Appearances.

Television.

Rose is introduced in the eponymous premiere episode, "Rose", of the 2005 series. She is saved from an Auton attack by the mysterious Time Lord the Doctor (Christopher Eccleston), and assists him in preventing an invasion of Earth. Subsequently, the Doctor invites Rose to be his travelling companion, taking her to the end of the world and tampering her mobile so she can remain in contact with her mother Jackie (Camille Coduri), and boyfriend Mickey Smith (Noel Clarke) while time-travelling in "The End of the World". In their travels through time and space, Rose learns the importance of not tampering with history, when in "Father's Day", she attempts to save the life of her father Pete Tyler (Shaun Dingwall), who had died when she was a baby. Throughout their journeys, she and the Doctor are haunted by two mysterious recurring words: "Bad Wolf". Rose, the Doctor, and new companion Captain Jack Harkness (John Barrowman) come to understand the meaning of this phrase in "Bad Wolf", when they encounter an unstoppable army of Daleks on the space station Satellite 5, which first appeared

Literature.

Rose is featured in the first twelve "Doctor Who" New Series Adventures novels, which expand on her characterisation. The first three of these novels—"The Clockwise Man", "The Monsters Inside" and "Winner Takes All"—were published in May 2005 and feature solely the Ninth Doctor and Rose. "The Monsters Inside" depicts Rose's first visit to an alien planet, her travels previously having been confined to earth and orbiting space stations. Rose mentions this visit to the planet Justicia in the first series television episode "Boom Town" which aired 4 June 2005. The second batch of Ninth Doctor novels —comprising "The Deviant Strain", "Only Human" and "The Stealers of Dreams"—were released in September 2005 and expand on the Doctor and Rose's travels with Jack Harkness. The novel "Only Human" mentions that Rose was engaged to a previous love interest before becoming involved with Mickey. The events of "Boom Town" are addressed in "The Stealers of Dreams" in which Jackie complains that Rose did not alert her to her recent visit to modern day Cardiff. The first three novels to feature Rose and the Tenth Doctor—"The Stone Rose", "The Feast of the Drowned" and "The Resurrection Casket"—were released in April 2006 to coincide with

Audio drama.

Following the folding of AudioGO and Big Finish's acquisition of the new series license, Piper reprised her role as Rose in "" released in November 2017, with David Tennant reprising

Development.

Casting.

Lead writer and executive producer Russell T Davies chose the name Rose because he considered it a "good luck charm" after he used it for Lesley Sharp's character in "Bob & Rose". His desire to make the show "essentially British" was another justification: he considered Rose to be "the most British name in the world" and feminine enough to subvert a recent trend of female companions having "boyish" names, such as Peri, Benny, Charley, and Ace. Davies also frequently uses the surname "Tyler" in his

Characterisation.

Rose is used by Davies as an introduction to the shows mythos and fantasy elements. He later underlined similarities between Rose and Gwen Cooper —the lead for "Torchwood" — describing both as "the ordinary person who stumbles into something extraordinary and finds herself their equal." Like her successor Martha, Rose is from London; Brett Mills from the University of East Anglia makes the assumption that this is because characters from the capital of the country are "relatable to all British people" because they are seen as "neutral". Rose is introduced alongside a supporting cast in the form of her boyfriend Mickey and mother Jackie which James Chapman cites as "evidence of Davies' attempt to create a social context for

With the Tenth Doctor.

In an interview with "SFX" producer Phil Collinson stated that after the Doctor regenerates the "initial dynamic changes because [Rose] has to learn to trust him again". Piper added that as the Doctor is incapacitated Rose consequently feels "unloved", "isolated" and "like she's lost her best friend". In the Doctor's absence Rose relies on her observations of him and tries to mimic his actions. Collinson felt it was important to resolve any mistrust between the pair by the end of the Christmas Special, as the public had responded well to Rose and the Doctor's friendship previously. Davies had scripted dialogue in "The Christmas Invasion" explaining the newly regenerated Doctor's estuary English accent by stating he had imprinted on Rose and adopted her

Reprisals.

Though Davies had intended the serial to end with the Tenth Doctor visiting his former companions, he struggled with how to include Rose. An initial idea was for Rose to appear with her part-human Doctor in the parallel universe, where both would sense the original Tenth Doctor regenerating. However, Davies felt this would raise too many questions about their lives in the parallel universe. Davies' successor as executive producer, Steven Moffat, felt that Davies ended Rose's story in the perfect way by choosing to take it back to the beginning

Reception.

After a preview of the first series, "The Guardian"s Owen Gibson described Rose as "newly empowered" and a "go-getting teen in the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" mould." Ahead of the series premiere on Australian Network ABC the "Sydney Morning Herald"s Robin Oliver described Rose's role in the series as being "more the Doctor's equal than previous companions" and that this was "no mean achievement against Eccleston's acting skills." Seventh Doctor actor Sylvester McCoy opined that Piper was "wonderful in the role" and the relationship between her and the Doctor was "quite extraordinary". Porter suggests in her analysis of Rose that the romance between her and the Doctor widened the demographic appeal of the series. She claims that the love story "simmers enough below the surface that adults, especially women who find Time-Lords sexy, watched the series for Rose's interplay with the Doctor". In their book "Who is the Doctor?", Graeme Burk and Robert Smith described the climactic kiss between the Ninth Doctor and Rose in "The Parting of the Ways" as being something "we all secretly wanted, even though it ultimately killed him". Peter Davison, who portrayed the Fifth Doctor, also felt that allowing the Doctor and his companion to have sexual tension ultimately allowed for more rounded characterization. He believed that Rose was the first example of the production team creating a well written companion.  Burk and Smith found the pairing of the Doctor and Rose to be unlikable in the episode "Tooth and Claw" because they were "acting like smug idiots". However they noted that "fortunately there are consequences: the season arc gets kicked off as a direct result of the Doctor and Rose being so irritating". Harry Venning of "The Stage" commented that the eventual parting scene between Rose and the Doctor in "Doomsday" was "beautifully written and movingly played," with "not a dry eye in the universe". Burk and Smith singled out Piper's performance in the episode for special praise stating she "is astonishing at capturing the reality of someone whose world suddenly, finally collapses." Remarking on Piper's departure, Dek Hogan of Digital Spy stated that "Billie Piper’s energy has undoubtedly been one of the reasons that this revival has been so successful and the difficult third series will be so much more so without her." Stephen Brook of "The Guardian" commented that "the departure of the much-loved Rose... was brilliantly handled and completely unexpected."  Stephen James Walker, a writer of reference works on "Doctor Who", gave an unfavourable review to Rose's return in "Turn Left" in his "unauthorised guide to "Doctor Who"'s fourth series," "Monsters Within". He thought that Billie Piper was "distinctly below par", citing her gaunt and malnourished appearance, new hairstyle, and slight lisp as reasons why her acting was not her finest. He criticised her role in the episode, stating it had been "far less well worked out" than Donna's. Ben Rawson-Jones of Digital Spy also noted a change in Piper's enunciation; he compared her accent to "[having] her mouth numbed with local anaesthetic". In Rawson-Jones' review of the series finale he notes that whilst having the Doctor and Rose 'cop off' would be divisive with the shows audience, "Davies wisely managed to please both parties" by pairing her off with a human Doctor instead. However, IGN's Travis Fickett reacted unfavourably towards Rose's return and her pairing with the part human Doctor. He thought that it undermined her "perfect send off" in "Doomsday" as she was on the sidelines for much of "Journey's End", and her ending up with the part human, part Time Lord Doctor "feels like an insult to the character". Io9's Charlie Jane Anders also reacted unfavorably to Rose returning and wrote "it was pretty clear that she was only there so she could get her pet faux-Doctor at the end." Reviewers generally reacted positively to Piper's 2013 appearance in 50th anniversary episode "The Day of the Doctor". Ben Lawrence of "The Daily Telegraph" called her performance as the "Bad Wolf" Rose "transfixing". Neela Debnath of "The Independent" praised the chemistry between Hurt and Piper and compared Piper's performance to Suranne Jones' portrayal of the TARDIS in "The Doctor's Wife" describing it as "slightly eccentric", "oddball" and "off-the-wall". Daniel Martin of the Guardian praised Steven Moffat's decision not to extend Rose Tyler's story or re-unite her with the Tenth Doctor. He called Piper "a true and unending legend of "Doctor Who"" and stated that "her wise rendition of the Bad Wolf avatar made a passable stab at the stealing of the show".  Geoff Boucher of the "Los Angeles Times" named Rose the ninth best sidekick of all time, referring to her as "the saucy and smart character who was key to the success of the Russell T Davies relaunch of "Doctor Who" in 2005". She was named the best "Doctor Who" companion by Digital Spy in 2011, who opined that she worked best alongside the Ninth Doctor. In 2006 she was voted best companion by readers of "Doctor Who Magazine". In an online poll in late 2010 conducted by the "Radio Times", with over 3,000 participants, Rose was again voted the most popular companion. She retained this position in a 2013 poll conducted ahead of Doctor Who's 50th anniversary, which had over 21,000 respondents, with 25.09% of the vote. In a 2012 poll conducted by BBC America with over 200,000 participants, Rose was voted "The Greatest Woman of Doctor Who." Both "The Daily Telegraph" Gavin Fuller and Daniel Martin of "The Guardian" rated her as the second-best female companion behind Sarah Jane Smith. In 2012 Will Salmon of "SFX" magazine listed Rose's original exit as the greatest companion departure in the history of "Doctor Who" as he felt it "impossible not to be moved by the sudden severance of their relationship". In 2014 "Radio Times" organized the most massive online (over 2 million respondents) poll which featured every companion since 1963, beating the main сompetitors Jack Harkness and River Song, Rose was crowned "Companion Champion".  At the 2005 National Television Awards, Billie Piper won the "Most Popular Actress" award for her role as Rose. In the BBC Online "Best of Drama" poll in 2005 Piper won the Best Actress category with 59.76% of the vote. She was also voted the Most Desirable Star with 26.47%. In January 2006 she was awarded the Breakthrough Award for Rising British Talent at "The South Bank Show" Awards. Piper again won the Most Popular Actress category at the 2006 National Television Awards for her work on the second series of "Doctor Who". In September 2006, Piper was named Best Actress at the TV Quick and TV Choice Awards. "Radio Times"s Tom Cole discussed the importance of "Doctor Who" in boosting Piper's career in an article on how former "Doctor Who" actors can now expect more than "a life of signing autographs at provincial sci-fi conventions." He notes that Piper's portrayal of Rose "firmly cemented her credentials as an actress" and cited the variety of roles she had taken on since leaving the show as proof that "as far as post-"Who" careers go, they don't get much healthier than Billie's."

