Prelude.

Americans living on the West Coast of the United States feared a Spanish attack at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. Only a few U.S. Navy warships, led by the cruiser, stood between them and a powerful Spanish fleet. In practice however " Olympia" was far superior to the Spanish colonial fleet, as the battle would show.  Admiral Montojo, a career Spanish naval officer who had been dispatched rapidly to the Philippines, was equipped with a variety of obsolete vessels. Efforts to strengthen his position amounted to little. The strategy adopted by the Spanish bureaucracy suggested they could not win a war and saw resistance as little more than a face-saving exercise. Administration actions worked against the effort, sending explosives meant for naval mines to civilian construction companies while the Spanish fleet in Manila was seriously undermanned by inexperienced sailors who had not received any training for over a year. Reinforcements promised from Madrid resulted in only two poorly-armored scout cruisers being sent while at the same time the authorities transferred a squadron from the Manila fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera to reinforce the Caribbean. Admiral Montojo had originally wanted to confront the Americans at Subic Bay, northwest of Manila Bay, but abandoned that idea when he learned the planned mines and coastal defensives were lacking and the cruiser started to leak. Montojo compounded his difficulties by placing his ships outside the range of Spanish coastal artillery (which might have evened the odds) and choosing a relatively shallow anchorage. His intent seems to have been to spare Manila from bombardment and to allow any survivors of his fleet to swim to safety. The harbor was protected by six shore batteries and three forts whose fire during the battle proved to be ineffective. Only Fort San Antonio Abad had guns with enough range to reach the American fleet, but Dewey never came within their range during the battle.  The Spanish squadron consisted of seven ships: the cruisers (flagship),,,,,, and the gunboat. The Spanish ships were of inferior quality to the American ships; the "Castilla" was unpowered and had to be towed by the transport ship "Manila". On April 25, the squadron left Manila Bay for the port of Subic, intending to mount a defense there. The squadron was relying on a shore battery which was to be installed on Isla Grande. On April 28, before that installation could be completed, a cablegram from the Spanish Consul in Hong Kong arrived with the information that the American squadron had left Hong Kong bound for Subic for the purpose of destroying the Spanish squadron and intending to proceed from there to Manila. The Spanish Council of Commanders, with the exception of the Commander of Subic, felt that no defense of Subic was possible with the state of things, and that the squadron should transfer back to Manila, positioning in shallow water so that the ships could be run aground to save the lives of the crews as a final resort. The squadron departed Subic at 10:30 a.m. on 29 April. "Manila", towing "Castilla", was last to arrive in Manila Bay, at midnight.

Battle.

At 7 p.m. on 30 April, Montojo was informed that Dewey's ships had been seen in Subic Bay that afternoon. As Manila Bay was considered unnavigable at night by foreigners, Montojo expected an attack the following morning. However, Oscar F. Williams, the United States Consul in Manila, had provided Dewey with detailed information on the state of the Spanish defenses and the lack of preparedness of the Spanish fleet. Based in part upon this intelligence, Dewey—embarked aboard "Olympia"—led his squadron into Manila Bay at midnight on 30 April.  Passing the entrance, two Spanish mines exploded but were ineffective as they were well below the draft of any of the ships due to the depth of the water. Inside the bay, ships normally used the north channel between Corregidor Island and the northern coast, and this was the only channel mined. Dewey instead used the unmined south channel between El Fraile and Caballo Islands. The El Fraile battery fired a few rounds but the range was too great. The, and were then detached from the line and took no further part in the fighting. At 5:15 a.m. on 1 May, the squadron was off Manila and the Cavite battery fired ranging shots. The shore batteries and Spanish fleet then opened fire but all the shells fell short as the fleet was still out of range. At 5:41 with the now famous phrase, "You may fire when ready, Gridley", the "Olympia"s captain was instructed to begin the destruction of the Spanish flotilla.  The U.S. squadron swung in front of the Spanish ships and forts in line ahead, firing their port guns. They then turned and passed back, firing their starboard guns. This process was repeated five times, each time closing the range from 5,000 yards to 2,000 yards. The Spanish forces had been alerted, and most were ready for action, but they were heavily outgunned. Eight Spanish ships, the land batteries, and the forts returned fire for two and a half hours although the range was too great for the guns on shore. Five other small Spanish ships were not engaged.  Montojo accepted that his cause was hopeless and ordered his ships to ram the enemy if possible. He then slipped the "Cristina's" cables and charged. Much of the American fleet's fire was then directed at her and she was shot to pieces. Of the crew of 400, more than 200, including Montojo, were casualties and only two men remained who were able to man her guns. The ship managed to return to shore and Montojo ordered it to be scuttled. The "Castilla", which only had guns on the port side, had her forward cable shot away, causing her to swing about, presenting her weaponless starboard side. The captain then ordered her sunk and abandoned. The "Ulloa" was hit by a shell at the waterline that killed her captain and disabled half the crew. The "Luzon" had three guns out of action but was otherwise unharmed. The "Duero" lost an engine and had only one gun left able to fire.  At 7:45 a.m., after Captain Gridley messaged Dewey that only 15 rounds of 5" ammunition remained per gun, Dewey ordered an immediate withdrawal. To preserve morale, he informed the crews that the halt in the battle was to allow the crews to have breakfast. According to an observer on the "Olympia", "At least three of his (Spanish) ships had broken into flames but so had one of ours. These fires had all been put out without apparent injury to the ships. Generally speaking, nothing of great importance had occurred to show that we had seriously injured any Spanish vessel." Montojo took the opportunity to now move his remaining ships into Bacoor Bay where they were ordered to resist for as long as possible.  A captains' conference on the "Olympia" revealed little damage and no men killed. It was discovered that the original ammunition message had been garbled—instead of only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun remaining, the message had meant to say only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun had been expended. Reports arrived during the conference that sounds of exploding ammunition had been heard and fires sighted on the "Cristina" and "Castilla". At 10:40 a.m. action was resumed but the Spanish offered little resistance, and Montojo issued orders for the remaining ships to be scuttled and the breechblocks of their guns taken ashore. The "Olympia", "Baltimore" and "Boston" then fired on the Sangley Point battery putting it out of action and followed up by sinking the "Ulloa". The "Concord" fired on the transport "Mindanao", whose crew immediately abandoned ship. The fired on the government offices next to the arsenal and a white flag was raised over the building after which all firing ceased. The Spanish colors were struck at 12:40 p.m.  According to American sources, Dewey won the battle with seven men very slightly wounded, a total of nine injured, and only a single fatality among his crew: Francis B. Randall, Chief Engineer on the "McCulloch", from a heart attack. On the other hand, the Spanish naval historian Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González suggests that Dewey suffered heavier losses, though still much lower than those of the Spanish squadron. Rodríguez notes that Spanish officials estimated the American casualties at 13 crewmen killed and more than 30 wounded based on reliable information collected by the Spanish consulate in Hong Kong. According to Rodríguez, Dewey may have concealed the deaths and injuries by including the numbers among the 155 men who reportedly deserted during the campaign.

Subsequent action.

A Spanish attempt to attack Dewey with the naval task force known as Camara's Flying Relief Column came to naught, and the naval war in the Philippines devolved into a series of torpedo boat hit-and-run attacks for the rest of the campaign. While the Spanish scored several hits, there were no American fatalities directly attributable to Spanish gunfire.  On 2 May, Dewey landed a force of Marines at Cavite. They completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The resistance of the forts was weak. The "Olympia" turned a few guns on the Cavite arsenal, detonating its magazine, and ending the fire from the Spanish batteries.

