First edition (1986–1998).

Titles.

Books one through five covered the three segments of "Robotech" as aired. The initial five volumes were written by Kevin Siembieda.  Books seven, eight, and all but one of the adventure books took place during or shortly after the "Macross" segment. The two "Robotech II" books also took place after Macross.  Book six and "Lancer's Rockers" took place after the series ended.  Other Palladium regulars and freelance authors contributed to the later sourcebooks and adventure books. Illustrations consisted of line art taken from original Japanese source material in addition to new black-and-white line art done by Palladium artists such as Kevin Long.  Palladium also published "", a separate RPG based on the "Macross II" anime, but this was entirely unrelated to the "Robotech" continuity.

Storyline.

The original "Robotech" RPG by and large followed the TV series storyline, attempting in its own way to fill in gaps just as the novelizations by Jack McKinney did. Several of the sourcebooks covered different parts of the world during or shortly after the Macross era, where there was the most room for expansion. However, the RPG diverged from the McKinney stories after the events covered in the "Robotech" series ended. Where McKinney followed Scott Bernard and the others in their search for Admiral Rick Hunter, leaving behind a peaceful planet earth, Palladium posited the Invid returning to earth a few months after they were driven away.  The books "Return of the Masters" and "Lancer's Rockers" were set during this second Invid invasion, and introduced concepts and events not suggested by the original material. "Return of the Masters", set in Asia, features a system of gladiatorial mecha martial arts combat called Mecha Su-Dai. "Lancer's Rockers" concerns a network of travelling performers following in the footsteps of New Generation rock star Lancer/Yellow Dancer, carrying protoculture-powered musical instruments that double as powerful weapons (reminiscent of, but unrelated to, similar developments in the Macross sequel "Macross 7").  The "Sentinels" RPG also diverged in some respects from the story covered in the "Sentinels" novels and comic books, having been developed independently based on the same incomplete source material provided by Harmony Gold. The two primary differences are the idea that the SDF-3 left with an entire fleet of REF ships accompanying them, and that the REF and the Sentinels joined in a protracted war against the Invid Regent. The game also suggested that members of the Sentinels' races would openly join the REF.

Game system.

The "Robotech" RPG used a modified version of the rule system used in the Palladium Fantasy Role-Playing Game introduced several years earlier. Clearly patterned after "Dungeons & Dragons", the "Palladium Fantasy RPG" used a very similar rule system based around physical and mental statistics generated by rolling 3D6 (three six-sided dice), and the use of a D20 (20-sided die) in combat. Percentile dice (two ten-sided dice, one read as a tens column and the other as a ones column) are used for skill resolution. The "Robotech" RPG introduced the concept of mega-damage—"super" hit-points that are equivalent to 100 ordinary-person hit points—to simulate the toughness of the heavily armored mecha. This concept would become widely used in Palladium's "Rifts" game.

Inaccuracies.

The creators of the "Robotech" RPG originally lacked access to the complete source material, working against deadlines based on what could be seen from show footage and limited-scope translations. As a result of incomplete availability, compounded by animation and dubbing errors, some descriptions of mecha and weapon systems given in the First-Edition books are inconsistent with either the animation or subsequently uncovered source material. The confusion is particularly strong in "Southern Cross", where the many humanoid robots, battloids, and suits of armor are often confused for one another. These inaccuracies are genuine errors and distinct from creative choices that Palladium writers made to elaborate on the Robotech storyline as discussed previously.

Cancellation.

Contractual issues in the wake of Harmony Gold's aborted "Robotech 3000" project, as well as a general refocusing of the company on production of its flagship "Rifts" line, caused Palladium to forgo renewing the "Robotech" license. The "Robotech" RPG line went out of print as of June 30, 2001.

Second edition (2008–2018).

In 2007 Palladium reacquired the "Robotech" license, coinciding with the DVD release of the animated feature film "Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles". The game was released under the new title "".  Palladium's license for the game expired on March 31st, 2018, and is not being renewed.

Robotech RPG Tactics (2013-2018).

On April 18, 2013, Palladium Books initiated a Kickstarter campaign to raise $70,000 needed to develop a new miniature wargaming system called "Robotech RPG Tactics". The campaign raised $1,442,312 from 5,342 backers by its close on May 20, 2013. The funded game was scheduled to ship in December 2013, but was eventually delayed.  As of September 2014 the game had begun to be shipped, with Wave 1 shipping expected to continue throughout the fall.  Partial delivery of the Kickstarter rewards had been in progress since 3Q 2014 through 1Q 2015. Despite all claims and given the history so far of Palladium Books regarding delivery dates, there had been no real evidence shown of any progress on the rest of the miniatures and no clue on a time frame as noted starting in the updates to the project from 30 Jan 2014 as the entire "Wave 1" line was put through preproduction starting after the delivery date was missed. No pictures of the "Wave 2" products were ever shown.  What was delivered so far was substandard in quality compared to even low end wargame miniatures manufacturers. This was noted by multiple miniature wargaming sites and model builders, such as talkwargaming, theminaturespage forums (where use of scale model rather than game miniature manufacturing processes was noted), and deltavector, whose summary reads:  As noted in the sample references above and simple comparisons to miniatures from Games Workshop, Zvezda, Battlefront (Flames of War), Wargames Factory, Hawk Wargames and many others revealed that RRPGT miniatures were less detailed, with glaring errors in manufacturing requiring additional work by customers to correct (seams highly visible in the middle of supposedly flat areas), extremely high piece counts comparable to much larger vehicle miniatures by other miniature manufacturers (Space Marine Terminators have six or so, Space Marines have eight or so, while none of the RRPGT minis were in single figures and many were closer to 20+ pieces) and the lack of simple industry standard basics like clear acrylic flight stands for flying units (see references to multiple miniature companies above). Also, posability out of the box was limited since many square peg & slot connections were used rather than round ones, which required yet further customer modification of the base miniatures to gain something other than a few different clones of each miniature, all available in the Kickstarter updates referenced above.  On 28th February 2018 it was announced that the Robotech® RPG Tactics Wave Two rewards would not be realised, and that Palladium's license has expired and is not being renewed.

Strange Machine Games.

After Palladium lost the license, it was picked up by Strange Machine Games, who published a new version of the "Robotech" RPG. The first volume was released in December, 2019.

The Robotech Role-Playing Game, based on the "Robotech" and "" series, was originally published by Palladium Books from 1986 to 1995 (and reprinted until 1998). A second series based on "" was released between 2008-2018.

Le jeu de rôle Robotech utilise le système Palladium ; il suit la ligne "Robotech" (Carl Macek/Harmony Gold). En 2018, la licence "Robotech" prend fin et n'est pas renouvelée. En, la licence est reprise par l'éditeur Strange Machine Games (SMG)


Search for Terra Australis.

Historian Brett Hilder has written of “ardent spirits in Peru, inspiring three Spanish voyages to the south west Pacific in the forty years from 1565 to 1605.” One of these ardent spirits was certainly Spanish soldier Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa who arrived in Peru in 1557. Sarmiento de Gamboa developed an interest in Inca stories of gold and riches being collected from lands further to the west. Sarmiento's proposal for an expedition to find land in the Pacific was put to Governor Lope García de Castro, finding favour as it matched common Spanish belief in the existence of a great South Land. Historian Miriam Estensen argues that Governor Castro also agreed as a way of maintaining peace and order. “Restless and disruptive” elements in the Spanish Americas were encouraged to join such journeys of exploration to remove them from colonial society. The lure of possible wealth made these expeditions attractive to such men, often drawn from the poorest levels of society.  However, Sarmiento de Gamboa was bitterly disappointed not to be made Captain-General of the expedition. Instead, command was given to the Governor Castro's nephew, the younger and relatively inexperienced Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. Sarmiento was to be “Cosmographer”. In Sarmiento's written account, he was Captain of the flagship and at least on the same level as chief pilot and navigator Hernando Gallego. While Sarmiento's interest was the riches to be gained, Mendaña's priority was conversion of "the heathen" to Christianity. Deep divisions had been created within the Spanish command, even before the expedition departed.

The first voyage of 1567-1569.

The two ships, the 200-ton "Los Reyes" (the Capitana or flagship) and the 140-ton "Todos Santos" (the Almiranta or secondary ship) sailed from Callao, in Peru on 20 November 1567, with about 150 sailors, soldiers, priests and slaves on board.  After sighting a small island in mid January (probably Nui in what is now Tuvalu), a significant body of land was sighted on February 7, 1568. It was Santa Isabel Island, where they landed several days later. The expedition had discovered the Solomon Islands which they named "Islas Salomon". The Spanish immediately came into contact with Solomon Islanders and at first the relationship was cordial. However, the Spanish expedition's need for fresh food and water quickly led to tension and conflict, the Solomon Islanders’ subsistence economy being unable to provide continuous supplies to the Spanish. The real prizes were pigs, desperately needed by the Spanish, while vital to the local people's economy. The cultural gulf was wide; in one famous account, the Spanish were horrified to be offered “a quarter of a boy with the arm and hand” which the islanders urged Mendaña to eat. The islanders were offended when the Spanish refused.  After building a small brigantine, the surrounding islands of Malaita, Guadalcanal, Makira (which was named San Cristobal) and Choiseul Island were explored. However, the attempts to barter for food led to the same cycle of friendly welcome, misunderstandings, sullen retreats, occasional reconciliations, robberies and violent retaliation. Finally, at a council meeting of captains, pilots, soldiers and sailors on August 7, 1568, the decision was made to return to Peru. Mendaña had wanted to sail further south, while Sarmiento de Gamboa and several soldiers unsuccessfully urged the establishment of a colony.  The two ships sailed north then east, passing the Marshall islands and Wake island, before reaching the Mexican coast in late January 1569. It was a long and difficult voyage, with numerous deaths from scurvy.

