Background.

The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its Central European possessions, including those portions of Hungary which it had occupied. Its westward expansion arrested, the Ottoman Empire never again posed a serious threat to Austria, which became the dominant power in its region of Europe. The Eastern Question did not truly develop until the Russo-Turkish Wars of the 18th century.

Napoleonic Era.

The Napoleonic era (1799–1815) brought some relief to the faltering Ottoman Empire. It distracted Russia from further advances. General Napoleon himself invaded Egypt but his army was trapped there when the British sank the French fleet. A peace interlude in 1803 allowed the army to return to France.  To secure his own domination and to render the rest of Europe virtually powerless, Napoleon established an alliance with Russia by concluding the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807. Russia undertook to aid Napoleon in his war against Britain; in turn, the Emperor of Russia would receive the Ottoman territories of Moldavia and Wallachia. If the Sultan refused to surrender these territories, France and Russia were to attack the Empire, and the Ottoman domains in Europe were to be partitioned between the two allies.  The Napoleonic scheme threatened not only the Sultan, but also Britain, Austria and Prussia, which was almost powerless in the face of such a potent alliance. The alliance naturally proved accommodating to the Austrians, who hoped that a joint Franco-Russian attack, which would probably have utterly devastated the Ottoman Empire, could be prevented by diplomacy; but if diplomatic measures failed, the Austrian minister Klemens von Metternich decided that he would support the partition of the Ottoman Empire—a solution disadvantageous to Austria, but not as dangerous as a complete Russian takeover of Southeastern Europe.  An attack on the Empire, however, did not come to pass, and the alliance concluded at Tilsit was dissolved by the French invasion of Russia in 1812. Following Napoleon's defeat by the Great Powers in 1815, representatives of the victors met at the Congress of Vienna, but failed to take any action relating to the territorial integrity of the decaying Ottoman Empire. This omission, together with the exclusion of the Sultan from the Holy Alliance, was interpreted by many as supportive of the position that the Eastern Question was a Russian domestic issue that did not concern any other European nations.

Serbian revolution.

The Serbian revolution or "Revolutionary Serbia" refers to the national and social revolution of the Serbian people between 1804 and 1815, during which Serbia managed to fully emancipate itself from the Ottoman Empire and exist as a sovereign European nation-state, and a latter period (1815–1833), marked by intense negotiations between Belgrade and Ottoman Empire. The term was invented by a famous German historian, Leopold von Ranke, in his book "Die Serbische Revolution", published in 1829. These events marked the foundation of modern Serbia. While the first phase of the revolution (1804–1815) was in fact a war of independence, the second phase (1815–1833) resulted in official recognition of a suzerain Serbian state by the Porte (the Ottoman government), thus bringing the revolution to its end.  The revolution took place by stages: the First Serbian Uprising (1804–13), led by Karađorđe Petrović; Hadži Prodan's revolt (1814); the Second Serbian Uprising (1815) under Miloš Obrenović; and official recognition of the Serbian state (1815–1833) by the Porte.  "The Proclamation" (1809) by Karađorđe in the capital Belgrade represented the peak of the revolution. It called for unity of the Serbian nation, emphasizing the importance of freedom of religion, Serbian history and formal, written rules of law, all of which it claimed the Ottoman Empire had failed to provide. It also called on Serbs to stop paying the jizya tax to the Porte.  The ultimate result of the uprisings was Serbia's suzerainty from the Ottoman Empire. The Principality of Serbia was established, governed by its own Parliament, Government, Constitution and its own royal dynasty. Social element of the revolution was achieved through introduction of the bourgeois society values in Serbia, which is why it was considered the world's easternmost bourgeois revolt, which culminated with the abolition of feudalism in 1806. The establishment of the first constitution in the Balkans in 1835 (later abolished) and the founding in 1808 of its first university, Belgrade's Great Academy, added to the achievements of the young Serb state. By 1833, Serbia was officially recognized as a tributary to the Ottoman Empire and as such, acknowledged as a hereditary monarchy. Full independence of the Principality was internationally recognized during the second half of the 19th century.

Greek Revolt.

The Eastern Question once again became a major European issue when the Greeks declared independence from the Sultan in 1821. It was at about this time that the phrase "Eastern Question" was coined. Ever since the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there had been rumours that the Emperor of Russia sought to invade the Ottoman Empire, and the Greek Revolt seemed to make an invasion even more likely. The British foreign minister, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, as well as the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich, counselled the Emperor of Russia, Alexander I, not to enter the war. Instead, they pleaded that he maintain the Concert of Europe (the spirit of broad collaboration in Europe which had persisted since Napoleon's defeat). A desire for peaceful co-operation was also held by Alexander I, who had founded the Holy Alliance. Rather than immediately putting the Eastern Question to rest by aiding the Greeks and attacking the Ottomans, Alexander wavered, ultimately failing to take any decisive action.  Alexander's death in 1825 brought Nicholas I to the Imperial Throne of Russia. Deciding that he would no longer tolerate negotiations and conferences, he chose to intervene in Greece. Britain also soon became involved, interested in imposing its will on a newly formed Greek state in part to prevent it becoming a wholly Russian vassal. The spirit of Romanticism that then dominated Western European cultural life also made support for Greek independence politically viable. France too aligned itself with the Greeks, but Austria (still worried about Russian expansion) did not. Outraged by the interference of the Great Powers, the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II, denounced Russia as an enemy of Islam, prompting Russia to declare war in 1828. An alarmed Austria sought to form an anti-Russian coalition, but its attempts were in vain.  As the war continued into 1829, Russia gained a firm advantage over the Ottoman Empire. By prolonging hostilities further, however, Russia would have invited Austria to enter the war against her and would have resulted in considerable suspicion in Britain. Therefore, for the Russians to continue with the war in hopes of destroying the Ottoman Empire would have been inexpedient. At this stage, the King of France, Charles X, proposed the partition of the Ottoman Empire among Austria, Russia and others, but his scheme was presented too belatedly to produce a result.  Thus, Russia was able to secure neither a decisive defeat nor a partition of the Ottoman Empire. She chose, however, to adopt the policy of degrading the Ottoman Empire to a mere dependency. In 1829, the Emperor of Russia concluded the Treaty of Adrianople with the Sultan; his empire was granted additional territory along the Black Sea, Russian commercial vessels were granted access to the Dardanelles, and the commercial rights of Russians in the Ottoman Empire were enhanced. The Greek War of Independence was terminated shortly thereafter, as Greece was granted independence by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832.

Muhammad Ali of Egypt.

Just as the Greek Revolt was coming to an end, the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) broke out in the Ottoman Empire between the Sultan and his nominal viceroy in Egypt, Muhammad Ali. The modern and well trained Egyptians looked as though they could conquer the empire. The Tsar of Russia, in keeping with his policy of reducing the Ottoman Sultan to a petty vassal, offered to form an alliance with the Sultan. In 1833, the two rulers negotiated the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, in which Russia secured complete dominance over the Ottomans. The Russians pledged to protect the Empire from external attacks; in turn, the Sultan pledged to close the Dardanelles to warships whenever Russia was at war. This provision of the Treaty raised a problem known as the "Straits Question". The agreement provided for the closure for all warships, but many European statesmen mistakenly believed that the clause allowed Russian vessels. Britain and France were angered by the misinterpreted clause; they also sought to contain Russian expansion. The two kingdoms, however, differed on how to achieve their objective; the British wished to uphold the Sultan, but the French preferred to make Muhammad Ali (whom they saw as more competent) the ruler of the entire Ottoman Empire. Russian intervention led the Sultan to negotiate a peace with Muhammad Ali in 1833, but war broke out once again in 1839.  Sultan Mahmud II died the same year, leaving the Ottoman Empire to his son Abdulmejid I in a critical state: the Ottoman army had been significantly defeated by the forces of Muhammad Ali. Another disaster followed when the entire Turkish fleet was seized by the Egyptian forces. Great Britain and Russia now intervened to prevent the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, but France still continued to support Muhammad Ali. In 1840, however, the Great Powers agreed to compromise; Muhammad Ali agreed to make a nominal act of submission to the Sultan, but was granted hereditary control of Egypt.  The only unresolved issue of the period was the Straits Question. In 1841, Russia consented to the abrogation of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi by accepting the London Straits Convention. The Great Powers — Russia, Britain, France, Austria and Prussia — agreed to the re-establishment of the "ancient rule" of the Ottoman Empire, which provided that the Turkish straits would be closed to all warships whatsoever, with the exception of the Sultan's allies during wartime. With the Straits Convention, the Russian Emperor Nicholas I abandoned the idea of reducing the Sultan to a state of dependence, and returned to the plan of partitioning Ottoman territories in Europe.  Thus, after the resolution of the Egyptian struggle which had begun in 1831, the weak Ottoman Empire was no longer wholly dependent on Russia but was dependent on the Great Powers for protection. Attempts at internal reform failed to end the decline of the Empire. By the 1840s, the Ottoman Empire had become the "sick man of Europe", and its eventual dissolution appeared inevitable.

Revolutions of 1848.

After the Great Powers reached a compromise to end the revolt of Mehmet Ali, the Eastern Question lay dormant for about a decade until revived by the Revolutions of 1848. Although Russia could have seized the opportunity to attack the Ottoman Empire—France and Austria were at the time occupied by their own insurrections—it chose not to. Instead, Emperor Nicholas committed his troops to the defence of Austria, hoping to establish goodwill to allow him to seize Ottoman possessions in Europe later.  After the Austrian Revolution was suppressed, an Austro-Russian war against the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent. The Emperors of both Austria and Russia demanded that the Sultan return Austrian rebels who had sought asylum in the Empire, but he refused. The indignant monarchs withdrew their ambassadors to the Sublime Porte, threatening armed conflict. Almost immediately, however, Britain and France sent their fleets to protect the Ottoman Empire. The two Emperors, deeming military hostilities futile, withdrew their demands for the surrender of the fugitives. The short crisis created a closer relationship between Britain and France, which led to a joint war against Russia in the Crimean War of 1853–56.

Crimean War.