Aftermath.

In recognition of George Dewey's leadership during the Battle of Manila Bay, a special medal known as the Dewey Medal was presented to the officers and sailors under Admiral Dewey's command. Dewey was later honored with promotion to the special rank of Admiral of the Navy. Building on his popularity, Dewey briefly ran for president in 1900, but withdrew and endorsed William McKinley, the incumbent, who won. The same year Dewey was appointed President of the General Board of the United States Navy, where he would play a key role in the growth of the U.S. Navy until his death in January 1917.  Dewey Square in Boston is named after Commodore Dewey, as is Dewey Beach, Delaware. Union Square, San Francisco features a tall monument to Admiral George Dewey's victory at the Battle of Manila Bay.

Order of battle.

Vessels engaged in actual combat during the Battle of Manila Bay ranged in size from 5,870 tons ("Olympia") to 492 tons ("Marques del Duero").

United States.

Engaged Vessels: Despite the superiority of the American artillery, the success rate of their guns was minimal, a total of 5,859 shells were expended during the battle. Excluding shells fired at land targets and the unengaged vessels, only 145 hit the seven Spanish engaged vessels. The "Reina Cristina" and "Castilla" suffered 81 hits between them, the "Don Antonio de Ulloa" was hit 33 times, the "Don Juan de Austria" 13, the "Marques del Duero" 10, the "Isla de Cuba" five and the "Isla de Luzón" was hit three times.  Unengaged vessels:

Spain.

Engaged Vessels:  Unengaged Vessels:  The Spanish vessels had 19 torpedo tubes between them but no serviceable torpedoes.  Shore Defenses  The batteries were supplemented with the guns removed from Montojo's fleet. The Corregidor, Caballo and El Fraile batteries had a combined total of 17 guns.

Gallery.

The United States Navy ships: The destroyed Spanish ships after the battle:

The Battle of Manila Bay (; ), also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under "Contraalmirante" (Rear admiral) Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.

La bataille de la baie de Manille ou bataille de Cavite (en anglais "Battle of Manila Bay", en espagnol "Batalla de Cavite") se déroula le, durant la guerre hispano-américaine. L"'Asiatic Squadron", le Asiatic Squadron de l'United States Navy commandé par le "commodore" George Dewey engagea la flotte espagnole commandée par l'amiral Patricio Montojo y Pasarón et la détruisit en ne perdant qu'un seul homme, victime d'une crise cardiaque.


Early years and family.

Munk was born in Budapest, into a prosperous Hungarian-Jewish family, the son of Katharina Adler Munk and Lajos "Louis" Munk (1898–1977). His grandfather, Gábor "Gabriel" Munk, had descended from a family of rabbis, was a brother of the noted linguist and ethnologist (né Munk), and uncle of the Hungarian jurist and writer Erno Munkacsi. Gábor became wealthy via Austro-Hungarian distribution rights for the popular Viennese chocolate brand, Manner, invested in real estate, then, during World War II, used what remained of his fortune to buy safe passage out of Hungary to neutral Switzerland for members of his immediate family, including his grandson Peter.  Hungary was occupied by Nazi Germany in March 1944, when Munk was aged 16; along with 14 members of his family, he escaped on the Kastner train, which carried 1,684 Jews to safety in Switzerland. The journey had been arranged by Rudolf Kastner of the Zionist Aid and Rescue Committee, as a result of secret negotiations with Adolf Eichmann—the high-ranking Nazi had allowed some Jews to leave in exchange for money, gold, and diamonds, part of a series of so-called "blood for goods" deals. Munk's mother, who divorced his father when he was four, was deported from Budapest to Auschwitz concentration camp in 1944. She survived, but later died by suicide.  Munk arrived in Canada in 1948, via Switzerland, initially on a student visa, then graduated from the University of Toronto, in 1952, with a degree in electrical engineering. Decades later, he praised Canada: "I arrived in this place not speaking the language, not knowing a dog... This is a country that does not ask about your origins; it only concerns itself with your destiny."

Career.

Clairtone.

In 1958, with $2,800 from his father-in-law, Webber Pharmaceuticals (now Webber Naturals) founder William Jay Gutterson, he co-founded Clairtone with Scandinavian furniture importer David Gilmour. Clairtone manufactured high-end console stereos, and later televisions, which were recognizable icons of their day. The most celebrated Clairtone designs were the striking "Project G" series, introduced in 1964, composed of sleek rosewood cabinets with cantilevered black aluminum "sound globes" (speakers). The Project G and G2 were seen in the films "Marriage on the Rocks" and "The Graduate," awarded a silver medal for excellence at the Milan Triennial design exhibition, and endorsed by Frank Sinatra and Oscar Peterson. Fans of the Project G included Hugh Hefner.  Clairtone's downfall began with "an ill-advised plan to build a plant in Nova Scotia." The plant, built in Stellarton, opened in 1966 with funding from the province's Industrial Estates Limited (IEL). According to William Mingo, chief counsel for IEL, as quoted in his daughter Nina Munk's book about Clairtone, "Munk was too good a salesman for his own good. He could sell anything to anyone, including himself. My, he was a promoter. My, he had energy. My, he had charm. My, he had imagination." In 1967, as a result of mounting losses and in order to try to recoup its multi-million dollar investments, the Government of Nova Scotia took over Clairtone and fired Munk and Gilmour. Munk faced accusations of insider trading "that were eventually settled out of court." A report commissioned by Clairtone in the aftermath of the factory's failure found that one of the main issues was the local workforce. "The general population is basically not geared to the manufacturing frenzy and especially the five-day workweek... The welfare situation is such that it has created conditions similar to Appalachia in the United States where the third generation is already on relief."

Hospitality and real estate.

After the collapse of Clairtone, Munk and Gilmour invested in a plot of ocean-front land in Fiji which they soon developed into a hotel and resort. This venture grew into the Southern Pacific Hotel Corporation, which at its peak consisted of 54 resorts in Australia and the South Pacific. In 1978, the firm signed a deal with the President of Egypt to build a resort near the Great Pyramids. When Anwar Sadat cancelled the project, Munk sued the Egyptian government, eventually winning the arbitration case at the International Criminal Court.  In 1979, Munk returned to Canada to start a new venture called Barrick, which he would eventually build into the world's largest gold company. At the time, bankers and the establishment viewed him as "a fugitive and a loser," according to Munk.  Munk was also founder, chairman, and CEO of Trizec Properties (formerly TrizecHahn Corporation), one of the largest American real estate investment trusts. In 2006, Trizec Properties was sold to Brookfield Properties in a transaction valued at approximately $9 billion.  In 2007, Munk invested with partners in Porto Montenegro, a former naval base on the Adriatic Sea, turning it into a superyacht destination to rival Cannes and Monte Carlo. He was the majority shareholder of Montport Capital, which owned the centrepieces of the complex, Porto Montenegro Marina and Resort. He developed the site on the Bay of Kotor, putting Montenegro on the map for high-end tourism. In 2016 Munk sold the marina and hotel to Investment Corporation of Dubai, a sovereign wealth fund, for an undisclosed amount, believed to be about 200 million euros.

Barrick Gold.

