Imagerie spectroscopique proche infrarouge

Description.

fNIRS is based on the absorption of near infrared light by hemoglobin. The light moves, or propagates, through the head and lends information about blood volume, flow and oxygenation. This technique is safe, non-invasive, and can be used with other imaging modalities.  To specify, fNIRS is a non-invasive imaging method involving the quantification of chromophore concentration resolved from the measurement of near infrared (NIR) light attenuation or temporal or phasic changes. fNIRS spectrum light takes advantage of the optical window in which (a) skin, tissue, and bone are mostly transparent to NIR light (700–900 nm spectral interval) and (b) hemoglobin (Hb) and deoxygenated-hemoglobin (deoxy-Hb) are strong absorbers of light. These are the principals adapted from pulse oximeters.  There are six different ways for infrared light to interact with the brain tissue: direct transmission, diffuse transmission, specular reflection, diffuse reflection, scattering, and absorption. fNIRS focuses on absorption: differences in the absorption spectra of deoxy-Hb and oxy-Hb allow the measurement of relative changes in hemoglobin concentration through the use of light attenuation at multiple wavelengths. Two or more wavelengths are selected, with one wavelength above and one below the isosbestic point of 810 nm—at which deoxy-Hb and oxy-Hb have identical absorption coefficients. Using the modified Beer-Lambert law (mBLL), relative concentration can be calculated as a function of total photon path length.  Typically, the light emitter and detector are placed ipsilaterally (each emitter/detector pair on the same side) on the subject's skull so recorded measurements are due to back-scattered (reflected) light following elliptical pathways. fNIRS is most sensitive to scalp and skull, so in order to have an increased sensitivity to the superficial cortex, there needs to be a larger source-detector ratio.

Modified Beer–Lambert law.

Changes in light intensity can be related to changes in relative concentrations of hemoglobin through the modified Beer–Lambert law (mBLL). The Beer lambert-law has to deal with concentration of hemoglobin. This technique also measures relative changes in light attenuation as well as using mBLL to quantify hemoglobin concentration changes.

History.

US & UK.

In 1977, Jöbsis reported that brain tissue transparency to NIR light allowed a non-invasive and continuous method of tissue oxygen saturation using transillumination in neonates. Transillumination (forward-scattering) was of limited utility in adults because of light attenuation and was quickly replaced by reflectance-mode based techniques - resulting in development of NIRS systems proceeding rapidly. Then, by 1985, the first studies on cerebral oxygenation were conducted by M. Ferrari. Later, in 1989, following work with David Delpy at University College London, Hamamatsu developed the first commercial NIRS system: NIR-1000 Cerebral Oxygenation Monitor. NIRS methods were initially used for cerebral oximetry in the 1990s. In 1993, four publications by Chance et al "PNAS", Hoshi & Tamura "J Appl Physiol", Kato et al "JCBFM," Villringer "et al" "Neuros. Lett." demonstrated the feasibility of fNIRS in adult humans. NIRS techniques were further expanded on by the work of Randall Barbour, Britton Chance, Arno Villringer, M. Cope, D. T. Delpy, Enrico Gratton, and others. Currently, wearable fNIRS are being developed.

Japan.

Meanwhile, in the mid-80's, Japanese researchers at the central research laboratory of Hitachi Ltd set out to build a NIRS-based brain monitoring system using a pulse of 70-picosecond rays. This effort came into light when the team, along with their leading expert, Dr Hideaki Koizumi (小泉 英明), held an open symposium to announce the principle of "Optical Topography" in January 1995. In fact, the term "Optical Topography" derives from the concept of using light on "2-Dimensional mapping combined with 1-Dimensional information", or "topography". The idea had been successfully implemented in launching their first fNIRS (or Optical Topography, as they call it) device based on Frequency Domain in 2001: Hitachi ETG-100. Later, Harumi Oishi (大石 晴美), a PhD-to-be at Nagoya University, published her doctoral dissertation in 2003 with the subject of "language learners' cortical activation patterns measured by ETG-100" under the supervision of Professor Toru Kinoshita (木下 微)—presenting a new prospect on the use of fNIRS. The company has been advancing the ETG series ever since.

Spectroscopic techniques.

Currently, there are three modalities of fNIR Spectroscopy:  1. Continuous Wave  2. Frequency Domain  3. Time-Domain

Continuous Wave.

Continuous Wave (CW) system uses light sources with constant frequency and amplitude. In fact, to measure absolute changes in HbO concentration with the mBLL, we need to know photon path-length. However, CW-fNIRS does not provide any knowledge of photon path-length, so changes in HbO concentration are relative to an unknown path-length. Many CW-fNIRS commercial systems use estimations of photon path-length derived from computerized Monte-Carlo simulations and physical models, to approximate absolute quantification of hemoglobin concentrations.  formula_1  Where formula_2 is the optical density or attenuation, formula_3 is emitted light intensity, formula_4 is measured light intensity, formula_5 is the attenuation coefficient, formula_6 is the chromophomore concentration, formula_7 is the distance between source and detector and formula_8 is the differential path length factor, and formula_9 is a geometric factor associated with scattering.  When the attenuation coefficients formula_10 are known, constant scattering loss is assumed, and the measurements are treated differentially in time, the equation reduces to:  formula_11  Where formula_12 is the total corrected photon path-length.  Using a dual wavelength system, measurements for HbO and Hb can be solved from the matrix equation:  formula_13  Due to their simplicity and cost-effectiveness, CW-fNIRS is by far the most common form of functional NIRS since it is the cheapest to make, applicable with more channels, and ensures a high temporal resolution. However, it does not distinguish between absorption and scattering changes, and cannot measure absolute absorption values: which means that it is only sensitive to "relative" change in HbO concentration.  Still, the simplicity and cost-effectiveness of CW-based devices prove themselves to be the most favorable for a number of clinical applications: neonatal care, patient monitoring systems, diffuse optical tomography, and so forth. Moreover, thanks to its portability, wireless CW systems have been developed—allowing individuals to be monitored in ambulatory, clinical and sports environments.

Frequency Domain.

Frequency Domain (FD) system comprises NIR laser sources which provide an amplitude-modulated sinusoid at frequencies near 100 MHz. FD-fNIRS measures attenuation, phase shift and the average path length of light through the tissue. Multi-Distance, which is a part of the FD-fNIRS, is insensitive to differences in skin color—giving constant results regardless of subject variation.  Changes in the back-scattered signal's amplitude and phase provide a direct measurement of absorption and scattering coefficients of the tissue, thus obviating the need for information about photon path-length; and from the coefficients we determine the changes in the concentration of hemodynamic parameters.  Because of the need for modulated lasers as well as phasic measurements, FD system-based devices are more technically complex (therefore more expensive and much less portable) than CW-based ones. However, the system is capable of providing absolute concentrations of HbO and HbR.

Time Domain.

Time Domain (TD) system introduces a short NIR pulse with a pulse length usually in the order of picoseconds—around 70 ps. Through time-of-flight measurements, photon path-length may be directly observed by dividing resolved time by the speed of light. Information about hemodynamic changes can be found in the attenuation, decay, and time profile of the back-scattered signal. For this photon-counting technology is introduced, which counts 1 photon for every 100 pulses to maintain linearity. TD-fNIRS does have a slow sampling rate as well as a limited number of wavelengths. Because of the need for a photon-counting device, high-speed detection, and high-speed emitters, time-resolved methods are the most expensive and technically complicated.  TD-based devices are totally immobile, space-consuming, the most difficult to make, costliest, hugest, and heaviest. Even so, they have the highest depth sensitivity and are capable of presenting most accurate values of baseline hemoglobin concentration and oxygenation.

Diffuse Correlation Spectroscopy.

Diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) systems use localized gradients in light attenuation to determine absolute ratios of oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb. Using a spatial measurement, DCS systems do not require knowledge of photon path-length to make this calculation, however measured concentrations of oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb are relative to the unknown coefficient of scattering in the media. This technique is most commonly used in cerebral oxymetry systems that report a Tissue Oxygenation Index (TOI) or Tissue Saturation Index (TSI).

System Design.

A few open-source fNIRS models are available online:

Data Analysis Software.

HOMER3.

HOMER3 allows users to obtain estimates and maps of brain activation. It is a set of matlab scripts used for analyzing fNIRS data. This set of scripts has evolved since the early 1990s first as the Photon Migration Imaging toolbox, then HOMER1 and HOMER2, and now HOMER3.

NIRS Toolbox.

It is the most recent one. This toolbox is a set of Matlab based tools for the analysis of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). This toolbox defines the +nirs namespace and includes a series of tools for signal processing, display, and statistics of fNIRS data. This toolbox is built around an object-oriented framework of Matlab classes and namespaces..

AtlasViewer.

AtlasViewer allows fNIRS data to be visualized on a model of the brain. In addition, it also allows the user to design probes which can eventually be placed onto a subject.

Application.

Brain–computer interface.

fNIRS has been successfully implemented as a control signal for Brain-Computer Interface systems.

Cerebral Oximetry.

NIRS monitoring is helpful in a number of ways. Preterm infants can be monitored reducing cerebral hypoxia and hyperoxia with different patterns of activities. It is an effective aid in Cardiopulmonary bypass, is strongly considered to improve patient outcomes and reduce costs and extended stays.  There are inconclusive results for use of NIRS with patients with traumatic brain injury, so it has been concluded that it should remain a research tool.

fNIRS Cap.

fNIRS electrode locations and names are specified by the International 10–20 system. In addition to the standard positions of electrodes, short separation channels can be added. Short separation channels allow the measurement of scalp signals. Since the short separation channels measure the signal coming from the scalp, they allow the removal of the signal of superficial layers. This leaves behind the actual brain response. Short separation channel detectors are usually placed 8mm away from a source. They do not need to be in a specific direction or in the same direction as a detector.

Functional Neuroimaging.

