Statistics.

Data in Australia and United Kingdom show an almost identical pattern.  Relationships with age disparity of all kinds have been observed with both men and women as the older or younger partner. In various cultures, older men and younger women often seek one another for sexual or marital relationships. Older women sometimes date younger men as well, and in both cases wealth and physical attractiveness are often relevant. Because most men are interested in women in their 20s, adolescent boys are generally sexually interested in women somewhat older than themselves. Older men also display an interest in women of their own age.  Most men marry women younger than they are; with the difference being between two and three years in Spain, the UK reporting the difference to be on average about three years, and the US, two and a half. The pattern was also confirmed for the rest of the world, with the gap being largest in Africa. A study released in 2003 by the United Kingdom's Office for National Statistics concluded that the proportion of women in England and Wales marrying younger men rose from 15% to 26% between 1963 and 1998. Another study also showed a higher divorce rate as the age difference rose for when either the woman was older or the man was older. A 2008 study, however, concluded that the difference is not significant.  In August 2010, Michael Dunn of the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in dating. Dunn concluded that "Not once across all ages and countries... did females show a preference for males significantly younger than male preferences for females" and that there was a "consistent cross-cultural preference by women for at least same-age or significantly older men". A 2003 AARP study reported that 34% of women over 39 years old were dating younger men.  A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.

Reasons for age disparity.

Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society. The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the sex ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns. Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher the value placed in having children, the higher the age gap will be.  As people have chosen to marry later, the age differences between couples have increased as well.  In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges. These differences may be sexual, financial or social in nature. Gender roles may complicate this even further. Socially, a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship.  Although the "cougar" theme, in which older women date much younger men, is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture, at least one academic study has found the concept to be a "myth". A British psychological study published in "Evolution and Human Behavior" in 2010 concluded that men and women, in general, continued to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates. The study found that, as supported by other academic studies, most men preferred younger, physically attractive women, while most women, of any age, preferred successful, established men their age or older. The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa. The study has been criticized, however, for limiting their results to online dating profiles, which are traditionally not used by those seeking older or younger partners, and for excluding the United States from the study.

Evolutionary perspective.

Evolutionary approach.

The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of Charles Darwin, attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection. Within sexual selection Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences (sexual dimorphism): intrasexual selection (involve competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and intersexual choice (discriminative choice of mating partners). An overarching evolutionary theory which can provide an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals which leads to age disparity in relationships is called Life History theory, which also includes Parental Investment Theory. Life History theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task cannot be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.  Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment. The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex. This theory predicts both intrasexual selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment; typically there is competition among members of the lower investing sex (generally males) over the parental investment of the higher investing sex (generally females) who will be more selective in their mate choice. However, human males tend to have more parental investment compared to mammal males (although females still tend to have more parental investment). Thus, both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices. These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences. For example, different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the opposite sex at those ages.  A study conducted by David Buss investigated sex differences in mate preferences in 37 cultures with 10,047 participants. In all 37 cultures it was found that males preferred females younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves. These age preferences were confirmed in marriage records with males marrying females younger than them and vice versa. A more recent study has supported these findings, conducted by Schwarz and Hassebrauck. This study used 21,245 participants between 18 and 65 years of age who were not involved in a close relationship. As well as asking participants a number of questions on mate selection criteria, they also had to provide the oldest and youngest partner they would accept. It was found that for all ages males were willing to accept females that are slightly older than they are (on average 4.5 years older), but they accept females considerably younger than their own age (on average 10 years younger). Females demonstrate a complementary pattern, being willing to accept considerably older males (on average 8 years older) and were also willing to accept males slightly younger than themselves (on average 5 years younger). This is somewhat different to our close evolutionary relatives: chimpanzees. Male chimpanzees tend to prefer older females than younger and it is suggested that specific cues of female mate value are very different to humans.

Male preference for younger females.

Buss attributed the male preference for younger females to certain youthful cues. In females, relative youth and physical attractiveness (which males valued more compared to females) demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity. Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid-20s. From a life history theory perspective, females that display these cues are judged to be more capable of reproductive investment. This notion of age preference due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, and Cornelius's study, which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than themselves, there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own. Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than themselves.  Buss and Schmitt stress that although long-term mating relationships are common for humans, there are both short-term and long-term mating relationships. Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory that describes the two sexes as having evolved distinct psychological mechanisms that underlie the strategies for short- and long-term mating. This theory is directly relevant and compatible with those two already mentioned, Life History and Parental Investment. Males tend to appear oriented towards short-term mating (greater desire for short-term mates than women, prefer larger number of sexual partners, and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse) and this appears to solve a number of adaptive problems including using fewer resources to access a mate. Although there are a number of reproductive advantages to short-term mating, males still pursue long-term mates, and this is due to the possibility of monopolizing a female's lifetime reproductive resources. Consistent with findings, for both short-term and long-term mates, males prefer younger females (reproductively valuable).

Female preference for older males.

As they are the higher-investing sex, females tend to be slightly more demanding when picking a mate (as predicted by parental investment theory). They also tend to have a more difficult task of evaluating a male's reproductive value accurately based on physical appearance, as age tends to have fewer constraints on a male's reproductive resources. Buss attributed the older age preference to older males displaying characteristics of high providing-capacity such as status and resources. In terms of short-term and long-term mating, females tend to be oriented towards long-term mating due to the costs incurred from short-term mating. Although some of these costs will be the same for males and females (risk of STIs and impairing long term mate value), the costs for women will be more severe due to paternity uncertainty (cues of multiple mates will be disfavoured by males).  In contrast to above, in short-term mating, females will tend to favour males that demonstrate physical attractiveness, as this displays cues of 'good genes'. Cues of good genes tend to be typically associated with older males such as facial masculinity and cheek-bone prominence. Buss and Schmitt found similar female preferences for long-term mating which supports the notion that, for long-term relationships, females prefer cues of high resource capacity, one of which is age.

Cross-cultural differences.

Cross-culturally, research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females, and females with older males. In a cross-cultural study that covered 37 countries, preferences for age differences were measured and research supported the theory that people prefer to marry close to the age when female fertility is at its highest (24–25 years). Analysing the results further, cross culturally, the average age females prefer to marry is 25.4 years old, and they prefer a mate 3.4 years older than themselves, therefore their preferred mate would be aged 28.8 years of age. Males however prefer to marry when they are 27.5 years old, and a female to be 2.7 years younger than themselves, yielding their preferred mate to be 24.8 years old. The results from the study therefore show that the mean preferred marriage age difference (3.04 years averaging male and female preferred age) corresponds very closely with the actual mean marriage age difference (2.99). The preferred age of females is 24.8 years and the actual average age females marry is 25.3 years old (and 28.2 for males) which actually falls directly on the age where females are most fertile, so the sexes have evolutionarily adapted mating preferences that maximise reproductivity.  The United Nations Marriage Statistics Department measures the SMAM difference (Singulate Mean Age Marriage difference: the difference in average age at first marriage between men and women) across the main regions in the world (refer to Table. 1).

Larger than average age-gaps.

However, in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between marriage partners in that males are much older than their wife (or wives). A theory that can explain this finding from an evolutionary perspective is the parasite-stress theory which explains that an increase of infectious disease can cause humans to evolve selectively according to these pressures. Evidence also shows that as disease risk gets higher, it puts a level of stress on mating selection and increases the use of polygamy.  Table 2 shows that 17 of the 20 countries with the largest age-gaps between spouses practice polygyny, and that males range from 6.1 to 9.2 years older than their partners. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa the use of polygyny is commonly practiced as a consequence of high sex-ratios (more males born per 100 females) and passing on heterozygous (diverse) genetics from different females to offspring. When disease is prevalent, if a male is producing offspring with a more diverse range of alleles, offspring will be more likely to withstand mortality from disease and continue the family line. Another reason that polygynous communities have larger age-gaps between spouses is that intrasexual competition for females increases as fewer females remain on the marriage market (with males having more than one wife each), therefore the competitive advantage values younger females due to their higher reproductive value. As the competition for younger women becomes more common, the age in females' first marriage lower as older men seek younger and younger females.

Smaller than average age-gaps.

Comparatively in Western societies such as the US and Europe, there is a trend of smaller age-gaps between spouses, reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3.3 years. Using the same pathogen-stress model, there is a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas, and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival. Additionally, it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market and polygamy is illegal throughout most of Europe and the United States.  As access to education increases worldwide, the age of marriage increases with it, with more of the youth staying in education for longer. The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25, and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries, however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries. In some countries in Europe such as France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, Estonia, Finland and Denmark, 20–30% of women aged 20–34 are cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying. In addition to this with the gender pay gap decreasing, more women work equal hours (average of 40 hours in Europe and the US) to males and looking less for males with financial resources.  In regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America there is a lower SMAM difference than expected; however, there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions; 24% in Brazil, 20% in Nicaragua and 18% in Dominican Republic.  A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.

Social perspectives.

Social structural origin theory.

Social structural origin theory argues that the underlying cause of sex-differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society. It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person's self-concept and personality. In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. In regards to mate selection, social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage.  It is thought that a trade-off or equilibrium is reached in regards to what each gender brings to the mating partnership and that this equilibrium is most likely to be reached with a trade-off of ages when selecting a mate. Women are said to trade youth and physical attractiveness for economic security in their male partner. This economic approach to choosing a partner ultimately depends on the marital or family system that is adopted by society. Women and men tend to seek a partner that will fit in with their society's sexual division of labour. For example, a marital system based on males being the provider and females the domestic worker, favours an age gap in the relationship. An older male is more likely to have more resources to provide to the family.