In 1980, Munk created Barrick Petroleum to invest in the oil sector, but he quickly realized that investments in this sector were ruinous. After the acquisition of a small company, Camflo Mines, Barrick left the oil sector and became overnight a mining company. In 2011, Munk planned to merge with Glencore, Ivan Glasenberg's company, to create one of the world's largest commodities giants on par with BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto. The gold market was not aligned with Glencore's other activities, however, and the deal did not go through.  By 2016, Barrick had proven and probable reserves of two billion tons (1.33 grams of gold per tonne of ore). It is the world's largest gold mining company and the largest Canadian company by capitalization. Munk retired from the day-to-day management but he remained the founder and President Emeritus. "Barrick is my legacy," Munk said.

Charitable contributions.

In 1992, the Peter and Melanie Munk Charitable Foundation was founded. It has disbursed more than $300 million to a variety of organizations that work to improve the health, education and international reputation of Canadians. In a speech he delivered in September 2017, on announcing a $100 million donation to the Peter Munk Cardiac Centre at the Toronto General Hospital, Munk spoke of his philanthropy in the context of his gratitude to the country that saved his life: "You opened the door. You gave us everything," he added, referring to Canada as "paradise."

Education.

Munk was a major donor to the University of Toronto, his "alma mater". Beginning with a gift of $35 million in 2010, the Munk Foundation enabled the establishment of the Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy at the University of Toronto. In total, Munk gave $51 million to his alma mater. The "Peter Munk Professor of Entrepreneurship" at the Joseph L. Rotman School of Management is named after him.  Peter Munk also made a substantial donation of $43 million to Technion – Israel Institute of Technology to establish that university's Peter Munk Research Institute.

Public policy.

In 2016, Munk made a $5 million donation to the Fraser Institute, a think tank, to launch the Peter Munk Centre for Free Enterprise Education. As well, with a $12 million donation from Aurea Foundation, a sub-division of his primary charitable foundation, Peter Munk established the semi-annual Munk Debates in 2008.

Health.

In 1997, Munk helped create the Peter Munk Cardiac Centre at the Toronto General Hospital with an initial donation of $6 million. In May 2006, he announced that he would donate another $37 million, at the time the largest gift ever made to a Canadian medical institution. In September 2017, he donated another $100 million. As well, Peter and Melanie Munk established University Health Network’s first endowed chair for the cardiac program: the Melanie Munk Chair in Cardiovascular Surgery.

Controversy.

A contract between the Munk Foundation and the University of Toronto came under criticism due to the secrecy that shrouded its approval, and the fact that Munk's contribution of $35 million were conditional on $25 million contributions each by the federal government and the university. Coming at a time of downsizing and threats to the funding of other academic units, critics charge that these decisions are emblematic of the government's and the University's ceding of academic resource allocation decisions to the corporate sector.  According to Linda McQuaig's book, "The Trouble with Billionaires", Munk's donation to the University of Toronto came with strings attached to ensure that the school would "fit with the political views and sensitivities of Peter Munk." McQuaig writes that "according to Munk's written agreement with the university, the Munk donations will be paid over an extended time period, with much of the money to be paid years from now – and subject to the Munk family's approval of the school. For that matter, the school's director will be required to report annually to a board appointed by Munk 'to discuss the programs, activities and initiatives of the School in greater detail.'"  University president David Naylor rejected personal attacks on donors as "a deplorable affront to the values of rational and respectful discourse that are supposed to characterize a university" and stated "I later served on the board of the University Health Network, in the years when Dr. Munk made two gifts exceeding $40 million to support the cardiovascular program at that hospital. There was not a single instance where Peter Munk interfered with the educational, research or clinical priorities of the institution."

Personal life.

On September 3, 1956, Munk married Linda Joy Gutterson, the daughter of a Forest Hill pharmaceutical entrepreneur who gave Munk the start-up capital to fund his first company. Linda was 19, not long out of Havergal College; he was 10 years older. "'Linda tracked me down with a laser beam,' said Munk. 'I was a curiosity; I was different. Not because I was so great, let me tell you, I was fat, bald, poor, a boring engineering student.'" The couple separated and reunited more than once in the 1960s, having three children and divorcing in 1970 but staying on very good terms. After the marriage was over, she pursued an academic career, becoming a professor of English at the University of Toronto.  On June 26, 1973, Munk married his second wife, Melanie Jane Bosanquet, in London with whom he had two more children. She is the cousin of Charles Palmer-Tomkinson, a British land-owner and Olympic skier. Munk skied for 71 years, and built with his wife in 1972 a ski chalet called Viti Levu in Klosters, which they consider home. It overlooks the mountain of Gotschnagrat.  His children are: Anthony Munk, a senior managing director at Onex private equity; Nina Munk, a journalist and contributing editor for "Vanity Fair"; Marc-David Munk, a physician and healthcare executive; Natalie; and Cheyne. In his late 70s Munk was fitted with a pacemaker.

Death.

Munk died in Toronto on March 28, 2018, at the age of 90. The cause of death was not disclosed, but Munk had been dealing with heart problems for several years and wore a pacemaker.  "The Financial Post" posthumously lauded him as "An entrepreneur with a Midas touch, he was one of Canada's most high-flying, international deal makers, with friends ranging from Brian Mulroney and Prince Charles to the arms dealer Adnan Khashoggi and French billionaire Bernard Arnault, as well as one its most generous benefactors."

Honours.

He received several honorary degrees:  He became Officer of The Order of Canada (the country's highest civilian honour) in 1993 and was promoted to Companion in 2008; received The Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship in 2002 (the first time awarded outside the U.S.); was inducted into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame, and the Canadian Mining Hall of Fame. In 2012 Munk was awarded the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal. His homeland awarded him the Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary in 2016.

Peter Munk (November 8, 1927 – March 28, 2018) was a Hungarian-born Canadian businessman, investor, and philanthropist. He was the founder and chief executive officer of a number of high-profile business ventures, including the hi-fi electronics company Clairtone, real estate company Trizec Properties, and Barrick Gold, the world's largest gold-mining corporation. The Munk School of Global Affairs at the University of Toronto and the Peter Munk Cardiac Centre at the Toronto General Hospital are named for him.

Peter Munk, né le à Budapest (Hongrie) et mort le à Toronto (Canada), est un homme d'affaires canadien. Il est le président-fondateur de la compagnie minière Barrick Gold, la plus grande société aurifère au monde.


Legality in the United States.

As DVD Decrypter facilitates the removal of copy restrictions, certain uses may be illegal under the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act unless making copies that are covered under the Fair Use doctrine (or in some cases illegal even when making copies under fair use). In countries without similar laws there may not be any legal restrictions.  On June 6, 2005, the developer, Lightning UK!, announced via the CD Freaks website that he received a cease and desist letter from Macrovision. He later stated it was within his best interests to comply with the letter, and stopped development of the program. By June 7, 2005, a mirror site was up, which allowed people to download the final version (3.5.4.0). On November 27, 2005, Afterdawn.com, a Finnish website, announced that it complied with a letter received from Macrovision demanding that DVD Decrypter be taken down from its site.  Under United States federal law, making a backup copy of a DVD-Video or an audio CD by a consumer is legal under fair use protection. However, this provision of United States law conflicts with the Digital Millennium Copyright Act prohibition of so-called "circumvention measures" of copy protections.  In the "321" case, Federal District Judge Susan Illston of the Northern District of California, ruled that the backup copies made with software such as DVD Decrypter are legal but that distribution of the software used to make them is illegal.  In 2010 the Librarian of Congress instituted a DMCA exemption which protects circumvention of CSS protection under certain circumstances. This exemption expired in 2013.  On October 4, 2005, Lightning UK! continued the development of the burning engine used by DVD Decrypter in his new tool, ImgBurn. However, for legal reasons, ImgBurn does not have the ability to circumvent copy protections of encrypted DVDs.  After development stopped, the software was still legally available for download in some countries that do not have such copyright restrictions. However, in November 2005, Macrovision acquired the intellectual property rights to the software, revoked all licenses of use for the software, and started sending cease-and-desist letters to distributors on the grounds of copyright infringement.