The use of fNIRS as a functional neuroimaging method relies on the principle of neuro-vascular coupling also known as the haemodynamic response or blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) response. This principle also forms the core of fMRI techniques. Through neuro-vascular coupling, neuronal activity is linked to related changes in localized cerebral blood flow. fNIRS and fMRI are sensitive to similar physiologic changes and are often comparative methods. Studies relating fMRI and fNIRS show highly correlated results in cognitive tasks. fNIRS has several advantages in cost and portability over fMRI, but cannot be used to measure cortical activity more than 4 cm deep due to limitations in light emitter power and has more limited spatial resolution. fNIRS includes the use of diffuse optical tomography (DOT/NIRDOT) for functional purposes. Multiplexing fNIRS channels can allow 2D topographic functional maps of brain activity (e.g. with Hitachi ETG-4000, Artinis Oxymon, NIRx NIRScout, etc.) while using multiple emitter spacings may be used to build 3D tomographic maps.

Hyperscanning.

Hyperscanning involves two or more brains monitored simultaneously to investigate interpersonal (across-brains) neural correlates in various social situations, which proves fNIRS to be a suitable modality for investigating live brain-to-brain social interactions.

Music and the Brain.

fNIRS can be used to monitor muscians' brain activity while playing musical instruments.

Pros and Cons.

The advantages of fNIRS are, among other things: noninvasiveness, low-cost modalities, perfect safety, high temporal resolution, full compatibility with other imaging modalities, and multiple hemodynamic biomarkers.  However, any system can't be without its limitations. For fNIRS those include: low brain sensitivity, low spatial resolution, and shallow penetration depth.

Future Direction.

Despite a few limitations, fNIRS devices are relatively small, lightweight, portable and wearable. Thanks to these features, applications for the devices are astounding—which make them easily accessible in many different scenarios. For example, they have the potential to be used in clinics, a global health situation, a natural environment, and as a health tracker.  Ultimately, future at-risk individuals in hospitals could benefit from neuromonitoring and neurorehabilitation that fNIRS can offer.

fNIRS Compared with other neuroimaging techniques.

Comparing and contrasting other neuroimaging devices is an important thing to take into consideration. When comparing and contrasting these devices it is important to look at the temporal resolution, spatial resolution, and the degree of immobility. EEG (electroencephalograph) and MEG (magnetoencephalography) have high temporal resolution, but a low spatial resolution. EEG also has a higher degree of mobility than MEG has. When looking at fNIRS, they are similar to an EEG. They have a high degree of mobility as well as temporal resolution, and they have low spatial resolution. PET scans and fMRIs are grouped together, however they are distinctly different from the other neuroimaging scans. They have a high degree of immobility, medium/high spatial resolution, and a low temporal resolution. All of these neuroimaging scans have important characteristics and are valuable, however they have distinct characteristics.  Among all other facts, what makes fNIRS a special point of interest is that it is compatible with some of these modalities, including: MRI, EEG, and MEG.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), or Optical Topography as it is called in Japan exclusively, is the use of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for functional neuroimaging. Using fNIRS, cerebral hemodynamic responses are measured by near-infrared light, which go in line with cerebral activation or deactivation. In particular, this technology is capable of visualizing changes both in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin concentration.

L'imagerie spectroscopique proche infrarouge fonctionnelle (ISPIf, en anglais ', NIRSI ou ', fNIR) ou spectroscopie proche infrarouge fonctionnelle (SPIRf) est l'application à l'imagerie cérébrale de la spectroscopie proche infrarouge. Cette technique consiste à mesurer de l'oxygénation d'une zone du cerveau afin d'en déduire son activité.


Species.

Like most ibises, they are gregarious long-legged wading birds with long down-curved bills; they form one subfamily of the Threskiornithidae, the other subfamily being the spoonbills. The two "Geronticus" species differ from other ibises in that they have unfeathered faces and heads, breed on cliffs rather than in trees, and prefer arid habitats to the wetlands used by their relatives. Their food contains fewer aquatic animals and more terrestrial ones; they are known to gather together and feed on locust swarms, killing many of these notorious pests. This has also contributed to their decline however, as they were much affected by indiscriminate pesticide spraying in the mid-to-late 20th century, leading to their disappearance from many regions.

Fossil record.

Geronticus perplexus is by far the oldest fossil assigned to the present genus. It is known only from a piece of distal right humerus, found at Sansan, France, in Middle Miocene rocks of the Serravallian faunal stage MN 6 (about 12-14 million years ago). It was initially considered to be a heron and placed in the genera "Ardea" and "Proardea". More plesiomorphic than the living species, it seems to represent an ancient member of the "Geronticus" lineage, in line with the theory that most living ibis genera seem to have evolved before 15 million years ago (mya).  Geronticus apelex is apparently the direct ancestor of the southern bald ibis. Its remains were found in Early Pliocene deposits near Langebaanweg, South Africa, which date back about five million years.  What may be an ancestral European form, Geronticus balcanicus, was found in a Late Pliocene deposit near Slivnitsa, Bulgaria. It is hitherto only known from one left and one right carpometacarpus piece (NMNHS 14 and NMNHS 453, respectively) which are almost identical to those of living bald ibises. Contemporaneous with these during the early MN18 faunal stage – about two mya – birds entirely indistinguishable from the modern northern bald ibis inhabited at least Spain, if not the whole western Mediterranean region already. Thus, the extinct species may be the immediate ancestor of "G. eremita", which would have originated at the western extent of its range. Some authors even include the Bulgarian population in "G. eremita", but most are more cautious. "G. balcanicus" may also represent a lineage related but not ancestral to the northern bald ibis, which inhabited the inland regions northeastwards of the European Alpides and – like the immediate ancestor of "G. eremita" in this scenario – was isolated from the ancestors of "G. calvus" when gene flow across tropical Africa ceased.

The small bird genus Geronticus belongs to the ibis subfamily (Threskiornithinae). Its name is derived from the Greek "gérontos" (γέρωντος, "old man") in reference to the bald head of these dark-plumaged birds; in English they are called bald ibises.

Le genre d'oiseau Geronticus comprend deux espèces de la sous-famille des ibis (Threskiornithinae). Ce sont l'ibis chauve, que l'on trouve autour de la Méditerranée et classé comme espèce en danger de disparition, et l'ibis du Cap que trouve dans le sud de l'Afrique et classée comme espèce vulnérable.


Early life.

He was the youngest son of King Håkon Håkonsson and his wife Margaret Skulesdatter. He was born in Tunsberg and was baptised in May 1238. He spent most of his upbringing in Bergen. In 1257 his older brother Håkon died, leaving Magnus the heir-apparent to the kingdom. His father gave him the title of king the same year. On 11 September 1261, he married the Danish princess Ingeborg, the daughter of the late Danish King Erik Plogpenning, after she was practically abducted by King Håkon's men from the monastery she was living in. The struggle to claim Ingeborg's inheritance from her murdered father later involved Norway in intermittent conflicts with Denmark for decades to come. Magnus and Ingeborg were crowned directly after their marriage, and Magnus was given Ryfylke for his personal upkeep. On 16 December 1263 King Håkon died while fighting the Scottish king over the Hebrides, and Magnus became the ruler of Norway.

Reign.

Foreign policy.

Magnus' rule brought about a change from the somewhat aggressive foreign policy of his father. In 1266 he gave up the Hebrides and the Isle of Man to Scotland, in return for a large sum of silver and a yearly payment, under the Treaty of Perth, by which the Scots at the same time recognised Norwegian rule over Shetland and the Orkney Islands. In 1269 the "Treaty of Winchester" cemented good relations with the English king Henry III. Magnus also seems to have had good relations with the Swedish King Valdemar Birgersson, and in the 1260s, the border with Sweden was officially defined for the first time. When Valdemar was deposed by his two brothers and fled to Norway in 1275, this stirred Magnus into gathering a leidang-fleet for the first and only time in his reign. With a large fleet, he met with the new Swedish King Magnus Ladulås to try to bring about a settlement between the two brothers, but without success, Magnus of Sweden would not give in to pressure and the Magnus of Norway retreated without engaging in hostile actions.

Internal policies.

In internal politics, Magnus carried out a great effort to modernise the law-code, which gave him his epithet "law-mender". These were adopted at the Things in the years 1274 ("Landslov") and 1276 ("Byloven"). In 1274 he promulgated the new national law, known as "Magnus Lagabøtes landslov", a unified code of laws to apply for the whole country, including the Faroe Islands and Shetland. This replaced the different regional laws which had existed before. It was supplemented by a new municipal law (a law for the cities) in 1276, "Magnus Lagabøtes bylov", and a slightly modified version was also drawn up for Iceland. A unified code of laws for a whole country was at this time something quite new, which had until then only been introduced in Sicily and Castile. His code introduced the concept that crime is an offense against the state rather than against the individual and thus narrowed the possibilities of personal vengeance. It increased the formal power of the king, making the throne the source of justice. The municipal law gave the cities increased freedom from rural control. A specific section fixed the law of succession to the throne, in accordance with the arrangements laid down by King Håkon Håkonsson in 1260.  The royal succession was an important and prickly matter, the last of the civil wars, fought for decades over disputed successions to the throne, having finally ended only in 1240. In 1273 Magnus gave his eldest son, five-year-old Eric, the title of king, and his younger brother Håkon the title of duke, thus making it unequivocally clear who would be his heir.  Although Magnus was by all accounts a personally very pious king, his work with the law-codes brought him into conflict with the archbishop, who resisted temporal authority over the church, and sought to preserve the church's influence over the kingdom. The Tønsberg Concord ("Sættargjerden in Tønsberg") signed in 1277 between King Magnus and Jon Raude, Archbishop of Nidaros, confirmed certain privileges of the clergy, the freedom of episcopal elections and similar matters. The church preserved considerable independence in judicial matters, but gave up its old claim that the Norwegian kingdom was a fief under the ultimate authority of the Catholic Church.  In cultural terms Magnus continued his father's policy of introducing European courtly culture to Norway. In 1277 he replaced the old Norse titles lendmann and skutilsvein with the European titles baron and "riddar" (knight), at the same time giving them certain extra privileges and the right to be addressed as "lord" ("herra"). Magnus is probably also the first Norwegian king to have named himself using an ordinal number - he called himself "Magnus IV" (he did not count Magnus Haraldsson (II) and Magnus Sigurdsson (IV)). Immediately after his father's death, he commissioned the Icelander Sturla Þórðarson to write his father's saga, or biography. In 1278, he commissioned the same man to write his own saga. The Saga of Magnus the lawmender ("Magnúss saga lagabœtis") thus became the last of the medieval Norwegian kings' sagas; unfortunately only a short fragment of it has been preserved.

