Current programs.

Among its programs and initiatives are: the Alliance for Securing Democracy, the Brussels Forum, Atlantic Dialogues, Transatlantic Academy, and the Transatlantic Trends Survey. GMF's policy programs include: Asia, the European Union, Europe's East and Russia, Foreign and Security Policy, Energy Security, NATO, Trade and Investment and Urban and Regional Policy. GMF's leadership programs include the Manfred Wörner Seminar, the Marshall Memorial Fellowship, the Transatlantic Inclusion Leaders Network, Marshall Seminar, the Transatlantic Leadership Seminar, the Congress Bundestag Forum and the Young Transatlantic Network. GMF's civil society projects include the Balkan Trust for Democracy, the Black Sea Trust for Regional Cooperation, and the Fund for Belarus Democracy.

Leadership.

The president of GMF is Karen Donfried, who joined in April 2014. Donfried was previously special assistant to President Barack Obama. Past presidents of GMF include Benjamin H. Read (1973–1977), Robert Gerald Livingston (1977–1981), Frank E. Loy (1981–1995), and Craig Kennedy (1996–2014)

History.

Foundation.

GMF was founded as a permanent memorial to Marshall Plan assistance through a grant from the West German government. It was founded by Guido Goldman, who was the director of Harvard's West European Studies program in the early 1970s. Goldman, an American whose family had fled Germany in 1940, lobbied the West German government, particularly Finance Minister Alex Möller for an endowment to promote European and U.S. relations on the 25th anniversary of Marshall Plan aid. Working with a planning group that was to constitute the Fund's initial Board of Trustees - including physicist Harvey Brooks, diplomat Robert Ellsworth, journalist Max Franke, economist Richard N. Cooper, and educator Howard Swearer - Goldman eventually received an agreement to support an independent institution in 1971.  German Chancellor Willy Brandt, announced the creation of GMF in a speech on June 5, 1972, at Harvard, saying that it would help increase U.S.-European cooperation and mutual understanding. Brandt wrote four years later:  Other charter members of the Board of Trustees included economist Carl Kaysen, judge Arlin M. Adams, and businessman Donald M. Kendall. The first president, selected in 1973, was Benjamin H. Read, who was later to become U.S. Under Secretary of State for Management.

Early days (1972–1989).

In the 1970s and 1980s, GMF dispersed grants in accordance with its mission, including to academic researchers and to the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio. It also provided the initial funding for the Institute for International Economics, now the Peterson Institute for International Economics. By 1977, the organization had spent more than $7 million on nearly 100 projects involving the United States, West Germany, France, Britain, Italy, Sweden, Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Japan and Canada. Academic Michael Naumann has said that GMF was one of the first think tanks to focus on the importance of soft power at a time when most academic focus was on military issues.  In addition to grants, GMF also began a U.S.-Europe parliamentary exchange program and the Marshall Memorial Fellowship, which has since funded the exchange of over 3000 young leaders across the Atlantic. 1977 was also the first year GMF organized a parliamentary exchange between the United States and Europe, with 12 young European parliamentarians visiting the U.S. Congress in Washington.  In 1980, GMF opened its first European office in Bonn. In 1985, the West German government renewed its grant to GMF. In 1987, George Kennan gave the keynote address at a conference organized in West Berlin by GMF to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the Marshall Plan. Also in the 1980s, GMF supported programs such as a National Governors Association initiative to tackle acid rain, and began to work actively with the democracy movements of Central and Eastern Europe through the funding of small grants.

GMF expansion (1989–present).

After the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, GMF was among the first U.S. organizations to establish a presence in what had been East Berlin, in 1990. It moved its Bonn operations to Berlin in 1992. In 2006, GMF acquired its current headquarters in Washington, DC, a building that until 1963 had housed the West German chancery, and that had hosted such figures as John F. Kennedy, Konrad Adenauer, Lyndon B. Johnson, and George C. Marshall. German Chancellor Angela Merkel dedicated the new building.  GMF rapidly expanded its work in Central and Eastern Europe and played an instrumental role during the 1990s in assisting with the transitions to democracy in this region. In the 2000s, GMF established an office in Bratislava for activities in Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkan Trust for Democracy in Belgrade, the Black Sea Trust in Bucharest, and an office in Warsaw. In 2001, GMF established a center in Brussels and an office in Paris.  GMF also began to expand its public policy activities. In 2002, GMF conducted its first survey, along with the Chicago Council on Global Affairs. The next year, it was renamed Transatlantic Trends, and became an annual indicator of public opinion on both sides of the Atlantic. GMF established its Transatlantic Fellows program to enable permanent resident expertise on global public policy issues. It also founded the Transatlantic Academy for visiting scholars, and initiated the Transatlantic Take commentary series. GMF’s exchange programs also expanded with the addition of American Marshall Memorial Fellows, the initiation of the Manfred Worner Seminar for defense specialists, and the establishment of the Congress-Bundestag Forum.  By the mid-2000s, GMF established itself as a major convener on transatlantic issues. In 2004, GMF organized a major conference in Istanbul in the run up to the NATO Summit, which led to the opening of an office in Ankara. In 2005, GMF hosted President George W. Bush in Brussels, where he delivered the first foreign speech of his second term. The next year, 2006, saw the first Brussels Forum, now the preeminent conference on transatlantic relations. GMF's convening continued to grow every year and began hosting expert dialogues on Turkey, China, India, and the Mediterranean, as well as events alongside international climate change summits in Copenhagen and Cancun. In 2012, GMF added a second annual event, The Atlantic Dialogues, in Morocco. Speakers at GMF events have included John Kerry, Robert Gates, Madeleine Albright, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Catherine Ashton, Condoleezza Rice, Wolfgang Schauble, Gordon Brown, and Zbigniew Brzezinski, among many other European and U.S. heads of state and government, cabinet ministers, and legislators.

Major conferences.

Brussels Forum.

Brussels Forum is an annual high-level meeting of influential U.S., European, and global political, corporate, and intellectual leaders in Brussels. Participants include heads of state and government, senior officials from the European Union institutions and the member states, U.S. Cabinet officials, Congressional representatives, parliamentarians, academics, and media.

Atlantic Dialogues.

The Atlantic Dialogues is an annual event in Morocco that brings together around 300 high-level public- and private-sector leaders from around the Atlantic Basin - including Africa and Latin America - for discussion on cross-regional issues ranging from security to economics, migration to energy.

Stockholm China Forum.

Stockholm China Forum is a bi-annual, trilateral conversation between European, U.S. and Chinese officials, academics, business leaders and other influencers. The forum has run since 2007, when it was established to create an informal, off-the-record space to foster transatlantic cooperation on China policy, and trilateral cooperation on areas of agreement and mutual interest.

The German Marshall Fund of the United States (GMF) is a nonpartisan American public policy think tank and grantmaking institution dedicated to promoting cooperation and understanding between North America and Europe.

Le German Marshall Fund of the United States est une institution américaine de politique publique qui vise à promouvoir les relations transatlantiques, par le biais d'un important réseau d'experts et de financement de projets.


Layout and architectural features.

Entrance area.

There are many different looks for a Japanese "sentō", or public bath. Most traditional "sentō", however, are very similar to the layout shown on the right. The entrance from the outside looks somewhat similar to a temple, with a Japanese curtain (暖簾, "noren") across the entrance. The curtain is usually blue and shows the kanji 湯 ("yu", lit. hot water) or the corresponding hiragana ゆ. After the entrance, there is an area with shoe lockers, followed by two long curtains or door, one on each side. These lead to the "datsuijo" (脱衣場, changing room), also known as "datsuiba" for the men and women respectively. The men's and the women's side are very similar and differ only slightly.

Changing room.

A public bathing facility in Japan typically has one of two kinds of entrances. One is the front desk variety, where a person in charge sits at a front desk, abbreviated as "front." The other entrance variety is the bandai style. In Tokyo, 660 sentō facilities have a "front"-type entrance, while only 315 still have the more traditional bandai-style entrance.  Inside, between the entrances is the "bandai" (番台), where the attendant sits. The "bandai" is a rectangular or horseshoe-shaped platform with a railing, usually around 1.5 to 1.8 m high. Above the "bandai" is usually a large clock. Immediately in front of the "bandai" is usually a utility door, to be used by the attendants only. The dressing room is approximately 10 m by 10 m, sometimes partly covered with tatami sheets and contains the lockers for the clothes. Often, there is a large shelf storing equipment for regular customers.  The ceiling is very high, at 3 to 4 m. The separating wall between the men's and the women's side is about 1.5 m high. The dressing room also often has access to a very small Japanese garden with a pond, and a Japanese-style toilet. There are a number of tables and chairs, including some coin-operated massage chairs. Usually, there is also a scale to measure weight, and sometimes height. In some very old "sentō", this scale may use the traditional Japanese measure "monme" (匁, 1 monme = 3.75 g) and "kan" (1 kan = 1000 monme = 3.75 kg). Similarly, in old "sentō" the height scale may go only to 180 cm. Local business often advertises in the "sentō". The women's side usually has some baby beds, and may have more mirrors. The decoration and the advertising is often gender-specific on the different sides. There is usually a refreshment cooler here where customers can self-serve and pay the attendant. Milk drinks are traditional favorites and sometimes there is ice cream.

Bathing area.

The bathing area is separated from the changing area by a sliding door to keep the heat in the bath. An exception are baths in the Okinawa region, as the weather there is usually already hot, and there is no need to keep the hot air in the bath. Sentō in Okinawa usually have no separation between the changing room and the bathing area or only a small wall with an opening to pass through.  The bathing area is usually tiled. Near the entrance area is a supply of small stools and buckets. There are a number of washing stations at the wall and sometimes in the middle of the room, each with usually two faucets ("karan", カラン, after the Dutch word "kraan" for faucet), one for hot water and one for cold water, and a shower head.  At the end of the room are the bathtubs, usually at least two or three with different water temperatures, and maybe a 'denki buro' (電気風呂, electric bath). In the Osaka and Kansai area the bathtubs are more often found in the center of the room, whereas in Tokyo they are usually at the end of the room. The separating wall between the men and the women side is also about 1.5 m high. The ceiling may be 4 m high, with large windows in the top. On rare occasions, the separating wall also has a small hole. This was used to pass soap. At the wall on the far end of the room is usually a large ceramic tile mural or painting for decoration. Most often this is Mount Fuji, but it may be a general Japanese landscape, a (faux) European landscape, a river or ocean scene. On rarer occasions, it may also show a group of warriors or a female nude on the male side. Playing children or a female beauty often decorate the women's side.