A new conflict began during the 1850s with a religious dispute. Under treaties negotiated during the 18th century, France was the guardian of Roman Catholics in the Ottoman Empire, while Russia was the protector of Orthodox Christians. For several years, however, Catholic and Orthodox monks had disputed possession of the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Palestine. During the early 1850s, the two sides made demands which the Sultan could not possibly satisfy simultaneously. In 1853, the Sultan adjudicated in favour of the French, despite the vehement protestations of the local Orthodox monks. Emperor Nicholas of Russia dispatched Prince Menshikov, on a special mission to the Porte. By previous treaties, the Sultan was committed "to protect the Christian religion and its Churches", but Menshikov tried to negotiate a new treaty, under which Russia would be allowed to interfere whenever it deemed the Sultan's protection inadequate. At the same time, however, the British government sent Stratford Canning, 1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe, who learnt of Menshikov's demands upon arriving. Through skillful diplomacy, Lord Stratford convinced the Sultan to reject the treaty, which compromised the independence of the Ottomans. Shortly after he learned of the failure of Menshikov's diplomacy, Nicholas marched into Moldavia and Wallachia (Ottoman principalities in which Russia was acknowledged as a special guardian of the Orthodox Church), with the pretext that the Sultan failed to resolve the issue of the Holy Places. Nicholas believed that the European powers would not object strongly to the annexation of a few neighbouring Ottoman provinces, especially given Russian involvement in suppressing the Revolutions of 1848.  Britain, seeking to maintain the security of the Ottoman Empire, sent a fleet to the Dardanelles, where it was joined by another fleet sent by France. Yet the European powers hoped for a diplomatic compromise. The representatives of the four neutral Great Powers—Britain, France, Austria and Prussia—met in Vienna, where they drafted a note which they hoped would be acceptable to Russia and the Empire. The note was approved by Nicolas but rejected by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I, who felt that the document's poor phrasing left it open to many interpretations. Britain, France and Austria were united in proposing amendments to mollify the Sultan, but their suggestions were ignored in the Court of Saint Petersburg. Britain and France set aside the idea of continuing negotiations, but Austria and Prussia held hope for diplomacy despite the rejection of the proposed amendments. The Sultan proceeded to war, his armies attacking the Russian army near the Danube. Nicholas responded by despatching warships, which destroyed the entire Ottoman fleet at Sinop on 30 November 1853, allowing Russia to land and supply its forces on the Ottoman shores fairly easily. The destruction of the Ottoman fleet and the threat of Russian expansion alarmed both Britain and France, who stepped forth in defence of the Ottoman Empire. In 1854, after Russia ignored an Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw from the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France declared war.  Emperor Nicholas I presumed that Austria, in return for the support rendered during the Revolutions of 1848, would side with him, or at the very least remain neutral. However, Austria felt threatened by the Russian troops in the nearby Danubian Principalities. When Britain and France demanded the withdrawal of Russian forces from the Principalities, Austria supported them; and, though it did not immediately declare war on Russia, it refused to guarantee its neutrality. When, in the summer of 1854, Austria made another demand for the withdrawal of troops, Russia (fearing that Austria would enter the war) complied. Though the original grounds for war were lost when Russia withdrew her troops from the Danubian Principalities, Britain and France continued hostilities. Determined to address the Eastern Question by ending the Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire, the allies posed several conditions for a ceasefire, including that Russia should give up its protectorate over the Danubian Principalities; that Russia should abandon any right to interfere in Ottoman affairs on the behalf of Orthodox Christians; that the Straits Convention of 1841 was to be revised; and finally, all nations were to be granted access to the river Danube. As the Emperor refused to comply with these "Four Points", the Crimean War proceeded.  Peace negotiations began in 1856 under the Emperor Nicholas I's successor, Alexander II. Under the ensuing Treaty of Paris, the "Four Points" plan proposed earlier was largely adhered to; most notably, Russia's special privileges relating to the Danubian Principalities were transferred to the Great Powers as a group. In addition, warships of all nations were perpetually excluded from the Black Sea, once the home to a Russian fleet (which had been destroyed during the war). The Emperor of Russia and the Sultan agreed not to establish any naval or military arsenal on that sea coast. The Black Sea clauses came at a tremendous disadvantage to Russia, for it greatly diminished the naval threat it posed to the Ottomans. Moreover, all the Great Powers pledged to respect the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire.  The Treaty of Paris stood until 1871, when France was crushed in the Franco-Prussian War. While Prussia and several other German states united into a powerful German Empire, Napoleon III was deposed in the formation of the French Third Republic. Napoleon had opposed Russia over the Eastern Question in order to gain the support of Britain. But the new French Republic did not oppose Russian interference in the Ottoman Empire because that did not significantly threaten French interests. Encouraged by the decision of France, and supported by the German minister Otto, Fürst von Bismarck, Russia denounced the Black Sea clauses of the treaty agreed to in 1856. As Britain alone could not enforce the clauses, Russia once again established a fleet in the Black Sea.

Great Eastern Crisis (1875–78).

Outcome.

Britain, France, and Austria opposed the Treaty of San Stefano of 3 March 1878 because the Ottoman Empire gave Russia too much influence in the Balkans, where insurrections were frequent. After many attempts, a diplomatic settlement was reached (July 1878) at the Congress of Berlin, and the new Treaty of Berlin (1878) revised the earlier treaty. Germany's Otto von Bismarck presided over the Congress, acting as an "honest broker".

Course.

In 1875 the territory of Herzegovina rebelled against the Ottoman Sultan in the Herzegovinian rebellion in the Province of Bosnia, and Bulgaria rebelled in the April Uprising. The Great Powers believed they should intervene to prevent a bloody war in the Balkans. The first to act were the members of the League of the Three Emperors (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia), whose common attitude toward the Eastern Question was embodied in the Andrassy Note of 30 December 1875 (named for the Hungarian diplomat Julius, Count Andrassy). The Note, seeking to avoid a widespread conflagration in Southeastern Europe, urged the Sultan to institute various reforms, including granting religious liberty to Christians. A joint commission of Christians and Muslims was to be established to ensure the enactment of appropriate reforms. With the approval of Britain and France, the Note was submitted to the Sultan, and he agreed on 31 January 1876. But the Herzegovinian leaders rejected the proposal, pointing out that the Sultan had already failed in his promises of reforms.  Representatives of the Three Emperors met again in Berlin, where they approved the Berlin Memorandum (May 1876). To convince the Herzegovinians, the Memorandum suggested that international representatives be allowed to oversee the institution of reforms in the rebelling provinces. But before the Memorandum could be approved by the Porte, the Ottoman Empire was convulsed by internal strife, which led to the deposition of Sultan Abdul-Aziz (30 May 1876). The new Sultan, Murad V, was himself deposed three months later due to his mental instability, and Sultan Abdul Hamid II came to power (31 August 1876). In the meantime, the hardships of the Ottomans had increased; their treasury was empty, and they faced insurrections not only in Herzegovina and Bulgaria, but also in Serbia and Montenegro. Still, the Ottoman Empire managed to crush the insurgents in August 1876. The result incommoded Russia, which had planned to take possession of various Ottoman territories in Southeastern Europe in the course of the conflict.  After the uprisings were largely suppressed, however, rumours of Ottoman atrocities against the rebellious population shocked European sensibilities. Russia now intended to enter the conflict on the side of the rebels. Delegates of the Great Powers (who now numbered six due to the rise of Italy) assembled at the Constantinople Conference (23 December 1876 to 20 January 1877) to make another attempt for peace. However, the Sultan refused the December 1876 proposals to allow international representatives to oversee the reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1877 the Great Powers again made proposals to the Ottoman Empire, which the Porte rejected (18 January 1877).  Russia declared war against the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877. The Russian chancellor Prince Gorchakov had effectively secured Austrian neutrality with the Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876, under which Ottoman territories captured in the course of the war would be partitioned between the Russian and Austria-Hungarian Empires, with the latter obtaining Bosnia and Herzegovina. Britain, though still fearing the Russian threat to British dominance in Southern Asia, did not involve itself in the conflict. However, when Russia threatened to conquer Constantinople, British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli urged Austria and Germany to ally with him against this war-aim. Russia negotiated peace through the Treaty of San Stefano (3 March 1878), which stipulated independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, autonomy to Bulgaria, reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina; the ceding Dobruja and parts of Armenia and a large indemnity to Russia. This would give Russia great influence in Southeastern Europe, as it could dominate the newly-independent states. To reduce these advantages to Russia, the Great Powers (especially Britain), insisted on a thorough revision of the Treaty of San Stefano.  At the Congress of Berlin, the Treaty of Berlin of 13 July 1878 adjusted the boundaries of the new states in the Ottoman Empire's favour. Bulgaria was divided into two states (Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia), as it was feared that a single state would be susceptible to Russian domination. Ottoman cessions to Russia were largely sustained. Bosnia and Herzegovina, though still nominally within the Ottoman Empire, were transferred to Austrian control. A secret agreement between Britain and the Ottoman Empire gave the Ottoman island of Cyprus to Britain. These final two procedures were predominantly forced by Disraeli, whom Otto von Bismarck famously described as "The old Jew, that is the man", after his level-headed Palmerstonian approach to the Eastern Question.

Germany and the Ottoman Empire.

Germany drew away from Russia and became closer to Austria-Hungary, with whom she concluded the Dual Alliance in 1879. Germany also closely allied with the Ottoman Empire. Germany took over the re-organisation of the Ottoman military and financial system; in return, it received several commercial concessions, including permission to build the Baghdad Railway, which secured for them access to several important economic markets and had the potential for German entry into the Persian Gulf area controlled by Britain. Germany was driven not only by commercial interests, but also by an imperialistic and militaristic rivalry with Britain. Meanwhile, Britain agreed to the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904, thereby resolving differences between the two countries over international affairs. Britain also reconciled with Russia in 1907 with the Anglo-Russian Entente.

Young Turk Revolution.

In April 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress (more commonly called the Young Turks), a political party opposed to the despotic rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, led a rebellion against the Sultan. The pro-reform Young Turks deposed the Sultan by July 1909, replacing him with the ineffective Mehmed V. This began the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire.  In the following years, various constitutional and political reforms were instituted, but the decay of the Ottoman Empire continued.

Bosnian Crisis.