Death and aftermath.

In the spring of 1280, Magnus fell ill in Bergen. He planned to have his son Eric crowned at midsummer as co-ruler, but died on 9 May. Eric succeeded him at the age of 12. Real power fell to a circle of advisors, prominent among them Magnus' widow, Ingeborg. Magnus was remembered as a good ruler, who ruled by law rather than by the sword. The nationalist-conservative historian Oscar Albert Johnsen, leader of the Institute of Medieval Texts, founded during the Third Reich occupation of Norway, have considered him a weak king, for giving up the Hebrides and giving in to demands of the church. Mostly considered a rather wise king, sparing the kingdom of unnecessary and unfruitful wars, while preserving stability at home and finally bringing the Icelandic Commonwealth under Norwegian control. Magnus was buried in the church of the Franciscan monastery in Bergen, which has since the 16th century been the Bergen Cathedral ("Bergen Domkirke").

Magnus Haakonsson (, ; 1 (or 3) May 1238 – 9 May 1280) was King of Norway (as Magnus VI) from 1263 to 1280 (junior king from 1257). One of his greatest achievements was the modernisation and nationalisation of the Norwegian law-code, after which he is known as Magnus the Law-mender (, ). He was the first Norwegian monarch known to have used an ordinal number, although originally counting himself as "IV".

Magnus VI « le Législateur » "(Lagabøte)" (vieux norrois : "Magnús lagabœtir") (- mort à Bergen le ) est roi de Norvège de 1263 à 1280.


Clinical significance.

Enterotoxins have a particularly marked effect upon the gastrointestinal tract, causing traveler's diarrhea and food poisoning. The action of enterotoxins leads to increased chloride ion permeability of the apical membrane of intestinal mucosal cells. These membrane pores are activated either by increased cAMP or by increased calcium ion concentration intracellularly. The pore formation has a direct effect on the osmolarity of the luminal contents of the intestines. Increased chloride permeability leads to leakage into the lumen followed by sodium and water movement. This leads to a secretory diarrhea within a few hours of ingesting enterotoxin. Several microbial organisms contain the necessary enterotoxin to create such an effect, such as "Staphylococcus aureus" and "E. coli".  The drug linaclotide, used to treat some forms of constipation, is based on the mechanism of enterotoxins.

Classification and 3D structures.

Bacterial.

Enterotoxins can be formed by the bacterial pathogens "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Bacillus cereus" and can cause Staphylococcal Food Poisoning and "Bacillus cereus" diarrheal disease, respectively. Staphylococcal enterotoxins and streptococcal exotoxins constitute a family of biologically and structurally related pyrogenic superantigens. Staphylococcal enterotoxins are mainly produced by "Staphylococcus aureus." However, it has been suggested that "staphylococci" other than "S. aureus" can contribute to Staphylococcal Food Poisoning by forming enterotoxins. Streptococcal exotoxins are produced by "Streptococcus pyogenes". These toxins share the ability to bind to the major histocompatibility complex proteins of their hosts. A more distant relative of the family is the "S. aureus "toxic shock syndrome toxin, which shares only a low level of sequence similarity with this group.  All of these toxins share a similar two-domain fold (N and C-terminal domains) with a long alpha-helix in the middle of the molecule, a characteristic beta-barrel known as the "oligosaccharide/oligonucleotide fold" at the N-terminal domain and a beta-grasp motif at the C-terminal domain. Examples include staphylococcal enterotoxin B. Each superantigen possesses slightly different binding mode(s) when it interacts with MHC class II molecules or the T-cell receptor.  The beta-grasp domain has some structural similarities to the beta-grasp motif present in immunoglobulin-binding domains, ubiquitin, 2Fe-2 S ferredoxin and translation initiation factor 3 as identified by the SCOP database.

An enterotoxin is a protein exotoxin released by a microorganism that targets the intestines. Enterotoxins are chromosomally encoded or plasmid encoded exotoxins that are produced and secreted from several bacterial organisms. They are often heat-stable, and are of low molecular weight and water-soluble. Enterotoxins are frequently cytotoxic and kill cells by altering the apical membrane permeability of the mucosal (epithelial) cells of the intestinal wall. They are mostly pore-forming toxins (mostly chloride pores), secreted by bacteria, that assemble to form pores in cell membranes. This causes the cells to die.

Une entérotoxine est une substance toxique ("toxine") produite par un organisme (en particulier certaines bactéries, telles que le vibrion cholérique responsable du choléra) susceptible de provoquer des troubles intestinaux lors de sa diffusion dans le système digestif. Ces toxines adhèrent à l'épithélium intestinal de l'intestin grêle et empêchent l'absorption des ions Na+ et Cl- favorisant une fuite hydrique (diarrhées...).


Historical overview.

Throughout history, precious metals such as gold and silver have been used for trade, sometimes in the form of bullion, and from early history the coins of various issuers – generally kingdoms and empires – have been traded. The earliest known records of pre-coinage use of precious metals for monetary exchange are from Mesopotamia and Egypt, dating from the third millennium BC. Early money took many forms, apart from bullion; for instance bronze spade money which became common in Zhou dynasty China in the late 7th century BC. At that time, forms of money were also developed in Lydia in Asia Minor, from where its use spread to nearby Greek cities and later to many other places.  Sometimes formal monetary systems have been imposed by regional rulers. For example, scholars have tentatively suggested that the Roman king Servius Tullius created a primitive monetary system in the early history of Rome. Tullius reigned in the sixth century BC - several centuries before Rome is believed to have developed a formal coinage system.  As with bullion, early use of coinage is believed to have been generally the preserve of the elite. But by about the 4th century BC coins were widely used in Greek cities. They were generally supported by the city state authorities, who endeavoured to ensure they retained their values regardless of fluctuations in the availability of whatever base or precious metals they were made from. From Greece the use of coins spread slowly westwards throughout Europe, and eastwards to India. Coins were in use in India from about 400 BC; initially they played a greater role in religion than in trade, but by the 2nd century they had become central to commercial transactions. Monetary systems that were developed in India were so successful that they spread through parts of Asia well into the Middle Ages.  As a variety of coins became common within a region, they were exchanged by moneychangers, the predecessors of today's foreign exchange market, as mentioned in the Biblical story of Jesus and the money changers. In Venice and the other Italian city states of the early Middle Ages, money changers would often have to struggle to perform calculations involving six or more currencies. This partly led to Fibonacci writing his Liber Abaci which popularised the use of Indo-Arabic numerals, which displaced the more difficult Roman numerals then in use by western merchants. When a given nation or empire has achieved regional hegemony, its currency has been a basis for international trade, and hence for a "de facto" monetary system. In the West – Europe and the Middle East – an early such coin was the Persian daric. This was succeeded by Roman currency of the Roman Empire, such as the denarius, then the Gold Dinar of the Ottoman Empire, and later – from the 16th to 20th centuries, during the Age of Imperialism – by the currency of European colonial powers: the Spanish dollar, the Dutch guilder, the French franc and the British pound sterling; at times one currency has been pre-eminent, at times no one dominated. With the growth of American power, the US dollar became the basis for the international monetary system, formalised in the Bretton Woods agreement that established the post–World War II monetary order, with fixed exchange rates of other currencies to the dollar, and convertibility of the dollar into gold. The Bretton Woods system broke down, culminating in the Nixon shock of 1971, ending convertibility; but the US dollar has remained the "de facto" basis of the world monetary system, though no longer "de jure", with various European currencies and the Japanese yen also being prominent in foreign exchange markets. Since the formation of the Euro, the Euro has also gained use as a reserve currency and a medium of transactions, though the dollar has remained the most important currency.  A dominant currency may be used directly or indirectly by other nations: for example, English kings minted the gold mancus, presumably to function as dinars to exchange with Islamic Spain; colonial powers sometimes minted coins that resembled those already used in a distant territory; and more recently, a number of nations have used the US dollar as their local currency, a custom called dollarization.  Until the 19th century, the global monetary system was loosely linked at best, with Europe, the Americas, India and China (among others) having largely separate economies, and hence monetary systems were regional. European colonization of the Americas, starting with the Spanish empire, led to the integration of American and European economies and monetary systems, and European colonization of Asia led to the dominance of European currencies, notably the British pound sterling in the 19th century, succeeded by the US dollar in the 20th century. Some, such as Michael Hudson, foresee the decline of a single base for the global monetary system, and the emergence instead of regional trade blocs; he cites the emergence of the Euro as an example. See also Global financial systems, world-systems approach and polarity in international relations. It was in the later half of the 19th century that a monetary system with close to universal global participation emerged, based on the gold standard.

History of modern global monetary orders.

The pre WWI financial order: 1816–1919.

From the 1816 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the world benefited from a well-integrated financial order, sometimes known as the "first age of globalisation".  There were monetary unions which enabled member countries to accept each other's currencies as legal tender. Such unions included the Latin Monetary Union (Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, France) and the Scandinavian monetary union (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). In the absence of shared membership of a union, transactions were facilitated by widespread participation in the gold standard, by both independent nations and their colonies. Great Britain was at the time the world's pre-eminent financial, imperial, and industrial power, ruling more of the world and exporting more capital as a percentage of her national income than any other creditor nation has since.  While capital controls comparable to the Bretton Woods system were not in place, damaging capital flows were far less common than they were to be in the post 1971 era. In fact Great Britain's capital exports helped to correct global imbalances as they tended to be counter-cyclical, rising when Britain's economy went into recession, thus compensating other states for income lost from export of goods. Accordingly, this era saw mostly steady growth and a relatively low level of financial crises. In contrast to the Bretton Woods system, the pre–World War I financial order was not created at a single high level conference; rather it evolved organically in a series of discrete steps. The Gilded Age, a time of especially rapid development in North America, falls into this period.

Between the World Wars: 1919–1939.