Results of the first voyage.

The main result of the expedition was the discovery of the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu. The navigators also gained valuable sailing experience for Spain, especially in crossing the vast South Pacific from Peru. These discoveries led to successive expeditions in search for Terra Australis, both by Mendaña himself and by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós.  However, the Great South Land had not yet been discovered by Europeans. The islands found, by now popularly called the Solomon Islands, had not revealed more than a few indications of gold. There were no spices and the people had not been converted to Christianity.

The 1595-1596 voyage.

A much larger and costlier expedition had been planned by the early 1590s, after Mendaña had spent years courting favour in Madrid and Lima. Four ships and 378 men, women and children were to establish a colony in the Solomon Islands. Again, the leaders of this voyage had “widely divergent personalities.” Mendaña was again in command, accompanied by his wife Doña Isabel Barreto, her three brothers and a sister. Chief pilot was to be a young Portuguese navigator in Spanish service, Pedro Fernandes de Queirós. An argumentative old soldier, Pedro Merino Manrique was chosen as camp master. Manrique caused disputes before the fleet had even departed.  The four ships, "San Gerónimo" (the Capitana), the "Santa Ysabel" (the Almiranta), the smaller frigate "Santa Catalina" and the galiot "San Felipe" left Callao on 9 April 1595. Spirits were high in the first month, fifteen marriages being celebrated. Mendaña had Queirós prepare charts for his Captains that only showed Peru and the Solomon Islands.  On 21 July 1595 the ships reached the Marquesas Islands, (named for the wife of the then viceroy of Peru, García Hurtado de Mendoza, 5th Marquis of Cañete) to be met by four hundred people in canoes. Although the Spaniards admired their “graceful shape” and “almost white” complexion, the relationship with the natives later deteriorated. When the expedition left two weeks later, Queirós estimated 200 Marquesans had been killed.  Despite Mendaña's confidence that the Solomon Islands were nearby, it was not until 8 September that they sighted land again, this time the island of Nendo, which they named "Santa Cruz". The "Santa Ysabel" had disappeared, however, and despite searches by the two smaller vessels, it could not be found. Arriving at what is now Graciosa Bay, a settlement was commenced. Relations with local islanders and their chief Malope started well, with food provided and assistance in constructing buildings. However, morale amongst the Spanish was low and sickness (almost certainly malaria) was rife. Manrique was murdered at the orders of, and in front of Mendaña, and shortly afterwards, Malope was killed by soldiers. Relations with the Islanders soon worsened.  Wracked by internal divisions and an increasing death toll, the settlement began to fall apart. Mendaña himself died on 18 October 1595, leaving his wife as heir and governor, her brother Lorenzo as captain-general. On 30 October, the decision was made to abandon the settlement. When the three ships departed on 18 November 1595, forty-seven people had died in the space of one month.  Pedro Fernandes de Queirós is credited with bringing the "San Gerónimo" safely into the Philippines without the aid of charts, arriving in Manila Bay on 11 February 1596. Over fifty people died on the twelve-week voyage from Santa Cruz, in part due to the lack of food supplies and allegedly Doña Isabel’s refusal to share out her private store of food and water. The frigate (carrying Mendaña's body) disappeared during the voyage, while the galiot "San Felipe" arrived in the southern end of Mindanao several days later.

Aftermath.

Of the 378 who sailed from Peru, about 100 survived, but ten more died shortly after arriving in Manila. Doña Isabel Barreto was honoured in Manila and Queirós was commended for his service and absolved of any responsibility for the killings on Santa Cruz. Three months later Doña Isabel married the governor's cousin. She continued to agitate for a return to the Solomon Islands. She died in 1612.  Back in Peru in June 1597, Queirós began his campaign to return to the Solomon Islands, leading the next Spanish venture in 1605. This expedition was also unsuccessful, but it led to the discovery of the Pitcairn Islands and Vanuatu which were explored, and briefly settled in the case of Espiritu Santo. Queirós visited the Solomons in 1606, but was unable to establish a settlement. The Solomons were not again visited by outsiders until 1767, when Philip Carteret sighted Santa Cruz and Malaita islands.  The story of the voyage is told in "The Islands of Unwisdom", a historical novel by Robert Graves.

Álvaro de Mendaña y Neira (or Neyra) (October 1, 1542 – October 18, 1595) was a Spanish navigator. Born in Congosto, in El Bierzo Region (León), he was the nephew of Lope García de Castro, viceroy of Peru. He is best known for the two voyages of discovery he led into the Pacific in 1567 and 1595 in search of Terra Australis.

Álvaro de Mendaña y Neira (né le à Congosto dans la province de León - mort le dans les îles Santa Cruz) est un navigateur et explorateur espagnol. Il est le premier explorateur européen à avoir rencontré, puis établi des contacts avec des populations polynésiennes. Il était marié à Isabel Barreto, elle-même navigatrice et exploratrice.


Name.

According to Monier Monier-Williams, the word "Patañjali" is a compound name from "patta" (Sanskrit: पत, "falling, flying") and "añj" (अञ्ज्, "honor, celebrate, beautiful") or "añjali" (अञ्जलि, "reverence, joining palms of the hand").

Life.

Louis Renou was among the many scholars who have suggested that the Patañjali who wrote on Yoga was a different person than the Patanjali who wrote a commentary on Panini's grammar. In 1914, James Wood proposed that they were the same person. In 1922, Surendranath Dasgupta presented a series of arguments to tentatively propose that the famed Grammar text and the Yoga text author may be identical.  The view that these were likely two different authors is generally accepted, but some Western scholars consider them as a single entity.  Some in the Indian tradition have held that one Patañjali wrote treatises on grammar, medicine and yoga. This has been memorialised in a verse by Bhoja at the start of his commentary on the Yogasutras called "Rājamārttanda" (11th century), and the following verse found in Shivarama's 18th-century text:  This tradition is discussed by Meulenbeld who traces this "relatively late" idea back to Bhoja (11th century), who was perhaps influenced by a verse by Bhartṛhari (ca. 5th century) that speaks of an expert in yoga, medicine and grammar who, however, is not named. No known Sanskrit text prior to the 10th century states that the one and the same Patanjali was behind all the three treatises.  The sage Patañjali is said to have attained Samadhi through yogic meditation at the Brahmapureeswarar Temple located at Tirupattur, Tamil Nadu, India. Jeeva Samadhi of sage Patanjali, which is now an enclosed meditation hall, can be seen near the Brahma's shrine within Brahmapureeswarar Temple complex.

Grammar tradition.

In the grammatical tradition, Patañjali is believed to have lived in the second century BCE. He wrote a "Mahabhasya" on Panini's sutras, in a form that quoted the commentary of Kātyāyana's "vārttikas". This is a major influential work on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics. The dating of Patanjali and his "Mahabhasya" is established by a combination of evidence, those from the Maurya Empire period, the historical events mentioned in the examples he used to explain his ideas, the chronology of ancient classical Sanskrit texts that respect his teachings, and the mention of his text or his name in ancient Indian literature. Of the three ancient grammarians, the chronological dating of Patanjali to mid 2nd century BCE is considered as "reasonably accurate" by mainstream scholarship.  The text influenced Buddhist grammatical literature, as well as memoirs of travellers to India. For example, the Chinese pilgrim I-tsing mentions that the "Mahabhasya" is studied in India and advanced scholars learn it in three years.

Yoga tradition.

In the Yoga tradition, Patañjali is a revered name. This Patañjali's oeuvre comprises the sutras about Yoga ("Yogasūtra") and the commentary integral to the sutras, called the "Bhāṣya". Some consider the sutras and the Bhaṣya to have had different authors, the commentary being ascribed to "an editor" (Skt. "vyāsa"). According to Phillipp Maas, the same person named Patanjali composed the sutras and the "Bhāṣya" commentary.  Radhakrishnan and Moore attribute the text to the grammarian Patañjali, dating it as 2nd century BCE, during the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE). Maas estimates Patañjali's Yogasutra's date to be about 400 CE, based on tracing the commentaries on it published in the first millennium CE. Edwin Bryant, on the other hand, surveys the major commentators in his translation of the "Yoga Sūtras". He states that "most scholars date the text shortly after the turn of the Common Era (circa first to second century), but that it has been placed as early as several centuries before that." Bryant concludes that "A number of scholars have dated the "Yoga Sūtras" as late as the fourth or fifth century C.E., but these arguments have all been challenged", and late chronology for this Patanjali and his text are problematic.

Tamil Saivite legend.

Regarding his early years, a Tamil Saiva Siddhanta tradition from around 10th century AD holds that Patañjali learned Yoga along with seven other disciples from the great Yogic Guru Nandhi Deva, as stated in Tirumular's "Tirumandiram" (Tantra 1).  "Nandhi arulPetra Nadharai Naadinom" "Nandhigal Nalvar Siva Yoga MaaMuni" "Mandru thozhuda Patañjali Vyakramar" "Endrivar Ennodu (Thirumoolar) Enmarumaame"  Translation  We sought the feet of the God who graced Nandikesvara The Four Nandhis, Sivayoga Muni, Patañjali, Vyaghrapada and I (Thirumoolar) We were these eight.

Works.