As the Young Turks took charge of the government in Ottoman Empire, the Austrian feared they might regain total control of Bosnia Herzegovina - which was under the temporary control of Austria-Hungarian under the Congress of Berlin (1878) pact, but the provinces officially remained possessions of the Ottoman Empire. The Austrian foreign minister Graf (count) Lexa von Aehrenthal resolved to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, which was both economically and strategically important. Russia was contacted by Aehrenthal. Izvolsky agreed that Russia would not object to the annexation. pledged that in return Austria would not object to opening the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits to Russian warships, an advantage that had been denied to Russia since 1841. By a rescript of Oct. 7, 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ethnically closed Serbians were outraged. However, Germany was allied with Austria, leaving Serbia helpless against two great powers. Although the conflict was resolved without any immediate warfare, the result embittered relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Russia's resentment at having been deceived and humiliated contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

In diplomatic history, the "Eastern Question" refers to the strategic competition and political considerations of the European Great Powers in light of the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries. Characterized as the "sick man of Europe", the relative weakening of the empire's military strength in the second half of the eighteenth century threatened to undermine the fragile balance of power system largely shaped by the Concert of Europe. The Eastern Question encompassed myriad interrelated elements: Ottoman military defeats, Ottoman institutional insolvency, the ongoing Ottoman political and economic modernization programme, the rise of ethno-religious nationalism in its provinces, and Great Power rivalries.

La question d’Orient est le terme utilisé pour qualifier l’implication des diverses puissances européennes (principalement la France, le Royaume-Uni et la Russie, ainsi que, dans une moindre mesure l’Autriche-Hongrie, l’Italie et l’Allemagne) en Méditerranée orientale et dans les Balkans, profitant des difficultés de l’Empire ottoman.


Specifications.

The tunnel is 1.37 km (0.85 miles) long. It comprises two parallel bores, each of which contains a two-lane roadway: each lane is 3.75 metres wide and the bores also include a hard shoulder. The tunnel can be used by vehicles up to 5.10 metres tall and, where exceptional loads need to be transported through it, up to 7.50 metres wide.  Escape doors on the right side of each bore give access to emergency exit corridors. These are separate from the ventilation and drainage ducts.

Construction.

The tunnel was constructed in eight preformed sections, each one 142 metres long, in a temporarily created dry dock nearby in what is now the location of the. These sections, still sealed at the ends, were then precisely positioned using tugboats and sunk into position.

Funding and tolls.

Funding for the tunnel was provided by means of a ring-fenced financing provision, so that tunnel revenues would not be accessible as general local government revenues. As of 2014, the toll was set at EUR 6.00 for vehicles lower than 2.75 metres, and EUR 19 for taller vehicles. However, when the southern portion of the ring road, via the Kennedytunnel, is subject to roadworks, leading to above average congestion, tolls on the Liefkenshoektunnel may be temporarily suspended in order to encourage drivers to use the (for most destinations longer) northern ring road round Antwerp rather than the (permanently toll free) southern route.  Reduced toll rates are offered to drivers prepared to pay using a credit card and an automated toll gate, as well as for drivers willing to have their cars fitted with a radio controlled device enabling tolls to be charged to their accounts without the need to stop at the toll barrier ("Teletol").

Usage.

Peak usage was reached in 2004. In that year 4,676,441 passenger car journeys and 2,434,496 commercial vehicle journeys were undertaken through the tunnel. In 2009, with the tolls increased by 10% for passenger cars from EUR 5.00 to EUR 5.50 and by 6% (from EUR 17.00 to EUR 18.00) for larger vehicles, usage had actually declined by over 10% to 4,197,236 passenger car journeys and 2,176,658 commercial vehicle journeys.  Usage and revenue were below forecast, possibly because on the Dutch side of the nearby frontier, between Bergen op Zoom and Dinteloord, a projected direct four-lane highway towards Rotterdam, has still not been built. The competing route through Belgium to Rotterdam which runs a short distance to the east via Breda was suffering intensified congestion in 2004 due to an upgrade which has subsequently been completed.

Rail tunnel.

In September 2008 work began on two additional bores for the Liefkenshoektunnel, intended to carry trains. Scheduled for 2014, the project was completed on 9 December 2014. The 6,750 m Antigoontunnel is also known as the Liefkenshoekspoortunnel.

The Liefkenshoektunnel is a toll tunnel between Antwerp and Beveren under the River Schelde. The tunnel is a continuation of Highway R2, the ring motorway surrounding the city and harbour of Antwerp. In 2010 the tunnel was used by 6,373,894 vehicles. Positioned between the Beverentunnel and the Tijsmanstunnel, the Liefkenshoektunnel is the second of three sequential road tunnels running under the river and port installations.

Le tunnel de Liefkenshoek (en néerlandais "Liefkenshoektunnel") est un tunnel payant du Ring 2 au Nord-ouest de la ville d'Anvers qui se trouve près du lieu-dit "Liefkenshoek", sous le fleuve l'Escaut, dans la Province d'Anvers en Belgique.


Playing career.

Making his debut in 1974 at the age of 20, Parrish became a solid hitter as a third baseman in the 1970s and 1980s, hitting 20 or more home runs in a season 5 times during his Major League career. He was a two-time All-Star, and in 1979, he was named the Montreal Expos Player of the Year after batting.307 with 30 homers and 82 runs batted in. Parrish is the only Montreal Expos player to ever hit three home runs in one game on three separate occasions (May 29, 1977, July 30, 1978, and April 25, 1980). In the May 1977 game against the Cardinals, he went 5–for–5, batting in 5 runs in a 14–4 victory. In the April 1980 game, he drove in all 7 runs for Montreal in an 8–7 loss to Atlanta. In 1982, during his first season with the Texas Rangers, Parrish tied a major league record held by Jim Northrup when he hit three grand slams in the span of one week.  Parrish ranks seventh on the Texas Rangers all-time home run list with 149 and eighth in RBIs at 522. He closed out his American Major League career by joining the Boston Red Sox during the stretch run of the 1988 season; while he was with the Red Sox, the team won the American League Eastern Division championship.  After his Major League Baseball career ended, Parrish played for two different Japanese major league teams. Parrish had a career.263 batting average in Major League Baseball with 256 home runs and 992 runs batted in. In 13 career playoff games, he batted.182 with no home runs and three RBIs.

Coaching career.

After retiring from the majors and spending time playing for the Yakult Swallows and Hanshin Tigers of the Japanese Central League, Parrish became a full-time coach within the Detroit Tigers organization. In 1992, Parrish was named the manager for the Single-A Niagara Falls of the New York–Penn League and won the league championship in 1993. In 1995, he was named the roving hitting instructor for the Tigers minor league system. In 1996, he returned to the dugout as the manager of the Double-A Jacksonville Suns, where he won another League Championship the same year. Parrish then served as bench coach under manager Buddy Bell for the 1997 season and part of the 1998 season before Bell was fired. Parrish was promoted as the replacement and managed the Tigers from 1998–99, compiling an 82–104 record; however, he was replaced by Phil Garner for the 2000 season. Parrish managed the Tigers through their final season at Tiger Stadium. Parrish remained in the Tigers organization as a scout from 2000–2002, and in 2003, he returned to the dugout once again as the manager for the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens of the International League.  In 2005, Parrish managed the Mud Hens to an impressive 89–55 record and the Governors' Cup as champions of the International League. The Mud Hens defeated the Indianapolis Indians. Following the season, Parrish was named the 2005 Minor League Manager of the Year by "The Sporting News".  In 2006, Parrish led the Mud Hens to a 76–66 record and a repeat of the Governor's Cup, giving the Mud Hens their third title and making them back-to-back champions for the first time in team history. This time, the Mud Hens defeated the Rochester Red Wings. The team moved on to play in the first Triple-A Baseball National Championship Game, in Oklahoma City, where they would take on the Tucson Sidewinders of the Pacific Coast League. The Mud Hens fell to the Sidewinders by a score of 5–2.  On October 29, 2010, it was announced that Parrish would become the hitting coach for the Atlanta Braves, replacing Terry Pendleton, who was moved to first base coach. After the Braves offense went from first in the National League in On-base percentage in 2010 to fourteenth in 2011 with roughly the same lineup, Braves general manager Frank Wren announced on September 30, 2011 that Parrish would not return to his duties for the 2012 season.  Parrish was named manager of the West Michigan Whitecaps for the 2013 season.  Parrish was elected to the International League Hall of Fame as a manager in 2013.  On September 18, 2013, it was announced that Parrish would return to the Mud Hens for his third stint as manager. He replaced Phil Nevin, whose contract was not renewed. On August 2, 2015, Parrish announced his plan to retire at the end of the Mud Hens' season.

Larry Alton Parrish (born November 10, 1953) is a former Major League Baseball third baseman and manager. Parrish played with the Montreal Expos (1974–81), Texas Rangers (1982–88), and Boston Red Sox (1988). He also played two seasons in Japan for the Yakult Swallows (1989) and the Hanshin Tigers (1990). Later, he served as manager of the Detroit Tigers (1998–99).

Larry Alton Parrish (né le à Winter Haven, Floride, États-Unis) est un ancien joueur de baseball des Ligues majeures. Il a joué de 1974 à 1988 pour les Expos de Montréal, les Rangers du Texas et les Red Sox de Boston et a participé à deux reprises au match des étoiles du baseball majeur.


Early years and formation.

He was born in Isny im Allgäu in the Kingdom of Württemberg, the son of Franz Ehrle, a physician, and Berta von Frölich. He was educated at the Jesuit school Stella Matutina in Feldkirch. He joined the Society of Jesus on 20 September 1861. After completing the two years of his novitiate program of formation at Groheim, Hohenzollern, he followed the course of humanities at the College of Friedricksburg in Münster, and later at the Jesuit college at Maria Laach Abbey, where he studied philosophy (1865–1868). For the regency phase of his training in the Society of Jesus, from 1868-1873 Ehrle was sent to teach at his old secondary school, Stella Matutina, where he taught English, French and philosophy. Because of an anti-Jesuit policy that followed the publication of the Kulturkampf in Germany, Ehrle, along with other German companions, had to carry on his studies abroad. He did his studies in theology at Ditton Hall, the Jesuit seminary in Liverpool, England (1873–1877).  After being ordained a priest on 24 September 1876 in Liverpool, Ehrle did pastoral work in a home for the poor at Preston, Lancashire, before being transferred in 1878 to Tervuren, Belgium, where the German Jesuit periodical "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach" ("Voices from Maria Laach") had established its office in exile, to serve as its editor.