Boiler room.

Behind the bathing area is the boiler room (釜場, "kamaba"), where the water is heated. This may use oil or electricity, or any other type of fuel such as wood chippings. The tall chimneys of the boilers are often used to locate the "sentō" from far away. After World War II, Tokyo often had power outages when all bathhouse owners turned on the electric water heating at the same time.

Sauna.

Many modern "sentō" have a sauna with a bathtub of cold water (around 17 degrees Celsius) just outside it for cooling off afterwards. Visitors are typically expected to pay an extra fee to use the sauna, and are often given a wristband to signify this payment.

Etiquette.

This section describes the basic procedure to use a "sentō". The Japanese public bath is one area where the uninitiated can upset regular customers by not following correct bathing etiquette designed to respect others; in particular, not washing before bathing, introducing soap into the bathwater, and horseplay. "Sentō" commonly display a poster describing bathing etiquette and procedures in Japanese or occasionally in other languages for international customers.  Some ports in Hokkaidō, frequently used by foreign fishing fleets, had problems with drunken sailors misbehaving in the bath. Subsequently, a few bathhouses chose not to allow foreign customers at all.  It is common to hear people say, "gokuraku, gokuraku" when they get into the bath. It means something to the level of divine pleasure; it is a good feeling for the body and the soul.

Equipment.

Taking a bath at a public "sentō" requires at a bare minimum a small towel and some soap/shampoo. Attendants usually sell these items for 100-200 yen. Many people bring two towels; a hand towel for drying and a handtowel or washcloth for washing. A nylon scrubbing cloth or scrub brush with liquid soap is normally used for washing. Other body hygiene products may include a pumice stone, toothbrush, toothpaste, shaving equipment, combs, shower caps, pomade, make up products, powder, creams, etc. Some regular customers store their bucket of bathing equipment on open shelves in the dressing room.

Entrance and undressing.

In Japan it is customary to remove one's shoes when entering a private home. Similarly, shoes are removed before entering the bathing area in a "sentō". They are kept in a shoe locker. The locker is usually available free of charge. In a gender-segregated sentō, bathers go through one of the two doors. The men's door usually has a blue color and the kanji for man (男, "otoko"), and the women's door usually has a pink color and the kanji for woman (女, "onna"). The attendant usually provides at extra cost a variety of bath products including towel, soap, shampoo, razor, and comb, ice cream or juice from the freezer can also be paid for here. There are usually free lockers with keys (that may be worn on the wrist into the baths) or large baskets provided to put personal effects.

Bathing area.

At "onsen", or hot springs, the water contains minerals, and many people do not rinse off the water from the skin, to increase exposure to the minerals. In a regular "sentō", people usually rinse off at the faucets.

Tattoos.

Some public baths have signs refusing entry for people with tattoos. However, one may be allowed in if the tattoos are not too obvious. If one ventures to a public bathing place that is publicly owned, this should not present a problem as they have a duty to let all tax-paying citizens in. The original reason behind the ban was to keep out the "yakuza" (officially called the "violence groups" by the police).

Sanitation.

Japanese public baths have experienced infrequent outbreaks of dangerous Legionella bacteria. In order to prevent such problems, the "sentō" union adds chlorine to its baths. At the cost of higher levels of chlorine, bacteria outbreaks are practically non-existent at sentō facilities of today.

Pricing.

Rules and pricing are regulated per prefecture based on local committees. Basic entrance fee for adults at a sentō in Tokyo is ¥450. Citing rise in oil prices as rationale, price has been raised from ¥400 (2000–2006), to ¥430 (2006–2008), and again to ¥450 (2008–present).  In Tokyo, the price for children to enter have remained unchanged: 6- to 11-year-olds can enter at ¥180 each, while younger children can enter at ¥80 each. Girls 13 years or younger and boys 8 or younger are usually permitted to enter the baths of either gender. In other prefectures, the cut off age can be as high as 16 in Hokkaidō or as low as 5 in Hyōgo.  Most sentō in Tokyo also offer a premium service for which each facility sets its own price, usually around ¥1,000. This option is usually called a sauna, since at least sauna is included. At Civic Land Nissei, for example, the sauna option includes access to more than half of all the facilities available.  Larger scale public bathing facility types are called super sentō and kenkō land, both more expensive than sentō, while super sentō offer a more compromised price.  At ¥300 per adult, the cheapest prefectures to sentō baths are in Yamagata, Tokushima, Nagasaki, Ōita, and Miyazaki.

History.

The origins of the Japanese "sentō" and the Japanese bathing culture, in general, can be traced to the Buddhist temples in India, from where it spread to China, and finally to Japan during the Nara period (710–784).

Nara period to Kamakura period.

The Nara period to Kamakura period is defined as "religious bathing". Initially, due to its religious background, baths in Japan were usually found in a temple. These baths were called "yūya" (, lit. hot water shop), or later when they increased in size "ōyuya" (, lit. big hot water shop). These baths were most often steam baths (, "mushiburo", lit. steam bath). While initially these baths were only used by priests, sick people gradually also gained access, until in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) sick people were routinely allowed access to the bathhouse. Wealthy merchants and members of the upper class soon also included baths in their residences.

Kamakura period.

The first mentioning of a commercial bathhouse is in 1266 in the "Nichiren Goshoroku" (). These mixed-sex bathhouses were only vaguely similar to modern bathhouses. After entering the bath, there was a changing room called "datsuijo" (). There the customer also received his/her ration of hot water, since there were no faucets in the actual bath. The entrance to the steam bath was only a very small opening with a height of about 80 cm, so that the heat did not escape. Due to the small opening, the lack of windows, and the thick steam, these baths were usually very dark, and customers often cleared their throats to signal their position to others.

Edo period.

At the beginning of the Edo period (1603–1867), there were two types of baths common to the eastern and western regions of Japan respectively. In Edo (present day Tokyo), bath houses contained sizable pools, and were called "yuya" (湯屋, lit. hot water shop). In Osaka, however, bathing establishments were primarily steam baths called "mushiburo" (蒸し風呂, lit. steam bath) that had only shallow pools.  At the end of the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868) at different times required baths to segregate by sex in order to ensure public moral standards. However, many bathhouse owners merely partitioned their baths with a small board, allowing some voyeurism to persist. Other baths avoided this problem by having men and women bathe at different times of day, or by catering to one gender exclusively. In spite of this, laws regarding mixed-sex bathing were soon relaxed again.  Contributing to the popularity of public baths in the Edo period were female bathing attendants known as "yuna" (湯女, lit. hot water women). These attendants helped cleanse customers by scrubbing their backs. After official closing hours, however, a number of these women would perform additional services by selling sex to male customers. Similarly, some brothels in contemporary Japan have women who specialize in bathing with and cleansing male clientele. Such establishments are often called "sōpu rando" (ソープランド, soapland).  As a preventive measure against prostitution, the Tokugawa shogunate stipulated that no more than three yuna serve at any given bathhouse. However, this rule was widely ignored, causing the shogunate to ban female attendants from bathhouses altogether and once again prohibit the practice of mixed-sex bathing. Large numbers of unemployed yuna thereafter moved to official red-light districts, where they could continue their services. Up until 1870, there were also male washing assistants called "sansuke" (三助, lit. three helps) who would wash and massage customers of both genders. Unlike the yuna, these male attendants were not known to engage in prostitution.  Mixed-sex bathing was prohibited once again after Commodore Perry visited Japan in 1853 and 1854—drawing question to the morality of the practice.

Meiji period.

During the Meiji period (1867–1912) the design of Japanese baths changed considerably. The narrow entrance to the bathing area was widened considerably to a regular-sized sliding door, the bathtubs were sunk partially in the floor so that they could be entered more easily, and the height of the ceiling of the bathhouse was then doubled. Since the bath now focused on hot water instead of steam, windows could be added, and the bathing area became much brighter. The only difference between these baths and the modern bath was the use of wood for the bathing area and the lack of faucets.  Furthermore, another law for segregated bathing was passed in 1890, allowing only children below the age of 8 to join a parent of the opposite sex.

Rebuilding.

At the beginning of the Taishō period (1912–1926), tiles gradually replaced wooden floors and walls in new bathhouses. On September 1, 1923 the great Kantō earthquake devastated Tokyo. The earthquake and the subsequent fire destroyed most baths in the Tokyo area. This accelerated the change from wooden baths to tiled baths, as almost all new bathhouses were now built in the new style using tiled bathing areas. At the end of the Taishō period, faucets also became more common, and this type of faucet can still be seen today. These faucets were called "karan" (カラン, after the Dutch word "kraan" for faucet). There were two faucets, one for hot water and one for cold water, and the customer mixed the water in his bucket according to his personal taste.

Golden era.

During World War II (for Japan 1941–1945), many Japanese cities were damaged. Subsequently, most bathhouses were destroyed along with the cities. The lack of baths caused the reappearance of communal bathing, and temporary baths were constructed with the available material, often lacking a roof. Furthermore, as most houses were damaged or destroyed, few people had access to a private bath, resulting in a great increase in customers for the bathhouses. New buildings in the post-war period also often lacked baths or showers, leading to a strong increase in the number of public baths. In 1965 many baths also added showerheads to the faucets in the baths. The number of public baths in Japan peaked around 1970.

Decline.

Immediately after World War II, resources were scarce and few homeowners had access to a private bath. Private baths began to be more common around 1970, and most new buildings included a bath and shower unit for every apartment. Easy access to private baths led to a decline in customers for public bathhouses, and subsequently the number of bathhouses is decreasing. Some Japanese young people today are embarrassed to be seen naked, and avoid public baths for this reason. Some Japanese are concerned that without the "skinship" of mutual nakedness, children will not be properly socialized.

Future.