The rational choice model.

The rational choice model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread-winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labour force and the gender pay gap decreases.

Age-hypogamy in relationships.

Age-hypogamy defines a relationship where the woman is the older partner, the opposite of this being age-hypergamy. Marriage between partners of roughly similar age is known as "age homogamy".  Older female–younger male relationships are, relative to age-hypergamous relationships (older male–younger female), less researched in scientific literature. Slang terms such as 'Cougar' have been used in films, TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates. The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced, middle-aged, white, affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non-commitment arrangement between the partners.  Although age-hypogamous relationships have historically been very infrequent, recent US census data has shown an increase in age-hypogamous relationships from 6.4% in 2000 to 7.7% in 2012.  There may be many reasons why age-hypogamous relationships are not very frequent"." Sexual double standards in society, in particular, may account for their rarity. Ageing in women is associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential.  There is debate in the literature as to what determines age-hypogamy in sexual relationships. A number of variables have been argued to influence the likelihood of women entering into an age-hypogamous relationship, such as racial or ethnic background, level of education, income, marital status, conservatism, age, and number of sexual partners. For example, US Census data show an exaggerated sex ratio in African American communities, whereby there were 100 African American woman for every 89 African American males. Support for this evidence was then found in regard to marriage, whereby it was shown that African American women were more likely to be in age-hypogamous or age-hypergamous marriages in comparison with White American women. However, more recent evidence has found that women belonging to racial categories besides African American or White were more likely to sleep with younger men, showing that it is still unclear which, if any, ethnic groups are more likely to have age-hypogamous relationships.  Another example illustrating the varying literature surrounding age-hypogamous relationships is research indicating that a woman's marital status can influence her likelihood of engaging in age-hypogamous relationships. It has been found that married women are less likely to be partnered with a younger male compared to non-married women in comparison to more recent findings, which provides evidence to suggest that previously married women are more likely to engage in an age-hypogamous sexual relationship compared to women who are married or who have never been married.  Despite social views depicting age-hypogamous relationships as short lived and fickle, recent research published by Psychology of Women Quarterly has found that women in age-hypogamous relationships are more satisfied and the most committed in their relationships compared to younger women or similarly aged partners. It has also been suggested that male partners to an older female partner may engage in age-hypogamous relationships due to findings that men choose beauty over age. A recent study found that when shown pictures of women of ages ranging from 20–45 with different levels of attractiveness, regardless of age, males chose the more attractive individuals as long term partners.

The "half-your-age-plus-seven" rule.

That a person should never date someone under half their age plus seven is a rule of thumb sometimes used to determine whether an age difference is socially acceptable. Although the origin of the rule is unclear, it is sometimes considered to have French origin.  In earlier sources, the rule had a different interpretation than in contemporary culture, as it was understood as a formula to calculate ideal age for the bride, instead of a lower limit for the woman's age in dating. Frederick Locker-Lampson's "Patchwork" from 1879 states the opinion "A wife should be half the age of her husband with seven years added." Max O'Rell's "Her Royal Highness Woman" from 1901 gives the rule in the format "A man should marry a woman half his age, plus seven." Similar interpretation is also present in the 1951 play "The Moon Is Blue" by F. Hugh Herbert.  The half-your-age-plus seven rule also appears in John Fox, Jr.'s "The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come" in 1903, in American newspapers in 1931, attributed to Maurice Chevalier, and in "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" attributed to Elijah Muhammad.  A study in 2000 found that the rule was fairly accurate at predicting the minimum age of woman that a man would marry or date. The rule was not found to be predictive of the minimum age a woman would marry or date, nor of the maximum age either sex would marry or date.

Slang terms.

The age disparity between two partners is typically met with some disdain in industrialized nations, and various derogatory terms for participants have arisen in the vernacular.  In English-speaking countries, where financial disparity, and an implicit money-for-companionship exchange, is perceived as central to the relationship, the elder of the two partners (perceived as the richer) is often called a "sugar daddy" or "sugar mama" depending on gender. The younger of the two is similarly called the sugar baby. In extreme cases, a person who marries into an extremely wealthy family can be labelled a gold digger, especially in cases where the wealthy partner is of extreme age or poor health; this term often describes women but can be applied to any gender.  An attractive younger woman pursued by a wealthy man who is perceived as wanting her only for her appearance may be called a trophy wife. The opposite term "trophy husband" does not have an agreed upon use, but is becoming more common in usage: some will use the term to refer to the attractive stay-at-home husband of a much more famous woman; whereas some will use it to refer to the husband of a trophy wife, as he is her trophy due to the wealth and prestige he brings her. In the latter case, the term trophy is broadened to include any substantial difference in power originating from physical appearance, wealth, or status.  The trophy label is often perceived as objectifying the partner, with or without the partner's implicit consent.  Where the primary perceived reason for a relationship with a significant age difference is sexual, many gender-specific terms have become popular in English-speaking cultures. A woman of middle to elderly age who pursues younger men is a "cougar" or "puma", and a man in a relationship with an older woman is often called a "boytoy", "toyboy", "himbo", or "cub". In reverse, the terms "rhino", "trout" and "manther" (a play on the "panther" term for women) are generally used to label an older man pursuing younger women, and the younger woman in such a relationship may be called a "kitten" or "panther". If the woman is extremely young, the man may be labelled a "cradle-snatcher" (UK) or "cradle robber" (US) In gay slang, the term "chickenhawk" may be used. If the much-younger target of affections is not of the legal age of consent, the term "jailbait" may be applied to them, with connotations cautioning against involvement. An older term for any licentious or lascivious man is a "lecher", and that term and its shortening of "lech" have become common to describe an elderly man who makes passes at much younger women.

Age disparity in sexual relationships is the difference in ages of individuals in sexual relationships. Concepts of these relationships, including what defines an age disparity, have developed over time and vary among societies. Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from evolutionary mating strategies and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross-culturally. There are also social theories for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for 'alternative' age-hypogamous relationships. Age-disparity relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependent on sociocultural norms and legal systems.

La différence d'âge entre des époux, des conjoints ou des partenaires sexuels est le nombre d'années qui sépare l'âge respectif des membres de ce couple.


Biography.

When he was still a small child, his family moved to Hamburg. At the age of sixteen, he began attending the Johanneum, a liberal arts gymnasium. On the advice of Alfred Lichtwark, the Director of the Hamburger Kunsthalle, he took classes from Arthur Siebelist, who eschewed the Academic approach and took his students to paint en plein aire.  He joined the in 1903 and, the following year, had his first exhibition at the prestigious with fellow students Friedrich Ahlers-Hestermann, Fritz Friedrichs, Walter Alfred Rosam and. He undertook a study trip to his birthplace, near Soest, in 1905, where he met the businessman, Ernst Rump, a supporter of the arts who would later become his patron. Together with Ahlers-Hestermann and Rosam, he went to Paris in 1907 and mingled with the artists at Le Dôme Café.  In 1908, at the invitation of Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, he joined Die Brücke and exhibited with them in 1909 and 1910. He resigned in 1912, but would return later. Meanwhile, in 1909, he made another trip to Paris, where he studied with Henri Matisse at his short-lived Académie. Upon returning from Paris, he took Anita Rée as a student and, together with Ahlers-Hestermann, created a studio. The arrangement was brief, as Rée apparently fell in love with Nölken and her affections were not returned.  He became a teacher at a private art school for women in 1912. He also made friends with the composer, Max Reger (Nölken was an excellent amateur pianist), and painted numerous portraits of him, one of which was purchased by one of Nölken's patrons, Oskar Troplowitz, to hang in his billiard room. In 1914, he made another trip to Paris.  He almost avoided service in World War I, but was drafted in 1917 and killed a week before the war ended, near La Capelle on the Belgian border. Two streets are named after him, in the Barmbek district of Hamburg and in Soest.

Franz Nölken (5 May 1884, Borgeln, North Rhine-Westphalia - 4 November 1918, near La Capelle) was a German Expressionist painter; occasionally associated with Die Brücke, an artists' society in Dresden.

Franz Nölken, né le à Hambourg et mort le à La Capelle dans l'Aisne, est un peintre allemand expressionniste qui fut occasionnellement membre du mouvement artistique Die Brücke.


Background.

Born in Jasin, Malacca in 1961, Liow had ambitions of being a doctor but graduated with a Bachelor of Science (Nutrition) from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) instead. He later obtained his MBA from the University of Malaya.  He is married to Datin Sri Lee Sun Loo and has three children. He is a strong advocate of healthy eating, especially eating organic food.

Political career.

Liow officially joined the Malaysian Chinese Association in 1981. Soon after graduating from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 1986, he joined MCA as a research assistant with a monthly salary of RM700. He became press secretary and later political secretary to MCA deputy president Lim Ah Lek from 1989 to 1999. After two decades of steady rise in the party, he was elected as MCA Youth Chief in 2005 and was elected as a Vice-President in 2008.  Liow was first elected as Member of Parliament for Bentong in 1999. In 2006, he was appointed as Deputy Minister of Youth and Sports in a Cabinet reshuffle. Following the 2008 general elections, Liow became Minister of Health under Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. He remained in this position after Najib Tun Razak assumed the premiership in April 2009.