Working in the Vatican Archives.

When Pope Leo XIII opened the Vatican Secret Archives in 1880, Erhle was called to Rome to do research on the official correspondence between the Holy See and Germany during the Thirty Years War. The work progressed very slowly as a large number of documents were as yet lacking detailed catalogs. Ehrle became more and more involved, but, responding to Pope Leo's call for a renewal in Thomistic studies, his interests shifted to gathering and cataloging books and manuscripts relating to scholasticism. To do so he visited other European libraries. Publications began in 1885 with the "Bibliotheca Theologiae et Philosophiae Scholasticae selectae" (5 volumes). In the beginning of 1890 he began the publication of a "Historia Bibliothecae Romanorum Pontificum", a comprehensive history of the papal libraries from both Avignon and Rome.  In September of that same year (1890), Ehrle was made a member extraordinary of the Board of Councilors of the Vatican Library, serving from 1890 to 1895, after which he served as its prefect until 1914.  In 1898 (30 September-1 October), Ehrle organized an international conference on the preservation of manuscripts at the Swiss Abbey of St Gall. As a result of the conference, a committee was established: Ehrle published an account of the meeting and the proceedings were also published. This conference was particularly important as the first international meeting of those charged with the preservation of the historical heritage. Nothing similar took place again until the 1930s when the international museum committee of the League of Nations organized conservation conferences in Rome, Paris and Athens.

Modernization of the Vatican Library.

Under Ehrle's direction the printed books housed in the Appartamento Borgia were consolidated and moved to be stored with the main library collection. His measures of reorganization allowed for research scholars to finally have access to the public reference collection. Ehrle also worked to have reference librarians available to assist researchers. Extending the library's hours of operation to meet the needs of researchers, he opened to them use of the entire catalog, and eased restrictions on scholars' use and research of Vatican library treasures. Ehrle's efforts to meet the needs of researchers led to increase use of the Vatican Library and in 1910 a reading room was created in space formerly occupied by the Vatican printworks. This change also improved readers' access to the stacks. Ehrle also began a descriptive cataloging project for the Vatican Library's collection that he projected would take 80 to 100 years to complete. Ehrle's forward thinking nature also led him to introduce the use of photography to preserve endangered manuscripts before other libraries began the practice. Such photographical techniques also permitted researchers increased access to information on manuscripts. Ehrle sought not only to provide for the protection and repair of Vatican manuscripts, but also to make available the facilities of Vatican workshops to aid in preserving endangered manuscripts from around the world.  Ehrle resided in Münich from 1918 to 1919. Returning then to Rome, he served as a faculty member of the Pontifical Biblical Institute until 1922 and of the Pontifical Gregorian University. He was promoted to the office of Cardinal Deacon by Pope Pius XI at the papal consistory of 11 December 1922, and given the Titular church of San Cesareo in Palatio. He died on 31 March 1934 in Rome at the age of 88. For the last year of his life, he had been the oldest member of the College of Cardinals. He was buried in the Campo Verano.

Franz Ehrle, S.J., (17 October 1845 – 31 March 1934) was a German Jesuit priest and a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as the Archivist of the Secret Archives of the Vatican, in the course of which he became a leading agent in the revival of Thomism in the teachings of the Catholic Church.

Franz Ehrle, né le à Isny, Wurtemberg, Allemagne et décédé le à Rome, était un prêtre jésuite allemand. Théologien médiéviste, il fut appelé à Rome par Léon XIII pour y organiser les archives et moderniser la bibliothèque vaticane. Il fut créé cardinal en 1922, mais ne sera pas consacré évêque.


Gameplay.

"Sega Bass Fishing" is an arcade fishing game where players attempt to hook and reel in fish with different lures. It uses a fishing rod controller. Consisting of four stages at different times of the day, the game requires the player to catch a certain weight of fish within a time limit in order to move onto the next stage. The final stage allows only for one fish to be captured, but are among the largest in the game and most difficult to catch. Fish are measured under four weight classes: Small One, Average, Big One, and Huge.

Ports.

The game was an early title on the Sega Dreamcast, and was compatible with the Sega Fishing Controller for more realistic play. The game struggled with critics due to its narrow nature. However, it did showcase the amazing graphical capabilities of the Sega Dreamcast with the fish moving fluidly to create a smooth fishing experience. It sold well and became one of the few Sega All Stars titles.  The Sega Dreamcast port included a practice mode and a tournament mode, where players could unlock more lures. In addition to the arcade game's four stages, four new stages were also included. Each stage could now be played with different fishing conditions, such as the season, weather and time of day. The PC version of the game released in 2001 was based on the Dreamcast version.  An enhanced port of the game was released for the Wii on February 26, 2008. The game utilizes the motion controls of the Wii Remote and optionally the Nunchuck to replicate the Sega Fishing Controller. The game's graphics have been enhanced and includes the modes, features, stages and unlockables found in the Dreamcast version. The Wii version also introduces seven more stages, bringing the number to fifteen. Arcade mode now consists of courses, with the final course unlocking the original four arcade stages. Nature Trip mode is also introduced, allowing players to practice without the background music playing.  The Sega Dreamcast port of the game was featured in the compilation game "Dreamcast Collection" released in early 2011 for the Xbox 360 and PC, and as a separate digital download with for Steam in March 2011, the PlayStation Store and Xbox Live Arcade on October 2011.

Reception.

Jeff Lundrigan reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for "Next Generation", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Whether you're a true angler or just looking for a neat party game, buy this (and pick up a fishing controller while you're at it)."  "Sega Bass Fishing" received mostly positive reviews upon original release. The Xbox 360 and Wii ports received mediocre reviews.

Sequels.

A sequel, "Sega Bass Fishing 2" was released in 2001. The following year, "Sega Bass Fishing Duel" was released for the PlayStation 2, bringing multiplayer to the series.  In April 2012, an on-rails FPS crossover titled "Sega Bass Fishing of the Dead" was reported to be in production for Nintendo's Wii U and Nintendo 3DS, but the trailer was revealed to be an April Fools' joke by Random Encounters Entertainment.

Sega Bass Fishing, also known as Get Bass, is an arcade fishing video game developed in 1997 by Sega for the Sega Model 3 hardware. The game has since been ported to the Dreamcast, Microsoft Windows, Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii.

Sega Bass Fishing est un jeu vidéo de pêche, développé par Wow Entertainment et édité par Sega, sorti en 1997 sur borne d'arcade (Model 3). Le jeu fut porté sur Dreamcast, Windows et Wii par SIMS. En, le titre fut porté sur Xbox 360 et Playstation 3 via une version téléchargeable. Le jeu a reçu le label "Sega All Stars" sur Dreamcast.


History.

Kaladan was an entry point to Mizoram from the seaport of Sittwe in 1904. Kaladan is Mizoram's largest river and it flows through its southeastern region.

Geography.

The river arises in central Chin State as the Timit, 22° 49′ 28′′ N 93° 31′ 57" E, and flows south and is soon joined by the Chal, after which it is known as the Boinu River. It continues south until just before it is joined by the Twe River at 22° 08′ 40′′ N 93° 34′ 30′′ E, when it swings west. It continues west until 22° 05′ 20′′ N 93° 14′ 12′′ E, when it heads northwest. At 22° 11′ 06′′ N 93° 09′ 29′′ E, below Mount Phabipa, it turns north and becomes the international border between India and Myanmar. It flows north to 22° 47′ 09′′ N 93° 05′ 47′′ E, where the international border continues north along the Tyao River, and the Boinu heads northwest into Mizoram State, at which point it is known as the Kaladan.  At 22° 56′ 21′′ N 92° 58′ 55′′ E it reaches its northernmost point, and turns south west, is joined by the Tuichong River from the right and then heads south. The Kaladan is joined from the right by the Mat River at 22° 43′ 39′′ N, 92° 54′ 46′′ E. It continues south and is joined by the Kawrthingdeng River from the right. It again enters Chin State, at Raithaw Ferry, 22° 03′ 40′′ N 92° 51′ 05′′ E, just northwest of Khenkhar. The Mi River joins from the left at 21° 06′ 56′′ N 92° 57′ 42′′ E. At Ngame the river enters the Rakhine State of Myanmar and continues south to Sittwe where it enters the Bay of Bengal.

Development.

At present, the Kaladan is the fifth largest river in the world to remain completely unfragmented by dams anywhere in its catchment, behind only the Fly, Mamberamo and Sepik in New Guinea and the Pechora in Russia. Nonetheless, the governments of India and Myanmar are working on a US$500 million, "Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project" that will facilitate trade between the two nations. The project includes the construction of the US$120 million deepwater Sittwe Port at the mouth of the river, dredging of the Kaladan River to enable cargo vessels to navigate the river from Sittwe to Mizoram, the construction of a river port at Paletwa, as well as the widening and upgrade of highways between Paletwa and Myeikwa on the Indo-Myanmar border. India undertook the development of the 158 km river boat route from Sittwe seaport to the Inland Water Terminal (IWT) and hydropower project at Paletwa jetty via the Kaladan River in Myanmar. River dredging and a jetty upgrade were completed in June 2017. There is at least one river lock for navigation. The project will open up not only Mizoram but all of India's northeastern states as hinterland for the Sittwe Port. Construction for the port started in 2010 and is expected to be completed by mid-2020.  Development of the river is also being negotiated with the Shwe Gas Project for economic enhancement

The Kaladan River (, ; also Kysapnadi, Beino, Bawinu and Kolodyne) is a river in eastern Mizoram State of India, and in Chin State and Rakhine State of western Myanmar. The Kaladan River is called the Chhimtuipui River in India. It forms the international border between India and Burma between 22° 47′ 10" N (where its tributary, the Tio River, joins it) and 22° 11′ 06" N.

