Toponymy.

The first European to discover Monterey Bay was Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo on November 16, 1542, while sailing northward along the coast on a Spanish naval expedition. He named the bay "Bahía de los Pinos", probably because of the forest of pine trees first encountered while rounding the peninsula at the southern end of the bay. Cabrillo's name for the bay was lost, but the westernmost point of the peninsula is still known as Point Pinos.  On December 10, 1595, Sebastián Rodríguez Cermeño crossed the bay and bestowed the name "Bahía de San Pedro" in honor of Saint Peter Martyr.  The present name for the bay was documented in 1602 by Sebastián Vizcaíno, who had been tasked by the Spanish government to complete a detailed chart of the coast. He anchored in what is now the Monterey harbor on December 16, and named it "Puerto de Monterrey", in honor of the Conde de Monterrey, then viceroy of New Spain. Monterrey is an alternate spelling of Monterrei, a municipality in the Galicia region of Spain from which the viceroy and his father (the Fourth Count of Monterrei) originated.  All other place names in the vicinity containing "Monterey" were so named because of their proximity to the bay. This includes the Presidio of Monterey, City of Monterey, County of Monterey and Monterey Canyon.

Geology.

The Monterey Canyon, one of the largest underwater canyons in the world, begins off the coast of Moss Landing, in the center of Monterey Bay. It is long, although its shape changes regularly because of currents and sediment being left in the area. The canyon is much like that of a continental slope; the biology of the canyon changes significantly in different parts of the canyon.

Flora and fauna.

Monterey Bay is home to many species of marine mammals, including sea otters, harbor seals, and bottlenose dolphins; as well as being on the migratory path of gray and humpback whales and a breeding site for elephant seals. Killer whales are also found along the coast, especially when Gray whales migrate, as they hunt the whales during their migration north. Many species of fish, sharks, mollusks such as abalone and squid, birds, and sea turtles also live in the bay. Several varieties of kelp grow in the bay, some becoming as tall as trees, forming what is known as a kelp forest.

Marine protected areas.

Soquel Canyon State Marine Conservation Area, Portuguese Ledge State Marine Conservation Area, Pacific Grove Marine Gardens State Marine Conservation Area, Lovers Point State Marine Reserve, Edward F. Ricketts State Marine Conservation Area and Asilomar State Marine Reserve are marine protected areas in Monterey Bay. Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.

Communities around Monterey Bay.

Clockwise around the bay, generally from north to south. Inland communities are indented:

Monterey Bay is a bay of the Pacific Ocean located on the coast of the U.S. state of California. The bay is south of the major cities of San Francisco and San Jose. The county-seat city of Santa Cruz is located at the north end of the bay. The city of Monterey is on the Monterey Peninsula at the south end. The Monterey Bay Area is a local colloquialism sometimes used to describe the whole of the Central Coast communities of Santa Cruz and Monterey counties.

La baie de Monterey est une baie de la côte californienne, située au sud de San Francisco, entre Santa Cruz au nord et Monterey au sud. Elle est bordée par Sand City à l'est.


Plot.

CBS cameraman Harry Hinkle (Jack Lemmon) is injured when football player Luther "Boom Boom" Jackson (Ron Rich) of the Cleveland Browns runs into him during a home game at Municipal Stadium. Harry's injuries are minor, but his conniving lawyer brother-in-law William H. "Whiplash Willie" Gingrich (Walter Matthau) convinces him to pretend that his leg and hand have been partially paralyzed, so they can receive a huge indemnity from the insurance company. Harry reluctantly goes along with the scheme because he is still in love with his ex-wife, Sandy (Judi West), and being injured might bring her back.  The insurance company's lawyers at O'Brien, Thompson and Kincaid (Harry Holcombe, Les Tremayne, and Lauren Gilbert) suspect that the paralysis is a fake. All but one of their medical experts say that it is real, convinced by the remnants of a compressed vertebra Hinkle suffered as a child, and Hinkle's responses, helped by the numbing shots of novocaine Gingrich has had a paroled dentist (Ned Glass) give him. The one holdout, Swiss Professor Winterhalter (Sig Ruman), is convinced that Hinkle is a fake.  With no medical evidence to base their case on, O'Brien, Thompson and Kincaid hire Cleveland's best private detective, Chester Purkey (Cliff Osmond), to keep Hinkle under constant surveillance. However, Gingrich sees Purkey entering the apartment building across the street and lets Hinkle know they are being watched and recorded – and after Sandy returns, warns him not to indulge in any hanky panky with her. He proceeds to feed misinformation to Purkey; he incorporates the "Harry Hinkle Foundation", a non-profit charity to which all the proceeds of any settlement are to go, above and beyond the medical expenses. When Sandy questions Gingrich about this in private, he tells her that it is just a scam to put pressure on the insurance company to settle, and that there will be enough money in the settlement for everyone.  Hinkle begins to enjoy having Sandy back again, but he feels bad when he sees that Boom-Boom is so guilt-ridden, his performance on the field suffers; he is booed by the fans and then grounded by the team for getting drunk and involved in a bar fight. Hinkle wants Gingrich to represent Boom-Boom, but to Hinkle's displeasure, Gingrich says he is too busy negotiating with O'Brien, Thompson & Kincaid. Hinkle also finds out that Sandy has returned to him strictly out of greed.  Hinkle obtains a $200,000 settlement check. However, Purkey has a plan to expose the scam. He shows up at the apartment to collect his hidden microphones. He begins to make racist remarks about Boom-Boom and "our black brothers" getting out of hand. Hinkle, incensed, jumps up out his wheelchair and decks Purkey, but Purkey's assistant Max (Noam Pitlik) is not sure he recorded it on film because "It's a little dark". Hinkle asks Purkey if he would like a second take, turns on a light and advises the cameraman how to set his exposure. He then punches Purkey again, and follows up by swinging from curtain rods and bouncing on the bed. Sandy is crawling on the floor looking for her lost contact lens, and just before he leaves the apartment, Hinkle roughly pushes her down to the ground with his foot. Gingrich claims he had no idea that his client was deceiving him, and announces his intention to sue the insurance company lawyers for invasion of privacy and report Purkey's racist remarks to various organizations.  Hinkle drives to the stadium, where he finds Boom-Boom ready to leave the team and perhaps become a wrestler named "The Dark Angel". Hinkle manages to snap Boom-Boom out of his funk, and the two run down the fields passing and lateraling a football back and forth between them.

Production.

This was the first film to feature the movie partnership of Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau, who were to appear together in ten films: †<br>  Matthau and Lemmon also both had roles in "JFK" but shared no scenes together.  Jack Lemmon originally had two other actors proposed to star with him – Frank Sinatra and Jackie Gleason – but Lemmon insisted that he do the picture with Walter Matthau. Production on the film was halted for weeks after Walter Matthau had a heart attack. By the time Matthau was healthy enough to work, and filming started up again, he had slimmed down from 190 to 160 pounds, and had to wear a heavy black coat and padded clothing to conceal the weight loss.  Scenes were filmed during the Cleveland Browns' 27–17 loss to the Minnesota Vikings at Cleveland Stadium on the afternoon of October 31, 1965. "Saint Mark's Hospital" in the film is the newly completed St. Vincent Charity Hospital, a curved building considered ultramodern at that time. An exterior scene was filmed on East 24th Street outside an older section of the hospital. Terminal Tower served as the exterior of the law firm. In one scene, one can see Erieview Tower and the steel skeleton of the Anthony J. Celebrezze Federal Building under construction.

Reception.

Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called the film, "a fine, dark gag-filled hallucination"  "Variety" found the film "generally amusing (often wildly so), but overlong"  "The Hollywood Reporter" asserted that The Fortune Cookie was "Billy Wilder's best picture since "The Apartment", his funniest since "Some Like it Hot".

Box office.

"The Fortune Cookie" grossed $6,000,000 at the North American box office, making it the 23rd highest-grossing film of 1966. The film earned $6.8 million worldwide.

References.

Notes

The Fortune Cookie (alternative UK title: Meet Whiplash Willie) is a 1966 black comedy film starring Jack Lemmon and Walter Matthau in their first on-screen collaboration. It was produced and directed by Billy Wilder from a script by Wilder and I.A.L. Diamond.

La Grande Combine (titre original : "The Fortune Cookie") est un film américain réalisé par Billy Wilder sorti en 1966, avec Jack Lemmon et Walter Matthau.


History.

Following the decision in 1963 to approve Chile as the site for the ESO observatory, scouting parties were sent to various locations to assess their suitability. The site that was decided upon was La Silla in the southern part of the Atacama desert, 600 km north of Santiago de Chile and at an altitude of 2400 metres. Besides being government property, it had the added benefits of being in a dry, flat and easily accessible area, yet isolated and remote from any artificial light and dust sources. Originally named the Cinchado, it was renamed La Silla ("the saddle" in Spanish) after its saddle-like shape. On October 30, 1964, the contracts were signed and an area of was purchased the following year. During 1965, temporary facilities were erected with living quarters, a workshop and storage area. The dedication ceremony of the road to the summit took place in March 1966, two months after completion of the road.  On 25 March 1969, the ESO site at La Silla was finally formally inaugurated by President Eduardo Frei Montalva. With a permanent base of dormitories, workshops, hotels and several functioning telescopes, the observatory was fully operational. The ESO 1.5-metre and ESO 1-metre telescopes had been erected in the late 1960s, and were joined in 1968 by the Gran Prismo Objectif telescope, which had previously been used in South Africa. These three telescopes can be seen in this order from right to left in the background of the image on the left from June 1968.  By 1976, the largest telescope planned, the, started operations. It was subsequently to have a 1.4m CAT (Coudé Auxiliary Telescope) attached. In 1984, the 2.2m telescope began operations, while in March 1989, the 3.5 m New Technology Telescope (NTT) saw first light. The program reached its apex with the installation of the SEST in 1987 (Swedish ESO Submillimetre Telescope), the only large submillimetre telescope in the southern hemisphere, which was a combined project between ESO and the Swedish Natural Science Research Council. Around the end of the century some of the original telescopes were closed: the 1m Schmidt closed in 1998 and the 1.5m in 2002, while new equipment owned by various foreign observatories was introduced. A 1-metre telescope owned by Marseille Observatory opened in 1998, followed by a 1.2-metre telescope from Geneva Observatory in 2000.