Whether the two works, the Yoga Sutras and the Mahābhāṣya, are by the same author has been the subject of considerable debate. The authorship of the two is first attributed to the same person in Bhojadeva's "Rajamartanda", a relatively late (10th century) commentary on the Yoga Sutras, as well as several subsequent texts. As for the texts themselves, the Yoga Sutra iii.44 cites a sutra as that from Patanjali by name, but this line itself is not from the Mahābhāṣya. This 10th-century legend of single-authorship is doubtful. The literary styles and contents of the Yogasūtras and the Mahābhāṣya are entirely different, and the only work on medicine attributed to Patañjali is lost. Sources of doubt include the lack of cross-references between the texts, and no mutual awareness of each other, unlike other cases of multiple works by (later) Sanskrit authors. Also, some elements in the Yoga Sutras may date from as late as the 4th century AD, but such changes may be due to divergent authorship, or due to later additions which are not atypical in the oral tradition. Most scholars refer to both works as "by Patanjali", without meaning that they are by the same author.  In addition to the Mahābhāṣya and Yoga Sūtras, the 11th-century commentary on Charaka by the Bengali scholar Chakrapani Datta, and the 16th-century text "Patanjalicarita" ascribes to Patañjali a medical text called the "Carakapratisaṃskṛtaḥ" (now lost) which is apparently a revision ("pratisaṃskṛtaḥ") of the medical treatise by Caraka. While there is a short treatise on yoga in the medical work called the Carakasaṃhitā (by Caraka), towards the end of the chapter called śārīrasthāna, it is notable for not bearing much resemblance to the Yoga Sūtras, and in fact presents a form of eightfold yoga that is completely different from that laid out by Patañjali in the Yoga Sūtras and the commentary Yogasūtrabhāṣya.

Yoga Sūtra.

The "Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali" are 196 Indian sutras (aphorisms) on Yoga. It was the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages and two non-Indian languages: Old Javanese and Arabic. The text fell into obscurity for nearly 700 years from the 12th to 19th century, and made a comeback in late 19th century due to the efforts of Swami Vivekananda and others. It gained prominence again as a comeback classic in the 20th century.  Before the 20th century, history indicates the Indian yoga scene was dominated by other Yoga texts such as the "Bhagavad Gita", "Yoga Vasistha" and "Yoga Yajnavalkya". Scholars consider the "Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali" formulations as one of the foundations of classical Yoga philosophy of Hinduism.  The ("great commentary") of Patañjali on the of is a major early exposition on Pāṇini, along with the somewhat earlier "Varttika" by Katyayana. Patanjali relates to how words and meanings are associated – Patanjali claims "shabdapramâNaH" – that the evidentiary value of words is inherent in them, and not derived externally – the word-meaning association is natural. These issues in the word-meaning relation (symbol) would be elaborated in the Sanskrit linguistic tradition, in debates between the Mimamsa, Nyaya and Buddhist schools over the next fifteen centuries.

Sphota.

Patanjali also defines an early notion of sphota, which would be elaborated considerably by later Sanskrit linguists like Bhartrihari. In Patanjali, a "sphoTa" (from "sphuT", spurt/burst) is the invariant quality of speech. The noisy element ("dhvani", audible part) can be long or short, but the sphoTa remains unaffected by individual speaker differences. Thus, a single letter or'sound' ("varNa") such as "k", "p" or "a" is an abstraction, distinct from variants produced in actual enunciation. This concept has been linked to the modern notion of phoneme, the minimum distinction that defines semantically distinct sounds. Thus a phoneme is an abstraction for a range of sounds. However, in later writings, especially in Bhartrihari (6th century CE), the notion of "sphoTa" changes to become more of a mental state, preceding the actual utterance, akin to the lemma.  Patañjali's writings also elaborate some principles of morphology ("prakriyā"). In the context of elaborating on Pāṇini's aphorisms, he also discusses Kātyāyana's commentary, which are also aphoristic and "sūtra"-like; in the later tradition, these were transmitted as embedded in Patañjali's discussion. In general, he defends many positions of Pāṇini which were interpreted somewhat differently in Katyayana.

Metaphysics as grammatical motivation.

Unlike Pāṇini's objectives in the Ashtyadhyayi, which is to distinguish correct forms and meanings from incorrect ones ("shabdaunushasana"), Patanjali's objectives are more metaphysical. These include the correct recitations of the scriptures ("Agama"), maintaining the purity of texts ("raksha"), clarifying ambiguity ("asamdeha"), and also the pedagogic goal of providing an easier learning mechanism ("laghu"). This stronger metaphysical bent has also been indicated by some as one of the unifying themes between the Yoga Sutras and the Mahābhāṣya, although a close examination of actual Sanskrit usage by Woods showed no similarities in language or terminology.  The text of the "" was first critically edited by the 19th-century orientalist Franz Kielhorn, who also developed philological criteria for distinguishing Kātyāyana's "voice" from Patañjali's. Subsequently, a number of other editions have come out, the 1968 text and translation by S.D. Joshi and J.H.F. Roodbergen often being considered definitive. Regrettably, the latter work is incomplete.  Patanjali also writes with a light touch. For example, his comment on the conflicts between the orthodox Brahminic ("Astika") groups, versus the heterodox, "nAstika" groups (Buddhism, Jainism, and atheists) seems relevant for religious conflict even today: the hostility between these groups was like that between a mongoose and a snake. He also sheds light on contemporary events, commenting on the recent Greek incursion, and also on several tribes that lived in the Northwest regions of the subcontinent.

Patanjalatantra.

Patanjali is also the reputed author of a medical text called "Patanjalah", also called "Patanjala" or "Patanjalatantra". This text is quoted in many yoga and health-related Indian texts. Patanjali is called a medical authority in a number of Sanskrit texts such as "Yogaratnakara", "Yogaratnasamuccaya", "Padarthavijnana", "Cakradatta bhasya". Some of these quotes are unique to "Patanjala", but others are also found in major Hindu medical treatises such as "Charaka Samhita" and "Sushruta Samhita".  There is a fourth scholar also named Patanjali, who likely lived in 8th-century CE and wrote a commentary on "Charaka Samhita" and this text is called "Carakavarttika". The two medical scholars named Patanjali may be the same person, but generally accepted to be completely different person than the Patanjali who wrote the Sanskrit grammar classic "Mahabhasya".

Legacy.

Patanjali is honoured with invocations and shrines in some modern schools of yoga, including Iyengar Yoga and Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. The yoga scholar David Gordon White writes that yoga teacher training often includes "mandatory instruction" in the "Yoga Sutra". White calls this "curious to say the least", since the text is in his view essentially irrelevant to "yoga as it is taught and practiced today", commenting that the "Yoga Sutra" is "nearly devoid of discussion of postures, stretching, and breathing".

Amongst the more important authors called Patañjali are: Patanjali continues to be honoured with invocations and shrines in some forms of modern postural yoga, such as Iyengar Yoga and Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga.

Patañjali (devanāgarī : पतञ्जलि) est un nom célèbre dans l'histoire intellectuelle du monde indien. Ce nom est porté, semble-t-il, par deux érudits distincts. Le premier Patañjali serait le grammairien qui écrit en 200 environ le Mahābhāṣya, « Grand Commentaire » de la « Grammaire en huit parties », la Aṣṭādhyāyī, composée en 400 av. J.-C. environ par le grammairien Pāṇini. Le deuxième Patañjali serait le compilateur réel ou mythique du recueil classique des "Yoga Sūtra" de date beaucoup plus récente, quelque part entre l'an 300 et l'an 500. Il aurait aussi écrit le "Nataraja stotram", « hymne à Natarâja », Shiva roi de la danse.


January 2005 budget protests.

Civil unrest broke out in the capital city of Belmopan in Belize during mid-January 2005. The unrest was provoked by the release of a new national budget with significant tax increases. It was also guided by anger at the ruling People's United Party for the worsening fiscal condition of the Belizean government.

Runup.

On January 14, 2005 Said Musa's administration announced its budget for 2005-2006. The budget included major tax increases on a variety of businesses and commodities. It included an 11% increase in the real estate sales tax, a five percent tax increase for financial institutions, an eight percent tax increase on tobacco, and a 100% tax increase on rum. The government claims that these tax increases were comparable to increases instituted in 1998 under the United Democratic Party (UDP). However, after years of popular frustration at alleged financial mismanagement and corruption by the People's United Party (PUP), the new budget sparked condemnation from local interest groups and protests at the National Assembly building on January 14, with demonstrations continued throughout the following week. The main protesters were the National Trade Union Congress of Belize and the Belize Chamber of Commerce.

January 20 and 21.

On January 20, the business community and labor unions called for a two-day nationwide strike. Employees did not report to work, and water service for much of Belize was turned off. A major public demonstration planned by the opposition took place on January 21 in Belmopan.  Several protesters were arrested, including 'Yellowman', a UDP stalwart. The permission for the demonstration ended at 3pm, but the protesters were given a one-hour extension. At the end of the extension, repeated demands for dispersal were largely ignored. Former Superintendent (now Assistant Commissioner) of Police Crispin Jeffries read the riot act to the crowd, and after waiting an additional 40 minutes he ordered riot police to disperse the crowd, which they did using teargas and rubber bullets. Some union workers laid down and refused to disperse; they were physically dragged from the area.  This is only the third time that this kind of unrest has hit Belize. The most recent occasion was in the 1980s, when a proposal was drafted to cede part of the country to Guatemala occasioned the Heads of Agreement Crisis.  Reports indicate that the police were very calm throughout the day, although some police cadets were said to have employed unnecessary force against orders. There were reports of fully trained officers restraining cadets and removing them from the police lines, and some people assert that no rocks were thrown until after a protester was hit in the head by a club wielded by a cadet.