La Kaladan est un fleuve de Birmanie et d'Inde. Elle prend sa source en Birmanie, dans l'État Chin, coule d'abord vers le sud sous le nom de "Boinu", puis vers le nord-ouest, forme une partie de la frontière entre la Birmanie et l'Inde, puis entre dans l'État indien de Mizoram, tourne vers le sud, entre à nouveau en Birmanie dans l'État Chin, puis traverse l'État d'Arakan et les villes de Kyauktaw et Mrauk U avant de se jeter dans le golfe du Bengale à Sittwe.


Identification.

The male is very dark, grey and black with numerous white spots, each spot bordered with black and deep crimson patches on the sides and back of the neck. The throat is bare with blue skin while the bare facial skin is red. They have a small black occipital crest. Females have pale brownish-grey upper parts finely vermiculated and spotted with black, and most of the feathers have black patches and central white streaks. Immature males resemble females, but are larger with longer legs and a variable amount of black on the head and red on neck.  Males weigh and females weigh. The males vary in length from while the females are.

Distribution.

Five populations are known from Kohistan District, Pakistan, Kaghan valley, Pakistan Kishtwar, Chamba, Kullu and an area east of the Satluj river. They are found from an altitude of 1,750 to 3,600 m, going higher in summer. Their preferred habitat is the dense understorey of temperate, subalpine and broad-leaved forest.

Habitats.

It inhabits upper temperate forests between 2,400 and 3,600 m in summer, and in winter, dense coniferous and broad-leaved forests between 2,000 and 2,800 m elevations. The western tragopan is mostly arboreal but feeds on the ground. They feed mostly on leaves, shoots and seeds, but also consume insects and other invertebrates. Like most pheasants, they roost in trees singly or in pairs except during nesting.  During display, the males show the throat inflated into lappets that appear purple with pink margins. They also display blue horns with a fancied resemblance to those of the Greek mythological god Pan, whence the name "tragopan" ("tragos" "goat" + "Pan"). During the display they call and the song is a loud two-note ringing "wou-weee" which is repeated every second for long periods. The breeding season is May and June. They build their nests in low tree hollows.  They are sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance and avoid disturbed habitats (for instance, hydro-electric project development sites).

Status.

The western tragopan is considered the rarest of all living pheasants. Its range is very restricted. In Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh, this bird is locally called "jujurana" which means "king of birds". It was accorded the status of state bird of Himachal Pradesh in 2007.  The population of the western tragopan is threatened by several anthropogenic factors throughout its range. The world population is estimated at fewer than 5,000 individuals, including a captive breeding population in Himachal Pradesh which numbered fewer than ten pairs in 2012. CITES has listed this species in Appendix I in order to discourage selling of its feathers. Representing the endemic bird area D02 of Western Himalaya, the western tragopan has been described as a range-restricted species.

The western tragopan or western horned tragopan ("Tragopan melanocephalus") is a medium-sized brightly plumed pheasant found along the Himalayas from north-eastern districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province in northern Pakistan in the west to Uttarakhand within India to the east. The species is highly endangered and globally threatened.

Le Tragopan de Hastings (Tragopan melanocephalus) est une espèce d'oiseaux appartenant à la famille des Phasianidae. C'est une espèce monotypique


Life.

He was born in Korbach, Waldeck (now in Waldeck-Frankenberg, Hesse).  He attended the universities at the University of Erfurt, the University of Marburg and the University of Wittenberg, where he finished his studies with a M.A. in 1571. In the following years he directed the gymnasiums in his hometown Korbach and in Kassel. In 1581, Landgraf Wilhelm IV of Hesse-Kassel, who was a reputed astronomer, refused his wish to return to Korbach, but allowed him to be appointed professor at the Philipps University of Marburg, where he had the chairs of philosophy, logic, metaphysics and ethics. He served as a counsellor to Wilhelm and his son Moritz. The latter sent him in 1618 to the Synod of Dort.  Although he dubbed the name of "psychology," his major contribution was to the field of Ontology. As a follower of Aristotle's work, Glöckel gave the philosophy a name and continued in Aristotle's way of thinking. The philosophical discipline of Ontology is thought to have been developed in the 17th century by Göckel.  Göckel died in Marburg in June 1628.

Family.

His oldest son, Rudolph Goclenius the Younger, or Rudolf Goclenius, Jr. was professor in Marburg, and a celebrated mathematician. It is after Rudolph Goclenius, Jr., that the lunar crater is named. He also worked on cures against the plague. He became famous for his miraculous cure with the "weapon salve" or Powder of Sympathy.

Philosophical work.

From his dispute with Wilhelm Adolph Scribonius of Marburg on the legality of the ordeal by water in witch trials, one can deduce that Goclenius was convinced on the existence of witchcraft and adhered to the "Hexenhammer".  His views reflected those of Aristotle. His philosophies belonged to a group called “Semiramists,” which was a group of Aristotelians who believed in advocating dialectic interpretation of Aristotle’s learning, but also advocating the exposition of Ramism.

Works.

He was highly literate and wrote articles on many subjects, not only philosophy but also mathematics, geography, astrology (or astronomy), botanic, zoology, medicine. In his "Lexicon philosophicum" (1613) he used the term "ontology" coined by Jacob Lorhard in his "Ogdooas Scholastica" (1606).  Goclenius’ major contributions also included publications which led to the term “psychology.” His Lexicon Philosophicum, published in 1590, is the first printed book to contain the word “psychology.”  Goclenius' crowning achievement is his original contribution made to term logic, called the Goclenian Sorites. In the words of the British logician Carveth Read:  "It is the shining merit of Goclenius to have restored the Premises of the Sorites to the usual order of Fig. I.: whereby he has raised to himself a monument more durable than brass, and secured indeed the very cheapest immortality. How expensive, compared with this, was the method of the Ephesian incendiary!" In 1590, this German scholastic philosopher is often attributed for the initial use of the term "psychology" in his writing. "Psycologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu." This was a Latin dissertation that translates to English as, "Psychology, that is, on the perfection arising from the soul of man.

Rudolph Goclenius the Elder (; born "Rudolf Gockel" or "Göckel"; 1 March 1547 – 8 June 1628) was a German scholastic philosopher. Gockel is often credited with coining the term "psychology" in 1590, but the term was used by Marko Marulić at least 66 years earlier. Gockel also had extensive backing and significant contributions to the field of ontology. He extended on many ideas from Aristotle, such as both the introduction of ontology and metaphysics. Several of Gockel’s ideas were published and built upon by later philosophers.

Rudolf Goclenius l'Ancien ou Rudolph Goclenius ou Rudolph Göckel ou Rudulphus Goclenius senior (Korbach, - Marbourg, ) est un professeur allemand qui enseigna la philosophie, la logique, la métaphysique et l'éthique à l'université de Marbourg. Il est l'auteur de "Psychologia" (1590) et d'un célèbre "Lexicon philosophicum" (1613). Très favorable à Pierre de La Ramée, il fut cependant contraint de faire amende honorable devant l'université de Marbourg et de revenir à l'aristotélisme.


Origins.

Fulfilling one of the promises made in his first national address as president, Ibrahim Babangida in June 1986 issued Decree Number 19, dissolving the National Security Organization (NSO) and re-structuring Nigeria's security services into three separate entities under the Office of the Co-ordinator of National Security. The State Security Service (SSS) was made responsible for domestic intelligence, with Director General Ismaila Gwarzo and Deputy Director Lt. Col. A.K. Togun. The National Intelligence Agency (NIA) handled external intelligence and counterintelligence. The Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) was responsible for military-related intelligence outside and inside Nigeria. The first headquarters of the agency was located at 15, Awolowo road, Ikoyi in Lagos; this site currently houses the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC). The SSS headquarters was finally moved to Abuja during the regime of General Sani Abacha, the headquarters complex is informally known as the "Yellow House", it is located on the northern edge of the three-arms zone on Aso drive in Maitama, Abuja.

Mandate.

The mission of the SSS is to protect and defend the Federal Republic of Nigeria against domestic threats, to uphold and enforce the criminal laws of Nigeria, and to provide leadership and criminal justice services to both federal and state law-enforcement organs. The SSS is also charged with the protection of the President, Vice President, Senate President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, State Governors, their immediate families, other high ranking government officials, past presidents and their spouses, certain candidates for the offices of President and Vice President, and visiting foreign heads of state and government. The SSS has constantly adapted to various roles necessitated by evolving security threats in Nigeria including counter-terrorism and counter-insurgent.

Successes, failures and fatalities.