Telescopes.

ESO operates three major optical and near infrared telescopes at the La Silla site: the New Technology Telescope (NTT), the 3.6-m ESO Telescope, and the 2.2-m Max-Planck-ESO Telescope (MPG/ESO Telescope). In addition La Silla hosts several other national and project telescopes such as the ESO 1-metre Schmidt Telescope, the 1.54-m Danish Telescope, the 1.2-m Leonhard Euler Telescope, the Rapid Eye Mount telescope, TRAPPIST and TAROT. These telescopes are not operated by ESO and hence do not fall under the responsibility of La Silla Science Operations.

ESO 3.6 m Telescope.

This 3.6 m Cassegrain telescope started operations in 1976 and has been constantly upgraded since, including the installation of a new secondary mirror that has kept the telescope in its place as one of the most efficient and productive engines of astronomical research. The telescope hosts HARPS, the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, the world's foremost exoplanet hunter. HARPS is a spectrograph with unrivalled precision and is the most successful finder of low-mass exoplanets to date. Since April 2008, HARPS has been the only instrument available at the 3.6 m telescope.

New Technology Telescope.

The ESO New Technology Telescope (NTT) is an Alt-Az, 3.58-metre Richey-Chretien telescope which pioneered the use of active optics. The telescope and its enclosure had a revolutionary design for optimal image quality. NTT saw first light in March 1989. The telescope chamber is ventilated by a system of flaps which optimize the air flow across the NTT optimizing the dome and mirror seeing. To prevent heat input to the building, all motors in the telescope are water cooled and all the electronics boxes are insulated and cooled. The primary mirror of the NTT is actively controlled to preserve its figure at all telescope positions. The secondary mirror position is also actively controlled in three directions. The optimized airflow, the thermal controls, and the active optics give the excellent image quality of the NTT. Note that the NTT has active instead of adaptive optics: it corrects the defects and deformation of the telescope and mirror, but does not correct the turbulence; it ensures that the optics is always in perfect shape. Together with the thermal control, it allows the NTT to reach the ambient seeing, but it does not improve it.

MPG/ESO 2.2 m Telescope.

The 2.2-metre telescope has been in operation at La Silla since early 1984, and is on indefinite loan to ESO from the Max Planck Society ( or MPG). Telescope time is shared between MPG and ESO observing programmes, while the operation and maintenance of the telescope are ESO's responsibility. However, due to a new agreement between the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (MPIA) and ESO, the instrument is operated by MPG until the end of September 2016. The telescope hosts three instruments: the 67-million pixel Wide Field Imager with a field of view as large as the full Moon, which has taken many amazing images of celestial objects; GROND, the Gamma-Ray Burst Optical/Near-Infrared Detector, which chases the afterglows of the most powerful explosions in the Universe, known as gamma-ray bursts; and the high-resolution spectrograph, FEROS, used to make detailed studies of stars. MPG's 2.2-metre telescope in La Silla also has a twin brother located at the Calar Alto Observatory in southern Spain.

Other telescopes.

La Silla also hosts several national and project telescopes not operated by ESO. Among them are the Swiss Euler Telescope, the Danish National Telescope and the REM, TRAPPIST and TAROT telescopes.

Former telescopes.

The following telescopes have now been decommissioned:  The Swiss T70 telescope was a 70 cm aperture telescope for photometry that had a first light in 1980. It retired in 1998, when the Euler Telescope was commissioned. The Swiss T70 was a Cassegrain reflector design mounted on an Equatorial fork mount. It was equipped with a P7 Photometer, an replaced the Swiss 0.4-metre telescope, which was in use from November 1975 until March 1980. As with the Euler Telescope, the Swiss T70 and 0.4-metre telescopes were operated by the Geneva Observatory.

Scientific discoveries.

About 300 scientific papers based on observations taken at La Silla are published each year. The HARPS spectrograph has found a large number of low-mass extrasolar planets. It detected the planets within the Gliese 581 planetary system, which contains what may be the first known rocky planet in a habitable zone, outside the Solar System. Several telescopes at La Silla played a crucial role in linking gamma-ray bursts—the most energetic explosions in the Universe since the Big Bang—with the explosions of massive stars. Since 1987, the ESO La Silla Observatory has also played an important role in the study and follow-up of the nearest recent supernova, SN 1987A.

La Silla Observatory is an astronomical observatory in Chile with three telescopes built and operated by the European Southern Observatory (ESO). Several other telescopes are located at the site and are partly maintained by ESO. The observatory is one of the largest in the Southern Hemisphere and was the first in Chile to be used by ESO.

L'observatoire de La Silla est un observatoire astronomique situé à La Silla au nord du Chili près de la ville de La Serena. C'est le premier observatoire créé par l'Observatoire européen austral (ESO) organisation de recherche fédérant la plupart des pays d'Europe. Les premiers instruments y sont déployés en 1969. Les plus connus sont le télescope de 3,6 mètres et le "New Technology Telescope" (NTT) de 3,58 m qui permet la mise au point de l'optique adaptative. De nombreux autres instruments nationaux sont installés sur le site. En 2019 l'ESO continue d'utiliser mais la plupart des 19 télescopes nationaux ne sont plus en service.


Circulaire belge du 16 décembre 1997 dite « Circulaire Peeters »

History.

With the territoriality principle as the basic guideline of Belgian language politics, the language law of 28 June 1932 divided the country in the Dutch-speaking region, the French-speaking region and the German-speaking region. Brussels received a bilingual Dutch-French status. The law further stipulated that municipalities along the language border and around Brussels had to ensure a bilingual service when the minority language population exceeded 30% (so-called language facilities) and that the language of administration would be changed when this "minority" exceeded 50%. In order to estimate the number of speakers of each language, a decennial language census was established, of which the results were often contested by the Flemish.  The consensus in contemporary historical and political literature is that the results of the language census have to be interpreted with caution. The questions were alternatively on "known" languages or on the "usual" language, the most often spoken. Some considered this to refer to their mother tongue, while for others it referred to the prestigious and ubiquitous language that was French. Moreover, the censuses of 1920 and 1947 were performed in a post-war climate. Dutch, being closely related with German, was discredited due to collaborationism of certain wings of the Flemish Movement with the German occupation. French on the other hand enjoyed the status of the language of victory. Finally, given that the results had political consequences, inviting for manipulation in some cases, the census had more of a referendum on the language status of the municipality than of a sociological inquiry. In the 1947 census, more than 30% declared to speak French "exclusively or most frequently" in Wemmel, Kraainem, Drogenbos and Linkebeek, which meant that the French-speaking population of these municipalities received language facilities, whereby citizens can request to communicate with the municipal services in the language of their choice, while the official language remained the same.  The language laws of 1962-63, constitutionally entrenched in 1970, abolished the language census and fixed the language border between the language areas. All Belgian municipalities belong to one of these territories. Some municipalities went from one region to another, while others retained or were given a system of language facilities. Wezembeek-Oppem and Sint-Genesius-Rode became municipalities with language facilities. The last census in 1947 showed that the French minority in these towns was 18% and 16% respectively, but that 35% and 27% spoke French most frequently.  According to art. 7 of the 1966 law on the use of languages in the administration, the six municipalities situated in the Brussels periphery, namely Drogenbos, Kraainem, Linkebeek, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Wemmel and Wezembeek-Oppem, enjoy a "special treatment" and are called "rim municipalities". As part of the wider Frenchification of Brussels and a process of urbanisation, these formerly Dutch-speaking municipalities became majority French-speaking in the second half of the 20th century. This phenomenon, known in Flanders as the "oil slick", is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in all of Belgian politics. All other municipalities with facilities, except for those in the German language area, plus Malmedy and Waimes, are grouped together as "language border municipalities" (art. 8).

Legal background.

According to a 1986 ruling of the Constitutional Court, the division in language regions entails "a restriction on the ability of legislators to regulate the use of languages and so forms the constitutional guarantee of the priority of the language of the unilingual area". The 1988 revision of the constitution (art. 129, §1) confirms that the parliaments of the French Community and the Flemish Community determine through decrees, each for their respective territory, the use of languages in administrative matters, the education system, for social contacts between the employer and his employees, and for official documents in business. However, the constitution (art. 129, §2) makes an exception for municipalities with language facilities, stating that in those municipalities the law on the use of languages for situations listed in §1 can only be changed by a law adopted by a majority in both language groups.  The Standing Commission for Linguistic Supervision is a federal institution responsible for collecting and reporting language complaints. It can give its opinion to the responsible public authorities, but its opinions are not binding. In its recommendations 26.125A, 26.033 and 23.062 (all published in 1994), the agency argued that language facilities should not lead to a generalised system of bilingualism of public services in which both languages would hold equal status. Only the regional governments can provide a supreme binding political interpretation for the language laws and the application of language facilities, which can only be annulled by the Council of State.  As a general rule, the federal government communicates with citizens in the language of the region, not in their individual language. Only in municipalities with facilities, another language can be used when so requested.

Contents.

Underlying ideas.

The Peeters directive's recommendations for municipalities with language facilities bordering the Brussels Capital-Region and the language border, where to some extent the French-speaking population has the right to relate with the local and federal administration in French, have triggered political commotion. It stipulates these facilities, being "an exception to the rule of unilingualism of the official language areas", should be interpreted "strictly", considering their "exceptional" and "temporary" character.  The directive argues language facilities have an "integrative function", meaning that, "per definition", "for the concerned individual", they have an "extinguishing character". It reads further: "The interpretation of language facilities has to take into account the possibility that a French-speaking inhabitant, who previously made use of these facilities, meanwhile knows the language of the region well enough and consequently no longer wishes to invoke the facilities". In this sense, facilities are temporary in character, and because they are temporary, they have to be applied "restrictively", implying that French-speakers have to make a new request each and every time they wish to use French in official affairs. The directive claims the "spirit in which the language laws of 1962-63 were established" is reflected in the end report of the Harmel Centre:  According to the directive, this quote clearly shows that the language facilities were intended to ease the transition of the minority language inhabitants to the Community to which their municipality would belong from that moment onwards.