While the traditional "sentō" is in decline, many bathhouse operators have adjusted to the new taste of the public and are offering a wide variety of experiences. Some bathhouses emphasize their tradition, and run traditionally-designed bathhouses to appeal to clientele seeking the lost Japan. These bathhouses are also often located in scenic areas and may include an open-air bath. Some also try drilling in order to gain access to a hot spring, turning a regular bathhouse into a more prestigious "onsen".  Other bathhouses with less pristine buildings or settings change into so-called super "sentō" and try to offer a wider variety of services beyond the standard two or three bathtubs. They may include a variety of saunas, reintroduce steam baths, include jacuzzis, and may even have a water slide. They may also offer services beyond mere cleansing, and turn into a spa, offering medical baths, massages, mud baths, fitness centers, etc., as for example the "Spa LaQua" at the Tokyo Dome City entertainment complex. There are also entire bathhouse theme parks, including restaurants, karaoke, and other entertainment, as for example the "Ōedo Onsen Monogatari" (大江戸温泉物語, Big Edo Hot Spring Story) in Odaiba, Tokyo. (Note: The "Ōedo Onsen Monogatari" is not a "sentō".) Some of these modern facilities may require the use of swimsuits and are similar to a water park.

Another type of Japanese public bath is "onsen", which uses hot water from a natural hot spring. In general, the word onsen means that the bathing facility has at least one bath filled with natural hot spring water. However, throughout the Kansai region of Japan the word "onsen" is also a commonly used naming scheme for sentō. Sentō and supersentō in Kansai that do have access to a hot spring will often differentiate themselves by having "natural hot spring" (天然温泉) somewhere on their signage.

Le est un type de bain public japonais payant. Traditionnellement, ces bains sont fonctionnels, constitués d'une grande salle avec un mur séparant les deux sexes, et de chaque côté, des rangées de robinets simples et un grand bassin où les clients se baignent ensemble après s'être lavés.


Mechanisms.

The genotoxic substances induce damage to the genetic material in the cells through interactions with the DNA sequence and structure. For example, the transition metal chromium interacts with DNA in its high-valent oxidation state so to incur DNA lesions leading to carcinogenesis. The metastable oxidation state Cr(V) is achieved through reductive activation. The researchers performed an experiment to study the interaction between DNA with the carcinogenic chromium by using a Cr(V)-Salen complex at the specific oxidation state. The interaction was specific to the guanine nucleotide in the genetic sequence. In order to narrow the interaction between the Cr(V)-Salen complex with the guanine base, the researchers modified the bases to 8-oxo-G so to have site specific oxidation. The reaction between the two molecules caused DNA lesions; the two lesions observed at the modified base site were guanidinohydantoin and spiroiminodihydantoin. To further analyze the site of lesion, it was observed that polymerase stopped at the site and adenine was inappropriately incorporated into the DNA sequence opposite of the 8-oxo-G base. Therefore, these lesions predominately contain G-->T transversions. High-valent chromium is seen to act as a carcinogen as researchers found that "the mechanism of damage and base oxidation products for the interaction between high-valent chromium and DNA... are relevant to "in vivo" formation of DNA damage leading to cancer in chromate-exposed human populations". Consequently, it shows how high-valent chromium can act as a carcinogen with 8-oxo-G forming xenobiotics.  Another example of a genotoxic substance causing DNA damage are pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). These substances are found mainly in plant species and are poisonous to animals, including humans; about half of them have been identified as genotoxic and many as tumorigenic. The researchers concluded from testing that when metabolically activated, "PAs produce DNA adducts, DNA cross-linking, DNA breaks, sister chromatid exchange, micronuclei, chromosomal aberrations, gene mutations, and chromosome mutations "in vivo" and "in vitro"." The most common mutation within the genes are G:C --> T:A tranversions and tandem base substitution. The pyrrolizidine alkaloids are mutagenic "in vivo" and "in vitro" and, therefore, responsible for the carcinogenesis prominently in the liver. Comfrey is an example of a plant species that contains fourteen different PAs. The active metabolites interact with DNA to cause DNA damage, mutation induction, and cancer development in liver endothelial cells and hepatocytes. The researchers discovered in the end that the "comfrey is mutagenic in liver, and PA contained in comfrey appear to be responsible for comfrey-induced toxicity and tumor induction,".

Test techniques.

The purpose of genotoxicity testing is to determine if a substrate will influence genetic material or may cause cancer. They can be performed in bacterial, yeast, and mammalian cells. With the knowledge from the tests, one can control early development of vulnerable organisms to genotoxic substances.

Bacterial Reverse Mutation Assay.

The Bacterial Reverse Mutation Assay, also known as the Ames Assay, is used in laboratories to test for gene mutation. The technique uses many different bacterial strains in order to compare the different changes in the genetic material. The result of the test detects the majority of genotoxic carcinogens and genetic changes; the types of mutations detected are frame shifts and base substitutions.

"in vitro" toxicology testing.

The purpose of "in vitro" testing is to determine whether a substrate, product, or environmental factor induces genetic damage. One technique entails cytogenetic assays using different mammalian cells. The types of aberrations detected in cells affected by a genotoxic substance are chromatid and chromosome gaps, chromosome breaks, chromatid deletions, fragmentation, translocation, complex rearrangements, and many more. The clastogenic or aneugenic effects from the genotoxic damage will cause an increase in frequency of structural or numerical aberrations of the genetic material. This is similar to the micronucleus test and chromosome aberration assay, which detect structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells.  In a specific mammalian tissue, one can perform a mouse lymphoma TK+/- assay to test for changes in the genetic material. Gene mutations are commonly point mutations, altering only one base within the genetic sequence to alter the ensuing transcript and amino acid sequence; these point mutations include base substitutions, deletions, frame-shifts, and rearrangements. Also, chromosomes' integrity may be altered through chromosome loss and clastogenic lesions causing multiple gene and multilocus deletions. The specific type of damage is determined by the size of the colonies, distinguishing between genetic mutations (mutagens) and chromosomal aberrations (clastogens).  The SOS/umu assay test evaluates the ability of a substance to induce DNA damage; it is based on the alterations in the induction of the SOS response due to DNA damage. The benefits of this technique are that it is a fast and simple method and convenient for numerous substances. These techniques are performed on water and wastewater in the environment.

"in vivo" testing.

The purpose for "in vivo" testing is to determine the potential of DNA damage that can affect chromosomal structure or disturb the mitotic apparatus that changes chromosome number; the factors that could influence the genotoxicity are ADME and DNA repair. It can also detect genotoxic agents missed in "in vitro" tests. The positive result of induced chromosomal damage is an increase in frequency of micronucelated PCEs. A micronucleus is a small structure separate from the nucleus containing nuclear DNA arisen from DNA fragments or whole chromosomes that were not incorporated in the daughter cell during mitosis. Causes for this structure are mitotic loss of acentric chromosomal fragments (clastogenicity), mechanical problems from chromosomal breakage and exchange, mitotic loss of chromosomes (aneugenicity), and apoptosis. The micronucleus test "in vivo" is similar to the "in vitro" one because it tests for structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells, especially in rats' blood cells.

Comet assay.

Comet assays are one of the most common tests for genotoxicity. The technique involves lysing cells using detergents and salts. The DNA released from the lysed cell is electrophoresed in an agarose gel under neutral pH conditions. Cells containing DNA with an increased number of double-strand breaks will migrate more quickly to the anode. This technique is advantageous in that it detects low levels of DNA damage, requires only a very small number of cells, is cheaper than many techniques, is easy to execute, and quickly displays results. However, it does not identify the mechanism underlying the genotoxic effect or the exact chemical or chemical component causing the breaks.

Cancer.

Genotoxic effects such as deletions, breaks and/or rearrangements can lead to cancer if the damage does not immediately lead to cell death. Regions sensitive to breakage, called fragile sites, may result from genotoxic agents (such as pesticides). Some chemicals have the ability to induce fragile sites in regions of the chromosome where oncogenes are present, which could lead to carcinogenic effects. In keeping with this finding, occupational exposure to some mixtures of pesticides are positively correlated with increased genotoxic damage in the exposed individuals. DNA damage is not uniform in its severity across populations because Individuals vary in their ability to activate or detoxify genotoxic substances, which leads to variability in the incidence of cancer among individuals. The difference in ability to detoxify certain compounds is due to individuals’ inherited polymorphisms of genes involved in the metabolism of the chemical. Differences may also be attributed to individual variation in efficiency of DNA repair mechanisms  The metabolism of some chemicals results in the production of reactive oxygen species, which is a possible mechanism of genotoxicity. This is seen in the metabolism of arsenic, which produces hydroxyl radicals, which are known to cause genotoxic effects. Similarly, ROS have been implicated in genotoxicity caused by particles and fibers. Genotoxicity of nonfibrous and fibrous particles is characterized by high production of ROS from inflammatory cells.

Genotoxic chemotherapy.

Genotoxic chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with the use of one or more genotoxic drugs. The treatment is traditionally part of standardized regime. By utilizing the destructive properties of genotoxins treatments aims to induce DNA damage into cancer cells. Any damage done to a cancer is passed on to descendent cancer cells as proliferation continues. If this damage is severe enough, it will induce cells to undergo apoptosis.

Risks.

A drawback of treatment is that many genotoxic drugs are effective on cancerous cells and normal cells alike. Selectivity of a particular drug's action is based on the sensitivity of the cells themselves. So, while rapidly dividing cancer cells are particularly sensitive to many drug treatments, often normal functioning cells are affected.  Another risk of treatment is that, in addition to being genotoxic, many of the drugs are also mutagenic and cytotoxic. So the effects of these drugs are not limited to just DNA damage. In addition, some of these drugs that are meant to treat cancers are also carcinogens themselves, raising the risk of secondary cancers, such as leukemia.

Different treatments.

This table depicts different genotoxic-based cancer treatments along with examples.

In genetics, genotoxicity describes the property of chemical agents that damages the genetic information within a cell causing mutations, which may lead to cancer. While genotoxicity is often confused with mutagenicity, all mutagens are genotoxic, whereas not all genotoxic substances are mutagenic. The alteration can have direct or indirect effects on the DNA: the induction of mutations, mistimed event activation, and direct DNA damage leading to mutations. The permanent, heritable changes can affect either somatic cells of the organism or germ cells to be passed on to future generations. Cells prevent expression of the genotoxic mutation by either DNA repair or apoptosis; however, the damage may not always be fixed leading to mutagenesis.

Une substance (produit chimique de synthèse ou agent naturel naturellement génotoxique) ou un rayonnement sont dits génotoxiques quand ils peuvent compromettre l'intégrité physique (cassure chromosomique) ou fonctionnelle du génome.