Rose Tyler is a fictional character in the British science fiction television series "Doctor Who". She was created by series producer Russell T Davies and portrayed by Billie Piper. With the revival of "Doctor Who" in 2005, Rose was introduced as a new travelling companion of the series protagonist, the Doctor, in his ninth and tenth incarnations. The companion character, intended to act as an audience surrogate, was key in the first series to introduce new viewers to the mythos of "Doctor Who", which had not aired regularly since 1989. Rose became the viewers eyes into the new world of Doctor Who, from the companions perspective. Piper received top billing alongside Christopher Eccleston and David Tennant for the duration of her time as a regular cast member. A regular for all of series one (2005) and series two (2006), Piper later returned for three episodes of the programme's fourth series (2008) and appeared in feature-length specials in both 2010 and 2013. In 2013, Piper played a different character for the 50th anniversary known as 'The Moment', projecting Rose's image in her 'Bad Wolf' form.

Rose Tyler est un personnage fictif interprété par Billie Piper dans la série télévisée britannique de science-fiction "Doctor Who", créé par le producteur Russell T Davies.


Early life.

Spelvin was born in Houston, Texas at 2:24 pm on March 1, 1936 as Shelley Bob Graham. Her father was a geophysicist, and the family moved frequently. She often took dancing lessons during childhood. She graduated from high school in 1954.  "At first, I wanted to be an opera singer but my voice wasn't good enough. My second choice was ballerina. After that, it was a series of compromises.""<br>- Georgina Spelvin

New York City.

Spelvin began her professional career as dancer and later as a chorus girl in "Pajama Game", and was featured in the Broadway productions of "Cabaret", "Guys and Dolls," and "Sweet Charity,". During that time she changed the spelling of her name to "Chele Graham" but kept the pronunciation the same as Shelley Graham. When performance offers dwindled, she worked in theater production as a choreographer, director, and lighting technician in a number of musicals, which led to underground film scene.  "I took the role very seriously. I was doing Hedda Gabler here! The fact that there was hard-core sex involved was incidental as far as I was concerned. I was totally deluded. I had made myself believe that I was an actress. I was showing true life as it really was, including actual sex as it really happened, instead of the phony stuff that you got from Hollywood. That was my raison d'etre throughout the whole thing. It was okay; I was okay; I wasn't a slut."
(on "Devil in Miss Jones")
- Georgina Spelvin

Pornography.

The stage name she adopted is a variation on George Spelvin, a name traditionally used as a pseudonym by stage actors for the second billing, when playing two roles.  She made her first movie, "The Twilight Girls", a softcore lesbian film, in 1957. and appeared in a few sexploitation features during the late 1960s.  Graham moved into porn when her friend, actor Harry Reems, introduced her to adult film director Gerard Damiano. She became one of the best-known figures in hardcore pornography for her starring role in "The Devil in Miss Jones" in 1973.  In 1973, Robert Berkvist, writing in The New York Times, commented that "'Miss Jones' is as familiar in [the respectable and well-to-do New York suburb of] Scarsdale as she is on Broadway."  In 1974, she appeared in the low-budget exploitation film "Girls For Rent (aka I Spit on Your Corpse)", for which she also served as costume designer.  "The Devil in Miss Jones. This was the "birth" of Georgina Spelvin in 1974. From there it was, again, all downhill. This descent spiraled into the pits of sleaze-bag strip joints and alcoholism. Sobriety came November 11, 1981."<br>- Georgina Spelvin  In 1974, while living in Maine, she was charged with transporting obscene materials across state lines for her film "Devil in Miss Jones" in Tennessee. The charges were eventually dropped in 1977.  In 1975, she moved to El Cajon with Claire Lumiere (AKA Judith Hamilton), met Vince Miranda and appeared in "Take it Off" at his "Off Broadway".  Spelvin appeared in over 70 adult films before retiring from the industry in 1982.

Later life.

Spelvin made cameo appearances in "Police Academy" and "." She later had film roles in "Bad Blood", in which she was credited as "Ruth Raymond," and "Next Year in Jerusalem" as well as guest-starring roles on the television shows "Dream On" and "The Lost World."  Spelvin learned desktop publishing and worked for the Los Angeles "Times" till she retired from its staff in 2004.  In 2004, she made a cameo appearance in Vivid Video's remake of "The Devil in Miss Jones," which is titled "The New Devil in Miss Jones." Her role is not believed to have involved any sex acts.  In 2005, she was interviewed for the documentary film "Inside Deep Throat." In 2006, she was interviewed for the documentary film "Devil In Miss Spelvin," a special feature intended for inclusion with "Devil in Miss Jones, The Definitive Collector's Edition."  In 2009, she appeared as herself in the video for Massive Attack's song "Paradise Circus."  In 2011, Spelvin was a guest on an episode (season 1, episode 5) of the Showtime series "Dave's Old Porn," in which she viewed and discussed clips from a number of her films (including "The Devil in Miss Jones") with host Dave Attell and guest Adam Carolla.

Personal life.

Spelvin met her husband, actor John Welsh, in 1983 and married January 16, 2000.

Autobiography.

In May 2008, she published her autobiography, "The Devil Made Me Do It", and appeared on camera in a short web clip announcing its release on the internet. A self-published work, the book is available through her official website, Georgiespelvin.com.

Awards.

Wins  Nominations

Georgina Spelvin (born March 1, 1936) is the stage name of Shelley Bob Graham, a former American actress and pornographic performer who is best known as the star of the classic 1973 pornographic film "The Devil in Miss Jones", released during the Golden Age of Porn (1969–1984).

Georgina Spelvin (née Michelle Graham le, 1936 au Texas) est une ancienne actrice pornographique américaine, principalement connue pour sa prestation dans le film: "The Devil in Miss Jones" (1973).


Source book.

The film is based on Joseph E. Davies' about his time as the United States ambassador to the Soviet Union from November 1936 to June 1938. It was published by Simon & Schuster in 1941 and was a critical and commercial success—700,000 copies were sold, and the book was translated into thirteen languages.

Plot.

The film chronicles ambassador Davies' impressions of the Soviet Union, his meetings with Stalin, and his overall opinion of the Soviet Union and its ties with the United States. It is made in a "faux-documentary" style, beginning with Davies meeting with president Franklin D. Roosevelt to discuss his new appointment as United States ambassador to the Soviet Union. It continues to show the Davies' family's trip by boat to Moscow, with stops in Europe. While in Moscow, the movie alternates between Davies' interpretations of Russian politics and communism and his family's impressions of Russian life. It includes a memorable scene with Mrs. Davies at a Russian department store. The movie gives Davies' perspective on various points in Soviet history. It begins with the real ambassador Davies stating, while seated in an armchair, "No leaders of a nation have been so misrepresented and misunderstood as those in the Soviet government during those critical years between the two world wars." The film then cuts to Walter Huston (portraying Davies) and begins its narrative.  Davies is shown witnessing the famous show trials conducted by Stalin in the 1930s (known as the Moscow Trials), which are portrayed as trials of fifth columnists working for Germany and Japan.  The voice-overs continue throughout the film, interspersing storyline with Davies' opinions. The film's narrative focuses on the journey of Davies and his family. First, their physical journey from the United States to the Soviet Union. And, second, their less tangible journey from skeptics of communism and the Soviet Union into converts and enthusiasts. The narrative of the movie and the book are almost identical.

Production.

While the storylines of both the book and movie are practically identical, the movie uses cinematic techniques and dialogue changes to overstate or change some controversial points in the book—changes that were made with Davies' approval. The screenplay adaptation of the book was by Howard Koch. Its musical score was by Max Steiner, its cinematography by Bert Glennon. The extensive montage sequences, which draw on footage from Soviet archives, were supervised by Don Siegel. The picture was produced and distributed by Warner Bros. Ambassador Davies appears and introduces the film as himself; he is then portrayed by Walter Huston. Ann Harding plays his wife Marjorie Davies, Gene Lockhart is Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov, Henry Daniell his German counterpart Joachim von Ribbentrop, and Dudley Field Malone plays Winston Churchill. Most parts, bar those of Davies' family, are taken by character actors who look like the famous politicians they are representing.  The film was the first pro-Soviet Hollywood film of its time and was followed by others, including Samuel Goldwyn's "The North Star" (1943), MGM's "Song of Russia" (1944), United Artists' "Three Russian Girls" (1943), Columbia's "The Boy from Stalingrad" (1943) and "Counter-Attack" (1945). Roosevelt himself approved the creation of the film, even meeting with Davies several times (July, October, and November 1942 and March 1943) during the film's production to discuss its progress.  As part of his contract with Warner Bros., Davies had absolute control over the script and could veto any dialogue not to his liking.  During production, Office of War Information officials reviewed screenplay revisions and prints of the film and commented on them. By reviewing the scripts and prints, OWI officials exercised authority over "Mission to Moscow", ensuring that it promoted the "United Nations" theme. An administration official advised the film's producers to offer explanations for the Nazi-Soviet Pact and the Red Army's invasion of Finland. After reading the final script, in November 1942 the OWI expressed its hope that "Mission to Moscow" would "make one of the most remarkable pictures of this war" and "a very great contribution to the war information program".  The OWI report on "Mission to Moscow" concluded that it would  Government information specialists were equally enthusiastic about the completed print. Judging it "a magnificent contribution" to wartime propaganda, the OWI believed the picture would "do much to bring understanding of Soviet international policy in the past years and dispel the fears which many honest persons have felt with regard to our alliance with Russia". That was particularly so since "the possibility for the friendly alliance of the Capitalist United States and the Socialist Russia is shown to be firmly rooted in the mutual desire for peace of the two great countries".  Prior to its Russian release, the film was screened for Joseph Stalin at a banquet at the Kremlin attended by Joseph Davies and the British legation in Moscow.