The years between the world wars have been described as a period of "de-globalisation", as both international trade and capital flows shrank compared to the period before World War I. During World War I, countries had abandoned the gold standard. Except for the United States, they later returned to it only briefly. By the early 1930s, the prevailing order was essentially a fragmented system of floating exchange rates. In this era, the experience of Great Britain and others was that the gold standard ran counter to the need to retain domestic policy autonomy. To protect their reserves of gold, countries would sometimes need to raise interest rates and generally follow a deflationary policy. The greatest need for this could arise in a downturn, just when leaders would have preferred to lower rates to encourage growth. Economist Nicholas Davenport  had even argued that the wish to return Britain to the gold standard "sprang from a sadistic desire by the Bankers to inflict pain on the British working class."  By the end of World War I, Great Britain was heavily indebted to the United States, allowing the US to largely displace it as the world's foremost financial power. The United States, however, was reluctant to assume Great Britain's leadership role, partly due to isolationist influences and a focus on domestic concerns. In contrast to Great Britain in the previous era, capital exports from the US were not countercyclical. They expanded rapidly with the United States' economic growth in the 1920s until 1928, but then almost completely halted as the US economy began slowing in that year. As the Great Depression intensified in 1930, financial institutions were hit hard along with trade; in 1930 alone, 1345 US banks collapsed. During the 1930s, the United States raised trade barriers, refused to act as an international lender of last resort, and refused calls to cancel war debts, all of which further aggravated economic hardship for other countries. According to economist John Maynard Keynes, another factor contributing to the turbulent economic performance of this era was the insistence of French premier Clemenceau that Germany pay war reparations at too high a level, which Keynes described in his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace.

The Bretton Woods Era: 1944–1973.

British and American policy makers began to plan the post-war international monetary system in the early 1940s. The objective was to create an order that combined the benefits of an integrated and relatively liberal international system with the freedom for governments to pursue domestic policies aimed at promoting full employment and social wellbeing. The principal architects of the new system, John Maynard Keynes and Harry Dexter White, created a plan which was endorsed by the 42 countries attending the 1944 Bretton Woods conference, formally known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The plan involved nations agreeing to a system of fixed but adjustable exchange rates so that the currencies were pegged against the dollar, with the dollar itself convertible into gold. So in effect this was a gold – dollar exchange standard. There were a number of improvements on the old gold standard. Two international institutions, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank were created. A key part of their function was to replace private finance as a more reliable source of lending for investment projects in developing states. At the time the soon to be defeated powers of Germany and Japan were envisaged as states soon to be in need of such development, and there was a desire from both the US and Britain not to see the defeated powers saddled with punitive sanctions that would inflict lasting pain on future generations. The new exchange rate system allowed countries facing economic hardship to devalue their currencies by up to 10% against the dollar (more if approved by the IMF) – thus they would not be forced to undergo deflation to stay in the gold standard. A system of capital controls was introduced to protect countries from the damaging effects of capital flight and to allow countries to pursue independent macro economic policies  while still welcoming flows intended for productive investment. Keynes had argued against the dollar having such a central role in the monetary system, and suggested an international currency called bancor be used instead, but he was overruled by the Americans. Towards the end of the Bretton Woods era, the central role of the dollar became a problem as international demand eventually forced the US to run a persistent trade deficit, which undermined confidence in the dollar. This, together with the emergence of a parallel market for gold in which the price soared above the official US mandated price, led to speculators running down the US gold reserves. Even when convertibility was restricted to nations only, some, notably France, continued building up hoards of gold at the expense of the US. Eventually these pressures caused President Nixon to end all convertibility into gold on 15 August 1971. This event marked the effective end of the Bretton Woods system; attempts were made to find other mechanisms to preserve the fixed exchange rates over the next few years, but they were not successful, resulting in a system of floating exchange rates.

The post Bretton Woods system: 1973– present.

An alternative name for the post Bretton Woods system is the Washington Consensus. While the name was coined in 1989, the associated economic system came into effect years earlier: according to economic historian Lord Skidelsky the "Washington Consensus" is generally seen as spanning 1980–2009 (the latter half of the 1970s being a transitional period). The transition away from Bretton Woods was marked by a switch from a state led to a market led system. The Bretton Wood system is considered by economic historians to have broken down in the 1970s: crucial events being Nixon suspending the dollar's convertibility into gold in 1971, the United States' abandonment of capital controls in 1974, and the UK's ending of capital controls in 1979 which was swiftly copied by most other major economies.  In some parts of the developing world, liberalisation brought significant benefits for large sections of the population – most prominently with Deng Xiaoping's reforms in China since 1978 and the liberalisation of India after its 1991 crisis.  Generally the industrial nations experienced much slower growth and higher unemployment than in the previous era, and according to Professor Gordon Fletcher in retrospect the 1950s and 60s when the Bretton Woods system was operating came to be seen as a golden age.  Financial crises have been more intense and have increased in frequency by about 300% – with the damaging effects prior to 2008 being chiefly felt in the emerging economies. On the positive side, at least until 2008 investors have frequently achieved very high rates of return, with salaries and bonuses in the financial sector reaching record levels.

The "Revived Bretton Woods system" identified in 2003.

From 2004, economists such as Michael P. Dooley, Peter M. Garber, and David Folkerts-Landau began writing papers describing the emergence of a new international system involving an interdependency between states with generally high savings in Asia lending and exporting to western states with generally high spending. Similar to the original "Bretton Woods", this included Asian currencies being pegged to the dollar, though this time by the unilateral intervention of Asian governments in the currency market to stop their currencies appreciating. The developing world as a whole stopped running current account deficits in 1999 – widely seen as a response to unsympathetic treatment following the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. From 2004, This supposed "New Bretton Woods", as a "fiction", and called for the elimination of the structural imbalances that underlie it, viz, the chronic US current account deficit.  However, since at least 2007 those authors have also called for a new "de jure" system: for key international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank to be revamped to meet the demands of the current age, and between 2008 and mid-2009 the term "New Bretton Woods" was increasingly used in the latter sense. By late 2009, with less emphases on structural reform to the international monetary system and more attention being paid to issues such as re-balancing the world economy.  Since 2011, Sanjeev Sanyal, a colleague of Dooley, Garber and Folkerts-Landau has taken the framework a step further to argue that periods of global economic expansions are almost always underpinned by symbiotic imbalances. Such imbalances cause distortions but are an inevitable part of expanding economic ecosystems. Thus, he argues that the next round of economic growth will again be underpinned by a return to global imbalances, probably with China supplying capital and the US again running deficits to absorb it. He names this relationship Bretton Woods III.

Calls for a "New Bretton Woods".

Leading financial journalist Martin Wolf has reported that all financial crises since 1971 have been preceded by large capital inflows into affected regions. While ever since the seventies there have been numerous calls from the global justice movement for a revamped international system to tackle the problem of unfettered capital flows, it was not until late 2008 that this idea began to receive substantial support from leading politicians. On September 26, 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy, then also the President of the European Union, said, "We must rethink the financial system from scratch, as at Bretton Woods."  On October 13, 2008, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown said world leaders must meet to agree to a new economic system: However, Brown's approach was quite different from the original Bretton Woods system, emphasising the continuation of globalization and free trade as opposed to a return to fixed exchange rates. There were tensions between Brown and Sarkozy, who argued that the "Anglo-Saxon" model of unrestrained markets had failed. However European leaders were united in calling for a "Bretton Woods II" summit to redesign the world's financial architecture. President Bush was agreeable to the calls, and the resulting meeting was the 2008 G-20 Washington summit. International agreement was achieved for the common adoption of Keynesian fiscal stimulus, an area where the US and China were to emerge as the world's leading actors. Yet there was no substantial progress towards reforming the international financial system, and nor was there at the 2009 meeting of the World Economic Forum at Davos Despite this lack of results leaders continued to campaign for "Bretton Woods II". Italian Economics Minister Giulio Tremonti said that Italy would use its 2009 G7 chairmanship to push for a "New Bretton Woods." He had been critical of the U.S.'s response to the global financial crisis of 2008, and had suggested that the dollar may be superseded as the base currency of the Bretton Woods system.  Choike, a portal organisation representing Southern Hemisphere NGOs, called for the establishment of "international permanent and binding mechanisms of control over capital flows" and as of March 2009 had achieved over 550 signatories from civil society organisations. March 2009 saw Gordon Brown continuing to advocate for reform and the granting of extended powers to international financial institutions like the IMF at the April G20 summit in London, Also during March 2009, in a speech entitled "Reform the International Monetary System", Zhou Xiaochuan, the governor of the People's Bank of China came out in favour of Keynes's idea of a centrally managed global reserve currency. Dr Zhou argued that it was unfortunate that part of the reason for the Bretton Woods system breaking down was the failure to adopt Keynes's bancor. Dr Zhou said that national currencies were unsuitable for use as global reserve currencies as a result of the Triffin dilemma – the difficulty faced by reserve currency issuers in trying to simultaneously achieve their domestic monetary policy goals and meet other countries' demand for reserve currency. Dr Zhou proposed a gradual move towards increased use of IMF special drawing rights (SDRs) as a centrally managed global reserve currency His proposal attracted much international attention. In a November 2009 article published in Foreign Affairs magazine, economist C. Fred Bergsten argued that Dr Zhou's suggestion or a similar change to the international monetary system would be in the United States' best interests as well as the rest of the world's.  Leaders meeting in April at the 2009 G-20 London summit agreed to allow $250 Billion of SDRs to be created by the IMF, to be distributed to all IMF members according to each countries voting rights. In the aftermath of the summit, Gordon Brown declared "the Washington Consensus is over". However, in a published during September 2009, Professor Robert Skidelsky, an international expert on Keynesianism, argued it was still too early to say whether a new international monetary system was emerging.  On Jan 27, in his opening address to the 2010 World Economic Forum in Davos, President Sarkozy repeated his call for a new Bretton Woods, and was met by wild applause by a sizeable proportion of the audience.  In December 2011, the Bank of England published a paper arguing for reform, saying that the current International monetary system has performed poorly compared to the "Bretton Woods system". In August 2012 in an "International Herald Tribune" op-ed, Harvard University professor and director of the Committee on Capital Markets Regulation Hal S. Scott called for a global response to the Euro-zone crisis. He wrote that two failures to address European problems around German power had led to world wars in the 20th century and that the current crisis was also beyond the capacity of Europe, with Germany again at the center, to solve on their own. Accepting that leadership transitions were underway in both China and America, Scott called on all concerned—with Japan included with China and America—to begin organizing a global restructuring through the International Monetary Fund with possibly a Bretton Woods II conference as part of the process. "MarketWatch" commentator Darrell Delamaide endorsed Scott's idea but concluded "unfortunately it’s not likely to happen". He added first the example of the failure of Europe to address successfully the breakup of Yugoslavia without outside assistance as a reason for his endorsement. But he found U.S. presidential and Treasury Department leadership and IMF leadership dramatically lacking in the capacity to mount an initiative such as Scott proposed.