Call for Second Deputy Prime Minister.

In October 2008, Liow, who was the outgoing National Youth Chief of the MCA, raised the prospect of a second Deputy Chairman of Barisan Nasional to be appointed from among its component parties. The call was made at the MCA's internal party elections. As the Deputy Chairman of Barisan Nasional would be appointed as Deputy Prime Minister, it would mean creating a second Deputy Prime Minister position. Observers felt that Liow's proposal was simply a gimmick for him to win the internal MCA party elections.  While MCA accepted UMNO's leadership of the Barisan Nasional coalition, MCA felt that its seniority in the coalition should be reflected through a second Deputy Chairman's position that would be filled by the MCA. Liow said, "MCA is the second largest component party. The proposed deputy president should be represented by the MCA."  Various MCA leaders backed Liow's proposal. Wee Ka Siong, the incoming MCA youth chief, said: "It (Barisan top leadership) must be well represented. We don’t want to see any kind of perception that Barisan is nominated by one or two parties. We don’t want to paint a picture where Barisan is dominated by one party and its decisions are accepted by the rest." Chan Kong Choy, MCA's deputy president, said: "The history in Barisan Nasional shows that there is no hard and fast rule that only the senior leaders of any party can automatically assume the positions in the coalition. Tun (then Tan Sri) Michael Chen (a former MCA deputy president) was the Barisan Nasional secretary-general in 1974."  In response to Liow's call, then Deputy Prime Minister Muhyiddin Yassin said, "The present Barisan setup is still workable. There is a history behind why the Barisan chairman is the Prime Minister and the deputy chairman is the Deputy Prime Minister and all the heads of the component parties become vice-chairmen. Since 1974 when Barisan was formed, it has been working very well. I don't think it is correct to say you cannot express your views because your post is only a vice-chairman. Sometimes you come and don't say anything at all, then even if you become deputy, it's useless."  Liow had planned to raise the issue at the Barisan Nasional level after the MCA had approved it. After winning his internal party elections, Liow, who had become the new MCA Vice-President, said: "One step at a time. Let us reform Barisan first. We reform Barisan, (and only) then we will reform the government."

2009 MCA crisis.

From late 2009 to early 2010, Liow became embroiled in a leadership crisis in MCA, vocally opposing the "Greater Unity Plan", a temporary political alliance between the factions aligned to president Ong Tee Keat and deputy president Chua Soi Lek. Liow led a third faction pushing for new elections, but was unable to persuade two-thirds of the central committee to resign, which would have triggered an election under the party constitution.  The crisis came to a close after Chua resigned on 4 March 2010. The subsequent election saw Chua being elected president, while Liow defeated Kong Cho Ha in the contest for deputy president.

MCA presidency.

In the 2013 general election, MCA suffered its worst electoral result in its history. Liow himself barely survived in his own parliamentary seat, winning by a majority of only 379 votes. MCA had previously passed a resolution not to take up cabinet posts in the government if it failed in the 13th general election. As a result of its poor performance, Chua announced that MCA would not take up its allotted cabinet posts, and Liow therefore was not appointed to a cabinet position.  In the following party poll for the presidency, Chua did not enter the contest, and Liow defeated Ong Tee Keat and Gan Ping Sieu, and was thus elected President of MCA on 21 December 2013. Shortly after Liow was elected, the MCA convened an extraordinary meeting to reverse several resolutions, including the resolution that stipulated that MCA members should not serve in federal and state governments.  The cabinet was reshuffled on 25 June 2014, and Liow was appointed as Minister of Transport in the aftermath of the MH370 incident. He was sworn in as Minister of Transport by Yang Di-Pertuan Agong on 27 June 2014.  In the aftermath of MCA's poor showing and Barisan Nasional's defeat in the 2018 general election, Liow announced that he will not stand for re-election in the next party elections. He is eventually succeeded by Wee Ka Siong.

Other appearances.

In 2009, Liow made a special appearance playing himself in a short film ""Healthy Paranoia"" of the 15Malaysia project commemorating Malaysia's independence.  In a six minute-long short video released in conjunction with the 2017 National Day celebrations entitled ""Citizens"" (), co-written and co-directed by Pete Teo and Liew Seng Tat, Liow played double roles as a minister and a citizen conversing to each other on the spirit of nation building.

External links.

Dato' Sri Liow Tiong Lai (; born 13 October 1961) is a Malaysian politician who had served in the Cabinet of Malaysia as Minister of Transport from 27 June 2014 to 10 May 2018. Previously he was Minister of Health from 18 March 2008 to 5 May 2013. He was President of the Malaysian Chinese Association (MCA), a major component party of the Barisan Nasional (BN) previous ruling coalition, from 2013 to 2018, and was the Member of Parliament for Bentong, Pahang, from 1999 to 2018.

Liow Tiong Lai (廖中莱 en chinois, Liào Zhōnglái en pinyin) est un homme politique malaisien, né le. Il est l'actuel ministre des Transports de Malaisie depuis le après avoir détenu le portefeuille du ministère de la Santé du au. Il a également été président de la Malaysian Chinese Association (association chinoise malaisienne), l'une des composantes principales de la coalition du Barisan Nasional depuis 2013, du Dewan Rakyat pour Bentong et Pahang depuis 1999.


Review.

August.

Arsenal began their season with the Community Shield against local rival side Chelsea. The Gunners won the match 1–0, following a goal by Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, who scored via a drive into the top corner. The trophy was Arsène Wenger's 15th in 18 years of being in charge of Arsenal, and presented Wenger with his first win against a side managed by José Mourinho after 13 attempts. Soon after, Arsenal began their 24th Premier League season at home to West Ham United, and inspired by the signing of goalkeeper Petr Čech, many believed Arsenal to be title contenders for the first time in 11 years. The club's solid pre-season form, however, fizzled out as they failed to win in their first two home games, with a 2–0 defeat to West Ham on the opening weekend, leaving them third-bottom, and a goalless draw with Liverpool, although Aaron Ramsey was falsely ruled offside for an early goal. With two tight wins at Crystal Palace and Newcastle United, Arsenal went into September with seven points. Arsenal did not make additional signings after Čech, leaving manager Wenger to come under fire from fans and critics.

September.

Arsenal started September with a nervy 2–0 win over Stoke City at the Emirates, with Theo Walcott and Olivier Giroud scoring. Between the Stoke clash and a trip to struggling champions Chelsea, Arsenal faced Dinamo Zagreb away in the Champions League. Despite appearing the stronger side, Arsenal slumped to a shock 2–1 defeat, with under-performing striker Giroud being sent off for two yellow cards. The week got worse as Arsenal lost 2–0 at Stamford Bridge, with Santi Cazorla (two yellows) and Gabriel being sent off, the latter incorrectly shown red by Mike Dean for a clash with Diego Costa in which the latter assaulted Laurent Koscielny. Gabriel's ban was reduced from three games to one, but Gabriel, Costa, Chelsea and Arsenal were all fined for player misconduct, with Costa suspended for three games. With the Chelsea incident resolved, Arsenal faced a tough League Cup tie with North London arch-rival club Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. Mathieu Flamini became an unsung hero with a brace, the second of which was a volley from 20 yards, both goals on the other side of a Calum Chambers own goal. Arsenal, full of confidence after eliminating their rivals, visited the only unbeaten team in the league at the time, Leicester City, who were one point and one place above Arsenal. Despite a brace from Jamie Vardy, Walcott and Giroud scored either side of three goals from Sánchez, who ended a run of seven games without a goal. Arsenal ended their month on a sour note, however, as errors from second-choice goalkeeper David Ospina saw Arsenal lose 3–2 to Olympiacos at home in the Champions League, meaning they were bottom of their group with successive games against in-form Bayern Munich coming up.

October.

Arsenal started October on a high, as three early goals—two from Alexis Sánchez and one from Mesut Özil—at the Emirates saw Arsenal breeze past Manchester United to leapfrog them into second place in the league table, behind Manchester City. Arsenal travelled to Vicarage Road two weeks later to play Watford, where goals from Sánchez, Aaron Ramsey and Olivier Giroud saw Arsenal claim another 3–0 win. Arsenal hosted German heavyweights Bayern Munich in an attempt to turn around their Champions League. Despite the German team losing only once all season, Arsenal claimed a shock 2–0 win, with Giroud and Özil scoring late in the second half. Giroud's return to form saw him return to the starting lineup ahead of Theo Walcott. Giroud thanked Wenger by inspiring the Gunners to a 2–1 win over Everton at the Emirates. Arsenal's only loss in October came between the Everton win and a 3–0 victory over Swansea City, courtesy of goals from Giroud, Laurent Koscielny and Joel Campbell, when they were stunned by Championship side Sheffield Wednesday, going out of the League Cup in a 3–0 defeat that saw Theo Walcott and Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain off injured, with goals from Ross Wallace, Lucas João and Sam Hutchinson.

November.