Historical accuracy.

The film, made during World War II, shows the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin in a positive light. Completed in late April 1943, the film is, in the words of Robert Buckner, the film's producer, "an expedient lie for political purposes, glossily covering up important facts with full or partial knowledge of their false presentation".  The movie gives a one-sided view of the Moscow trials, rationalizes Moscow's participation in the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and the Soviet invasion of Finland, and portrays the Soviet Union as a state that was moving towards a democratic model, a Soviet Union committed to internationalism. The book was vague on the guilt or innocence of defendants in the Moscow trials, but the film portrays the defendants in the Moscow trials as guilty in Davies' view. It also showed some of the purges as an attempt by Stalin to rid his country of pro-German fifth columnists. Some fifth columnists are described in the film as acting on behalf of Germany and Japan. The film "defends the purges, complete with a quarter-hour dedicated to arguing that Leon Trotsky was a Nazi agent". In the film, Davies proclaims at the end of the trial scene: "Based on twenty years' trial practice, I'd be inclined to believe these confessions."  There are anachronisms in the film—for example, the trials of Mikhail Tukhachevsky (June 1937) and Nikolai Bukharin (March 1938) are depicted as occurring at the same time. Tukhachevsky and Timoshenko are shown as marshals of the Soviet Union at the same time, but Tukhachevsky was executed in June 1937 and Timoshenko was not made marshal until 1940.  According to film historian Robert Osborne, "At the time this movie was made it had one of the largest casts ever assembled... was very successful... When it was shown in Moscow, despite all the good will, people who saw it considered it a comedy—its portrayal of average, everyday life in the Soviet Union apparently way off the mark for 1943". "When the Russian composer Dimitri Shostakovich saw it, he observed that no Soviet propaganda agency would dare to present such outrageous lies."

Reception.

Some reviewers despised the film but there have been exceptions. The critic for "The New York Times", future McCarthy opponent Bosley Crowther, found the film's attempts to rehabilitate Stalin believable:  Based entirely on the personal observations reported by Mr. Davies in his book, it will obviously prove offensive to those elements which have challenged his views. Particularly will it anger the so-called Trotskyites with its visual re-enactment of the famous "Moscow trials"...For it puts into the record for millions of moviegoers to grasp an admission that the many "purged" generals and other leaders were conspirators in a plot.

Box Office.

Unlike the book it was based on, the film was not a success at the box-office. Although Warner Bros. spent $250,000 advertising the film before its release on April 30, 1943, the company lost around $600,000 overall at the final accounting.  According to Warner Bros records the film earned $1,017,000 domestically and $632,000 foreign.  "Mission to Moscow"'s numerous factual inaccuracies and outright false portrayals of Soviet leaders and events resulted in criticism from those on both the left and the right of the political spectrum.  The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Art Direction-Interior Decoration in a Black-and-White film (Carl Jules Weyl, George James Hopkins).  Later, film critic Leonard Maltin gave the film three and a half stars.

Postwar controversy.

The House Committee on Un-American Activities would later cite "Mission to Moscow" as one of the three noted examples of pro-Soviet films made by Hollywood, the other two being "The North Star" and "Song of Russia". It's been called "unquestionably the most blatant piece of pro-Stalinist propaganda ever offered by the American mass media".  In 1950, the film became an object of attention by members of Congress, who saw it as pro-Soviet propaganda. Davies was largely silent on his role in the film, though he did submit a letter to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1947. Called to testify under oath before Congress, Jack L. Warner at first claimed that the film was made at the request of Davies, who with the approval of FDR had asked Warner Bros. to make the film (this version of the facts was confirmed by Davies' letter as well). Warner later recanted this version, stating that Harry Warner first read "Mission to Moscow" and then contacted Davies to discuss movie rights.  "Mission to Moscow" was one of hundreds of pre-1948 Warner Bros. movies sold for television screenings, but was never included in domestic syndication packages put together by its then-owner, United Artists. It had its U.S. TV debut on PBS in the 1970s and has been shown sporadically on Turner Classic Movies, featured in the January 2010 series "Shadows of Russia" and most recently broadcast on January 30, 2017. The film's ownership has returned to Warner Bros. via its purchase of Turner Entertainment and the title made its DVD debut in October, 2009 as part of the Warner Archive Collection.

References.

Notes Bibliography

Mission to Moscow is a 1943 film directed by Michael Curtiz, based on the 1941 book by the former U.S. ambassador to the Soviet Union, Joseph E. Davies.

Mission à Moscou ("Mission to Moscow") est un film américain de Michael Curtiz, sorti en 1943. Fondé sur le livre homonyme de l'ambassadeur Joseph E. Davies, ce film est un exemple de propagande pro-soviétique américaine du début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et ne fut pas un succès commercial. Étrangeté historique, il illustre une période de fièvre pro-soviétique éphémère.


Traditions.

In Armenian tradition, the als steal the lung, liver and heart of women in childbirth, pregnant women, and women who have just given birth. They also destroy embryos in the womb, causing miscarriage, and can steal babies forty days after childbirth, replacing them with imps. They are male and female. They have clay noses and fiery eyes, and "appear with sharp fangs, disheveled hair, copper claws, iron teeth, the tusks of a wild boar and sagging breasts, resembling a crone." After stealing the organs of a woman, the al attempts to escape and cross the first source of water, after which the woman cannot be saved. Apotropaic wards against als include methods used against other demons (such as charms, prayers, iron objects, onions, and garlic), and preventing the al from reaching water.  In Iran, the al is "a bony, thin old woman, with a clay nose, red face, and a straw or reedy basket hanging from its shoulder, in which the liver or lung of the young mother is placed." In Central Asia, the al is customarily "a fat, ugly and hairy crone with sagging breasts, the one hanging over one shoulder, while hanging over her other shoulder is a woolen bag... in which she has placed the heart and liver of her victim."  According to numerous Near Eastern traditions, God created an al for Adam's first consort, but the earth-born Adam couldn't adapt to the al's fiery nature; this is the origin of the enmity between the al and Eve and her daughters.  The al is first documented in European literature in the middle of the 19th century.

Al (or Hal); (; ; ; (""); ; ; ; ) is a class of demon in the folklore of the Caucasus, Iran, Central Asia, and Armenia. Als are demons of childbirth, interfering with human reproduction. The al is known by various other names, including "alk" in Armenian and Kurdish, "ol", "hāl" and "xāl" in Tajikistan and Afghanistan, "almasti" or "albasti" in Central Asian Turkic speaking countries, and "halmasti" among the Dards.

L'Al (ou Alk) est un esprit démoniaque du Caucase, mentionné dans la mythologie perse et arménienne, en Iran, en Asie centrale et dans certaines régions du Sud de la Russie. Il n'intervient qu'à l'occasion des naissances d'enfants, attaquant les femmes enceintes et leur volant leur bébé. Il lui arriverait aussi de voler le foie des femmes. La victime et son enfant mourant dès que l'Al a trempé le foie dans l'eau, ce qu'il fait nécessairement avant de le manger.


Geography.

Location.

Bad Harzburg is situated at the northern foot of the Harz mountain range on the edge of the Harz National Park. To the east of the borough is the boundary between the states of Lower Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt, the former Inner German Border. The small "Radau" river, a tributary to the Oker, has its source in the Harz mountains and flows through the town. Nearby are the towns of Goslar to the west, Vienenburg to the north, Braunlage to the south and Ilsenburg and Osterwieck in the east.

Town districts.

The districts within the borough of Bad Harzburg, with their population in brackets, are:

Climate.

Climatically Bad Harzburg is a transition zone to a pure alpine region with a pronounced local climate.

History.

Medieval times.

According to legend, about 780 AD the Emperor Charlemagne, after the conquest of the area in the course of the Saxon Wars, had a chapel built on the "Burgberg" a hill overlooking the town. It may have stood on the site of a sacred grove dedicated to a Saxon god named "Krodo", whose statue Charlemagne had overthrown.  King Conrad I of Germany is believed to have established a college of canons here in 916, in order to strengthen his rule in the Duchy of Saxony under Henry the Fowler. King Henry III had it transferred to his "Kaiserpfalz" in Goslar in 1039. Still on bad terms with the Saxons, his son and successor Henry IV between 1065 and 1068 had a sizable castle, the "Harzburg", built on the "Burgberg" to control the region, where he was besieged in 1073 by the forces of Duke Otto of Nordheim during the Great Saxon Revolt. Henry managed to escape from the castle, which after the Peace of Gerstungen was badly damaged by its attackers. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa had it rebuilt after he had defeated his rival, the Saxon duke Henry the Lion in 1180. Henry's son Otto IV, crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1209, died at the castle on 19 May 1218. Archaeological findings of a first, later abandoned, settlement beneath the castle called "Schulenrode" (Old Saxon for "hidden (cf. skulk) clearing") date back to the 10th century. Another locality nearby named "Hartesborch" was first mentioned in a 1314 deed by the Benedictine abbey of Ilsenburg. The present-day town itself, then called "Neustadt" ("new town"), was first documented in 1338.

