" for edges directed from "w" to "u"; this common intersection exists due to the Helly property of the sets "W". Therefore, the solutions to this 2-satisfiability instance correspond one-for-one with the vertices of "G".

Retracts of hypercubes.

A "retraction" of a graph "G" is an adjacency-preserving map from "G" to one of its subgraphs. More precisely, it is graph homomorphism φ from "G" to itself such that φ("v") = "v" for each vertex "v" in the subgraph φ(G). The image of the retraction is called a "retract" of "G". Retractions are examples of metric maps: the distance between φ("v") and φ("w"), for every "v" and "w", is at most equal to the distance between "v" and "w", and is equal whenever "v" and "w" both belong to φ("G"). Therefore, a retract must be an "isometric subgraph" of "G": distances in the retract equal those in "G".  If "G" is a median graph, and "a", "b", and "c" are an arbitrary three vertices of a retract φ("G"), then φ("m"("a","b","c")) must be a median of "a", "b", and "c", and so must equal "m"("a","b","c"). Therefore, φ("G") contains medians of all triples of its vertices, and must also be a median graph. In other words, the family of median graphs is closed under the retraction operation.  A hypercube graph, in which the vertices correspond to all possible "k"-bit bitvectors and in which two vertices are adjacent when the corresponding bitvectors differ in only a single bit, is a special case of a "k"-dimensional grid graph and is therefore a median graph. The median of three bitvectors "a", "b", and "c" may be calculated by computing, in each bit position, the majority function of the bits of "a", "b", and "c". Since median graphs are closed under retraction, and include the hypercubes, every retract of a hypercube is a median graph.  Conversely, every median graph must be the retract of a hypercube. This may be seen from the connection, described above, between median graphs and 2-satisfiability: let "G" be the graph of solutions to a 2-satisfiability instance; without loss of generality this instance can be formulated in such a way that no two variables are always equal or always unequal in every solution. Then the space of all truth assignments to the variables of this instance forms a hypercube. For each clause, formed as the disjunction of two variables or their complements, in the 2-satisfiability instance, one can form a retraction of the hypercube in which truth assignments violating this clause are mapped to truth assignments in which both variables satisfy the clause, without changing the other variables in the truth assignment. The composition of the retractions formed in this way for each of the clauses gives a retraction of the hypercube onto the solution space of the instance, and therefore gives a representation of "G" as the retract of a hypercube. In particular, median graphs are isometric subgraphs of hypercubes, and are therefore partial cubes. However, not all partial cubes are median graphs; for instance, a six-vertex cycle graph is a partial cube but is not a median graph.  As describe, an isometric embedding of a median graph into a hypercube may be constructed in time O("m" log "n"), where "n" and "m" are the numbers of vertices and edges of the graph respectively.

Triangle-free graphs and recognition algorithms.

The problems of testing whether a graph is a median graph, and whether a graph is triangle-free, both had been well studied when observed that, in some sense, they are computationally equivalent. Therefore, the best known time bound for testing whether a graph is triangle-free, O("m"), applies as well to testing whether a graph is a median graph, and any improvement in median graph testing algorithms would also lead to an improvement in algorithms for detecting triangles in graphs.  In one direction, suppose one is given as input a graph "G", and must test whether "G" is triangle-free. From "G", construct a new graph "H" having as vertices each set of zero, one, or two adjacent vertices of "G". Two such sets are adjacent in "H" when they differ by exactly one vertex. An equivalent description of "H" is that it is formed by splitting each edge of "G" into a path of two edges, and adding a new vertex connected to all the original vertices of "G". This graph "H" is by construction a partial cube, but it is a median graph only when "G" is triangle-free: if "a", "b", and "c" form a triangle in "G", then {"a","b"}, {"a","c"}, and {"b","c"} have no median in "H", for such a median would have to correspond to the set {"a","b","c"}, but sets of three or more vertices of "G" do not form vertices in "H". Therefore, "G" is triangle-free if and only if "H" is a median graph. In the case that "G" is triangle-free, "H" is its simplex graph. An algorithm to test efficiently whether "H" is a median graph could by this construction also be used to test whether "G" is triangle-free. This transformation preserves the computational complexity of the problem, for the size of "H" is proportional to that of "G".  The reduction in the other direction, from triangle detection to median graph testing, is more involved and depends on the previous median graph recognition algorithm of, which tests several necessary conditions for median graphs in near-linear time. The key new step involves using a breadth first search to partition the graph's vertices into levels according to their distances from some arbitrarily chosen root vertex, forming a graph from each level in which two vertices are adjacent if they share a common neighbor in the previous level, and searching for triangles in these graphs. The median of any such triangle must be a common neighbor of the three triangle vertices; if this common neighbor does not exist, the graph is not a median graph. If all triangles found in this way have medians, and the previous algorithm finds that the graph satisfies all the other conditions for being a median graph, then it must actually be a median graph. This algorithm requires, not just the ability to test whether a triangle exists, but a list of all triangles in the level graph. In arbitrary graphs, listing all triangles sometimes requires Ω("m") time, as some graphs have that many triangles, however Hagauer et al. show that the number of triangles arising in the level graphs of their reduction is near-linear, allowing the Alon et al. fast matrix multiplication based technique for finding triangles to be used.

Evolutionary trees, Buneman graphs, and Helly split systems.

Phylogeny is the inference of evolutionary trees from observed characteristics of species; such a tree must place the species at distinct vertices, and may have additional "latent vertices", but the latent vertices are required to have three or more incident edges and must also be labeled with characteristics. A characteristic is "binary" when it has only two possible values, and a set of species and their characteristics exhibit perfect phylogeny when there exists an evolutionary tree in which the vertices (species and latent vertices) labeled with any particular characteristic value form a contiguous subtree. If a tree with perfect phylogeny is not possible, it is often desired to find one exhibiting maximum parsimony, or equivalently, minimizing the number of times the endpoints of a tree edge have different values for one of the characteristics, summed over all edges and all characteristics.  To form the Buneman graph for a set of species and characteristics, first, eliminate redundant species that are indistinguishable from some other species and redundant characteristics that are always the same as some other characteristic. Then, form a latent vertex for every combination of characteristic values such that every two of the values exist in some known species. In the example shown, there are small brown tailless mice, small silver tailless mice, small brown tailed mice, large brown tailed mice, and large silver tailed mice; the Buneman graph method would form a latent vertex corresponding to an unknown species of small silver tailed mice, because every pairwise combination (small and silver, small and tailed, and silver and tailed) is observed in some other known species. However, the method would not infer the existence of large brown tailless mice, because no mice are known to have both the large and tailless traits. Once the latent vertices are determined, form an edge between every pair of species or latent vertices that differ in a single characteristic.  One can equivalently describe a collection of binary characteristics as a "split system", a family of sets having the property that the complement set of each set in the family is also in the family. This split system has a set for each characteristic value, consisting of the species that have that value. When the latent vertices are included, the resulting split system has the Helly property: every pairwise intersecting subfamily has a common intersection. In some sense median graphs are characterized as coming from Helly split systems: the pairs ("W", "W") defined for each edge "uv" of a median graph form a Helly split system, so if one applies the Buneman graph construction to this system no latent vertices will be needed and the result will be the same as the starting graph.

In graph theory, a division of mathematics, a median graph is an undirected graph in which every three vertices "a", "b", and "c" have a unique "median": a vertex "m"("a","b","c") that belongs to shortest paths between each pair of "a", "b", and "c".

En théorie des graphes, un graphe médian est un type de graphe. Étant donné un triplet de nœuds dans un graphe, les médians de ces sommets sont les sommets se trouvant sur les plus courts chemins entre ces sommets. Un graphe médian est un graphe tel que pour tout triplet de nœuds il existe un unique médian.


Comité international de médecine militaire

History.

In 1920, after issues were raise including lack of care for victims and the need for closer cooperation between armed forces medical services following World War I, Captain William S. Bainbridge, MD (US Navy) and Commander Medical Officer Jules Voncken (Belgium) suggested the creation of an international organisation of the Armed Forces Medical Services at the 28th session of the US Military Medical Officers Association (AMSUS). The Belgian Government supported the practical development of this concept and the first International Congress of Military Medicine and Pharmacy was held in July 1921 in Brussels, Belgium, in presence of King Albert I. It resulted in a permanent Committee of International Congresses of Military Medicine and Pharmacy (ICMPM) being officially founded on 21 July 1921 during the Congress. The founding countries were Belgium, Brazil, France, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States.  Since its founding, ICMPM has always gathered military Health Services from all political blocs, in uniform, including during the Cold War. On 21 May 1952, an agreement of cooperation was signed with the World Health Organization (WHO) which recognised the Committee as an “international body specialised in medico-military matters”. On 28 April 1990, the Committee changed its name and became the International Committee of Military Medicine (ICMM). New ICMM Statutes, revised in line with modern-day policies, were voted in at the General Assembly held in Beijing, China, in 1996. ICMM signed a memorandum of understanding with World Health Organization in 2004 and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) in 2006.