Tangible changes of the existing practice.

The most important rule introduced by the Peeters directive is that all official documents have to be sent to the citizens in Dutch. Afterwards, French-speakers can request a French translation for each separate document, on their own initiative. As for the application of documents in the town hall, all these documents have to be issued in Dutch in the municipalities along the language border, after which a translation can be requested. For the "rim municipalities" (those bordering Brussels), a French translation can be requested beforehand. Such a restrictive meaning went against the existing practice, whereby citizens had to declare their preferred language only once.  Another issue is that the Peeters directive stipulates that the language of administration and local public services should at all times be Dutch, the only official language of the concerned municipalities. It is obligatory to speak Dutch in meetings of the municipal council and the Board of Mayor and Aldermen.

Legal challenge and controversy.

On the internal language of administration.

On the initiative of the municipality of Linkebeek, the Constitutional Court of Belgium was asked for an opinion on the constitutionality of article 23 of the law of 18 July 1966 that stipulates that the internal language of administration in the rim municipalities has to be Dutch. In its ruling 98/26 of 10 March 1998, the Court ruled this was not in violation with articles 10 and 11 of the Constitution of Belgium and that the mayor and aldermen do indeed not have the right to speak in another language than Dutch during council meetings. The Court further specified that the language facilities do not alter the principle of Dutch unilingualism of the concerned municipalities and that the Constitution guarantees the primacy of Dutch.

On the annulment of the circular.

On 27 February 1998, the French Community of Belgium and the Walloon Region, together with a French-speaking inhabitant of one of the concerned rim municipalities, challenged the legitimacy of the directive before the Council of State. On 27 March 2001, the court argued that two first plaintiffs did not have any powers within the territory of the Flemish Region, and dismissed the appeal on those grounds. The case of the French-speaking inhabitant was forwarded to a Dutch-speaking chamber (since the other two plaintiffs were removed from the case, the competetent chamber changed) and debates were reopened. On 25 February 1998, the municipality of Kraainem (in the periphery of Brussels, with a French-speaking majority) had initiated another case, also requesting annulment of the directive. On 28 May, Wemmel and Wezembeek-Oppem filed for intervention, joined by Drogenbos on 28 July 2008. The municipalities (and a number of French-speaking inhabitants) claimed that the directive introduced new rules, and thus conflicted with art. 129, §2 of the Constitution.  On 23 December 2004, the Council of State decided not to nullify the directive. It argued that although the directive may have changed existing practice, it did not change the legal situation and was only to reverse the habit of municipal administrations of addressing a citizen in French without an explicit repeated request, and that the directive did not impede the use of French when wished. The court followed ruling 98/26 of the Constitutional Court, stating that the interpretation of the language law had to match the priority of Dutch; that the interpretation of the language facilities put forward by the plaintiffs did thus not apply, but would on the contrary lead to "a factual state of bilinguism whereby the language preference would even be stocked in files".  The Court's decision was received with derision by the French-speaking political parties. In a reaction of 13 January 2005, the Front Démocratique des Francophones (FDF) wrote:  On 25 January 2005, the parliament of the French Community of Belgium ratified a "Resolution aimed to reaffirm the unswerving link between the French Community and the French-speakers of the [Brussels] periphery and Voeren":

On the priority of Dutch.

On 13 October 2003, the municipality of Wezembeek-Oppem summoned the Flemish Region for its decision of 13 August 2003 to nullify its decision of 21 January 2001 to send out invitation letters for the 2003 federal elections in French to those who it assumed were French-speaking. According to the Peeters directive, these had to be issued in Dutch first after which a French translation could be requested. On 19 July 2008, the Council of State referred back to its rulings of 23 December 2004 and ruled that the Peeters directive was the only correct interpretation of the language law concerning the six rim municipalities. It argued only the Flemish government was in place of interpreting the law, that the interpretation of the Peeters directive was in conformity with the general principles of the law and that no other interpretation held legal authority. The Court refuted the argument of the plaintiff that the advice of the Standing Commission for Linguistic Supervision (to stock the language preference of citizens and directly addressing them in that language, which was explicitly forbidden by the Keulen directive) should be followed, arguing the Commission had no legal authority. The Court repeated that the interpretation put forward by the municipality of Wezembeek-Oppem would in practice result in a situation of bilingualism that would be in contradiction with the priority of Dutch and the fundamental Dutch unilingualism of these municipalities.

Legal history.

On 16 December 1997 the directive was sent to the governors of the five Flemish provinces by the then Flemish minister of Internal Affairs, Leo Peeters. It was amended by the Martens directive of 5 May 1998 that prescribed a similar arrangement for the social services. Both directives were reconfirmed and specified by the Keulen directive of 8 July 2005, which was not well received by the French-speaking press and politicians.

Non-appointment of mayors.

The municipal councils of Sint-Genesius-Rode, Linkebeek, Wezembeek-Oppem and Kraainem sent out convocation letters for the 2006 provincial and municipal elections in French to the citizens of which they assumed were French-speaking. This was contrary to the Peeters directive ordering municipalities to send out documents in Dutch first, after which a French translation can be requested and the Keulen directive, prohibiting the stocking of language preference. In Flanders (contrary to Wallonia), mayors are not directly elected. Instead, after the elections, the town council nominates a candidate-mayor, who then has to be appointed by the Flemish Minister of the Interior. Marino Keulen, then minister, delayed the appointment of the four proposed mayors because they did not apply language legislation. Three of the four mayors repeated their actions for the 2007 federal elections. On 14 November 2007, the appointment of Arnold d'Oreye de Lantremange (FDF, for Kraainem), François van Hoobrouck d'Aspre (UF, for Wezembeek-Oppem) and Damien Thiéry (FDF, for Linkebeek) was officially rejected. The mayor of Sint-Genesius-Rode, Myriam Delacroix-Rolin (CDH), was appointed since she applied the language laws.

Instead of challenging their non-appointment before the Council of State, the three mayors chose to bring it before the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe. On 13 and 14 May 2008, the Congress sent a fact-finding mission to Belgium to look into the situation. The delegation was led by a Frenchman and consisted further of a Serbian representative, a German expert, and two other French members of the Congress. The Council of Europe can make recommendations to its 47 member states, but it cannot impose sanctions on them for non-compliance and its conclusions are not legally binding. The mayors allowed that French was spoken during council meetings and refused to apply the recommendations of the Flemish directives. This went against the stipulations of language laws and lead to their non-appointment. Michel Guégan, president of the delegation, found that the sanction of non-appointment was disproportionate to the infractions. According to him, it hindered the normal functioning of the municipality. He also questioned why the regional authority had to appoint "democratically elected mayors". He also said that in towns with French-speaking majorities, participation of the inhabitants in local politics is complicated when the official language of administration is Dutch. The decisions of the delegation were considered ridiculous in Flanders. The Flemish Interior Minister, Marino Keulen, said they were "absurd" because they did not take into account the language legislation, the grounds on which their nomination was refused. In the European Parliament, Frieda Brepoels (N-VA) decounced "the arrogance and thoughtlessness" of the delegation. The Flemish government ignored the resolutions of the fact-finding mission, Keulen saying the acting mayors should take their case to the Council of State rather than to the Council of Europe. On 2 December 2008, the Congress voting a resolution on the issue. Of all 46 members entitled to vote, 16 were present: 14 voted in favour, the only Flemish representative voted against, and the only Dutch member abstained from voting. In the adopted resolution, the Congress urged the Belgian state to appoint the mayors and to review the language legislation in the concerned municipalities.  Minister Keulen "took notice" of the Congress's recommendations but stressed that only the Council of State was competent to undo his decision. For the 2009 regional elections, the three acting mayors sent out French documents again. Sint-Genesius-Rode sent out convocation letters in Dutch to all citizens, accompanied by a French translation for those considered to be French-speaking.  As of February 2010, the three acting mayors are still not appointed and the Peeters, Martens and Keulen directives are still in force.

The Peeters directive (, ), officially Circular BA 97/22 of 16 December 1997 concerning the use of languages in municipal councils of the Dutch language area, is a "circulaire" of the Flemish government regulating the use of languages in municipal councils in the Flemish Region (Belgium), where the sole official language is Dutch. The directive is more in particular aimed at the municipalities with language facilities bordering the Brussels Capital-Region. It stipulates that each and every time French-speakers deal with the government, they must explicitly ask for their documents to be in French.

La circulaire Peeters (en néerlandais : "Omzendbrief Peeters"), officiellement circulaire BA 97/22 du concernant l'usage des langues dans les conseils municipaux de la région de langue néerlandaise, est une circulaire éditée par le ministre des affaires intérieures du gouvernement flamand, Leo Peeters, qui réglemente l’emploi des langues dans les administrations des communes de la Région flamande, y compris les six communes à facilités de la périphérie bruxelloise, entourant la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale. Elle stipule que chaque fois qu'un francophone traite avec l'administration flamande, il doit explicitement demander que ce document soit délivré en français.


Youth, education, and early career.

Grey was the younger and only surviving son of General Sir Charles Grey—a younger son of former British prime minister the second Earl Grey and later the private secretary to Prince Albert and later still to Queen Victoria—and his wife, Caroline Eliza Farquhar, eldest daughter of Sir Thomas Harvie Farquhar, Bt, at Cadogan House, Middlesex. Many members of the family had enjoyed successful political careers based on reform, including to colonial policies; Grey's grandfather, while prime minister, championed the Reform Act 1832 and in 1846, Grey's uncle, the third Earl Grey, as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies during the first ministry of Lord John Russell, was the first to suggest that colonies should be self-sustaining and governed for the benefit of their inhabitants, instead of for the benefit of the United Kingdom.  Grey was educated at Harrow School and then Trinity College, Cambridge, where he studied history and law. After graduating in 1873, Grey became private secretary to Sir Henry Bartle Frere and, as Frere was a member of the Council of India, Grey accompanied Prince Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, on his tour of India. In 1877, Grey married Alice Holford, daughter of Robert Stayner Holford, the Member of Parliament for East Gloucestershire. Together, they had five children, one of whom died in early childhood.

