History.

Overview.

From 1852 to the beginning of the 20th century, the United States Lighthouse Board was active in building lighthouses to support ship traffic on the Great Lakes. Between 1852 and 1860, it built 26 new lights. Even as the United States Civil War and its aftermath slowed construction, it completed a dozen new lights in that decade. In the 1870s alone, it built 43 new lights on the Lakes. During the 1880s, more than 100 lights were constructed.  As the new century began, the Lighthouse Board operated 334 major lights, 67 fog horns and 563 buoys on the Great Lakes.  During the 19th century, design of Great Lakes lights slowly evolved. Until 1870 the most common design was to build a keeper's dwelling with the light on the dwelling's roof or on a relatively small square tower attached to the house. In the 1870s, so as to raise lights to a higher focal plane, conical brick towers, usually between 80 and 100 feet tall, were constructed. In the 1890s steel-lined towers began to replace the older generation of brick buildings. "See" Big Sable Point Light for a striking transition and transformation.  The Spectacle Reef Light was built during a forty-year period—between 1870 and 1910—when engineers began to build lights on isolated islands, reefs, and shoals that were significant navigational hazards. To that time, light ships were the only practical way to mark the hazards. They were dangerous for the sailors who manned them, and difficult to maintain. "Worse, regardless of the type of anchors used, lightships could be blown off their expected location in severe storms, making them a potential liability in the worst weather when captains would depend on the charted location of these lights to measure their own ship's distance from dangerous rocks." "See", United States lightship Huron (LV-103).  Using underwater crib designs, the Board built the Waugoshance Light (1851) on a shoal, and demonstrated a "new level of expertise" in constructing of the Spectacle Reef Light (1874), Stannard Rock Light (1882), and Detroit River (Bar Point Shoal) (also known as the Detroit River Entrance Light) (1885). "The long and expensive process of building lights" in remote and difficult sites "ended in nationally publicized engineering projects that constructed" Rock of Ages Light (1908) and the White Shoal (1910) lights.  In the first three decades of the twentieth century, the Lighthouse Board and the new Lighthouse Service continued to build new lights on the Great Lakes. For 1925, the Board administered around the Great Lakes: 433 major lights; ten lightships; 129 fog signals; and about 1,000 buoys. Of these 1,771 navigational aids, only 160 stations had resident keepers. By that time, most navigational aids were automated. Most of the 21st century's Great Lakes lighthouses (excepting "e.g.", Poe Reef Light and Gravelly Shoal Light) had been constructed by 1925.  Building on shoals was part of a larger pattern of building 14 reef lights around Michigan, also intended to help ships navigate through and around the shoals and hazards around the Straits of Mackinac.

Construction.

The site was first marked by a buoy in 1868. The construction was undertaken under the auspices of the Lighthouse Board, and was a feat of civil engineering and endurance. Construction began in 1870, in answer to the disastrous loss of a large number of ships during the 1860s at the site; in particular, two schooners ran aground and broke up in 1867. The massive cost of the loss helped convince Congress that it would be more cost effective to build a light and reduce the potential of future shipwrecks. The lighthouse is built upon a reef shaped like a pair of eyeglasses (hence its name) and is located in the path of littoral commerce on Lake Huron. The increase in freighter traffic through the straits increased the risk of more ship losses without better signing of hazards.  The Spectacle Reef Lighthouse cost $406,000. One costly item was the purchase of a steamer to convey the materials to the site.  The foundation was laid in a cofferdam protected by a crib made from timber and submerged below the surface. The crib was constructed upon slipways at the depot, like building a ship, then launched and towed by tugboats to the reef, where it was sunk and grounded on the site. This crib is massive: and high (). It created a protected pond, making a base for the cofferdam, a wharf, and worker's quarters. The cofferdam was pumped out to expose the bedrock, upon which the masonry courses were laid.  The light's 20-month construction process had to be spread out over a calendar period of four years (1870–1874). No work was possible during the winter, most of the spring, and most of the fall, due to heavy weather.  Bois Blanc Island is the nearest point of land, to to the northwest; but neither it nor Ninemile Point, to the south, formed a suitable staging area for construction. This took place entirely on site. After the construction of workers' quarters on the pier, a fourth-order Fresnel lens was temporarily installed on the roof of one of the buildings. Construction was almost complete in the fall of 1873, when the onset of winter's storms forced the work site to be abandoned until the following spring. In the spring of 1874, work on the lighthouse began again. With the installation of the cast-iron lantern room and a new second-order Fresnel lens, the work was complete, and the light was put into service for the first time in June 1874.  The location of the lighthouse makes it susceptible to wave fetch, which for this reef is to the southeast. Lake Huron ice fields, known as drift ice, which in this lake can be as much as two or more feet thick and measure thousands of acres in size, are moved by wintertime currents. Masses of these dimensions create "an almost irresistible force", which for Spectacle Reef Light was "overcome by interposing a structure against which the ice is crushed and by which its motion is so impeded that it grounds on the 7–foot shoal." This creates an effective wall "against other ice fields."  The tower is formed as a "frustum of a cone". The diameter base rises above water level, and is below water level.  As the Coast Guard notes: "The focal plane is above the top of the parapet, making it above the top of the submerged rock and above the surface of the water. For up the tower is solid and from them on up it is hollow. In it are five rooms, one above the other each in diameter, with varying heights. The walls of the hollow portion are at the bottom, tapering to at the spring of the cornice."  Just below the cornice, the blocks of stone are thick. They are interlocked in each course, and fastened together with wrought iron bolts thick and long. Likewise, the tower is bolted to the foundation rock with bolts long. After "the stones were in place they were plugged with pure portland cement, which is now as hard as the stone itself. Hence the tower is, in effect, a monolith."  The stones were cut at the depot at Scammon's Harbor, away. They were fitted, course by course, on a platform of masonry. The stones fit so well that each course was laid in three days: to set, drill, and bolt. The light has been described as "the best specimen of monolithic stone masonry in the United States" and "one of the greatest engineering feats on the Great Lakes."  In September 1872, a severe gale did considerable damage to the lighthouse, which had to be repaired at very great expense. The term "gale" is being used loosely, as there was no wind speed device being monitored in the winter at that location. But, in a similar location and storm on Lake Superior at Granite Island, Michigan, wind speeds of were recorded on January 18, 2003.  "After the winter of 1873–74, when the keepers returned to the newly completed tower, they found the ice piled against it at a height of, or higher than the doorway, and they could not gain entrance until they had cut away the iceberg of which the lighthouse formed the core."  The light has an attached fog signal building, oil house and storage building. There are davits to raise and lower boats.  The Lighthouse Board built a model of this light that was featured in the "Aids to Navigation" display at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, also known as "The Chicago World's Fair" in Chicago, Illinois.  The combination of a crib foundation with monolithic stone masonry worked so well that the Lighthouse Board used the design and a similar process in constructing the Stannard Rock Light in Lake Superior in 1878. The Board achieved economies by getting 'double duty' from the "costly apparatus and machinery purchased" for the Spectacle Reef project.

Current status.

The original second-order Fresnel lens (by HenryLepaute of Paris, France) was removed in 1982. It is now on display at the Inland Seas Maritime Museum (also known as the Great Lakes Historical Society Museum) at the Vermilion Light in Vermilion, Ohio. Since the Fresnel lens was replaced by a modern acrylic lens, the Spectacle Reef Light has continued to serve as an active aid to navigation as of 2007.  In July 2005, "Spectacle Reef Light Station" was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as site #05000744, defined as "Located in northern Lake Huron,. NNE of Ninemile Point, Benton Township, Michigan".  Spectacle Reef Lighthouse was one of five lighthouses chosen for the "Lighthouses of the Great Lakes" series; the postage stamp was designed by Howard Koslow in 1995. One lighthouse was chosen on each of the Great Lakes for this series. The five lighthouses are Split Rock Light on Lake Superior, St Joseph Light on Lake Michigan, Spectacle Reef Light on Lake Huron, Marblehead Light (Ohio) on Lake Erie and Thirty Mile Point Light on Lake Ontario.  As of July 2015, the light is for sale through an on-line GSA auction process.

Getting there.

As the light and crib are closed to the public, it can only be viewed closely by a private boat. It is a long way from shore in dangerous and open water, fraught with shoals.  Shepler's Ferry Service out of Mackinaw City offers periodic lighthouse tours in the summer season. Its "Eastbound Tour" includes passes by St. Helena Island Light, and includes a luncheon. Schedules and rates are available from Shepler's.  Another alternative is to charter a seaplane to make a tour of the Mackinac Straits and environs.  As of 2008, the Great Lakes Light Keepers' Association operates a single annual "Grand Light Tour" that is conducted by Shepler's Mackinac Island Ferry, and it includes a pass-by of the Spectacle Reef Light.

Spectacle Reef Light is a lighthouse east of the Straits of Mackinac and is located at the northern end of Lake Huron, Michigan. It was designed and built by Colonel Orlando Metcalfe Poe and Major Godfrey Weitzel, and was the most expensive lighthouse ever built on the Great Lakes.

Le phare de Spectacle Reef (en ""), est un phare du lac Huron, situé à 18 km à l'est du détroit de Mackinac et au nord-est deCheboygan, dans le Comté de Cheboygan, Michigan. Il a été conçu et construit par le colonel Orlando Metcalfe Poe et le major Godfrey Weitzel, et fut le phare le plus cher jamais construit sur les Grands Lacs.


Biography.

His father Bonello and mother Superla had five children and John was the youngest. Because of his studious nature, his parents sent him to Bologna to study the humanities. He was afflicted with a purulent sore on one side of his thigh. Journeying back home, he rode on the back of a donkey, which made his thigh weaker. He was lame for the rest of his life and was forced to walk with the help of a staff, for this he was nicknamed John ‘of the staff’ (dal Bastone). Attracted by the fame of the sanctity of the venerable Sylvester Gozzolini (Italian: Silvestro Guzzolini) John went to meet him. He was received into the holy order and took up a monastic way of life, about 1230. He lived for 60 years in a small cell of the Hermitage of Montefano Renowned for its love of concealment, for prudence and counsel.  Silvester then promoted him into the priesthood. John's body was racked with pain, but he nevertheless observed the greatest poverty and had no possessions beyond his needs and without permission from his spiritual father. His fellow monks confidently sought his advice in their difficulties and doubts. He continued to preach even after the death of Sylvester in 1267. Later, his sore became worse and he was taken for treatment to Fabriano, where he died. His body was laid in the church of St. Benedict in Fabriano.  On 29 August 1772, he was beatified. On 27 October 1872, in the centenary year of his being raised to the status of Blessed, the foundation stone was laid for a church in his name at Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka. The church was completed in 1881. The church was originally administered by the Silvestrines but in 1972 it was entrusted to the Franciscans.  In 2006, the Sri Lanka Post issued a stamp commemorating the 125th anniversary of the church, which is the only one in the world to be dedicated to St John dal Bastone.