Arsenal were humiliated at the Allianz Arena to start November, with Bayern Munich cruising to a 5–1 win, putting Arsenal's Champions League progression in doubt. Arsenal hosted rivals Tottenham on the Sunday that followed, but with stars Héctor Bellerín, Theo Walcott, Aaron Ramsey and Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain on a list of ten injured Arsenal players, the Gunners had to struggle for a 1–1 draw. November only got worse for Arsenal, with Francis Coquelin looking at three months out, Mikel Arteta facing several weeks out after both were injured in a 2–1 defeat at West Bromwich Albion, with Santi Cazorla missing a vital penalty late on. Arsenal's Champions League form bounced back, with an Alexis Sánchez brace giving Arsenal a 3–0 win over Dinamo Zagreb at the Emirates. With Olympiacos thrashed by Bayern, Arsenal would need a two-goal cushion or a 3–2 or higher victory in Athens to progress. Arsenal's horrid month ended with more misery, with Sánchez and Cazorla both suffering injuries in a 1–1 draw with Norwich City, with Cazorla's keeping him out for three months. Oxlade-Chamberlain, Ramsey and Walcott, however, all returned at the end of the month, with the crucial Olympiacos game and a match with Premier League title contenders Manchester City coming up.

December.

Arsenal returned to form in December, starting with a 3–1 win over Sunderland, with Joel Campbell and Aaron Ramsey scoring either side of goals at either end from Olivier Giroud. Arsenal then traveled to Olympiacos, where they had failed to win in their last three games, with their last win in Greece coming in 1998. Fears were erased by a Giroud hat-trick, putting Arsenal through and demoting Olympiacos into the Europa League, only for Arsenal to draw holders Barcelona, who had knocked Arsenal out in the 2010 quarter finals and in 2011 at the same stage. The Spanish side also beat the Gunners in the 2006 final. Arsenal recorded successive victories before Christmas, winning 2–0 at Aston Villa, before a 2–1 home win over Manchester City. As things were looking up, a Boxing Day defeat at Liverpool saw surprise leaders Leicester loosen their grip on first, giving Arsenal a chance to go top with a win against Southampton, but a Shane Long brace saw Arsenal thrashed 4–0. Despite this, Arsenal still finished 2015 top of the Premier League, after a 2–0 win against AFC Bournemouth was enough to keep Arsenal ahead of Leicester on goal difference, who drew 0–0 with Manchester City in their final game of 2015.

January.

Arsenal started 2016 with an unconvincing 1–0 win over relegation scrappers Newcastle, courtesy of a late Laurent Koscielny goal. Arsenal kicked off their FA Cup defence against Sunderland at the Emirates. Their 3–1 win mirrored the clash in December, with Joel Campbell, Olivier Giroud and Aaron Ramsey scoring Arsenal's goals in identical fashion to the league tie, despite an early Jeremain Lens goal. This was followed by two away league fixtures at Liverpool and Stoke; the former was a 3–3 draw with Giroud scoring a brace and Ramsey finding the net for Arsenal, whereas the latter finished scoreless. On 24 January, Arsenal hosted local rivals Chelsea and were defeated 1-0 after Per Mertesacker was sent off. This meant they had failed to win a league game against Chelsea for the ninth league meeting in a row, and it was the sixth consecutive time they had failed to score in the fixture. Six days later, Arsenal advanced to the fifth round of the FA Cup, with Calum Chambers and Alexis Sánchez scoring in a 2–1 defeat of Championship side Burnley at home. Arsenal made one signing in January, Basel's Egyptian midfielder Mohamed Elneny completed a £5 million move.

February.

In the beginning of February, Arsenal failed to score for the third consecutive league match, playing Southampton to a stalemate at the Emirates. Mesut Özil and Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain led Arsenal back to winning ways with a 2–0 away victory at AFC Bournemouth. Arsenal then won a dramatic top of the table clash with league leaders Leicester, coming back after a Jamie Vardy penalty to win 2–1 at home, with late goals from Theo Walcott and Danny Welbeck, reducing the gap between Arsenal and Leicester in second and first to two points. Despite a dominant performance at home, Arsenal were held to a 0–0 draw by Hull City in the fifth round of the FA Cup. Arsenal subsequently returned to Champions League action by hosting title holders Barcelona. A Lionel Messi brace condemned Arsenal to a 2–0 defeat. Arsenal ended February with an away game at Manchester United, with goals from Welbeck and Özil not enough to avoid a 3–2 defeat.

March.

Arsenal started March suffering a third consecutive loss at the hands of Swansea at home; Joel Campbell's goal was cancelled out and the match finished 2–1 to Swansea. Arsenal then visited local rivals Tottenham in a make-or-break clash, as defeat would put Arsenal six points off their rivals, above Arsenal in second. Aaron Ramsey gave Arsenal a crucial lead, but a Francis Coquelin sending off for two yellow cards turned the game on its head. Toby Alderweireld and Harry Kane struck back to put Spurs ahead, but Alexis Sánchez helped the team rescue a point with a late goal, with the match finishing 2–2. Olivier Giroud and Theo Walcott scored two goals each against Hull City in the FA Cup fifth round replay to reach the quarter finals, but Arsenal went out after a 2–1 home defeat to Watford, with Danny Welbeck scoring the lone goal for the team as Arsenal's defence ended, after winning the previous two titles. Arsenal went out of their second cup competition just days later, being condemned a sixth-straight last-16 elimination from the Champions League with a 3–1 away loss to Barcelona, Mohamed Elneny's first Arsenal goal proving a mere consolation. One promising note from the defeat was the performance of Nigerian youngster Alex Iwobi, and he was rewarded with his second Premier League start against Everton at the end of March. His first club goal, and a fourth goal in nine games since return for Danny Welbeck, saw Arsenal win 2–0.

April.

Arsenal got off to a flying start in the penultimate month of the season; goals from Alexis Sánchez, Héctor Bellerín and Theo Walcott, as well as a second Premier League goal on a second start for Alex Iwobi, saw Arsenal crush Watford 4–0 at Emirates Stadium. The result kept Arsenal firmly in the title race ahead of a crucial clash at sixth-placed West Ham the following weekend, having lost the reverse tie on opening day. The result saw praise for Iwobi, who was referred to as "the next Ian Wright" by Garth Crooks. Arsenal visited West Ham the following matchday, where they blew away a 2–0 lead to draw 3–3. Sánchez, Özil and Koscielny scored. Arsenal's title hopes suffered a big blow when they were held 1–1 at home by Crystal Palace despite dominating the match, with Sánchez scoring for the team. Arsenal hosted and defeated West Brom 2–0, courtesy of a brace from Sánchez. Arsenal's chances of ending a 12-year Premier League title drought became mathematically impossible after a 0–0 away draw at Sunderland, which left them 12 points behind leaders Leicester with only three matches to play. Arsenal ended April with a 1–0 win over Norwich at Emirates Stadium, with Danny Welbeck scoring the solitary goal.

May.

After Manchester City were defeated by Southampton, Arsenal stayed in third ahead of a clash with fourth placed City. Arsenal came from behind twice to recover a 2–2 draw. Olivier Giroud ended a 15-game goal drought dating back to January with the first, while Alexis Sánchez added his seventh goal in nine games for Arsenal's second. The draw failed to secure Champions League football for 2016–17, but after Manchester United lost 3–2 to West Ham two days later secured at least a place in the qualification round. Arsenal needed a point against Aston Villa to secure automatic qualification and third place. Arsenal would have to hope a win and a shock victory by already-relegated Newcastle against Tottenham for Arsenal to pip their rivals to second. Newcastle did the impossible with a 5–1 rout of Spurs, and an Olivier Giroud hat-trick powered Arsenal to a 4–0 win over Villa. Captain Mikel Arteta, who came on as a substitute in what was his final appearance before retirement, forced an own goal by shooting in off the bar and Villa goalkeeper Mark Bunn. Arteta was given a standing ovation, while second-longest-serving player Tomáš Rosický received a guard of honour, with the club confirming both would leave at the expiration of their contracts.

Players.

Transfers.

Transfers in.

Total spending: Undisclosed

Transfers out.

Total incoming: Undisclosed

Overall transfer activity.

Spending  Summer: Undisclosed  Winter: Undisclosed  Total: Undisclosed  Income  Summer: Undisclosed  Winter: Undisclosed  Total: Undisclosed  Net expenditure  Summer: Undisclosed  Winter: Undisclosed  Total: Undisclosed

Club.

Kit.

Supplier: Puma / Sponsor: Fly Emirates

Kit information.

This is Puma's second year supplying Arsenal kit, having taken over from Nike at the beginning of the 2014–15 season.

Squad statistics.

Appearances and goals.

"Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute. Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season."

Pre-season.

Arsenal started the 2015–16 season retaining Puma as their kit supplier and Emirates as their shirt sponsor. In July, they went on a preseason tour to Asia. During this, they participated in the Premier League Asia Trophy in Singapore along with fellow Premier League sides Everton and Stoke City as well as a Singapore Selection XI. Following this tournament, Arsenal will then play in their traditional yearly Emirates Cup tournament at the Emirates Stadium, with Lyon, Villarreal and VfL Wolfsburg also participating. The match against Wolfsburg marked the return of former Arsenal striker Nicklas Bendtner, who made his first return to the Emirates Stadium with Wolfsburg.