Family.

Grey married Alice Holford (d. 22 September 1944), daughter of Robert Stayner Holford, of Westonbirt House (Gloucestershire) and Dorchester House (London) on 9 June 1877 and had five children, one of whom died in early childhood:

Parliamentary and administrative career.

Grey stood for parliament at South Northumberland in 1878 and polled in the election the same number of votes as his opponent Edward Ridley, but Grey declined a scrutiny and was not returned. It was not until the general election of 1880 that Grey, the Liberal Party candidate, was elected as a member of parliament (MP) for South Northumberland, a seat he held until it was replaced under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 and he moved to be the MP for Tyneside, following that year's election. In 1884 he wrote to the Manchester-based "Women's Suffrage Journal" declaring his support for women's suffrage, writing that "[t]here are no questions which receive so little attention, or which, in my opinion, so urgently call for the close and serious consideration of social reformers, as those affecting the condition of women. The possession of a vote by women who are heads of households will lead to the formation of associations and unions for the protection and advancement of the interests of their sex."  Inspired by the theories of Giuseppe Mazzini, Grey became an advocate of imperialism and was one of the founders of the Imperial Federation League, which sought to transform the British Empire into an Imperial Federation. Grey thus split with Prime Minister William Gladstone in 1886 over Irish home rule and became a Liberal Unionist, but the shift was short-lived as Grey failed to win his constituency again in the 1886 general election.  Eight years later, Grey succeeded his uncle, Henry George Grey, as the 4th Earl Grey and returned to parliament when taking his seat in the House of Lords. As a friend of Cecil Rhodes, Grey became one of the first four trustees responsible for the administration of the scholarship funds which established the Rhodes Scholarship and he was invited by Rhodes to be a member of the board of directors and director of the British South Africa Company, coming to serve as the main liaison between Rhodes and Secretary of State for the Colonies Joseph Chamberlain in the periods immediately before and after the Jameson Raid on the Transvaal. As the Administrator of Southern Rhodesia, Sir Leander Starr Jameson, was disgraced by the Jameson Raid, the British government, then headed by the Marquess of Salisbury, in 1896 asked Grey to serve as Jameson's immediate replacement, staying in that role until 1897. Two years later, Grey was also appointed as Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland and published a brief biography of a young relative, Hubert Hervey, who was killed in the Second Matabele War.

Governor General of Canada.

In office.

It was on 4 October 1904 announced that King Edward VII had, by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet, approved the recommendation of his British prime minister, Arthur Balfour, to appoint Grey as his representative, replacing Grey's brother-in-law, the Earl of Minto. (Minto was married to Grey's sister, Mary Caroline Grey.) The appointment came at a good time for Grey, as a series of failed investments in South Africa had left him penniless; a gift from his wife's aunt, Lady Wantage (widow of the Lord Wantage), was used to supplement his salary as governor general.  The time during which Grey occupied the viceregal office was one of increasing immigration, industrialisation, and economic development in Canada. A sign of Canada's increasing independence from Britain, Grey was on 16 June 1905 designated as "Governor General of Canada and Commander-in-Chief of the Dominion of Canada," which followed on the passing of the Militia Act in 1904. At the request of Sir Robert Baden-Powell, Grey also undertook the role of Chief Scout of Canada. Further, it was with Grey's granting of Royal Assent to the appropriate Acts of Parliament that Alberta and Saskatchewan were separated from the North-West Territories to become provinces, also in 1905the Governor General writing to the King at the time: "[each one] a new leaf in Your Majesty's Maple Crown"and he travelled extensively around the ever-growing country. He also journeyed abroad to the Dominion of Newfoundland (then not yet a part of Canada) and several times to the United States to visit President Theodore Roosevelt, with whom Grey developed a strong bond. Grey often exercised his right, as representative of a constitutional monarch, to advise, encourage, and warn. He desired social reform and cohesion. He put his support behind prison reforms in Canada to provide greater social justice. He was also an advocate for electoral reform, endorsing proportional representation. His past calls for political equality for Irish Catholics was relevant to Canada's internal politics, divided as the population was between Catholics and Protestants.  As governor General, Grey also encouraged his prime minister, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, to support the Imperial Federation he had long championed, but Laurier was uninterested. However, Grey's years of urging Laurier to get the Cabinet and parliament to agree to the idea of a Canadian navy proved themselves to be more fruitful. At the Governor General's urging, the Canadian and British governments agreed to have Canada assume control of the former British garrisons at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Esquimalt, British Columbia, after which the Royal Canadian Navy was created by the "Naval Service Act". The Act was so identified with Grey that, in Quebec, it was referred to as "Grey's Bill" and opposed by Henri Bourassa and his "Ligue nationaliste canadienne". Another of Grey's suggestions was a railway hotel for the federal capital, which eventuated in the Château Laurier, completed in 1912.  Though Grey strongly promoted national unity among French and English Canadians, as well as advocating unity within the entire British Empire, his causes frequently raised the ire of Bourassa and the Quebec nationalists. Grey was involved in the planning for the tercentennial of Quebec in 1908, marking the 300th anniversary of the landing of Samuel de Champlain at what later became Quebec City. At Grey's suggestion, the Cabinet agreed to Grey's plan to have the Plains of Abraham designated as a national park; this would be done to coincide with the Quebec celebrations and Grey saw the official ceremony as being an event that would promote Franco-Anglo-American friendship. The government arranged for the attendance of the Prince of Wales (later King George V), American and French warships, and a host of visiting dignitaries. Still, the Ligue saw this as solely a tribute to the Empire; Bourassa and other nationalists complained that Grey had transformed a day intended to celebrate Samuel de Champlain into a celebration of James Wolfe.  At other times, and unlike future viceroys, the Governor General's influence expanded more blatantly into government policy: Grey opposed the head tax imposed by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 on Chinese immigrants to Canada and, at one point, was invited to visit the province of British Columbia, but declined in protest of what he thought to be exclusionary measures implemented by the provincial cabinet under premier Richard McBride. Grey also initially supported Asian immigration to Canada, though, following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War, he became concerned about the so-called Yellow Peril and worked with the federal Cabinet to explore alternatives to the head tax as a restriction on Asian immigration. He was nevertheless appalled by the 1907 anti-Asian riots in Vancouver, organised by the Asiatic Exclusion League, and, later in the same year, arranged a visit to Canada by Prince Fushimi Sadanaru of the Empire of Japan.

Legacy.

Throughout his tenure as governor general, Grey supported the arts and, when he departed Canada in 1911, he left behind him the Grey Competition for Music and Drama, first held in 1907. He was also a patron of sport, his feelings on health and fitness a part of his broader desire for a reform movement. He gave his support to Canadian football and established the Grey Cup, to be awarded to the winner of the Senior Amateur Football Championship of Canada; it is today presented to the champions of the Canadian Football League and, in 1963, Grey was elected to the Canadian Football Hall of Fame for his contributions to the game. Grey further donated trophies to the Montreal Horse Show and for figure skating. As well, he gave to the Crown a horse-drawn carriage he purchased from the Governor-General of Australia, which is still today used as the state landau, and added a study and conservatory to Rideau Hall, the sovereign's and governor general's Ottawa residence; the latter was torn down in 1924. Grey and his wife were commended for their work in Canada and for their championing social reforms. Laurier said Lord Grey gave "his whole heart, his whole soul, and his whole life to Canada."

Final years.

On leaving office in 1911 Earl Grey and his family returned to the United Kingdom, where he became president of the Royal Colonial Institute (now the Royal Commonwealth Society). On 28 March 1916, he was appointed by King George V as Chancellor of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. However, Grey died the following year at his family residence.

Albert Henry George Grey, 4th Earl Grey (28 November 185129 August 1917) was a British nobleman and politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the ninth since Canadian Confederation. He was a radical Liberal aristocrat and a member of a string of liberal high society clubs in London. An active and articulate campaigner in late Victorian England he was associated with many of the leading Imperialists seeking change.

Albert Henry George Grey (, palais St. James de Londres – ), comte Grey, est un homme d'État. Il fut le neuvième gouverneur général du Canada, de 1904 à 1911.


Plot.