Physical geography.

The sources.

The principal source of the Olona is in the "Fornaci della Riana" locality, at the "Rasa of Varese", part of the homonymous provincial capital, at the Sacro Monte di Varese, within the Campo dei Fiori regional park. The Fornaci della Riana owe their name to some ancient limestone furnaces that remained active until 1972.  In addition to the main source, the river also flows from five other small springs, two in Val di Rasa and three in Valganna; these springs give rise to two branches joining downstream from Bregazzana (fraction of Varese). The branch that is born to the west, in Val di Rasa, is the most important; the two springs that originate this waterway are located at the Varrò pass

The path.

After the initial stretch, the river begins to travel the valley of the same name, the Valle Olona. This valley originated from the Olona and the retreat of the glaciers during the last ice age; it looks like a valley deeply engraved with the inhabited centers located on the hills overlooking the river bed, the so-called "pianalti".  The slopes are mostly covered with woods, while in the valley bottom there are cultivated areas, meadows and heaths. The main tributary on Olona in the province of Varese is the Bevera; other important tributaries of this stretch

The basin.

The Olona is long and has a drainage basin of. The drainage basin of the Olona extends over part of the province of Varese, the Metropolitan City of Milan and, to a lesser extent, province of Como, also affecting part of Switzerland. A small part of the Gaggiolo basin, its tributary,

The original bed and the two Olona.

One of the most important studies on hydrography of Milan was carried out by engineer Felice Poggi. In 1911 Poggi affirmed that the two Olona, the one that flows into the Lambro Meridionale and the stream that flows into the Po at San Zenone al Po, constituted until the first years of the Common Era a single river that had a total length of. This hypothesis has also been confirmed by subsequent studies.  The place where the river was diverted to Milan by the ancient Romans is Lucernate, a fraction of Rho. From here, to find the ancient bed of the Olona following the minimum undulations and the very small altimetric variations of the terrain, we arrive at Cascina Olona (a locality of Settimo Milanese; the toponym is indicative), in Baggio and in Corsico, with a possible variant that from Settimo Milanese would lead to Muggiano and Trezzano sul Naviglio (or Cesano Boscone).

The detour to Milan.

Until ancient Roman times, at "La Maddalena", today's quartier of Milan, the Olona was diverted towards the city with the aim of bringing water to it: in ancient Roman times it flowed into the moat of the republican defensive walls of the city of "Mediolanum" then, from the 12th century, in the defensive moat around the medieval walls and later (1603) in the Darsena of Porta Ticinese.  In particular Olona river, during the Middle Ages, flowed into the moat of medieval defensive walls of the city in correspondence of the modern "Piazza della Resistenza Partigiana", while in ancient Roman times it continued the city route reaching the modern "Piazza Vetra", where it poured its water into the moat of Roman walls thanks to the homonymous canal, the "Canale Vetra". The Cerchia dei Navigli then originated from the medieval moat of walls, while the two branches of the Roman moat became the "Grande Sevese" and the "Piccolo Sevese", two canals still existing today in

Origins of the name.

There are three hypotheses on the origin of the toponym "Olona". The first supposes that the name of the river is connected to the Celtic root, which means "large", "valid" in reference to the use of its water.  The second conjecture hypothesizes that the name derives from the ancient Greek "oros" (ὄρος), which means "relief", "mountain". The last hypothesis supposes instead that the toponym of the water course is connected to a Milanese monastery founded in the 8th century

History.

Since ancient times, the inhabitants of the Valle Olona lived mainly away from the river, on higher ground that certainly would not have been hit by seasonal floods. From the archaeological findings found, it can be deduced that the Valle Olona was - already in antiquity - a significant communication route.  The water of the Olona have been used for centuries by the local population to irrigate the fields, for fishing, for the breeding of livestock, to move the wheels of water mills and, with the industrialization of its banks, to operate the hydraulic turbines serving the establishments.

From prehistory to the Middle Ages.

The oldest prehistoric finds found in the areas around the natural Olona riverbed are "bos primigenius" bones dating back to the Würm glaciation. Unearthed in Legnano in the locality of Costa San Giorgio, they are kept in the Museo civico Guido Sutermeister.  As for the presence of man, the oldest finds discovered around the river have been found in the area of the springs. The Lake Varese was in fact frequented, between 4300 BC and 800 BC, from a palatificula civilization. According to some authors, part of these populations, following a demographic increase, migrated south settling along the Valle Olona.  Further downstream, between 1926 and 1928, near the border between Castellanza and Legnano, an artifact dating back to a period between 3400 BC and the 2200 BC came to light It is a small fragment of a bell-shaped vase that was made in the Copper Age and that can be connected to

From the Renaissance to the 17th century.

The premises for the establishment of a consortium among river water users occurred in 1541, when the so-called "Novae Costitutiones" (in English, the "new constitutions") were signed. In this case the new contract, which had a public nature, provided for a "Regius Judex Commissarius Fluminis Olona" (in English, "commissioner of the river Olona"), which supervised the control of the users of the Olona water. In general, this function was covered by a representative of the Senate of Milan.  In 1548 a "shout" was issued which obliged water users to prove, by written documentation, the details of the various uses. In these centuries the distribution of water was not fair. The richest and most powerful users prevailed over the poorest and most defenseless ones.  In 1606 a real consortium, in Italian called "Consorzio del fiume Olona" (en. "Olona river consortium"), was formed in Milan among the users under the surveillance, also in this case, of the commissioner of the Olona river. This official, as in the past, had the task of controlling the use of the Olona water. It was no coincidence that the

From 18th to 21st century.

The aforementioned family-run craft activities then laid the foundations for the creation of the proto-industries. After 1820, the first proto-industrial activities started along the Olona began to exploit the motive power of the river by first purchasing, and then modifying in the most appropriate way, the water mills that for centuries were destined for the grinding of agricultural products. During the industrial development of the 19th century, many mills then became part of the proto-industrial establishments that were rising along the Olona.  The industrialization of the shores of the Olona was therefore gradual, with entrepreneurs who preferred to exploit the plumbing of the ancient mills rather than set up new ones. In other words, the industry was born as a metamorphosis of part of the ancient mills. As a consequence, the greatest concentration of proto-industrial activities occurred in correspondence of the stretches of the river where the presence of milling plants was higher.  The presence of

The cartography.

The oldest map representing the course of the Olona of which we have documented trace is dated 1608. On it are also marked the bridges and, with a good precision, the constructions along the river but not the zone of the sources and not the measures of the various properties. For the section of Olona that crosses Milan the current route appears, as already mentioned, in the general town plan of Beruto in 1884. With it, the route of the Darsena of Milan branch is also indicated. The Darsena branch, before crossing "Via Vincenzo Foppa", crossed both "Via Vepra", whose name recalls both Canale Vetra, and the ancient quartier of the same name, where, after the defeat with Federico Barbarossa and the destruction of the city (1162), they were exiled the Milanese of Porta Vercellina.  Here, until the fifties of the 20th

The water.

Regime of the river.

The Olona regime is typically torrential due to the absence of intermediate bodies of water that regulate its flow. It has periods of high flow in March, April, October and November, and lean periods - though not dry - in July, August, December and January. The river regime is therefore characterized by a very variable flow which is a function of the seasons and of the meteorological precipitations. This variability has always caused technical difficulties in the dimensioning phase of infrastructures destined to contain floods.  The average flow of the Olona in Ponte Gurone di Malnate is. In Rho, after the Olona receives the contributions of the Bozzente and the Lura, the average flow reaches the value of

Tributaries and trough.

The river has a total of 19 tributaries. The most important ones are the Lura, the Bevera, the Gaggiolo (also called "Lanza"), the Bozzente, the Vellone, the Rile, the Tenore, the Merlata, the Pudiga, the Quadronna, the Selvagna and the Fredda. We should also mention the Refreddo (also called "Fontanile Crotto"), a stream that flows in the valley floor of Castelseprio, in the area of Crotto Valle Olona, and that flows into the river just downstream.  The Olona water

The floods and the leans.

The Olona, before the construction of embankments and canals, was a river that flogged the areas it crossed with frequent flooding. Considering the last four centuries, more than 70 floods can be counted. The first of which is known about the documents occurred in 1584 in Legnano. The last flood that caused significant damage occurred instead on 13 September 1995, while the last in chronological order took place on 29 July 2014. Among the most recent, the three floods that have done the most damage were those of 1911, 1917 and 1951. The most devastating was that of 1951, which occurred in conjunction with the Polesine flood.  The greatest number of floods occurred in the final part of the river, in the Metropolitan City of Milan. The most affected city in this section was Rho. More to the north, the most interested area was that of Clivio. The cause of these frequent overflows must be sought in the reduced extension

The artificial derivations.

As long as it was in operation, the stretch of the Cavo Diotti that took water from Castegnate, "frazione" of Castellanza, represented the most important artificial derivation of the Olona. Its northern section is still entering in the Olona, through the Bevera tributary, after having taken water from springs in the Canton of Ticino and in the territory of Viggiù. The southern section of this artificial channel, that is the one that extracted the water previously introduced in Castegnate, was instead buried in 1918 following the strong urbanization of the agricultural area of Pantanedo, "frazione" of Rho, which was the final user of the Cavo Diotti. Since the demand for water for irrigation purposes in Pantanedo was almost zero, this part of the canal was no longer used.  The Cavo Diotti was built in 1787. He was wanted by the lawyer Luigi Diotti, great landowner, to irrigate his properties. Diotti asked and obtained permission from Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria to carry out the work. The project was, however, a harbinger of controversy: 32 users of the river's water opposed it

Water quality and purifiers.

The water quality of the river is monitored in five monitoring stations: Varese, Lozza, Fagnano Olona, Legnano and Rho. In the first monitoring station, which is located in Varese, the river water is "acceptable" or "sufficient" and is constantly improving. In Legnano the quality of the water worsens, assuming the "poor" level, but here too an improvement is noted, since until a few years before the state of the water of the Olona was "very bad". In Rho, although slightly improving, the water of the river maintain the "very bad" degree. Downstream of the Pero purifier, the Olona water improve.  The river

The nature.

Flora.