Between the protests.

After the conclusion of the Friday protest, the Belize National Teachers' Union, led by President Anthony Fuentes, began a prolonged strike action that left the majority of schools closed going into February. Shortages of water and electricity were also common.  Initial agreements were made as of January 26 between the government and the Congress; in support of these deals university and college students took to the streets that day, representing the University of Belize and ATLIB affiliated institutions. But by Friday January 28, talks had broken down again as the Public Service Union of government workers left their jobs and forced a new round of negotiations that dragged on in the early days of February even as teachers began to return to school. Taking advantage of numerous faults in communication between the union representatives, Government negotiators Carla Barnett and Assad Shoman came up with an agreement on February 11. The NTUCB received a review of the budget, salary increases for its members, various reform measures tied to national development corporations and a promise of cooperation. The budget's tax increases were suspended to March 1, pending their review. A planned national shutdown and strike was averted.  Almost an aberration in the midst of the storm and fury was the takeover of Belize Telecommunications Limited by the Government following investor Jeffrey Prosser's failure to pay for his batch of shares bought the previous year. That deal would be more closely examined in the months to come.

Conditions leading to March and April unrest.

The Union Congress and GOB met in talks throughout late February, but as of February 28, there was little progress.  On March 1, the agreed-upon tax increases were implemented with little comment other than a threat of strike action from the NTUCB. Other proposals, such as committees to investigate alleged wrongdoing at the Social Security Board and Development Finance Corporation were implemented.  The main news in early March centered on the utility companies, BTL, BEL and BWS. BTL was locked in an investor war between Michael Ashcroft of England and Jeffrey Prosser, majority holder at the time, of the United States. Ashcroft's reps claimed Prosser was not fulfilling his duties to the board of BTL and challenged his authority in a court order after he was found unable to pay for his stake in the company, which was taken over by GOB. Meanwhile, BEL had applied for a rate hike of 14% over five years, and BWS were granted a small increase.  On March 11, the trend was set for confrontation. In Miami, Florida, judge Ursula Ungaro Benages restored Prosser to his position on the board with six directors to Ashcroft's two, throwing out the deal Government had made to offer shares to Belizeans. March 14 marked the first appearance of the Belize Communication Workers Union, led by Paul Perriott, who insisted that foreign ownership was not desirable for the workers of BTL and called for funding to put the company in Belizean hands. The NTUCB planned a demonstration for later that week in Belmopan.  On March 15, phones across the nation were cut off, purportedly by BTL workers as part of their disgust with the Government and foreigners. The Supreme Court issued a ruling against the Miami injunction, declaring it non-enforceable in Belize.  Friday, March 18, saw the planned demonstration by the trade unions, precipitated by a nationwide blackout beginning the previous night. The unions were much more peaceful than in their previous protest in January. Inside the House, the government passed the reform measures agreed to by the Unions.  Going into the long Easter weekend, the big story was government's deal with Michael Ashcroft's Ecom Ltd. to buy the shares not paid for by Prosser; upon appeal to the Miami Court Benages reversed her decision and agreed with the GOB position-or so it was thought.

April unrest and aftermath.

Going into April, the back and forth between Michael Ashcroft and Jeffrey Prosser in both Miami and Belize reached new lows. On March 31, Benages found GOB in contempt; the ruling was challenged days later by Belize Supreme Court Justice Abdulai Conteh, but Prosser appealed.  Benages, on April 13, agreed with Prosser and fined GOB $50,000 US dollars per day for every day in contravention of her order since March 29. Government planned to comply, but not before appealing the decision. On April 14, disgruntled BTL workers left the compound (or were forced out by a bomb threat), which was seized on by the Communication Workers' Union to express its dissatisfaction at the legal wrangling.  The week of April 18 brought to a head the majority of the troubles facing Belize in this period. Over the weekend telephone service was brought down and the BTL compound on Saint Thomas Street barricaded by workers and supporters, who gave in only as Police stormed the compound. BTL manager Dale Trujeque was arrested for illegal strike action. The unions called on April 18 for Prime Minister Musa to resign; his response was that the BTL situation was not properly handled but that he would not resign based on "politics." On April 19, the Opposition United Democratic Party unveiled a plan of "civil disobedience" to force early elections, and the country's tertiary level students came out in support of the unions and BTL workers. Late on April 19 another crippling electricity blackout was reported.

April 20.

At about 1:00 pm that Wednesday afternoon, students of the University of Belize, Faculty of Management and Social Sciences, walked out of their campus on College Street in West Landivar and went to rouse students from schools in the area, including St. John's College High School and Junior College, Edward P. Yorke, Nazarene and Pallotti High Schools. Having achieved a sizable number of participants, the march traveled to Said Musa's home in the City for an hour (ignoring Police attempts to disperse them) and then marching to and blocking the Belcan Bridge, one of the City's main arteries. Union leaders and Opposition politicians joined them thereafter and Police and crowd engaged in a standoff with occasional outbursts and usual elements of protesting until nightfall, when a few city residents came out and began burning tires on the bridge. The crowd then began to disperse, some chanting "Albert Street", the main commercial center of Belize City.  What happened next was an hour to 90 minutes of indiscriminate looting in the downtown area, particularly on King, Bishop, Church, Albert and Regent Streets, but extending as well to the Pound Yard Bridge and Vernon Street. Police failed to restore calm before damage amounting to more than a million dollars occurred.  Fingers flew all next day, April 21, as the Government, Opposition and unions made claims, counterclaims and threats. Meanwhile, accused looters were being brought to court and UB student body president Moses Sulph charged for leading the previous day's strike. Another tense moment came on the afternoon of April 21 as reports of Sulph's arraignment (he was actually arraigned April 22) brought out hundreds to the Queen and North Front Street areas for a few hours.  On Monday, April 25, plans were announced by public servants and teachers to strike, but these were called off by the end of the week after limited participation. One last tense moment came in Belmopan near the end of April when Opposition rep Patrick Faber was roughed up while attending a meeting of the Prime Minister and UB students there.

In popular culture.

Artist Dan Man released a song called "Albert Street" mocking the looting on that City street on April 20. Poet Erwin X (Jones)' "Life Haad Out Ya" was another favorite of protesters, and the phrase became a catchphrase for much of 2005 and 2006.

The 2005 protests in Belize are two separate but related incidents of civil unrest in the Central American nation, occurring in January and April.

Le, des mouvements populaires se produisent à Belize, lors de la mise en place de nouvelles taxes. Des grèves se déclenchent, des bureaux gouvernementaux sont incendiés, les ports fermés et la distribution d'eau courante interrompue. Alors que les ministres se rendaient à pied vers l'immeuble du gouvernement, des manifestants leur ont jeté des pierres et des bouteilles, ce qui a provoqué l'intervention de la police et des forces militaires pour endiguer la foule.


Advertising campaigns.

One of the advertising campaigns for Caramilk bars revolved around the question of how the centre of the confection was put into the chocolate flavoured exterior. This theme led to the production of over fifteen separate television advertisements since the candy was introduced, making the series one of the most productive advertising efforts in Canadian history. The "Caramilk Secret" ad campaign was conceived by Gary Prouk when he was at Doyle Dane Bernbach. When Prouk left DDB to join Scali McCabe Sloves, the Cadbury account went with him. One notable advertisement involved two cone head aliens who were complimenting each other on successfully concealing the secret from humans, and also creating some of earth's other long standing works of wonder (e.g. the pyramids).  Another ad, featuring Leonardo da Vinci drawing the Mona Lisa as she eats a Caramilk, has won a Clio award.

Production.

Caramilk bars are produced at one location, the company's Gladstone Chocolate Factory in Toronto.

Ingredients.

Caramilk bars contain unsweetened chocolate and cocoa butter but are labelled as candy bars since only solid chocolate bars may be labelled as chocolate bars in Canada.

Similar products.

Cadbury Dairy Milk Caramel.

In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a bar similar in premise (caramel-filled chocolate) but differing considerably in taste, shape, ingredients and packaging is sold as Cadbury Dairy Milk Caramel.

Cadbury Caramello (Australia and New Zealand).

In New Zealand, a bar similar to the United Kingdom product is sold as the Caramello variant of the Cadbury Dairy Milk line of blocks.

Cadbury Caramello (United States).

In the United States, a similar bar is produced under license by The Hershey Company and sold under the brand Cadbury's Caramello. It uses caramel filling, the chocolate has a sweet taste, and is chewy. The flavor of Cadburys Caramello is often used in ice creams in the United States. It gained popularity in the 1980s when advertising to children with the slogan, "I was right in the middle of a Caramello when I found gold."

Caramilk (Australia and New Zealand).

In the early-mid-1990s, a bar was sold in Australia by Cadbury Nestle under the name Caramilk which was solid caramel-flavoured chocolate. The wrapping Caramilk written on an angle displayed the look of the chocolate, brown and caramel colours on packaging. It was only available for a short time. It was re-released in 2017 as a limited edition run in New Zealand.

Caramilk is a chocolate bar made by Cadbury in Canada. It was first sold in 1968 in the United States, Australia and New Zealand.

La Caramilk est une tablette de chocolat créée par Cadbury. Elle consiste en un caramel liquide qui est contenu dans une pochette de chocolat.


Physical geography.