Blessed John dal Bastone or Bl. John of the Staff, born Giovanni Bonello Botegoni on 24 March 1200 in Paterno, Fabriano, Italy, died 24 March 1290 in Fabriano, is a Blessed of the Roman Catholic Church.

Jean de Bâton (en italien : Giovanni Bonello Botegoni) né le à Paterno, Fabriano, en Italie, et mort le à Fabriano, est un prêtre et moine de l'ordre des Sylvestrins, vénéré comme bienheureux par l'Église catholique romaine.


History.

Incorporated in 1833, Wattsburg was once a thriving stagecoach center.

Geography.

Wattsburg is located in eastern Erie County at (42.002903, -79.809321). It is bordered to the west, north, and east by Venango Township, and to the south by Amity Township. The New York state border is to the east.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of, of which, or 3.72%, is water. Wattsburg is at the junction of French Creek with its West Branch. The borough is in the Allegheny River watershed.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 378 people, 148 households, and 97 families residing in the borough. The population density was 1,160.8 people per square mile (442.3/km2). There were 166 housing units at an average density of 509.8 per square mile (194.2/km2). The racial makeup of the borough was 99.47% White, 0.26% from other races, and 0.26% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.53% of the population.  There were 148 households, out of which 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.9% were married couples living together, 14.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.8% were non-families. 26.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.13.  In the borough the population was spread out, with 24.6% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 29.6% from 25 to 44, 23.8% from 45 to 64, and 11.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.6 males.  The median income for a household in the borough was $32,500, and the median income for a family was $37,813. Males had a median income of $29,250 versus $25,156 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $14,830. About 17.6% of families and 17.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.2% of those under age 18 and 51.4% of those age 65 or over.

Wattsburg is a borough in Erie County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 403 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Erie Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Wattsburg est un borough situé à l'est du comté d'Érié, en Pennsylvanie, aux États-Unis. En 2010, il comptait une population de. Il est incorporé en.


History.

Prior to white settlement, Aboriginal people of the Konongwootong Gundidj clan lived in the local area. The first white explorers to pass through the area were the expedition led by Major Thomas Mitchell in 1836 who spoke enthusiastically of the landscape's "green hills, soft soils and flowery plains", describing it as ideal for farming and settlement, naming it "Australia Felix". The first white settlers in the area were the Henty brothers who had landed in Portland, Victoria in 1834 and who claimed 28,000 hectares between what are now the towns of Casterton and Coleraine. 'Warrock' Station, a sheep farming settlement, was established in 1841, 26 km north of what would be Casterton.  The township of Casterton began on the crossing site of the Glenelg River, the location having been surveyed in 1840, and the first pub, the Glenelg Inn, was established in 1846 with a post-office opening the following year. The early history of the region was marred by violent clashes between settlers and Indigenous people, including multiple murders of Aboriginals that took place near Casterton in the late 1830s and early 1840s.  In 1891, a large number of Casterton women signed the Women's Suffrage Petition to be tabled in the Victorian Parliament to grant women the right to vote (which was not allowed until 1908). By the 1890s, increasing soil erosion saw wheat-farming around Casterton begin to decline and it was largely replaced by meat, wool and dairy farming. Casterton's population expanded in the early 20th century, especially in the 1920s with the arrival of large numbers of soldier-settler farmers and during the post-war era in the 1950s.  The Rail line to Casterton was closed 12 September 1977.  The town's population began to decline in the 1990s which was consistent with the statewide trend of decreasing populations in many rural areas and the ageing of the local population. The 2016 census indicated the average age of Casterton's population was 55.

Traditional ownership.

The formally recognised traditional owners for the area in which Casterton sits are the Gunditjmara People who are represented by the Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation.

The kelpie.

Casterton lays claim to be the birthplace of the breed of working dog known as the kelpie, a Scottish term meaning 'Water Sprite' and a name given to a black and tan bitch British working collie owned by Scotsman George Patterson, a farmer who lived north of Casterton in the 1870s. Patterson exchanged 'Kelpie' for a horse and the dog's new owner, a drover named Jack Gleeson, took her to Ardlethan, NSW where she mated with a black male Rutherford Sheepdog named 'Moss', producing several litters. Kelpie later mated with another male named 'Caesar', producing a female pup named 'King's Kelpie' which grew to become a champion sheepdog.  The breed was further developed and refined during the next few decades. Ardlethan also lays claim to be the birthplace of the breed.  In 1997, a working dog auction was held in Casterton, an annual event which grew to become the Casterton Kelpie Festival in 2001. The auction and festival event is now held each June in Casterton  To mark Casterton's 150th anniversary celebrations in 1996, a bronze sculpture of a kelpie by artist Peter Corlett was unveiled in front of Casterton's Town Hall.

The Fleur de Lys.

A large version of the Fleur de Lys, used as the emblem of the Scouts, is carved into Toorak Hill, a steep hill overlooking the eastern end of Casterton's main thoroughfare. The design has a circumference of 91 metres. In 1935, the Boy-Scouts and Cubs, in honour of the Silver Jubilee Celebrations of King George V, carved a large-scale version of the words 'The King' into the hill, each letter some six metres long. Encouraged by the success of this, the Scouts, to celebrate the 1941 opening of the town's new Scout-hall, carved the Fleur de Lys emblem into the hill and lit it up at night with the aid of a series of tins filled with oil-soaked rags which were set alight. Years later, the design was lit by electric strip lighting and is illuminated on most evenings throughout the year.

Community.

The town has a Community Centre, a weekly local newspaper and hosts many activities throughout the year.  The town has an Australian Rules football team competing in the Western Border Football League. Casterton Football Club, originally formed in 1875, won the Western District League Premiership 12 times between 1892 and 1963 and has won the Western Border League Premiership twice, in 1969 and 1990.  The Casterton Racing Club schedules around four horse race meetings a year including the Casterton Cup meeting in May or June.  Golfers play at the Casterton Golf Club on Penola Road.  The town has a public outdoor swimming pool, a hospital, a secondary college and State and Catholic primary schools.

Notable residents.

Notable residents of Casterton include:

Casterton is a town in Victoria, Australia, located on the Glenelg Highway, 42 kilometres east of the South Australian border, in the Shire of Glenelg. The Glenelg River passes through the town. Casterton is named after the village of Casterton in south-east Cumbria in England.

Casterton est une ville de l'État de Victoria en Australie, située sur la Glenelg Highway, à 42 kilomètres à l'est de la frontière avec l'Australie-Méridionale, dans le Comté de Glenelg. La rivière Glenelg traverse la ville. Casterton tire son nom du village de Casterton, dans le sud-est du comté de Cumbria en Angleterre.


Background.

Early life.

Valizadeh was born June 14, 1979 in Washington DC to an Iranian father and an Armenian mother from Turkey. Valizadeh has said that "My parents are Middle Eastern immigrants so racially I'm not American but Iranian and Armenian, though I don't speak their languages." Valizadeh graduated from the University of Maryland, College Park in 2001 with a degree in microbiology. He began blogging about his attempts at having sex with women, but once his internet anonymity was broken, he turned to blogging and writing full-time as a means to supporting himself, first with the publication of "Bang: The Pickup Bible That Helps You Get More Lays" (2007), and then with sex-themed travel guides on the countries he had visited.

Personal views.

2007–2018.

Valizadeh began his writing career with advice based on pick up artist culture, although by 2016 no longer identified with the term.  Valizadeh calls his system of beliefs "Neomasculinity", which he describes as a combination of biology and traditional beliefs on masculinity, and as a rejection of "Western degeneracy". Valizadeh advocates adherence to traditional heteronormative roles for men and women, and believes that feminism has harmed women, men, and society in general. In addition, he states that men and women are physically and mentally very different and that much of women's value comes from their fertility and beauty. Valizadeh describes himself as "pro-woman" in that he wants women "to live a life that is according to their biological genetics."  In a 2013 "Washington Times" Communities interview, he states that feminism has left a legacy of weaker men who are more androgynous. He went on to say that women abstain from having sex with them in preference for "bad boys".  Valizadeh has been called a "men's rights activist" by "The Daily Beast", "Salon", S. E. Smith, and others. Valizadeh does not believe the term applies to himself.  He has expressed qualified support for Donald Trump. He said that Trump's election as President of the United States would lead to the "death of political correctness". He has also said "The Daily Beast" is run by the CIA.  By 2016, Valizadeh had changed his focus from pickup advice to political commentary. His book "Free Speech Isn't Free" discusses ways in which, he says, straight men are denied freedom of speech.

2019–present.

On March 29, 2019, Valizadeh announced that after years of backsliding, he had committed himself to God and the Armenian Apostolic Church, an Oriental Orthodox Christian denomination. In light of his conversion to Christianity, Valizadeh instituted a set of new rules on his forum in which he banned discussion of extramarital sex; he also removed many of his books from print as he felt they would lead other men into committing sin. Valizadeh has stated that the "red pill" was a transitory stage in his life before he came to the realization of and taking "the final 'pill': God." Valizadeh has stated that "The God pill does feel like the final destination, where life becomes about asking Him for help and performing His will in a way that embraces good."

Controversy.

Allegations of antisemitism.

Valizadeh has been condemned for antisemitism by the Anti-Defamation League, which writes: "Valizadeh is primarily known for disparaging women and for writing a series of books on how men can have sexual exploits with women in various countries. Now, he has embraced another form of extremism by meshing his misogyny with anti-Semitism."

United States.