The novel is told from the point of view of Roth as a child growing up in Newark, New Jersey, as the younger son of Herman and Bess Roth. It begins with aviation hero Charles Lindbergh, who is already criticized for his praise of Hitler's government, joining the America First Party. As the party's spokesman, he speaks against US intervention in World War II and openly criticizes the "Jewish race" for trying to force US involvement. After making a surprise appearance on the last night of the 1940 Republican National Convention, he is nominated as the Republican Party's candidate for president.  Although criticized from the left and feared by most Jewish Americans, Lindbergh musters a strong tide of popular support from the South and the Midwest and is endorsed by Conservative Rabbi Lionel Bengelsdorf of Newark. Lindbergh wins the 1940 election over incumbent President Franklin Roosevelt in a landslide under the slogan "Vote for Lindbergh, or vote for war." Montana Senator Burton K. Wheeler is Lindbergh's vice president, and Lindbergh nominates Henry Ford as Secretary of the Interior. With Lindbergh now in the White House, the Roth family begins increasingly to feel like outsiders in American society.  Lindbergh's first act is to sign a treaty with Nazi Germany and Hitler that promises that the United States will not interfere with German expansion in Europe, known as the "Iceland Understanding," after where it is signed, and another with Imperial Japan that promises noninterference with Japanese expansion in Asia, known as the "Hawaii Understanding." The new presidency begins to take a toll on Philip's family. Philip's cousin Alvin joins the Canadian Army to fight in Europe. He loses his leg in combat and comes home with his ideals destroyed. He leaves the family and becomes a racketeer in Philadelphia. A new government program, the Office of American Absorption (OAA), begins to take Jewish boys to spend a period of time living with exchange families in the South and Midwest to "Americanize" them. Philip's older brother Sandy is one of the boys selected, and after spending time on a farm in Kentucky under the OAA's "Just Folks" scheme, he comes home showing contempt for his family, calling them "ghetto Jews."  Philip's aunt, Evelyn Finkel, who is his mother's younger sister, marries Rabbi Bengelsdorf and becomes a frequent guest of the Lindbergh White House and is even invited to a dinner party for German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. That causes further strain in the family. A new version of the Homestead Act of 1862, called Homestead 42, is instituted to relocate entire Jewish families to the Western and Southern United States. Many of Philip's Newark neighbors move to Canada. Philip's shy and innocent school friend, Seldon Wishnow, an only child, is moved to tiny Danville, Kentucky, with his widowed mother, Selma. In protest against the new act, the radio personality Walter Winchell openly criticizes the Lindbergh administration on his nationwide Sunday night broadcast from New York and is fired by his sponsor. Winchell then decides to run for president in 1944 and begins a speaking tour. His candidacy causes anger and anti-Semitic rioting in the South and the Midwest, and mobs begin targeting him. While addressing an open-air political rally in Louisville, Kentucky, on October 5, 1942, Winchell is shot to death. Winchell's funeral in New York City is presided over by Mayor Fiorello La Guardia, who praises Winchell for his opposition to fascism and pointedly criticizes Lindbergh for his silence over the riots and Winchell's assassination.  As he is returning from delivering a speech in Louisville on October 7, 1942, Lindbergh's plane goes missing. Ground searches turn up no results, and Vice President Wheeler assumes command. The German State Radio discloses "evidence" that Lindbergh's disappearance and the kidnapping of his son were part of a Jewish conspiracy to take control of the US government. That announcement causes further anti-Semitic rioting. Wheeler and Ford, acting on that evidence, begin arresting prominent Jewish citizens, including Henry Morgenthau Jr., Herbert Lehman, and Bernard Baruch as well as Mayor LaGuardia and Rabbi Bengelsdorf. Seldon calls the Roths when his mother does not come home from work. They later discover that Seldon's mother was killed by Ku Klux Klan members who beat and robbed her before setting fire to her car with her in it. The Roths eventually call Sandy's exchange family in Kentucky and have them keep Seldon safe until Philip's father and brother drive there and bring him back to Newark. Months later, Seldon is taken in by his mother's sister. The rioting stops when First Lady Anne Morrow Lindbergh makes a statement that asks for the country to stop the violence and move forward. With the body searches for President Lindbergh called off, former President Roosevelt runs as an emergency presidential candidate in November 1942 and is re-elected. Months later, the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor, and the US enters the war.  As an epilogue, Philip's aunt, Evelyn, confides a theory of Lindbergh's disappearance, the source for which was First Lady Lindbergh, who disclosed the details to Evelyn's husband, Rabbi Bengelsdorf, shortly before the First lady had been forcibly removed from the White House and held prisoner in the psychiatric ward at Walter Reed Army Hospital. According to Evelyn, after the Lindberghs' son, Charles, was kidnapped in 1932, his murder was faked, and he was then raised in Germany by the Nazis as a Hitler Youth member. The Nazis' price for the boy's life was Lindbergh's full co-operation with a Nazi-organized presidential campaign by which they hoped to bring the Final Solution to the US. When Lindbergh informed them that the US would never permit such a thing, he was kidnapped, and the Jewish conspiracy theory was put forward hoping to turn the US further against its Jewish population. Philip admits that Evelyn's theory is the most far-fetched and "unbelievable" but "not necessarily the least convincing" explanation for Lindbergh's disappearance.

Inspiration.

Roth stated that the idea for the novel came to him while he was reading the unpublished galleys for Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.'s autobiography in which Schlesinger makes a comment that some of the day's more radical Republican senators wanted Lindbergh to run against Roosevelt. The title appears to be taken from that of a communist pamphlet published in support of the campaign against Burton K. Wheeler's re-election to the US Senate in 1946.  The novel depicts an antisemitic United States in the 1940s. Roth had written in his autobiography, "", of the racial and antisemitic tensions that were a part of his childhood in Newark. Several times in that book, he describes children in his neighborhood being violently attacked simply because they were Jewish.

Literary significance and criticism.

Roth's novel was generally well received. Jonathan Yardley of "The Washington Post", exploring the book's treatment of Lindbergh in some depth, calls the book "painfully moving" and a "genuinely American story."  "The New York Times" review described the book as "a terrific political novel" as well as "sinister, vivid, dreamlike, preposterous and, at the same time, creepily plausible."  Blake Morrison in "The Guardian" offered high praise: ""The Plot Against America" creates its reality magisterially, in long, fluid sentences that carry you beyond skepticism and with a quotidian attentiveness to sights and sounds, tastes and smells, surnames and nicknames and brandnames—an accumulation of "petits faits vrais"—that dissolves any residual disbelief."  Writer Bill Kauffman, in "The American Conservative", wrote a scathing review of the book and objected to its criticism of the movement of which Lindbergh was a chief spokesperson, which is sometimes referred to as isolationist but Kauffman sees as antiwar, in contrast to Roosevelt's pro-war stance. He also criticizes its portrayal of increasing American antisemitism, in particular among Catholics, and for the nature of its fictional portrayals of real-life characters like Lindbergh, claiming it was "bigoted and libellous of the dead," as well as for its ending, featuring a resolution to the political situation that Kauffman considered a "deus ex machina".  Many took the novel as something of a "roman à clef" for or against the George W. Bush administration and its policies, but though Roth was opposed to the Bush administration’s policies, he denied such allegorical interpretations of his novel.  In 2005, the novel won the James Fenimore Cooper Prize for Best Historical Fiction given by the Society of American Historians. It won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History, was a finalist for the John W. Campbell Memorial Award, and came in 11th for the 2005 Locus Awards.

Historical figures.

"The Plot Against America" depicts or mentions many historical figures:  In addition, after the 2016 election of Donald Trump to the US Presidency, reviewers noted the presence in "The Plot Against America" of a character who bears a resemblance to Trump. The cousin, Alvin, goes to work for a Jewish real-estate developer whose description closely matches Trump. Roth was interviewed in "The New Yorker" about similarities between his novel and the election of Trump. Roth responded, "It is easier to comprehend the election of an imaginary President like Charles Lindbergh than an actual President like Donald Trump. Lindbergh, despite his Nazi sympathies and racist proclivities, was a great aviation hero... Trump is just a con artist."

Television adaptation.

On January 18, 2018, it was reported that "The Wire" creator David Simon would be adapting a six-part mini-series adaptation of "The Plot Against America". The news was first announced in a "New York Times" journalist Charles McGrath's interview with Roth, who noted that Simon had visited Roth, who stated he "was sure his novel was in good hands." Filming took place in Jersey City, New Jersey. It premiered on HBO on March 16, 2020.

The Plot Against America is a novel by Philip Roth published in 2004. It is an alternative history in which Franklin D. Roosevelt is defeated in the presidential election of 1940 by Charles Lindbergh. The novel follows the fortunes of the Roth family during the Lindbergh presidency, as antisemitism becomes more accepted in American life and Jewish-American families like the Roths are persecuted on various levels. The narrator and central character in the novel is the young Philip, and the care with which his confusion and terror are rendered makes the novel as much about the mysteries of growing up as about American politics. Roth based his novel on the isolationist ideas espoused by Lindbergh in real life as a spokesman for the America First Committee, and on his own experiences growing up in Newark, New Jersey. The novel depicts the Weequahic section of Newark which includes Weequahic High School from which Roth graduated.

Le Complot contre l'Amérique (titre original : "") est un roman uchronique de Philip Roth publié en 2004. Le prix Sidewise lui a été attribué cette même année.


Early life.

Terry was born to Clark Virgil Terry Sr. and Mary Terry in St. Louis, Missouri, on December 14, 1920. He attended Vashon High School and began his professional career in the early 1940s, playing in local clubs. He served as a bandsman in the United States Navy during World War II. His first instrument was valve trombone.

Big band era.

Blending the St. Louis tone with contemporary styles, Terry's years with Basie and Ellington (who secretly recruited Terry away from Basie) in the late 1940s and 1950s established his prominence. During his period with Ellington, he took part in many of the composer's suites and acquired a reputation for his wide range of styles (from swing to hard bop), technical proficiency, and good humor. Terry influenced musicians including Miles Davis and Quincy Jones, both of whom acknowledged Terry's influence during the early stages of their careers. Terry had informally taught Davis while they were still in St Louis, and Jones during Terry's frequent visits to Seattle with the Count Basie Sextet.  After leaving Ellington in 1959, Clark's international recognition soared when he accepted an offer from the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) to become a staff musician. He appeared for ten years on "The Tonight Show" as a member of the Tonight Show Band until 1972, first led by Skitch Henderson and later by Doc Severinsen, where his unique "mumbling" scat singing led to a hit with "Mumbles". Terry was the first African American to become a regular in a band on a major US television network. He said later: "We had to be models, because I knew we were in a test... We couldn't have a speck on our trousers. We couldn't have a wrinkle in the clothes. We couldn't have a dirty shirt."  Terry continued to play with musicians such as trombonist J. J. Johnson and pianist Oscar Peterson, and led a group with valve-trombonist Bob Brookmeyer that achieved some success in the early 1960s. In February 1965, Brookmeyer and Terry appeared on BBC2's "Jazz 625". and in 1967, presented by Norman Granz, he was recorded at Poplar Town Hall, in the BBC series "Jazz at the Philharmonic", alongside James Moody, Dizzy Gillespie, Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, Teddy Wilson, Bob Cranshaw, Louie Bellson and T-Bone Walker.  In the 1970s, Terry concentrated increasingly on the flugelhorn, which he played with a full, ringing tone. In addition to his studio work and teaching at jazz workshops, Terry toured regularly in the 1980s with small groups (including Peterson's) and performed as the leader of his Big B-A-D Band (formed about 1970). After financial difficulties forced him to break up the Big B-A-D Band, he performed with bands such as the Unifour Jazz Ensemble. His humor and command of jazz trumpet styles are apparent in his "dialogues" with himself, on different instruments or on the same instrument, muted and unmuted.

Later career.