An international monetary system is a set of internationally agreed rules, conventions and supporting institutions that facilitate international trade, cross border investment and generally the reallocation of capital between nation states. It should provide means of payment acceptable to buyers and sellers of different nationalities, including deferred payment. To operate successfully, it needs to inspire confidence, to provide sufficient liquidity for fluctuating levels of trade, and to provide means by which global imbalances can be corrected. The system can grow organically as the collective result of numerous individual agreements between international economic factors spread over several decades. Alternatively, it can arise from a single architectural vision, as happened at Bretton Woods in 1944.

On appelle système monétaire international (SMI) les méthodes utilisées pour l'échange de biens, de dettes et de services entre pays de devises différentes. Il a souvent changé : compensation, étalon-or, étalon de change or multipolaire, étalon de change or établi sur le dollar, changes flottants.


Early life.

Bailey Rae was born in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, to a Kittitian father and an English mother, as the oldest of three daughters, including her siblings, Candice Bailey, and actress Rhea Bailey, who was in "Coronation Street". Bailey Rae began her musical career at school, where she studied classical violin before she turned her attention to singing: "I started off singing in church, I suppose, but people think it must have been a gospel church because of the whole, you know, black assumption," she said in reference to her multi-racial background... "But it wasn't gospel at all, it was just your regular Brethren church, very middle-class, where we would sing these harmonies every Sunday. It was always my favorite part of the service, the singing." Bailey Rae later transferred to a Baptist church, where the youth leader coached rock bands in the local high school. The church's young people wrote their own worship songs and sang covers of songs by Primal Scream. "We changed the words though," Bailey Rae states on her website. "We didn't want to offend the regular churchgoers." She recorded two albums with the youth group under the name of Revive. Performing in church broadened Bailey Rae's musical horizons, and her love for making music was solidified after the church youth leader offered to lend her the money for her first guitar. In her mid-teens, she was highly influenced by Lenny Kravitz, also discovering rock legends Jimi Hendrix and Led Zeppelin. "I loved that band during my teens; I wanted, somehow, to follow in their footsteps, and to create music of my own."

Personal life.

Corinne Bailey studied English Language & Literature at the University of Leeds where she graduated in 2000. While at university, she began work as a hat check girl on an evening in her local jazz club where she met Scottish-born Jason Rae. When she married Rae in 2001 at the age of 22, she changed her name to Bailey Rae. Jason Rae (born in 1976), a musician, played saxophone for the eight-piece group called Haggis Horns, and had also recorded on albums with his wife Bailey Rae, Amy Winehouse, the New Mastersounds and Martina Topley-Bird ("Quixotic").  On 22 March 2008, Jason Rae was found dead in a flat in the Hyde Park area of Leeds. In December 2008, Leeds Coroner's Court gave a verdict of death by misadventure, and stated that Rae had died of an accidental overdose of methadone and alcohol. The methadone had been prescribed to a friend who was recovering from an addiction to heroin. Commenting on her husband's death, Bailey Rae stated, "He was impulsive, I guess. He liked to have a drink, have fun. It could easily have turned out to be one of those stupid, drunken things you do that you get to talk about afterwards...It's unbelievable that this one didn't turn out like that, that this was the drunken, curious thing that went wrong."  In 2013, Bailey Rae married producer Steve Brown and was reported to have given birth to a baby girl in 2017.

Music career.

1998–2003: Beginnings.

Bailey Rae formed an indie group called Helen, which was inspired by similar acts such as Veruca Salt and L7. "It was the first time I'd seen women with guitars. They were kinda sexy—but feminist. I wanted to be like that, at the front of something." The group played many gigs around Leeds and, whilst unable to attract offers from any UK labels, were eventually approached by US-based heavy metal record label Roadrunner Records, home to acts such as Slipknot, in 1998. This deal disappeared before it was even signed, however, after the bassist became pregnant and the group disbanded. "[Was I] Disappointed? I was gutted! I had no idea what to do next."  In the three years after she married her first husband, Bailey Rae began working on solo material—this time steering away from her indie past and embarking on a more "soulful" path. She collaborated with Leeds-based funk group the New Mastersounds on the track "Your Love Is Mine," featured on their 2003 album "Be Yourself", released via One Note Records. The following year she again worked with another Leeds-based group, Home cut Directive, on the song "Come the Revolution", which was the first single from the group's debut album.

2004–2008: "Corinne Bailey Rae".

In 2004, Bailey Rae got a breakthrough when she was signed by Global Talent Publishing and then approached by Craig David's mentor Mark Hill, from the duo the Artful Dodger, to appear on his new album "better luck next time" under his new alias, the stiX. The resulting collaboration, "Young and Foolish", was released in April 2005 and brought Bailey Rae to the attention of the major record label bosses.  Bailey Rae released her debut single, "Like a Star", in November 2005 and her first album, "Corinne Bailey Rae", in February 2006. It debuted at number one in the UK and entered the top ten of the U.S."Billboard" 200, peaking at number four and spending 71 weeks in the chart from 2006 to 2008. According to Nielsen SoundScan, the album sold 1.9 million copies in the United States alone.  The lead single, "Like a Star" became a hit in the UK and US, and sold over 327,000 US downloads. Follow-up single "Put Your Records On", her biggest hit to date, rose to number two in the UK, and sold over 945,000 US downloads. "Trouble Sleeping" made the top forty, and "I'd Like To", the top seventy. In the middle of 2006, Bailey Rae embarked on her first international tour through Europe and North America with R&B singer John Legend, playing 55 shows including the festivals "Rock in Rio Lisboa 2" and "Live Earth". In early April 2006, "Corinne Bailey Rae" was certified 2x platinum by the BPI and platinum by the RIAA in December. In September 2006, Bailey Rae scooped two awards at the UK's MOBO Awards: "Best UK Newcomer" and "Best UK Female". Bailey Rae recorded a live session at Abbey Road Studios in July 2006 for "Live from Abbey Road".  Bailey Rae was the musical guest in a 2006 episode of "Saturday Night Live" with the host being Jaime Pressly. She performed "Put Your Records On" and "Like a Star". She also appeared on "Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip" on the episode "B-12", which aired in November 2006, with Howie Mandel. She performed "Like a Star" and "Trouble Sleeping". Also in 2006, Bailey Rae performed on BBC Radio 1 "Live Lounge" with the songs "Like a Star", a cover version of Editors' "Munich", and a cover version of Justin Timberlake's "SexyBack".  Bailey Rae also received three nominations at the 2007 Grammy Awards: Record of the Year, Song of the Year (both for "Put Your Records On"), and Best New Artist. During the ceremony, she performed "Like a Star" and joined John Legend and John Mayer in a collaborative performance, providing accompanying vocals to Legend's "Coming Home" and Mayer's "Gravity".  Also in 2007, Bailey Rae accepted an invitation to participate in "" (Vanguard Records), where she contributed her version of Domino's "One Night (of Sin)". She also recorded John Lennon's "I'm Losing You" for Make Some Noise, Amnesty International's music venture. The song was also released on the 2007 John Lennon tribute album, "". In July of that year, Bailey Rae performed at the UK leg of Live Earth at Wembley Stadium, London.  In 2008, "Like a Star" was nominated for a Grammy for "Song of the Year". Bailey Rae won in two categories for Album of the Year and Best Contemporary Jazz Album for her collaboration on "". Also in 2008, she recorded a live session of "River" with Hancock at Abbey Road Studios in for Live from Abbey Road for Channel 4 which was broadcast on Series 2.  During the American and European tour, Bailey Rae recorded her first DVD with the title "Live in London & New York". The DVD was filmed in London and the bonus CD was recorded in New York.

2009–2011: "The Sea" and "The Love EP".

Corinne Bailey Rae released her new album titled "The Sea" on 26 January 2010, four years after the release of her first album and almost two years following the death of her husband Jason Rae. The lead single "I'd Do It All Again" premiered on 25 November 2009 on "Later... with Jools Holland". The follow-up single "Closer" was added to Smooth Jazz Radio on 25 January, Urban AC on 1 February and AC radio in late February. The album's second single "Paris Nights and New York Mornings" went to Triple-A radio on 15 February. Around the release of the second album, Bailey Rae did a run of promotional shows in the UK, Europe and US, she embarked on her second world tour, The Sea Tour, with 82 concerts, and had a gross profit of $19 million. The tour visited the UK, Europe, the US (Spring and Summer) Brazil, Argentina, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and the Middle East. The tour began on 27 February 2010 in London and her last show was on 10 March 2011 in Korea. Her summer concert in London at Somerset House sold out, and she returned to London again in October to perform in Royal Festival Hall with Pete Lawrie as a supporting act.  In December 2009, Bailey Rae recorded a live performance in New York City that was broadcast in the summer of 2010 on the US television program "Live From the Artists Den".  On 2 June 2010, Bailey Rae appeared with Herbie Hancock, singing "Blackbird" in a concert honouring Paul McCartney in the East Room of the White House.  On 25 January 2011, Bailey Rae released an EP, "The Love EP", with five recordings of love songs, including Prince's "I Wanna Be Your Lover", Bob Marley's "Is This Love" and Paul McCartney & Wings' "My Love". The EP debuted at number 86 on the "Billboard" 200 and still managed the Top 20 in "Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums". The EP has sold 15,000 copies in the U.S. The first single, "Is This Love", won Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance at 54th Grammy Awards.  Bailey Rae made an appearance as a musical guest on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno" on 28 October 2010, covering the Bob Marley song "Is This Love".  On 14 July 2011, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Leeds where she had studied as an undergraduate.  During an interview for the 2011 Mercury Awards, Bailey Rae revealed she is writing a follow-up album to her critically acclaimed "The Sea". She has uploaded many photos of herself in various studios recording music for the new album to her social media accounts.  In 2013, Bailey Rae was moved from Capitol Records to Virgin Records due to corporate restructuring as a result of their parent company being purchased by Universal Music Group in 2012.