The first part of the river runs through the Campo dei Fiori Regional Park. Up to 600 m of altitude, in this protected area, chestnuts, ash trees and linden trees prevail. Maples are common in the more humid valleys. On the summit of the Campo dei Fiori massif these plant species are replaced by beech, while birches and Scotch pines are common on the dry slopes of Monte Martica. The open spaces are embellished by now rare plants such as the Gentiana pneumonanthe and by dozens of

Fauna.

In the first part of the course, the unpolluted one, the fauna is very varied. In the Campo dei Fiori park you can meet ungulates such as deer or roe deer, and dozens of small mammals and rodents, including the red squirrel, hedgehog, fox, dormouse, shrew, vole, weasel, mole and various species of bats.  There are also several birds of prey: some resident like the northern goshawk, the black kite, the honey buzzard, the sparrow hawk and the peregrine falcon, others migratory such as the short-toed snake eagle and the marsh harrier. Other birds present are the owl, the tawny owl and the barn owl. The grey heron and many birds, migratory and not, typical of the woods and fields complete the avifauna.  Among the amphibians there are salamanders and various species of tree

Anthropic geography.

Municipalities crossed.

The municipalities crossed

Seaworthiness and fishing.

The river itself has never been a navigable communication route. It is not possible to speak of navigability even in the 21st century, even if in some points of the river canoeing is practiced and occasionally, for environmental promotion purposes, some ecologists carry out the descent by kayak.  Fishing was once a thriving activity that was also practiced by professional fishermen. In the Olona trout, crayfish, frogs and other fish species were fished. Individual fishing licenses were issued by the Olona river consortium. During the centuries, given the economic importance deriving from it, numerous regulations were enacted. The oldest document preserved in the archives of the Olona

Infrastructures and projects.

The whole Olona is crossed by 57 bridges, among which there are some of historical interest, such as the Romanesque bridge in Castiglione Olona, and the iron bridge of Malnate, which was built at the end of the 19th century to allow the crossing of a railway. The largest infrastructure that crosses the Olona is instead the Cairate viaduct. Among the communication routes that cross the Olona, there are 2 railway lines (the Saronno–Laveno railway and the Como–Varese railway) and 7 provincial roads.  The course of the river, which is profoundly artificialized, is strongly at risk from a hydraulic point of view, that is, from flooding. After

Interesting sites.

Water mills.

Between the springs and Nerviano the course of the river was once scattered with water mills. Since the Middle Ages, along the Olona, the milling activity has flourished. Such was the number of mills to suggest that in the 15th century this activity constituted a considerable economic source for the whole area.  The oldest known document in which a mill is named on the Olona dates back to 1043: it refers to a milling plant located between Castegnate and the "Gabinella" locality in Legnano which was owned by Pietro Vismara. The Sforza and Visconti seigniories placed fortifications at the most important groupings of mills on the Olona, exploiting already existing fortresses and castles.  In 1608 there were 116 mills on the shores of the Olona, including a copper trip hammer, a fuller for clothes and several oil presses, a number which rose to 106 in 1772 and to 55 in 1881. In the years mentioned, the water wheels serving these milling plants (called, in Valle Olona, "rodigini") were, respectively, 463, 424 and 170. Several of these mills have reached the 21st century. Some have been recovered, while others are in a state of neglect. Starting from the springs, the first historically significant milling plants that meet along the Olona are the Grassi mills in Varese, which were built between the 16th and 19th centuries. They have been restored to be used as a dwelling and have, on the external walls, some examples of sundials of great historical interest and a valuable fresco of 1675. Further south there are the Sonzini mills of Gurone, which are older than 1772. They remained in operation until 1970, after which they were used for housing. In Vedano Olona there is the mill at Fontanelle; already present in 1772, it had a millstone and a press. It underwent a first abandonment in the twenties, then it was restructured in the 1970s and again abandoned in the following decade.  The Bosetti mill is located in Castellazzo, a "frazione" in

Industrial archeology.

From the sixties and seventies of the 20th century, the industry of the Valle Olona (especially the textile sector) entered an irreversible crisis and therefore, progressively, most of the factories definitively interrupted the productive activities, leaving the areas adjacent to the Olona an important heritage of industrial archeology.  Equipped with great architectural value is the Birrificio Angelo Poretti of Induno Olona, which was founded in 1877. In 1901 this industrial complex was expanded with the construction of new Liberty style pavilions. Even the subsequent restorations and extensions were respectful of this architectural choice. The buildings, between naturalism, classicism, Egyptian and floral, present striking decorations: masks, grotesques, medallions, fringes and drops, shells, giant pilasters and large festoons of hops. This establishment, originally, exploited the aforementioned "Fontana degli Ammalati", or a resurgence whose water was used for centuries for its healing qualities. Further down the valley there

Parks.

Since the second half of the 20th century, there have been several protected natural areas established along the shores of the Olona. The Campo dei Fiori Regional Park covers an area of 6,300 hectares and is managed by a consortium formed by the Valli del Verbano mountain community, the Piambello mountain community, the province of Varese and the seventeen municipalities included in the Park territory: Barasso, Bedero Valcuvia, Brinzio, Casciago, Castello Cabiaglio, Cocquio-Trevisago, Comerio, Cunardo, Cuvio, Gavirate, Induno Olona, Luvinate, Masciago Primo, Orino, Rancio Valcuvia, Valganna and Varese. It is based in Brinzio and was established in 1984. Since 2010, the project to restore the Olona main spring area to the Rasa of Varese has been active.  The Parco Rile Tenore Olona, which was established in 2006, embraces a territory characterized by extensive terracing of fluvial-glacial origin, the so-called moraine plains, and is rich in sites of historical and cultural significance. The typical geology of the territory allows the birth of many small streams supported by spring and rain waters. The main ones are the Rile and the Tenore. The park covers 16 km2 and includes the municipalities of Cairate, Carnago, Caronno Varesino, Castelseprio, Castiglione Olona, Gazzada Schianno, Gornate

The Olona ("Olona" in Italian; "Ulona", "Urona" or "Uòna" in Western Lombard) is an Italian river belonging to the Po Basin, long, that runs through the Province of Varese and Metropolitan City of Milan whose course is developed entirely in Lombardy.

L'Olona (en dialecte lombard "Ulona" ou "Urona") est une rivière d’Italie (, de bassin) qui prend sa source sur le Mont Legnone, dans le parc régional Campo dei Fiori, à côté de Rasa di Varese, hameau de Varèse. Il se divise en de nombreux bras et est l’affluent du Lambro et du Pô à côté de San Zenone dans la province de Pavie.


Qualifying.

Pre-qualifying report.

In the Friday morning pre-qualifying session, an Onyx topped the time sheets for the fifth Grand Prix in succession. Stefan Johansson was again comfortably fastest by over a second, and his team-mate Bertrand Gachot also pre-qualified in third. The other two pre-qualifiers were the Larrousse-Lola cars of Michele Alboreto in second, and Philippe Alliot in fourth.  Those failing to proceed to the main qualifying sessions included both Osellas; Nicola Larini and Piercarlo Ghinzani close together in fifth and sixth. Roberto Moreno was seventh in his Coloni, with the AGS of Gabriele Tarquini eighth. The struggling Zakspeed drivers were ninth and tenth, Bernd Schneider marginally faster than Aguri Suzuki. The other AGS of Yannick Dalmas was next, ahead of Gregor Foitek, driving the older EuroBrun ER188B after the new car had not been successful. Foitek quit the team after this Grand Prix, to be replaced by their 1988 driver Oscar Larrauri. Bottom of the time sheets was the second Coloni of debutant Enrico Bertaggia, who was unable to put a proper timed lap together. He was replacing Pierre-Henri Raphanel, who had left Coloni to join Rial after Volker Weidler had quit the team.

Qualifying report.

Ayrton Senna took his eighth pole position of the season by nearly six-tenths of a second from McLaren teammate Alain Prost, with almost a further second back to Gerhard Berger in the Ferrari in third. The two Williams were fourth and fifth with Thierry Boutsen, in his home race, ahead of Riccardo Patrese, followed by Nigel Mansell in the second Ferrari. Alessandro Nannini was seventh in the Benetton, over two seconds behind Mansell, and the top ten was completed by Stefano Modena in the Brabham, Maurício Gugelmin in the March and Derek Warwick in the Arrows.  The major talking point, however, was the failure of both Nelson Piquet and Satoru Nakajima to qualify, the first time in the Lotus team's history that neither of its cars had qualified.  All the times were determined in the second qualifying session, after the first had taken place in wet conditions.

Race.

Race report.

The race was delayed for some time due to the wet conditions. At the start, Senna led the way from Prost and Berger. Mansell managed to pass both Williams on the grass on the run to La Source hairpin to claim fourth position by the first corner. Johnny Herbert retired when he spun off on lap 4 in his first race for Tyrrell. René Arnoux then retired in the pit lane on lap 5 after a collision with the Lola of Philippe Alliot at La Source. Early on, Berger pressured Prost but was unable to find a way through. Senna comfortably led from start to finish in conditions similar to those in which he won his first Belgian Grand Prix in 1985. Behind him, Berger suffered his tenth consecutive retirement of the season when he spun out on lap 10, leaving Prost to fend off a charging Mansell who, in his efforts to pass the McLaren, made a number of unorthodox moves at the exit of La Source in an attempt to gain a better run at the McLaren through Eau Rouge and on to the long uphill straight. Senna eased up in the last few laps, allowing Prost and Mansell to finish within two seconds of him. Boutsen finished fourth in his 100th race. Johnny Herbert, in his first race for Tyrrell (replacing Jean Alesi who was busy competing in the F3000 championship), said during the BBC commentary that in order to see the car in front it was necessary to press the helmet visor against the lens of the rear-facing visibility light from the car in front. Unusually, Eddie Cheever received the black and white flag for 'unsportsmanlike behaviour' for his alleged baulking of Mansell.

The 1989 Belgian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Spa-Francorchamps on 27 August 1989. It was the eleventh race of the 1989 Formula One World Championship.

Résultats du Grand Prix de Belgique de Formule 1 1989 qui a eu lieu sur le circuit de Spa-Francorchamps le 27 août.


Club career.

Early years.