Objectives of ICMM.

The main objective of the ICMM is to ensure that our medical services personnel have the means to work together, using similar practices, in operations involving international cooperation. This is a long-term goal and the ICMM can work towards it in a number of ways: by encouraging activities at which scientific and technical experience is shared, by developing contacts with the scientific community, and by promoting regional events. This will enable the pooling of resources and work experience of military medicine, both in the theatre of operations and in a support role in the case of crisis situations.  Other ICMM objectives include:  The above objectives are intended to improve the state of military medicine through providing means of screening personnel, providing access to medicine within military units, improving surgery in the theatre of operations, improving access to emergency medicine, improving disaster response, providing medical logistics training, and improving public health, dentistry, pharmacy, and veterinary services.

Activities.

In addition to the annual World Congress of the International Committee of Military Medicine, the ICMM organises regional congresses, including the Pan-Asia Pacific, Pan-American, Pan-African, Pan-European, Maghreb and Pan-Arab Regional working groups. The ICMM also publishes the quarterly "International Review of the Armed Forces Medical Services", providing a material link between medical services and member states.

Study of Training and Coaching.

In the field of training and coaching, the ICMM objectives are:

Assessment of disaster situations.

The ICMM promotes discussions on medical services activity during disasters.

Cooperation with international organizations.

The ICMM has signed agreements with WHO, ICRC, OIE, UNAIDS, CISM, WVA, WMA and FIP. These agreements provide for cooperation with medical services of member states in order to detect and respond to major epidemics posing a global threat to public health. WHO, ICRC, OIE, UNAIDS, CISM, WVA, WMA and FIP contact each government individually.

Study of International Humanitarian Law evolution.

A Course of Law of Armed Conflicts is organized each year with the support of Switzerland. This course is actually decentralized in different regions of the world.

Structure and Working of ICMM.

The ICMM is a politically neutral international intergovernmental organization.  The ICMM is made up of 117 member states and 5 observer States, all of which are either members of the United Nations (UN), have the status of official observers with in the UN, or are recognised as members of WHO. Each member state is represented by an official delegate who is appointed by the government of his country. Each member state brings a request issued from the Ministry of Defense, Foreign Affairs, or other high state authority, requesting to be a member of ICMM. This request is addressed to the Secretary General and approved during a session of the General Assembly of the Member States during the World Congress every two years. Each Member State pays a subscription determined by its GDP, debt level, and population. This subscription gives the state the right to vote in the General Assembly and to organize activities acknowledged by the ICMM. A moral duty of active participation follows the membership of member states. The General Assembly's recommendations are always non-restrictive and strictly observe each member state's sovereignty principle. Only the political power of each member state can change ICMM recommendations into rules applicable to its own Armed Forces.  In accordance with ICMM’s statutes and history, Belgium is the seat of the Secretary General, the executive branch of ICMM. The stability of the headquarters is maintained for continuity. All participants are volunteer except a few paid executive secretaries. The Secretary-General is elected by the General Assembly for a 4-years renewable mandate. He is at the head of the ICMM executive branch. The current Secretary-General is Major General (retired) Roger Van Hoof, assisted by his Deputy Secretary-General, Major General Pierre Neirincx and his assistants. They represent the political body of the Secretariat General. The Secretary General and his Deputy are Belgians, according with the statutes of ICMM. The Secretary General executes the decisions of the General Assembly. The General Assembly holds the World Congresses every two years, led by the Chairman of the ICMM, chosen by the member state selected to organise that World Congress. He is at the head of the ICMM legislative branch by supervising the General Assembly’s work during the World Congress in his country. His mandate, not renewable, runs for the duration between two General Assemblies. The Secretary General reports his executive activities to the Chairman.  All scientific matters are controlled by the Scientific Council, directed by the Chairman of the Scientific Council, Major General Humbert Boisseau, MD. He is elected by the General Assembly for a 4-year renewable mandate. He is assisted by the Deputy Chairman of the Scientific Council, Brigadier General Jean-Jacques Lataillade, MD, also elected by the General Assembly for a 4-year renewable mandate. To help the Scientific Council, there are Technical Commissions in following specialities: Veterinarian, Pharmacy, Dentistry, Logistics and Education. Their Chairmen are also elected by the General Assembly for a 4-years renewable mandate.  The 43rd ICMM World Congress on Military Medicine was hosted by Switzerland, in Basel, in May 2019.

The International Committee of Military Medicine (ICMM) is an international and intergovernmental organization consisting of more than one hundred states. The ICMM was established in 1921, in response to concerns over the lack of care provided during World War I. It was created to strengthen cooperation between the health services of the armed forces worldwide.

Le Comité International de Médecine Militaire (CIMM) est une organisation internationale et intergouvernementale, constituée par plus de cent États. Le CIMM a été créée en 1921, après que la Première Guerre mondiale eut révélé le manque de soins donnés aux victimes et la nécessité de renforcer la coopération entre les services de santé des forces armées à l'échelle mondiale.


April 2007.

Mainz, Germany recorded an average high of for April, the strongest deviation (+) from the 1989-2018 average of any month. It was also the first calendar month without any measured precipitation since February 1959. A high of was reached on April 14.

June 2007.

Up until 21 June, temperatures generally hovered around in most of the aforementioned countries; however, starting on 22 June, temperatures skyrocketed in this entire region. From this point on Greece, Italy, Albania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Romania and Turkey experienced record-breaking temperatures in a situation unprecedented even for these nations, typically used to conditions of extreme heat.  During the weekend of 23–24 June and on 25 June, temperatures soared to. By 26 June, however, Greece seemed to bear the brunt of the heatwave with temperatures in Athens reaching. The same day, Greece's national power consumption set a new record. Parts of Greece, including neighbourhoods in Athens, suffered from power outages due to high electricity demand and heat damage to the grid. Explosions from overheating transmission towers were implicated in the forest fires ravaging the country. The discomfort was exacerbated by high night-time temperatures, which exceeded averages by up to, and remained at very high levels for more than half of the 2007 summer.  More than 200 people were hospitalized for heat-related treatment and 18 people died from heat exhaustion. By 28 June northerly winds started blowing from the northwest and temperatures finally began falling, reaching a cooler. Nonetheless, at a time when everyone believed that the worst part was over, more than 100 fires erupted across the country. Two people perished in the village of Aghia, near the city of Larissa. In the evening of that same day a major wildfire broke out in Mount Parnitha near Athens. By the dawn of 29 June, a significant part of the popular Parnitha National Park had turned into ashes. Temperatures fell by as much as and the worst heatwave since records began came to an end leaving Greece reeling upon its disastrous effects.

July 2007.

By late July, temperatures again rose to more than in Southern Europe, impacting agriculture, electricity supply, forestry and human health. From 21 to 25 July, temperatures reached or exceeded. Over 500 deaths in Hungary were attributed to the heatwave. Major wildfires destroyed large forested areas across the region. Six people (including two Canadair pilots) lost their lives while trying to extinguish the flames in Greece. The country's electricity grid nearly collapsed due to exceptional demand for air conditioning. Hundreds of tourists were stranded on the beaches of Apulia, in Southeastern Italy, and had to be rescued by boats.  In Bulgaria, six people were killed in the fires that started on 22 July. An estimated 1,530 fires broke out between 20 and 24 July, three times the yearly average. During the largest fire near Stara Zagora, of pine forest burned for three days, as firefighters were unable to control the fire by conventional means. Strong winds and the extremely dry air quickly sparked new fires. The government requested help from Russia, and Be-200 amphibious water bombers finally managed to contain the blaze near Stara Zagora.

August 2007.

In the beginning of August, the Dalmatian coast in Croatia was hit by severe fires, especially in the surroundings of Dubrovnik.

The 2007 European heat wave affected most of Southern Europe and the Balkans. The phenomenon began affecting Italy and Turkey on 17 June and expanded into Greece and the rest of the Balkans, Hungary and Ukraine on 18 June. The costs of the heat wave were estimated at 2 billion euros.

La canicule européenne de 2007 est un évènement climatique d'ampleur exceptionnelle qui touche une partie de l'Europe orientale et méridionale, principalement entre le et le.


Dogs.

The brindle pattern may also take the place of tan in tricolor coats of some dog breeds (such as Basenjis). This coloration looks very similar to tricolor, and can be distinguished only at close range. Dogs of this color are often described as "trindle". It can also occur in combination with merle in the points, or as a brindle merle, in breeds such as the Cardigan Welsh Corgi, although the latter is not acceptable in the show ring. The "dark" markings are black or the dilutions gray (called blue) or brown (sometimes called red). It is not uncommon for a brindled Cairn Terrier to become progressively more black or silver as it ages.

Cats.

Brindled domestic cats are also known as tortoiseshell cats, and in some cases, tabby cat. A domestic brindled cat is almost exclusively female.

Guinea pigs.

Brindle is an old variety in guinea pigs. They are difficult to breed to perfection, as the black and red hairs should intermingle evenly all over. Brindle guinea pigs' fur type is Abyssinian (rosetted).