In a March 2012 report on "The Year in Hate and Extremism", the Southern Poverty Law Center included Valizadeh in a list of manosphere sites which it described as hateful and misogynistic. His inclusion on the list was reported by several publications, some of which mocked the inclusion for being extreme. In response to criticism, the SPLC later clarified that it was not labeling the sites as members of a hate movement, but wished to draw attention to "specific examples of misogyny and the threat, overt or implicit, of violence".  In 2014, "The Washington Post" columnist Caitlin Dewey stated that Valizadeh was one of a number of internet writers considered misogynist, writing: "Valizadeh owns the website ReturnofKings.com, which bans 'women and homosexuals' from commenting." Dewey commented that recent articles on ReturnofKings.com included titles such as "5 Reasons to Date a Girl With an Eating Disorder", "Don't Work for a Female Boss" and "Biology Says People on Welfare Should Die".  In February 2014, "The Daily Dot" magazine named Valizadeh "The Web's most infamous misogynist" and observed "his extraordinarily vitriolic and misogynistic views about women and society as a whole".  In May 2014, Valizadeh commented on the 2014 Isla Vista killings. In this incident, Elliot Rodger shot several people after writing a manifesto attributing his actions to frustration over his inceldom, that his community "is the solution to this sort of murder rampage" and that "exposing him to game may have saved lives". Valizadeh argued, "Until you give men like Rodger a way to have sex, either by encouraging them to learn game, seek out a Thai wife, or engage in legalized prostitution... it's inevitable for another massacre to occur." He also stated that "if Rodger came to me, he would have received actionable and effective advice".  In February 2015, Valizadeh was criticized for a blog post that he wrote titled "How to Stop Rape" in which he proposed legalising rape on private property. In the post, he wrote: "If rape becomes legal under my proposal, a girl will protect her body in the same manner that she protects her purse and smartphone. If rape becomes legal, a girl will not enter an impaired state of mind where she can't resist being dragged off to a bedroom with a man who she is unsure of—she'll scream, yell, or kick at his attempt while bystanders are still around. If rape becomes legal, she will never be unchaperoned with a man she doesn't want to sleep with. After several months of advertising this law throughout the land, rape would be virtually eliminated on the first day it is applied." S. E. Smith at the online magazine "xoJane" asserted that "we need to talk openly not just about how many MRAs [men's rights activists] like Roosh promote rape and violence against women, but how many of them may be rapists themselves".  Valizadeh has since said that the post was meant as satire, arguing that its very title indicates that it was not intended as pro-rape advocacy. He also said that even if studies were to show that legalizing rape would reduce the number of rapes, feminists would still oppose any legislation that solved the problem in a way that didn't "criminalize normal male behavior and erase all responsibility that a woman has".

Canada.

In 2015 Valizadeh scheduled speeches to take place in Montreal on August 8 and Toronto on August 15. In July 2015, Vancouver resident Sara Parker-Toulson launched a petition on Change.org that called for Valizadeh to be barred from entering Canada, accusing him of violating Canadian hate speech laws. It gathered over 38,000 signatures. Concordia University student Fannie Gadouas publicized the petition and was interviewed by the media following her efforts, with Montreal resident Aurelie Nix, to organize a protest event in Montreal. Nix also lodged a complaint against Valizadeh with the police, saying that he had incited his followers to make rape and death threats against her.  The petition and protest were in response to plans by Valizadeh to give speeches in Toronto and Montreal.  Quebec Member of the National Assembly Carole Poirier called on Stéphanie Vallée, Quebec Minister of Justice for Conditions for Women, to ban Valizadeh and his rhetoric from the province. Vallée responded by condemning Roosh's statements, but declined to make further comments regarding whether he should be denied entry to Canada. Reportedly in response to the negative publicity and threat of protest, the Hotel Omni Montreal, where the speech had been scheduled to be held, cancelled the event. Valizadeh asked that his followers assist him in a "counter-attack" against the demonstrators by collecting personal information about them. A café owner, who surreptitiously took a photograph of Valizadeh sitting in his establishment and published it to Instagram with an invitation to others to come confront Valizadeh, later said he felt threatened by the ensuing response from Valizadeh's followers.  Valizadeh stated that the event location was changed to a different venue and took place on August 8 as scheduled with about 34 people in attendance. Afterwards, a crowd of protestors confronted Valizadeh at a local bar and threw drinks at him, prompting him and his companions to leave the bar as the group followed while continuing to scream at Valizadeh and curse him. Valizadeh filed a complaint with police over the incident, and police said they were investigating a person known as "Jennifer" who was alleged to be one of the assailants. Commentators in the "National Post" and "Toronto Star", while taking exception to Roosh's opinions, later criticized the protestors for trying to deny Valizadeh his right to free speech, for assaulting him in the bar, and then for celebrating the assault.  Before Valizadeh's scheduled speech in Toronto on August 15, city councillor Norm Kelly and mayor John Tory denounced Valizadeh and encouraged city venues to turn him away, declaring publicly that he was not welcome in Toronto. On August 15, a protest against Valizadeh, attended by Member of Parliament Cheri DiNovo, was held at Queen's Park. Later that day, Valizadeh tweeted a photograph of himself at what he said was the event venue in Mississauga and said he delivered his speech to 56 people. Both Valizadeh and the protestors declared victory in their dispute over his appearances in Canada.

Nordic countries.

The Icelandic publication "DV" published a number of stories about Valizadeh's release of his book "Bang Iceland", calling it "derogatory". Icelandic feminist organization Femínistafélag Íslands condemned the book as a "rape guide." Another publication labelled it "slander." Icelandic writer and media persona Egill Einarsson said the book was "as wrong as possible".  Danish "Ekstra Bladet" published five articles on the release of Valizadeh's book "Don't Bang Denmark", and Danish TV aired several discussions sparked by the book.  Norwegian "Dagbladet" newspaper questioned the morality of Valizadeh's seduction tactics in an article warning about the rise of the "manosphere".  In Finland, Valizadeh's mention of the Helsinki nightclub Milliklubi in his article "The 5 Easiest Clubs In The World To Get Laid" had a negative impact on the club several days after it went out, according to the door man. The increased number of male visitors inspired by the article raised security concerns.

Baltic states.

Valizadeh's books "Bang Estonia", "Don't Bang Latvia", and "Bang Lithuania" were met with a generally negative reaction from media outlets of those countries, where he was described as a "sex tourist". During an interview with Delfi in response to a question about whether he was a sex tourist, Valizadeh responded that he was a love tourist, not a sex tourist.

South America.

South American television network TeleSUR stated: "Roosh V and other Return of the Kings members discussed plans for founding paramilitaries in Eastern Europe... They also post pictures and personal information about women for men that live nearby to stalk and threaten them. His self-published guides encourage sexual assault."

Daryush Valizadeh (born June 14, 1979), also known as Roosh Valizadeh, Roosh V and Roosh Vorek, is an American blogger, former pickup artist, and writer connected with the alt-right. Valizadeh writes on his personal blog and also owns the Return of Kings website, Roosh V Forum, where he published articles by himself and others on related subjects. Valizadeh has self-published more than a dozen sex and travel guides, most of which discuss picking up and having sex with women in specific countries. His advice, his videos and his writings have received widespread criticism, including accusations of misogyny, promotion of rape, antisemitism, and having ties to the alt-right.

Daryush Valizadeh (né le 14 juin 1979), également appelé Roosh Valizadeh, Roosh V, ou Roosh Vorek, est un blogueur et prédicateur religieux et anciennement l'auteur et le directeur de la communauté de la séduction et du mouvement antiféministe. Commençé en 2001, Roosh écrit sur son blog personnel. En 2011, il lance le forum Roosh V; en 2012, le blog "Return of Kings" (Le retour des rois), un blog auto-proclamé «pour les hommes hétérosexuels et virils»; et en 2016, le Kings Wiki, un projet aujourd'hui défunt qu'il crée avec l'homme politique quasi-néo-réactionnaire Nathan Larson. De 2007 à 2019, Roosh écrit plus d'une douzaine de guides sexuels et de voyages, dont la majorité traite de la séduction des femmes dans des pays spécifiques.


Childhood and German collaboration.

Mebenga m'Ebono was born circa 1875 in a village known as Metoutou-Engong, near Ebolowa in what is today the South Province of Cameroon. He was a member of the Yemeyema clan of the Bulu ethnic group. When Mebenga's was orphaned as an infant, his uncle, Oban Ebono, took the child into his care. In 1885, Ebono sent Mebenga to be raised by Banoho Issamba, a Batanga man who had come to prominence as a trader in the coastal settlement of Kribi. Mebenga spent the rest of his childhood there.  The young Mebenga became a favourite of the German colonials who lived in Kribi. He entered the service of German explorer Kurt von Morgan, whom he accompanied on expeditions beginning in 1889. Two years later, von Morgan paid to have m'Ebono educated in Germany.  Mebenga entered the German Military Academy, where he was given the name Samba. That November, he was baptised as Martin-Paul. Samba graduated in 1894 with the rank of captain.  Samba returned to Kamerun that same year. For the next seven years, he accompanied German expeditions under the command of Hans Dominik to explore the Kamerun hinterland and subjugate native resistance. Samba participated in actions against the settlements of Bati and Tibati and against several Ngila and Limba villages. Samba's own people came to view him as a turncoat. In 1902, he resigned his commission to become a businessman in Ebolowa.

Samba the rebel.

Samba's views slowly changed regarding the Germans. He came to disdain the colonials' mistreatment of Bulu women and children. The 1911 appointment of Karl Atangana as paramount chief of the Ewondo and Bane worried Samba, who felt that the Germans were favouring the Ewondo over the Bulu, giving the Ewondo the edge in the long rivalry between the ethnic groups. He began to entertain notions of being a great nationalist and of uniting all Kamerun under the leadership of the Bulu. Meanwhile, Samba became a chief in the Bulu hierarchy in 1910.  In 1912, Samba began actively planning an uprising. He entered correspondence with Rudolf Duala Manga Bell, a like-minded leader from the Duala ethnic group. The two decided to request aid from Germany's enemies, Samba to contact the French, and Manga Bell the British.  Meanwhile, Samba began training Bulu warriors in tactics to use against the German army. He gained the support of other southern Cameroonian leaders, including Madola of the Batanga and Edande Mbita. The rebels stockpiled weapons and munitions. Samba even requested weapons from the German themselves, ostensibly to ward off Ewondo unrest that had led to some uprisings north of Bululand.  A Bulu informant alerted the Germans of Samba's plans. By July 1914, the colonial forces were suspicious enough to search his home, where they found numerous receipts for arms purchases from British and French suppliers. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Samba sent a letter to the French forces at Brazzaville stating his intent to rebel and requesting aid against the Germans. Colonial forces intercepted the correspondence. Samba was arrested on 1 August 1914 and charged with high treason. His collaborators, Madola, Edande Mbita, and others, were also arrested when stockpiles of arms were found in their homes. The men were tried by military tribunal. All were found guilty. On 8 August 1914, Samba and his collaborators were executed by firing squad.