Born and raised in Llandudno to Fred and Rose Southall, he was the middle child of three boys. Southall played youth football for his school team and the Llandudno Swifts, where he played alongside Joey Jones. He was educated at Ysgol John Bright, though left without any qualifications at age 16. At age 14 he toured Germany with the Llandudno Swifts and was offered a chance to play for the youth team of Bundesliga outfit Fortuna Düsseldorf, but decided against the move to Germany. The Swifts were a poor side that were regularly beaten heavily, though the near constant barrage of shots he faced enabled Southall to improve on his shot-stopping skills.  As a teenager, Southall had unsuccessful trials at Wrexham, Crewe Alexandra and Bolton Wanderers. He aspired to be a postman, and never believed that he would make a living playing football. He then worked as a binman, waiter and hod carrier and therefore entered the game relatively late. He played for Llandudno Town at age 15, before joining Northern Premier League side Bangor City on £10 a week as a semi-professional the following year. Bangor manager Dave Elliott regularly selected veteran goalkeeper Peter Eales ahead of Southall. Everton asked Elliot permission to take Southall on trial, but Elliot left the club shortly after and no trial took place. With Bangor in financial trouble the paid playing staff began to leave the club, and Southall left Bangor and went on to accept an offer of £3 a week to play for Conwy United. He moved on to Cheshire County League club Winsford United at the age of 20. The club won the Cheshire Senior Cup in 1980, and Southall was voted the club's Player of the Year.

Bury.

Southall's performances attracted the attention of Bury and Wigan Athletic, and he was convinced to sign with Bury after he was personally approached by manager Dave Connor. Bury paid Winsford £6,000 and would later pay another £25,000 after he was sold on. However, he never played for Connor as he was replaced by Jim Iley before the start of the 1980–81 season; despite this managerial change he was still seen as the future replacement to club stalwart John Forrest. He received specialist goalkeeping coaching from Wilf McGuinness. He made his first team debut against Wigan Athletic on 20 September, in a 2–1 victory. The "Shakers" had an indifferent league campaign in the Fourth Division, though they managed to reach the Third Round of the FA Cup and beat Newcastle United in the League Cup. Southall kept 15 clean sheets after conceding 50 goals in his 44 domestic appearances, and was named as Bury's Player of the Year and Young Player of the Year.

Everton.

Southall was bought by Everton manager Howard Kendall for £150,000 in the summer of 1981. To win a first team place he had to compete with Jim McDonagh (a Gordon Lee signing who would soon leave the club), Jim Arnold (also a new signing), and Martin Hodge (who was injured throughout his time at Everton). He made his debut in a 2–1 win over Ipswich Town in October, after Arnold picked up an injury. He returned to the first team in December, and he kept a clean sheet against Aston Villa and remained an ever-present throughout the rest of the 1981–82 season.  Kendall described Southall as the best goalkeeper in the First Division "outside the big three" of Ray Clemence, Peter Shilton and Joe Corrigan. However, he began to suffer from ulcerated toes, which gave him severely swollen feet and caused him pain and discomfort throughout matches. On 6 November 1982, he conceded five goals in a 5–0 defeat to Mersey rivals Liverpool at Goodison Park. Kendall then dropped Southall as part of a shake-up at the club. He spent January and February on loan at John McGrath's Port Vale, and played nine Fourth Division games. McGrath was impressed and tried to take Southall to Vale Park on a permanent basis, but was rebuffed by Kendall. Back at Everton he played the last four games of the 1982–83 season after Arnold picked up an injury.  Arnold was the preferred choice in goal at the start of the 1983–84 season, before Southall was recalled on 1 October against Notts County. Everton had a poor start to the league campaign, but excelled in cup competitions, reaching the final of both the League Cup and the FA Cup. Southall's first appearance at Wembley was in the League Cup final against Liverpool, and he kept a clean sheet in a goalless draw. The replay was held at Maine Road, and Liverpool won the tie 1–0 with a Graeme Souness goal. He was rarely called into action in the 1984 FA Cup Final, and kept a clean sheet as Everton claimed the trophy with a 2–0 victory over Watford.  Southall kept a clean sheet at Wembley in the 1984 FA Charity Shield, as Everton beat Liverpool 1–0 to take home the first silverware of the 1984–85 season. They then lost the opening two league games of the season, before losing only three of their next 37 league games to win the First Division title by a 13-point margin. Over the course of the season they beat Liverpool both at Anfield and at Goodison, and recorded a 5–0 win over Manchester United. Southall made one particularly crucial save from a point-blank Mark Falco header in a 2–1 win over title chasers Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane on 3 April; the "Daily Mail"'s Jeff Powell described it as "the most astonishing save since Gordon Banks left Pelé dumbfounded in Mexico". In the European Cup Winners' Cup, Everton beat UCD (Ireland), Inter Bratislava (Czechoslovakia), Fortuna Sittard (Netherlands), and Bayern Munich (Germany) in two-legged encounters, and Southall conceded just the one goal (from Dieter Hoeneß) over the course of all eight matches. They then beat Austrian club Rapid Wien 3–1 in the final at De Kuip to win the first European title in the club's history. Three days later Everton played in the 1985 FA Cup Final, but lost 1–0 to Manchester United after a Norman Whiteside goal in extra-time. At the end of the season Southall was named as the FWA Footballer of the Year, becoming only the first Everton player, second Welshman and fourth goalkeeper to win the award.  Though Everton had won a place in the European Cup, English clubs were banned from European competitions following the Heysel Stadium disaster. Southall remained bitter over this, blaming UEFA for the tragedy and stating that the ban was a convenient way to break up English dominance of European competitions. Limited to domestic competitions, Everton won the FA Charity Shield with a 2–0 win over Manchester United; during the celebrations Southall wore a T-shirt saying "I Love My Wife" as a symbolic gesture following tabloid stories of an alleged affair. After getting sent off against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge in October, Kendall criticised Southall in the press by saying he "let the lads down". Despite this set-back, he agreed to sign a six-year contract in December, which was then the longest contract the club had ever issued. However, he twisted his ankle ligaments on international duty with ten league games left to play. In his absence, his deputy Bobby Mimms took his place, and Everton lost both the league title and the 1986 FA Cup Final to Liverpool.  Sidelined through injury at the start of the 1986–87 season, he returned to the first team against Watford in October. He was the club's Player of the Month in February, and won man of the match awards in wins over Arsenal and Chelsea as Everton claimed another league title. Comparing the two title wins (1985 and 1987), Southall said that the latter success was "more rewarding and satisfying" as it had proved to be "more of a struggle" compared to the ease in which the title was won in the former campaign.  After Kendall left Merseyside to coach Athletic Bilbao, his assistant Colin Harvey took charge at Goodison; Southall responded well to the change, as he believed Harvey "understood my obsessive and relentless desire to be the best". Everton finished fourth in 1987–88, conceding a club record low of 27 goals in 40 league games, and reached the semi-finals of the League Cup. Southall had missed the opening stages of the season after undergoing knee surgery.  Harvey had failed to adequately replace some of Everton's departing star players, and Southall noted how "the mediocrity became habitual" as the club coasted to an eighth-place finish in the 1988–89 season. He kept goal in the final of the Full Members Cup (a largely unsuccessful tournament inspired by the ban on European football), as Everton were beaten 4–3 by Nottingham Forest. More significantly, he kept goal against Liverpool in the 1989 FA Cup Final after conceding only two goals in the seven games en route to the final. In an emotional match in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster in the semi-final encounter with Nottingham Forest, Liverpool won the cup with a 3–2 extra-time victory.  Everton were leading the division at the start of the 1989–90 season, but their title challenge fell away after a televised 6–2 defeat to Aston Villa. Southall was later told he needed surgery that would keep him out of action for eight months, but he instead sought out a back specialist who told him he simply had a "bad back" and found that the problem corrected itself.  Southall requested a transfer before the start of the 1990–91 season. He famously sat down during a "sulking session" against a goalpost at half-time of the season opener whilst his teammates were still in the changing rooms while two goals down to newly promoted Leeds United (a game Everton eventually lost 3–2); Southall was fined two weeks wages despite denying it was a protest and that he simply did it to clear his head. He then received a phone call from Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson, but Southall's hostile phone manner put Ferguson off the idea of signing him, and Ferguson instead bought Danish goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel. Howard Kendall returned as Everton manager in November, with Colin Harvey being demoted to his assistant, and led the club out of relegation trouble to secure a ninth-place finish. They also reached the final of the Full Members Cup at Wembley, losing 4–1 to Crystal Palace, though Southall refused to collect his runners-up medal as he did not value the competition.  Everton were a declining force, and finished 12th in the league in 1991–92 whilst exiting both the FA Cup and League Cup at the Fourth Round. They then finished 13th in the 1992–93 season in the newly created Premier League, just four points above the relegation zone. Kendall resigned mid-way through the 1993–94 campaign and was replaced by Mike Walker – Southall later described Walker as a man who loved his suntan more than football. Walker oversaw a run of bad results and Everton only escaped relegation with a final day victory over Wimbledon, winning 3–2 after turning round a 2–0 deficit. Southall saw that his teammates were reluctant to take a penalty in the match and so took the ball himself before Graham Stuart plucked up the courage to take the ball from him and convert the penalty.  Everton picked up four points from their opening 12 league games of the 1994–95 season, and Southall received death threats after being confronted by an Everton fan during a match at Goodison Park. Walker was sacked and replaced by Joe Royle, who led the club to a 2–0 win over Liverpool in his first match in charge – this game also marked a record 35th Merseyside derby appearance for Southall. It was also the second match of seven consecutive games Everton went without conceding a goal – another club record. Southall then conceded just one goal (a penalty) in five games en route to the 1995 FA Cup Final against Manchester United. Everton won the game 1–0, with Southall making a double save from Paul Scholes; the victory left Southall as the most decorated Everton player in the club's history.  In the summer of 1995 Southall was given a testimonial match against Celtic as well as an MBE – during the ceremony the Queen asked Southall "what will you do now that you're retired?". He went on to keep a clean sheet in the 1995 FA Charity Shield, as Everton beat Blackburn Rovers 1–0. He remained an ever-present in the 1995–96 season, though Royle then tried to sign Crystal Palace goalkeeper Nigel Martyn. He tried to sell Southall to Wolverhampton Wanderers, but cancelled the deal after becoming concerned over the pre-season form of touted replacement Paul Gerrard, and instead doubled Southall's wages to £6,000 a week with a new two-year contract. Despite this, Royle dedicated an entire chapter of his 2005 autobiography to decrying Southall as a "potential weak link".  After a promising start to the 1996–97, Everton were beaten six times in a row after Christmas and Southall resorted to ringing up a phone-in radio show to defend manager Joe Royle from unhappy supporters. Royle dropped Southall from the team despite the show of support, though he rejected a transfer offer from Chelsea, who were prepared to double Southall's wages. Caretaker-manager Dave Watson restored Southall to the starting line-up after Royle's resignation, and steered the club away from relegation.  Howard Kendall returned again to manage Everton for the 1997–98 season, and played Southall in the Everton goal for the final time on 29 November, in a 2–0 defeat at home to Tottenham Hotspur. Thomas Myhre took his place in goal, and Southall rejected a coaching role at the club in order to search for first team football elsewhere.  In December 1997, Southall went to Alvin Martin's Southend United of the Second Division on loan. He made 9 appearances in a brief stay at Roots Hall. He joined Chris Kamara's First Division Stoke City in February 1998. Kamara resigned two months later, and caretaker-manager Alan Durban pulled Southall aside on his first day in charge to say "I'll let you manage the reserves, so long as you keep your head down, do whatever I tell you, and I won't tell everybody you're a bad influence". Southall was shocked by Durban's words and could not explain his attitude. Both Southend and Stoke would end the season bottom of their respective divisions and Everton only avoided relegation on the last day of the season. He left the Britannia Stadium in the summer, and later said "one of the worst episodes of my life had drawn to a close".