Horses.

Brindle coloring in horses is extremely rare and in many cases is linked to spontaneous chimerism, resulting in an animal with two sets of DNA, with the brindle pattern being an expression of two different sets of equine coat color genes in one horse. This form is not heritable. In some horses the pattern seems to be inherited, indicating that one or more genes are responsible. One heritable brindle pattern in a family of American Quarter Horses was identified in 2016 and named Brindle1 (BR1). The Brindle1 phenotype has an X-linked, semidominant mode of inheritance. Female horses with this gene have a striped coat pattern, plus hairs from the stripes have a different texture as well as color, less straight and unrulier. Male horses have sparse manes and tails but do not show a striped coat texture pattern. A Brindle1 test is available.  Brindle coloring consists of irregular stripes extending vertically over the horse's body and horizontally around the legs. Brindle horses can also have a dorsal stripe. It usually does not affect the head and legs as much as the body, with the heaviest concentrations of brindling being on the neck, shoulders and hindquarters. The coloring has been documented in the past. At the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Science in Leningrad, a Russian cab horse of brindle coloring from the early 19th century was mounted and put on display due to its rarity.

Description.

The brindled pattern found in horses could be described as vertical stripes that are found along the neck, back, hindquarters, and upper legs. The horse's head is usually a solid color and is not affected by the striping. The brindled pattern has no effect on dark points on horses. Some brindle-colored horses are more eye-catching than others.  With this rare coat pattern there is a base coat that covers the entire body of the horse. This base coat color can be any color. Recorded examples have been bay, chestnut, palomino, and dun. Earliest documented cases were said to have red dun or grulla as a base coat. Over top of the base color is either a lighter or darker color, giving the appearance of stripes.

Other animals.

Brindle coloring exists in cattle. For crested geckos, the term "brindle" is used to describe a morph with darker stripes of color.

Etymology and literature.

The word brindle comes from brindled, originally, from an old Scandinavian word. The opening of Act Four, Scene One of William Shakespeare's "Macbeth" is often thought to refer to a brindled cat, because it contains the word "brinded": "Thrice the brinded cat hath mew'd." However, in this context, the word "brinded" means branded, as if with fire. The Elizabethan word for "brindled" is "streaked."

Brindle is a coat coloring pattern in animals, particularly dogs, cattle, guinea pigs, cats, and, rarely, horses. It is sometimes described as "tiger-striped", although the brindle pattern is more subtle than that of a tiger's coat. The streaks of color are irregular and darker than the base color of the coat, although very dark markings can be seen on a coat that is only slightly lighter. When there are light colored stripes on a darker coat, it's referred to as a "reverse brindle".

Bringé est un type de coloration de pelage qui apparaît sur les mammifères de compagnie et notamment chez le chien. Il s'agit d'une robe avec des rayures discontinues de couleurs différentes que l'on assimile souvent à celle d'un tigre, même si cet animal n'a pas une robe bringée.


Types of text terminals.

From text application's point of view, a text screen (and communications with it) can belong to one of three types (here ordered in order of decreasing accessibility):  Under Linux and other Unix-like systems, a program easily accommodates to any of the three cases because the same interface (namely, standard streams) controls the display and keyboard. Also, specialized programming libraries help to output the text in a way appropriate to the given display device and interface to it. See below for a comparison to Windows.

On ANSI-compatible terminals.

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard ANSI X3.64 defines a standard set of escape sequences that can be used to drive terminals to create TUIs (see ANSI escape code). Escape sequences may be supported for all three cases mentioned in the above section, allowing arbitrary cursor movements and color changes. However, not all terminals follow this standard, and many non-compatible but functionally equivalent sequences exist.

Under DOS and Microsoft Windows.

On IBM Personal Computers and compatibles, the Basic Input Output System (BIOS) and DOS system calls provide a way to write text on the screen, and the ANSI.SYS driver could process standard ANSI escape sequences. However, programmers soon learned that writing data directly to the screen buffer was far faster and simpler to program, and less error-prone; see VGA-compatible text mode for details. This change in programming methods resulted in many DOS TUI programs. The win32 console environment is notorious for its emulation of certain EGA/VGA text mode features, particularly random access to the text buffer, even if the application runs in a window. On the other hand, programs running under Windows (both native and DOS applications) have much less control of the display and keyboard than Linux and DOS programs can have, because of aforementioned win32 console layer.  Most often those programs used a blue background for the main screen, with white or yellow characters, although commonly they had also user color customization. They often used box-drawing characters in IBM's code page 437. Later, the interface became deeply influenced by graphical user interfaces (GUI), adding pull-down menus, overlapping windows, dialog boxes and GUI widgets operated by mnemonics or keyboard shortcuts. Soon mouse input was added – either at text resolution as a simple colored box or at graphical resolution thanks to the ability of the Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) and Video Graphics Array (VGA) display adapters to redefine the text character shapes by software – providing additional functions.  Some notable programs of this kind were Microsoft Word, DOS Shell, WordPerfect, Norton Commander, Turbo Vision based Borland Turbo Pascal and Turbo C (the latter included the conio library), Lotus 1-2-3 and many others. Some of these interfaces survived even during the Microsoft Windows 3.1x period in the early 1990s. For example, the Microsoft C 6.0 compiler, used to write true GUI programs under 16-bit Windows, still has its own TUI.  Since its start, Microsoft Windows includes a console to display DOS software. Later versions added the Win32 console as a native interface for command-line interface and TUI programs. The console usually opens in window mode, but it can be switched to full, true text mode screen and vice versa by pressing the Alt and Enter keys together. Full-screen mode is not available in Windows Vista and later, but may be used with some workarounds.

Under Unix-like systems.

In Unix-like operating systems, TUIs are often constructed using the terminal control library "curses", or "ncurses" (a mostly compatible library), or the alternative "S-Lang" library. The advent of the "curses" library with Berkeley Unix created a portable and stable API for which to write TUIs. The ability to talk to various text terminal types using the same interfaces led to more widespread use of "visual" Unix programs, which occupied the entire terminal screen instead of using a simple line interface. This can be seen in text editors such as vi, mail clients such as pine or mutt, system management tools such as SMIT, SAM, FreeBSD's Sysinstall and web browsers such as lynx. Some applications, such as w3m, and older versions of pine and vi use the less-able termcap library, performing many of the functions associated with curses within the application. Custom TUI applications based on "widgets" can be easily developed using the dialog program (based on ncurses), or the Whiptail program (based on S-Lang).  In addition, the rise in popularity of Linux brought many former DOS users to a Unix-like platform, which has fostered a DOS influence in many TUIs. The program minicom, for example, is modeled after the popular DOS program Telix. Some other TUI programs, such as the Twin desktop, were ported over.  Most Unix-like operating systems (Linux, FreeBSD etc.) support virtual consoles, typically accessed through a Ctrl-Alt-F key combination. For example, under Linux up to 64 consoles may be accessed (12 via function keys), each displaying in full-screen text mode.  The free software program GNU Screen provides for managing multiple sessions inside a single TUI, and so can be thought of as being like a window manager for text-mode and command-line interfaces. Tmux can also do this.  The proprietary macOS text editor BBEdit includes a "shell worksheet" function that works as a full-screen shell window. The free Emacs text editor can run a shell inside of one of its buffers to provide similar functionality. There are several shell implementations in Emacs, but only ansi-term is suitable for running TUI apps. The other common shell modes, shell and eshell only emulate command lines and TUI apps will complain "Terminal is not fully functional" or display a garbled interface. The free Vim and Neovim text editors have terminal windows (simulating xterm). The feature is intended for running jobs, parallel builds, or tests, but can also be used (with window splits and tab pages) as a lightweight terminal multiplexer.

OpenVMS.

VAX/VMS and the later development OpenVMS had a similar facility to "curses" known as the Screen Management facility or SMG. This could be invoked from the command line or called from programs using the SMG$ library.

Oberon.

Another kind of TUI is the primary interface of the Oberon operating system, first released in 1988 and still maintained. Unlike most other text-based user interfaces, Oberon does not use a text-mode console or terminal, but requires a large bit-mapped display, on which text is the primary target for mouse clicks. Commands in the format codice_1 can be activated with a middle-click, like hyperlinks. Text displayed anywhere on the screen can be edited, and if formatted with the required command syntax, can be middle-clicked and executed. Any text file containing suitably-formatted commands can be used as a so-called tool text, thus serving as a user-configurable menu. Even the output of a previous command can be edited and used as a new command. This approach is radically different from both conventional dialogue-oriented console menus or command line interfaces.  Since it does not use graphical widgets, only plain text, but offers comparable functionality to a GUI with a tiling window manager, it is referred to as a Text User Interface or TUI. For a short introduction, see the 2nd paragraph on page four of the first published "Report on the Oberon System".  Oberon's UI influenced the design of the Acme text editor and email client for the Plan 9 from Bell Labs operating system.

In embedded systems.