2016–2019: "The Heart Speaks in Whispers", "The Scientist" ("Fifty Shades Darker"), SummerStage and tour.

On 14 February 2016, Bailey Rae presented her comeback into music by sharing a snippet of her new single. On 26 February, Bailey Rae announced the title of her third album, "The Heart Speaks in Whispers", which was released on 13 May 2016. The lead single off the album, "Been to the Moon", was also released.  "The Heart Speaks in Whispers" debuted No. 2 on Billboard's R&B chart. Featuring "Been To The Moon," "The Skies Will Break" and "Green Aphrodisiac," NPR named it one of their favorite 30 albums of the year so far.  Recorded both at her studio in Leeds and in Los Angeles at Capitol Studios, the album was co-produced by Bailey Rae with Steve Brown, who collaborated on her critically acclaimed 2010 album The Sea, and features Paris and Amber Strother (KING), Esperanza Spalding, James Gadson Bill Withers, Pino Palladino (D'Angelo and The Vanguard), and Marcus Miller (Miles Davis, Herbie Hancock, Luther Vandross).  Bailey Rae was selected by NASA for DESTINATION: JUPITER campaign when Juno spacecraft entered Jupiter's orbit on 4 July; represented Europe for the International Olympic Committee’s PSA Campaign; performed at various festivals in the UK and Europe, including Glastonbury; and was special guest supporting Stevie Wonder at his Hyde Park, London concert. President Barack Obama featured “Green Aphrodisiac” on his Spotify Summer “Night” Playlist.  On 17 November 2016, Bailey Rae joined other artists in tributes to Smokey Robinson at his 2016 Library of Congress Gershwin Prize award ceremony in Washington D.C.; she sang "Ooo Baby Baby".  In 2017, Corinne Bailey Rae recorded "The Scientist" (originally recorded by Coldplay) for the opening title sequence for Universal Pictures' "Fifty Shades Darker" which opened 10 February. The track is featured on the "Fifty Shades Darker" Soundtrack, which released the same day.  In 2019, Bailey Rae was scheduled to perform on the main Center Park space at Capital One City Parks Foundation SummerStage festival in Central Park in June, along with Emily King, Big Freedia and other artists. She also announced that she'll be touring in UK, Europe and US on the same year, beginning from 2 June to 18 November.  Bailey Rae was invited to contribute a selection to a Tom Waits tribute album that was released in late 2019, "". She chose to record "Jersey Girl", which is also associated with Bruce Springsteen who covered the song in 1984.

Other ventures.

"Like a Star" is part of the soundtracks of several films, series and soap operas, such as "Dynasty", "Cashmere Mafia", "27 Dresses", "Men in Trees", "Nancy Drew", "Perfect Stranger", "Medium", "Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip", "Venus", "Grey's Anatomy", "Criminal Minds" and "Sete Pecados". "Put Your Records On" appears in the 6th episode of the series "By Any Means".  In the film "Venus", six songs from the debut album were included on the soundtrack of the film, which are "I'd Like To", "Another Rainy Day", "Choux Pastry Heart", "Put Your Records On", " Like a Star", " Breathless".  The song "I'd Like To", from Bailey Rae's debut album, was also featured in the soundtrack for the movie "He's Just Not That Into You" (2009). It can also be heard on an episode of "CSI:NY". Her song "Lucky One" is the title theme for "Stan Lee's Lucky Man", a 2016 production for Sky 1 television in the U.K.  Bailey Rae is the special ambassador for the charity Cord. She is also the central ambassador for the international water and sanitation charity Pump Aid. In September 2012, she was featured in a campaign called "30 Songs/30 Days" to support "", a multi-platform media project inspired by Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book.

Awards and nominations.

Grammy Awards.

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Bailey Rae has won two awards from six nominations. She won Album of the Year as a featured artist on Herbie Hancock's "".

Corinne Jacqueline Bailey Rae (née Bailey; born 26 February 1979) is a British singer and songwriter from Leeds. Bailey Rae was named the number-one predicted breakthrough act of 2006 in an annual BBC poll of music critics, Sound of 2006. She released her debut album, "Corinne Bailey Rae", in February 2006, and became the fourth female British act in history to have her first album debut at number one. In 2007, Bailey Rae was nominated for three Grammy Awards and three Brit Awards, and won two MOBO Awards. In 2008, she won a Grammy Award for Album of the Year (for her work as a featured artist in Herbie Hancock's "").

Corinne Bailey Rae ("née Corinne Jacqueline Bailey") est une chanteuse anglaise née le à Leeds. Elle commence par chanter dans les églises puis peaufine son style pour devenir l'une des révélations Soul 2006 (élue "Sound of 2006" par le site de la BBC News).


First expedition.

Revett met James Stuart in Italy where they had gone to further their artistic education. They decided to travel on to Greece. According to the Dictionary of National Biography, they became acquainted with Sir James Gray, K.B., the British resident at Venice, prior to visiting Greece, and through his agency, they were elected members of the Society of Dilettanti in London. The Society was founded by men including Gray who had been on the Grand Tour: its patronage was to prove important to Revett.  In Greece they stayed mainly in Athens, where they arrived in 1751. They also visited the Aegean Islands including Delos.

The Antiquities of Athens.

In England Revett and Stuart prepared their work for publication and found subscribers for "The Antiquities of Athens". The project was intended to consist of four volumes, although a supplementary volume also appeared. The illustrations include 368 etched and engraved plates, plans and maps drawn at scale. Although their French rival Julien-David Le Roy published his book about ancient Greek monuments "Les Ruines des plus beaux bâtiments de la Grèce" before "The Antiquities of Athens", the accuracy of Revett and Stuart's work gives their survey a claim to be the first of its kind in studies of ancient Greece; for example, Revett and Stuart were the first Europeans to describe the existence of ancient Greek polychromy.  The first volume, in which the authors are described as "painters and architects", appeared in 1762/3. Revett gave up his interest in the project after the first volume, but Stuart continued to be involved until his death in 1788. The fourth volume appeared in 1816, the year the Elgin Marbles were acquired by the British government.

Second expedition.

Revett took part in a second expedition in the 1760s. He travelled with Richard Chandler and others to Greece and Ionia under the auspices of the Society of Dilettanti. (He appears to have fallen out with Stuart after the publication of the first volume of "The Antiquities of Athens"). The brief, drawn up 17 May 1764 was that the travellers make Smyrna their headquarters, and from there "..to make excursions to the several remains of antiquity in that neighborhood; to make exact plans and measurements, to make accurate drawings of the bas-reliefs and ornaments..copying all the inscriptions you shall meet with, and keeping minute diaries."

Buildings by Nicholas Revett.

There are not many buildings attributed to Revett. He considered himself a gentleman and he was probably sufficiently well-off not to have to earn his living, although he is said to have experienced "pecuniary difficulties" towards the end of his life.

Additions.

Revett designed two 'Greek' additions to English country houses which arguably commenced the British 'Greek Revivalist' period in architecture from the 1760s. Both owners were members of the Society of Dilettanti. The properties in question were: Revett added a portico to this house which was the home of Henry Dawkins (brother of his friend and fellow explorer, James Dawkins). Revett added the west portico to this house in 1771, which was the home of Sir Francis Dashwood. The portico is based on the temple of Bacchus at Teos. The Bacchic theme suited Sir Francis's extravagant conviviality, a hallmark of the Dilettanti. The ceiling is a quotation from one of the structures at Palmyra, as reproduced in Robert Wood's "Ruins of Palmyra". For details see the forthcoming monograph by Jason M. Kelly.  This property was designed in 1780 for the patron of the living Sir Francis Dashwood and is Revett's only known complete domestic building.</'Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'<J Newman 'Kent: West Kent and the Weald'(New Haven and London 2012).

Complete building.

The builder was Luffman Atterbury, a surveyor who had worked for Dashwood at West Wycombe. Alterations were made c 1830 and 1876 but many of Revett's features remain<H. Colvin 'A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600-1840' (New Haven and London 1995), p 87; 'Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'.

Church.

Ayot St Lawrence Church, Hertfordshire (a building of the 1770s) has been singled out for mention, for example by Revett's obituarist in "The Gentleman's Magazine", and by Lionel Cust in the "Dictionary of National Biography".

Nicholas Revett (1721–1804) was a British architect. Revett is best known for his work with James "Athenian" Stuart documenting the ruins of ancient Athens. He is sometimes described as an amateur architect, but he played an important role in the revival of Greek architecture.

Nicholas Revett (1721-) est un architecte, archéologue et peintre britannique. On lui doit la première véritable étude systématique et quasi-scientifique des monuments antiques d'Athènes.


History.