Later years.

Former teammate Ian Snodin invited him to join Conference side Doncaster Rovers on a short-term deal at the start of the 1997–98 season. He signed with Wes Saunders's Torquay United of the Third Division in December 1998. He saved a penalty on his debut at Plainmoor, in a 2–0 win over Hull City and signed a contract lasting until the end of the 1998–99 campaign. He was named as Torquay's Player of the Year at the end of the season. However, on 29 January 2000, he picked up a concussion in a 2–1 defeat to Chester City at the Deva Stadium, and was substituted. Though he recovered from his injury after the match, he left the club not long afterwards.  Southall made a return to the Premier League by signing with Bradford City as a player-coach, helping to coach Aidan Davison, Matt Clarke and Gary Walsh. All three goalkeepers picked up injuries, leaving manager Paul Jewell no choice but to play Southall at Valley Parade on 12 March 2000, against Leeds United. At the age of 41 years and 178 days he became the fourth oldest player in Premier League history. Leeds won 2–1, and Southall was criticised in the media for being too overweight to play professionally. He left Bradford at the end of the 2000–01 season after falling out with new boss Jim Jefferies.

International career.

Wales manager Mike England preferred Dai Davies in goal as Southall began to play first team football at Everton, and Southall only got a run of games once Davies retired. His first cap came against Northern Ireland at the Racecourse Ground, Wrexham on 27 May 1982 in the 1982 British Home Championship, Wales won 3–0.  Wales came close to qualifying for the 1986 FIFA World Cup despite losing their opening qualifying games away to Iceland and Spain. Wales then beat Iceland at Ninian Park, before recording a surprise 1–0 win over Scotland at Hampden Park with a single Ian Rush goal. A 3–0 win over Spain at the Racecourse Ground meant that Wales could secure qualification by beating Scotland in their final qualification game at Ninian Park, though a draw would not be enough. The game ended in a 1–1 draw after a late Davie Cooper penalty cancelled out Mark Hughes's opener; Southall got a hand to the penalty, but could not keep it out. However, the result of the game was put into perspective when Scotland manager Jock Stein suffered a heart attack at the end of the game and died shortly afterwards.  Wales came close to qualifying for UEFA Euro 1988, which would have been the first UEFA European Football Championship in the nation's history. Going into the final two games of qualifying, Wales led their group. Southall was injured, and so missed the match against Denmark in Copenhagen, which ended in a 1–0 defeat with Eddie Niedzwiecki in goal. Southall returned to play the final game, a 2–0 defeat to Czechoslovakia in Prague which left Wales two points short of group winners Denmark. Manager Mike England was then replaced by Terry Yorath, who also made Southall a virtual ever-present in the Wales goal.  In qualifying for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, Wales faced Netherlands, West Germany and Finland. They failed to win a game and finished bottom of the group, though Southall did get the chance to play against some of the world's best players in Ruud Gullit, Marco van Basten, Frank Rijkaard, Rudi Völler, Andreas Möller, Andreas Brehme, and Jürgen Klinsmann.  In qualifying for UEFA Euro 1992, Wales were placed in the same group as World Champions Germany, and finished just one points behind the Germans after conceding just six goals in their six games. Wales beat Germany 1–0 at the Cardiff Arms Park on 5 June 1991, and three months later beat Brazil in a friendly by the same scoreline. The game which settled the qualifying group came in Nuremberg on 16 October 1991, and Wales lost 4–1 to the Germans, ending Southall's Wales record run of 385 minutes without conceding an international goal.  Wales were seen to have their best chance in reaching a major tournament after their group was selected for qualification for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. However a Gheorghe Hagi-inspired Romania defeated Wales 5–1 in Bucharest to open the Wales campaign. Victories over the Faroe Islands and Belgium and two draws with the Representation of Czechs and Slovaks put Wales back on track, and a victory over Romania in Cardiff in the last game of the tournament would be enough to secure a place in the World Cup. However Southall allowed a 25-yard strike from Hagi slip under his body and into the net and was nutmegged by Florin Răducioiu as Wales were beaten 2–1. Once again a death put Welsh footballing hopes into perspective, as Southall attended the funeral of retired postman John Hill, who was killed after being struck by a flare released at the end of the match.  Manager Terry Yorath was replaced by John Toshack, who stuck with Southall but resigned after just 48 days after falling out with the Football Association of Wales. Results went badly under new boss Mike Smith, despite a 2–0 victory over Albania in the first game of qualifying for UEFA Euro 1996. An embarrassing 3–2 defeat to Moldova was followed by a heavy 5–0 loss to Georgia. Two defeats to Bulgaria ended faint hopes of qualification and cost Smith his job.  Southall applied for the vacant position, but Bobby Gould was chosen instead, who in turn named Southall and Ian Rush as his assistants. He tried Danny Coyne, Andy Marriott and Tony Roberts in goal in friendly games, but selected Southall for the World Cup qualifying wins over San Marino. A month away from his 39th birthday, he won his final cap against Turkey on 20 August 1997; the Turks won 6–4. Southall only played the first half as Gould blamed him for the three goals he conceded – his replacement Paul Jones went on to concede three himself in the second half. Southall's 92 Welsh caps were a national record until surpassed by Chris Gunter in November 2018. Southall conceded 126 goals, an average of 1.34 per match. The 1958 FIFA World Cup was the only time until the end of his career that Wales qualified for a major tournament and the British Home Championship was played for the final time in 1984, therefore the majority of Southall's caps came in friendlies or qualifying games.

Style of play.

Southall was renowned for his shot-stopping ability, particularly in dealing with one-on-one situations, quickly coming off his line to intimidate the onrushing forward and relying on his instinctive reactions to save the ball. He would spend hours reading books about boxing and golf to improve his balance and spring, and would focus on improving minor pieces of kit and behaviour, saying that "If I changed 100 things and got 1% better because of one of them, then it was worth it".

Coaching and management career.

Southall was appointed caretaker manager of Wales, alongside Mark Hughes, following the resignation of Bobby Gould after a 4–0 defeat against Italy on 5 June 1999. In his only game in charge Wales lost 2–0 to Denmark at Anfield on 9 June 1999, and Mark Hughes was appointed as manager on a full-time basis. During his time playing for Torquay he also worked as a goalkeeping coach at Huddersfield Town and Tranmere Rovers. He later became a player-coach at York City, Rhyl, Shrewsbury Town and Dagenham & Redbridge.  He was appointed manager of Football Conference club Dover Athletic in December 2001. His managing stint at the Kent club was short and he was sacked in March 2002, after only a few months in charge, after the club's new owners decided to promote his assistant Clive Walker. He later made cameo appearances as a player at Canvey Island. He also began teaching young people from deprived backgrounds how to coach in a community scheme called "Soccer Skills", and later worked in the special education sector. He set up his own educational consultancy that specialised in working with NEETs, in partnership with Brooklands College.  He had a spell as Wales under-19 coach, but quit his post in November 2004, claiming he was treated with "a total lack of respect" and that the coaching was compromised because "...as always, it's about money." FAW management committee chairman Ken Tucker issued a rebuke, saying: "Nev is making comments on things he knows little about. It is sad when people make comments without any knowledge of the finances of the FAW."  A month after resigning from the national scene, Southall returned to management with Hastings United. However just one year on he was sacked, with the Hastings chairman saying that "there have recently been an increasing number of issues on which Neville and I have disagreed and it had got to the point where our working relationship had broken down, beyond the point of repair, as far as I was concerned".  In November 2008, Margate manager Terry Yorath appointed Southall as his assistant in the Isthmian League. In September 2009, he became the caretaker-manager after Yorath resigned as manager.

Personal life.

Southall married Eryl Williams in June 1980. The couple had a daughter, Samantha, in 1987. He admitted to having affairs over the course of the 18-year marriage, and left Eryl for another woman, an aromatherapist named Emma, in 1998. In addition to the daughter from his first marriage, he and his second wife also act as foster parents: a 2018 interview reported that they were looking after two children.  He is a teetotaller; this fact, coupled with his shy personality and dedication to football gave him a reputation as something of a loner. In August 2012, his autobiography "The Binman Chronicles" was released. It was the sixth best selling football book of 2012.  In 2014 Southall started working as a teaching assistant at Canolfan Yr Afon, the Pupil Referral Unit for Blaenau Gwent, based in Ebbw Vale, helping pupils with their job seeking and soft skills, and liaising with local businesses to arrange work placements. He had previously worked in a similar role in London. He is a member of the trade union UNISON and serves as international officer for his branch.  In May 2017, Southall endorsed Labour Party leader Jeremy Corbyn in the 2017 UK general election. He was impressed by Labour's plans to commit 5% of Premier League football's £8.3 billion broadcasting revenue back into the grassroots game, among other reasons. He subsequently stated the following year: "Jeremy Corbyn's done all right. Whether you like him or hate him, he sticks to what he says. When he got made leader, people took the piss because he didn't wear a suit. Well, he's not Clark Kent. I thought: 'If he don't look like a politician, great. I don't want a politician'".  He is active on social media as a supporter of various charitable causes and LGBT rights, and has handed over his Twitter account to people from marginalised groups and organisations that work to support them, in order to give them a platform to answer questions from the public, including members of the LGBT community, a drugs helpline, a suicide bereavement charity, and a sex workers' collective.