DVD Decrypter is a deprecated software application for Microsoft Windows that can create backup disk images of the DVD-Video structure of DVDs. It can be used to make a copy of any DVD protected with Content Scrambling System (CSS). The program can also record images to disc — functionality that the author has now incorporated into a separate product called ImgBurn. The software also allows a copy of a region-specific DVD to be made region free. It also removes Macrovision content protection, CSS, region codes, and user operation prohibition.

DVD Decrypter est un logiciel gratuit agissant sur les DVD. Il permet de copier le contenu d'un DVD vidéo sur le disque dur d'un ordinateur en une image disque. Le programme peut également graver des images au disque. Il enlève également le système de brouillage de contenu (CSS), codes de région, et prohibition d'opération d'utilisateur.


Design and development.

The system uses twin autocannons, firing 35×228mm NATO-standard ammunition. It was originally designated 353 MK and is now designated as the KD series. The same KD series 35mm cannons are used in the Leopard 1 based Gepard and Type 74 tank based Type 87 SPAAG and Marksman self-propelled anti-aircraft guns (SPAAG). The system could be paired with the off-gun (remote) "Super Fledermaus" fire control radar, which in the late 1970s was upgraded to the "Skyguard" system. The weapons was aimed either directly, by way of an advanced sighting system, or automatically, by locking onto the target with radar. Early models carried 112 rounds ready to fire, and an additional 126 stored on the chassis as reloads. Later versions with automated reloading carry 280 rounds total. A typical engagement burst is 28 rounds.  In 1980 an upgraded model, the GDF-002 was produced, which featured an improved sight, and the ability to be directed by an off-gun digital control system. A few years later a third version of the system was being produced, the GDF-003, which was broadly similar to the GDF-002, but included some enhancements like self-lubricating weapons and integrated protective covers.  In 1985 a further upgraded model was produced, the GDF-005, which was introduced, featuring the "Gunking" 3D computer-controlled sight with an integrated laser range-finder and digital control system. The GDF-005 also introduced an automated ammunition-handling system, which eliminated the need for the two reloaders, reducing the crew from 3 to 1.  The guns are usually transported by a 5-tonne 6×6 truck.

KD series cannons.

Development of the KD series cannon began around 1952 soon after Oerlikon calculated that 35 mm was the optimum calibre for an anti-aircraft gun. The KD series cannons were a design adapted from the post-war 20 mm KAA 204 Gk cannon. Several designs were developed, including a water-cooled design, designated Mk 352, which was tested by the U.S. Navy. The final design was the Mk 323, which was developed in two variants, a belt-fed version the KDA, and a linkless version the KDC, fed by seven-round clips. Both designs are gas-operated, with a propped-lock locking system.

Super Fledermaus.

The Super Fledermaus fire control system was designed and built by the then separate Contraves company. It consists of a four-wheeled towed trailer with an E/F band pulse doppler search radar with a range of around 15 km and a pulse doppler tracking radar operating in the J band, also with a range of 15 km. It was also used as the fire control system on the Gepard SPAAG.

Skyguard.

The Skyguard system is contained within a towed trailer, mounted on the roof of which is a pulse doppler search radar, a pulse doppler tracking radar and a co-axial television camera. The trailer also houses the crew of two and a small petrol generator. Skyguard is an all-weather air defense system for the control of aircraft at low altitude and at low and medium altitude range up to 3,000 m. The maximum effective distance is given as 4,000 m. The system takes the air surveillance, target acquisition, calculation of the derivative-action values and the control of two Oerlikon 35 mm anti-aircraft guns. Skyguard is served by four people.  It was created by Oerlikon-Buehrle. The weapon was introduced in the 1960s in the Swiss Army and got updates in 1975, 1995 and 2010. They are still in use. It had replaced the system Contraves Super Fledermaus in the Swiss Air Force. The Skyguard radar system was used in the German Air Force for surveillance of low-altitude flight zones. The radar unit is readied quickly through the use of hydraulic systems for antenna erection and leveling after deployment. A typical fire unit using the Skyguard consists of two twin 35 mm gun platforms with a single Skyguard fire control radar.  Skyguard systems can also incorporate an optional SAM module based on the GDF's mount and radar system but with the guns replaced by four missile canisters. It can be armed with either Aspide or RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles. In Greek service the Skyguard system with RIM-7M is known as the VELOS.

The Oerlikon GDF or Oerlikon 35 mm twin cannon is a towed anti-aircraft gun made by Oerlikon Contraves (renamed as "Rheinmetall Air Defence AG" following the merger with Rheinmetall in 2009). The system was originally designated as 2 ZLA/353 ML but this was later changed to GDF-001. It was developed in the late 1950s and is used by around 30 countries.

Le Oerlikon 35 mm est un canon antiaérien bitube fabriqué par Oerlikon Contraves. Il a d'abord été désigné 2 ZLA/353 ML, puis GDF-001. Il a été développé à la fin des années 1950 et est utilisé aujourd'hui dans une trentaine de pays. L'Oerlikon Millennium constitue son évolution.


History.

Following an election on May 22, 1909, Harmon County was created by proclamation of Governor Lee Cruce on June 2. Carved from adjacent Greer County, the new county was named in honor of Judson Harmon, who was Governor of Ohio at the time. The area now covered by Harmon County had been a part of Texas until the U. S. Supreme Court awarded it to Oklahoma Territory in 1896.  Another election held September 1, 1909, confirmed Hollis as the county seat. There were two other contestants: the towns of Harmon and Rosser. County offices operated in rented space until a courthouse was built in Hollis in 1926. In 1930, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the boundary between Texas and Oklahoma was actually farther east than originally believed. It returned the disputed land to Texas, reducing the county's area to its present size.  A railroad built from Altus, Oklahoma to the Texas state line came to Hollis and Gould in 1910. The line was built by the Altus, Wichita Falls and Hollis Railway (later acquired by the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad).

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of, of which is land and (0.3%) is water. It lies in the Gypsum Hills physiographic region, and is drained by the Red River and its tributaries, the Salt and Elm forks of the Red River and Lebos and Turkey creeks.

Demographics.

Common to many rural counties in the Great Plains the population of Harmon county has declined steadily since 1930. Between 1930 and 2010, Harmon County lost a greater percentage of its population than any other Oklahoma county, from 13,834 in 1930 to 2,922 in 2010, a decrease of 78.8%.  As of the census of 2000, there were 3,283 people, 1,266 households, and 863 families residing in the county. The population density was six persons per square mile (2 km). There were 1,647 housing units at an average density of three per square mile (1/km). The racial makeup of the county was 72.65% White, 9.78% Black or African American, 1.13% Native American, 0.18% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 14.32% from other races, and 1.92% from two or more races. The population was 22.78% Hispanic or Latino.  There were 1,266 households out of which 30.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.70% were married couples living together, 9.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.80% were non-families. 29.00% of all households were made up of individuals and 17.50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.03.  In the county, the population was spread out with 25.90% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 24.10% from 25 to 44, 21.10% from 45 to 64, and 21.00% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females there were 94.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.80 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $22,365, and the median income for a family was $29,063. Males had a median income of $21,530 versus $16,658 for females. The per capita income for the county was $13,464. About 23.50% of families and 29.70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 38.20% of those under age 18 and 19.90% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Agriculture has been the main component of the county economy. Cotton, wheat and sorghum have been the principal crops. By 1930, farmers had sizable holdings of cattle, poultry, horses, mules, swine, sheep and goats.