The concept of orgone belongs to Reich's later work, after he immigrated to the US. Reich's early work was based on the Freudian concept of the libido, though influenced by sociological understandings with which Freud disagreed but which were to some degree followed by other prominent theorists such as Herbert Marcuse and Carl Jung. While Freud had focused on a solipsistic conception of mind in which unconscious and inherently selfish primal drives (primarily the sexual drive, or libido) were suppressed or sublimated by internal representations (cathexes) of parental figures (the superego), for Reich libido was a life-affirming force repressed by society directly. For example, in one of his better known analyses Reich observes a workers' political rally, noting that participants were careful not to violate signs that prohibited walking on the grass; Reich saw this as the state co-opting unconscious responses to parental authority as a means of controlling behavior. He was expelled from the Institute of Psycho-analysis because of these disagreements over the nature of the libido and his increasingly political stance. He was forced to leave Germany very soon after Hitler came to power.  Reich took an increasingly bioenergetic view of libido, perhaps influenced by his tutor Paul Kammerer and another biologist, Otto Heinrich Warburg. In the early 20th century, when molecular biology was in its infancy, developmental biology in particular still presented mysteries that made the idea of a specific life energy respectable, as was articulated by theorists such as Hans Driesch. As a psycho-analyst Reich aligned such theories with the Freudian libido, while as a materialist he believed such a life-force must be susceptible to physical experiment.  He wrote in his best known book, "The Function of the Orgasm": "Between 1919 and 1921, I became familiar with Driesch's 'Philosophie des Organischen' and his 'Ordnungslehre'... Driesch's contention seemed incontestable to me. He argued that, in the sphere of the life function, the whole could be developed from a part, whereas a machine could not be made from a screw... However, I couldn't quite accept the transcendentalism of the life principle. Seventeen years later I was able to resolve the contradiction on the basis of a formula pertaining to the function of energy. Driesch's theory was always present in my mind when I thought about vitalism. The vague feeling I had about the irrational nature of his assumption turned out to be justified in the end. He landed among the spiritualists."  The concept of orgone was the result of this work in the psycho-physiology of libido. After his migration to the US, Reich began to speculate about biological development and evolution, and then branched out into much broader speculations about the nature of the universe. This led him to the conception of "bions": self-luminescent sub-cellular vesicles that he believed were observable in decaying materials, and presumably present universally. Initially he thought of bions as electrodynamic or radioactive entities, as had the Ukrainian biologist Alexander Gurwitsch, but later came to the conclusion that he had discovered an entirely unknown but measurable force, which he then named "orgone", a pseudo-Greek formation probably from "org-" "impulse, excitement" as in "org-asm", plus "-one" as in "ozone" (the Greek neutral participle, virtually, "gen".: ).  For Reich, neurosis became a physical manifestation he called "body armor"—deeply seated tensions and inhibitions in the physical body that were not separated from any mental effects that might be observed. He developed a therapeutic approach he called vegetotherapy that was aimed at opening and releasing this body armor so that free instinctive reflexes—which he considered a token of psychic well-being—could take over.

Evaluation.

Orgone was closely associated with sexuality: Reich, following Freud, saw nascent sexuality as the primary energetic force of life. The term itself was chosen to share a root with the word "orgasm", which both Reich and Freud took to be a fundamental expression of psychological health. This focus on sexuality, while acceptable in the clinical perspective of Viennese psychoanalytic circles, scandalized the conservative American public even as it appealed to countercultural figures like William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac.  In at least some cases, Reich's experimental techniques do not appear to have been very careful, or to have taken precautions to remove experimental bias. Reich was concerned with experimental verification from other scientists. Albert Einstein agreed to participate, but thought Reich's research lacked scientific detachment and experimental rigor; and concluded that the effect was simply due to the temperature gradient inside the room. "Through these experiments I regard the matter as completely solved," he wrote to Reich on 7 February 1941. Upon further correspondence from Reich, Einstein replied that he could not devote any further time to the matter and asked that his name not be misused for advertising purposes.  Orgone and its related concepts were quickly denounced in the post-World War II American press. Reich and his students were seen as a "cult of sex and anarchy," at least in part because orgone was linked with the title of his book "The Function of the Orgasm", and this led to numerous investigations as a communist and denunciation under a wide variety of other pretexts. He was, as the "New York Times" later put it, "much maligned". The psychoanalytical community of the time saw his approach to healing diseases as quackery of the worst sort, partly because of his comments about UFOs. In 1954, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration successfully sought an injunction to prevent Reich from making medical claims relating to orgone, which (among other stipulations) prevented him from shipping "orgone devices" across state lines. Reich defied the order and was jailed, and the FDA took that opportunity to destroy any of Reich's books which mentioned orgone, along with research materials and devices.  Some psychotherapists and psychologists practicing various kinds of Body Psychotherapy and Somatic Psychology have continued to use Reich's proposed emotional-release methods and character-analysis ideas.

In popular culture.

Orgone was used in the writings of several prominent beat generation authors, who were fascinated by both its purported curative and sexual aspects. To that extent, it is heavily associated with the 1950s counterculture movement, though it did not carry over into the more extensive movements of the 1960s.

Orgone () is a pseudoscientific concept variously described as an esoteric energy or hypothetical universal life force. Originally proposed in the 1930s by Wilhelm Reich, and developed by Reich's student Charles Kelley after Reich's death in 1957, orgone was conceived as the anti-entropic principle of the universe, a creative substratum in all of nature comparable to Mesmer's animal magnetism (1779), to the Odic force (1845) of Carl Reichenbach and to Henri Bergson's "élan vital" (1907). Orgone was seen as a massless, omnipresent substance, similar to luminiferous aether, but more closely associated with living energy than with inert matter. It could allegedly coalesce to create organization on all scales, from the smallest microscopic units—called "bions" in orgone theory—to macroscopic structures like organisms, clouds, or even galaxies.

L'orgone est le terme inventé par Wilhelm Reich (à partir des mots "orgasme" et "organisme"), docteur en médecine, psychiatre et psychanalyste pour désigner "l'énergie de la Vie". Il s'est initialement appuyé sur ses expériences orientées sur la pertinence de la libido, visant à démontrer que l’hypothèse centrale de Sigmund Freud relative à la puissance du rapprochement sexuel pouvait être effectivement d’origine électrique. Finalement, l'électricité n'est, selon lui, qu'un aspect de cette "énergie de la Vie". La théorie de l'orgone est considérée comme non scientifique.


Biography.

Jean-Baptiste Boussingault - an agricultural scientist and chemist - was born in Paris. After studying at the school of mines at Saint-Etienne he went to Alsace to work in the asphalt mines - a two-year interlude that was to shape his contributions to science.  During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies, the president of Gran-Colombia, the liberator Simón Bolívar, named Francisco Antonio Zea, ambassador in France, to contract youngers and singles European scientists to investigate the available sources of his new formed nation. In 1822 Boussingault with the Peruvian geologist were contracted by Zea and they went to Venezuela as a mining engineer on behalf of an English company contracted by Bolivar. In Urao lagoon near Lagunillas, Merida State, Venezuela discovered the mineral Gaylussite. During his stay in America, he observed that goiter was endemic in some areas and not in others, and that this was related to the presence of iodine in the salt of some salt flats. Consequently, on his return to Europe, he proposed the use of this iodized salt to combat goiter, although his proposal was not taken into account.  At Santa Fe de Bogota he was attached to the staff of General Bolivar as colonel and traveled widely in the northern parts of the continent. Between March and December 1831, he attempted to climb seven Andean volcanoes: Puracé, Pasto and Cumbal in Colombia, and Pichincha, Antisana, Cotopaxi and Chimborazo in Ecuador. In 1831 he climbed to a new highest altitude by a Western explorer on Chimborazo (6.006 m) in the process. Returning to France in 1832 he married Adele Le Bel whose family had the concession to the asphalt mines where he had previously worked and it was in this period that he made his greatest discoveries. Later he became professor of chemistry at Lyon, and in 1839 was appointed to the chair of agricultural and analytical chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly representing his adopted Alsace, where he sat as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed from his professorship on account of his political opinions, but so much resentment at this action was shown by scientific men in general, and especially by his colleagues, who threatened to resign in a body, that he was reinstated. He died in Paris.  His first papers were concerned with agricultural and mining topics, and his sojourn in South America yielded a number of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of goitre in the Cordilleras, the gases of volcanoes, earthquakes, tropical rain, &c., which won the commendation of Alexander von Humboldt. From 1836 he devoted himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral chemistry. His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen in different foods, the amount of gluten in different wheats, investigations on the question whether plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere (which he answered in the negative and propose the basis of what became known as the nitrogen cycle), the respiration of plants, the function of their leaves, the action and value of manures and chemical fertilizers, and other similar subjects. In 1839, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.  Through his wife Adele Le Bel he had a share in an estate at Pechelbronn in Alsace, where he carried out many agricultural experiments on what is considered to be the first agricultural experimental station (as defined in terms of scientific experimentation on a field basis). He collaborated with Jean Baptiste Dumas in writing an (1841), and was the author of (1844), which was remodelled as (5 vols., 1860–1874; 2nd ed., 1884), and of (1875).

First agricultural experiment station.

Boussingault established the first agricultural experiment station on his wife's property in Pechelbronn in Alsace, France some 60 km north of Strasbourg, France in 1836. Rothamsted in the UK, generally considered the longest continuous experimental station was started some seven years later in 1843, and the German equivalent in Moeckern in 1852. As he was a chemist, which was at that time a rapidly expanding field, and as the application of such science to agriculture was overdue, it is logical that many of Boussingault's contributions from his work related to soil chemical and plant nutritional knowledge. His experimental station did not survive him, or rather could not withstand the vacillations of the 1870 Franco-Prussian war despite some revealing respect for intellectual works in WWII anecdotes, but his discoveries were built on by others, including his better known contemporary, Liebig – who loudly acknowledged Boussingault as the pioneer and great discover of many advances in soil and plant chemistry.  The site of his, the world's first agricultural experimental station, is today a grand Alsatian grange and outbuilding complex in northeastern France in urgent need of restoration (see photo). As of April 2011, an explanatory panel explaining his work has been erected (see photo) correcting some earlier misunderstanding that his experimental work was conducted at another site in the town of Pechelbronn where he maintained a house. The confusion is understandable as the history of the area is dominated by the petroleum technologies developed in that industry, and to which Boussingault contributed as part of his employment in the region. The shadow cast over his work by this more popular subject has led to his status being neglected beyond a cadre of informed scientists and scientific historians.

Scientific discoveries.

Boussingault re-introduced the quantitative methods first employed by de Saussure and is credited with the following discoveries related to agriculture:

More about Boussingault and agriculture.

The Petroleum Museum of Pechelbronn contains only two notes about Boussingault (see photo, courtesy of the Museum), but among its volunteers is a knowledgeable researcher M. Daniel Rodier who maintains archives of all available information about Boussingault, and who has overseen the historic markers at the experimental farm site. McCosh's book remains the most comprehensive source in English, while Aulie's Ph.D. thesis[3] from Yale University is the most authoritative on the subject of Boussingault's nitrogen cycle. A new three-volume series (in French) entitled by Jean-Claude Streicher is in the process of preparation covering the scientific developments in the region; Boussingault is probably to be a major subject in Volume 3.