Martin-Paul Samba, born Mebenga m'Ebono (circa 1875 – 8 August 1914), was a Bulu military officer during the Imperial German colonial period of Cameroon. M'Ebono became a favourite of the German colonials during his upbringing in Kribi, a coastal settlement in southern Cameroon. He was sent to Germany in 1891 to enter the German Military Academy; he was baptised Martin-Paul Samba while abroad. Upon graduation, Samba returned to Cameroon and accompanied German military expeditions across the colony.

Martin-Paul Samba (né Mebenga m'Ebono vers 1875 et mort le ) était un officier militaire Bulu pendant la période coloniale impériale allemande du Cameroun. M'Ebono est devenu favori des coloniaux allemands lors de son éducation à Kribi, une colonie côtière du sud du Cameroun. Il a été envoyé en Allemagne en 1891 pour entrer à l' Académie militaire allemande ; il a été baptisé Martin-Paul Samba à l'étranger. Après avoir obtenu son diplôme, Samba est retourné au Cameroun et a accompagné les expéditions militaires allemandes à travers la colonie.


Models.

The Business Class M2 is produced in a wide range of configurations, in both medium-duty and severe-service configurations. There are three different cab configurations: a 106-inch BBC (bumper to back of cab) day cab, a 132-inch BBC extended cab, and a 154-inch BBC 4-door crew cab.<ref name="Fleet Owner 8/02"></ref> The crew-cab configuration offers seating for up to six passengers.

Truck.

M2 106.

Named for its 106-inch BBC length in daycab configuration, the M2 106 is a Class 5-8 truck available in GVWRs up to 56,000 lbs. The M2 106 is produced primarily as a straight truck, although its cab and chassis are used in the bus industry as a cutaway cab conversion.

M2 112.

Named for its 112-inch BBC length, the M2 112 is a Class 8 truck available in GVWRs up to 80,000 lbs. Although available as a straight truck like the M2 106, it is also available as a tractor. Externally, it is distinguished by a larger grille and slightly higher hoodline.

eM2.

The e-M2, an all-electric variant of this class 5 medium duty cube truck, was unveiled in mid-2018. It would have peak horsepower, using batteries, having a range of. The fast charger would allow for 80% charge in 1 hour (). It has a load capacity GCWR of., it costs $400,000; about 4 times the price of the diesel equivalent.  The truck is currently being field-tested by customers. The first out of 10 trucks was delivered to Penske Truck Leasing Corporation in Los Angeles in December 2018.

Bus.

Freightliner offers two variants of the M2 for bus use: the C2/S2 cowled chassis and the S2C cutaway cab bus chassis. Serving as the donor chassis for the Thomas Saf-T-Liner C2 school bus constructed by Freightliner subsidiary Thomas Built Buses, the C2 chassis departs from previous precedent in its higher parts commonality with the M2 106 truck. Forward of the driver's seat, the dashboard is used in its entirety; while the windshield is redesigned (enlarged), the stock windshield wipers are retained.  Outside of school bus use, Freightliner designates the cowled bus chassis as the Freightliner S2; the model is no longer offered on the Freightliner chassis website.  The Freightliner S2C is the cutaway-cab variant of the M2. Never produced with a school bus body, the S2C was intended for various commercial uses, including shuttle and transit bus use.

Severe-service trucks.

As with the FL-Series, Freightliner developed severe-service variants of the Business Class M2. While the M2 106V and M2 112V would share the same cabs and hood as the medium-duty vehicles, they were based on their own unique chassis. In 2011, Freightliner replaced the M2 106V/112V with the "SD" line of severe-service trucks, dropping them out of the Business Class M2 model range. While the 108SD and 114SD still used the M2 cab, an all-new hood and chassis was used.

Aftermarket.

Freightliner Specialty Vehicles (also known as SportChassis LLC) is a manufacturer based in Clinton, Oklahoma that produces conversions of the Business Class M2 as consumer vehicles. Several vehicles are available, including 5th-wheel tow vehicles and pickup trucks. While similar in layout to the International CXT/RXT, these differ in that they are completed by a second-stage manufacturer.

The Freightliner Business Class M2 is a model range of medium-duty trucks produced by Freightliner. In production since June 2002, the M2 was the successor to the FL-Series introduced in the 1990s.<ref name="Fleet Owner-2/02"> In terms of size, the M2 is produced in Class 5 through Class 8 GVWR ratings, competing primarily against the International Durastar and the Ford F-650/F-750 Super Duty.

Le Freightliner Business Class M2 est une gamme de modèles de camions moyens produits par Freightliner. En production depuis juin 2002, le M2 a succédé à la série FL introduite dans les années 1990 <ref name="Fleet Owner-2/02">.


History.

The term cruelty-free was first used in this way by Lady Dowding who persuaded manufacturers of fake furs to use the label "Beauty Without Cruelty" and went on to found the charity Beauty Without Cruelty in 1959. The term was popularised in the US in the 1970s by Marcia Pearson who founded the group Fashion With Compassion.

Campaigns.

In 1957 Charles Hume and W. M. S. Russell introduced the concept of the three R's in their book "Principles of Humane Experimental Technique". These techniques to reduce animals used in tests and their suffering include: replacement (eliminate an animal test altogether), reduction (fewer animals used in test by using statistical analysis) and refinement (making tests less painful).  In 1991 the European Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) was established "to promote the scientific and regulatory acceptance of alternative methods which are important to the biosciences and which reduce, refine or replace the use of laboratory animals." Once the ECVAM's Scientific Advisory Committee approves a test it must be used under the Animal Protection Act, which does not allow the use of animals when an alternative exists.  In 2012, British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection joined forces with New England Anti-Vivisection Society and the European Coalition to End Animal Experiments to create an international organization to campaign against animal testing. BUAV supporter Ricky Gervais announced the campaign—now considered a deciding factor in the European decision to ban animal testing for personal-care products. Although companies can still use animal testing in countries outside Europe (such as China, which requires animal testing on all imported cosmetics), the Leaping Bunny applies to a company's global market, and does not certify product that use animal testing anywhere in the world.

Tests.

Animals such as rabbits, rats, mice, and guinea pigs are sometimes forced to eat or inhale substances, or have a cosmetic ingredient rubbed onto their shaved skin, eyes or ears every day for 28 or 90 days to see if they have an allergic reaction. Then they are killed and cut open to examine the effects the ingredient has on internal organs. These tests are also done with pregnant animals who, after much suffering, are killed along with the fetus. In more prolonged carcinogen tests, rats are force-fed a cosmetic ingredient over two years, monitored for cancer, and then killed. Primates, dogs, such as the Beagle, and cats are used for invasive experimentation as well. Many laboratories use these species to test drugs, chemicals, and diseases, whether old or new.

Alternatives.

As technology developed, outdated animal testing is being replaced with quicker, cheaper and more accurate methods. Critics point out that humane alternatives can be slow to implement, costly, and test only one compound at a time. Alternatives have shown positive results. For example, "reconstructed human epidermis"—which uses human skin donated from cosmetic surgery to replace the rabbit Draize skin test—is more relevant to human reactions. Other methods replace the Draize eye test by using in vitro (test-tube) human tissue. Computer-based systems allow for isolation of a select tissue or organ to conduct tests in an extremely controlled environment. These tests not only reduce animal testing, but are more precise and accurate at protecting humans from toxic substances. Another cruelty-free option is using ingredients that have already been established as safe, such as the 20,000 ingredients in the European Union database.

Products.

Companies now offer a wide range of cruelty-free products such as cosmetics, personal-care products, household cleaners, clothing, shoes, condoms (which are sometimes processed with casein), and candles (which usually use paraffin or beeswax). Organizations such as PETA, Choose Cruelty Free, Coalition for Consumer Information on Cosmetics, British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, and its offshoot organization Cruelty Free International have released lists of cruelty-free products and cruel products to boycott. Since the 1990s the Leaping Bunny has been the only international third-party cruelty-free certification program.

Events.

"National Cruelty-Free Week" is an event in the United Kingdom every year arranged by the BUAV. The 2006 event was from 17–23 July. Other, similar, events include: "National Vegetarian Week", "UK Vegan Week" and "World Vegan Day", which takes place each year on November 1.

Criticisms.

While some manufacturers have begun to label their products as “not tested on animals”, “we do not conduct animal testing”, “never tested on animals”, “against animal testing” or “cruelty-free”, these labels are confusing and potentially misleading, since there is no clear legal definition as to what they mean.

In the animal rights movement, cruelty-free is a label for products or activities that do not harm or kill animals anywhere in the world. Products tested on animals are not considered cruelty-free, since these tests are often painful and cause the suffering and death of millions of animals every year.

La certification cruelty-free (traduit en français par "sans cruauté") est un label pour les produits ou les services qui ne contiennent aucun ingrédient testé sur les animaux. Les produits testés sur les animaux ne sont pas considérés comme sans cruauté, car ces tests sont souvent douloureux et mortels pour les animaux impliqués.


Background.

The United States Air Force (USAF) and the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) of the United States Department of Defense (DoD) participated in the development of the Space Shuttle from its official inception in 1969. To save money, the shuttle was intended to serve as the United States' national launch system for all civilian, military, and classified payloads. The DoD influenced key aspects of the shuttle's design such as the size of its cargo bay, and Congress reportedly told DoD that it would not pay for satellites not designed to fit into the bay.  The USAF in the 1970s hoped to buy up to three shuttles and fly them with all-military crews. As with the earlier X-20 Dyna-Soar and Manned Orbiting Laboratory, budget concerns ended the "Blue Shuttle" program, but the USAF gained the use of up to one third of all launches and the right to requisition the next available launch for high-priority payloads. It renovated an existing launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California to send shuttles into polar orbits and established the Manned Spaceflight Control Squadron at the Johnson Space Center in Houston. Squadron personnel participated in monitoring shuttle flights from NASA's Mission Control Center, where the military built a secure facility to support classified Shuttle missions. The squadron was to move to the planned DoD mission control center in Colorado that would monitor an expected 12 to 14 flights each year.

MSE.

Many active-duty USAF and other American military personnel have served (about 60% of the total in 1985), and continue to serve, as NASA astronauts. Although with the end of "Blue Shuttle" DoD no longer needed its own shuttle pilots and mission specialists, it still desired military payload specialists for classified payloads on the about 100 or more shuttle flights it expected to use. While NASA offered to train the DoD astronauts the military wanted to control their training, as DoD astronauts who went to NASA rarely returned.  In 1979, the first 13 Manned Spaceflight Engineers (MSEs) were selected, chosen from all services and based at Los Angeles Air Force Base:  In 1982, another 14 were selected, chosen only from the USAF:  In 1985, five more were selected:  The 32 MSEs were told that each would fly in space at least once. Five became generals. In 1991, Chief Warrant Officer Thomas J. Hennen, United States Army flew aboard STS-44 as the first military payload specialist since Payton and Pailes, and the first enlisted soldier in space. He was not an MSE, but assigned to the US Army Intelligence Center at Ft. Huachuca, Arizona.