Hughes County is a county located in south central U.S. state of Oklahoma. As of the 2010 census, the population was 14,003. Its county seat is Holdenville. The county was named for W. C. Hughes, an Oklahoma City lawyer who was a member of the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention.

Le comté de Hughes est un comté situé dans l'État de l'Oklahoma, aux États-Unis. Le siège du comté est Holdenville. Selon le recensement de 2000, sa population est de habitants.


History.

In 1956, during Operation Deep Freeze II, was damaged by an ice floe at Cape Hallett.

Hallett Station.

The cape was the location of a joint scientific base, Hallett Station, between the United States and New Zealand during the International Geophysical Year of 1957, and was manned permanently until 1964, when there was a major fire. It was then used as a summer only base until 1973. The site is currently being remediated by removing hazardous materials: fuel, and oil stored in several large tanks. This is an ongoing project which will take several years to complete.

Antarctic Specially Protected Area.

An area of 74 ha is protected under the Antarctic Treaty System as Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA) No.106 because it contains habitats with a rich and diverse range of plant communities that are the most extensive and representative examples known at the northern end of the latitudinal gradient of Victoria Land and the Ross Sea. Surveys have recorded 18 species of lichens and five species of mosses, dominated by "Bryum subrotundifolium". Animals found at the site include, as well as four species of mites and three of springtails, breeding colonies of south polar skuas and Adélie penguins.

Adélie penguin colony.

A large Adélie penguin colony occupies Seabee Hook, on the west side of Hallett Peninsula between Moubray Bay and Edisto Inlet. The history of human impact on the colony through the occupation of Hallett Station, and the subsequent closure of the station, together with the availability of reliable historical data on colony population size, make the site unique and ideal for the study of impacts on, and recovery of, the colony after substantial ecosystem disturbance.

Cape Hallett is a snow-free area (Antarctic oasis) on the northern tip of the Hallett Peninsula on the Ross Sea coast of Victoria Land, East Antarctica. Cape Adare lies to the north.

Le cap Hallett est situé en Antarctique à l'extrémité sud de la péninsule Hallett sur la côte de la mer de Ross de la Terre Victoria. Une colonie de manchots Adélie, est localisée au cap Hallett. En 1956, lors de l'opération Deep Freeze II, l'USS Arneb a été endommagé en touchant de la banquise au cap Hallett.


Life.

He was born in Dresden, as the second son of King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and his wife Archduchess Luise, Princess of Tuscany. Friedrich Christian was made a lieutenant in the 1st Royal Saxon Leib-Grenadier Regiment No. 100 at the age of 10, in accordance a family tradition of the House of Wettin. In 1913, he studied at the Military Academy in Dresden. During World War I, he served General Staff on the Western Front. He received several medals for bravery. He was very gifted linguistically and was sent on diplomatic missions to King Alfonso XIII of Spain, to Sultan Mehmed V of Turkey and to Emperor Charles I of Austria.  In 1918, Friedrich Christian was one of several candidates to the prospective Kingdom of Lithuania. On 13 November of that year, his father abdicated following the German Empire's defeat in the World War I. Friedrich Christian led the Saxon army home from Belgium and France to Germany, where they demobilized in Fulda.  After the end of World War I, he turned to the study of law at the universities of Cologne, Freiburg, Wrocław and Würzburg. The subject of his PhD thesis was Nicholas of Cusa, who contributed significantly to the development of canon law in the late Middle Ages. While studying in Breslau, he was a member of the Catholic student union. However, he resigned his membership in 1928 or 1929, because of substantive disagreement.  On 9 February 1920, he joined the "KDSt.V." Thuringia Würzburg. Here, he met Elisabeth Helene (1903-1976), a daughter of Albert, 8th Prince of Thurn and Taxis and his wife Archduchess Margarethe Klementine of Austria. Elisabeth Helene was an honorary chairwoman of the Thuringian Lady Student Federation. He married her on 16 June 1923 in Regensburg.  After completing his PhD, he became a private teacher of the history of art. Around this time, his father asked him to take up the management of the family holdings in Saxony and Silesia.  In 1923, his older brother Crown Prince Georg renounced his succession rights and joined the Jesuit Order. Friedrich Christian thus became heir apparent, and when his father died on 12 February 1932, he succeeded as Head of the Royal House of Saxony  In 1933, remembering the prolonged link between the Electorate of Saxony and their country, the Polish Government wanted to propose him to become the new King of Poland, but the rise of Adolf Hitler and the upcoming of World War II prevented this from happening. At time, Friedrich Christian and his family lived in Bamberg, where he led the Knights of St. Mary.  In 1937, the family moved to Wachwitz Castle in Dresden-Wachwitz, where they lived until 1945. The castle survived the bombing raids in 1945, and Christian Friedrich took in many survivors. Later that year, the family moved via Hof and Regensburg to Bregenz, where the two youngest children had been living since 1940. Their close connections to the French, they were able, for instance, to arrange permission for Richard Strauss to move to Switzerland.  In 1955, their relatives in the Thurn und Taxis family helped them find a new home in the Harlaching borough of Munich. Here Friedrich Christian, together with his sons Albert and Maria Emanuel, the chapter of the Military Order of St. Henry, the Association of People from Dresden, and te Munich chapter of the association of founded the ("Study group for Saxon history and culture"). This study group became one of the largest historical societies in West Germany.  Friedrich Christian died on 9 August 1968 at Samedan. He was buried outside the Royal Chapel in Königskapelle in Karrösten in North Tyrol.

Marriage and children.

Friedrich Christian married Princess Elisabeth Helene of Thurn and Taxis (1903–1976) on 16 June 1923 at Regensburg. They had five children:

Albert Leopold Friedrich Christian Sylvester Anno Macarius, Prince of Saxony, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Meissen (31 December 1893 – 9 August 1968) was the second son of Frederick Augustus III, the last reigning king of Saxony before the abolition of the monarchy in 1918. Upon his father's death in 1932, he became the head of the Royal House of Saxony. He was Captain à la suite in the Royal Bulgarian Infantry, and Grand Master of the Order of the Rue Crown, and also a Knight in the Order of the Black Eagle and Knight Grand Cross in the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. As head of the House of Wettin after 1932, he styled himself as "Friedrich Christian, Margrave of Meissen".

Frédéric-Christian de Saxe (en allemand Friedrich Christian von Sachsen), né le à Dresde et mort le à Samedan, est un prince de la Maison de Saxe. Il est margrave de Misnie et chef de la Maison de Saxe de 1932 à 1968.


Defining the Rocky Mountain Front.