The 2015–16 season was Arsenal's 24th season in the Premier League and 96th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. The club entered the season as the FA Cup holders, and participated in the Premier League, FA Cup, League Cup, Community Shield and the UEFA Champions League. Arsenal were favourites to get their first league title since 2004, having been league-leaders towards the New Year, but a loss of form which included successive defeats to Manchester United and Swansea City saw them lose ground on eventual winners Leicester City, although they recovered to get 2nd, their highest finish in 11 years. Arsenal's attempt of winning a third consecutive FA Cup was unsuccessful, losing to Watford at the quarter-final stage, as well as exiting in the League Cup fourth round to Sheffield Wednesday. In Europe, Arsenal recovered from a poor start to qualify for the knockout-stages, but they were defeated in both legs against Barcelona. The season covers the period from 1 July 2015 to 30 June 2016.

La saison 2015-2016 de l'Arsenal FC est la du club en Premier League. Le club est en compétition pour le Championnat d'Angleterre, la Coupe d'Angleterre, la Coupe de la Ligue anglaise, la Ligue des champions, ainsi que le Community Shield grâce sa victoire en Coupe d'Angleterre la saison précédente.


Biography.

His family name was Ma – Mazu meaning "Ancestor Ma" or "Master Ma". He was born in 709 northwest of Chengdu in Sichuan. During his years as master, Mazu lived in Jiangxi, from which he took the name "Jiangxi Daoyi".  In the "Transmission of the Lamp", compiled in 1004, Mazu is described as follows: According to the "Transmission of the Lamp", Mazu was a student of Nanyue Huairang (677-744) at Mount Heng in Hunan  A story in the entry on Nanyue Huairang in the "Transmission of the Lamp" is regarded as Mazu's enlightenment-account, though the text does not claim it as such. An earlier and more primitive version of this story appears in the "Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall" which was transcribed in 952:  This story echoes the "Vimalakirti Sutra" and the "Platform Sutra" in downgrading purificative and gradualist practices instead of direct insight into the Buddha-nature.

Mazu's Hongzhou school.

Mazu became Nanyue Huairang's dharma–successor. Eventually Mazu settled at Kung-kung Mountain by Nankang, southern Kiangsi province, where he founded a monastery and gathered scores of disciples.  Traditionally, Mazu Daoyi is depicted as a successor in the lineage of Huineng, since his teacher Nanyue Huairang is regarded as a student and successor of Huineng. This connection between Huineng and Nanyue Huairang is doubtful, being the product of later rewritings of Chan history to place Mazu Daoyi in the traditional lineages.  Mazu Daoyi is perhaps the most influential teaching master in the formation of Chan Buddhism. While Chan became the dominant school of Buddhism during the Song dynasty, the earlier Tang dynasty and Mazu Daoyi's Hongzhou school became regarded as the "golden age" of Chan. The An Lushan Rebellion (755-763) led to a loss of control by the Tang dynasty, and metropolitan Chan began to lose its status while "other schools were arising in outlying areas controlled by warlords. These are the forerunners of the Chan we know today. Their origins are obscure; the power of Shen-hui's preaching is shown by the fact that they all trace themselves to Hui-neng."  This school developed "shock techniques such as shouting, beating, and using irrational retorts to startle their students into realization". These shock techniques became part of the traditional and still popular image of Chan masters displaying irrational and strange behaviour to aid their students. Part of this image was due to later misinterpretations and translation errors, such as the loud belly shout known as "katsu". In Chinese "katsu" means "to shout", which has traditionally been translated as "yelled 'katsu'" – which should mean "yelled a yell"  During 845-846 staunchly Taoist Emperor Wuzong of Tang persecuted Buddhist schools in China alongside with other dissidents, such as Christians: This persecution was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the school of Mazu and his likes survived, and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.

Teachings.

Mazu Daoyi's teachings and dialogues were collected and published in his "Jiangxi Daoyi Chanshi Yulu" "Oral Records of Chan Master Daoyi from Jiangxi".

Buddha Nature.

Though regarded as an unconventional teacher, Mazu's teachings emphasise Buddha-nature:

Shock techniques.

Mazu Daoyi, in order to shake his students out of routine consciousness, employed novel and unconventional teaching methods. Mazu is credited with the innovations of using katsu (sudden shouts), keisaku (unexpected strikes with a stick) and unexpectedly calling to a person by name as that person is leaving. This last is said to summon original consciousness, from which enlightenment arises. Mazu also employed silent gestures, non-responsive answers to questions, and was known to grab and twist the nose of a disciple. Utilizing this variety of unexpected shocks, his teaching methods challenged both habit and vanity, a push that might inspire sudden kensho.

Subitism and dhyana (zazen).

A well-known story depicts Mazu practicing zazen but being rebuked by his teacher, Nanyue Huairang, comparing seated meditation with polishing a tile. According to Faure (Scholar), the criticism is not about dhyana as such, but "the idea of "becoming a Buddha" by means of any practice, lowered to the standing of a "means" to achieve an "end"". The criticism of seated dhyana reflects a change in the role and position of monks in Tang society, who "undertook only pious works, reciting sacred texts and remaining seated in "dhyana"". Nevertheless, seated dhyana remained an important part of the Chan tradition, also due to the influence of Guifeng Zongmi, who tried to balance dhyana and insight. "How can you rest if the one that comes as the vanguard and leaves as the rearguard isn’t dead?", Dahui Zonggao.

Use of koans.

Appearances.

Mazu appears in early Chan anthologies of lineage, encounter dialogue and koans:  Other anthologies where Mazu appears include:

Examples.

Mazu was particularly fond of using the kōan "What the mind is, what the Buddha is." In the particular case of Damei Fachang, hearing this brought about an awakening. Later this same statement was contradicted by Mazu when he taught the kung'an "No mind, No Buddha".: Other examples of kōans in which Mazu figures are as follows:

Successors.

Among Mazu's immediate students were Baizhang Huaihai (720-814) Nanquan Puyuan (748-835), and Damei Fachang (752-839).  A generation later his lineage through Baizhang came to include Huangbo Xiyun (d.850), and his celebrated successor Linji Yixuan (d.866). From Linji Yixuan derived the Linji school and the Japanese sect, the Rinzai school.  A second line was Guishan Lingyou (771-853), to whom the Guiyang school was named, and therein Yangshan Huiji (807-883).

Criticism.

The Hung-chou school has been criticised for its radical subitism.  Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰 宗密) (780–841), an influential teacher-scholar and patriarch of both the Chán and the Huayan school claimed that the Hung-chou tradition believed "everything as altogether true".  According to Zongmi, the Hung-chou school teaching led to a radical nondualism that believed that all actions, good or bad, are expressing the essential Buddha-nature, but therefore denies the need for spiritual cultivation and moral discipline. This was a dangerously antinomian view as it eliminated all moral distinctions and validated any actions as expressions of the essence of Buddha-nature.  While Zongmi acknowledged that the essence of Buddha-nature and its functioning in the day-to-day reality are but different aspects of the same reality, he insisted that there is a difference. To avoid the dualism he saw in the Northern Line and the radical nondualism and antinomianism of the Hung-chou school, Zongmi’s paradigm preserved "an ethically critical duality within a larger ontological unity", an ontology which he claimed was lacking in Hung-chou Chan.

Mazu Daoyi (709–788) (, Japanese: Baso Dōitsu) was an influential abbot of Chan Buddhism during the Tang dynasty. The earliest recorded use of the term "Chan school" is from his "Extensive Records". Master Ma's teaching style of "strange words and extraordinary actions" became paradigmatic Zen lore.

Mazu Daoyi (709-788), en chinois 马祖道一, était un maître chinois bouddhiste dans la branche Chan. Il est né dans la province du Sichuan. Il croyait que : "chaque esprit était la voie" de la l'illumination; et que "l'esprit lui-même est le bouddha". Il était aussi un patriarche de l'école Hongzhou Zong, un courant Chan durant la dynastie Tang.


Format.

The first season ran from August to December 2007 with five events held across four locations: Manila (Philippines); Seoul (South Korea); Macau (China); and Sydney (Australia). The second season runs from September to December 2008 with six events held across five locations: Macau (China); Seoul (South Korea); Auckland (New Zealand); Manila (Philippines); and Sydney (Australia). The third season was held with events held in the same locations as 2008, with the substitution of Cebu for Manila in the Philippines. In 2014 the eight season was played.  Since season three, PokerNews.com and PokerStars.tv have provided intensive online reporting, including video coverage by presenters Lynn Gilmartin, Kristy Arnett, Sarah Grant and Nicki Pickering.  The Asia Pacific Poker Tour (APPT) is responsible for bringing the first major government-sanctioned real-money Texas hold 'em poker tournaments to Korea and China. The PokerStars.net APPT Macau: Asian Poker Open in November 2007 was the first-ever poker tournament in Macau. With 352 entrants, it was also the largest poker tournament in Asia (a November 2006 event in Singapore held the previous record with 313 entrants). With 538 entrants APPT Macau 2008 was the largest poker tournament in Asia, however, that record is currently held by 2014 APPT Beijing Millions, which saw a record 2,732 players compete for ¥7,376,400 (US$1,195,647) in prize money. While the 'Millions' tournaments played out under the APPT brand, they are considered separate tournament series from the regular APPT events, as they do not run annually.  The largest APPT Main Event field record was set at the 2018 APPT Manila, which saw Singapore's Wilson Lim defeat a 1,364-strong field to claim the ₱12,970,000 (US$244,815) top prize, with the total prize pool coming in at ₱65,492,460 (US$1,236,204).

Tournament results.