The physical geography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterised by two distinctive features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, and a small hilly region crossed by swiftly flowing rivers. The country has an area of and extends north to south and east to west. Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier () with Burma (Myanmar). On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about, fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend, and the exclusive economic zone of the country is.  Roughly 80% of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain. The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. Although altitudes up to above sea level occur in the northern part of the plain, most elevations are less than above sea level; elevations decrease in the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. With such low elevations and numerous rivers, water—and concomitant flooding—is a predominant physical feature. About of the total area of Bangladesh is covered with water, and larger areas are routinely flooded during the monsoon season.  The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast, the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The Chittagong Hills constitute the only significant hill system in the country and, in effect, are the western fringe of the north–south mountain ranges of Burma and eastern India. The Chittagong Hills rise steeply to narrow ridge lines, generally no wider than, with altitudes from above sea level. At altitude, the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at Saka Haphong, in the southeastern part of the hills. Fertile valleys lie between the hill lines, which generally run north–south. West of the Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, that rises to a final chain of low coastal hills, mostly below, that attain a maximum elevation of. West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in the south.  About 67% of Bangladesh's nonurban land is arable. Permanent crops cover only 2%, meadows and pastures cover 4%, and forests and woodland cover about 16%. The country produces large quantities of quality timber, bamboo, and sugarcane. Bamboo grows in almost all areas, but high-quality timber grows mostly in the highland valleys. Rubber planting in the hilly regions of the country was undertaken in the 1980s, and rubber extraction had started by the end of the decade. A variety of wild animals are found in the forest areas, such as in the Sundarbans on the southwest coast, which is the home of the royal Bengal tiger. The alluvial soils in the Bangladesh Plain are generally fertile and are enriched with heavy silt deposits carried downstream during the rainy season.

Human geography.

Urbanisation is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labour force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

Climate.

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterised by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognised: a hot, muggy summer from March to June; a hot, humid and rainy monsoon season from June to November; and a warm-hot, dry winter from December to February. In general, maximum summer temperatures range between. April is the hottest month in most parts of the country. January is the coolest month, when the average temperature for most of the country is during the day and around at night.  Winds are mostly from the north and northwest in the winter, blowing gently at in northern and central areas and near the coast. From March to May, violent thunderstorms, called northwesters by local English speakers, produce winds of up to. During the intense storms of the early summer and late monsoon season, southerly winds of more than cause waves to crest as high as in the Bay of Bengal, which brings disastrous flooding to coastal areas. Heavy rainfall is characteristic of Bangladesh causing it to flood every year. Except for the relatively dry western region of Rajshahi, where the annual rainfall is about, most parts of the country receive at least of rainfall per year. Because of its location just south of the foothills of the Himalayas, where monsoon winds turn west and northwest, the region of Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh receives the greatest average precipitation. From 1977 to 1986, annual rainfall in that region ranged between per year. Average daily humidity ranged from March lows of between 55 and 81% to July highs of between 94 and 100%, based on readings taken at selected stations nationwide in 1986.  About 80% of Bangladesh's rain falls during the monsoon season. The monsoons result from the contrasts between low and high air pressure areas that result from differential heating of land and water. During the hot months of April and May hot air rises over the Indian subcontinent, creating low-pressure areas into which rush cooler, moisture-bearing winds from the Indian Ocean. This is the southwest monsoon, commencing in June and usually lasting through September. Dividing against the Indian landmass, the monsoon flows in two branches, one of which strikes western India. The other travels up the Bay of Bengal and over eastern India and Bangladesh, crossing the plain to the north and northeast before being turned to the west and northwest by the foothills of the Himalayas.  Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores—destructive waves or floods caused by flood tides rushing up estuaries—ravage the country, particularly the coastal belt, almost every year. Between 1947 and 1988, 13 severe cyclones hit Bangladesh, causing enormous loss of life and property. In May 1985, for example, a severe cyclonic storm packing winds and waves high swept into southeastern and southern Bangladesh, killing more than 11,000 persons, damaging more than 94,000 houses, killing some 135,000 head of livestock, and damaging nearly of critically needed embankments. Annual monsoon flooding results in the loss of human life, damage to property and communication systems, and a shortage of drinking water, which leads to the spread of disease. For example, in 1988 two-thirds of Bangladesh's 64 districts experienced extensive flood damage in the wake of unusually heavy rains that flooded the river systems. Millions were left homeless and without potable water. Half of Dhaka, including the runway at the Shahjalal International Airport—an important transit point for disaster relief supplies—was flooded. About of crops were reported destroyed, and relief work was rendered even more challenging than usual because the flood made transportation exceedingly difficult. A tornado in April 1989 killed more than 600 people, possibly many more.  There are no precautions against cyclones and tidal bores except giving advance warning and providing safe public buildings where people may take shelter. Adequate infrastructure and air transport facilities that would ease the sufferings of the affected people had not been established by the late 1980s. Efforts by the government under the Third Five-Year Plan (1985–90) were directed toward accurate and timely forecast capability through agrometeorology, marine meteorology, oceanography, hydrometeorology, and seismology. Necessary expert services, equipment, and training facilities were expected to be developed under the United Nations Development Programme.  Cold weather is unusual in Bangladesh. When temperatures decrease to or less, people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold.

River systems.

The rivers of Bangladesh mark both the physiography of the nation and the life of the people. About 700 in number, these rivers generally flow south. The larger rivers serve as the main source of water for cultivation and as the principal arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also provide fish, an important source of protein. Flooding of the rivers during the monsoon season causes enormous hardship and hinders development, but fresh deposits of rich silt replenish the fertile but overworked soil. The rivers also drain excess monsoon rainfall into the Bay of Bengal. Thus, the great river system is at the same time the country's principal resource and its greatest hazard.  The profusion of rivers can be divided into five major networks. The Jamuna-Brahmaputra is long and extends from northern Bangladesh to its confluence with the Padma. Originating as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) and flowing through India's state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it becomes known as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"), it receives waters from five major tributaries that total some in length. At the point where the Brahmaputra meets the Tista River in Bangladesh, it becomes known as the Jamuna. The Jamuna is notorious for its shifting subchannels and for the formation of fertile silt islands (chars). No permanent settlements can exist along its banks.  The second system is the Padma-Ganges, which is divided into two sections: a segment, the Ganges, which extends from the western border with India to its confluence with the Jamuna some west of Dhaka, and a segment, the Padma, which runs from the Ganges-Jamuna confluence to where it joins the Meghna River at Chandpur. The Padma-Ganges is the central part of a deltaic river system with hundreds of rivers and streams—some in length—flowing generally east or west into the Padma.  The third network is the Surma-Meghna River System, which courses from the northeastern border with India to Chandpur, where it joins the Padma. The Surma-Meghna, at by itself the longest river in Bangladesh, is formed by the union of six lesser rivers. Below the city of Kalipur it is known as the Meghna. When the Padma and Meghna join together, they form the fourth river system—the Padma-Meghna—which flows to the Bay of Bengal.  This mighty network of four river systems flowing through the Bangladesh Plain drains an area of some. The numerous channels of the Padma-Meghna, its distributaries, and smaller parallel rivers that flow into the Bay of Bengal are referred to as the Mouths of the Ganges. Like the Jamuna, the Padma-Meghna and other estuaries on the Bay of Bengal are also known for their many chars. A fifth river system, unconnected to the other four, is the Karnaphuli. Flowing through the region of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hills, it cuts across the hills and runs rapidly downhill to the west and southwest and then to the sea. The Feni, Karnaphuli, Sangu, and Matamuhari—an aggregate of some —are the main rivers in the region. The port of Chittagong is situated on the banks of the Karnaphuli. The Karnaphuli Reservoir and Karnaphuli Dam are located in this area. The dam impounds the Karnaphuli River's waters in the reservoir for the generation of hydroelectric power.  The Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers contribute nearly 1000 million tons/yr of sediment. The sediment contributed from these two rivers forms the Bengal Delta and Submarine fan, a vast structure that extends from Bangladesh to south of the Equator which is up to 16.5 km thick, and contains at least 1130 trillion tonnes of sediment accumulating over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons/yr. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the present deepest ocean point.  During the annual monsoon period, the rivers of Bangladesh flow at about, but during the dry period they diminish to. Because water is so vital to agriculture, more than 60% of the net arable land, some, is cultivated in the rainy season despite the possibility of severe flooding, and nearly 40% of the land is cultivated during the dry winter months. Water resources development has responded to this "dual water regime" by providing flood protection, drainage to prevent over flooding and water logging, and irrigation facilities for the expansion of winter cultivation. Major water control projects have been developed by the national government to provide irrigation, flood control, drainage facilities, aids to river navigation and road construction, and hydroelectric power. In addition, thousands of tube wells and electric pumps are used for local irrigation. Despite severe resource constraints, the government of Bangladesh has made it a policy to try to bring additional areas under irrigation without salinity intrusion.  Water resources management, including gravity flow irrigation, flood control, and drainage, were largely the responsibility of the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Other public sector institutions, such as the Bangladesh Krishi Bank, the Bangladesh Rural Development Board, the Bangladesh Bank, and the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation were also responsible for promotion and development of minor irrigation works in the private sector through government credit mechanisms.

Area and boundaries.

Area: "total:" 143,998 km "country comparison to the world:" 95 "land:" 130,168 km "water:" 13,830 km  Land boundaries: "total:" 4,413 km "border countries:" Myanmar 271 km, India 4,142 km  Coastline: 580 km  Maritime claims: "territorial sea:" "contiguous zone:" "exclusive economic zone:" "continental shelf:" up to the outer limits of the continental margin  Elevation extremes: "lowest point:" Indian Ocean 0 m "highest point:" In the Mowdok range at 1052 m (at N 21°47'12" E 92°36'36"), "NOT" Keokradong (883 m not 1,230 m) or Tajingdong (985 m not 1,280 m as sometimes reported)

Resources and land use.

Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber, coal  Land use: "Arable land:" 58.96% "Permanent crops:" 6.53% "other:" 34.51% (2012)  Irrigated land: 50,000 km (2008)  Total renewable water resources: 1,227 km (2011)  Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): "total:" 35.87 km/yr (10%/2%/88%) "per capita:" 238.3 m/yr (2008)

Environmental concerns.

Natural hazards: Much of the country is submerged by floodwater in the monsoon season (and traditional settlements and agriculture are adapted to this); damaging floods occur when rivers rise higher than normal; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) and storm surges; droughts; riverbank erosion along the country's major rivers and in the Meghna estuary; earthquakes; possibly tsunamis.  Environment – current issues: Country very densely populated (1,125 per km); rapid urbanisation taking place; many people landless, and many live on and cultivate land exposed to floods, riverbank erosion or cyclones; groundwater used for drinking water and irrigation is widely contaminated with naturally-occurring arsenic in some floodplain areas; water-borne diseases prevalent; surface water widely polluted by industrial, agricultural and urban effluents, affecting domestic supplies and inland fisheries; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in some northern and central parts of the country; increasing water and soil salinity in some coastal areas, especially in the south-west, due to abstraction of river and groundwater upstream; soil degradation due to intensive cropping, depletion of organic matter and unbalanced use of fertilisers; deforestation and soil erosion in hill areas.  Environment – international agreements: "party to:" Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

Bangladesh is a densely-populated, low-lying, mainly riverine country located in South Asia with a coastline of on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. The delta plain of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries occupy 79 percent of the country. Four uplifted blocks (including the Madhupur and Barind Tracts in the centre and northwest) occupy 9 percent, and steep hill ranges up to approximately high occupy 12 percent in the southeast (the Chittagong Hill Tracts) and in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterised by heavy seasonal rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Natural disasters such as floods and cyclones accompanied by storm surges periodically affect the country. Most of the country is intensively farmed, with rice the main crop, grown in three seasons. Rapid urbanisation is taking place with associated industrial and commercial development. Exports of garments and shrimp plus remittances from Bangladeshis working abroad provide the country's three main sources of foreign exchange income.

Le Bangladesh, situé au nord du golfe du Bengale, presque enclavé dans l'Inde avec une petite frontière commune avec la Birmanie, s'étend sur d'est en ouest et de du nord-ouest au sud-est. Sa superficie de est semblable à celle de la Grèce.


Early life.

George Raymond Martin (he adopted the confirmation name Richard at 13 years old) was born on September 20, 1948, in Bayonne, New Jersey, the son of longshoreman Raymond Collins Martin and Margaret Brady Martin. On his mother's side his family used to be wealthy, and owned a successful construction business, but they lost it all in the Great Depression, something Martin was reminded about every day when he passed what used to be his family's dock and house. It made him feel that even if they were poor, they came from greatness that had been taken away from them. He has two younger sisters, Darleen and Janet. His mother was of half Irish ancestry. He also acknowledges French, English, Welsh and German roots, which were confirmed on the television series "Finding Your Roots". However, while he also believed he was a quarter Italian because of who he was told was his paternal grandfather, a DNA test on the show confirmed his Irish and other ancestries but excluded any Italian ancestry, showing instead he is approximately a quarter Ashkenazi Jewish.  The family first lived in a house on Broadway, belonging to Martin's great-grandmother. In 1953, they moved to a federal housing project near the Bayonne docks. During Martin's childhood, his world consisted predominantly of "First Street to Fifth Street", between his grade school and his home; this limited world made

Teaching.

In the mid-1970s, Martin met English professor George Guthridge from Dubuque, Iowa, at a science fiction convention in Milwaukee. Martin persuaded Guthridge (who later said that at that time he despised science fiction and fantasy) not only to give speculative fiction a second look, but to write in the field himself. Guthridge has since been a finalist for the Hugo Award and twice for the Nebula Award for science fiction and fantasy. In 1998, Guthridge and Janet Berliner won the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in the Novel for their "Children of the Dusk".

Writing career.

Martin began selling science fiction short stories professionally in 1970, at age 21. His first sale was "The Hero", sold to "Galaxy" magazine and published in its February 1971 issue; other sales soon followed. His first story to be nominated for the Hugo Award and Nebula Awards was "With Morning Comes Mistfall", published in 1973 in "Analog" magazine. In 1975 his story "...for a single yesterday" about a post-apocalyptic timetripper was selected for inclusion in "Epoch", a science fiction anthology edited by Roger Elwood and Robert Silverberg. His first novel, "Dying of the Light", was completed in 1976 right before he moved to Dubuque and published in 1977. That same year the enormous success of "Star Wars" had a huge impact on the publishing industry and science fiction, and he sold the novel for the same amount he would make in three years of teaching.  The short stories he was able to sell in his early 20s gave him some profit, but not enough to pay his bills, which prevented him from becoming the full-time writer he wanted to be. The need for a day job occurred simultaneously with the American chess craze which followed Bobby Fischer's victory in the 1972 world chess championship. Martin's own chess skills and experience allowed him to be hired as a tournament director for the Continental Chess Association that ran chess tournaments on the weekends. This gave him a sufficient income, and because the tournaments only ran on Saturdays and Sundays, it allowed him to work as a writer five days a week from 1973 to 1976. When the chess bubble subsequently burst and no longer provided an income, he had become much better established as a writer.  Martin is a member of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA); he served as the organization's Southwest Regional Director from 1977 to 1979, and as its vice-president from 1996 to 1998. In 1976, for Kansas City's MidAmeriCon, the 34th World Science Fiction Convention (Worldcon), Martin and his friend and fellow writer-editor Gardner Dozois conceived of and organized the first Hugo Losers' Party for the benefit of all past and present Hugo-losing writers on the evening following the convention's Hugo Awards ceremony. Martin was nominated for two Hugos that year but lost both awards, for the novelette "...and Seven Times Never Kill Man" and the novella "The Storms of Windhaven", co-written with Lisa Tuttle. Although Martin often writes fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works are science fiction tales occurring in a loosely defined future history, known informally as "The Thousand Worlds" or "The Manrealm".  In 2017, Martin recalled that he had started writing science fiction-horror hybrids in the late 1970s to disprove a statement from a critic claiming that science fiction and horror were opposites and therefore incompatible. Martin considered "Sandkings" (1979) the best known of these. Another was the novella "Nightflyers" (1980), whose screen and television rights were purchased by Vista in 1984, which produced a 1987 film adaptation, "Nightflyers", with a screenplay co-written by Martin. Martin was unhappy about having to cut plot elements in order to accommodate the film's small budget. While not a hit at theatres, Martin believes that the film saved his career, and that everything he has written since exists in large part because of it. He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, "Night of the Vampyres", collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology "The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century" (2001).  In 1982, Martin published a vampire novel titled "Fevre Dream" set in the 19th century on the Mississippi River. Unlike traditional vampire novels, in "Fevre Dream" vampires are not supernatural creatures, but are rather a different species related to humans created by evolution with superhuman powers. Critic Don D'Amassa has praised "Fevre Dream" for its strong 19th century atmosphere and wrote: "This is without question one of the greatest vampire novels of all time". Martin followed up "Fevre Dream" with another horror novel, "The Armageddon Rag" (1983). The unexpected commercial failure of "The Armageddon Rag" "essentially destroyed my career as a novelist at the time", he recalled, and made him consider going into real estate instead.  In 1984, the new editor of Baen Books, Betsy Mitchell, called Martin to ask him if he had considered doing a collection of Haviland Tuf adventures. Martin, who had several favorite series characters like Solomon Kane, Elric, Nicholas van Rijn and Magnus Ridolph, had made an attempt to create such a character on his own in the 1970s with his Tuf stories. He was interested, but was too occupied with the writing of his next book, the never-completed novel "Black and White and Red All Over", which occupied most of his writing time the same year. But after the failure of "The Armageddon Rag", all editors rejected his upcoming novel, and desperate for money, he accepted Mitchell's offer and wrote some more Tuf stories which were collected in "Tuf Voyaging", which sold well enough for Mitchell to suggest a sequel. Martin was willing and agreed to do it, but before he got started he got an offer from Hollywood, where producer Philip DeGuere Jr. wanted to adapt "The Armageddon Rag" into a film. The film adaptation did not happen, but they stayed in touch, and when DeGuere became the producer for the revival of "The Twilight Zone", Martin was offered a job as a writer. Working for television paid a lot better than writing literature, so he decided to move to Hollywood to seek a new career. At first he worked as staff writer for the show, and then as an executive story consultant. After the CBS series was cancelled, Martin migrated over to the already-underway satirical science fiction series "Max Headroom". He worked on scripts and created the show's "Ped Xing" character. However, before his scripts could go into production, the ABC show was cancelled in the middle of its second season. Martin was hired as a writer-producer on the new dramatic fantasy series "Beauty and the Beast"; in 1989, he became the show's co-supervising producer and wrote 14 of its episodes.  In 1987, Martin published a collection of short horror stories in "Portraits of His Children". During this same period, Martin continued working in print media as a book-series editor, this time overseeing the development of the multi-author "Wild Cards" book series, which takes place in a shared universe in which a small slice of post–World War II humanity gains superpowers after the release of an alien-engineered virus; new titles are published in the ongoing series from Tor Books. In "Second Person", Martin "gives a personal account of the close-knit role-playing game (RPG) culture that gave rise to his "Wild Cards" shared-world anthologies". An important element in the creation of the multiple author series was a campaign of Chaosium's role-playing game "Superworld" (1983) that Martin ran in Albuquerque. Admitting he became completely obsessed with the game, he stopped writing literature for most of 1983, which he refers to as his "lost year", but his shrinking bank accounts made him realize he had to come up with something, and got the idea that perhaps the stories and characters created in "Superworld" could somehow become profitable. Martin's own contributions to "Wild Cards" have included Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle", a powerful psychokinetic whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored VW Beetle., 21 "Wild Cards" volumes had been published in the series; earlier that same year, Martin signed the contract for the 22nd volume, "Low Ball" (2014), published by Tor Books. In early 2012, Martin signed another Tor contract for the 23rd "Wild Cards" volume, "High Stakes", which was released in August 2016.  In August 2016 Martin announced that Universal Cable Productions had acquired the rights to adapt the "Wild Cards" novels into a television series. In 2017, Martin confirmed he would serve as an executive producer of the HBO television series adaptation of the 2010 novel "Who Fears Death" by Nnedi Okorafor. Martin also contributed to an upcoming FromSoftware video game titled "Elden Ring", writing the worldbuilding aspects for it.