Modern embedded systems are capable of displaying TUI on a monitor like personal computers. This functionality is usually implemented using specialized integrated circuits, modules, or using FPGA.  Video circuits or modules are usually controlled using VT100-compatible command set over UART, FPGA designs usually allow direct video memory access.

Text-based user interfaces (TUI), alternately terminal user interfaces, to reflect a dependence upon the properties of computer terminals and not just text, is a retronym parallel to the concept of graphical user interfaces (GUI). Like GUIs, they may use the entire screen area and accept mouse and other inputs. They may also use color and often structure the display using special graphical characters such as ┌ and ╣, referred to in Unicode as the "box drawing" set. The modern context of use is usually a terminal emulator.

Un environnement en mode texte (TUI, de l'anglais « "Text User Interface" », « "Textual User Interface" » ou encore «"Terminal User Interface" » est un rétronyme introduit dans le jargon informatique après l'invention des environnements graphiques pour se distinguer des interfaces en ligne de commande. Ce type d'interface utilisateur occupe la totalité de l'écran comme les interfaces graphiques, et n'est donc pas limité au traitement ligne par ligne comme les CLI.


Early life.

Virginia Astley was born in Garston, Hertfordshire, England, alongside her twin, Alison in 1959, the second daughter of composer Edwin Astley, noted for TV themes such as "The Saint", and his wife Hazel Balbirnie, who married in 1945. Virginia Astley's family was from the Warrington area and lived in Grappenhall, where her elder sister Karen was born in 1947. The family relocated to Stanmore in Middlesex because of Edwin's work as a film and TV writer. In the early 1960s he was musical director at ITC Entertainment in Borehamwood, the company responsible for TV series such as "The Saint" and "Danger Man".  In 1968 her sister Karen married Pete Townshend of The Who. In the 1970s Virginia's elder brother, Jon Astley, became a tape operator for Eric Clapton and worked his way up to his current activities as a remasterer and producer.

Music career.

Virginia began learning piano at the age of six and flute at 14. After leaving school, she studied at the Guildhall School Of Music. Her first professional appearance in public was as a busker outside South Kensington tube station. In 1980 she auditioned for a new band from Clapham, the Victims of Pleasure. Virginia, playing keyboards, worked with them for a short while playing in clubs and pubs around London. The band released three singles between 1980 and 1982 before splitting up.  Afterward, Virginia wrote, arranged and performed music with Skids frontman Richard Jobson for the album "The Ballad Of Etiquette". Their collaboration continued when Jobson moved to Belgian label Les Disques Du Crépuscule, and Astley contributed to the Crépuscule compilation "The Fruit of the Original Sin". She also contributed as part of The Dream Makers (in collaboration with filmmaker Jean Paul Goude) for a cover version of "La Chanson d'Helene" (Helen's Song), showcasing an early example of her distinctive vocal style.  It was during this early period that Virginia started to give serious consideration to releasing her own material; however, nothing immediately came of these plans. Then in 1981, she signed to the small UK label Why-Fi and recorded a series of songs. A school friend, Jo Wells (Kissing the Pink) and a university friend Nicky Holland both contributed as did Tony Butler, Mark Brzezicki and Peter Hope-Evans. Virginia then received an offer from another Why-Fi artist, Troy Tate, for a supporting band position with The Teardrop Explodes. In the nineties, finding that her musical style was popular in Japan, she went on to collaborate with Asian artists.

Ravishing Beauties.

Virginia recruited Nicky Holland and another university friend, Kate St. John to form the band the Ravishing Beauties. The trio joined The Teardrops in Liverpool during the winter of 1981 for a series of dates at a small clubs and a UK tour in early 1982. They also recorded with Echo & the Bunnymen, Skids, and Siouxsie and the Banshees.  Kate St. John and Nicky Holland went on to maintain solo careers in the 1990s at the time of Virginia's reemergence in Japan. The Ravishing Beauties did not record as a band, but appeared on radio shows, including a John Peel Session on BBC Radio 1 in April 1982.  The Ravishing Beauties first played at Club Zoo in Liverpool and followed this with the support tour with The Teardrop Explodes. Virginia wrote most of the band's songs, some of which appeared on her first solo project with Why-Fi. The band was short lived, with St. John first becoming a model and then eventually a member of The Dream Academy, while Holland did session work and joined Tears for Fears.

Solo work.

One of the first musicians Astley recorded with was Richard Jobson. Together with John McGeoch and Josephine Wells, they created a musical backdrop for Jobson's poetry. This work was released as "The Ballad of Etiquette" in late 1981. Later, Astley went with Jobson to perform in Japan. She also worked on other people's projects, including work for Les Disques Du Crépuscule label, playing piano and arranging music for Richard Jobson and Anna Domino. She also had a track on "From Brussels with Love" in 1982. Sessions followed with Richard Jobson and Russell Webb for the final Skids album "Joy", which featured Astley on flute and as a backing singer.  Astley recorded a solo album, "She Stood Up And Cried" for Crépuscule but this was withdrawn, eventually being released three years later as "Promise Nothing". She signed with Why-Fi in mid-1981 and recorded an EP called "A Bao A Qu", the title taken from a Malayan legend featured in Jorge Luis Borges's 1967 "Book of Imaginary Beings". This was produced by Jon Astley and Phil Chapman. Using a demo studio in Wapping called Elephant Studios, Astley recorded the song that was to place her in the indie top 10 (#8) in 1983: "Love's a Lonely Place to Be", a song of despair and anxiety in spite of its Christmas carol sound. The song would later form part of the 1986 LP "Hope in a Darkened Heart". In 1982 Virginia also played piano on her brother-in-law Pete Townshend's album "All the Best Cowboys Have Chinese Eyes".  The album "From Gardens Where We Feel Secure" was released in August 1983 and was recorded on Astley's own label Happy Valley and distributed by Rough Trade, which has since reissued it. The album achieved a place in the top 5 of the indie chart (#4), but neither single nor album was listed in the mainstream charts.  In 1983, Astley established a more permanent lineup with string players Audrey Riley, Jocelyn Pook and Anne Stephenson, with guests such as drummer Brian Nevill and composer Jeremy Peyton Jones.  In 1984, Astley played keyboards on tour with Prefab Sprout around the time of their first album, and she also did sessions for their Kitchenware Records labelmates Martin Stephenson and the Daintees, Vic Godard and Zeke Manyika.  In 1984 Virginia signed to Arista but left to join Elektra Records UK. "Darkness Has Reached its End" and "Tender" were both recorded at this time. When Elektra UK folded she went to WEA where she subsequently recorded the album "Hope in a Darkened Heart" with Ryuichi Sakamoto producing in 1986. The success of this album in Japan meant that Virginia was asked to sign to Nippon Columbia with whom she recorded a further two albums, "All Shall Be Well" in 1992 and "Had I The Heavens" in 1996. The following year, the first track from the album, "Some Small Hope" was released, a collaboration with David Sylvian.  Since then, Astley has guested on CDs by both Hideaki Matsuoka and the Silent Poets. "From Gardens Where We Feel Secure" was re-issued with a new cover in 2003, and in 2006 she released her first album of new material in ten years, entitled "The Words Between Our Words". This mini album features Astley reciting her own poetry to a backing of harp music. In 2007, she premiered a long poem "Ecliptic", with flute, harp and birdsong.

Virginia Astley (born 26 September 1959) is an English singer-songwriter most active during the 1980s and 1990s. Her songwriting career started in 1980. Her classical training influenced her as did a desire to be experimental with her music. Although more popular in the Far East, most notably Japan, she remains a cult artist in her native England.

Virginia Astley est une chanteuse (auteur-interprète) d'Angleterre, active pendant les années 1980 et 1990. Même si elle a été plus populaire en Orient, notamment au Japon, elle reste une artiste-culte dans son pays natal.


Biography.

Early years.

Behrman's parents, Zelda (Feingold) and Joseph Behrman, emigrated from what is now Lithuania to the United States, where Samuel Nathaniel Behrman was born, the youngest of three sons, in a tenement in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1893. His parents spoke little English, and his father was a Talmudic scholar. (Though known for his sophisticated comedies and worldly characters, Behrman fondly dramatized his family-centered, impoverished childhood in one of his last plays, the 1958 "The Cold Wind and the Warm," an autobiographical drama starring Eli Wallach, Maureen Stapleton, and Morris Carnovsky.) His own path, however, took him far from the Orthodox world of his parents.  A schoolmate and intimate friend, Daniel Asher, brought him to the theater when he was eleven to see "Devil's Island", inspiring in him a love of the stage. "When he was a boy, Behrman saw all the famous plays and players of the first decade [of the twentieth century] as an usher in a Worcester theater." At fifteen, he ran away from home with another schoolmate for four days and stayed in New York City. Life in Worcester began to appear increasingly limited. At seventeen, he saw a production of George Bernard Shaw's "Caesar and Cleopatra" at Boston's Park Street Theatre that determined him on his course; that play "seduced me to the theatre," he later remarked. After graduating from high school, Behrman attempted a career as an actor on the vaudeville circuit. Bad health forced him to quit, and he returned home to Worcester and attended Clark University. There he studied under the noted psychologist G. Stanley Hall and heard Sigmund Freud lecture on his 1909 American tour. He immersed himself in the plays of Ibsen, Strindberg, Shaw, Arthur Pinero, and Maurice Maeterlinck.