The SSS has been reasonably successful in performing its primary internal security responsibility. The agency in its early day was credited with the arrest of the Egyptian bomber Omar Mohammed Ali Rezaq in 1993 while he was trying to enter Nigeria through the Nigeria–Benin border. Rezaq was wanted by the United States for leading the bombing of an EgyptAir plane for the Abu Nidal group in 1985 he was subsequently rendered to the United States after an official request was received from the State Department. In October 2010, the SSS intercepted a large cache of arms and ammunition originating from Iran at the Apapa port in Lagos; this in spite of a UN arms embargo on Iran. The arms which included artillery rockets, shells and mortars were concealed in thirteen containers falsely declared as "building materials", it was alleged that Nigeria was being used as a transhipment destination while Gambia was the final destination for the arms.  The agency has also been reported to have infiltrated a number of religious extremist groups in the country including the Boko Haram sect. In September 2001, six Pakistani proselyters invited by the Lagos-based Tabliq, a Muslim NGO were arrested in Benue State on suspicion of immigration violations and they were subsequently deported on 18 November. According to wikileaks, Mr. Kayode Are, the "SSS Director General expressed concern regarding the funding for the organization, which came through wire transfers from sources in Pakistan, India and Malaysia". Also according to WikiLeaks, in 2009 another itinerant preacher was arrested in Taraba state and was also deported.  The SSS has also recorded some successes in combating kidnapping in Nigeria with the arrest of some kidnappers and the rescue of their victims. In October 2011, the agency rescued the Parish Priest of St Bernard's Catholic Church Eguaholo in Orhionmwon local government area of Edo state, Rev. Fr Sylvester Chukwura, from his kidnapper's hideout. The kidnappers were baited with the ransom sum and were subsequently ambushed by SSS operatives. In the same time frame, the SSS also arrested another kidnapper in Edo state known as Binebi Sibete, who was described as a notorious kidnapper and killer. Binebi was wanted amongst other things for killing an SSS operative in 2010 and also burning down the state government patrol boat at Gelegele.  The SSS has been criticised for allowing Umar Farouk Abdul Mutallab, the "underpants bomber", to board Northwest airlines flight from Lagos despite his father having previously warned security officials of his sons radical views on America. In its defence, the SSS said it was not informed by Mr. Mutallab's father of his sons alleged radical beliefs, the agency said that Mr. Mutallab's father had actually spoken with officials at the United States Embassy in Abuja and also sought the help of a past Nigerian National Security Adviser. The SSS held that the American authorities did not share the information that Mr. Mutallab senior had given them and the former National Security Adviser had also not contacted the agency hence their inability to act on information they did not possess.  The agency was also criticized heavily in the wake of 26 August 2011 United Nations House bombing in Abuja. The Boko Haram sect which has ties to Al-Qaeda Organization in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) claimed responsibility for the car bomb attack that left 24 people dead; the sect had been fighting Boko Haram insurgency that started as a result of their leader being killed by policemen after he had been arrested. The Nigerian public grew even more critical of the agency after newspapers ran stories in which they claimed that the agency had received intelligence about the bombing beforehand from the Americans. This news item later turned out to be false when it was revealed that it was the SSS who had actually received credible intelligence from sources within Boko Haram about an impending attack in Abuja. The intelligence pointed out key government buildings and ministries as targets, the agency subsequently raised the alert level in Abuja and also advised diplomatic missions and international organizations in the city to take adequate security precautions for their staff and premises. The final UN report on the incident indicted the UN resident Security adviser in Abuja and his deputy, they were accused of negligence considering the fact that they had been given "adequate intelligence on a possible suicide attack", yet they failed to implement suitable safeguards. Both men were subsequently relieved of their positions.  In early November 2011, the Nigerian press ran stories alleging that the United States government had issued a travel advisory on Nigeria. The travel advisory according to the papers included the threat of bomb attacks at major hotels in Abuja frequented by expatriates. The story immediately generated panic among the populace and accusations of incompetence made against the security agencies, the SSS inclusive. The story also alleged that the American ambassador had given a statement explaining that the US had given the warning directly because the Nigerian security agencies had failed to act on previous intelligence shared with them. In the end, the situation was only brought under control when the National Security Adviser, Gen. Owoye Andrew Azazi demanded evidence that the Americans had indeed given such a warning or that the American Ambassador had actually said what had been attributed to him in the press. The story turned out to be false, the threat to hotels was actually an intelligence analysis of possible threats made by the SSS some months earlier which was circulated in government circles. The SSS had failed to manage information in a timely and proper fashion which had led to the public losing confidence in the organisation.  The agency has lost a number of operatives in the line of duty, while fatalities are not generally publicised some cases do get a mention in the media. During Nigeria's 50th anniversary celebrations in Abuja on 1 October 2010, a car bomb killed an Assistant Director of the agency and Mr Tahir Zakari Biu an Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) operative while they were trying to remove abandoned vehicles from a roadside a few kilometres from the venue of the celebrations. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) claimed responsibility for the attack. The SSS was able to trace the registration of the car used in the attack and subsequently arrested suspects in Lagos, the mastermind of the operation Mr. Henry Okah was arrested by the South African authorities and put on trial in South Africa on terrorism charges. On 13 April 2007 a Security Protection Officer (SPO) working in the close protection detail of Mr. Onyema Ugochukwu, the People's Democratic Party (PDP) 2007 governorship candidate for Abia state was shot in an assassination attempt on his principal. The bodyguard was shot in the head and in his hand. In 2013, a botched security operation in Nasarawa state in the middle belt region of the country to arrest the leader of the Ombatse cult group who many claim possesses super natural powers used in the maiming of other ethnic groups especially the Fulanis, left scores of security personnel dead including not less than six men of the SSS allegedly killed using occultic powers  In February 2013, the SSS broke up a terrorist cell led by Iranian handlers that was gathering intelligence for future attacks on American and Israeli targets in the country.

Controversy.

Although the notorious NSO was dissolved, the new security establishment in 1990 continued to act arbitrarily and with impunity. The government proscribed radical interest groups like NANS and the Academic Staff Union of Universities, the central body of all university professors and lecturers. Several innocent citizens were subjected to physical assault without government reparations. Human rights remained substantially circumscribed. Decree Number 2 remained in place, and numerous citizens had been incarcerated under it, although the allowable period of detention without charge was reduced from six months to six weeks in January 1990. With the aid of this and other decrees that restricted freedom, usually promulgated retrospectively, such radical and outspoken critics of the government as Gani Fawehinmi, Tai Solarin, and Balarabe Musa were regularly detained. Despite having annulled Decree Number 4, the government had several brushes with media organizations. In 1988 Newswatch was proscribed for six months, and journalists, academics, and civil rights activists continued to be harassed by state security agents.  Government security forces frequently harass, arrested, and detain editors and reporters from journals critical of the regime. On 4 November 1997 Aoetokunbo Fakeye, defense correspondent for "The News", was arrested. On 8 November, Jenkins Alumona, editor of "The News", was arrested by SSS agents at a Lagos television station. On 9 November, Onome Osifo-Whiskey, managing editor of "Tell" magazine, was arrested by SSS agents in Lagos while driving to church with his children. On 29 October, Osifo-Whiskey had warned that the magazine had received a written death threat, which listed the names of 27 staff members. On 16 November, SSS agents arrested Babafemi Ojudu, editor of the "News/Tempo". Rafiu Salau, an administration editor for the "News/Tempo", was also arrested in mid-November. Former chairman of the editorial board of the daily "The Guardian" and a visiting professor of journalism at a US university, Olatunji Dare, was detained overnight and his passport seized upon his arrival from the United States on 2 June 1997. He was told to report to the DSS to retrieve his passport. After being interrogated on 17 June by SSS officials about his activities abroad, his passport was then returned.  The SSS has also been accused of repressing the political activities of opposition groups. Public meetings are arbitrarily canceled or prevented, including cultural events, academic conferences, and human rights meetings. On 25 September 1997, police and SSS agents broke up a Human Rights Africa (HRA) seminar for students in Jos, arrested HARA director Tunji Abayomi and 4 others, and briefly detained some 70 students. Abayomi and the others were held for 10 days and then released on bail. A 1 May 1998 workshop on conflict management in Port Harcourt was canceled when the SSS warned local coordinators that such a meeting could not be held on Workers Day, a local holiday. Similar workshops elsewhere proceeded unimpeded despite the holiday.

Weapons and equipment.

As of 2010, the standard issue assault rifles used by SSS Combat Operatives/Security Protection Officers (S.P.O) are the IMI Tavor Tar-21 assault rifle produced by Israeli Military Industries and the FN P90 personal protection weapon, FN F2000 assault rifle, both manufactured by FN Herstal; these rifles replace the Uzi as the primary assault weapon of the SSS. Operatives also use various side arms and pistols from a number of manufacturers including Beretta, Glock, and Browning.  The agency has also deployed van mounted backscatter X-ray screeners from Basix Technologies for detecting Improvised Explosive Devices (IED) due to an upsurge in bombing incidents arising from a Boko Haram insurgency in the north east of Nigeria. In this counter terrorism role, the agency also uses mobile IED jammers for VIP protection in public spaces like stadiums and in a mobile configuration for use in convoys.  Due to the disproportionately large GSM mobile phone subscriber base in Nigeria and the use of cellphones as the principal means of communication by kidnappers and terrorists, the agency has had to develop telephone call intercept capability. IMSI number catchers and signal direction finders have been deployed for intercepting and tracking GSM and satellite phone communications.  The agency maintains a fleet of armoured limousines and SUVs that are used to ferry the President, Vice president and visiting dignitaries. Other vehicles mainly SUVs produced by Ford Motor Company are also used by the agency.

The State Security Service (SSS), self-styled as the Department of State Services (DSS), is a security agency of Nigeria and one of three successor organisations to the National Security Organization (NSO).

Le State Security Service (en français Service de la Sécurité d'État), plus communément appelé DSS (pour Department of State Security) et surnommé Triple Sest le service de renseignement intérieur du Nigeria.


Synopsis.

Ramosé, a young Theban, is on a mission to exonerate his father, who has been accused of pillaging the tomb of Seti I. In the vault at dawn, he unveils a stone showing a map of the tomb and a monkey, hinting to Hori, a former draughtsman. Ramosé then sets off to the village of Deir el-Medina where he finds Hori lying dead in his cellar, along with clues alluding to a carpenter bound for the embalmers' workshop, where he discovers a wider plot the next day. He skillfully manages to pass for one of the conspirators and is led to a tomb where a burial is being held. Ramosé descends to the funerary chamber. He is immured but manages to escape via a tunnel which leads him to the site of a tomb in construction of another noble, Panéhesy, where a mourner awaits him. She leads him to the villa of the noble, who has organized a large festivity. Passing for one of the guests, he finds a map of the Festival Hall of Thutmose III in Karnak. At the temple, Ramosé finds parts of the pillage and documents alleging Ptahnéfer, a close relative of the pharaoh. His father is exonerated.

Development.

Serious Games and Edutainment Applications suggests that the 1997 video game Versailles 1685, a pioneer in the "cultural entertainment" genre that merged entertainment with cultural education, paved the way for games such as "Egypt".

Reception.

"Egypt" was a commercial success. French newspaper "Les Échos" reported its sales at 250,000 units by November 1998, and noted that it was among 1997's 10 best-selling computer games. According to Cryo Interactive, it sold above 500,000 copies by November 2000. Marketing manager Mattieu Saint-Dennis explained in December that "Egypt"s sales totaled 550,000 units in Europe alone, of which France accounted for 200,000 units. By February 2004, "Egypt" and its sequel, "Egypt II", had achieved combined global sales above 700,000 units.

Legacy.

The game was followed by two sequels, "" and "Egypt III".

Egypt 1156 B.C. – Tomb of the Pharaoh () is a 1997 adventure video game co-published by Cryo Interactive Entertainment, Canal+ Multimedia and the Réunion des Musées Nationaux for the Microsoft Windows and PlayStation (PAL region only). It was later released in North America by DreamCatcher Interactive.