Modern period.

From 1488 on, the "Harzburg" with its surrounding estates was part of the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, though spatially separated from the residence of the prince at Wolfenbüttel by the neighbouring Prince-Bishoprics of Hildesheim and Halberstadt. About 1569, Duke Julius of Brunswick promoted the development of a saline water well to extract salt. The well was called "Juliushall" and since 1852 the brine has been used for saline baths as well as other medical purposes.  In 1892 the townspeople changed the town's name from "Neustadt" to "Harzburg". It was given the title "Bad" (German for "bath", i. e. spa), received town privileges in 1894 and has since become an important spa town and tourist attraction.

20th century.

The election results for the Nazi Party in the Bad Harzburg district had been below-average so far. The Harzburg Front of a united "national opposition" against the German government of Heinrich Brüning was initiated by Alfred Hugenberg, the national-conservative German National People's Party (DNVP), the leadership of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), "Der Stahlhelm" first World War ex-servicemens' organisation and the "Alldeutscher Verband" pressure group and constituted on 11 October 1931. Both the People's and Nazi parties participated in the government of the Free State of Brunswick from 1930, with the leading Nazi politician Dietrich Klagges as Minister of the Interior from September 1931.  During World War II, military hospitals were established in several hotels. The town surrendered without a fight to the 83rd US Infantry Division on 11 April 1945.  After the war, Bad Harzburg with the lands of Brunswick belonged to the British zone of Allied-occupied Germany and from 1949 was part of West Germany. Before reunification, its railway station was the eastern terminus of a major railway route just west of the inner German border.  The modern community of Bad Harzburg was founded on Juli 1, 1972, as the communities of Bad Harzburg, Bettingerode, Bündheim-Schlewecke, Harlingerode, and Westerode were merged. The city was then incorporated into the Landkreis Goslar in 1974.  On January 1, 2019, the B 6 in Bad Harzburg was upgraded to the autobahn A 369.

Demographics.

As of 30 June 2018 there were 21,917 inhabitants in Bad Harzburg.

Politics.

Town council.

2011 local elections:

Mayors.

Mayor ("Bürgermeister") Ralf Abrahms (Greens) was elected in a two-round system on 22 September 2002 with 53.8% of the votes. Abrahms is the first Green mayor in Lower Saxony.

Twin towns.

Bad Harzburg is twinned with:

Transport.

The Bundesstraße 4 federal highway runs through Bad Harzburg, connecting the town with the A 395 motorway to Brunswick in the north and with Nordhausen and Erfurt in the south. In the east-west direction the B 6 federal road leads to the A 14 motorway at Bernburg and to Hanover.  Rail services are provided at Bad Harzburg station by RegionalExpress and RegionalBahn trains of the Deutsche Bahn running to Hanover, Brunswick, Holzminden and Halle.

Bad Harzburg (Eastphalian: "Bad Harzborch") is a spa town in central Germany, in the Goslar district of Lower Saxony. It lies on the northern edge of the Harz mountains and is a recognised saltwater spa and climatic health resort.

Bad Harzburg est une ville du centre de l'Allemagne, située dans l'arrondissement de Goslar, en Basse-Saxe. Située au pied nord du massif de Harz, elle est bien connue pour ses établissements thermaux traditionnels mais aussi pour le front de Harzburg, une brève alliance politique de droite formée en 1931.


Plot.

Dr. Who, his granddaughters Susan and Barbara, and Barbara's boyfriend Ian are accidentally transported to another planet by Dr. Who's latest invention, a time and space machine called Tardis.  While exploring, the travellers see a city in the distance. They also find a small container of drugs which they take aboard Tardis. Wishing to investigate further, Dr. Who fakes a leak in a fluid link, a vital component of Tardis, to ensure that the group will go to the city to search for the mercury supposedly needed to refill the component. Once in the city they are captured by cyborg creatures which refer to themselves as "Daleks", who seize the fluid link for examination. Dr. Who then realises that the group have contracted radiation sickness, and that the drugs they discovered earlier may be their only hope of survival. While covertly observing the captives, the Daleks discuss their own plight. They are trapped inside their metal casings, and within the city, by the radiation. They wish to leave so that they can destroy all other life and claim the planet for themselves. Hearing the captives discussing the drugs, the Daleks make a proposal to them. If the humans bring the drugs they found to them, they will allow them enough to treat themselves. Susan goes, being the only one still strong enough to undertake the task.  Reaching Tardis Susan collects the drugs and then encounters Alydon, leader of the Thals, a species that fought the Daleks in an atomic war centuries previously. Alydon gives Susan a second container of anti-radiation drugs to use if the Daleks fail to keep their promise.  When Susan returns the Daleks discover the second drug supply, but allow the humans to treat themselves with it. Susan explains to her companions that, according to Alydon, the Thal crops have failed and they have come to the Dalek city, hoping to trade the anti-radiation drug formula for food. Again overhearing this conversation, the Daleks decide that they don’t need the Thals now that they have a sample of the drug. They get Susan to write a letter which they will leave for the Thals, stating that they will provide food, to be collected from the city, as an act of friendship. When Susan finishes the letter, the Daleks reveal that they plan to kill all of the Thals when they arrive.  When a Dalek enters their cell the travellers manage to disable it. Once free, they are able to warn the Thals who are entering the city, and escape with them into the jungle. The Daleks then test the Thal anti-radiation drug but find that it causes disastrous side effects. Thwarted, they decide to detonate a neutron bomb to increase the planet’s radiation to a level which even the Thals cannot survive.  Back at the Thal camp, Dr. Who realises that the travellers are trapped on the planet as the Daleks still have the fluid link, and he will need the Thals’ help to recover it. He urges Alydon to fight the Daleks to save his species but he refuses, insisting that the Thals are now peaceful. In response, Dr. Who pretends to order Ian to take a Thal woman to the Daleks in exchange for the confiscated component. Horrified, Alydon attacks Ian, then realises that the Thals "can" fight for things they care about. Alydon, Dr. Who and Susan then lead the Thals in an attack on the city, but the Daleks repel the assault and Dr. Who and Susan are recaptured.  Meanwhile Ian, Barbara and a small group of Thals infiltrate the Dalek city from the rear. Once inside they join the rest of the Thals, who have mounted a frontal assault to rescue Dr. Who and Susan. The Thals and humans enter the control room, where the Daleks have started the bomb countdown. During the ensuing struggle the Daleks inadvertently destroy their main control console, which kills them by cutting their power and stops the bomb detonation.  Back in the jungle, with the fluid link recovered, the travellers depart in Tardis to return home.

Production.

Amicus bought an option to make the story and two sequels from Terry Nation and the BBC for £500. Principal photography commenced at Shepperton Studios, England in April 1965 and took six weeks. The film was produced on a budget of £180,000.  The Daleks were redesigned slightly for the film. They had larger base sections and dome lights than the TV Daleks of the time, making them more imposing, and some were fitted with a two-jawed mechanical claw instead of a plunger. They also had more colourful paint schemes, with two Dalek leaders being painted respectively in black and red. Originally the Daleks were to be armed with flamethrowers, but these were vetoed on health and safety grounds and because they were considered too frightening for a young audience. Instead, the guns produced jets of CO gas from internally mounted fire extinguishers. The actor Barrie Ingham discussed the production in an interview in Australia in 1976 for the Doctor Who fanzine "Zerinza".  In 1995, a documentary about the two Dalek films, "Dalekmania", was released on video. It revealed details about the productions, spin-offs, and publicity campaigns. It was later included as an extra in many of the home media video releases of the two Dalek films.  Although the planet on which the action takes place is not named in the film, it is retroactively identified as Skaro in the, matching the name given in the television series.

Release.

The film premiered in London on 23 August 1965. The film was the twentieth biggest British box office moneymaker in 1965. It did not perform as well in the US, however, where the "Doctor Who" television series and the Daleks were relatively unknown.

Marketing.

As part of the promotional campaign, a number of Daleks were displayed at the 1965 Cannes film festival. Single Daleks were also sent further afield, one making an appearance at a cinema in Sydney, Australia. Souvenir Press published a tie-in colouring book for children in 1965, with colour photographic illustrations from the film on both the front and rear covers.

Critical response.