College.

College was a mixed experience for Behrman. He was repeatedly suspended for failing mandatory physical education classes. Daniel Asher, who devotedly believed in his friend's future, urged Behrman to take courses at nearby Harvard University. There he enrolled in an English composition class with the renowned writing instructor, Charles Townsend Copeland. He was suspended at Clark again in his sophomore year, at which time he transferred to Harvard. (in 1949, Clark University awarded Behrman an honorary degree.) While in Copeland's class in 1915, he sold a short story to the magazine "The Parisienne". He then submitted one of his dramatic manuscripts to George Pierce Baker, whose playwriting workshop was one of the university's most respected courses. (Other famous alumni of the class include Eugene O'Neill, Thomas Wolfe, Sidney Howard, and Philip Barry.) Baker was impressed with Behrman's student work. In the "New York Tribune" nineteen years later, he would title an essay "Baker's Last Drama Lecture: From Aeschylus to Behrman," in tribute to his famous student. In 1916, Behrman was the only undergraduate in the legendary "47 Workshop" playwriting class, where he studied George Meredith's comedy. He earned his B.A. at Harvard and went on to graduate studies at Columbia University.  While at Columbia, where he received his M.A. in 1918, Behrman studied under the noted theater critic and historian Brander Matthews. He was supported for a time by his brothers Hiram and Morris, who ran a successful accounting firm and who were willing to help their younger brother complete his education and try to establish himself as a writer. Living in a cold-water flat in Manhattan, Behrman worked in his twenties as a book reviewer, newspaper interviewer, and press agent, collaborated on three undistinguished plays, and published short stories in several magazines, including "The Smart Set," the monthly edited by H.L. Mencken and George Jean Nathan. His first play under his own name, "The Second Man," was a dramatization of a story he had written for "The Smart Set" in 1919 and, when produced by the Theater Guild in 1927, made his reputation. Noël Coward, who became a friend, acted in the London production.

Writing career.

From the late 1920s through the 1940s, S. N. Behrman was considered one of Broadway's leading authors of "high comedy," was often produced by the famous Theatre Guild, and wrote for such stars as Ina Claire, Katharine Cornell, Jane Cowl, and the acting team of Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne, who became his good friends. One journalist remembered him from this period as "slim, dark-eyed, curly-haired...with the brooding melancholy of a young Jewish intellectual." Theater critic and historian Brooks Atkinson described Behrman as "one of the Guild's most adored authors." Along with Elmer Rice, Maxwell Anderson, Robert E. Sherwood, and Sidney Howard, he was later one of the five founding members of the Playwright's Company. Among his greatest Broadway successes were "Biography" (1932), "End of Summer" (1936), and "No Time for Comedy" (1939). His stage adaptation of Enid Bagnold's novel "Serena Blandish" became a success for actress Ruth Gordon. A well-read man of wide culture, he also adapted plays by Jean Giraudoux and Marcel Achard and "Jane," a short story by his good friend W. Somerset Maugham. With composer Harold Rome, he adapted Marcel Pagnol's "Fanny" trilogy into a musical play for the stage. His 1942 Broadway play, "The Pirate", was turned into a musical for the film version in 1948, also called "The Pirate".  In Hollywood, Behrman enjoyed a lucrative second career as a screenwriter. He wrote screenplays for Greta Garbo, including "Queen Christina", "Conquest", and her final film, "Two-Faced Woman". With Sonya Levien, he co-wrote the screen play for the 1930 film version of Ferenc Molnár's "Liliom", starring Charles Farrell and Rose Hobart. His experiences in Hollywood found dramatic form in the play "Let Me Hear the Melody" (1951), a failure that closed in pre-Broadway tryouts. He also collaborated on the screenplays for "Anna Karenina" (1935), "A Tale of Two Cities" (1935), and "Waterloo Bridge" (1940).  Berhman's comedies repeatedly celebrate tolerance, yet show how tolerant people in their generosity are often vulnerable when confronted by fanatics or ruthless opportunists. In "End of Summer", a liberal household is threatened by a devious psychoanalyst who is able to play upon the family's weaknesses in his desire for wealth and power. Behrman's protagonists often feel inadequate to deal with the evils and injustices in the world. The hero of "No Time for Comedy", a successful author of stylish comedies for his actress-wife, feels the need to write a serious play in response to the Spanish Civil War. When he fails at this attempt, he resolves to go to Spain himself and fight. The play asks the question: Is there a place for comedy in a violent and unjust world? The protagonist of "Biography" laments a political landscape that is divided between left- and right-wing extremes, leaving little space for a tolerant, humane middle ground.  Behrman's columns for "The New Yorker" included profiles of such notable figures as composer George Gershwin, Hungarian playwright Ferenc Molnár, Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann and entertainer Eddie Cantor as well as longer pieces that became highly regarded biographies of writer and dandy Max Beerbohm and art dealer Joseph Duveen. His autobiographical essays, also serialized in "The New Yorker," appeared in two volumes, "The Worcester Account" (1955) and "People in a Diary" (1972). He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959.  Behrman was known for his warm, witty personality and enjoyed good relations with many other writers, both in and out of the theater world. A newspaper interview he conducted with Siegfried Sassoon, when the British poet was visiting New York after World War I, led to a lifelong friendship and many visits to Sassoon's country house when Behrman was in England. While not gay himself, Behrman was especially supportive of the tribulations of Sassoon's always turbulent love life. Work on dramatizing a short story by Somerset Maugham led to a relaxed, bantering relationship with that British writer as well and many visits to Maugham's home on the Riviera. Publisher Bennett Cerf repeatedly urged Behrman to write a biography of Maugham, feeling that he knew him as well as anyone. It was a project Behrman toyed with throughout the 1960s, but ultimately declined on the advice of "New Yorker" editor William Shawn. When in Italy, he was a welcome guest of Max Beerbohm, whose biography he wrote in 1960, four years after Beerbohm's death.

Major works.

Behrman's two most anthologized plays, which continued to be revived in regional theaters through the twentieth century, are "Biography" (1932) and "End of Summer" (1936). Like many of Behrman's plays, they are character studies more than plot-filled dramas.  "Biography" tells the story of Marion Froude, a noted portrait painter, who has been prevailed upon by an abrasive leftwing publisher, Richard Kurt, to write her serialized memoirs for his magazine. A former lover with senatorial aspirations, Leander Nolan, hopes to marry into a conservative, politically well-placed southern family. He wants Marion to abandon the project, fearing that he will be named in her book and his plans derailed. A liberal woman who has painted both Roman Catholic prelates and Lenin himself, Marion must choose (she destroys her manuscript in the end), but is ultimately alienated by both Kurt's proletarian rigidity and Leander's smug conservatism. "Biography" starred Ina Claire and ran on Broadway for 219 performances.  "End of Summer" is about three women of different generations and values: forty-ish Leonie Frothingham, her elderly mother, and her nineteen-year-old daughter, Paula. The three women, insulated from the Depression and its harsh realities by their money, live in summer comfort on an estate in Maine. A visiting psychiatrist disrupts their complacency. He is attracted to both the divorced Leonie and her daughter but schemes to marry Leonie to gain control of her money, until his plan is revealed by Paula. Other characters, including a young man romantically attached to Paula and a Russian emigre-friend of the family, visit the house and talk about their lives, aspirations, and political leanings. Will, Paula's potential fiancé, cannot reconcile his activist politics with the thought of marrying into a family with so much money. One writer described "End of Summer" as "a Chekhovian play which emphasizes the disappearance or demise of an old, conservative order [represented by Leonie's mother] and the emergence of the new, more radical way of American life." The play also starred Ina Claire and ran on Broadway for 153 performances.  "People in a Diary" (1972), a memoir, could also be regarded as a major Behrman work and a well-crafted example of its genre. Published eighteen years after his first memoir, "The Worcester Account," it is a collection of autobiographical essays and sketches culled from the sixty volumes of diaries Behrman had been keeping since his time at Harvard in 1915. "An odd quirk of destiny has put a great many people in my way," he wrote in a significant understatement, declaring that his purpose in the book was to "revive their society" and the vibrant times they had shared. The cast of characters in "People in a Diary" gives an idea of the breadth and depth of Behrman's life: e.g., Greta Garbo, Laurence Olivier, Louis B. Mayer, Jean Giradoux, Somerset Maugham, Eugene O'Neill, Noël Coward, Maxwell Anderson, Elmer Rice, Sidney Howard, Felix Frankfurter, Bernard Berenson, the Gershwins, and the Marx Brothers. The book also contains some biting observations about the direction modern America had taken in the 1960s as it waged war in Vietnam and became more obsessed with money and imperial ambitions.

Death.