Relationship with fans.

Blog.

Martin actively contributes to his blog, "Not a Blog"; in April 2018 he moved

Conventions.

Martin is known for his regular attendance at science fiction conventions and comics conventions, and his accessibility to fans. In the early 1980s, critic and writer Thomas Disch identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", writers who regularly congregated at the annual Worldcon, usually held on or around the Labor Day weekend. Since

Fan club.

Martin's official fan club is the "Brotherhood Without Banners", which has a regular posting board at the Forum of the website westeros.org, which is focused

Criticism.

Martin has been criticized by some of his readers for the long periods between books in the "A Song of Ice and Fire" series, notably the six-year gap between the fourth volume, "A Feast for Crows" (2005), and the fifth volume, "A Dance with Dragons" (2011). In 2010, Martin had responded to fan criticisms by saying

Fan fiction.

Martin is opposed to fan fiction, which he views as copyright infringement

Personal life.

In the early 1970s, Martin was in a relationship with fellow science fiction/fantasy author Lisa Tuttle, with whom he co-wrote "Windhaven".  While attending an East Coast science fiction convention he met his first wife, Gale Burnick; they were married in 1975. The marriage ended in divorce in 1979, without issue. On February 15, 2011, Martin married his longtime partner Parris McBride during a small ceremony at their Santa Fe home. On August 19, 2011, they held a larger wedding ceremony and reception at Renovation, the 69th World Science Fiction Convention.  He and McBride are supporters of the Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary in New Mexico. In early 2013, he purchased Santa Fe's Jean Cocteau Cinema and Coffee House, which had been closed since 2006. He had the property completely restored, including both its original 35 mm capability to which was added

Philanthropy.

In 2014, Martin launched a campaign on Prizeo to raise funds for Wild Spirit Wolf Sanctuary and the Food Depot of Santa Fe. As part of the campaign, Martin offered one donor the chance to accompany him on a trip to the wolf sanctuary, including a helicopter ride and dinner. Martin also

Politics.

Growing up, Martin avoided the draft to the Vietnam War by being a conscientious objector and did two years of alternative service. He generally opposes war and thought the Vietnam War was a "terrible mistake for America". He has also written against the glory of war and tries to realistically describe war in his books.  In 2014, Martin endorsed Democratic Senator Tom Udall of New Mexico.  In the midst of pressure to pull the 2014 feature film "The Interview" from theatres, the Jean Cocteau Theatre in Santa Fe, New Mexico, which has been owned by Martin since 2013, decided to show the film. Theatre manager Jon Bowman told the "Santa Fe New Mexican": "Martin feels strongly about the First Amendment and the idea of artists having the ability to speak their minds and not having to worry about being targets."  On November 20, 2015, writing on his LiveJournal blog, Martin advocated for allowing Syrian refugees into the United States. Immediately following Bernie Sanders' defeat in the U.S. Democratic primary election, he supported Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton in the general 2016 United States presidential election, and criticized Donald Trump during the election and following her defeat, commenting that Trump would "become the worst president in American history".  In May 2019, Martin endorsed Joe Biden for President in 2020.

George Raymond Richard Martin (born George Raymond Martin; September 20, 1948), also known as GRRM, is an American novelist and short story writer in the fantasy, horror, and science fiction genres, screenwriter, and television producer. He wrote the series of epic fantasy novels "A Song of Ice and Fire", which was adapted into the HBO series "Game of Thrones" (2011–2019).

George R. R. Martin, né le à Bayonne (New Jersey), est un écrivain américain de science-fiction et de fantasy, également scénariste et producteur de télévision. Son œuvre la plus connue est la série romanesque du "Trône de fer", adaptée sous forme de série télévisée par HBO sous le titre "Game of Thrones". Il a été récompensé par de nombreux prix littéraires et a été sélectionné par le magazine "Time" comme l'une des personnes les plus influentes du monde en 2011. Il est aujourd'hui considéré comme le.


End user.

End users are the ultimate human users (also referred to as operators) of a software product. The end user stands in contrast to users who support or maintain the product such as sysops, database administrators and computer technicians. The term is used to abstract and distinguish those who only use the software from the developers of the system, who enhance the software for end users. In user-centered design, it also distinguishes the software operator from the client who pays for its development and other stakeholders who may not directly use the software, but help establish its requirements. This abstraction is primarily useful in designing the user interface, and refers to a relevant subset of characteristics that most expected users would have in common.  In user-centered design, personas are created to represent the types of users. It is sometimes specified for each persona which types of user interfaces it is comfortable with (due to previous experience or the interface's inherent simplicity), and what technical expertise and degree of knowledge it has in specific fields or disciplines. When few constraints are imposed on the end-user category, especially when designing programs for use by the general public, it is common practice to expect minimal technical expertise or previous training in end users.  The end-user development discipline blurs the typical distinction between users and developers. It designates activities or techniques in which people who are not professional developers create automated behavior and complex data objects without significant knowledge of a programming language.  Systems whose actor is another system or a software agent have no direct end users.

User account.

A user's account allows a user to authenticate to a system and potentially to receive authorization to access resources provided by or connected to that system; however, authentication does not imply authorization. To log into an account, a user is typically required to authenticate oneself with a password or other credentials for the purposes of accounting, security, logging, and resource management.  Once the user has logged on, the operating system will often use an identifier such as an integer to refer to them, rather than their username, through a process known as identity correlation. In Unix systems, the username is correlated with a user identifier or "user id".  Computer systems operate in one of two types based on what kind of users they have:  Each user account on a multi-user system typically has a home directory, in which to store files pertaining exclusively to that user's activities, which is protected from access by other users (though a system administrator may have access). User accounts often contain a public user profile, which contains basic information provided by the account's owner. The files stored in the home directory (and all other directories in the system) have file system permissions which are inspected by the operating system to determine which users are granted access to read or execute a file, or to store a new file in that directory.  While systems expect most user accounts to be used by only a single person, many systems have a special account intended to allow anyone to use the system, such as the username "anonymous" for anonymous FTP and the username "guest" for a guest account.

Username format.

Various computer operating-systems and applications expect/enforce different rules for the format.  In Microsoft Windows environments, for example, note the potential use of:

Terminology.

Some usability professionals have expressed their dislike of the term "user" and have proposed changing it. Don Norman stated that "One of the horrible words we use is 'users'. I am on a crusade to get rid of the word 'users'. I would prefer to call them 'people'."

A user is a person who utilizes a computer or network service. Users of computer systems and software products generally lack the technical expertise required to fully understand how they work. Power users use advanced features of programs, though they are not necessarily capable of computer programming and system administration.

En informatique, le terme utilisateur (anciennement un opérateur ou un informaticien) est employé pour désigner une qui utilise un système informatisé (ordinateur ou robot) mais qui n'est pas nécessairement informaticien (par opposition au programmeur par exemple). L'utilisateur peut aussi être une machine automatique (essentiellement représenté par un bot informatique) pouvant disposer de différents degrés d'autonomie.


History.

Carnival Films was founded in 1978 by feature film producer Brian Eastman.  As of 2014 Carnival has produced over 500 hours of drama and comedy for television, cinema and stage. This included 70 hours of "Agatha Christie's Poirot" starring David Suchet and 24 hours of "Rosemary & Thyme", starring Felicity Kendal and Pam Ferris. In the action/adventure genre it produced "BUGS", "Oktober" and "The Grid", in comedy drama it produced "Jeeves and Wooster" starring Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry, teenage drama-comedy "As If", as well as the adaptations of Tom Sharpe's novels "Blott on the Landscape" and "Porterhouse Blue".  In 2004 the BBC's former Head of Drama Commissioning Gareth Neame joined Carnival as managing director. In 2007 former Creative Director of BBC Drama Sally Woodward Gentle joined the company as Creative Director. The two had previously worked together on "Spooks" (MI:5), "Tipping the Velvet" and "Cambridge Spies".  In 2008 Carnival was acquired by NBCUniversal as part of its plan to increase its presence in content creation outside the US. Following several more acquisitions Carnival is now part of NBCUniversal International Television Production alongside newer additions Monkey Kingdom, Working Title Television, Chocolate Media and Lucky Giant in the UK, Lark in Canada and Matchbox Pictures in Australia.  Under the direction of Gareth Neame, Carnival has produced series such as; "The Philanthropist" for NBC; hit BBC series "Hotel Babylon"; the critically acclaimed television films "Enid" starring Helena Bonham Carter and Matthew Macfadyen; "Page Eight" starring Bill Nighy, Rachel Weisz, Michael Gambon and Ralph Fiennes; landmark four-part drama "Any Human Heart" starring Jim Broadbent, Matthew MacFadyen, Hayley Atwell and Kim Cattrall; "The Hollow Crown", a BBC adaptation of Shakespeare's history plays starring Tom Hiddleston, Ben Whishaw and Jeremy Irons; "The Last Weekend", a three-part adaptation of Blake Morrison's novel; and "Whitechapel" for ITV.  Carnival's biggest hit, both critically and commercially, is "Downton Abbey", written and co-produced by Julian Fellowes. Its final episode aired on 25 December 2015.