"Halliwell's Film Guide" described the film as "limply put together, and only for indulgent children". John Clute, in the book "Science Fiction :The Illustrated Encyclopedia", gives the film one star out of three and states "Many people would like to see the ["Doctor Who"] television series back; few mourn the long-gone films". "Radio Times" was more favourable, awarding the film three stars out of five, stating "this spin-off lacks the bite and inventiveness that set the landmark series apart, unwisely injecting humour into the sparse scenario, and the cheap art direction is strictly '101 Uses for Pink Plastic Sheeting'. However, despite the many faults, it's still a fun ride for both the uninitiated and die-hard fans alike".  In "The Guardian" in 2013, Stuart Heritage stated: "Cushing does his best, but he's not exactly given a lot to work with." He described the Daleks as "so pointlessly toothless here" and also criticised the "incredibly tedious" amount of Dalek dialogue to explain their motives, the portrayal of the Thals, and Roy Castle's performance, saying "to call him hammy would be to provide the greatest disservice to pigs." Andrew Nette of the British Film Institute stated the film was "widely derided by many fans and critics", adding it is "certainly an uneven affair. Some scenes [...] still have the capacity to thrill. Others, like the final victory over the Daleks, feel rushed and flat. The Doctor's granddaughters are largely one-dimensional... The aspect of the movie that most antagonises purists is Cushing's Doctor." Nette described the film as having a "wonderfully pulpy sci-fi atmosphere", saying: "The highlight of the movie is its look... Many of the sets [...] are impressive" and "the movie Daleks are more impressive than their small screen counterparts".  According to the BFI, the Cushing films "are often forgotten in the "Doctor Who" pantheon". Similarly, Stuart Heritage commented in "The Guardian" in 2013 that "people don't talk about "Dr Who and the Daleks" any more". In 1975, actor Tom Baker, who was playing the Fourth Doctor in the television series, commented on the flaws of the film and its sequel while discussing another proposed "Doctor Who" film, saying "There have been two "Doctor Who" films in the past, both rather poor... There are many dangers in transporting a television series onto the big screen.. a lot of things that you could get away with on the small screen wouldn't wash in the cinema."

Home media.

Super 8 film  VHS  DVD  Blu-ray

Dr. Who and the Daleks is a 1965 British science fiction film directed by Gordon Flemyng and written by Milton Subotsky, and the first of two films based on the British science-fiction television series "Doctor Who". It stars Peter Cushing as Dr. Who, Roberta Tovey as Susan, Jennie Linden as Barbara, and Roy Castle as Ian. It was followed by "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D." (1966).

Il est adapté de la série télévisée de science-fiction "Doctor Who", et plus particulièrement basé sur "The Daleks", deuxième épisode de la série, diffusé en 1963. Il est suivi par "Les Daleks envahissent la Terre" en 1966 et est, avant la diffusion en 1970 de l'épisode "Spearhead from Space", la première aventure du Docteur à être tournée en couleurs.


History.

The Indian Museum originated from the Asiatic Society of Bengal which was created by Sir William Jones in 1784. The concept of having a museum arose in 1796 from members of the Asiatic Society as a place where man-made and natural objects collected could be kept, cared for and displayed.  The objective began to look achievable in 1808 when the Society was offered suitable accommodation by the Government of India in the Chowringhee-Park Street area.  On February 3, 1814, Nathaniel Wallich, a Danish botanist, who had been captured in the siege of Serampore but later released, wrote to the council of the Asiatic Society for the formation of a museum out of his own collection and that of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta, volunteering his service as a Curator wherein he proposed two sections—an archaeological, ethnological, a technical section and a geological and zoological one. The council readily agreed and the Museum was created, with Wallich named the Honorary Curator and then Superintendent of the Oriental Museum of the Asiatic Society. Wallich also donated a number of botanical specimens to the museum from his personal collection. In 1815, Mr William Lloyd Gibbons, Asst Secretary and Librarian was appointed Joint Joint Secretary of the Museum.  After the resignation of Wallich, curators were paid salaries by the Asiatic Society ranging from Rs 50 to Rs 200 a month. However, when in 1836 when the bankers of Asiatic Society (Palmer and Company) became insolvent and the Government began to pay the salary of the Curator from its public funds since a large part of the collection was that of the surveyors of Survey of India.  A temporary grant of Rs 200 per month was sanctioned for maintenance of the museum and library, and J. T. Pearson of the Bengal Medical Service was appointed curator followed shortly by John McClelland and after his resignation by Edward Blyth.  In 1840, the Government took a keen interest in the geology and mineral resources and this led to an additional grant of Rs 250 per month for the geological section alone. In 1851 when the Geological Survey of India came into being with the advent of Sir Thomas Oldham, a rented building at 1, Hastings Road now K N Roy Road, the present site of the New Secretariat became its office. The geological collection of the Government of India 'Museum of Economic Geology' at the Asiatic Society, were then transferred to this site in 1856. The Asiatic Society geological collection were however held back with the condition that it would be handed over to the GSI once a Museum for all its collection came into being. It was way back in 1837 that Sir James Princeps then-Secretary of Asiatic Society had written to the Government asking for a Museum at a cost to the state. A movement for a full-fledged Museum was thereafter keenly pursued over a decade and later with Sir Thomas Oldham then Superintendent of the Geological Survey of India at the helm it gained momentum.  The thrust for a full-fledged Museum was held up due to the intervention of the revolt of the sepoys of the East India Company. The matter was pursued again, once things settled down after India came under the Crown.  Thereafter the First Indian Museum Act was passed in 1866 and the foundation of the Indian Museum at its present site laid in 1867. In 1875 the present building on Chowringee Road, presently Jawaharlal Nehru Road, designed by W L Granville in consultation with Sir Thomas Holland, on Chowringee was completed. In 1877 after the retirment of Sir Thomas Oldham in 1876 the Geological Survey of India including the Museum of Economic Geology shifted here from its rented accommodation on 1 Hastings Road.  This building had been designated as the site the for not just the Asiatic Societies, Oriental Museum's collection and the Economic Geology collection of the Geological Survey of India but also to hold the offices of both.  The Asiatic Society however relinquished its rights preferring to maintain its autonomy from the government. The Geological Survey of India is till date Headquartered, at the buildings of the Indian Museum Complex and holds exclusive rights over the Geological galleries of the Indian Museum. The building parallel to Sudder Street commenced in 1988 and occupied in 1891. The next building block at right angle to Sudder Street was erected in 1894. Half of this building was consigned to the Geological Survey of India but by 1912 it was wholly transferred to it. The Zoological and Anthropological sections of the museum gave rise to the Zoological Survey of India in 1916, which in turn gave rise to the Anthropological Survey of India in 1945.  The Scottish anatomist and zoologist John Anderson took up the position of curator in 1865, and catalogued the mammal and archaeology collections. The English zoologist James Wood-Mason worked at the museum from 1869 and succeeded Anderson as curator in 1887.  The museum was closed to visitors for restoration and upgrades from September 2013 to February 2014.

Collections.

Egyptian.

It currently occupies a resplendent mansion, and exhibits among others: an Egyptian mummy. The mummy is being restored.

Indian.

The large collection of ancient and medieval Indian artefacts include remains of the Buddhist stupa from Bharhut, the Buddha's ashes, a copy of the Lion Capital of Ashoka from an Ashoka pillar (original in the Sarnath Museum) whose four-lion symbol became the official emblem of the Republic of India, fossil skeletons of prehistoric animals, an art collection, rare antiques, and a collection of meteorites.  The Indian Museum is also regarded as "the beginning of a significant epoch initiating the socio-cultural and scientific achievements of the country. It is otherwise considered as the beginning of the modernity and the end of medieval era" by UZER Places.

Natural History.

The museum has four galleries dedicated to natural history, namely the botanical, insect, mammal and bird galleries. It also contains prehistoric artifacts such as the huge skeleton of a dinosaur.

The Indian Museum in Kolkata, West Bengal, India, also referred to as the Imperial Museum at Calcutta in colonial-era texts, is the ninth oldest museum of the world, oldest museum in India and the largest museum in India. It has rare collections of antiques, armour and ornaments, fossils, skeletons, mummies and Mughal paintings. It was founded by the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Kolkata (Calcutta), India, in 1814. The founder curator was Nathaniel Wallich, a Danish botanist.

Le Musée indien (, ) est un musée multidisciplinaire de Kolkata. Fondé en 1814 par le botaniste danois Nathaniel Wallich, le Musée indien est l'un des plus anciens musées au monde et le premier grand musée construit en Asie-Pacifique De 1814 à 1878, le musée était hébergé dans les locaux de l'"Asiatic Society" à Calcutta. En 1878 il fut transféré dans un nouveau bâtiment construit sur Chowringhee Road - l'artère principale de Calcutta - et spécialement conçu pour recevoir ses collections. Il y avait également une catégorie dédiée aux traditions orientales de la ruralité. Ses 60 galeries sont rassemblées en six sections : Art, Archéologie, Anthropologie, Géologie, Zoologie et Botanique. Dans ses collections d'art on peut voir des peintures mogholes, des momies égyptiennes, le stûpa bouddhiste de Bharhut, des cendres du Bouddha, le pilier d'Ashoka, des fossiles d'animaux préhistoriques, diverses antiquités ainsi qu'une collection de météorites.


Early life.

Spender was born in Kensington, London, to journalist Harold Spender and Violet Hilda Schuster, a painter and poet, of German Jewish heritage. He went first to Hall School in Hampstead and then at 13 to Gresham's School, Holt and later Charlecote School in Worthing, but he was unhappy there. On the death of his mother, he was transferred to University College School (Hampstead), which he later described as "that gentlest of schools". Spender left for Nantes and Lausanne and then went up to University College, Oxford (much later, in 1973, he was made an honorary fellow). Spender said at various times throughout his life that he never passed any exam. Perhaps his closest friend and the man who had the biggest influence on him was W. H. Auden, who introduced him to Christopher Isherwood. The earliest version of "Poems" written by Auden was handprinted by Spender. He left Oxford without taking a degree and in 1929 moved to Hamburg. Isherwood invited him to come to Berlin. Every six months, Spender went back to England.  Spender was acquainted with fellow Auden Group members Louis MacNeice, Edward Upward and Cecil Day-Lewis. He was friendly with David Jones and later came to know W. B. Yeats, Allen Ginsberg, Ted Hughes, Joseph Brodsky, Isaiah Berlin, Mary McCarthy, Roy Campbell, Raymond Chandler, Dylan Thomas, Jean-Paul Sartre, Colin Wilson, Aleister Crowley, F.T. Prince and T. S. Eliot, as well as members of the Bloomsbury Group, particularly Virginia Woolf.