S. N. Behrman died in 1973 at the age of eighty. He was survived by his wife, Elza Heifetz Behrman, the sister of violinist Jascha Heifetz, whom he had married in his forties, and a son. His stepdaughter was Barbara Gelb, the biographer, along with her husband, Arthur Gelb, of Eugene O'Neill. Brooks Atkinson wrote of Behrman, "[His] ethical and political principles have never been appreciated. It is an ancient rule that prizes are not given to comic plays about serious subjects. The court jester invariably ranks with dilettantes and flaneurs." In Atkinson's view, this "short, rounded, merry, owlish-looking...marvelously erudite and civilized" man was far more than merely a writer of Broadway entertainments. His widow died in 1998 aged 92.

Samuel Nathaniel Behrman (; June 9, 1893 – September 9, 1973) was an American playwright, screenwriter, biographer, and longtime writer for "The New Yorker". His son is the composer David Behrman.

S.N. Behrman est un écrivain, dramaturge et scénariste américain, né Samuel Nathaniel Behrman à Worcester (Massachusetts) le, décédé à New York le.


Overview.

The wheel arrangement was widely used on passenger tank locomotives during the last three decades of the nineteenth and the first decade of the twentieth centuries. The vast majority of 2-4-2 locomotives were tank engines, designated 2-4-2T. The symmetrical wheel arrangement was well suited for a tank locomotive that is used to work in either direction.  When the leading and trailing wheels are in swivelling trucks, the equivalent UIC classification is 1'B1'.  While a number of 2-4-2 tender locomotives were built, larger tender locomotive types soon became dominant.

Usage.

Cape of Good Hope.

In 1899, the Walvis Bay Railway in the British territory of Walvis Bay, a Cape of Good Hope exclave in "Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika" (German South West Africa), placed a single tank locomotive in service. The engine, named "Hope" and built by Kerr, Stuart and Company, remained in service until 1904 when operations on the railway were suspended. The line was abandoned in 1905, partly as a result of being buried by a sandstorm.

Finland.

A 2-4-2 tank locomotive, built by Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1899 and used on the private Raahe track in Finland, was later bought by the Finnish State Railways.

New Zealand.

In 1877, when the New Zealand Railways needed new motive power, the road turned to the Rogers Locomotive Works who supplied eight 2-4-2 tender locomotives between 1877 and 1879 that were designated the "K" class. These were the first American-built locomotives in New Zealand and proved to be quite successful.  Three of these locomotives have been preserved. No. K88 "Washington" was used on the first through train between Christchurch and Dunedin in 1877. After fifty years of service, "Washington" was dumped in the Oreti River, Southland, as a flood protection measure. In 1974, the locomotive was exhumed from her watery grave and, over the next eight years, restored to full active service.  Sister locomotives numbers K92 and K94 have also been salvaged from the Oreti river. No. K92 has been restored to full active service and has re-established her position on the Kingston Flyer train, which was made famous by the K class at the end of the 19th century.

United Kingdom.

The earliest British use of the 2-4-2 wheel arrangement appears to have been no. 21 "White Raven", supplied to the St Helens Railway by James Cross of Sutton Works in 1863. It was soon rebuilt as a 2-4-0 tender locomotive and eventually passed into the stock of the London and North Western Railway (L&NWR).  In 1864, Robert Sinclair of the Great Eastern Railway designed the first of six 2-4-2 tank classes built by the railway, eventually totalling 262 locomotives by 1912.  Francis Webb of the London and North Western Railway also designed two 2-4-2 classes which eventually totaled 380 locomotives, built between 1879 and 1898.  Other railway companies that built large numbers of the type included the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L&YR) with 330 locomotives built between 1889 and 1911, the North Eastern Railway with 60 locomotives built between 1886 and 1892 and the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway with 49 locomotives built between 1889 and 1898. One of John Aspinall's Class 5 locomotives, built for the L&YR in 1889, is preserved at the National Railway Museum, York.

United States.

The tank-type 2-4-2T was not uncommon in the U.S. around the dawn of the twentieth century in both suburban passenger service and on logging railroads. The Baldwin Locomotive Works built a demonstrator tender type engine which was displayed at the Columbian Exposition of 1893. This led to the type's name. This locomotive featured ambitious seven foot tall driving wheels, and was one of the first tender-equipped locomotives with a trailing truck. This freed the firebox from having to sit narrowly between, or above, the drive wheels, and was a very influential design.  This inspired three major U.S. railroads (Atlantic Coast Line, Burlington and Reading) to purchase a few of the type. But the two-wheeled lead truck was never well-suited to high speed service on far-flung North American rails. Some were converted to 4-4-2 Atlantic types and others were converted to 4-6-0 Ten Wheelers. The display locomotive was donated to Columbia University. In one respect, however, it was a success. A great many Atlantic types would follow, most based on the design.

In fiction.

The character "Sammy" from Sammy the Shunter is based on the United Kingdom design of the 2-4-2 engine. Two characters in the 1991 film "The Little Engine That Could" have this type of wheel arrangement. "Albert" from The Railway Series has this wheel arrangement.

Model railroading.

The Lionel Corporation used the 2-4-2 configuration in numerous of its O-27 locomotives. In the United States of America, this may be the most famous usage of a 2-4-2 configuration locomotive.

Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, represents the wheel arrangement of two leading wheels on one axle, four powered and coupled driving wheels on two axles and two trailing wheels on one axle. The type is sometimes named Columbia after a Baldwin locomotive was showcased at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition held at Chicago, Illinois.

121 en Europe est un type de locomotive à vapeur dont les essieux ont la configuration suivante (de l'avant vers l'arrière) :


Plot.

The film tells the story of a psychiatric hospital in the Russian republic of Ingushetia on the border with war-torn republic of Chechnya in 1996. With the medical staff vanishing to apparently find help, the patients are left to their own endeavors. Zhanna (Yuliya Vysotskaya), a young woman, lives in the belief that the pop star Bryan Adams is her fiancé, that he is off on tour and will, at some point in the future, come to take her away with him. Zhanna is sort of the ad hoc keeper of peace, happiness and control of the others; she attempts to help curb some of the other patients exuberant impulses. Blissfully unaware of the terror of the war, the patients stick it out in the hospital. Their guests include a group of Chechen rebels, one of whom, Ahmed (Sultan Islamov), gives Zhanna the idea that he will marry her. At this point Zhanna falls in love with Ahmed. She goes back to the "House" where, with the help of her fellow residents, she prepares for her marriage to Ahmed. From this point on Zhanna prepares for and expects to be swept away by Ahmed. Her hopes do not come to fruition and Ahmed and Zhanna part ways. Zhanna returns to the "House" in order to resume her life there.  The story was partially inspired by the real-life tragedy of the psychiatric hospital in Shali, Chechnya, which was abandoned by the personnel during the Russian bombing campaign and in which many patients subsequently died from attacks and neglect.  The story also mirrors the plot of Philippe de Broca's 1967 French cult classic film "King of Hearts" ("Le Roi de coeur", starring Alan Bates) about the inmates of an asylum abandoned by the staff during World War I who take over the neighboring town. The two films even share similarities in their conclusion, with a soldier taking refuge from the insanity of war in the asylum when it returns to normal. Although there are some similar aspects to King Of Hearts, the difference in the two films is that the inmates/patients in King of Hearts take on the various personalities of the town folk; mayor, baker, prostitute, etc.  The film also features several genuine mental patients alongside actors.

Reception.

Awards.

Awards:  Nominations:

Ratings.

"House of Fools" received a rating of 52/100 at Metacritic and 40% "fresh" rating at Rotten Tomatoes. Chicago Sun-Times film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars, saying that "House of Fools" is "A film that succeeds not by arguing that the world is crazier than the asylum, but by arriving at the melancholy possibility that both are equally insane."

House of Fools (, "Dom durakov") is a 2002 Russian film by Andrei Konchalovsky about psychiatric patients and combatants during the First Chechen War. It stars Julia Vysotskaya and Sultan Islamov and features a number of cameo appearances by Bryan Adams, with the music composed by Eduard Artemyev.

La Maison de fous () est un film du cinéaste russe Andreï Kontchalovski présenté au Festival de Venise en 2002 (Prix spécial du jury). Il est primé aussi par l'UNICEF.


Legal framework.

The legal debate concerning euthanasia in the Netherlands took off with the "Postma case" in 1973, concerning a physician who had facilitated the death of her mother following repeated explicit requests for euthanasia. While the physician was convicted, the court's judgment set out criteria when a doctor would not be required to keep a patient alive contrary to their will. This set of criteria was formalised in the course of a number of court cases during the 1980s.  "Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act" was passed in April 2001 and took effect on 1 April 2002. It legalises euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide in very specific cases, under very specific circumstances. The law was proposed by Els Borst, the D66 minister of Health. The procedures codified in the law had been a convention of the Dutch medical community for over twenty years.  The law allows medical review board to suspend prosecution of doctors who performed euthanasia when each of the following conditions are fulfilled:  The doctor must also report the cause of death to the municipal coroner in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Burial and Cremation Act. A regional review committee assesses whether a case of termination of life on request or assisted suicide complies with the due care criteria. Depending on its findings, the case will either be closed or, if the conditions are not met, brought to the attention of the Public Prosecutor. Finally, the legislation offers an explicit recognition of the validity of a written declaration of will of the patient regarding euthanasia (a "euthanasia directive"). Such declarations can be used when a patient is in a coma or otherwise unable to state if they wish to be euthanised.  Euthanasia remains a criminal offense in cases not meeting the law's specific conditions, with the exception of several situations that are not subject to the restrictions of the law at all, because they are not considered euthanasia but normal medical practice:  Euthanasia of children under the age of 12 remains technically illegal; however, Dr. Eduard Verhagen has documented several cases and, together with colleagues and prosecutors, has developed a protocol to be followed in those cases. Prosecutors will refrain from pressing charges if this Groningen Protocol is followed.