From the 1970s through the 1990s, Terry performed at Carnegie Hall, Town Hall, and Lincoln Center, toured with the Newport Jazz All Stars and Jazz at the Philharmonic, and was featured with Skitch Henderson's New York Pops Orchestra. In 1998, Terry recorded George Gershwin's "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" for the Red Hot Organization's compilation album "Red Hot + Rhapsody", a tribute to George Gershwin, which raised money for various charities devoted to increasing AIDS awareness and fighting the disease.  In November 1980, he was a headliner along with Anita O'Day, Lionel Hampton and Ramsey Lewis during the opening two-week ceremony performances celebrating the short-lived resurgence of the Blue Note Lounge at the Marriott O'Hare Hotel near Chicago.  Prompted early in his career by Billy Taylor, Clark and Milt Hinton bought instruments for and gave instruction to young hopefuls, which planted the seed that became Jazz Mobile in Harlem. This venture tugged at Terry's greatest love: involving youth in the perpetuation of jazz. From 2000 onwards, he hosted Clark Terry Jazz Festivals on land and sea, held his own jazz camps, and appeared in more than fifty jazz festivals on six continents. Terry composed more than two hundred jazz songs and performed for eight U.S. Presidents.  He also had several recordings with major groups including the London Symphony Orchestra, the Dutch Metropole Orchestra, and the Chicago Jazz Orchestra, hundreds of high school and college ensembles, his own duos, trios, quartets, quintets, sextets, octets, and two big bands: Clark Terry's Big Bad Band and Clark Terry's Young Titans of Jazz.  In February 2004, Terry guest starred as himself, on "Little Bill", a children's television series. Terry was a resident of Bayside, Queens, and Corona, Queens, New York, later moving to Haworth, New Jersey, and then Pine Bluff, Arkansas.  His autobiography was published in 2011. Taylor Ho Bynum wrote in "The New Yorker" that it "captures his gift for storytelling and his wry humor, especially in chronicling his early years on the road, with struggles through segregation and gigs in juke joints and carnivals, all while developing one of most distinctive improvisational voices in music history."  According to his own website Terry was "one of the most recorded jazz artists in history and had performed for eight American Presidents."  In April 2014, the documentary "Keep on Keepin' On", followed Terry over four years, to document his mentorship of the 23-year-old blind piano prodigy Justin Kauflin, as the Kauflin prepared to compete in an elite, international competition.  In December 2014 the Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra with Wynton Marsalis and Cécile McLorin Salvant visited Terry, who had celebrated his 94th birthday on December 14, at the Jefferson Regional Medical Center. A lively rendition of "Happy Birthday" was played.

Death and tributes.

On February 13, 2015, it was announced that Terry had entered hospice care to manage his advanced diabetes. He died on February 21, 2015.  Writing in "The New York Times", Peter Keepnews said Terry "was acclaimed for his impeccable musicianship, loved for his playful spirit and respected for his adaptability. Although his sound on both trumpet and the rounder-toned flugelhorn (which he helped popularize as a jazz instrument) was highly personal and easily identifiable, he managed to fit it snugly into a wide range of musical contexts."  Writing in UK's "The Daily Telegraph", Martin Chilton said: "Terry was a music educator and had a deep and lasting influence on the course of jazz. Terry became a mentor to generations of jazz players, including Miles Davis, Wynton Marsalis and composer-arranger Quincy Jones."  Interviewing Terry in 2005, fellow jazz trumpeter Scotty Barnhart said he was "... one of the most incredibly versatile musicians to ever live... a jazz trumpet master that played with the greatest names in the history of the music..."  Southeast Missouri State University hosts the Clark Terry/Phi Mu Alpha Jazz Festival, an annual tribute to the musician. The festival began in 1998, and has grown in size every year. The festival showcases outstanding student musicians and guest artists at the university's River Campus.  The University of New Hampshire hosts the Clark Terry Jazz Festival every year; it showcases middle- and high-school jazz musicians from all over New England.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Clark Terry among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Awards and honors.

Over 250 awards, medals and honors, including:

Discography.

As sideman.

With Gene Ammons  With Dave Bailey  With Ray Bryant  With Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis  With Duke Ellington  With Stan Getz  With Dizzy Gillespie  With Johnny Griffin  With Johnny Hodges  With Milt Jackson  With J. J. Johnson  With Quincy Jones  With Mundell Lowe  With Herbie Mann  With Gary McFarland  With Charles Mingus  With Blue Mitchell  With Gerry Mulligan  With Oliver Nelson  With Oscar Peterson  With Dave Pike  With Lalo Schifrin  With Sonny Stitt  With Billy Taylor  With Cal Tjader  With others

Clark Virgil Terry Jr. (December 14, 1920 – February 21, 2015) was an American swing and bebop trumpeter, a pioneer of the flugelhorn in jazz, and a composer and educator.

Clark Terry, né à Saint-Louis (Missouri) le et mort à Pine Bluff (Arkansas) le, est un musicien de jazz, trompettiste et joueur de bugle américain, dont la carrière s'étend sur une soixantaine d'années.


Personal life.

Elene Gedevanishvili was born in Tbilisi, Georgian SSR. She is the elder sister of Dmitri Gedevanishvili, a competitive alpine skier. She graduated form Plymouth State University in spring 19’ with Bachelor of science in Psychology of Exercise.

Career.

Early years.

As a child, Gedevanishvili lived and trained in Georgia and went to training camps in Moscow, Russia. At the age of nine, she and her mother settled in Moscow and at age eleven, she began working with Elena Buianova (Vodorezova). She trained at CSKA Moscow with Buianova and Tatiana Tarasova. At the 2005–06 ISU Junior Grand Prix event in Estonia, she became the first Georgian skater to win a Junior Grand Prix event.

Senior debut.

Gedevanishvili made her senior international debut at the 2006 European Championships where she finished 5th. Her second senior competition was the 2006 Winter Olympics. She was 6th in the short program and finished 10th overall. She ended the season at the 2006 World Championships, placing 14th.  In October 2006, Gedevanishvili was forced to leave Russia after the Russian authorities revoked her mother's visa on a technicality. Her mother was given ten days to leave the country so Buianova recommended that the skater train in Tallinn, Estonia with Anna Levandi (Kondrashova) for her first Grand Prix event of the season, the 2006 Cup of China, which was to take place in three weeks. Shortly thereafter, Gedevanishvili contracted a case of whooping cough that went undiagnosed for several months. She withdrew from both of her Grand Prix events. In December 2006, she moved to Wayne, New Jersey to train with coach Galina Zmievskaya, former coach of Olympic gold medalist Oksana Baiul. She left Zmievskaya in April 2007 due to a personality conflict.  Gedevanishvili was awarded the Order of Honor by Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili for her achievements as an athlete and in recognition of her treatment in Russia. She moved to Hackensack, New Jersey to train with coaches Roman Serov and Viktor Kudriavtsev at the Ice House. In 2009, she changed coaches to Robin Wagner. She also occasionally worked with Roman Serov on her jumps and 1982 World Champion Elaine Zayak. Gedevanishvili can perform the Biellmann spin with a foot change.

2009–present.

In 2009, Gedevanishvili finished 25th at Europeans, the lowest result at the event in her career, but then achieved a career-best result at the World Championships where she finished 10th. Her Worlds placement qualified her for her second Olympics.  Gedevanishvili became the first skater representing Georgia to medal at an ISU Championships when she won the bronze medal at the 2010 European Championships. She then competed in the 2010 Winter Olympics, placing 9th in the short program, 17th in the free skate, and 14th overall. At the final event of the season, the 2010 World Championships, she finished 18th.  In the 2010–11 season, Gedevanishvili finished 8th at the 2011 European Championships. She was able to repeat her career-best 10th-place finish at the World Championships. In July 2011, Gedevanishvili switched coaches to Brian Orser in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. On 28 January 2012, she won her second European bronze medal at the 2012 European Championships. She was 10th at the 2012 World Championships.  In the 2012–13 season, Gedevanishvili was 14th at European Championships. At the 2013 World Championships, she missed an opportunity to qualify for the 2014 Winter Olympics by finishing 29th, the lowest Worlds placement of her career. In the summer of 2013, Gedevanishvili moved from Toronto to Boxborough, Massachusetts in order to be closer to her family. Konstantin Kostin and Edouard Pliner became her coaches.  In September 2013, Gedevanishvili placed 6th at the Nebelhorn Trophy, the last Olympic qualifying event. As a result of her placement, Georgia received one of the six ladies' spots available to countries not having qualified at 2013 Worlds. Gedevanishvili switched coaches back to Brian Orser and Ghislain Briand after the Grand Prix series. Gedevanishvili placed 10th at European Championships and 19th at the 2014 Winter Olympics.  For the 2014-15 season, Gedevanishvili was assigned to the 2014 Skate America.

Competitive highlights.

"GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series (began in the 2014–15 season); JGP: Junior Grand Prix"

Elene Gedevanishvili (, born 7 January 1990) is a Georgian figure skater. She is a two-time (2012, 2010) European bronze medalist. In winning the medal in 2010, Gedevanishvili became the first skater from Georgia to medal at an ISU Championships. She has competed at three Winter Olympics: Turin 2006, Vancouver 2010 and Sochi 2014.

Elene Gedevanishvili, née le à Tbilissi, est une patineuse artistique géorgienne. Elle est double médaillée de bronze aux championnats d'Europe (2010 et 2012).


Geography.

Located on the coast in the northwestern third of Liberia, Montserrado County is bordered by three counties. The Atlantic Ocean makes up the county’s southern border, while Bomi County lies on the western border. Bong County is to the north and Margibi County to the east. The land is mainly alluvial soils, primarily clay, washed seaward from the streams and rivers of the interior valleys. In the lowlands on the coast grow palm trees, mangrove woods, and savanna grasslands with tropical forest covering the interior hills and valleys. Rivers include the St. Paul, Mesurado, Du, and Po.  The climate is tropical with dry and wet seasons. Annual precipitation measures approximately. From May to November is the rainy season, followed by the dry season from December through April. During the dry season winds from the Sahara Desert called the Harmattan create wild temperature fluctuations from December to the beginning of March.

Districts.