"All prizes are listed in US dollars."

Winners by country.

"Up to Season 13 - APPT Taipei"

Seats at Final Tables by country.

"Up to Season 13 - APPT Taipei"

Top 10 Prizes.

"Up to Season 13 - APPT Taipei"

The Asia Pacific Poker Tour (APPT) is a major international series of poker tournaments established in 2007 and hosted in cities across the Asia Pacific. Along with other major tours such as the European Poker Tour and Latin American Poker Tour, the Asia Pacific Poker Tour is sponsored by PokerStars.

L'Asia Pacific Poker Tour (APPT) est une série de tournois de poker. L'APPT est sponsorisé par PokerStars. L'APPT est sponsorisé par PokerStars.


Career.

Ellington attended Oak Hall School in Gainesville, Florida. He had committed to attend Florida State University on a scholarship to play college baseball for the Florida State Seminoles. He underwent Tommy John surgery in September 2007, and decommitted from Florida State due to differences of opinion on how he should rehabilitate his arm after the surgery. He enrolled at Chipola College and transferred to Florida State College at Jacksonville, before finishing his collegiate career at the University of West Florida.

Miami Marlins.

The Miami Marlins selected him in the 16th round of the 2012 MLB draft. Ellington played for the Jupiter Hammerheads of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League in 2014. After the regular season, he was assigned to the Salt River Rafters Arizona Fall League (AFL), and appeared in the AFL Fall Stars Game.  In 2015, Ellington played for the Jacksonville Suns of the Double-A Southern League. The Marlins promoted Ellington to the major leagues on August 3, 2015. He made his major league debut that night. During the 2015 through 2017 seasons, Ellington appeared in 97 games with Miami, pitching to a record of 7–4 with a 4.65 earned run average (ERA) and 98 strikeouts in innings pitched. Ellington was designated for assignment on April 1, 2018. He was released by the Marlins on April 6.

Arizona Diamondbacks.

On April 20, 2018, Ellington signed a minor league deal with the Arizona Diamondbacks. After appearing in 15 minor league games, he was released on July 28, 2018.

Boston Red Sox.

On February 1, 2019, Ellington signed a minor league contract with the Boston Red Sox. He began the seasons with the Double-A Portland Sea Dogs, and was promoted to the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox in early June. He was released on June 26, 2019.

Kansas City T-Bones.

On July 3, 2019, Ellington signed with the Kansas City T-Bones of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball.

Seattle Mariners.

On July 31, 2019, Ellington's contract was purchased by the Seattle Mariners. He became a free agent following the 2019 season.

Toros de Tijuana.

On February 3, 2020, Ellington signed with the Toros de Tijuana of the Mexican League.

International career.

Ellington was chosen to play for the United States national baseball team in the 2015 Pan American Games.

Brian Michael Ellington (born August 4, 1990) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Toros de Tijuana of the Mexican League. He has previously played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Miami Marlins. Listed at and, he throws and bats right-handed.

Brian Michael Ellington (né le à Gainesville, Floride, États-Unis) est un lanceur de relève droitier des Marlins de Miami de la Ligue majeure de baseball.


Université des sciences appliquées de La Haye

History.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences was formed as the result of a merger of 14 smaller institutions of higher professional education on 1 September 1987. Technische Hogeschool Rijswijk (TH Rijswijk) later merged with the institution in 2003 and was relocated to the Delft campus in 2009. The main campus in The Hague was finished in 1996. The 82,000 square metre site was designed by architects Atelier Pro and took from 1990 to 1996 to complete. The campus is designed with several teaching wings with classrooms and laboratories spanning out from an oval shape atrium.

Campuses.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences is divided into four campuses. The main campus is located in The Hague with satellite campuses in Delft, Laan van Poot and Zoetermeer. A new sports orientated campus, Zuiderpark Sports Campus, has opened in 2016 on the old site of ADO Den Haag football stadium in The Hague.

Laakhaven.

The main campus building was completed in 1996 and is located on Johanna Westerdijkplein in The Hague next to Hollands Spoor railway station and the Laakhaven Canal. The design includes the central glass atrium main hall, offices, laboratories and classrooms. The main campus also includes offices central to the university's administration such as the Enrolment Centre which processes applications, registrations and tuition fees, the International Office which takes care of all non-academic student matters relating to English courses, exchanges and internships and the Student Affairs Office which looks after student welfare.  The Central Library stores magazines, dissertations and electronic data resources and has 400 study areas, many with PCs and Internet connections. Other facilities include a fitness centre and sports hall, a central ICT service desk providing scanning, printing and audio-visual equipment, a health centre, a main restaurant and several departmental cafés serving snacks.

Delft.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences’ building on the Delft University of Technology campus opened in 2009. The Delft campus, venue for the Technology, Innovation and Society Academy, offers seven degrees taught in Dutch including Mathematics and Applications, Electrical Engineering, Project Leader in Engineering (associate degree), Industrial Engineering and Management, Computer Engineering, Engineering Physics, Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics.

Laan van Poot.

The Laan van Poot Campus, home of the Sport Studies Academy, is located in the Vogelwijk district of The Hague known for its access to North Sea beaches and sand dunes. Two bachelor's degrees are taught here including the Physical Education Teacher Training Programme (known as HALO) and Sport Management.  A new sports and education complex, the Zuiderpark Sports Campus, is scheduled to open in 2016 at Zuiderpark on the site of the old ADO Den Haag football stadium. The complex is a joint venture between The Hague University of Applied Sciences, the municipality of The Hague and Vestia housing association. The Hague University of Applied Sciences' Physical Education Teacher Training (HALO) and Sport Management bachelor's degrees will be taught here as well as the senior secondary vocational level (MBO) Sport and Exercise course offered by the ROC Mondriaan Regional Training Centre. The complex will also include a sports hall, gymnasia, a ballroom and beach volleyball facilities.

Zoetermeer.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences established its Faculty of IT & Design in Zoetermeer, a city in the western Netherlands close to The Hague in 2003, tapping into the city's business community. In 2013 the faculty moved to the Dutch Innovation Factory, which is part of the Dutch Tech Campus. Three bachelor's degrees are taught here in Dutch: Computer Engineering, Business IT and Management and Information Security Management. The Information Security Management (ISM) program was established in 2008 in cooperation with the Platform for InformatieBeveiliging (PvIB) and the lectorate for Cyber Security & Safety. It was the first bachelor program in The Netherlands to focus on the management of information security.

Organisation and administration.

An executive board and a supervisory board govern The Hague University of Applied Sciences. The executive board is supported by service departments and an executive office support. Study programmes are grouped within academies, which are led by directors. The university also runs several research groups.  There are two types of universities in Dutch higher education: traditional research universities and universities of applied sciences. The Hague University of Applied Sciences falls under the latter category. Research universities are mainly responsible for offering research-oriented courses, whereas universities of applied sciences offer courses that focus on the practical application of arts and sciences with a focus on training and career preparation.  As of 31 December 2012, The Hague University of Applied Sciences employed a workforce of over 1,932 people, of which 65 per cent are employed as educators and 35 per cent in supporting services. The number of staff members has increased in proportion to the growing number of students. Since 2011 there has been an increase of 63 staff members.  Of the teaching staff, 73.7 per cent have a master's degree and five per cent have a PhD. In 2009, The Hague University of Applied Sciences introduced a policy whereby lecturers are only granted a permanent contract if they have a master's degree and have acquired extra skills on top of a basic teaching qualification.  The Hague University of Applied Sciences operates an 'internationalisation' policy to ensure that students obtain international competencies during their studies. Courses are structured to ensure that students can spend time abroad for studies, attend internships or summer school and take courses in a culturally diverse classroom taught by international guest lecturers.  The Hague University of Applied Sciences runs student exchange programmes in collaboration with around 300 international partners.

Faculties.

The Dutch higher education system allows students to obtain a bachelor's degree on successful completion of an undergraduate phase, and a master's degree after passing the graduate phase. Bachelor's degrees at The Hague University of Applied Sciences take three or four years of full-time study and require 240 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) credits. One ECTS credit represents 28 hours of full-time study and the study/work load for one academic year accounts for 60 credits.  The Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO) validates study programmes offered by Dutch universities. All international bachelors and masters programmes offered by The Hague University of Applied Sciences are recognised by NVAO.  EU and non-EU students must pay tuition fees for bachelor's and master's degrees and finance their living arrangements. There are a number of loans, grants and scholarships available, including The Hague University of Applied Sciences' World Citizen Scholarship.  The academic year at The Hague University of Applied Sciences starts in September and ends in mid-July. Each academic year is split into two semesters, which are divided into two half terms of six weeks, with a week's break in between. There is a six-week summer holiday and two-week Christmas break. Other breaks fall in February/March, May and October.  The university is organised into 7 Faculties:

Student body.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences saw a substantial increase in student numbers in 2012, with a student body totalling around 23,400. This represents an increase of more than two per cent from 2011, when a total of just over 22,900 students were enrolled. Enrollment in full-time courses grew by five per cent full-time and on dual programmes by six per cent.  In 2012 nearly half of the students were enrolled in economic courses and just over a quarter were enrolled in technology programmes. The Hague University of Applied Sciences' education and healthcare domains attracted eight and six per cent respectively. Approximately 13 per cent of students were enrolled in behaviour and society themed courses. International and European Law was the most highly subscribed course in 2012, with around 1,600 students, followed by European Studies, with almost 1,300 students. Around 13 per cent of students followed an English-taught programme in 2012.