Secrecy.

As a civilian agency, NASA typically freely provides details on all aspects of its operations. The DoD shuttle missions required different procedures to maintain secrecy of the classified payloads. The government viewed the flights and their payloads as secret as troop movements, asked media organizations to avoid reporting details, and threatened to investigate even speculation as potential leaks of classified information. The military did not disclose MSEs' names at first, unlike those chosen for Dyna-Soar and MOL, and the program's existence was secret until the press reported on it in 1982. The Air Force officially announced the MSE group's existence in 1983 but did not identify any members until 1985, and disclosed little about their role on flights. The press nonetheless reported in great detail on likely military payloads using open source intelligence, such as the direction of the shuttle after liftoff.  Unlike all other flights, NASA only began public countdowns a few minutes before launch, did not distribute press kits, and did not permit reporters to attend countdowns or listen to shuttle-to-ground communications. A secure USAF-NRO mission control center (the Air Force Satellite Control Facility) in Sunnyvale, California monitored the DoD payloads on flights alongside the Houston mission control (which focused on the Shuttle and attached support equipment). NASA announced civilian shuttle missions' schedules and flight routes in advance, hundreds of civilians attended most landings, and loudspeakers played radio transmissions. Only a few reporters and NASA employees, by contrast, attended the classified flights' silent landings.

Difficulties.

The MSE program faced internal and external challenges. NASA, which early on had a "sour" relationship with the MSEs, was reluctant to assign them to its flights given their lack of NASA training and the need for spots for other payload specialists. Payton said in 2016, "NASA thought of us as a bunch of snotty-nosed kids, outsiders, almost guests"; Hamel said that there was "a titanic clash of cultures (between NASA and the Air Force), and the MSEs were at the eye of the storm".  Internal USAF debates on the usefulness of manned spaceflight to the DoD caused uncertainty for MSE personnel. USAF General Ralph G. Jacobson removed Vidrine from STS-41-C one month before launch, stating that the mission had no value to the Air Force. The military declined the opportunity to send a second MSE on STS-51-C. In New regulations in 1984 that strongly encouraged USAF personnel to move to another assignment after four years caused many early MSEs to transfer out of the program, with only nine active by late 1985.

End.

DoD and Air Force had hoped to use 10 to 12 shuttle flights a year, but NASA could not fly the shuttle that often. By December 1984 DoD stated that it planned to use about 20% of the 70 shuttle flights NASA planned over the following five years, with almost all military-related launches moving to the shuttle from unmanned rockets.  Before the loss of "Challenger" in January 1986, however, ongoing launch delays caused DoD to express concern about overdependance on the shuttle. In 1983 Under Secretary of the Air Force and NRO director Pete Aldridge proposed that DoD continue purchasing unmanned rockets until the shuttle proved its reliability by flying 24 missions a year. Despite Congressional and NASA opposition, in 1984 DoD began procuring a new unmanned rocket capable of launching shuttle-sized payloads into geosynchronous orbit. In 1985 it won approval to buy ten such rockets, which became the Titan IV; NASA flew nine shuttle flights that year.  To improve DoD relations, NASA agreed to fly Aldridge on STS-62-A, scheduled for 1986 as the first Vandenberg shuttle mission. He was training for the mission and watching on television when "Challenger" was destroyed; the accident accelerated DoD plans for unmanned rockets, but several NRO payloads only the shuttle could launch were grounded until it flew again, a dilemma NRO had feared as early as the mid-1970s.  With DoD's return to unmanned rockets and less need for dedicated military astronauts, the MSE program ended in 1988 with only two MSEs having flown into space. The Houston squadron was dissolved, construction of the Colorado center ended, and the Vandenberg launch site used for unmanned rockets. Only active duty-military NASA astronauts flew on subsequent missions with DoD payloads, except Story Musgrave and Kathryn C. Thornton on STS-33.

Shuttle missions with classified payloads.

In 1993 a "high-ranking intelligence official" awarded all crewmembers of the classified shuttle flights with the National Intelligence Medal of Achievement. The astronauts were permitted to wear the medals in public and discuss details of their flights that appeared on the medals' citations.

The Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program was an effort by the United States Air Force to train American military personnel as payload specialists for United States Department of Defense missions on the Space Shuttle program.

Le Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program est un programme de l'United States Air Force (USAF) de formation de militaires en tant que spécialistes de charge utile pour des missions du Département de la Défense des États-Unis dans le cadre du programme de la navette spatiale américaine.


Practices.

Privatization.

Privatization and commodification of public assets have been among the most criticized and disputed aspects of neoliberalism. Summed up, they could be characterized by the process of transferring property from public ownership to private ownership. According to Marxist theory, this serves the interests of the capitalist class, or bourgeoisie, as it moves power from the nation's governments to private parties. At the same time, privatization generates a means for profit for the capitalist class; after a transaction they can then sell or rent to the public what used to be commonly owned, or use it as capital through the capitalist mode of production to generate more capital.

Financialization.

The wave of financialization that set in the 1980s is facilitated by governmental deregulation which has made the financial system one of the main centers of redistributive activity. Stock promotions, Ponzi schemes, structured asset destruction through inflation, asset stripping through mergers and acquisitions, dispossession of assets (raiding of pension funds and their decimation by stock and corporate collapses) by credit and stock manipulations, are, according to Harvey, central features of the post-1970s capitalist financial system. That aspect relies entirely on the fact that the quantity of money in circulation and therefore demand levels and price levels are controlled by the boards of directors of privately owned banks.  Those boards of directors are also on boards of corporations and any number of other legal vehicles who are also profiting from asset price swings. At the heart of accumulation by dispossession is the private control of the quantity of money supply that can be manipulated for private gain, which includes creating unemployment or restive conditions in the population. This process is well documented in English history as far back as prior to the founding of the Bank of England and before that in the Netherlands. The process works well with or without a central bank and with or without gold backing. The details are also manipulated from time to time as needed to satisfy popular rage or apathy.

Management and manipulation of crises.

By creating and manipulating crises, such as by suddenly raising interest rates, poorer nations can be forced into bankruptcy, and agreeing to such deals like that of the structural adjustment programs can yield more damages to those nations. Harvey reasoned that this is authorized by parties such as the U.S. Treasury, World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

State redistributions.

The neoliberal nation-state is one of the most important agents of redistributive policies. Even when privatization or commodification appear to be profitable to the lower class, in the long run it can affect the economy negatively. The state seeks redistributions through a variety of things, like changing the tax code to profit returns on investment rather than incomes and wages (of the lower classes).

Examples.

Margaret Thatcher's program for the privatization of social housing in Britain was initially seen as beneficial for the lower classes which could now move from rental to ownership at a relatively low cost, gain control over assets and increase their wealth. However, housing speculation took over following the transfers (particularly in the prime central locations), and low-income populations were forced out to the periphery. Ultimately, the new homeowners were also borrowers and paid portions of their yearly income as interest on long-term mortgages, effectively transferring a portion of their wealth to the owners of banks with licenses to create debt money from fractional reserves. Thatcher's council privatization scheme increased the potential number of borrowers in the UK by up to 20% of UK residents who lived in council housing at the end of the 1970s. Contemporary examples include attempts to deprive people of land in places like Nandigram in India and eMacambini in South Africa.  Privatization is the process of transferring public assets from the state to the private companies. Productive assets include natural resources, such as earth, forest, water, and air. Such are assets that states have used to hold in trust for the people it represents. To privatize them away and sell them as stock to private companies is what Harvey calls accumulation by dispossession.  State redistributions can be in the form of contracts given to power groups: for large infrastructures, services paid by the state and carried out by private enterprise, defense developments, research projects. One would have to find out if those contracts serve public good in a fair way or if they sustain a power structure. Also, the granting of licenses for all sorts of state sanctioned activities can turn out as unfair wealth distribution. Another important redistribution channel is by State supported financing of private enterprise activities.

Relation to Marxism.

Harvey links these practices to what Karl Marx called original or primitive accumulation, and ties these to examples from the real world. The neoliberal modernity is, according to Harvey, a modernity in which dispossession plays a large role and in which the capital class is gaining power at the expense of the labour class.

Accumulation by dispossession is a concept presented by the Marxist geographer David Harvey. It defines neoliberal capitalist policies that result in a centralization of wealth and power in the hands of a few by dispossessing the public and private entities of their wealth or land. Such policies are visible in many western nations from the 1970s and to the present day. Harvey argues these policies are guided mainly by four practices: privatization, financialization, management and manipulation of crises, and state redistributions.

L'accumulation par la dépossession ou accumulation par expropriation (« "accumulation by dispossession" ») est un phénomène de concentration des richesses entre un nombre restreint de mains, analysé par le géographe marxiste David Harvey. L'accumulation par la dépossession est un corollaire des politiques néolibérales qui dépossèdent les entités publiques et privées de leurs richesses pour les centraliser. Ces politiques ont été mises en place dans les pays occidentaux à partir des années 1970.


Early life and education.

Pakenham was the second son of Thomas Pakenham, 2nd Earl of Longford, by Lady Georgiana Emma Charlotte Lygon, daughter of William Lygon, 1st Earl Beauchamp. He was educated at Winchester College and entered the army in 1837.

Military career.

After service in both the Crimean War and the Indian Rebellion, Pakenham became Adjutant-General in India in November 1858. He was also colonel of the Northumberland Fusiliers from 1878 to his death.

Public life.

He succeeded in the earldom in 1860 on the death of his elder brother, the third Earl and was created KCB in 1861. He sat on the Conservative benches in the House of Lords and served as Under-Secretary of State for War from 1866 to 1868 under first the Earl of Derby and later Benjamin Disraeli. In February 1870 he was voted chairman of the "Central Protestant Defence Association" which was established in response to the Irish Church Act 1869. He also served as Lord Lieutenant of Longford from 1874 to 1887. In Dublin, he was a member of the Kildare Street Club.  He was created KCB in the 1861 Birthday Honours and GCB in the 1881 Birthday Honours.

Family.