Practice.

In 2016 the number of official cases of euthanasia in the Netherlands was 6,091 which was 4 % of total deaths in the Netherlands.  In 2010, the number had been 4,050, and according to research done by the Vrije Universiteit, University Medical Center Utrecht and Statistics Netherlands, and published in "The Lancet", that was not more than before the "Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act" took effect in 2002; and the study concluded that In effect, the legislation did not lead to more cases of euthanasia and assisted suicide on request.  In 2003, in the Netherlands, 1,626 cases were officially reported of euthanasia in the sense of a physician assisting the death (1.2 % of all deaths). Usually the sedative sodium thiopental is intravenously administered to induce a coma. Once it is certain that the patient is in a deep coma, typically after less than a minute, pancuronium is administered to stop breathing and cause death.  Officially reported were also 148 cases of physician-assisted dying (0.14 % of all deaths), usually by drinking a strong (10 g) barbiturate potion. The doctor is required to be present for two reasons:  In two cases the doctor was reprimanded for not being present while the patient drank the potion. They said they had not realised that this was required.  Forty-one cases were reported to combine the two procedures: usually in these cases the patient drinks the potion, but this does not cause death. After a few hours, or earlier in the case of vomiting, the muscle relaxant is administered to cause death.  By far, most reported cases concerned cancer patients. Also, in most cases the procedure was applied at home.  A study in 2000 found that Dutch physicians who intend to provide assistance with suicide sometimes end up administering a lethal medication themselves because of the patient's inability to take the medication or because of problems with the completion of physician-assisted suicide.  In 2010 there were 3,136 cases reported of a physician assisting the death of a patient. When categorised there were, 2,910 cases of "end of life on request", 182 cases of assisted suicide, and in 44 cases it was a combination. The evaluation commissions decided that in 9 cases the procedures were not according to protocol and referred the cases to the Public Prosecution Service and the Health Care Inspectorate. The number of reported cases was rising by 8 % each year. In 2017, the number of reported euthanasias had increased to 6,585; 99.8 % of them being performed carefully. The reason for this rise is not clear.

Further developments.

Under current Dutch law, euthanasia by doctors is only legal in cases of ""hopeless and unbearable"" suffering. In practice this means that it is limited to those suffering from serious medical conditions like severe pain, exhaustion or asphyxia. Sometimes, psychiatric patients that have proven to be untreatable, can get euthanasia. There is much discussion about people with early dementia who have previously stated in a written will that if they ever got dementia, they would want to get euthanasia.  In February 2010 a citizens' initiative called "Out of Free Will" further demanded that all Dutch people over 70 who feel tired of life should have the right to professional help in ending it. The organisation started collecting signatures in support of this proposed change in Dutch legislation. A number of prominent Dutch citizens supported the initiative, including former ministers and artists, legal scholars and physicians. However, this initiative has never been legalised.  In 2016, the Dutch Health Minister of the Second Rutte cabinet announced plans to draft a law that would allow assisted suicide in cases without a terminal illness, if the person feels they have completed life.

Foreign views.

In 2012, United States Republican presidential candidate Rick Santorum falsely claimed that forced euthanasia accounted for 5 % of all deaths in the Netherlands and that elderly Dutch people wear a bracelet reading “Do not euthanize me.” This claim was mocked by various Dutch sources and prompted the Dutch embassy to respond with relevant statistics disproving Santorum's claim, but the lack of a formal statement by Dutch officials angered Dutch politician Frans Timmermans, who demanded minister of foreign affairs Uri Rosenthal to take a public stance against such assertions.  The 2019 suicide of 17-year-old Noa Pothoven led to false reports in English-language media that she had been granted an assisted death.

Euthanasia in the Netherlands is regulated by the "Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act" which was passed in 2001 and took effect in 2002. It states that euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are not punishable if the attending physician acts in accordance with criteria of due care. These criteria concern the patient's request, the patient's suffering (unbearable and hopeless), the information provided to the patient, the absence of reasonable alternatives, consultation of another physician and the applied method of ending life. To demonstrate their compliance, the Act requires physicians to report euthanasia to a review committee.

En 2001, les Pays-Bas ont dépénalisé l'euthanasie et le suicide assisté. Ils restent officiellement toujours un crime pour les personnes la pratiquant sur autrui, mais la loi a codifié un moratoire il y a consistant à ne pas pouvoir poursuivre en justice les médecins qui avaient pratiqué l'euthanasie dans des circonstances précises et des cas particuliers. Le déclare que cette pratique « autorise toute personne à terminer sa vie dignement après avoir reçu tous les types de soins palliatifs disponibles ».


Plot.

In the year 2081, the 211th, 212th, and 213th amendments to the Constitution dictate that all Americans are fully equal and not allowed to be smarter, better-looking, or more physically able than anyone else. The Handicapper General's agents enforce the equality laws, forcing citizens to wear "handicaps": masks for those who are too beautiful, loud radios that disrupt thoughts inside the ears of intelligent people, and heavy weights for the strong or athletic.  One April, 14-year-old Harrison Bergeron, an intelligent, athletic, and good-looking teenager, is taken away from his parents, George and Hazel Bergeron, by the government. They are barely aware of the tragedy, as Hazel has "average" intelligence (a euphemism for stupidity), and George has a handicap radio installed by the government to regulate his above-average intelligence.  Hazel and George watch ballet on television. They comment on the dancers, who are weighed down to counteract their gracefulness and masked to hide their attractiveness. George's thoughts are continually interrupted by the different noises emitted by his handicap radio, which piques Hazel's curiosity and imagination regarding handicaps. Noticing his exhaustion, Hazel urges George to lie down and rest his "handicap bag", of weights locked around George's neck. She suggests taking a few of the weights out of the bag, but George resists, aware of the illegality of such an action.  On television, a news reporter struggles to read the bulletin and hands it to the ballerina wearing the most grotesque mask and heaviest weights. She begins reading in her unacceptably natural, beautiful voice, then apologizes before switching to a more unpleasant voice. Harrison's escape from prison is announced, and a full-body photograph of Harrison is shown, indicating that he is tall and burdened by of handicaps.  George recognizes his son for a moment, before having the thought eliminated by his radio. Harrison himself then storms the television studio in an attempt to overthrow the government. He calls himself the Emperor and rips off all of his handicaps, along with the handicaps of a ballerina, whom he proclaims his "Empress". He orders the musicians to play, promising them nobility if they do their best. Unhappy with their initial attempt, Harrison takes control for a short while, and the music improves. After listening and being moved by the music, Harrison and his Empress dance while flying to the ceiling, then pause in mid-air to kiss.  Diana Moon Glampers, the Handicapper General, enters the studio and kills Harrison and the Empress with a ten-gauge double-barreled shotgun. She forces the musicians to put on their handicaps, and the television goes dark. George, unaware of the televised incident, returns from the kitchen and asks Hazel why she was crying, to which she replies that something sad happened on television that she cannot remember. He comforts her and they return to their average lives.

Style.

Here, Vonnegut is influenced by his early work as a journalist. His sentences are short and easily understood so as to be largely accessible. A dystopian setting enhances his social and political critique by imagining a future world founded on absolute equality through handicaps assigned to various above-average people to counter their natural advantages. A similar subject can be found in L. P. Hartley's dystopian novel "Facial Justice" from the previous year of 1960.  Yet Vonnegut also punctuates his dystopia with humor. Even the most horrifying scenes are underlined by jokes or absurdity. When the news announcer is supposed to read a news bulletin he has to hand it to a nearby ballerina because of his speech impediment, and the ballerina then alters her voice to a "grackle squawk" because it would be "unfair" to use her natural voice, described as a "warm, luminous, timeless melody". This absurdity highlights the madness of the world of "Harrison Bergeron".

Parallels with "The Sirens of Titan".