Although the Rocky Mountain Front is clearly distinct from both plains and mountains, in places like the Wyoming Basin, Montana, and New Mexico it is more ambiguous. One definition of the front is that it is a "transition zone between the Rocky Mountains and the mixed grass prairie... [that] encompasses a wide variety of wetland, riparian, grassland, and forested habitats". By one estimate there are more than of Rocky Mountain Front land in Montana and Canada.  The Rocky Mountain Front is such an important geologic feature that it affects the weather in North America. Warm air masses moving from the Gulf of Mexico are blocked by the front from moving west, causing hail, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other kinds of violent weather which then move east. "Tornado Alley", that part of the Great Plains where tornadoes are most frequent, is a direct outcome of the front's effect on weather.

Areas of the Rocky Mountain Front.

British Columbia and Alberta.

In Alberta, the Rocky Mountain Front is about wide.  As early as 1935, it was well-recognized that significant coal resources underlay the Rocky Mountain Front in Alberta. As of 2013, about 60 percent of all Canadian coal reserves are believed to be beneath the front in Alberta. Natural gas is also very plentiful. Royal Dutch Shell began producing natural gas there in the Pincher Creek Gas Field in the 1950s, and built a sweetening plant there in 1957. The Pincher Creek Gas Field can produce up to 150 million cubic feet of natural gas per day, and in the 1960s Shell Oil built a second sweetening plant near Waterton Lakes National Park.  The Rocky Mountain Front in British Columbia and Alberta has long been inhabited by Plains Indians, and the area contains widely scattered but not uncommon Native American rock art sites.  Development along the front is somewhat limited. In the 1940s, planners considered building the Alaska Highway along the Rocky Mountain Front in British Columbia and Alberta but ultimately decided on a coastal route. In the early 2000s, the Nature Conservancy was working to secure environmental easements along the front in Alberta to protect grizzly bear habitat.

Montana.

The Rocky Mountain Front in Montana from the Canada–US border south to about Helena is heavily deformed by faulting, folding, and overthrusting. During the Sevier orogeny mountain-building event about 115 and 55 million years ago, what is known as the Cordilleran foreland thrust-and-fold event occurred along the east side of the Rocky Mountains in northwest Montana. The thrust-and-fold belt does not extend all the way south through Montana. Instead, it cuts west above Three Forks continues south—crossing the Snake River Plain and skirting the west side of the Colorado Plateau before cutting west again to enter California. Although most of this mountain-building has since been obliterated by additional orogeny and volcanic activity, most of it still exists in northwestern Montana. The Rocky Mountain Front in this area represents some of the highest changes of elevation within a short distance anywhere in North America. Much of this part of the front, including the Lewis Range and Livingston Range, have suffered heavy glaciation.  According to a definition used by the "Christian Science Monitor", the Rocky Mountain Front in Montana extends only about south of the state's northern border. But professors Tony Prato and Dan Fagre define the front in Montana as being wide and long.  Ranches cover much of the Rocky Mountain Front in Montana. The spectacular scenery also led to the creation of a number of guest ranches in the area, and some of the state's best-known guest ranches are near Choteau and Augusta.  The Rocky Mountain Front in Montana contains some of the last relatively untouched native prairies in the northern Great Plains. The front forms the eastern boundary of what is called the "Crown of the Continent Ecosystem". This area of Montana is prime habitat for wildlife, including the black bear, cougar, deer, elk, grizzly bear, lynx, moose, wolf, and wolverine. It is one of the few places in North America where grizzly bear habitat still extends onto the prairie. Extensive numbers of prairie rattlesnake are also found there.  Heavy coal, oil, and natural gas development along the Rocky Mountain Front in Montana began in the 1970s. By the early 2000s, there were estimates of as much as 2.2 trillion cubic feet of natural gas below the front in Montana, although only 200 billion cubic feet was available on leasable land. By 2003, much of the Rocky Mountain Front in the state consisted of land owned by the U.S. federal government and managed by the United States Forest Service and the federal Bureau of Land Management (BLM). By one count, BLM alone managed of land on the Rocky Mountain Front in the state. Beginning in 2001, petroleum exploration was banned for a six-year period on Forest Service land in the front. In the fall of 2002, BLM issued new regulations making it easier to engage in oil and gas production along the Montana front. Conservationists have actively worked to protect the region from energy exploration.

Wyoming.

Southwest Wyoming, where the borders of Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming come together, is another area where the Cordilleran foreland thrust-and-fold remains largely intact. (The other is northwest Montana, as noted above.)  The Rocky Mountain Front in Wyoming is believed to have extensive oil and natural gas reserves. In the late 1970s, the U.S Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management attempted to open these lands to energy exploration. This led to extensive litigation and changes in federal land use regulations.

Colorado.

In Colorado, the Rocky Mountain Front extends from the west-northcentral part of the border with Wyoming south to the city Pueblo and the Arkansas River. Peaks within the front include Pikes Peak, Mount Evans, and Longs Peak. Just east of the Rocky Mountain Front is the Colorado Piedmont, and within the Piedmont is the most heavily urbanized part of the United States between Chicago and the West Coast. The only pass through the Rocky Mountains in the area is the Tennessee Pass.  The Rocky Mountain Front forms the eastern boundary of a triangular area of volcanic activity centered on western Colorado. Several sandstone horizons underlie the Colorado Rocky Mountain Front as well, and decline steeply to the east.

In popular culture.

"The Rocky Mountain Front" is the title of an essay by noted Montana author A. B. Guthrie, Jr. It first appeared in "Montana, The Magazine of Western History" in 1987.

The Rocky Mountain Front is a somewhat unified geologic and ecosystem area in North America where the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains meet the plains. In 1983, the Bureau of Land Management called the Rocky Mountain Front "a nationally significant area because of its high wildlife, recreation, and scenic values". Conservationists Gregory Neudecker, Alison Duvall, and James Stutzman have described the Rocky Mountain Front as an area that warrants "the highest of conservation priorities" because it is largely unaltered by development and contains "unparalleled" numbers of wildlife.

Le Rocky Mountain Front (Front des montagnes rocheuses) est une zone qui s'étend sur 160 km entre le Montana et le sud de l'Alberta. C'est dans cette zone tampon que les Rocheuses rejoignent les Grandes plaines avec une baisse de dénivellation rapide pouvant atteindre 1524 mètres. Le chevauchement de Lewis souleva le sol et forma ainsi la cordillère de Lewis Range. Aussi connue comme la "Couronne du Continent", la région se caractérise par un écosystème composé de prairies et de flores alpines. La majorité de cette région se situe dans la parc national de Glacier, dans la forêt nationale de Lewis et Clark et la réserve indienne des Pieds-Noirs. L'U.S. Bureau of Land Management gère des portions de cette région naturelle. La zone a conservé une faune et une flore presqu'intactes. Seul le bison a disparu de la zone à l'état sauvage et seuls des troupeaux de bisons domestiques vivent encore dans la région. Le Grizzli vit toujours dans la région qui est protégée de l'exploration pétrolière et gazière.


Definition.

Scholars of Paganism like Joanne Pearson and Ethan Doyle White have characterised Feri as a Wiccan tradition. The latter noted however that some practitioners of modern Pagan Witchcraft restrict the term "Wicca" to British Traditional Wicca, in which case Feri would not be classified as Wicca; he deemed this exclusionary definition of the term to be "unsuitable for academic purposes". Instead, he characterised Feri as one form of Wicca which is nevertheless distinct from others, such as British Traditional Wicca, Dianic Wicca, and Stregheria.

History.