Bachelor's degrees.

As of 2012, The Hague University of Applied Sciences offered 42 full-time bachelor's degree programmes in the fields of economics, healthcare, behaviour and society, information technology, education and technology.  The university also offers nine international bachelor's degrees taught in English: Industrial Design Engineering, Process and Food Technology, International and European Law, Safety and Security Management Studies, European Studies, International Communication Management, International Public Management, International Business and Management studies and International Financial Management and Control. Three are available as three year, fast-track curriculum and the other seven are four year courses.  Students require the equivalent of a Dutch system HAVO or VWO diploma to apply for a bachelors, the equivalent of a US high school diploma. The International or French Baccalaureate, German Abitur and UK A-levels are acceptable qualifications for three-year programmes. Other diplomas may also be accepted and are considered on a case-by-case basis.  Candidates who do not have a relevant international qualification can qualify for four years bachelors programmes by taking the 21+ Admission Test. To be eligible students must be at least 21 years old on 30 September 2013, be a citizen of Switzerland or a European Union or European Economic Area country and have a valid entry visa and residence permit.

Master's degrees.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences offers several master's degrees and professional courses.  Since 2004, the university has offers masters courses run by the Academy for Masters and Professional Courses (MPC) to ensure higher professional education for career development. Since 2012, the academy offers seven master's degrees, of which two are organised in collaboration with the Open University.  MPC currently runs three international masters programmes taught in English: Master of Business Administration (MBA), Masters in International Communication Management (MICM) and Master of Financial Management and Control (Formerly Master Accounting and Control). These programmes enrol students from the Netherlands and abroad.  In addition MPC offered 27 professional courses in 2012. This included courses varying from four days to a year.  The entry requirements for masters vary according to the course. Applicants must be aged 22 or older. The Masters in Accounting and Control (MAAC) requires a minimum of two years of relevant work experience and a business-related degree from a recognised university. Master's in Business Administration (MBA) applicants need a minimum of two years' relevant work experience, or a business degree or certificate from a recognized university or academic institution. Masters in International Communication Management (MICM) entrants must have a recognised bachelor's degree and a minimum of two years' work experience in communications.

International exchanges.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences welcomes around 400 exchange students from 40 nationalities on international exchanges yearly. Exchanges with universities in EU member states fall under the Erasmus programme.

International student exchange programs.

Dependable on the curriculum of a course at The Hague University of Applied Sciences, a lot of students go on exchange in order to study at a partner university. In order for students to go to another university, they have to pertain a certain amount of credits to enable themselves to do their exchange. This range and amount of time depends on the various courses The Hague University of Applied Sciences offers. This University offers student exchange programs all over the globe. These programs are based upon exchange contracts with other universities in order to provide a wide range of opportunities for the students. Not only partners are added but from time to time partnerships also end which decreases the range of possible exchange destinations. The university tries to gain more contracts in order to increase and maintain the range of partners.

English academic preparation course.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences (THU) offers six-month or one year English Academic Preparation courses (Prep School) to improve English skills and prepare students for life in the Netherlands. This concludes with an International English Language Testing System (IELTS) exam to access further courses.

Research.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences carries out practice-based research via research group leaders and their "kenniskringen", or knowledge networks. Research projects, often multidisciplinary, are determined by relevant issues from professional practice. The institution uses the new knowledge and insights generated by this research to update its teaching.  As of 1 January 2012, The Hague University of Applied Sciences had a total of 21 research groups, six of which are classed as'special' research groups, established in collaboration with external partners. The research groups were grouped into six categories in 2012: global citizenship, public administration and urban environments; economics, leadership and entrepreneurship; quality of life; from education institution to knowledge institution; the new world and (physical) technology.  In 2011 research groups at the institution organised more than three hundred lectures, seminars and conferences for both internal and external participants.  The Hague University of Applied Sciences uses a quality assurance system to assess its research. An independent, external committee assesses the research group categories once every four to six years. The quality assurance system is validated every six years by a national validation committee for research quality assurance (VKO). The quality assurance system at The Hague University of Applied Sciences received a positive validation in 2010.  The Hague University of Applied Sciences and its research group leaders also provide research methodology courses though the Academy for Masters and Professional Courses.

Student life.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences is located in The Hague, which offers cultural attractions for students such as the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, Mauritshuis gallery and the Peace Palace, as well as many music venues and theatres. The city is close to Scheveningen’s beaches, boasts green spaces like Haagse Bos and Scheveningse Bosjes and hosts the Parkpop music festival every year in June.  The city is home to many important international organisations and global companies. The Hague is known as the International City of Peace, Justice and Security and is home to around 131 international institutes and 80 justice organisations. International institutions include the Permanent Court of Arbitration, the International Court of Justice, Europol and the International Criminal Court. Multinational companies and organisations, including Shell, Siemens and T-Mobile are also located in The Hague.

Residential life.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences does not have student accommodation on campus. The university works with the student letting agency, DUWO, to supply rooms and apartments to students. DUWO supplies around 400 rooms and apartments to international students in The Hague. The rent for DUWO accommodation (known as Short Stay Housing) includes utility costs, Internet access and local taxes. All rooms are completely furnished with a bed, bed linen, a cupboard, a desk, a chair and kitchen utensils. All DUWO rooms are located in The Hague, around five to 20 minutes from the university campus. Many rooms are single rooms with shared facilities. The buildings have mixed occupancy, so men and women live together, unless specified otherwise. Shared rooms are always shared with a student of the same gender.

Groups and activities.

There are a number of student organisations run by The Hague University of Applied Sciences and concentrated in The Hague.  The Hague Student Union supports students in The Hague in areas such as housing, education and international issues. They run several debates a year.  The Foreign Student Service (FSS) is a national organisation for foreign students in the Netherlands or those planning to study there. It provides services such as study and residence information, publications including a monthly newsletter, help finding accommodation and social activities.  Organisations improving contact between international students include Interaccess and Erasmus Student Network (ESN). Interaccess organises speakers, presentations, festivals and debates and weekend social activities. ESN is one of the biggest student bodies in Europe with 12,000 members in 36 countries.  There are several student social groups in The Hague including the Haagsche Studenten Vereeniging (HSV), which runs the social club, Sociëteit Megara. HSV is a social group for students from The Hague, Delft, Leiden and Rotterdam organising social activities, sports, meals, society evenings, galas and parties. ACKU offers courses and theatre tickets and organises pub-crawls, concerts, exhibitions and films events.  The Hague Model United Nations Society is a student organisation, which simulates United Nations debates. Students discuss important and current issues in the international arena.  There are several student bodies covering areas of specific cultural and religious interest. HSFN is an organisation for Hindu students and students interested in Hinduism. Students interested in Indian and Pakistani culture and the Islamic religion can join Mashriq SV. EurasiaSV organises activities and events for students who come from Turkey or are interested in countries, culture and people. Christians and non-Christians can join Navigators Studentenvereniging Den Haag (NSDH) which runs parties, social events and weekly bible studies.  Musical societies include the Haags Studenten Symfonie Orkest. Rehearsals take place at The Hague University of Applied Sciences and students from any institution can join.

Sports.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences Sports Office organises a range of sporting activities. Students can purchase a sports and fitness card to use the sporting facilities and join classes. Sports and classes are available for members including aerobics, capoeira, golf, lacrosse, rowing, swimming, tennis, Yoga and Zumba.  The university runs a number of internal leagues in its sports hall in disciplines such as badminton, basketball, table tennis, volleyball and indoor soccer.  The Hague offers some sports orientated clubs and organisations for students, like INTAC, which organises hockey, sailing trips and skiing and the rowing club Pelargos. The Hague University of Applied Sciences has its own sailing club, Team Haagse Hogeschool, which races to the UK every year against other university teams in the Netherlands.

The Hague University of Applied Sciences (), abbreviated THUAS, is a university of applied sciences with its campuses located in and around The Hague in the Randstad metropolitan region in the west of the Netherlands. The city is the Dutch seat of government and home to many major international legal, security and peace institutions. Since the university was founded in 1987 it has expanded to four campuses in the near-side cities of The Hague, Delft and Zoetermeer. The main campus in The Hague is located behind The Hague Hollands Spoor railway station by the Laakhaven Canal.

L' université des sciences appliquées de La Haye ou la "Haute École de La Haye" (en néerlandais "De Haagse Hogeschool") a été fondée le après la fusion de quatorze petits établissements de l'enseignement supérieur de la région.


Career at BMW.

Johanna Bruhn became a secretary in her future husband's office in the 1950s and eventually became his personal assistant. The two married in 1960. After his death in 1982, she was a major shareholder in BMW and sat on its supervisory board from 1982 until she retired in 1997. Much of that time she served as deputy chairwoman of the board. She owned 16.7% of BMW at the time of her death.

Personal life.