Career.

Spender began work on a novel in 1929, which was not published until 1988, under the title "The Temple". The novel is about a young man who travels to Germany and finds a culture at once more open than England's, particularly about relationships between men, and shows frightening anticipations of Nazism that are confusingly related to the very openness that the main character admires. Spender wrote in his 1988 introduction:  In the late Twenties young English writers were more concerned with censorship than with politics... 1929 was the last year of that strange Indian Summer—the Weimar Republic. For many of my friends and for myself, Germany seemed a paradise where there was no censorship and young Germans enjoyed extraordinary freedom in their lives...  Spender was discovered by T.S. Eliot, an editor at Faber & Faber, in 1933.  His early poetry, notably "Poems" (1933), was often inspired by social protest. Living in Vienna, he further expressed his convictions in "Forward from Liberalism"; in "Vienna" (1934), a long poem in praise of the 1934 uprising of Austrian socialists; and in "Trial of a Judge" (1938), an antifascist drama in verse.  At the Shakespeare and Company book-store in Paris, which had published the first edition of James Joyce's "Ulysses", historic figures made rare appearances to read their work: Paul Valéry, André Gide and Eliot. Hemingway even broke his rule of not reading in public if Spender would read with him. Since Spender agreed, Hemingway appeared for a rare reading in public with him.  In 1936, he became a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain. Harry Pollitt, its head, invited him to write for the "Daily Worker" on the Moscow Trials. In late 1936, Spender married Inez Pearn, whom he had only recently met at an Aid to Spain meeting. She is described as'small and rather ironic' and'strikingly good-looking'. In 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the "Daily Worker" sent him to Spain on a mission to observe and report on the Soviet ship "Komsomol", which had sunk while carrying Soviet weapons to the Second Spanish Republic. Spender travelled to Tangier and tried to enter Spain via Cadiz, but was sent back. He then travelled to Valencia, where he met Ernest Hemingway and Manuel Altolaguirre. (Tony Hyndman, alias Jimmy Younger, had joined the International Brigades, which were fighting against Francisco Franco's forces in the Battle of Guadalajara.) Pollitt told Spender "to go and get killed; we need a Byron in the movement". Spender was imprisoned for a while in Albacete. In Madrid, he met André Malraux; they discussed Gide's "Retour de l'U.R.S.S.". Because of medical problems, he went back to England and bought a house in Lavenham. In 1939, he divorced.  His 1938 translations of works by Bertolt Brecht and Miguel Hernández appeared in John Lehmann's "New Writing".  He felt close to the Jewish people; his mother, Violet Hilda Schuster, was half-Jewish (her father's family were German Jews who converted to Christianity, and her mother came from an upper-class family of Catholic German, Lutheran Danish and distant Italian descent). Spender's second wife, Natasha, whom he married in 1941, was also Jewish. In 1942, he joined the fire brigade of Cricklewood and Maresfield Gardens as a volunteer. Spender met several times with the poet Edwin Muir.  After he was no longer left-wing, he was one of those who wrote of their disillusionment with communism in the essay collection "The God that Failed" (1949), along with Arthur Koestler and others. It is thought that one of the big areas of disappointment was the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, which many leftists saw as a betrayal. Like W. H. Auden, Christopher Isherwood and several other outspoken opponents of fascism in the 1930s, Spender did not see active military service in World War II. He was initially graded "C" upon examination because of his earlier colitis, poor eyesight, varicose veins and the long-term effects of a tapeworm in 1934. However, he contrived by pulling strings to be re-examined and was upgraded to "B", which meant that he could serve in the London Auxiliary Fire Service. Spender spent the winter of 1940 teaching at Blundell's School, having taken the position that had been left vacant by Manning Clark, who returned to Australia as a consequence of the war to teach at Geelong Grammar.  After the war, Spender was a member of the Allied Control Commission, restoring civil authority in Germany.  With Cyril Connolly and Peter Watson, Spender co-founded "Horizon" magazine and served as its editor from 1939 to 1941. From 1947 to 1949, he went to the US several times and saw his friends Auden and Isherwood. He was the editor of "Encounter" magazine from 1953 to 1966 but resigned after it emerged that the Congress for Cultural Freedom, which published the magazine, was covertly funded by the CIA. Spender always insisted that he was unaware of the ultimate source of the magazine's funds. Spender taught at various American institutions and accepted the Elliston Chair of Poetry at the University of Cincinnati in 1954. In 1961, he became professor of rhetoric at Gresham College, London.  He helped found the magazine "Index on Censorship", was involved in the founding of the Poetry Book Society and did work for UNESCO.  He was appointed the 17th Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress in 1965.  Spender was Professor of English at University College London from 1970 to 1977 and then became Professor Emeritus.  Spender was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) at the 1962 Queen's Birthday Honours, and knighted in the 1983 Queen's Birthday Honours.  At a ceremony commemorating the 40th anniversary of the Normandy Invasion on 6 June 1984, US President Ronald Reagan quoted from Spender's poem "The Truly Great" in his remarks:  Gentlemen, I look at you and I think of the words of Stephen Spender's poem. You are men who in your "lives fought for life... and left the vivid air signed with your honor".

World of art.

Spender also had profound intellectual workings with the world of art, including Picasso. The artist Henry Moore did etchings and lithographs conceived to accompany the work of writers, including Charles Baudelaire and Spender. Moore's work in that regard also included illustrations of the literature of Dante, Gide and Shakespeare. The exhibition was held at The Henry Moore Foundation.  Spender "collected and befriended artists such as Arp, Auerbach, Bacon, Freud, Giacometti, Gorky, Guston, Hockney, Moore, Morandi, Picasso and others". In "The World of Stephen Spender", the artist Frank Auerbach selected art work by those masters to accompany Spender's poems.  Spender wrote "China Diary" with David Hockney in 1982, published by Thames and Hudson art publishers in London.  The Soviet artist Wassily Kandinsky created an etching for Spender, "Fraternity", in 1939.

Personal life.

In 1933, Spender fell in love with Tony Hyndman, and they lived together from 1935 to 1936. In 1934, Spender had an affair with Muriel Gardiner. In a letter to Christopher Isherwood in September 1934, he wrote, "I find boys much more attractive, in fact I am rather more than usually susceptible, but actually I find the actual sexual act with women more satisfactory, more terrible, more disgusting, and, in fact, more everything". In December 1936, shortly after the end of his relationship with Hyndman, Spender fell in love with and married Inez Pearn after an engagement of only three weeks. The marriage broke down in 1939. In 1941, Spender married Natasha Litvin, a concert pianist. The marriage lasted until his death. Their daughter, Lizzie, is married to the Australian actor and comedian Barry Humphries, and their son, Matthew Spender, is married to the daughter of the Armenian artist Arshile Gorky.  Spender's sexuality has been the subject of debate. Spender's seemingly changing attitudes have caused him to be labelled bisexual, repressed, latently homophobic or simply something complex that resists easy labelling. Many of his friends in his earlier years were gay. Spender had many affairs with men in his earlier years, most notably with Hyndman, who was called "Jimmy Younger" in his memoir "World Within World". After his affair with Muriel Gardiner, he shifted his focus to heterosexuality, but his relationship with Hyndman complicated both that relationship and his short-lived marriage to Inez Pearn. His marriage to Natasha Litvin in 1941 seemed to have marked the end of his romantic relationships with men but not the end of all homosexual activity, as his unexpurgated diaries have revealed. Subsequently, he toned down homosexual allusions in later editions of his poetry. The following line was revised in a republished edition: "Whatever happens, I shall never be alone. I shall always have a boy, a railway fare, or a revolution" to "Whatever happens, I shall never be alone. I shall always have an affair, a railway fare, or a revolution". Nevertheless, he was a founding member of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, which lobbied for the repeal of British sodomy laws. Spender sued author David Leavitt for allegedly using his relationship with "Jimmy Younger" in Leavitt's "While England Sleeps" in 1994. The case was settled out of court with Leavitt removing certain portions from his text.

Death.

On 16 July 1995, Spender died of a heart attack in Westminster, London, aged 86. He was buried in the graveyard of St Mary on Paddington Green Church, in London.

Stephen Spender Trust.

The Stephen Spender Trust is a registered charity that was founded to widen the knowledge of 20th-century literature, with a particular focus on Spender's circle of writers, and to promote literary translation. The trust's activities include poetry readings; academic conferences; a seminar series in partnership with the Institute of English Studies; an archive programme in conjunction with the British Library and the Bodleian; work with schools via Translation Nation; the Guardian Stephen Spender Prize, an annual poetry translation prize established in 2004; and the Joseph Brodsky/Stephen Spender Prize, a worldwide Russian–English translation competition.

Awards and honours.

Spender was awarded the Golden PEN Award in 1995.

Sir Stephen Harold Spender (28 February 1909 – 16 July 1995) was an English poet, novelist and essayist whose work concentrated on themes of social injustice and the class struggle. He was appointed Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the United States Library of Congress in 1965.

Stephen Spender, né le à Kensington et mort le à Westminster, est un poète, romancier et essayiste britannique fortement engagé dans l'action pour la justice sociale et connu pour ses idées sur la lutte des classes.


Signs and symptoms.

People with herpes esophagitis experience pain with eating and trouble swallowing. Other symptoms can include food impaction, hiccups, weight loss, fever, and on rare occasions upper gastrointestinal bleeding as noted in the image above and tracheoesophageal fistula. Frequently one can see herpetiform lesions in the mouth and lips.

Diagnosis.