Careysburg District and Todee District are the two statutorily created districts in the county. Commonwealth District, Greater Monrovia District and St. Paul River District are also recognized, but are not officially recognized as administrative districts. There are 21 townships, seven cities, one borough, and two chiefdoms contain within these districts. Administration varies by subunit with a governor running the borough, mayors in charge of cities, commissioners administering townships, and superintendents controlling districts.  Commonwealth's population is 11,876.  Careysburg’s population is 29,712. The main ethnic groups are Kpelle, Bassa, Mano, Kissi, Loma, and Gola. Both the White Plains Water Treatment Plant and the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project are in the district.  Todee District’s population is 33,998 with farming the primary economic activity. The district is run by chiefdoms and clan systems, as the county contains a large number of native African communities.  The most populous district in the county and the nation, Greater Monrovia District, is home to 970,824 people. Employment is mainly informal, small scale trade and government employment through the national government or foreign governments. The population has members of each of Liberia’s 16 main tribes.  St. Paul River District is the second most populous district in the county with 71,831 residents. Residents are primarily Christians and a member of the Bassa, Dey, or Kpelle tribes. Farming and fishing are the main economic activities along with some small scale trading. The district has one paved road.

Demographics.

Montserrado is the smallest county by size, but largest by population comprising approximately 33% of Liberia’s total population. The population density is, the highest in Liberia. The county had a population of 491,078 at the 1984 Census. The average household size was 4.7 people, a decrease from 5.4 at the 1984 Census. The county capital of Bensonville has a population of 4,089.  Males outnumber females in the county with 585,833 to 558,973. Christians compose an estimated 68.2% of the population, with Muslims totaling 31.8%. All of Liberia’s 16 main tribal groups are represented in the ethnic make up of the county. Kpelle speaking groups represent 52% of the population while Bassa speakers comprise 21%, followed by Lorma with 6%, Kru with 4%, and all others with 3% or less each.  In the county 10% of the population was considered food insecure, with 35% listed as highly vulnerable, 43% as moderately vulnerable, and 13% were listed as food secure regarding access to sustenance as of October 2006. Residents lived mainly in owner occupied dwellings, which made up 61% of households. Seventeen percent rented their homes with an average cost of 341 LD, and 22% lived rent free in their home.

Government.

Each county in Liberia is headed by a superintendent appointed by the Liberian President. Montserrado’s county superintendent is Beauty Barcon. Other executive office include commissioners for districts and townships, line ministries, and an assistant superintendent that focuses on development. The county is divided into five districts, seven cities, one borough, twenty-one townships, seven clans, and two chiefdoms. A district superintendent heads each of the two statutory districts.  Judicially, the county has eight total courts between probate, justice of the peace, and magisterial courts. The Liberian National Police have 844 officers spread across 33 stations in the county, as of October 2007. Additionally, the National Police Training Academy is in Montserrado County in Paynesville City. Other national government employees assigned to the county include tax collectors, revenue agents, and customs officials.

Flag.

The county flag contains green, brown, blue, and red. Half is red and half is blue, split along a diagonal line running from the lower left hand corner to the upper right hand corner. Blue comprises the top half and symbolizes that Montserrado was the first county. Red is on the bottom and represents the bloodshed from wars between tribal members and the African-American settlers. In the center lies a circle with trees which celebrate agriculture and the soil. There is a small Liberian flag in the upper left corner.

Economy.

The county contains the most and the largest markets in the entire country. One of these markets is in the Red Light neighborhood of Paynesville where a variety of consumer goods are sold out of wheelbarrows and old intermodal containers. Markets include daily markets, primarily for food, and weekly markets. The Red Light market and the Duala markets serve as distribution markets for incoming goods from the rural parts of Liberia.  Due to a lack of formal employment, many engage in informal businesses and trading. As of October 2006, employment in the county is primarily self-employment with only 17% of households having members that were salaried employees. The largest income generation activity was through petty trade or small business, with 46% of households engaged in these activities. This was followed by 25% for making charcoal, 19% for temporary employment, and 18% for palm oil/nut production and sales. The national government is the county's single largest employer. Agriculture is small part of economy, with the main crops consisting of cassava (90% of all crops), rice (16%), other vegetables (18%), corn (16%), sweet potatoes or eddoes (8%), plantain or bananas (8%), and pulses (1%). Livestock is mainly pigs, chickens, and ducks. Commercial crops grown include cocoa, coconuts, sugarcane, pineapple, kola nuts, palm oil, and rubber. Some palm oil is produced on government owned farms in Mt. Coffee and Fendell.  Rubber plantations are located in the Todee and Careysburg districts. These include the Morris American Rubber Company in Todee that employs 600 and the Liberia Resources Corporation in Careysburg with 300 employees. Overall rubber production accounts for eight percent of household income in Montserrado County. Small scale mineral extraction occurs for gold and diamonds. Other resource extraction activities include logging and fishing.  The Central Bank of Liberia is located in Monrovia, with other commercial banks also operating in Montserrado County, including the International Bank. The main port is the Freeport of Monrovia, the country's busiest port. The port has one wharf and four piers, though one pier cannot be used due to a sunken ship. Air travel available at Spriggs Payne Airport in Monrovia and Roberts International Airport in Robertsfield. Roberts is the only international airport in Liberia, and Payne along with Roberts have the only paved runways in the nation. Limited public transportation is available in the capital via the Monrovia Transit Authority. Passenger and freight rail service is available from the private company Geoservices between Monrovia and the Bong mines.

Education.

The county had a total of 947 students enrolled in school in 1910. In 1948, the missionaries from the Pentecostal faith opened a school in Mein Clan in Todee District. Additional primary schools were built in the 1970s, while in 1976 the University of Liberia opened the Fendall branch campus in Louisiana. Bentol City added a high school in 1978. The University of Liberia’s main campus is located in Monrovia, and includes the country’s only law school in the Louis Arthur Grimes School of Law.  Enrollment in primary schools in the county totaled 314,409 students, which was 35% of the total number for the nation as a whole. Students attended a total of 1,096 schools in the county. Thirty three percent of county residents had no formal education, while 27% had attended some elementary school. Seven percent completed elementary school, 19% had some high school education, and 11% completed high school. One percent each of residents completed college, attended college, or have received a vocational education. Enrollment for school age children is 70%, with 76% for males and 65% for females.

Culture.

The Liberian National Museum is located in Monrovia, while the city also hosts two football stadiums, the National Complex and Antoinette Tubman Stadium. Media include STAR radio, The Daily Talk news boards, and "The Analyst" newspaper.  The majority of the county’s population is Christian. with the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Monrovia serving as the head of the Catholic Church.

Infrastructure.

The Liberia Water and Sewer Corporation provides water to some parts of the county. Prior to the civil wars it used water from the Mount Coffee Hydropower Project to supply water and some sewage disposal. There are approximately 13,000 wells in the county and 518 hand pumps. In health care, the county has eight hospitals, nine health centers, and approximately 93 medical clinics functioning as of 2008. Montserrado County has limited access to electricity, with the majority of power being generated by privately owned generators. The county is not served by any public communications, though cellular communications are available through four private companies. Ashmun Street is the main street in Monrovia, while the People’s Bridge crosses the Mesurado River.

History.

On December 11, 1821, officials from the United States arrived aboard the vessel "Alligator" under the command of Captain Robert F. Stockton at Mesurado Bay. Stockton and Dr. Eli Ayers negotiated to acquire the land in and around the bay from the native chiefs for a settlement by free negroes before sailing to Sierra Leone to pick up these colonists.  On January 7, 1822, the former slaves arrived and settled Providence Island on the Mesurado River under the auspices of the American Colonization Society, and by April they had moved to the mainland. Within the next two decades, approximately 3,200 ex-slaves, having either escaped from their shareholders or being born free, arrived from Trinidad and Tobago, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Grenada, and Saint Lucia.  As opportunities increased, former slaves moved through Grand Cape Mount, Bomi County, Montserrado and Margibi County to seek employment and prosperity.  Many of the communities in the county are named for the pioneers who settled the area and their former homes in America.  "The Liberian Herald" began printing in 1830 in Monrovia and was the first newspaper in Liberia. In 1832, the Dey-Golah War erupted between the colonists and the native tribes. This war had one batlle, with the colonists from Monrovia defeating the Dey and Golah (Gola) combined group. In 1847, the colony declared its independence and Montserrado was the first of the Republic of Liberia's counties to sign the Declaration of Independence on July 26, 1847. At the time of creation, the county was composed of three administrative districts in Bomi, Gibi, and Marshall with Monrovia as the county capital. In 1885, the first municipal water supply system was completed in Monrovia.  The first County Inspector was appointed in 1949 by President Tubman, followed by President Tolbert’s appointment of the first County Superintendent in 1973. A railroad was constructed in the mid 1960s from Monrovi'a port through Todee District by the Bong Mining Company. The Mount Coffee Hydropower Project's first phase was completed in 1966. Rubber and palm oil plantations were started in the 1960s and 1970s, while a factory for producing clothing was built in 1979 in Bentol City.  In 1974, the county capital was moved by President Tolbert from Monrovia to his hometown of Bensonville. In 1976, an Assistant Superintendent was added to focus on development in Montserrado County. Bomi Territory in the western portion of the county became Bomi County in 1983. In 1984, Marshall and Gibi territories were combined and became neighboring Margibi County to the east.  Virginia saw the construction of the Unity Conference Center and Hotel Africa in 1979. During the civil strife of the 1980s into the early 2000s much of the county’s infrastructure was looted and left unmaintained. In July 2008, parts of the county received the worst flooding in its recorded history.

Montserrado County is a county in the northwestern portion of the West African nation of Liberia. One of 15 counties that comprise the first-level of administrative division in the nation, it is composed of Seventeen districts. As of the 2008 Census, it had a population of 1,118,241, making it the most populous county in Liberia. The area of the county measures, the smallest in the country. Bensonville serves as the capital.

Le Comté de Montserrado est l’un des 15 comtés du Liberia. La capitale nationale, Monrovia est enclavée au sein de ce comté. La capitale du comté n’est pas Monrovia, mais Bensonville.


Career.