Égypte : 1156 av. J.-C. - L'Énigme de la tombe royale est un jeu d'aventure historique à dimension éducative développé en 1997 par Cryo Interactive. C'est le premier jeu de la série "Égypte". Il est suivi par deux autres jeux reprenant le même thème, avec des personnages et des intrigues différents : "" (2000) et "" (2004, Kheops Studio).


Description.

Depending on the climate "C. hirsuta" may complete two generations in a year, one in the spring and one in the fall; also depending on the climate, the seeds may germinate in the fall and the plants may remain green throughout the winter before flowering in the spring. It often grows a rosette of leaves at the base of the stem, while there may be leaves on the upright stem, most of the leaves will be part of the basal rosette. The leaves in this rosette are pinnately divided into 8–15 leaflets which have short stems connecting them to the petiole. These basal leaves are often 3.5–15 cm long. The leaflets are round to ovate in shape and may have smooth or dentate edges. The leaflet at the tip of the leaf (terminal leaflet) will be larger than the other leaflets and round to reniform in shape. The cauline (attached to the upright stem) leaves are also pinnately divided, with fewer leaflets, and generally smaller than the basal leaves; these leaves will be borne on a petiole and are 1.2–5.5 cm long. The stems, petioles, and upper surfaces of the cauline leaves are sparsely hairy.  Plants of this species are usually erect and grow to no more than about from a stem which is either unbranched or branched near the base. The small white flowers are borne in a raceme without any bracts, soon followed by the seeds and often continuing to flower as the first seeds ripen. The flowers have (4) white petals (which may be lacking but are mostly present) which are 1.5–4.5 mm long and spatulate shaped. The flowers also and have (4) stamens of equal height instead of the 6 which are found in most closely related plants. Pollens are elongated, approximately 32 microns in length. Below the flowers there are 4 sepals which are oblong shaped and 1.5–2.5 mm long and.3–.7 mm wide. The seeds are borne in upright pointing siliquae which are straight and 1.5–2.5 cm long and 1–1.4mm in diameter. When the fruit is ripe the valves on the siliquae will coil tightly from the bottom to the top after being touched and burst explosively, sending the seeds flying far from the parent plant. This seed dispersal strategy is referred to as ballochory and is a type of rapid plant movement.  Hairy bittercress is very similar to "Cardamine flexuosa". Some differences are that the stems are hairless and the leaves do not clasp the stems, as in "C.flexuosa". It has only 4 stamens, "C. flexuosa" has 6 stamens, and the fruits overtop the flowers. In "C. flexuosa" the fruits do not overtop the younger flowers. The fruits grow in a thin pod arranged as a single row.

Habitat and distribution.

It is commonly found in damp, recently disturbed soil, open ground, turf and wasteplaces and native to Europe as far east as the Caucasus, and to North Africa. These conditions are prevalent in nursery or garden centre plants, and hairy bittercress seeds may be introduced with those plants. Once established, particularly in lawn areas, it is difficult to eradicate. The tiny flowers are attractive to a few early butterflies, including (in the United States) spring azure ("Celastrina ladon") and falcate orange-tip ("Anthocharis midea").  It is native to Eurasia but has been introduced in many countries across the world. Its range includes but is not limited to: Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Gabon, Great Britain, India, Japan, Laos, Madagascar, Mexico, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkmenistan, United States, Venezuela, and Vietnam.  The 1889 book 'The Useful Native Plants of Australia' records that it was also called "Lady's Smock" and that "This and other species afford excellent pot-herbs when luxuriant and flaccid. The present one is a common weed almost throughout the world."

Cardamine hirsuta, commonly called hairy bittercress, is an annual or biennial species of plant in the family Brassicaceae, and is edible as a bitter herb. It is common in moist areas around the world.

La cardamine hirsute ou cardamine hérissée (Cardamine hirsuta) est une plante herbacée du genre "Cardamine", de la famille des brassicacées. Elle est appréciée de la chenille du papillon dénommé Aurore ("Anthocharis cardamines").


Geography.

Itumbiara lies 197 kilometers south of the state capital, Goiânia, and is on the state boundary with Minas Gerais.  There are road connections with Goiânia and São José do Rio Preto, state of São Paulo, by the national highway, BR 153. Brazil's most popular hot springs, Caldas Novas and Rio Quente, are located a short distance to the north.  The territory of the municipality is crossed by the Paranaíba River, the Meia Ponte, the Rio dos Bois and by several small rivers and streams.  (Sepin/IBGE)

History.

In 1824 the road was completed linking Uberaba and Anhanguera on the border between Goiás and Minas Gerais. The government installed a tax collection post and the site was called "Porto de Santa Rita" or just "Porto". Soon a chapel was built dedicated to Santa Rita and the settlement was known as Santa Rita do Paranaíba, after the great river that divides Minas and Goiás. In 1909 a suspension bridge was built over the river. In 1909 Santa Rita do Paranaíba became a municipality. In 1943 the name was changed to Itumbiara (from a Tupi–Guarani language, meaning "Pathway to the Waterfall"), after a road built by Engineer Inácio Pais Leme connecting the town with Cachoeira Dourada, 40 km. away. Histórico dos Municípios In 1966 the city was made the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Itumbiara.

Economy.

Itumbiara is a large producer of corn, soybeans and cotton. The cattle herd is substantial, with almost one hundred and fifty thousand head of beef cows in addition to thirty thousand milking cows. There is also a large poultry raising industry. (All data below are from Sepin/IBGE)  Major agro-industrial industries are:  (Sepin/IBGE 2000) For the complete list see Frigoletto

Tourism.

Itumbiara's main attraction is its nautical tourism. The artificial lake Itumbiara can be used for all types of water sports. On the second Sunday of August the traditional river procession of Our Lady of the Graces takes place. Other touristic points are the Vermelhão Lake, two waterfalls, Salto de Santa Maria de Cima and Saltos de Santa Maria do Meio. The Affonso Penna Bridge, also known as the "Crystal Bridge", which links the states of Goiás and Minas Gerais. Itumbiara also has a Kart circuit, which hosts regional, national and international events, with a capacity for 5,000 people.  The city is served by Francisco Vilela do Amaral Airport.

Itumbiara is a municipality in the extreme south of the state of Goiás, Brazil. Its population in 2018 was of 103,652 in a total area of 2,461,3 km (2002). Itumbiara is one of the most prosperous cities in Goiás and is a major producer of soybeans, corn, cattle, and milk.

Itumbiara est une ville brésilienne de l'état de Goiás. Sa population était de au recensement de 2010 et de en 2015 suivant l'estimation de l'Institut Brésilien de Géographie et Statistique. En 2010, elle avait une population urbaine de et une population rurale de. La superficie de la commune est de. Elle est située à de Goiânia et à de la capitale brésilienne, Brasilia.


Early life.

Born in Joplin, Missouri, Allen lost his father to typhoid fever when he was three; his mother died during the flu epidemic about nine years later. Allen lived with relatives in Missouri until attending school in Minnesota. While there, he developed rheumatic fever, and on the advice of a doctor, moved to California to live with an aunt and uncle. His health improved, but the rheumatic fever weakened his heart.  After completing high school, Allen attended UCLA, and joined the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). He became comfortable around military people, and later recruited servicemen to help run the Gorre & Daphetid.  In 1934, Allen and his brother went to the World's Fair in Chicago, and saw scale model trains in operation, and he was impressed. He was attending UCLA studying economics, but switched to art school, which he attended for three years, specializing in photography. There he acquired the skills that set his layout and model photography apart.  In 1935, John's paternal grandparents died, leaving him about $1,900 ($ today), then the equivalent of a year's salary for a middle-class man. John invested the money with the help of his brother, and in about 11 years, the value was such that he did not have to work. His investments, combined with a frugal lifestyle, resulted in a sum of over $500,000 at the time of his death. After completing school, John and another student opened a photography business in the Westlake Park area of Los Angeles.

World War II.

Before World War II, Allen and his brother Andrew visited an uncle living near Oakland who had a model railroad. He became interested in working on it.  When the U.S. entered the war, Andrew joined the military and John offered his services as a photo analyst.  Allen came to Monterey, California, to visit his brother, and decided to stay. He opened a new photography shop on the main street with partner Weston Booth, and did a brisk business photographing servicemen.  In 1946, John sold his business, invested the money and retired.  He said that he got into model railroading just before the end of the war. Due to a limited supply of hobby materials, he began building things from scratch. He spent a lot of time studying and observing railroads in operation, and how prototype equipment was built. Allen built models, then meticulously arranged and photographed them.  In July 1946, he published the first of many photographs to appear in "Model Railroader" magazine.

Gorre & Daphetid.

Early version.

He moved into a house in 1946 and began construction of the first version of the Gorre & Daphetid (G&D) model railroad in HO scale. (The name is a play on words; pronounced "Gory and Defeated.") In 1953 he needed more space, and decided to move. He offered a railroad for sale, with free house. When no one was interested in buying the house with the railroad, he dismantled it. The original by G&D was saved and incorporated into the final version, while other parts were given to friends.

Final version.

John Allen moved to his final house, chosen for its unfinished basement. He dug out the basement, placed a concrete floor, and prepared it for construction of the final layout. He allocated about half the to the layout, with the remainder used for a workshop and storage.  Allen built a scale model of the house to aid in planning, in addition to models of the layout he planned to build. His planning was very thorough. Early plans included the use of real water in scale rivers and lakes. Construction began in January 1954. One feature of the layout was Devil's Gulch, a part of the basement not excavated, but shaped and then concrete was poured over it. Allen constructed the layout almost completely by himself. He devoted the next 20 years to this project.  During this period Allen revolutionized model railroading with realistic operations, lighting (including night lighting), and weathering of models. He used forced perspective to enhance the illusion of realism, and only allowed photography under his conditions.

Death and aftermath.