The two children of her marriage, Stefan and Susanne, are also substantial shareholders in BMW and now sit on the supervisory board of the company. Police prevented an attempt to kidnap her and her daughter Susanne Klatten in 1978. Johanna lived quietly in Bad Homburg.  A programme by the German public broadcaster, ARD, in October 2007 described in detail the role of the Quandt family businesses during the Second World War. As a result, four family members announced, on behalf of the entire Quandt family, their intention to fund a research project in which a historian will examine the family's activities during Hitler’s dictatorship.  As of August 2014, the Quandt family is estimated to be worth $46.3 billion. Johanna Quandt died at the age of 89 in her home in Bad Homburg near Frankfurt am Main.  She created the foundation "Johanna Quandt Stiftung", to provide training for aspiring business journalists. The foundation also provides prizes for outstanding business journalism. In 2009 she was awarded the Grand Cross of Merit.

Johanna Maria Quandt ("née" Bruhn; 21 June 1926 – 3 August 2015) was a business woman and the widow of German industrialist Herbert Quandt, who resurrected BMW from bankruptcy. When she died in 2015 she was the 8th richest person in Germany (and the richest German woman), 77th richest person in the world, and the 11th richest woman worldwide according to Forbes.

Johanna Maria Quandt, née Bruhn le et morte le, est une femme d'affaires allemande et la veuve de l'industriel allemand, qui a sauvé BMW de la faillite. À sa mort en 2015, elle était la personne et la deuxième femme la plus riche d'Allemagne, la personne et la femme la plus riche du monde selon le classement Forbes.


Toxicity.

Lupinine is a hepatotoxin prevalent in the seeds of leguminous herbs of the genus "Lupinus". Lupinine and other quinolizidine alkaloids give a bitter taste to naturally growing lupin flowers. Due to the toxicity of quinolizidine alkaloids, lupin beans are soaked overnight and rinsed to remove some of their alkaloid content. However, when the cooking and rinsing procedure is insufficient, 10 grams of seeds are able to liberate as much as 100 milligrams of lupinine.  The neurotoxicity of lupinine has been known within veterinary medical circles for some time due to the use of lupins as a forage feed for grazing livestock since it has high protein content. It is found to produce lupinosis, which is a morbid, and often fatal condition that results in acute atrophy of liver function and which affects domestic animals such as cattle and sheep. When ingested by humans, quinolizidine alkaloid poisoning causes trembling, shaking, excitation, as well as convulsions. Lupinine, in addition to being orally toxic to mammals, is also an insect antifeedant as well as a growth inhibitor for the grasshopper.

Relative toxicity.

Lupinine, in comparison to other quinolizidine alkaloids commonly found in lupins, such as lupanine and sparteine, shows a lower toxicity. Lupinine, with a minimal lethal dose of 28–30 mg/kg and a toxic dose of 25–28 mg/kg, is about 85 percent as toxic as d-lupanine and about 90% as toxic as sparteine. The relative toxicity of lupinine with other quinolizidine alkaloids commonly found in lupins is shown in the table below.

Mechanism of action.

Studies on the hydrochloride of lupinine have shown it to be a reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterases. Lupinine, a nitrogen-containing heterocycle, has a structure similar to the ammonium "head" of the acetylcholinesterase endogenous agonist, acetylcholine. At physiological pH, the amine of lupinine is protonated which leads to ion-ion interaction with the acetylcholinesterase anionic site in the same manner as the ammonium on acetylcholine interacts. Previous studies of reversible onium inhibitors similar to lupinine have shown that the ammonium groups (corresponding to the protonated amine of lupinine) enter the gorge of the active center of the acetylcholinesterase in the region of the Trp residue. This leads to the formation of an enzyme-sorption complex with the anionic portion of the acetylcholinesterase located on the active site of lupinine, namely the amine. This complex blocks the access of acetylcholine to the active center which decreases the catalytic hydrolysis and subsequent breakdown of acetylcholine by acetylcholinesterase. Enzyme inactivation leads to an accumulation of acetylcholine in the body, hyperstimulation of both the muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, as well as subsequent disruption of neurotransmission. However, it was found that the time of incubation did not affect the inhibition, leading to the conclusion that lupinine is a reversible inhibitor.  Studies have also shown that lupinine has a binding affinity for both muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Lupinine was found to have an IC value of >500 μM for nicotinic receptors and an IC value of 190 μM for muscarinic receptors. However, it has yet to be determined whether this affinity is agonistic or antagonistic in nature.

Synthesis.

Biological.

Lupinine is naturally biosynthesized from l-lysine in the "Lupinus" genes of plants along with various other quinolizidine alkaloids. In the biosynthetic process, lysine is first decarboxylated into cadaverine, which is then oxidatively deaminated to the corresponding aldehyde. The aldehyde is then spontaneously cyclized into two tautmers which couple through an aldol type mechanism in which the allylic amine attacks the iminium, forming a dissymmetric dimeric intermediate which is then hydrated. The primary amine is then oxidized and an intramolecular condensation occurs, giving the quinolizidinealdehyde. The aldehyde is then reduced to an alcohol, giving, enantioselectively, (-)- lupinine.

Synthetic.

Lupinine has a chiral carbon atom; therefore, total syntheses of lupinine need to be enantioselective for (-)-lupinine in order to provide the biologically active product. The first racemic total synthesis of lupinine occurred in 1937 by Clemo, Morgan, and Raper. Six more total syntheses of lupinine followed between 1940-1956, with the first enantioselective synthesis of lupinine occurring in 1966 by Goldberg and Ragade. Since that initial enantioselective synthesis, there have been numerous total syntheses of both enantio-pure and racemic lupinine. One synthesis, notable because it describes the preparation of all four stereoisomers of lupinine, and containing many references to earlier work in this field, was published by Ma and Ni. Another total synthesis of specific note due to the enantioselectivity and limited number of steps is by Santos et al. In 2010, Santos et al. synthesized enantioselective (-)- lupinine in 36% yield over eight steps using a double Mitsunobu Reaction. First, they employed asymmetric addition of the starting materials using a Lewis acid, followed by treatment with a reducing agent and a base. This gave the (R,R)-alcohol. This configuration was inverted using a Mitsunobu reaction followed by hydrolysis, affording the (R,S) configuration of the alcohol. The alcohol was then reduced with alane, underwent another Mitsunobu reaction, was hydrolyzed to the acid and finally reduced to (-)-lupinine via alane reduction.

Isolation.

One of the earliest isolations of lupinine, from "Lupinus palmeri" collected in Utah, USA, is that reported by Couch, who was able to obtain crystalline lupinine without the use of chromatographic techniques.

Applications.

Pest control.

Lupinine is an insect antifeedant. Studies of its insecticide activity have shown it to be effective against culicine mosquito larvae which are vectors for viruses, filarial worms, and avian malaria.

Botany.

Lupins are often found growing with Castilleja (Indian paintbrush) which uses lupins as a host and confers lupinine and other alkaloids to itself. This works in tandem with the increase in nitrogen fixation to increase parasitic reproduction rates and potentially reduce herbivory activity; however, studies have shown mixed results in the efficacy of alkaloid transfer in prevention of herbivory activity.

Pre-clinical.

It has been found that lupinine shows moderate antiglycation activity with an IC value of 7.12.176 ± 7.745 μM "in vitro". Protein glycation is one of the main causes of late stage diabetic complications. In this process, proteins and sugars couple, leading to the formation of advanced glycation end-products which alter the structure and function of the proteins. The end-products lead to damage within most vital organs including nephropathy of the kidney and nerves, cataracts in the eyes, and atherosclerosis of the blood vessels which leads to impaired wound healing. This glycation process naturally increases with old age and is a well-known cause of pre-mature aging. The key therapeutic approach to prevention of this process is inhibition of the end-product formation which has been found to be facilitated by lupinine. It is hypothesized that the amine of lupinine may interact with the sugar, making it unavailable for binding with the protein. It was also found that lupinine lacks cytoxicity and therefore could function as a safe and effective antiglycation agent. However, since these findings are pre-clinical and have not been reproduced, they may not translate consistently into clinical effects on people and future studies are necessary to determine the efficacy of lupinine in preventing protein glycation in humans.

Regulations.

The European Chemicals Agency (ECA) labels lupinine under the hazard statement codes H302, H312, and H332, which indicate that lupinine is harmful if swallowed, harmful in contact with skin, and harmful if inhaled, respectively. It is given a GHS07 labeling which indicates its acute oral toxicity is category 4.

Lupinine is a quinolizidine alkaloid present in the genus "Lupinus" (colloquially referred to as lupins) of the flowering plant family Fabaceae. The scientific literature contains many reports on the isolation and synthesis of this compound as well as a vast number of studies on its biosynthesis from its natural precursor, lysine. Studies have shown that lupinine hydrochloride is a mildly toxic acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and that lupinine has an inhibitory effect on acetylcholine receptors. The characteristically bitter taste of lupin beans, which come from the seeds of "Lupinus" plants, is attributable to the quinolizidine alkaloids which they contain, rendering them unsuitable for human and animal consumption unless handled properly. However, because lupin beans have potential nutritional value due to their high protein content, efforts have been made to reduce their alkaloid content through the development of "sweet" varieties of "Lupinus".

La lupinine est un alcaloïde quinolizidinique présent dans les espèces du genre Lupin, plantes de la famille des Fabacées. Les graines de lupin, riches en protéines, ont une grande valeur nutritive, mais leur amertume, qui est due précisément à la présence d'alcaloïdes, les rend impropres à la consommation humaine ou animale. Aussi des efforts ont-ils été faits pour diminuer cette teneur en alcaloïdes et pour produire ainsi des variétés « douces ».