Anderson met Cora Ann Cremeans in Bend, Oregon, in 1944; they married three days later, on 3 May, claiming that they had encountered each other before in the astral realm. Born in Nyota, Alabama, in January 1915, Cora had been exposed to folk magical practices from childhood; reputedly, her Irish grandfather was a "root doctor" who was known among locals as the "druid". The Andersons claimed that one of their first acts after their marriage was the erection of an altar. The following year, a son was born, and they named him Victor Elon, with the latter being the Hebrew word for oak; Cora claimed that she had received the name in a dream. After the birth, a ritual was held to dedicate the infant to the Goddess. In 1948, the family moved to Niles, California, later that year purchasing a home in San Leandro. There, Anderson became a member of the Alameda Lodge of the Fraternal Order of Eagles, and he subsequently remained so for forty years. Victor earned his living as a musician, playing the accordion at events, while Cora worked as a hospital cook. It has been claimed that Anderson could speak Hawaiian, Spanish, Creole, Greek, Italian, and Gothic.  In the mid-1950s Victor and Cora read "Witchcraft Today", a 1954 book by English Wiccan Gerald Gardner, with Cora claiming that Victor corresponded with Gardner for a time. The Pagan studies scholar Chas S. Clifton has suggested that the Andersons used Gardner's work as a "style guide" for the development of their own tradition of modern Pagan witchcraft. Similarly, Kelly stated that the Andersons' tradition "began to more and more resemble that of the Gardnerians" as the couple learned more about the latter, adopting elements from it. Anderson was in correspondence with the Italian-American Wiccan Leo Martello, who encouraged Anderson to found his own coven. Circa 1960, the Andersons founded a coven, naming it Mahealani, after the Hawaiian word for the full moon. Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Andersons initiated a number of individuals into the coven. One of these was Gwydion Pendderwen, a friend of their son who shared their interest in the esoteric. Pendderwen contributed to the development of what came to be known as the Feri tradition, with some members of the lineage viewing him as its co-founder. Pendderwen noted that he had first met the family when, aged thirteen, he got into a fight with Victor Elon, although the two later became friends. Pendderwen was particularly influenced by Welsh mythology, and on a visit to Britain he spent time with the Alexandrian Wiccans Alex Sanders and Stewart Farrar, subsequently introducing various Alexandrian elements into Feri Wicca. In the early 1970s, the Andersons established a new coven with Pendderwen and his initiate, Alison Harlow. After Pendderwen married, his wife also joined this coven, although it disbanded in 1974.

Anderson's teaching.

Over the next four decades, the Andersons would initiate between twenty-five and thirty people into their tradition. Anderson has been described as one of the "founding teachers" and the "seminal voice" of the Feri tradition, although – according to Feri initiate Storm Faerywolf – he preferred to refer to himself as "Grand Master and a fairy chief". The original word that the Andersons used for their tradition was "Vicia", which Cora claimed was Italian. She added that "the name Fairy became accidentally attached to our tradition because Victor so often mentioned that word in speaking of nature spirits and Celtic magic". Early initiates alternately spelled the name of the tradition as "Fairy", "Faery", or "Faerie", although Anderson began using the spelling "Feri" during the 1990s to differentiate it from other witchcraft traditions of the same name; not all practitioners followed his example. Cora claimed that "Feri" was the word's original spelling, adding that it meant "the things of magic". Anderson also referred to his form of Wicca as the "Pictish" tradition. In their writing, the Andersons mixed terminology adopted from Huna, Gardnerian Wicca, and Voodoo, believing that all reflected the same underlying magico-religious tradition. It drew heavily upon the huna system developed by Max Freedom Long. According to one Feri initiate, Corvia Blackthorn:  According to Kelly:  According to one initiate, Jim Schuette, Anderson was "a taskmaster. He took pride in testing his students." One of those initiated into the Anderson's Feri tradition was Starhawk, who incorporated ideas from the Feri tradition when creating Reclaiming. She also included aspects from it in her 1979 book, "The Spiral Dance", including mention of the Iron and Pearl Pentagram and the three souls, all of which originated within Feri. Another prominent initiate was Gabriel Carillo (Caradoc ap Cador), who in the late 1970s developed a written body of Feri teachings, and began offering paid classes in the tradition in the 1980s, generating the Bloodrose lineage; doing so generated controversy among Feri initiates, with critics believing that it was morally wrong to charge for teaching.

The Feri Tradition is an initiatory tradition of modern Pagan Witchcraft. It was founded in California in the 1960s by the Americans Victor Henry Anderson and his wife Cora Anderson.

La Tradition Feri (parfois épelée Féerie, Faerie, on y fait aussi référence en tant que Anderson Feri) est une tradition orale initiatique de la sorcellerie moderne.


History.

Background.

During the fall of 1984 Larry Livermore (née Larry Hayes), a resident of the small town of Laytonville, California of countercultural proclivities, felt the urge to opine about the problems of his community and the world in a small-circulation periodical. Thus in October of that year was launched a circulation magazine called "Lookout," the first issue of which was typed and photocopied with a "press run" of just 50 copies. Opposition emerged to the controversial local topics upon which Livermore opined and so he turned to the theme punk rock, a form of music he had followed in the late 1970s.  Livermore began to reacquaint himself with the ongoing punk music scene by listening to the Maximum Rocknroll (MRR) radio show, broadcast weekly from Berkeley and featuring prominent scenester and future fanzine publisher Tim Yohannan and his cohorts. Livermore also decided to start a band, drafting a 12-year-old neighbor to play drums — given the punk rock name "Tré Cool" by Livermore. Cool would later gain fame as the drummer of Green Day.  After a few ill-attended shows in 1985 Livermore took his band, The Lookouts, into a local recording studio to record their songs, with a 26-song demo tape resulting. He also began living part-time in the San Francisco Bay Area, splitting his time between the city and his home in the mountains of Mendocino County.  The Lookouts began playing out more in San Francisco and Berkeley and began to develop a fan following and to make the acquaintance of other local bands, including a melodically friendly group called The Mr. T Experience. A vibrant local scene began to congeal, based around the Gilman Street Project, an all-ages venue inspired, bankrolled, and coordinated by the popular "Maximum Rocknroll," launched the night of December 31, 1986.  Early in 1987 Livermore decided that it was time for The Lookouts to release a record. Livermore chose to take the Do It Yourself route to create such an album, self-releasing the one-off LP as "Lookout Records." At the same time, the new bands emerging around the vibrant 924 Gilman Street venue, including Operation Ivy, Crimpshrine, Sewer Trout, Isocracy, and others were documented for the first time by local scenester David Hayes on a 17-song double 7" compilation entitled "Turn It Around," released through Mordam Distribution on the Maximum Rocknroll Records label. The duo would soon join forces as co-founders of a permanent label.

Establishment.