Upper Endoscopy often reveals ulcers throughout the esophagus with intervening normal-appearing mucosa. In severe cases the ulcers can coalesce and on rare occasions have a black appearance known as black esophagus. While the diagnosis of herpes esophagitis can be inferred clinically it can only be accurately diagnosed through endoscopically obtained biopsies with microscopic evaluation by a pathologist finding the appropriate inclusion bodies and diagnostic immunochemical staining. False negative findings may occur if biopsies are taken from the ulcer rather than from the margin of the ulcer as the inclusion particles are to be found in viable epithelial cells. Viral tissue culture represents the most accurate means of diagnosing the precise cause.

Differential diagnosis.

CMV, VZV as well as HIV infections of the esophagus can have a similar presentation. Tissue culture is the most accurate means of distinguishing between the different viral causes. Caustic esophagitis, pill-induced esophagitis as well as yeast esophagitis can have a similar clinical presentation.

Prevention.

Herpes simplex virus is commonly found in humans, yet uncommonly results in systemic manifestations. Suppression of HIV with antiretroviral medications, careful monitoring of immunosuppressive medications are important means of prevention. Antiviral prophylaxis such as daily acyclovir in immunocompromised individuals may be considered.

Treatment.

Antivirals such as acyclovir, famciclovir, or valacyclovir may be used. Intravenous acyclovir is reserved for individuals who cannot swallow due to the pain, individuals with other systemic manifestations of herpes or severely immunocompromised individuals.

Herpes esophagitis is a viral infection of the esophagus caused by "Herpes simplex virus" (HSV). While the disease most often occurs in immunocompromised patients, including post-chemotherapy, immunosuppression with organ transplants and in AIDS, herpes esophagitis can also occur in immunocompetent individuals.

L'angine herpétique est une affection aigüe de la gorge réalisant une angine vésiculeuse, due au virus "Herpes simplex", le plus souvent lors d'une primo-infection par le HSV de type 1.


History.

The 1812 discovery of the pass by European Americans, as a natural crossing point of the Rockies was a significant, but surprisingly difficult achievement in the westward expansion of the United States. Because the Lewis and Clark Expedition was searching for a water route across the Continental Divide, it did not learn of South Pass from any Native Americans in the area. Instead, the expedition followed a northerly route up the Missouri River, crossing the Rockies over difficult passes in the Bitterroot Range in Montana.  The first recorded crossing was made on 22 Oct. 1812 by Robert Stuart, and six companions from the Pacific Fur Company of John Jacob Astor. They were trying to avoid Crow warriors further north, on their return to St. Louis, Missouri from Astoria, Oregon. A Shoshone had told Stuart of "...a shorter trace to the South than that by which Mr. Hunt had traversed the R. Mountains..." In 1856 Ramsay Crooks, one of the party, wrote a letter describing their journey:  Stuart's "Travel Memorandum" was left with President James Madison, but the War of 1812 preempted western exploration. A translation of his journal was published in an 1821 French journal, but South Pass would have to be rediscovered by later explorers from information provided by Crow Indians.  In 1823 William Henry Ashley's Rocky Mountain Fur Company led to the rediscovery of the pass. Jedediah Smith's party, part of Ashley's Hundred, made the first crossing traveling east to west in Feb. 1824. Ashley subsequently established the first Rocky Mountain Rendezvous in 1825. Ashley sold out to Smith, William Sublette, and David Jackson in 1826, becoming their supplier.  In 1832 Captain Benjamin Bonneville, aided by Michel Cerre and Joseph R. Walker, blazed a wagon road across the pass. Their caravan of 20 wagons, in place of the usual pack-train, supplied the fur trappers from Fort Bonneville, which they established near the Green River.  In 1834, Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth led the first Methodist missionaries Jason Lee, Daniel Lee, and Cyrus Shepard across the pass. Accompanied by the naturalist John Kirk Townsend, Townsend documented this first use of the Oregon-California Trail, avoiding the Lander Cutoff used by the fur traders. Wyeth then established Fort Hall on the Snake River and the Lees settled the Willamette Valley. Robert "Doc" Newell's first child was born at South Pass in June 1835. Also in 1835, Thomas Fitzpatrick led Protestant missionaries Samuel Parker and Dr. Marcus Whitman across the pass. In 1836, Fitzpatrick guided the "First White Women to Cross This Pass", Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Spalding, along with and their husbands, plus Miles Goodyear and William Gray. By 1838, four additional American missionary women had crossed the pass, Myra Fairbanks Eells, Mary Richardson Walker, Mary Augusta Dix Gray and Sarah Gilbert White Smith.  The first family of emigrants, the Walkers, crossed the pass in 1840 with the intention of settling in Oregon. Joel Pickens Walker, and his wife Mary Young Walker, made the journey with their four children. In 1841, Fitzpatrick led the Bartleson-Bidwell Party across the pass, the first wagon train.  In 1842, John C. Fremont led a United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers expedition to survey South Pass. Reaching the pass on 8 Aug. 1842, Fremont wrote, "The ascent had been so gradual, that, with all the intimate knowledge possessed by Carson, who had made the country his home for seventeen years, we were obliged to watch very closely to find the place at which we had reached the culminating point." In his 1843 expedition, Fremont was able to determine the elevation of the pass at 7,490 feet above sea level. He wrote, "...it may be assumed to be about half-way between the Mississippi and the Pacific ocean, on the common traveling route...the emigrant road to Oregon."  Stephen W. Kearny led the first military expedition to South Pass in 1845. By 1848, 18,487 Americans had crossed the pass, and over 300,000 by 1860. Gold had been discovered in the gulches near the pass as early as 1842. However, it was not until 1867, when an ore sample was transported to Salt Lake City, that an influx of miners descended into the region. The gold rush led to the establishment of booming mining communities, such as South Pass City and Atlantic City. The placer gold in the streams was exhausted quickly, however, and by 1870 the miners began leaving the region. In 1884, Emile Granier, a French mining engineer, established a hydraulic drilling operation that allowed gold mining to continue. Gold mining was revived in nearby Rock Creek in the 1930s. Additionally, from 1962 through 1983, a U.S. Steel iron ore mine operated in Atlantic City, and the company's Atlantic City Mine Railroad crossed South Pass.  After passage of the Pacific Telegraph Act of 1860, South Pass Station was established in 1861, at Last Crossing on the Sweetwater River.  South Pass was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961.  Wyoming Highway 28 traverses the modern pass, roughly following the route of the Oregon Trail. Wagon ruts are still clearly visible at numerous sites within a few miles of the highway.

South Pass (elevation and ) is the collective term for two mountain passes on the Continental Divide, in the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Wyoming. The passes are located in a broad low region, wide, between the Wind River Range to the north and the Oregon Buttes and Great Divide Basin to the south, in southwestern Fremont County, approximately SSW of Lander. South Pass is the lowest point on the Continental Divide between the Central and Southern Rocky Mountains. The passes furnish a natural crossing point of the Rockies. The historic pass became the route for emigrants on the Oregon, California, and Mormon trails to the West during the 19th century. It was designated as a U.S. National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961.

Le South Pass (« col Sud ») est un col de montagne situé sur le Continental Divide au sud-est du parc national de Yellowstone dans les montagnes Rocheuses dans l’État du Wyoming aux États-Unis.


Background.

The Islamic caliphate expanded very quickly under the first three caliphs. Muawiyah I was appointed Governor of Syria by Umar in 639, after the previous Governor, Muawiyah's elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, died in a plague along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (the Governor before him) and 25,000 other people.  The rapid Muslim conquest of the Levant and of Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival. The Sasanian Empire had already collapsed.  The Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate, but there was a cost associated with it. Many desert nomads and some bandits living between present-day Iraq and Saudi Arabia also joined in, not out of commitment to Islam but to share the spoils and benefit from the change in the social order, after the defeat of the Sasanian Empire.  Before Islam, the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sasanian wars had occurred every few years for hundreds of years between 69 BCE and 629 CE. High taxes were imposed on the populations in both the Byzantine and Sassanid empires to finance these wars. There was also continuous bloodshed of the people during these wars. The Arab tribes in Mesopotamia were paid by the Sasanians to act as their mercenaries, while those in Syria were paid likewise by the Byzantines. Each side maintained an Arab satellite state – the Sasanians the Lakhmids, and the Byzantines the Ghassanids – which they used to fight each other in a proxy war. The Syrians and the Mesopotamians had been fighting each other for centuries. Therefore, each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their area.  As Uthman became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control and relaxing some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility.

Qurra dispute.