A similar dystopian society to that of "Harrison Bergeron" appears in Vonnegut's 1959 novel "The Sirens of Titan". When the Space Wanderer returns to Earth he finds a society in which handicaps are used to make all people equal, eradicating the supposedly ruinous effects of blind luck on human society. The narrator claims that now "the weakest and the meekest were bound to admit, at last, that the race of life was fair".  The strong are burdened with "handicaps" (consisting of "bags of lead shot" hung from various parts of the body) and the beautiful hide their advantageous appearance through "frumpish clothes, bad posture, chewing gum and a ghoulish use of cosmetics". Unlike in "Harrison Bergeron", however, the citizens in "The Sirens of Titan" choose to wear these handicaps voluntarily as an act of faith towards "the Church of God the Utterly Indifferent", although it is suggested that not to do so would invite social condemnation. There are no handicaps for above-average intelligence mentioned in "The Sirens of Titan". The society of "Harrison Bergeron" addresses differences in intellectual and cognitive ability and their entailing advantages.

Adaptations.

The story has been adapted for the screen at least four times.

Impact in the real world.

In 2005 the story was quoted by attorneys in a brief before the Kansas Supreme Court. Vonnegut was quoted as saying that while he did not mind the story being used in the suit, he disagreed with the lawyers' interpretation of it. U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia quoted the story in "PGA Tour, Inc. v. Martin". A 2013 academic paper criticizing the new hyperandrogenism policies of the International Association of Athletics Federations and the International Olympic Committee was entitled "The Harrison Bergeron Olympics" and several non-academics had similar criticisms.

"Harrison Bergeron" is a dystopian science-fiction short story by American writer Kurt Vonnegut, first published in October 1961. Originally published in "The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction", the story was republished in the author's "Welcome to the Monkey House" collection in 1968. The story received the 2019 Hall of Fame Award from the Libertarian Futurist Society.

Pauvre Surhomme (titre original : "Harrison Bergeron") est une nouvelle dystopique de science-fiction écrite par Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.. Tout au long de l'histoire, Vonnegut utilise la satire, et l'histoire elle-même peut être classée en tant que satire.


Taxonomy.

The Drakensberg siskin was formerly placed in the genus "Serinus" but phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences found that the genus was polyphyletic. The genus was therefore split and a number of species including the Drakensberg siskin were moved to the resurrected genus "Crithagra".

Description.

The Drakensberg siskin averages 13–14 cm in length. The tail has white sides, a feature which is diagnostic for both sexes, and especially visible in flight. The adult male has a faintly streaked light brown back, light brown wing coverts, rump and upper tail, and yellow underparts. The head and nape sides are yellowish grey and olive. The throat is bright yellow, but the rest of the underparts are a somewhat duller shade.  The female has similar but duller upperparts and has no yellow in the plumage. The head and underparts are buff with much fine dark brown streaks on the head and breast. The juvenile plumage is much like the female's but with heavier streaking.  There is no range overlap with the slightly smaller Cape siskin, which has white spots on the flight feathers and tail and more uniform upperparts.  The Drakensberg siskin's call is a "schwee", often given in flight. and the song, like that of Cape siskin, is a weak, pleasant warble similar to the yellow-fronted canary.

Behaviour.

Breeding.

One reason for the taxonomic uncertainty with this species is that, if it is a true siskin, it is the only one which breeds in cavities. A shallow cup nest is constructed in cracks or holes in rocks, on ledges or amongst vegetation, especially ferns. Natural hollows in trees are rarely used.  The nest is constructed by the female with fine plant material, lined with plant down and animal hair. The clutch is three or four, occasionally five, eggs, incubated by the female. She is fed by the male on the nest by regurgitation.

Feeding.

The Drakensberg siskin is seen in pairs or small flock, moving unobtrusively through bushes and scrub as it forages for seeds (including proteas), buds and insects.

The Drakensberg siskin, ("Crithagra symonsi"), is a small passerine bird in the finch family. It is an endemic resident breeder in the eastern Cape Province Transkei and western Natal in South Africa, and in Lesotho.

Le Serin de Symons ("Crithagra symonsi") ou serin du Drakensberg, est une espèce de passereaux de la famille des Fringillidae.


Life.

Little is known about Picchi's early life, but his birthdate (1571 or 1572) can be inferred from his death record which states that he was 71 when he died on 17 May 1643. The earliest documentary evidence pertaining to him, unusually enough, is a picture: he appears as a lutenist on the title page of a 1600 dance manual by Fabritio Caroso ("Nobilità di dame"). Sometime before February 1607 he was hired as organist at the Venetian church of the Frari, and from 1623 to his death he was also organist at the confraternity Scuola di San Rocco, the most prestigious and wealthy of all the Venetian confraternities. In 1624 he applied for the position of second organist at St. Mark's, but Giovanni Pietro Berti was chosen instead.  He was a close contemporary of Monteverdi, being born four years later and dying six months earlier than the more renowned composer.

Music and influence.

Of Picchi's music, mostly instrumental music survives. One harpsichord "toccata" is included in the "Fitzwilliam Virginal Book" (how it got there is not known – very little Italian music is included in that English collection); three "passamezzos" survive in a manuscript from Turin; and in 1619 he published a collection of harpsichord dances, "Intavolatura di balli d'arpicordo". In addition, he published a collection of 19 ensemble "canzonas" in 1625, "Canzoni da sonar". A sole motet survives in Ghirlanda sacra 1625.  His harpsichord dances are of three types: dances in triple meter, dances in triple meter paired with "saltarellos," and pieces which use a ground bass. Most of the works with ground bass use some type of "romanesca" pattern, consisting of a line descending by fourth, rising by step, then descending again by fourth or fifth, rising by step, and so forth (the Pachelbel Canon, probably written several decades after Picchi's death, is probably the most famous example of variations over a "romanesca" bass).  Within his ensemble "canzonas," Picchi worked to differentiate several types of instrumental writing which were critically important to later forms such as the concerto. In particular, he used well-defined concertino, ritornello, and cadenzas in his ensemble music, following and further developing a practice initiated in the music of Giovanni Gabrieli and the other composers of his generation. His writing for concertino groups was probably the most innovative aspect of his style, and foreshadowed the work of composers in the middle Baroque such as Corelli. Picchi used both sequential variation and echo effects, and scored for a variety of instruments including violins, bassoons, recorders and trombones, often in the same piece.  Picchi seems to have used the terms "canzona" and "sonata" interchangeably, sometimes calling a piece "canzona" in the score and "sonata" in the part book; the differentiation of these forms was only just beginning in the early 17th century.

Giovanni Picchi (1571 or 1572 – 17 May 1643) was an Italian composer, organist, lutenist, and harpsichordist of the early Baroque era. He was a late follower of the Venetian School, and was influential in the development and differentiation of instrumental forms which were just beginning to appear, such as the sonata and the ensemble canzona; in addition he was the only Venetian of his time to write dance music for harpsichord.

Giovanni Picchi (Venise, en 1571 ou 1572 – Venise, ) est un compositeur, organiste et luthiste italien de la période baroque, actif entre 1600 et 1625.


History.

Edgar was platted in 1891 by the railroad. It was named for William Edgar, a local landowner and owner of a sawmill.

Geography.

Edgar is located at (44.923757, -89.964659).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1,479 people, 597 households, and 414 families living in the village. The population density was. There were 635 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the village was 97.4% White, 0.4% African American, 0.4% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races, and 0.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.0% of the population.  There were 597 households of which 35.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.6% were married couples living together, 8.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 30.7% were non-families. 27.0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.01.  The median age in the village was 37.3 years. 27.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.6% were from 45 to 64; and 14.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 49.3% male and 50.7% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,386 people, 542 households, and 377 families living in the village. The population density was 837.0 people per square mile (322.4/km2). There were 568 housing units at an average density of 343.0 per square mile (132.1/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 98.92% White, 0.14% African American, 0.22% Native American, 0.22% Asian, 0.14% from other races, and 0.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.14% of the population.  There were 542 households out of which 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.7% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.4% were non-families. 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.10.  In the village, the population was spread out with 26.8% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.5 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $40,759, and the median income for a family was $51,250. Males had a median income of $32,569 versus $22,426 for females. The per capita income for the village was $21,605. About 4.0% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 10.2% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Edgar Library.

The Edgar library is a part of the Marathon County Public Library (MCPL), a network of nine public libraries throughout Marathon County, Wisconsin. Under the auspices of MCPL, the Edgar library (aka "MCPL Edgar") is also considered a member of the Wisconsin Valley Library Service, one of 17 state-level library systems in Wisconsin.  In 1928, the Edgar Women's Club obtained books from the Wisconsin Traveling Library and this functioned as the local library until 1946. In 1948 preschool storytimes began at the library. As the County Library grew and provided more services to the branch libraries, the village stepped in to provide building space so that the public would have a larger library to enjoy.  In 1973 the Edgar Library became a branch library of the newly formed Marathon County Public Library when the Wausau Public Library and Marathon County Library merged.  The county-wide building program funded the remodeling of the former Edgar Bank in 1994, giving the public more books, computers and more space for family and children's programs.

Edgar is a village in Marathon County, Wisconsin, United States. It is part of the Wausau, Wisconsin Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 1,479 at the 2010 census. Edgar has maintained Tree City USA standing since 1995. The village has several WIAA football championships.

Edgar est un village de l'État américain du Wisconsin, dépendant administrativement du Comté de Marathon. La localité porte le code FIPS 22550.