Lord Longford married the Honourable Selina Rice-Trevor, daughter of George Rice-Trevor, 4th Baron Dynevor, in 1862. They had four surviving children: Thomas, Lord Pakenham, the Hon. Edward Michael, Lady Georgiana Frances Henrietta (wife of Hugh Gough, 3rd Viscount Gough) and Lady Catherine Louisa (mother of William Fletcher-Vane, 1st Baron Inglewood). Lord Longford died in April 1887, aged 68, and was succeeded in the earldom by his second but eldest surviving son. His grandson Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford, became a prominent Labour politician. The Countess of Longford survived her husband by over thirty years and died in January 1918, aged 81.

General William Lygon Pakenham, 4th Earl of Longford (31 January 1819 – 19 April 1887), styled The Honourable William Pakenham before 1860, was an Anglo-Irish soldier and Conservative politician.

Le Général William Lygon Pakenham, comte de Longford ( - ), titré l'honorable William Pakenham avant 1860, est un soldat anglo-irlandais et un politicien conservateur.


Coupe d'Union soviétique de football 1965-1966

Competition schedule.

Preliminary stage.

Group 1 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

Avangard Kolomna 2-3 SERP I MOLOT Moskva

First round.

[Apr 25, 1965]

First round replays.

[Apr 26]

Quarterfinals.

[May 6, 1965]

Semifinals.

[Jul 24, 1965]

Final.

[Aug 1, 1965]

Group 2 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

Progress Zelyonodolsk 1-1 Dinamo Kirov

Preliminary round replays.

PROGRESS Zelyonodolsk 1-0 Dinamo Kirov

First round.

[Apr 25, 1965]

Quarterfinals.

[Jul 20, 1965]

Semifinals.

[Sep 21, 1965]

Final.

TORPEDO Pavlovo w/o Rubin Kazan

Group 3 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

ENERGIYA Volzhskiy 1-0 Spartak Oryol

Preliminary round replays.

Volgar Astrakhan 0-1 ENERGIYA Novocherkassk

First round.

[Apr 25, 1965]

First round replays.

[Apr 26]

Quarterfinals.

METALLURG Kuibyshev 1-0 Neftyanik Syzran

Semifinals.

[Sep 2, 1965]

Final.

[Oct 27, 1965]

Group 4 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

DINAMO Kirovabad 3-1 Dinamo Baku

First round.

[Apr 24, 1965]

First round replays.

[Apr 25]

Quarterfinals.

[May 6, 1965]

Semifinals.

[Oct 30, 1965]

Semifinals replays.

[Oct 31]

Final.

[Nov 14, 1965]

Final replays.

[Nov 15]

Group 5 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

[Apr 18, 1965]

First round.

KHIMIK Chirchik 2-0 Metallist Jambul

First round replays.

Shakhtyor Osh 1-5 TRUD Kurgan

Quarterfinals.

METALLURG Magnitogorsk 1-0 Spartak Samarkand [aet]

Semifinals.

STROITEL Ufa 5-2 Metallurg Magnitogorsk

Final.

[Oct 9, 1965]

Group 6 (Russian Federation).

Preliminary round.

ARMEYETS Ulan-Ude 2-1 Torpedo Tomsk

First round.

[Apr 28, 1965]

First round replays.

[Apr 29]

Quarterfinals.

[May 22, 1965]

Quarterfinals replays.

[May 23]

Semifinals.

[Aug 3, 1965]

Final.

AVANGARD Komsomolsk-na-Amure 2-0 Vostok Ust-Kamenogorsk

Group Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

Preliminary round.

SHAKHTYOR Osh 6-0 Pahtakor Kurgan-Tyube

First round.

KHIMIK Chirchik 3-1 Pamir Leninabad

First round replays.

Spartak Andizhan 1-2 SHAKHTYOR Osh

Quarterfinals.

KHIMIK Chirchik 2-0 Spartak Samarkand

Semifinals.

KHIMIK Chirchik 4-1 Vakhsh Nurek

Final.

KHIMIK Chirchik 1-0 Shakhtyor Osh

Final stage.

Preliminary round.

[Jun 19]

First round.

[Jun 18]

First round replays.

[Jun 19]

Second round.

[Jul 11]

Second round replays.

[Jul 20]

Third round.

[Jul 23]

Third round replays.

[Aug 7]

Fourth round.

[Aug 13]

Quarterfinals.

[Sep 3]

Semifinals.

[Oct 7, Leningrad]

The 1965–66 Soviet Cup was an association football cup competition of the Soviet Union. The winner of the competition, Dinamo Kiev qualified for the continental tournament.

La Coupe d'Union soviétique 1965-1966 est la de la Coupe d'Union soviétique de football. Elle se déroule entre le et le. C'est la deuxième édition de la compétition à se jouer sur deux années civile après celle de 1959-1960.


Dates for abolition of the death penalty.

The clause that prohibits the death penalty has been a part of the Constitution since 1975. Sweden is a state party to the Second Optional Protocol to ICCPR (ratified in 1990), Protocol No. 6 to ECHR (1984), and Protocol No. 13 to ECHR (2003).  In the Riksdag of the Estates, a majority of the peasants worked for the abolition of the death penalty, for example when the new penalty code of 1864 was discussed.

Titles.

Two titles were used for the official who carried out the execution: "skarprättare", who carried out beheadings and "bödel", who carried out other types of capital punishment. Originally beheading by sword was reserved for nobles, where as commoners could be beheaded by axe or hanged. By the 18th century all beheadings were made by axe, for commoners and nobles alike, and some crimes such as forgery always carried the punishment of hanging. During the 19th century, each province of Sweden along with the City of Stockholm had an appointed executioner who travelled the area to carry out executions. In 1900, a national executioner () was appointed, a position that was filled by the last executioner Albert Gustaf Dahlman who until then had been responsible for carrying out executions in Stockholm.

Last execution.

Last execution.

Johan Alfred Ander was the last person executed in Sweden. He was sentenced to death for a murder during the course of a robbery that was committed in January 1910. His sentence was not commuted and he was executed 23 November at Långholmen in Stockholm using a guillotine (the only time a guillotine was used in Sweden). The executioner was Albert Gustaf Dahlman, who died in 1920. At his death at 72, he was the last of all executioners in Sweden.

Last death sentence issued.

Mohammed Beck Hadjetlaché, an exiled monarchist and member of the White movement, received the last death sentence in Sweden, on 28 May 1920, for robbery-homicide of three Russian nationals, all supposed Bolshevik sympathisers in the so-called "Ryssvillan" ("Russian villa") in 1919, though the crimes, denounced as particularly gruesome and meticulously planned, may have claimed of another four victims, all missing to this day. His accomplices received lesser penalties, and after appeal, the death sentence (as was practice at the time) was changed in Svea Hovrätt (appellate court) to a lifetime of hard labour. Hadjetlaché allegedly succumbed to mental illness in jail, and died in confinement in Långholmen in 1929.  The last woman sentenced to death – also the last death sentence "not to be reprieved" – was the "angelmaker" Hilda Nilsson, who was sentenced to the guillotine on 14 July 1917 for the murder of several infant children. She preempted the execution by hanging herself in her cell in Landskrona Citadel. It is suggested that a decision to commute the sentence had in fact been taken, but if so she did not know of it at the time of her suicide.

Last execution of a woman.

The last woman executed was Anna Månsdotter, who was executed on 7 August 1890 by decapitation with an axe. Månsdotter and her son Per Nilsson had murdered Per's wife, Hanna Johansdotter. Månsdotter was also involved in an incestuous relationship with her son, who was sentenced to life imprisonment and who was released in 1914. The last woman executed in the capital of Stockholm was Helena Katarina Löv, who was decapitated for the murder of a child on 19 September 1829.

Last public executions.

The last public executions in Sweden were carried out 18 May 1876. Both executions, by means of beheading, are supposed to have been carried out at the same time in the morning, at 7. The executed were Konrad Lundqvist Petterson Tector and Gustav Erikson Hjert and the executions were carried out at Stenkumla Backe near Visby and at Lidamon (near Malmköping). Both had been sentenced to death for the same crime, a failed robbery against a stagecoach two years earlier, which resulted in the murder of one of the passengers and the driver of the coach. The executions were carried out by Per Petter Christiansson Steineck and Johan Fredrik Hjort.

Last use of method other than beheading.

The last time a method other than beheading was practiced was in 1836; the method used was hanging by the neck. Although it was not subsequently used, it remained available as a form of capital punishment until the Penal Code of 1864 removed that option.

Last execution for other crime than murder.

The last time a death sentence was carried out for any other crime than murder was on 10 August 1853 when Mårten Persson was executed for aggravated assault at Rögla (near Ystad). The last execution carried out for a non-fatal assault was on 29 March 1837, when Anders Gustaf Lindberg was beheaded in Stockholm.

Last execution for bestiality.

In 1778, the last known execution for bestiality in Sweden happened.

Number of executions during 1800–1866, 1867–1921.

Between 1800 and 1866, 644 executions were carried out in Sweden, the second highest per-capita number in Europe after Spain. In 1864, when the Penal Code was reformed, and the use of capital punishment was severely restricted, rather than abolished (as had been proposed), and hanging was abolished. In the following years (from 1866) up until the abolishment of the death penalty in 1921, fifteen people were executed (out of about 120 sentenced). The only crime that after 1864 carried a mandatory death sentence was the slaying of a prison guard by a prisoner serving life sentence. Two of the executions carried out after 1864 were for this crime; the execution of Jonas Magnus Jonasson Borg in 1866 and the execution of Carl Otto Andersson in 1872.

Attitude towards capital punishment in the general public.

The support for capital punishment in Sweden varies between 30-40%. A 2006 study from SIFO shows that 36% of the population believes that there are crimes that should be punished by death. Support is in general more common amongst young males, but no age group shows a majority in favor of capital punishment.

Capital punishment in Sweden was last used in 1910, though it remained a legal sentence for at least some crimes until 1973. It is now outlawed by the Swedish Constitution, which states that capital punishment, corporal punishment, and torture are strictly prohibited. At the time of the abolition of the death penalty in Sweden, the legal method of execution was beheading.

La peine de mort en Suède a été appliquée pour la dernière fois en 1910, mais elle est restée une peine légale pour au moins certains crimes jusqu'en 1973. La peine de mort est désormais interdite par la Constitution suédoise, qui stipule que la peine capitale, les châtiments corporels et la torture sont strictement interdits. Au moment de l'abolition de la peine de mort en Suède, le mode d'exécution judiciaire était la décapitation notamment à la hache.


History.

2015-2016: Formation and first album "The World Standard".