Vanagas began skating at age three. His mother, Lilija Vanagiene, was Lithuania's national skating coach. Vanagas won six national titles in men's singles. At age 18, he was drafted into the Soviet Union army and sent to Moscow, Russian SFSR. Given a choice between becoming a soldier or skating full-time, Vanagas chose to become an ice dancer.  Tatiana Tarasova paired Vanagas with Russian ice dancer Margarita Drobiazko in Moscow. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, they decided to represent Lithuania. Vanagas said, "It was difficult at the beginning because there was a lot of friction between Russia and Lithuania. Since Rita is Russian, it caused many problems." They moved to Kaunas, Lithuania and began training with Elena Maslennikova. In 1995, they began working also in England with Betty Callaway, Jayne Torvill, and Christopher Dean.  In 1999, Drobiazko and Vanagas began spending time with Elena Tchaikovskaia in Moscow, while continuing to work with Maslennikova in Kaunas. They were also coached by Lilija Vanagiene and Anatoliy Petukhov. Drobiazko and Vanagas retired from competition following the 2001–2002 Olympic season, but returned to competition in 2005 to compete at their fifth Olympics. In preparation for the 2005–2006 season, they worked with Maslennikova, Rostislav Sinicyn, Igor Shpilband, Marina Zueva, Gintaras Svistunavicius, and David Liu, in the United States, Germany, Russia, and Lithuania. Drobiazko and Vanagas became the first and only figure skaters to compete at five Olympics. They retired again in 2006 following the World Championships.  Their choreographers included Elena Maslennikova, Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean, Elena Tchaikovskaia, Tatiana Pomerantseva, Elena Kholina, Yuri Puzakov, Vasily Kleimenov, and Gintaras Svistunavicius.

Personal life.

Vanagas is fluent in Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, and English. While competing, he was a caregiver for an elderly woman. Vanagas has been married to Drobiazko since June 2000.

Povilas Vanagas (; born 23 July 1970) is a Lithuanian ice dancer. With his wife Margarita Drobiazko, he is the 2000 World bronze medalist, a three-time Grand Prix Final bronze medalist, a two-time European bronze medalist (2000, 2006), the 1999 Skate Canada champion, and competed in five Winter Olympics, finishing as high as 5th.

Povilas Vanagas, né le à Kaunas, est un patineur artistique lituanien. Il concourt en danse sur glace avec sa femme Margarita Drobiazko. Ils ont participé cinq fois aux Jeux olympiques.


Career.

He obtained his master's degree in 1941 at the University of Allahabad. In 1945 he obtained his D.Phil. with a dissertation on the history of the Khaljis. This dissertation formed the basis for his book "History of the Khaljis". He started his career as a Lecturer of History in the Allahabad University, though he served in this position only for a brief period.  From 1945 to 1963 he was with Madhya Pradesh Educational Service and taught at the Government Colleges at Nagpur, Jabalpur, and Bhopal. In 1963, he joined University of Delhi as a reader and taught Medieval Indian history in its History Department.  For the next ten years, starting 1973, he was the Professor and Head of the Department of History, first at the University of Jodhpur (1973–79), and then at the Central University of Hyderabad (1979–83).  Besides his mother tongue Hindi, he was fluent in Persian, Old Persian, Urdu, and other languages.  In 2001 he was appointed chairman of the Indian Council for Historical Research (ICHR) and also placed on the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Committee to draft the model school syllabus on Indian History.

Legacy.

Lal's early books were not controversial, but some of his later works were criticised by Irfan Habib. The criticism mainly included allegation of being a spokesman for the RSS. Lal noted: "As usual [my books] have been reviewed in journals in India and abroad, bestowing both praise and blame as per the custom of the reviewers. However, during the last fifteen years or so, some of my books have received special attention of a certain brand of scholars for adverse criticism." The controversy surrounding these events is reflected in the theme of the discourses of his books which allegedly describe Muslims as foreigners, destructive barbarians and immoral degenerates, Lal himself disputes these allegations, citing, in turn, that the ICHR has always been dominated by historians with a strong leftist bias and that the current controversy is "merely the outcome of an exaggerated sense of pique on the part of the excluded Left wing".  Recently, historian Jeremy Black in his book "Contesting History: Narratives of Public History" (2014), remarked his writings to be "recent good works".

Kishori Saran Lal (1920–2002), better known as K. S. Lal, was an Indian historian. He is the author of several works, mainly on the medieval history of India. Many of his books, such as "History of the Khaljis" and "Twilight of the Sultanate", are regarded as standard works.

Kishori Saran Lal (किशोरी शरण लाल) (1920 – 2002), mieux connu sous le nom de K.S. Lal, est un historien indien. Il a écrit beaucoup de livres, surtout sur l'histoire de l'Inde médiévale.


Preparations.

Cyrus gathered an army of Greek mercenaries, consisting of 10,400 hoplites and 2,500 light infantry and peltasts, under the Spartan general Clearchus, and met Artaxerxes at Cunaxa. He also had a large force of levied troops under his second-in-command Ariaeus. The strength of the Achaemenid army was 40,000 men.  When Cyrus learned that his elder brother, the Great King, was approaching with his army, he drew up his army in battle array. He placed the Greek mercenaries on the right, near the river. In addition to this they were supported on their right by some cavalry, 1,000 strong, as was the tradition of battle order in that day. To the Greeks, this was the place of honor. Cyrus himself with 600 body guards was in the center, to the left of the Greek mercenaries—the place where Persian monarchs traditionally placed themselves in the order of battle. Cyrus' Asiatic troops were on the left flank.  Inversely, Artaxerxes II placed his left on the river, with a unit of cavalry supporting it also. Artaxerxes was in the center of his line, with 6,000 units of Persian cavalry (which were some of the finest in the world) which was to the left of Cyrus, his line being so much the longer. Artaxerxes line overlapped Cyrus' line quite significantly, since he was able to field many more troops.  Cyrus then approached Clearchus, the leader of the Greeks, who was commanding the phalanx stationed on the right, and ordered him to move into the center so as to go after Artaxerxes. However, Clearchus, not desiring to do this—for fear of his right flank—refused, and promised Cyrus, according to Xenophon, that he would "take care that all would be well". Cyrus wanted to place him in the center as the Greeks were his most capable unit, and were thereby most able to defeat the elite Persian cavalry and in the process kill the Great King, thereby gaining the Persian throne for Cyrus. Clearchus refused this owing to the insecurity that the Greeks had for their right flank, which tended to drift and was undefended, as the shields were held in the left hand. That Clearchus did not obey this order is a sign of the lack of control that Cyrus had over his army, as a couple of other occasions throughout this campaign prior to the battle reveal also.  Before the final attack began, Xenophon, the main relater of the events at Cunaxa, who was probably at the time some kind of mid-level officer, approached Cyrus to ensure that all the proper orders and dispositions had been made. Cyrus told him that they had, and that the sacrifices that traditionally took place before a battle promised success.

Battle.

The Greeks, deployed on Cyrus's right and outnumbered, charged the left flank of Artaxerxes' army, which broke ranks and fled before they came within arrowshot. However, on the Persian right the fight between Artaxerxes' army and Cyrus was far more difficult and protracted. Cyrus personally charged his brother's bodyguard and was killed by a javelin, which sent the rebels into retreat. (The man who threw the javelin was known as Mithridates and he would later be executed by scaphism because he took the kill from Artaxerxes). Only the Greek mercenaries, who had not heard of Cyrus's death and were heavily armed, stood firm. Clearchus advanced against the much larger right wing of Artaxerxes' army and sent it into retreat. Meanwhile, Artaxerxes' troops took the Greek encampment and destroyed their food supplies.

Aftermath.

According to the Greek soldier and writer Xenophon, the Greek heavy troops scattered their opposition twice; only one Greek was even wounded. Only after the battle did they hear that Cyrus himself had been killed, making their victory irrelevant and the expedition a failure. They were in the middle of a very large empire with no food, no employer, and no reliable friends. They offered to make their Persian ally Ariaeus king, but he refused on the grounds that he was not of royal blood and so would not find enough support among the Persians to succeed. They offered their services to Tissaphernes, a leading satrap of Artaxerxes, but he refused them, and they refused to surrender to him. Tissaphernes was left with a problem; a large army of heavy troops, which he could not defeat by frontal assault. He supplied them with food and, after a long wait, led them northwards for home, meanwhile detaching Ariaeus and his light troops from their cause.  The Greek senior officers foolishly accepted the invitation of Tissaphernes to a feast. There they were made prisoner, taken up to the king and there decapitated. The Greeks elected new officers and set out to march northwards to the Black Sea through Corduene and Armenia, to reach the Greek colonies on the shore. Their eventual success, the march of the Ten Thousand, was recorded by Xenophon in his Anabasis.

Ctesias.

Another famous writer of Antiquity, besides Xenophon, was present at the Battle of Cunaxa. Ctesias, a native of Caria, which belonged to the Achaemenid Empire at the time, was part of the entourage of King Artaxerxes at the Battle of Cunaxa, and brought medical assistance to the king by treating his flesh wound. He reportedly was involved in negotiations with the Greeks after the battle, and also helped their Spartan general Clearchus before his execution. Ctesias was the author of treatises on rivers, and on the Persian revenues, of an account of India entitled "Indica" (Ἰνδικά), and of a history of Assyria and Persia in 23 books, called "Persica" (Περσικά), written in opposition to Herodotus in the Ionic dialect, and professedly founded on the Persian Royal Archives.

References.

Full text of Xenophon's Anabasis online:

The Battle of Cunaxa was fought in 401 BC between Cyrus the Younger and his elder brother Arsaces, who had inherited the Persian throne as Artaxerxes II in 404 BC. The great battle of the revolt of Cyrus took place 70 km north of Babylon, at Cunaxa (), on the left bank of the Euphrates. The main source is Xenophon, a Greek soldier who participated in the fighting.

La bataille de Counaxa s'est déroulée le 3 septembre 401 av. J.-C. entre Cyrus le Jeune et son frère ainé Arsace qui s'était emparé en 404 av. J.-C. du trône persesous le nom d'Artaxerxès II.