Modern tribute to Boussingault.

Sometimes scientists are more remembered for their less significant discoveries. Most popular literature lists Boussingault as a contributor to the petroleum development of Alsace, and as being one of the few outsiders who married into the industrialist Le Bel family to be accepted by them in the long term. The mineral Boussingaultite is named after him.  Boussingault's most important work was his contribution to agricultural chemistry. His works and experiments contributed to an understanding of the critical role of nitrogen in plant growth and ecological systems. This understanding made possible further developments in nitrogen harnessing and fertilization, unforeseeable in Boussingault's day. These developments, such as the Haber-Bosch process, eventually resulted in nitrogen fertilizers and related products. Nitrogen fertilizers are a critical component of the modern agricultural industry, and have prevented major food shortages up to the present day.

Memoirs.

Boussingault left several volumes of memoirs, which range in subject matter from his very diverse scientific inquiries to his more colorful personal adventures, notably with Bolivar and others in South America.

Jean-Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné Boussingault (1 February 1801 – 11 May 1887) was a French chemist who made significant contributions to agricultural science, petroleum science and metallurgy.

Jean-Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné Boussingault, né à Paris le et mort à Paris le, est un chimiste, botaniste et agronome français, connu pour ses travaux de chimie agricole et pour la mise au point des premiers aciers au chrome.


Ancestry.

He was a member of the Vianen line of the noble von Dohna family. His parents belonged to the retinue of Elector Palatine Frederick V, Elector Palatine during his time as Winter King in Bohemia. His father, Christopher von Dohna, was Lord Chamberlain and secret councillor at the Winter King's court. After Frederick's fall, the family fled to Küstrin, where Frederick was born. Later they moved to Carwinden, Delft and finally to Orange, where Christopher was governor from 1629 onwards.  His mother was Ursula of Solms-Braunfels. Her sister, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels had married the Dutch military commander Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange. Thus, Frederick was related to the stadtholder of Holland.  His brothers Christian Albert and Christopher Delphicus served as officers in the army of Brandenburg-Prussia.

Career.

Frederick himself served in the Dutch States Army under Prince Henry Casimir II from 1636. He was eventually promoted to lieutenant general. Prince William II, Prince of Orange of Orange appointed him governor of Orange in 1649. This was a difficult task, due to unrest in the principality and strife within the Orange-Nassau family. The situation was further complicated by Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg, who was a relative of the Orange-Nassau family, and by King Louis XIV of France, who wanted to annex the principality. Frederick served as governor, until France annexed Orange in 1660.  In 1657, he purchased the barony of Coppet in the Swiss region of Vaud, on the north shore of Lake Geneva. Back then, Vaud was not yet a separate canton, it was a territory held by the canton of Bern. After Orange was occupied by France, Frederick moved to Coppet and transformed the castle in the town into a château.  He rendered various diplomatic services for Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg. During the run-up to the Nine Years' War, he tried in vain to talk Switzerland into joining the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. He did manage to convince a substantial number of Swiss farmers to settle in Brandenburg. When in 1667, an attack on Savoy threatened, Frederick commanded the troops in Geneva. He was highly regarded in Switzerland, and was granted citizenship in the canton of Bern.  His children were educated by the polymath Pierre Bayle.  Towards the end of his life, he suffered from various medical problems. His feet were paralyzed, which prevented him from returning to the Dutch military service. He nevertheless advised the new stadtholder, Prince William III.  He died on 27 March 1688 and, at the instigation of the government of Bern, he was buried in Lausanne.

Marriage and issue.

In 1656, Frederick married Sperentia, a daughter of Jean du Puy de Montbrun, Comte de Ferrassières et de Pont-de-Vesle. They had the following children together:

Frederick, Burgrave of Dohna (4 February 1621 in Küstrin – 27 March 1688 in Lutry, near Lausanne) was a German nobleman, an officer in Dutch service and a governor of the Principality of Orange. He later also rendered services to the Electorate of Brandenburg. Near the end of his life, he chose Switzerland, where he was highly regarded, as his adopted country.

Frédéric de Dohna, burgrave de Dohna Il acheta en 1657 la seigneurie de Coppet en Suisse ; reçut le droit de bourgeoisie à Berne, et occupa une place dans le grand conseil de ce canton. Pierre Bayle fut le précepteur de ses trois fils.


Biography.

He was born in Florence, on his mother's side the grandson of a painter. Although he was precocious and apprenticed at a young age to Jacopo Vignali, Dolci was not prolific. "He would take weeks over a single foot", according to his biographer Baldinucci. His painstaking technique made him unsuited for large-scale fresco painting. He painted chiefly sacred subjects, and his works are generally small in scale, although he made a few life-size pictures. He often repeated the same composition in several versions, and his daughter, Agnese Dolci, also made excellent copies of his works.  Dolci was known for his piety. It is said that every year during Passion Week he painted a half-figure of the Savior wearing the Crown of Thorns. In 1682, when he saw Giordano, nicknamed ""fa presto"" (quick worker), paint more in five hours than he could have completed in months, he fell into a depression.  Dolci's daughter, Agnese (died circa 1680), was also a painter. Dolci died in Florence in 1686.

Works.

The grand manner, vigorous coloration or luminosity, and dynamic emotion of the Bolognese-Roman Baroque are foreign to Dolci and to Baroque Florence. While he fits into a long tradition of prestigious official Florentine painting, Dolci appears constitutionally blind to the new aesthetic, shackled by the Florentine tradition that holds each drawn figure under a microscope of academicism. Wittkower describes him as the Florentine counterpart, in terms of devotional imagery, of the Roman Sassoferrato. Pilkington declared his touch "inexpressibly neat... though he has often been censured for the excessive labour bestowed on his pictures, and for giving his carnations more of the appearance of ivory than the look of flesh", a flaw that had been already apparent in Agnolo Bronzino.  Among his best works are a "St Sebastian"; the "Four Evangelists" at Florence; "Christ Breaking the Bread"; the ; an "Adoration of the Magi" in the National Gallery, London; the and "St Andrew praying before his Crucifixion" (1646) in the Palazzo Pitti. He completed his portrait of "Fra Ainolfo de' Bardi", when he was only sixteen. He also painted a large altarpiece (1656) for the church of Sant' Andrea Cennano in Montevarchi. As was typical for Florentine painters, this was a painting about painting, and in it the Virgin of Soriano holds a miraculous and iconic painting of St Dominic.

References.

Attribution:

Carlo (or Carlino) Dolci (25 May 1616 – 17 January 1686) was an Italian painter of the Baroque period, active mainly in Florence, known for highly finished religious pictures, often repeated in many versions.

Carlo Dolci, né le 25 mai 1616 à Florence où il est mort le 17 janvier 1686, est un peintre italien qui a été l'élève de Jacopo Vignali.


Overview.

Tractor units typically have large displacement diesel engines for power, durability, and economy; several axles; and a multi-ratio transmission (10, 13, or 18 gears) for maximum flexibility in gearing.  The tractor-trailer combination distributes a load across multiple axles while being more maneuverable than an equivalently sized rigid truck. The most common trailer attachment system is a fifth wheel coupling, allowing rapid shift between trailers performing different functions, such as a bulk tipper and box trailer. Trailers containing differing cargos can be rapidly swapped between tractors, eliminating downtime while a trailer is unloaded or loaded.  Drawbar couplings are also found, particularly in dedicated exceptionally heavy-duty ballast tractors and as a means to connect intermediate fifth-wheel dollies for pulling multiple semi trailers.

Configurations.

Cab.

There have been three common cab configurations used in tractors, two are still widely used.

Axle.

A tractor unit can have many axles depending on axle load legislation. The most common varieties are those of 4×2, 6×2 and 6×4 types. However, some manufacturers offer 6×6, 8x4, 8×6, 8×8, 10×8, and 10×10 axle configurations. A 6×4 has three axles, normally an undriven front steer axle and the two rear axles driven. 6×4 units are more common in long distance haulage in larger countries such as the United States and Australia. In Europe, the 4×2 and 6×2 variants are more commonplace.  Tractors with three axles or more can have more than one steering axle, which can also be driven. Most 6×2 units allow the undriven rear axle to be raised when lightly loaded, or running without a trailer, to save tire wear, save toll road fees, and increase traction on the driven axle. The 6×6 units have three axles, all can be driven, and 8×6 units have four axles, with either the rear three driven and the front axle not, or the front and rear-most two axles powered and an unpowered lifting bogie center axle to spread the load when needed. The 8×8 units also have four axles, but with all of them driven, and 10×8 units have five axles with the rear four usually driven and the front axle for steering. All five axles of 10×10 units are driven. The front two axles are usually both steer axles. The axle configurations are usually based on axle load legislation, and maximum gross vehicle weight ratings (BDM).  Heavier versions of tractor units, such as those used in heavy haulage and road trains, tend to have four or more axles, with more than two axles driven. In certain countries (such as Switzerland), a certain amount of weight must be spread over driven axles, which led to heavier varieties having six-wheel drive, otherwise another tractor unit would have to be used. Heavy haulage variants of tractor-units are often turned into a ballast tractor by fitting temporary ballast, which may require special permitting.

A tractor unit (prime mover, traction unit or rig) is a characteristically heavy-duty towing engine that provides motive power for hauling a towed or trailered load. These fall into two categories: heavy and medium duty military and commercial rear-wheel drive "semi-tractors" used for hauling semi-trailers, and very heavy-duty typically off-road-capable, often 6×6, military and commercial tractor units, including ballast tractors.

Le tracteur routier est le véhicule motorisé qui tracte la semi-remorque dans ce qui est appelé un véhicule articulé. Plusieurs modèles existent à deux essieux ou plus, selon l'usage et le type de marchandise transportée. La semi-remorque est liée au tracteur par sa cheville ouvrière qui vient s'insérer dans une plate-forme verrouillable, la sellette.