In January 2015, iDOL Street held an audition for their fourth major idol group at Yoyogi Park Outer Field Stage. On March 29, 2015, Wasuta was formally announced at an iDOL Street Street-sei event. The group's image is described as a digital age idol generation that works towards the world to spread "kawaii japan idol" culture using social media and "real idol" activities. Their first performance was on April 29 at "iDOL Street Carnival 2015 - GOLDEN PARADE!!!!!" at NHK Hall.  In September 2015, the members of Wasuta appeared as in-game characters in the mobile game "Nyan Puzzle". They released their first digital single "Inu Neko. Seishun Massakari" in October 2015.  In February 2016, the members of Wasuta participated in a "student pass" promotion campaign for Sanrio Puroland, and performed their first one-man concert on February 28 at Shibuya Club Quattro. In May, Wasuta released their first full album, "The World Standard". In June, Wasuta created the song "Pawawawawan!!! Powerpuff Girls" to promote the release of "The Powerpuff Girls" series in Japan, and performed at the @JAM festival in Shanghai, China. In July Wasuta appeared at C3 CharaExpo in Singapore. In September, they were appointed as official supporters for the 20th anniversary of the Tokyo Game Show, and released the song "Gu Choki Pants no Seigi San" as the opening theme for the anime series "Heybot!" In October, the group began the radio program "World Standard Nippon", broadcasting weekly through March 2017, and released their first CD single, "Kanzen naru Idol".

2017: Idol Time PriPara and "Paradox World".

In February 2017, Wasuta released the Blu-ray video and digital album "Kanzen'naru Live House Tour 2016 Tour Final at Shibuya O-West". The same month, Wasuta released the single "Yuumei ni, Nyaritai" and performed at Japan Expo Thailand 2017. In April, the follow-up single "Just Be Yourself" was released as the opening theme for the anime series "Idol Time PriPara" and the film "PriPara Movie: Minna no Kagayake! Kirarin☆Star Live!", and the group performed at Tale in Wonderland Vol.2 in Taipei, Taiwan.  In June 2017, Wasuta returned to Taipei for the solo concert "Wasuta Land". In July, they performed in Paris, France, at Japan Expo, and in Shanghai at @JAM 2017.  In October 2017, Wasuta had same-day triple-release which included the album "Paradox World", the CD single "Saijoukyuu Paradox" (a new opening theme for "Idol Time PriPara"), and the digital live album "The World Standard ~Yume ga arukara tsuite kite ne~ @ Zepp DiverCity (Tokyo) 22.Apr. 2017". The group also announced a collaboration with the Big Echo karaoke chain.

2018: "Jumping Summer", "Kiratto Pri Chan", "Yo Quiero Vivir".

In January 2018, Wasuta performed at Japan Expo Thailand 2018. In March, the group released the music card digital single "Welcome to Dream" ("Idol Time PriPara" ending theme), followed in April by the digital single "Pretty ☆ Channel" ("Kiratto Pri☆chan" ending theme).  In June 2018, Wasuta released the mini-album "Jumping Summer", which featured collaborations with vocaloid producer Mikito P ("Platonic Girl"), Da-iCE's Taiki Kudo, and Shirose of White Jam ("Tapioca Milk Tea"). That same month, Wasuta was appointed official "Kawaii Ambassador" for the Rage Summer 2018 esports tournament, was featured in a promotion campaign for the Ise Egg company, and performed at Asia Comic Con in Bangkok, Thailand.  In July 2018, Wasuta collaborated with The Alley boba tea restaurant to promote the music video for "Tapioca Milk Tea", which included the members taking tea orders and serving fans in person. In August 2018, they collaborated with the spanish duo Adexe & Nau on a Japanese/Spanish remix of the single "Yo Quiero Vivir". On September 29-30, Wasuta performed at Japan Weekend Madrid.  In October 2018, Wasuta released the single "Kira Kira Hologram" ("Kiratto Pri☆chan" ending theme) and the mini-album "Girls Be Ambitious!"  In December 2018, Wasuta was featured in a promotion campaign for Hokkaido Resort Liner and Kiroro Ski Resort, which included special wrap-around bus images and a ski-themed music video for the song "Love Unmelt". The group was also added to the artist lineup of the Japanese mobile game "Girls Beat Stage". Wasuta performed at the Japan and Vietnam Sports & Culture Festival Kizuna at Hoa Lu Stadium in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, on December 29 and 30, 2018.

2019: "Cat'ch The World", "The Legend of WASUTA", "Shani Muni Ikiru!".

In January 2019, Wasuta performed at Japan Expo Thailand 2019 in Bangkok. In February 2019, the members of Wasuta were featured as models in a promotion campaign for the Jamie Ank spring fashion collection.  In March 2019, Wasuta returned as "Kawaii Ambassador" for the Rage Spring 2019 esports tournament and performed at @JAMxTALE 2019 in Hong Kong. Also in March, Wasuta released their third full album "Cat'ch The World", which ranked number 17 on the Oricon chart. In April, the group's song "Shining Flower" was used as the ending theme song for the second season of "Kiratto Pri☆chan".  On May 25, Wasuta performed their first North American concert at Anime North in Toronto, Canada. In June, the RPG-video-game themed mini-album "The Legend of WASUTA" was released, reaching number 15 on Oricon. In October, the group released the double-single "Shani Muni Ikiru! / Bathtub Aromatic", which was the group's first release to break into Oricon's Top 10 ranking.  Wasuta also released their first photobook "Wasuta – Wonderful Collection" in 2019, and launched their own YouTube channel for the group's music videos and video diaries (called "Wa→Tube") recorded in Japan and overseas.

2020: "Wasuta BEST", 5th Anniversary.

On February 1-2, 2020, Wasuta performed at Japan Expo Thailand 2020. Also in February, Japan's Hawaiian Pancake Factory created a limited-time "Wasuta Cafe" with special menu items designed by the group members and decorations in the Shinjuku restaurant.  In March 2020, Wasuta released the 2-CD "Wasuta BEST" collection, which included the group's lead tracks from their debut in 2015 through the 2020 song "Grapefruit Moon". The set's second disc featured 10 songs chosen by members of Wasuta’s “Wa-Ship” fan club.  On March 28, 2020, Wasuta performed a no-audience livestream concert at Line Cube Shibuya for their 5th Anniversary after the original plans for the event had been cancelled by COVID-19 restrictions. On the same day, the group's second photobook "1/5" was released, featuring images of each member in her hometown.  In April 2020, the group was featured in the Japanese mobile rhythm game "Ai Koi Noto".

The World Standard, stylized as, is a five-member Japanese idol group formed by Avex Trax in 2015. The group, which frequently uses cat-like wordplay and colorful costumes in their song lyrics and performances, has contributed songs to the anime series "Idol Time PriPara" and "Kiratto Pri Chan." Since 2016, Wasuta has released 3 albums, 3 mini-albums, 5 CD singles, 5 digital singles, 2 live albums, 1 best album, and a live concert Blu-ray from their first nationwide Japanese tour.

The World Standard (ou ) est un groupe d'idols japonais composé de cinq membres formé par Avex Trax en 2015.


Early career.

Mutolo grew up in the narrow streets of Pallavicino and neighbourhood of Partanna-Mondello in Palermo. He left school and started working as a mechanic. At the same time he was involved in car-theft ring. Since he was young he lived in the world of Cosa Nostra. Several of his blood family were members of the Mafia.  In 1965 he ended up in prison for the first time. In the Ucciardone prison in Palermo he shared a cell with Totò Riina, the future boss of the Corleonesi. Noticing the deference with which Riina was treated, Mutolo realised that his cellmate had to be someone important and ingratiated himself with Riina by letting him win at cards. When they both had left prison, Mutolo was Riina’s personal driver for a while – a position of great trust.  In 1973, Mutolo was initiated into the Partanna-Mondello family headed by Rosario Riccobono. ""When I became a member, it was for me a new life, with new rules. For me only Cosa Nostra existed"," he later recalled. He became the right-hand man of Riccobono and Riina’s trusted man for delicate missions. In 1976 and 1982, Mutolo was arrested again, and during one of his sojourns in prison, he became the cellmate of the old boss of the Corleonesi, Luciano Leggio (later he claimed that he had painted the pictures that are attributed to Leggio).  Thanks to his close ties with the Corleonesi, he survived the massacre that wiped out the old guard including former Corleonesi ally Riccobono of the Partanna-Mondello Mafia family at the end of 1982, in the midst of the Second Mafia War.

Heroin trafficker.

Important supply lines of morphine base and heroin to the Sicilian Mafia were set up in the late 1970s and early 1980s after Cosa Nostra members Pietro Vernengo and Gaspare Mutolo shared prison cells in Italy with the Turkish trafficker, Yasar Avni Mussullulu, and the Singapore-born Chinese, Koh Bak Kin. Sicilian judges estimate that between 1981 and 1983, Mussullulu alone supplied two Mafia individuals with two metric tons of morphine base for the sum of US$55 million after which he disappeared from circulation and his supply line to Italy ceased.  Koh Bak Kin was first arrested at Rome airport in 1976 with more than 20 kilograms of heroin and in 1978 was sentenced to six years in prison, where he met Mutolo. The already lenient sentence was further reduced, and Kin was released from prison in 1980. On his return to Bangkok, he was able to guarantee a steady supply of heroin to Cosa Nostra thanks to his links in northern Thailand with an emissary of the opium "baron" Khun Sa.  By tapping the phone of Mutolo, police recorded discussions about heroin smuggling between Mutolo and mafiosi in Catania. An informant was able to confirm judge Giovanni Falcone’s suspicion about the alliance between the Palermo and Catania mafias in heroin trafficking: he had participated in a meeting at Mutolo’s house in Palermo, where one of the principal bosses of Palermo, Rosario Riccobono, and the top boss of Catania, Nitto Santapaola, met to discuss a massive shipment of 500 kilos of heroin.  After turning state witness, Mutolo revealed that he organised a 400 kilogram shipment of heroin to the US in 1981. The Cuntrera-Caruana Mafia clan received half of the load, while John Gambino of the Gambino Family in New York City took care of the other 200 kilograms. The shipments were financed by consortium of Sicilian Mafia clans, who had organized a pool to provide the money to buy the merchandise from Thai suppliers. The system in the heroin-business was that every Mafia-family could invest in a shipment if it had the money.  Mutolo was arrested in 1982 before he could finish a second shipment. His Thai supplier Koh Bak Kin was arrested when Egyptian police seized a Greek ship in the Suez Canal carrying some 233 kilos of heroin on May 24, 1983. Guarding the shipment was a Sicilian mafioso – a member of Mutolo’s drug ring. Mutolo received a 16-year sentence in the Maxi Trial against the Mafia in 1987.

Pentito.