John Allen suffered a fatal heart attack on the evening of January 6, 1973. He had previously suffered at least one heart attack during the 1960s. Although he was not feeling well, he worked at completing the Gorre & Daphetid. In a telephone conversation with Linn Westcott, he suggested that he would drive the last spike in the spring of 1973, and that Linn should come for a visit then. In 1972, he was already suggesting that things might not be going well, and wondering "what to do with the railroad" in letters to a friend.  Ten days after Allen died, some of Allen's friends gathered for an operating session and discussion on the preservation of the railroad in accordance with Allen's wishes. When they left, someone set a furnace in the train room to 65 °F. Allen never used the furnace and had covered it with tar paper. This caused a fire, which was quickly reported and extinguished fast enough to save the house, but it destroyed the final, still-unfinished incarnation of Allen's railroad. The damage was mainly contained to the layout room, and the house was rehabilitated and sold. A few model railroad items attributed to Allen survive and have been authenticated.  According to Linn Westcott's book "Model Railroading with John Allen" ("The Book"), the fire was determined by an investigator have been started from a small gas furnace. John rarely used the furnace, because he liked to keep the house cool, or possibly because it was not vented correctly.  Linn Westcott was asked by Andrew Allen (John's brother) to investigate if the layout could be salvaged. The fire caused extensive damage. They tried to save the "French Gulch" section, but it collapsed as they moved it after two hours of work.

Legacy.

Allen's death was covered in the April 1973 issue of "Model Railroader" magazine. It contained an obituary and Allen was featured on the front cover. There was also a retrospective on John Allen in the January 2003 issue of "Model Railroader" in remembrance of him 30 years after his death.  Former "Model Railroader" editor Linn Westcott's final book, entitled "Model Railroading with John Allen", was published posthumously in 1981. Westcott died in 1980 while writing the book. It contained various quotes and photographs from Allen demonstrating his techniques.  There is a video about John Allen's railroad by "Sunday River Productions" called "The Gorre & Daphetid" with footage shot by Richard Reynolds with a small intro by Glenn Beier who also operated on the G&D. Glenn Beier says "it is the only motion picture ever made of the world's most famous model railroad". Until February 2007, only a VHS copy of the video was for sale. Now both VHS and DVD versions are available.  John Allen is also famous for devising the Timesaver model railway shunting puzzle.

John Whitby Allen (July 2, 1913 – January 6, 1973) was an American model railroader who created the HO scale Gorre & Daphetid model railroad in Monterey, California, and wrote numerous magazine articles on model railroading starting in the 1940s. Allen was renowned for his skill at scratch building and creating scenery. He also pioneered the technique of weathering his models for a more realistic appearance. In addition to his superdetailing of locomotives, rolling stock, structures, and scenery, Allen was known for populating his model world with scale figures in humorous scenes. Other techniques Allen promoted were realistic train operation and the use of forced perspective to create the illusion of a model railroad layout larger than it really was.

John Whitby Allen (, ) est un photographe et un modéliste ferroviaire américain, créateur d'un réseau à l'échelle HO, le "Gorre & Daphetid Railroad" et auteur de nombreux articles novateurs sur le modélisme ferroviaire et ses techniques.


Form.

There are two major styles used in newspaper comics, single panels and strips. Single panels are usually not broken up (though this is not always the case), and thus lack continuity. The popular "Dennis the Menace, The Far Side, and" "The Family Circus" are all single panels. Strips, on the other hand, are generally longer and shaped into a rectangle. Strips include Calvin & Hobbes, "Peanuts," and "Garfield". J. R. Williams' long-run "Out Our Way" continued as a daily panel even after it expanded into a Sunday strip, "Out Our Way with the Willets". Jimmy Hatlo's "They'll Do It Every Time" was often displayed in a two-panel format with the first panel showing some deceptive, pretentious, unwitting or scheming human behavior and the second panel revealing the truth of the situation.  Early daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches high. Initially, a newspaper page included only a single daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page. By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected together. Over decades, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller; until by the year 2000, four standard daily strips could fit in an area once occupied by a single daily strip.  NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, "Star Hawks", but after a few years, "Star Hawks" dropped down to a single tier.  In Flanders, Belgium, the two-tier strip is the standard publication style of most daily by:david "Spike and Suzy" and "Nero". They appear Monday through Saturday; until 2003 there were no Sunday papers in Flanders. In the last decades, they have switched from black and white to color.

References.

Saraceni, Mario. The Language of Comics. London ; New York, N.Y: Routledge, 2003, p.7

A panel is an individual frame, or single drawing, in the multiple-panel sequence of a comic strip or comic book. A panel consists of a single drawing depicting a frozen moment. When multiple panels are present, they are often, though not always, separated by a short amount of space called a gutter.

Une case est, dans le domaine de la bande dessinée, une zone de dessin délimitée par un cadre. On dit aussi vignette.


Club career.

Aston Villa.

Born in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago, Samuel grew up in London and as a youth he played for Sunday league team Senrab, lining up in 1994 alongside future England internationals John Terry and Jermain Defoe. He was released from the West Ham United on the same day as Paul Konchesky, Bobby Zamora (both of whom later returned to the Hammers) and Fitz Hall.  He signed for Aston Villa in July 1997 as a youth training scheme trainee, spending the 1997-98 and 1998-99 seasons in their youth team. Samuel's Aston Villa debut came in a second-round second-leg League Cup match against Chester City on 21 September 1999, which finished 5–0 in Aston Villa's favour. He replaced Gareth Barry after 51 minutes at Villa Park. On 25 March 2000, due to an injury to England international Gareth Southgate, he made his league debut in a 2–0 home win over Derby County, playing in central defence.  Samuel was loaned to First Division club Gillingham, where he made seven full appearances and one substitute appearance between 25 October and 3 December 2001. After he returned to Villa, the team's starting right-back, Mark Delaney, suffered an injury and Samuel filled his position; after the Welshman returned, Samuel was given a favoured left-back position. He reflected in a 2013 interview that his versatility helped him become a regular starter: "If you're just in one position and you're out of favour, you won't play. But if you can play in a variety of roles, it widens your options".  In the 2003–04 season, Samuel played every minute as Villa came 6th in the Premier League. He scored his first professional goal on 20 September 2003 against his former club Charlton, from 19 yards to give Villa a 2–1 victory. He scored again in the reverse fixture at The Valley on 27 March 2004, which the Villans won by the same score. That season he also scored on 27 January in a 2–0 League Cup semi-final second leg win over his future club Bolton Wanderers, who advanced 5–4 on aggregate.  Towards the end of his time at the Birmingham-based club, Samuel lost his place in the team as managers David O'Leary and Martin O'Neill opted for the Dutchman Wilfred Bouma to play in his position.

Bolton Wanderers.

Samuel signed a four-year contract with Bolton Wanderers on 1 July 2007, Sammy Lee's first signing as Bolton manager. He played in every Bolton match in the 2008–09 season, and 71 matches in total during his time at the club.  On 24 March 2011, Samuel joined Football League Championship side Cardiff City on loan until the end of the season wearing shirt number 21, as cover for the injured Mark Hudson. He had not played a game for Wanderers' during the 2010–11 season due to injury, and was released at the end of the season, bringing his four years at the club to an end.

Trials.

Samuel joined Leeds United, managed by his former Aston Villa teammate Simon Grayson, on trial on 19 July 2011. He was included in the squad against Rochdale the same evening. He came off the bench at the start of the second half in a match Leeds won by a single first half goal from Max Gradel. Samuel was released from the trial after picking up an injury. On 30 July 2011, Samuel played for 79 minutes on trial for West Ham United in their final pre-season game against Real Zaragoza which West Ham won 2–0. However, West Ham decided against offering him a permanent contract.

Iran.

On 31 December 2011, Samuel joined Iran Pro League side, Esteghlal, where he was welcomed with the local custom of sacrificing a sheep. He was re-united with his former Bolton teammate Andranik Teymourian. Samuel played in midfield in Iran, and told Aston Villa's official website that he was enjoying being able to move forward and score goals. His team won the Hazfi Cup in his first season and the Iran Pro League a year later. Esteghlal reached the semi-finals of the 2013 AFC Champions League, in which he scored a goal in the second leg of the semi-finals at home to FC Seoul in a 2–2 draw (4–2 aggregate loss).  Samuel extended his contract with Esteghlal on 12 July 2013, keeping him at the club until 2014. He left the club in June 2014, citing a five-month pay dispute with the club. He remained in Tehran and signed a two-year contract with newly promoted Paykan on 23 June 2014, effective 1 July.

Egerton.

After returning to England, Samuel trained with Egerton, a Cheshire League One (12th tier) club who had fellow ex-Premier League players Emile Heskey, Danny Webber, Emmerson Boyce and Nathan Ellington training with them. Despite offers to play abroad, he chose Egerton so that he could remain close to his family, and the chairman appointed him player-manager for the 2017–18 season.  When speaking to the BBC following Samuel's death, Ellington mentioned that his teammate had been involved in a large-scale regeneration project in The Gambia in his final years.

International career.

Samuel received a call up for the England team in March 2004 whilst enjoying a spell of good form for Aston Villa, but in the end he was not selected to play by manager Sven-Göran Eriksson in the 1–0 friendly loss to Sweden He had previously represented England at U-18, U-20, and U-23 level.  Samuel wanted to represent Trinidad and Tobago in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, but the application was rejected by FIFA. The rules in place at the time said that only players under the age of 21 could change their international allegiances.  On 7 August 2009, it was revealed that Bobby Zamora and Samuel had received Trinidad and Tobago passports making them eligible to play for the national team. He made his debut for the "Soca Warriors" on 5 September in a 4–1 loss away to Honduras in World Cup qualification, and made his second and last appearance four days later, receiving a yellow card in a 1–0 home loss to the United States.

Death.

Samuel was travelling home after taking his children to school on the morning of 15 May 2018 when his Range Rover collided with a van in High Legh, Cheshire. He died at the scene and the driver of the other vehicle was seriously injured.  Aston Villa wore black armbands for their Championship play-off match against Middlesbrough that night. His club at the time of his death, Egerton FC, cancelled all the remaining games that week as a mark of respect.

Jlloyd Tafari Samuel (, 29 March 1981 – 15 May 2018) was a professional footballer who played as a defender and midfielder. Born in Trinidad and Tobago, he was raised in England and played for England up to under-21 level. He played two full international matches for Trinidad and Tobago in 2009.

Jlloyd Samuel (prononcer « Jay-Lloyd Samuel ») est un joueur de football trinidadien et anglais, né à San Fernando sur l'île de Trinité le et mort à High Legh (Cheshire, Angleterre) le. Il évolue au poste de défenseur.