There was also a movement towards more autonomous tribal groupings, which was particularly strong in Kufa, in Mesopotamia; they wanted to rule their own states. Among them developed a group called the Qurra, which later became known as the Kharijites. The earliest reference to these people are as "Ahl al-Qurra", the people of the village, those who fought with Abu Bakr against the desert tribes of Yamama during the Ridda wars when some of the tribes refused to pay the zakat. Afterwards they were granted trusteeship over some of the lands in Sawad in Mesopotamia and were now called "Ahl al Ayyam", those who had taken part in the eastern conquests. Some modern scholars like R. E. Brunnow trace the origins of the Qurra and the Kharijites back to Bedouin stock and desert tribesmen, who had become soldiers not out of commitment to Islam but to share the spoils. Brunnow held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs or full blooded Arabs.  The Qurra received the highest stipend of the Muslim army and they had the use of the best lands that they came to regard as their private domain. The Qurra received stipends varying between 2000 and 3000 dirhams, while the majority of the rest of the troops received only 250 to 300 dirhams. The other Ridda tribesmen in Kufa in Mesopotamia, resented the special position given to the Qurra. The tension between the Ridda tribesmen and the Qurra threatened the Qurra's newly acquired prestige. The Qurra therefore felt obliged to defend their position in the new but rapidly changing society.  The Qurra were mainly based in Kufa. They had not been involved in Syria. Later, when Uthman declined to give them more lands in Persia they felt that their status was being reduced and therefore started to cause trouble. He also removed the distinction between the Ridda and pre-Ridda tribesmen which was not to their liking and lessened their prestige. As a result, they rebelled.  Some of the people with their tribal names as Qurra had been expelled from Kufa, for fomenting trouble and were sent to Muawiyah in Syria. Then they were sent to Abd al-Rahman ibn Khalid, who sent them to Uthman in Medina. In Medina they took an oath that they would not cause trouble and following the example of Muhammad, Uthman accepted their word and let them go. They then split up and went to various different Muslim centers and started fomenting rebellion, particularly in Egypt.  The Qurra then felt that Abu Musa al-Ash'ari could look after their interests better. In 655 the Qurra stopped Uthman's governor Sa'id ibn al-'As at Jara'a, preventing him from entering Kufa and declared Abu Musa al-Ashari to be their governor.  In 656, the Qurra approached Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali and asked him why he was not a governor. They had fought under the service of his father in the Ridda wars. They also asked Uthman's adopted son, Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa, who Uthman had refused to appoint as a governor of any province, why he was not a governor.

Siege of Uthman.

As Muawiyah and Caliph Uthman were preparing to besiege Constantinople, in 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr showed some Egyptians the house of Uthman. Finding the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters, the Qurra climbed the back wall and sneaked inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside. Hassan and Hussein were also guarding Uthman at the time. The rebels entered his room and struck him on the head.  Uthman had been besieged in his palace for 49 days before he was killed. Ali had done a great deal to attempt to save Uthman; however, Marwan prevented Ali from being able to help Uthman. Uthman only listened to the advice of Marwan and Saeed bin Aas, and Marwan did his best to act as a barrier between Ali and Uthman.  Uthman's death had a polarizing effect in the Muslim world at the time. Questions were raised not only regarding his character and policies but also about the relationship between Muslims and the state, religious beliefs regarding rebellion and governance, and the qualifications of rulership in Islam.

Succession of Ali.

The people of Medina asked Ali, who had been chief judge in Medina, to become the Caliph and he accepted.  Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman, and Marwan I wanted the murderers of Uthman arrested, and blamed Ali for it, Ali claimed that he was not responsible for Uthman's murder, but the conspirators continued the conspiracies. The conspirators felt that if there was peace, they would be arrested for the killing of Uthman. Many of them later became the Kharijites and eventually killed Ali.

Battle of the Camel.

Aisha bint Abu Bakr (Muhammad's widow), Talhah ibn Ubayd-Allah, and Zubayr ibn al-Awam opposed Ali's succession and gathered in Mecca calling for vengeance against Uthman's killers and election of new caliph through Shura. Later they moved to Basra taking it from Ali's governor, with the intention of strengthening their numbers. Ali in response sent his son Hasan and the leaders of Kufan mutineers to raise an army in Kufa. Ali himself followed them soon; with the combined army, they marched against Basra.  The armies met outside Basra. After three days of failed negotiations, battle started in the afternoon of 8 December 656 and lasted till the evening. Zubayr left the field without fighting but was pursued and killed. Ali's army emerged victorious and Talha was also killed. After admonishing Ayesha, Ali sent her back to Medina, escorted by her brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Marwan probably paid allegiance to Ali and the latter let him go.

Battle of Siffin.

Ali's inability to punish the murderers of Uthman and Muawiyah's refusal to pledge allegiance eventually led Ali to move his army north to confront Muawiyah. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Neither side wanted to fight. Then on 29 July 657 (11th Safar), the Mesopotamians under Ashtar's command, the Qurra in Ali's army, who had their own camp, started the fighting in earnest. The battle lasted three days. The loss of life was terrible. Suddenly one of the Syrians, Ibn Lahiya, out of fear of further civil war and unable to bear the spectacle rode forward with a copy of the Quran on the ears of his horse to call for judgement by the book of Allah, and the other Syrians followed suit. Everyone on both sides took up the cry, eager to avoid killing their fellow Muslims - except for the conspirators. The majority of Ali's followers supported arbitration. Nasr b Muzahim, in one of the earliest sources states that al-Ashath ibn Qays, one of Ali's key supporters and a Kufan, then stood up and said:  O company of Muslims! You have seen what happened in the day which has passed. In it some of the Arabs have been annihilated. By Allah, I have reached the age which Allah willed that I reach. but I have never ever seen a day like this. Let the present convey to the absent! If we fight tomorrow, it will be the annihilation of the Arabs and the loss of what is sacred. I do not make this statement out of fear of death, but I am an aged man who fears for the women and children tomorrow if we are annihilated. O Allah, I have looked to my people and the people of my deen and not empowered anyone. There is no success except by Allah. On Him I rely and to Him I return. Opinion can be both right and wrong. When Allah decides a matter, He carries it out whether His servants like it or not. I say this and I ask Allah's forgiveness for me and you.  Then, Nasr b Muzahim says people looked at Muawiya who said  He is right, by the Lord. If we meet tomorrow the Byzantines will attack our women and children and the people of Persia will attack the women and children of Mesopotamia. Those with forebearance and intelligence see this. Tie the copies of the Quran to the ends of the spears.  So the fighting stopped.  Every time Ali tried to negotiate the Qurra and the Sabait started wars and launched night attacks, fearing that if there was peace, then they will be arrested.

Arbitration.

It was decided that the Syrians and the residents of Kufa should nominate an arbitrator, each to decide between 'Ali and Mu'awiya. The Syrians' choice fell on 'Amr bin al-A'as who was the rational soul and spokesman of Muawiya. 'Amr ibn al-'As was one of the generals involved in conquering Syria and also Egypt. A few years earlier 'Amr ibn al-'As with 9,000 men in Palestine had found himself confronting Heraclius' 100,000 army until Khalid crossed the Syrian desert from Mesopotamia to assist him. He was a highly skilled negotiator and had previously been used in negotiations with the Heraclius the Roman Emperor. Ali wanted Malik Ashtar or Abdullah bin 'Abbas to be appointed as an arbitrator for the people of Kufa, but the Qurra strongly demurred, alleging that men like these two were responsible for the war and, therefore, ineligible for that office of trust. They nominated Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as their arbitrator (during the time of 'Uthman, they had appointed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as the Governor of Kufa and removed 'Uthman's governor before they started fighting 'Uthman). Ali found it expedient to agree to this choice in order to ward off bloody dissension in his army. According to "Usd al-G̲h̲āba", Ali therefore took care to personally explain to the arbitrators, "You are arbiters on condition that you decide according to the Book of God, and if you are not so inclined you should not deem yourselves to be arbiters."  When the arbitrators assembled at Dumat al-Jandal, which lay midway between Kufa and Syria and had for that reason been selected as the place for the announcement of the decision, a series of daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss the matters in hand. When the time arrived for taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin al-A'as convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari that they should deprive both Ali and Mu'awiya of the caliphate, and give the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ash'ari decided to act accordingly. As the time for announcing the verdict approached, the people belonging to both parties assembled. 'Amr bin al-A'as requested Abu Musa take the lead in announcing the decision he favoured. Abu Musa al-Ash'ari agreed to open the proceedings, and said, "We have devised a solution after a good deal of thought and it may put an end to all contention and separatist tendencies. It is this. Both of us remove 'Ali as well as Mu'awiya from the caliphate. The Muslims are given the right to elect a caliph as they think best." On his turn 'Amr bin al-A'as stated that he agreed with the part of Abu Musa Ash'ari's verdict that 'Ali should be deposed but he himself was in favour of retaining Mua'wiyah on his post.  Ali refused to accept the verdict. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents of Ali in his camp were the very same people who had forced Ali to appoint their arbitrator, the Qurra. Feeling that Ali could no longer look after their interests and that they could be arrested for the murder of 'Uthman if there were peace, they broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, "arbitration belongs to God alone." The Qurra then became known as the Kharijites ("those who leave").

Conflict with Kharijites.

In 659 Ali's forces finally moved against the Kharijites and they finally met in the Battle of Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing. Tom Holland writes "Ali won a victory over them as crushing as it was to prove pyrrhic: for all he had done, in effect was to fertilise the soil of Mesopotamia with the blood of their martyrs. Three years later, and there came the inevitable blowback: a Kharijite assassin."  While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali found it hard to build a disciplined army and effective state institutions to exert control over his areas and as a result later spent a lot of time fighting the Kharijites. As a result, on the Eastern front, Ali found it hard to expand the state.  Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. On the 19th of Ramadan, while Praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. When Alī was assassinated, Muawiyah had the largest and the most organized and disciplined force in the Muslim Empire.

Peace treaty with Hassan.

Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali made a peace treaty with Muawiyah. By now Hassan only ruled the area around Kufa. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.  In the year 661, Muawiyah was crowned as caliph at a ceremony in Jerusalem. Ali's caliphate had lasted for four years. After the treaty with Hassan, Muawiyah ruled for nearly 20 years most of which were spent expanding the state.

The First Fitna ( "fitnat maqtal ʻUthmān" "strife/sedition of the killing of Uthman") was a civil war within the Rashidun Caliphate which resulted in the overthrowing of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the caliph Uthman was assassinated by rebels in 656 and continued through the four-year reign of Uthman's successor, Ali. It ended in 661 when Ali's heir Hasan ibn Ali concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule of Muawiyah, the first Umayyad caliph.

On désigne par Grande discorde ou Première Fitna les évènements et la guerre civile entre musulmans à l’origine de la séparation entre sunnites, chiites et kharidjites.