While in prison, Mutolo started to think about becoming a state witness (pentito) in December 1991. Mutolo decided to talk in early May 1992, he insisted to see Paolo Borsellino after learning that Giovanni Falcone was unavailable (Falcone ceased to be a magistrate after he had entered the Ministry of Justice in 1991). Mutolo trusted them because he knew from firsthand experience how they had worked in the Maxi Trial. Mutolo had been the chief organizer of the massive heroin ring that Falcone had broken.  However, Borsellino ran into problems with Chief Prosecutor, Pietro Giammanco. Borsellino was supposed to work on cases in south-western Sicily and Mutolo was from Palermo. There was a risk that this bureaucratic obstacle would jeopardize his cooperation. He refused to talk to anybody else and might retreat because of the uncertainty with the authorities. The stakes were high, Mutolo was probably the most important possible pentito since the defection of Francesco Marino Mannoia in 1989: he had been a cellmate and driver of Totò Riina.  Finally, Borsellino was allowed to sit in when another magistrate questioned Mutolo. On July 16, 1992, Borsellino attended another deposition of Mutolo while he was frantically investigating the killing of his friend and colleague Giovanni Falcone. The next day Mutolo started to talk about the collusion between Cosa Nostra and high-level government officials. Two days later, on July 19, 1992, Borsellino and his escort of five police officers were killed in a car bomb in Palermo on the orders of Salvatore Riina and the Sicilian Mafia Commission.  Mutolo admits to have killed more than 30 people, but has not been convicted for any of the murders. In March 1993, 56 arrest warrants were issued for murders in Palermo on the basis of testimonies made by Mutolo and Giuseppe Marchese.

Explosive declarations.

Mutolo’s declarations led to the arrest of Bruno Contrada, the deputy director of the civil intelligence service SISDE, contributed to the indictment of Giulio Andreotti and to an understanding of the context of the 1992 murders of Salvo Lima, Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino. Mutolo only began to talk of Mafia-political links after the arrest of Totò Riina in January 1993. He warned the Parliamentary Antimafia Commission presided by Luciano Violante in February 1993 of the likelihood that further attacks were being planned by the Corleonesi on the mainland.  Mutolo’s declarations had tragic consequences. On December 3, 1992, one of Italy's most prominent public prosecutors Domenico Signorino committed suicide. According to newspaper leaks, Mutolo told investigators that Signorino was ""close to certain circles I know"." Signorino had been one of the main public prosecutors at the so-called Maxi Trial in Palermo in 1987, when he demanded life sentences for 20 accused mafiosi and sought a 17-year prison term for Mutolo. Signorino had publicly rejected the accusation, and told reporters, ""if seeking 20 life sentences at the maxi-trial means I am a mafioso, then go ahead and call me that"." The judge's death inspired debate over the disclosure of unsubstantiated accusations by Mafia informers that could cause untold damage.  On December 24, 1992, Bruno Contrada – former Palermo police chief and deputy director of the civil intelligence service SISDE – was arrested due to revelations of Mutolo and another pentito, Giuseppe Marchese. Contrada informed the Mafia for upcoming police operations, and prevented an early capture of the fugitive Totò Riina.

Testifying in the US.

Mutolo also testified in the United States, at the so-called Iron Tower II trial in the Southern District of New York City against Giovanni Gambino and Giuseppe Gambino and four high-ranking members of the Sicilian Mafia. Together with another cooperating witness and mafioso turned pentito, Francesco Marino Mannoia, Mutolo provided landmark testimony documenting the ongoing nexus between the Sicilian Mafia and the American Cosa Nostra. (Sicilian Mafia member, Rosario Naimo, who acted as a representative to the American Cosa Nostra for the Sicilian Mafia, remained a fugitive, until his capture in Palermo, Sicily on October 2, 2010.)  When asked why Mutolo withheld information that Francesco Marino Mannoia had been involved in Mafia murders until he learned that Mannoia had owned up to them, Mutolo explained: ""Well, you see, a co-operator does not hurt justice anymore, because that person is on the side of the Justice Department. So I never mention Mannoia, or some other co-operators. The reason why I did that was to avoid to bring them on the spot again"."

Mafia and politics.

Mutolo explained the context of the 1992 massacres of the politician Salvo Lima and the magistrates Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino. He was the first mafioso who spoke about the connections between Cosa Nostra and Italian politicians. ""The 'normal circuit' for all problems that needed attention in Rome was: Ignazio Salvo, the honourable Salvo Lima, and senator Giulio Andreotti"," according to Mutolo. The Salvo cousins were the main contact to 'adjust' trials against mafiosi, such as the Maxi Trial of the mid-1980s. ""When the trial began, it was obvious to all'men of honour' that it was a political trial"," Mutolo explained. ""We all unanimously believed that the trial verdict would be a conviction, because the government had to demonstrate to public opinion within Italy and abroad... that it could strike a hard blow to Cosa Nostra"." However, they were assured that the appeals would modify the sentence.  The Mafia felt betrayed by Lima and Andreotti. In their opinion they had failed to block the confirmation of the sentence of the Maxi Trial by the Italian Supreme Court in January 1992, which upheld the Buscetta theorem that Cosa Nostra was a single hierarchical organisation ruled by a commission and that its leaders could be held responsible for criminal acts that were committed to benefit the organisation. The Mafia counted on Lima and Andreotti to appoint Corrado Carnevale to review the sentence. Carnevale, known as "the sentence killer", had overturned many Mafia convictions on the slenderest of technicalities previously. Carnevale, however, had to withdraw due to pressure from the public and from Giovanni Falcone – who at the time had moved to the ministry of Justice. Falcone was backed by the minister of Justice Claudio Martelli despite the fact that he served under prime minister Andreotti.  ""I knew that for any problems requiring a solution in Rome, Lima was the man we turned to"," according to Mutolo. ""Lima was killed because he did not uphold or couldn’t uphold, the commitments he had made in Palermo (...) The verdict of the Supreme Court was disaster. After the Supreme Court verdict we felt we were lost. That verdict was like a dose of poison for the mafiosi, who felt like wounded animals. That’s why they carried out the massacres. Something had to happen. I was surprised when people who had eight years of a prison sentence still to serve started giving themselves up. Then they killed Lima and I understood"."

Quotes.

After the arrest of Bernardo Provenzano in April 2006: ""When the pope dies, you can always make another, and that way, the church stays on its feet"."

Gaspare Mutolo (Palermo, February 5, 1940) is a Sicilian mafioso, also known as "Asparino". In 1992 he became a pentito (state witness against the Mafia). He was the first mafioso who spoke about the connections between Cosa Nostra and Italian politicians. Mutolo’s declarations contributed to the indictment of Italy’s former Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti and to an understanding of the context of the 1992 Mafia murders of the politician Salvo Lima and the magistrates Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino.

Gaspare Mutolo (né à Palerme le ) est un mafieux sicilien, également connu sous le nom d'« Asparino ». En 1992, il devient "pentito" (témoin d'État contre la mafia). Il a été le premier mafieux à parler des liens entre Cosa Nostra et les politiciens italiens. Les déclarations de Mutolo ont contribué à l'inculpation de l'ancien Premier ministre italien Giulio Andreotti et à la compréhension du contexte des meurtres de la mafia en 1992 envers le politicien Salvo Lima et les magistrats Giovanni Falcone et Paolo Borsellino.


Description and history.

The Pittsylvania County Courthouse is located on the east side of US Business Route 29, at the northeast corner of Bank Street. The original portion of the building, built in 1853, faces west, with a modern addition extending to the east along Bank Street. It is a two-story brick building, with a combination of Classical and Italianate styling, designed by L.M. Shumaker. It has a pedimented Greek Revival portico, supported by four fluted Doric columns, and is topped by a tall cupola housing a bell and clock.  Both the county, formed in 1767, and the town of Chatham were named for William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, then the "de facto" leader of the British government. The present court house replaced a structure built in 1783, one block west of where the old offices of the clerk still stands. The court was removed to this locality from Callands in 1777.  In 1878, Judge J.D. Coles, a district judge, was arrested and for violating the Civil Rights Act of 1875 by excluding African Americans from the jury selection process for grand juries and trial juries. Coles filed for release from custody, on the grounds that his rights as an individual and as an officer of the state had been violated. In "Ex parte Virginia", the United States Supreme Court ruled against Coles, indicating that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provided redress against the operation of state laws and the actions of state officials. It was one of a small number of victories for advocates of civil rights in the period.

The Pittsylvania County Courthouse is located at 1 North Main Street in downtown Chatham, Virginia, USA. Built in 1853, this Greek Revival building was Pittsylvania County's third courthouse. It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987, because it was the scene of events leading to "Ex parte Virginia", a United States Supreme Court case extending the Equal Protection Clause to state actions such as jury selection.

La Pittsylvania County Courthouse est un palais de justice américain situé à Chatham, dans le comté de Pittsylvania, en Virginie. Désignée Virginia Historic Landmark le, elle est inscrite au Registre national des lieux historiques depuis le et est classée National Historic Landmark depuis le.


Biography.

Acar left Senegal in 1948 for his studies at the Faculté de médecine de Paris. He graduated in 1954 and completed his military service as a field doctor in sub-Saharan Africa. He was appointed head of the clinic for infectious diseases at the Bichat–Claude Bernard Hospital in Paris in 1962.  In 1966, Acar became head of the Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases at the Hôpital Saint-Joseph in Paris, staying there until 1999. At the same time, he was head of Medical Microbiology at the Hôpital Broussais. He was a professor of medical microbiology at Pierre and Marie Curie University from 1973 until 1980, and was head of that department from 1980 to 2000.  Acar was President of the World Health Organization's taskforce on antimicrobial resistance from 1992 to 1996. He served as editor-in-chief of "Clinical Microbiology and Infection" from 1995 to 2000, and an expert for the World Organisation for Animal Health from 1999 until his death. In 2015, he became part of a taskforce of the French Ministry of Health for antimicrobial resistance.  After a vacation in the United States, Acar was hospitalized on 22 March 2020, and died of COVID-19 on 27 March. His death was widely mourned in the scientific world, including many of his former students and colleagues, such as Professor Didier Raoult.  Throughout his career, Jacques F. Acar organized seminars and teachings in more than 20 countries around the world. He was the author of more than 500 publications.

Jacques F. Acar (13 April 1931 – 27 March 2020) was a French doctor and microbiologist who specialized in antibiotics.

Jacques Fouad Acar, né le à Dakar et mort le à Paris, est un microbiologiste et infectiologue français, spécialiste de la sensibilité et de la résistance aux antibiotiques.