Honours.

In December 2004 he was voted as Everton's all-time cult hero. He holds numerous Everton club records, including: most league appearances (578), most FA Cup appearances (70), most League Cup appearances (65), and most clean sheets (269). He is named on the Gwladys Street's Hall of Fame. In 1998, he was named as one of the Football League 100 Legends. In 1999, "World Soccer" magazine named him joint 95th (with László Kubala) in the 'Greatest Players of the 20th Century'. In the IFFHS World's Best Goalkeeper rankings he was listed fifth in 1987, seventh in 1988, ninth in 1989, and fourth in 1991. He was voted FWA Footballer of the Year in 1985, making him the last goalkeeper to be given the award. He was voted BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year in 1995.

References.

Specific General

Neville Southall (born 16 September 1958) is a Welsh former international footballer. He has been described as one of the best goalkeepers of his generation and won the FWA Footballer of the Year award in 1985.

Neville Southall, né le à Llandudno, Pays de Galles, est un footballeur (gardien de but) gallois des années 1980 et 1990.


Design and development.

In 1926 the Air Ministry specification N.21/26 was intended to produce a successor to the Fairey Flycatcher, then in its fourth year of Naval service. By the time it was replaced by the Nimrod in 1932, the Flycatcher had become so obsolete in terms of its speed that RAF officers who flew it often joked that a sprightly fly might actually give the aircraft a run for its money. None of the aircraft designed to this specification were selected for production after trials in 1928, but the radial-engined Hawker Hoopoe, not actually designed to N.21/26, was considered promising enough to be further developed. Despite the Navy's traditional preference for radial engines, Hawker's designer Sydney Camm was convinced by his experience with the landplane Hawker Fury that the future for shipborne aircraft also lay with inline engines and began such a design, powered by a Rolls-Royce Kestrel. Before it was completed Air Ministry specification 16/30 was written around it. It flew under the initial name "Norn" early in 1930, received a production contract and was renamed Nimrod.  The Nimrod had an overall similarity to the Fury: it was a single-seater biplane with an open cockpit, fixed undercarriage and guns firing through the propeller. Its unswept, constant chord, round-tipped wings had an unequal span and strong stagger, the latter partly to enhance the pilot's view. It was a single bay biplane braced with outward-leaning N-form interplane struts, with the upper plane held a little above the upper fuselage by cabane struts. The fabric-covered wings had metal spars and spruce ribs and carried balanced ailerons only on the upper wings.  The Nimrod's fuselage was a Warren girder structure of tubular steel and aluminium, surrounded by stringers which defined its oval cross section. The Rolls-Royce F.9MS engine, later renamed the Kestrel IIMS was closely cowled in aluminium and the rest of the fuselage fabric covered. As with the Fury, the upper fuselage line was highest at the cockpit, placed between the trailing edges of the upper and lower planes. Its twin machine guns were mounted in the upper fuselage between pilot and engine, firing through the propeller using the standard interrupter gear. The tailplane was mounted on top of the fuselage and carried split horn balanced elevators; the vertical tail had Hawker's familiar curved shape, with a deep, wide chord, unbalanced rudder extending to the keel.  The Nimrod had a conventional undercarriage of cross axle type on trailing struts, with compression legs almost at right angles to the fuselage and an aft tailskid. It could also operate as a floatplane on single-step, crossbraced floats mounted on N-form struts. With floats fitted, the maximum speed was reduced by 47 mph (76 km/h), or 25%. The Kestrel engine's bath type radiator was mounted on the lower fuselage between the undercarriage struts.  After testing in 1930, the prototype went with HMS "Eagle" to Buenos Aires, flying there as part of the British Empire Trade Exhibition in March 1931. It returned to RAF Martlesham Heath for final testing. A production order for 35 was placed and the first of these flew on 31 October 1931. In the following year, another contract for a further 19 Nimrod Is was signed. With a top speed of 193 mph (311 km/h) it was only marginally slower than its land-based counterpart, the Hawker Fury.  A headrest fairing was added retrospectively to the Nimrod Is, to ease pilot strain during catapult launches. Aircraft from the later production batch were fitted with arrestor hooks. Experiments with the first of this batch, refitted with swept upper and lower wings, lead to the Nimrod II. As well as the swept wings, this had at first an uprated Kestrel II engine. Later, these were replaced with Kestrel Vs. Later Nimrod IIs had a slight increase in rudder area to improve spin recovery of inverted, float-equipped aircraft. Originally it was intended that the Nimrod II should have corrosion-resistant stainless steel, but only three of these were built. The first of 27/33 Nimrod IIs was delivered in March 1933.

Operational history.

The first production Nimrod Is entered service in 1932 with No.408 Flight on. Others went to No.s 402 and 409 Flights soon after. Fleet Air Arm flights were reorganised into Squadrons early in 1933, with the Nimrods joining No.s 801, 802 and 803 Squadrons RAF.  The Nimrod II followed in September 1934.  Few Nimrods were exported, though one aircraft was supplied to Japan and one to Portugal. Two went to Denmark, where they were known as the "Nimrodderne". They were intended as pattern aircraft for proposed licence building and were essentially Nimrod Is, though powered by Kestrel IIIS engines. One, unusually, was fitted with spats.  The Nimrod had been replaced by more modern designs such as the Sea Gladiator by May 1939, before the start of World War II.

Survivors.

Two Nimrods survive, both airworthy and both based at the Imperial War Museum's Duxford Aerodrome, Cambridgeshire. Both served with No. 802 Squadron.  Nimrod I;  Nimrod II;

The Hawker Nimrod was a British carrier-based single-engine, single-seat biplane fighter aircraft built in the early 1930s by Hawker Aircraft.

Le Hawker Nimrod est un avion militaire de l'entre-deux-guerres britannique. Ce biplan construit par Hawker Aircraft Ltd au début des années 1930 a servi comme avion de chasse dans la Fleet Air Arm, composante aéronautique navale de la Royal Navy. Il dérivait d'un avion terrestre, le Hawker Fury.


Career in clubs.

Ólafur's career started with the Reykjavík based sports club Valur. With Valur, Ólafur became Icelandic champion 5 times. After Valur, he transferred to the Bundesliga, playing with LTV Wuppertal, then coached by Icelandic coach Viggó Sigurðsson. Later the joined another Icelandic coach, Alfreð Gíslason in SC Magdeburg. In 2003, Ólafur was transferred to top Spanish club BM Ciudad Real. At the pinnacle of his career, Ólafur Stefánsson enjoyed massive success with Ciudad, winning both the Champions League and the Spanish title multiple times. In 2009 he went back to Germany to play with Rhein-Neckar Löwen, then coached by Icelandic national team coach, Guðmundur Guðmundsson. On 1 July 2011 he signed for AG København, but after the club filed for bankruptcy in the summer of 2012 he was without a club for the remainder of the year. On December 7 his agent announced he had signed for the Lekhwiya Handball Team in Doha, Qatar.  Ólafur now lives in Reykjavík and coaches his boyhood team Valur.

Career on the national team.

In 1995, he was selected to play on the Iceland national handball team to take part in the world championships, which were held in Iceland.  He was captain for the national handball team on the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing (where Iceland won the silver medal), and again at the 2010 European Championship where Iceland finished third.

Family.

He is the brother of Icelandic basketball player Jón Arnór Stefánsson, formerly of NBA's Dallas Mavericks.

Ólafur Indriði Stefánsson (born 3 July 1973 in Reykjavík, Iceland) is a former Icelandic handball player who, for many years was the captain of the Iceland national handball team but announced his international retirement after the 2012 London Olympics. His position was right back. At his peak he was considered to be one of the very best handball players in the world.

Ólafur Stefánsson, né le à Reykjavik, est un ancien handballeur islandais, évoluant au poste d'arrière droit. À son apogée, il a été considéré comme l'un des meilleurs joueurs de handball du monde. Il est d'ailleurs un des très rares joueurs à avoir marqué plus de 1500 buts en équipe nationale.


Background.

Research has indicated that removing stress helps to increase a person's health.  Research released in the 1980s indicated stronger ties between stress and health and showed benefits from a wider range of relaxation techniques than had been previously known. This research received national media attention, including a "New York Times" article in 1986.

Uses.

People use relaxation techniques for the following reasons, among others:

Techniques.

Various techniques are used by individuals to improve their state of relaxation. Some of the methods are performed alone; some require the help of another person (often a trained professional); some involve movement, some focus on stillness; while other methods involve different elements.  Certain relaxation techniques known as "formal and passive relaxation exercises" are generally performed while sitting or lying quietly, with minimal movement and involve "a degree of withdrawal". These include:  Movement-based relaxation methods incorporate exercise such as walking, gardening, yoga, T'ai chi, Qigong, and more. Some forms of bodywork are helpful in promoting a state of increased relaxation. Examples include massage, acupuncture, the Feldenkrais Method, myotherapy, reflexology and self-regulation.  Some relaxation methods can also be used during other activities, for example, autosuggestion and prayer. At least one study has suggested that listening to certain types of music, particularly new-age music and classical music, can increase feelings associated with relaxation, such as peacefulness and a sense of ease.  A technique growing in popularity is flotation therapy, which is the use of a float tank in which a solution of Epsom salt is kept at skin temperature to provide effortless floating. Research in USA and Sweden has demonstrated a powerful and profound relaxation after twenty minutes. In some cases, floating may reduce pain and stress and has been shown to release endorphins.  Even actions as simple as a walk in the park have been shown to aid feelings of relaxation, regardless of the initial reason for the visit.

A relaxation technique (also known as relaxation training) is any method, process, procedure, or activity that helps a person to relax; to attain a state of increased calmness; or otherwise reduce levels of pain, anxiety, stress or anger. Relaxation techniques are often employed as one element of a wider stress management program and can decrease muscle tension, lower the blood pressure and slow heart and breath rates, among other health benefits.

Les techniques de relaxation visent globalement à une réduction du stress et ont pour objectif de générer une « "diminution du niveau d’alerte, de la fréquence cardiaque et respiratoire, et de la tension artérielle"».