Awards.

Carnival Films has won a wide variety of awards for its work on Television, Film and Stage productions. With the company itself winning the 'Best Independent Production Company' award at both the Televisual Magazine Bulldog Awards 2011, and the Broadcast Awards 2012. In addition Carnival's productions have together been awarded nine Primetime Emmy Awards; one Golden Globe; nineteen BAFTAs; one Screen Actors Guild Award; a Producers Guild of America Award; two National Television Award; three International Emmy Awards; five RTS awards; four BANFF Rockie Awards; three Ivor Novello Awards; two Broadcast awards; a Bulldog award; an Evening Standard Theatre Award; and a Tony.  Further to this success the company's productions have also received nominations from such varied awards bodies as the Academy Awards, the Laurence Olivier Awards, The Monte Carlo International Television Festival, The Screen Actors Guild, The American Society of Cinematographers, The Edgar Allan Poe Awards, The Rose D’Or and The San Sebastian Film Festival.

Carnival Films is a British television production company based in London, UK, founded in 1978. It has produced television series for all the major UK networks including the BBC, ITV, Channel 4, and Sky, as well as international broadcasters including PBS, A&E, HBO and NBC. Productions include single dramas, long-running television dramas, feature films, and stage productions.

Carnival Films est une société britannique de production de cinéma, de télévision et de théâtre qui a été créée en 1978 par Brian Eastman (sous le nom de Picture Partnership Productions Ltd.).


Background.

About 937 the Saxon margrave Gero had conquered vast territories east of the Elbe River, where he subdued the tribes of the Polabian Slavs. The German forces thereby reached the Oder River and the western border of the young Polish country. After several clashes of arms the conflict for the present was settled by an agreement in 963 whereafter Duke Mieszko had to pay a recurrent tribute to Emperor Otto.  Upon Gero's death in 965, his vast Marca Geronis was divided into several smaller marches, while the power in the area was exercised by unchecked warlords. Duke Mieszko took the occasion to capture the lightly defended and economically important estuary of the Oder on the Baltic Sea, in order to secure his influence in Pomerania up to Wolin. In turn Odo I had been vested with the Saxon Eastern March (the later March of Lusatia) by Emperor Otto I and was responsible for gathering tribute of the tribes which were Mieszko's point of interest.  The margrave wanted to extend his territory and influence, he finally gathered his forces and decided to attack. He was sure of victory; his raid was a private conflict, against the agreements made by the Emperor, who at the same time struggled to secure his rule in the Kingdom of Italy. However, against Odo's expectations, the battle was won by Mieszko.

The battle as reported by Thietmar.

The only more or less contemporary account of the battle is chapter 19 of the second book of Thietmar of Merseburg's "Chronicon", consisting of three sentences:

Aftermath.

After Emperor Otto I returned to Germany, he mediated a truce between the belligerents at the "Hoftag" diet of 973 in Quedlinburg, according to which Mieszko was obliged to transfer his minor son Bolesław as a hostage to the Imperial court. Nevertheless, the Emperor died a few weeks later and the conflict with the Saxon margraves continued to smoulder. After Mieszko had interfered in the conflict of Otto's son and successor Emperor Otto II with the Bavarian duke Henry the Wrangler, German forces again attacked Poland without success in 979.  The relations with the Empire improved upon Mieszko's marriage with Oda of Haldensleben, daughter of Margrave Dietrich of the Northern March.

Modern era.

In 1945, the implementation of the Oder-Neisse line resulted in the transfer of the town of "Zehden" from the German province of Brandenburg to the People's Republic of Poland. The town was renamed Cedynia. Contemporary Polish historiography, tasked to justify the post-war borders, turned the encounter of 972 into the first medieval battle between Poles and Germans.  Largely unknown in Poland before World War II, the battle was instrumentalized by post-war Polish propaganda to justify the Oder-Neisse line, which in 1945 made former German Cedynia Poland's westernmost town, and rendered into a German-Polish battle to underline the doctrine of "eternal German-Polish enmity". Several memorials were erected in Cedynia to that effect, including a tall concrete statue of a Polish eagle on a sword overseeing town and Oder river from a hilltop. With the fall of Communism, the propagandistic approach was discarded, yet the battle retained some prominence and is included in modern Polish curricula.  Several battle memorials were installed in the small town: walls were covered with mosaics depicting medieval battle scenarios, wooden statues of knights were placed in the town, the hotel was named "Piast" after the dynasty founded by Mieszko I. A hill near the town was converted into the battle memorial "Victory at Cedynia", with a tall concrete statue on the hilltop, showing a Polish eagle sitting on a sword rammed in the hill, the face turned west overseeing town and Oder river. The mosaics on the hill's foot show white knights encircling and defeating black knights. The monument was erected in 1972 to commemorate the 1000th anniversary of the battle, which was celebrated in the town by people from all regions of Poland, including high-ranking politicians, and accompanied by a large youth festival, "Cedynia 72".  The lower Oder area, Cedynia and the associated battle in particular, had also played a prominent role in the 1000th anniversary of the Polish state in 1966. The story of the battle was popularized by various means: rallies, monuments, press reports, popular science, travel guides, prosaic and lyrical works, movies, a dedicated medal, post stamps and envelope editions, even special match box designs.  Recent reassessment has resulted in doubts whether the battle had taken place near modern-day Cedynia. According to Pawel Migdalski, "Cedynia has lost its propagandistic value and is now just one of several small border towns". The memory of the battle is now upheld in a non-political fashion, by an annual festival and re-enactments.  The Battle of Cedynia is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription “CEDYNIA 24 VI 972"

In the Battle of Cedynia or Zehden, an army of Mieszko I of Poland defeated forces of Hodo or Odo I of Lusatia on 24 June 972, near the Oder river. Whether or not the battle actually took place near the modern-day town of Cedynia is disputed in modern scholarship.

La bataille de Cedynia s’est déroulée près du village de Cedynia à l'est du fleuve Oder le (ou 979), opposant les forces du duc Mieszko de Pologne à celles du margrave Odo de la Marche de l'Est saxonne. Ce fut la plus ancienne bataille mentionnée dans les documents concernant l’histoire de la Pologne. Les chroniques de Gallus Anonymus et de Dithmar évoquent tous deux cette bataille.


Characteristics.

Although most goat-antelopes are gregarious and have fairly stocky builds, they diverge in many other ways – the muskox ("Ovibos moschatus") is adapted to the extreme cold of the tundra; the Rocky Mountain goat ("Oreamnos americanus") of North America is specialised for very rugged terrain; the urial ("Ovis orientalis") occupies a largely infertile area from Kashmir to Iran, including much desert country. The European mouflon ("Ovis musimon") is thought to be the ancestor of the modern domestic sheep ("Ovis aries").  Many species have become extinct since the last ice age, probably largely because of human interaction. Of the survivors:  Members of the group vary considerably in size, from just over long for a full-grown grey goral ("Nemorhaedus goral"), to almost long for a musk ox, and from under to more than. Musk oxen in captivity have reached over.  The lifestyles of caprids fall into two broad classes:'resource-defenders', which are territorial and defend a small, food-rich area against other members of the same species; and 'grazers', which gather together into herds and roam freely over a larger, usually relatively infertile area.  The resource-defenders are the more primitive group: they tend to be smaller in size, dark in colour, males and females fairly alike, have long, tessellated ears, long manes, and dagger-shaped horns. The grazers (sometimes collectively known as tsoan caprids, from the Hebrew "tso'n" meaning sheep and goats) evolved more recently. They tend to be larger, highly social, and rather than mark territory with scent glands, they have highly evolved dominance behaviours. No sharp line divides the groups, but a continuum varies from the serows at one end of the spectrum to sheep, true goats, and musk oxen at the other.

Evolution.

The goat-antelope, or caprid, group is known from as early as the Miocene, when members of the group resembled the modern serow in their general body form. The group did not reach its greatest diversity until the recent ice ages, when many of its members became specialised for marginal, often extreme, environments: mountains, deserts, and the subarctic region.  The ancestors of the modern sheep and goats (both rather vague and ill-defined terms) are thought to have moved into mountainous regions – sheep becoming specialised occupants of the foothills and nearby plains, and relying on flight and flocking for defence against predators, and goats adapting to very steep terrain where predators are at a disadvantage.

Extant species.

FAMILY BOVIDAE

Fossil genera.

The following extinct genera of Caprinae have been identified:

The subfamily Caprinae is part of the ruminant family Bovidae, and consists of mostly medium-sized bovids. A member of this subfamily is called a caprine, or, more informally, a goat-antelope; however, this term "goat-antelope" does not mean that these animals are true antelopes: a true antelope is a bovid with a cervid-like or antilocaprid-like morphology.

Les Caprinae ou caprins forment une sous-famille des Bovidae, définie par John Edward Gray en 1821. Elle comprend notamment les chèvres, les moutons et les chamois.