Both Lawrence Livermore (née Larry Hayes) and David Hayes (not related) were deeply inspired by the energetic East Bay punk rock scene and sought to further document its leading bands. David Hayes initially wanted to start a new label of his own for the purpose, to be known as Sprocket Records, with a view to a first release for the band Corrupted Morals. Livermore, a columnist for "Maximum Rocknroll" "(MRR)" who knew Hayes as a so-called "shitworker" for the publication, convinced the latter that a partnership was in order to advance their common goal. As Livermore's release had an independently controlled label name, Lookout Records, while Hayes' debut release borrowed the well-known "MRR" moniker, the former name was decided upon as the label name for the releases of the duo moving forward.  According to Livermore, the name "Lookout" was chosen for his magazine and band and thus the label from whence it sprung was selected in reference to the United States Forest Service fire watch tower on Iron Peak, the highest point in Livermore's rural Mendocino County neighborhood. The company's iconic "beady eyes" logo was the early creation of David Hayes, who also handled much of the artwork for the label's early sleeves and LP jackets.  With Hayes' Corrupted Morals project moving forward as LK-02, a 7-inch EP entitled "Chet," Livermore and Hayes jointly worked to bring about a third release later in 1987. This would be yet another 7" EP, a record by raw-edged ska-punkers Operation Ivy called "Hectic." This third release proved to be an aural document of the right band at the right moment, with the release by the high energy local favorites selling through its first pressing of 1,000 copies within a month.  In an effort to make a splash, four 7-inch vinyl records were released simultaneously, including also releases by popular 924 Gilman bands Crimpshrine (LK-04) and Isocracy (LK-05). This initial barrage of new releases went far in cementing Lookout's place as a cutting edge local label for the Berkeley punk scene.  The "Gilman bands" began to form friendships amongst themselves and to play out together at other venues on the road. One important contact was made in the person of 14-year-old Christopher "Chris" Appelgren, a resident of the small town of Garberville, California who worked as a volunteer at community radio station KMUD and who had learned of The Lookouts and the burgeoning East Bay punk rock scene through the pages of "Lookout" magazine, which was distributed in the area. Appelgren attended a show held at Humboldt State University in Arcata, California played by Lookout Records bands Operation Ivy, Crimpshrine, Isocracy, and The Lookouts and was wowed by what he saw, meeting Livermore for the first time and making the acquaintance of Tim "Lint" Armstrong of Op Ivy — later a leading member of Rancid. Before long Appelgren would be traveling to Livermore's Laytonville home to help with the stuffing of 7" vinyl into sleeves and packaging records for mailorder, becoming the label's first paid employee.

Departure of David Hayes.

But all was not well with the fledgling record label. Livermore and Hayes began to become estranged from one another, and the label's projects began to be bifurcated between the two principals — "Larry's bands" and "David's bands," with the eclectic Hayes next turning to releases by post punk band Plaid Retina and country punks Sewer Trout. In addition to differences in musical taste which became more apparent over time, the pair were temperamentally ill-suited, with Hayes understated and reserved and Livermore boisterous and gregarious.  In addition, Hayes and Livermore differed greatly with respect to commercial motivation. In a 2015 memoir, Livermore recalled that  Although the winds of change had begun to blow even in 1988, David Hayes would remain very active with Lookout through the summer of 1989, albeit with dissatisfaction regarding the label's direction growing, and his expressed desires of departure becoming more frequent. Hayes had gradually come to find working with Livermore to be insufferable and sought peace and artistic freedom through formation of his own record label.  Believing that Hayes' participation in the Lookout project as bookkeeper and skilled mitigator of the demands of demanding bands was essential, the 16-year old Appelgren clearly not being ready for the role, Livermore tried a last-ditch effort to retain Hayes with the label, offering to take over all mundane operational tasks while leaving Hayes with "half the profits" as financial coordinator and public face of the organization. The anti-commercial Hayes flatly rejected this proposal with the declaration that "there's too much golden light around Lookout right now," adding that work on his label of love had come to feel "too much like a job."  With a quiet determination, Hayes declared that his departure would take effect on January 1, 1990, adding "I don't want anything more to do with Lookout, and I don't want anything more from Lookout." The speechless Livermore was left with full ownership and control of the label on the very eve of its commercial success. David Hayes would go on to start his own label, Very Small Records, releasing dozens of records over the coming decade that ran the gamut of punk styles, maintaining fidelity to his artistic and ethical vision — while the label that he exited would go on to become a multimillion-dollar commercial enterprise.

Punk rock rising (1989-1993).

Many different punk rock bands, such as Green Day, were signed to Lookout in this time. Green Day released their debut EP, "1,000 Hours", in 1989. Green Day also released "39/Smooth" (1990), "Slappy" (1990), "Sweet Children" (1990), and, with their new drummer, "Kerplunk!" (1992). After the breakup of Operation Ivy, some of the members formed Rancid. They released their debut EP, "Rancid", in 1992 with Lookout Records. Screeching Weasel released their third and fifth to seventh albums, "My Brain Hurts" (1991), "Wiggle" (1993), "Anthem for a New Tomorrow" (1993), and "How to Make Enemies and Irritate People" (1994). Many other Bay area punk bands were getting signed by Lookout Records, giving them a start to a career.

"Golden years" (1993–1997).

Lookout became famous for releasing albums that featured a very distinctive "Ramonescore" pop punk sound including bands such as Screeching Weasel, The Mr T Experience, The Queers, Crimpshrine, Green Day, Sweet Baby, Squirtgun, The Wanna-Bes and others.  In the spring of 1994 Lookout principal Larry Livermore made a very public break with Tim Yohannan and his "Maximum Rocknroll," for which Livermore had written since 1987. With punk exploding in popularity and various tangential musical forms attaching themselves to the movement and swamping "MRR" with promotional material, a tightening of musical focus was demanded by Yohannan — a move which led to the launch of the more eclectic rival publication "Punk Planet." Livermore rebelled at the new line, charging that "MRR" had increasingly become "a lifestyle journal for retro-punks" who "think if they dress up in the same clothes they wore 15 years ago, if they drink the same beer and play the same guitar riffs, that somehow it'll be the glory days of punk all over again." Despite Yohannan's radical politics, "Maximum" had been revealed to be "simply another business," Livermore provocatively declared.  In 1995, with the help of Green Day's "1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours" and "Kerplunk", Lookout Records made $10 million in sales.  Co-founder Larry Livermore left the label in 1997.

Under new management (1998–2004).

After Livermore's departure, Chris Appelgren took over as the label's President while his wife Molly Neuman became Vice President and label employee Cathy Bauer took over as General Manager. Screeching Weasel resigned with the label in 1998 for their album Emo. As part of an agreement, Lookout also purchased Ben Weasel's label Panic Button Records and would release albums from Panic Button acts including The Eyeliners, Enemy You and The Lillingtons. The move would be a major financial loss that would effect the label's royalty payouts in the following years. The label also switched its long time distribution affiliation with Mordam to RED Distribution.  In 1998, the label signed Palo Alto-based band The Donnas and would release 3 albums from the band between 1998 and 2001 as well as reissue their debut album. Despite decent sales and heavy coverage of the band from mainstream media outlets, The Donnas would depart for Atlantic Records in 2002. Other veteran acts such as The Queers, Pansy Division and Avail would depart in the early 2000s citing poor promotion and the label's increasing attention and spending on new acts.  By 2002, Lookout began to shift focus from its East Bay pop punk roots to a more diverse sound by releasing albums from bands such as Pretty Girls Make Graves, Teo Leo And The Pharmacists, The Oranges Band and Neuman's own band Bratmobile. The shift in direction and new releases from veteran acts like The Smugglers and The Mr. T Experience could not offset declining album sales and financial mismanagement including unprofitable showcases at the Warped Tour and CMJ. By 2004, the label had closed its retail store on University Avenue in Berkeley.

Demise (2005–2012).

On August 1, 2005, Green Day followed Avail, Blatz, Filth, Operation Ivy, Screeching Weasel, Riverdales, Lillingtons and Enemy You in announcing they had rescinded the master rights for their Lookout Records material. They cited continuing breach of contract regarding unpaid royalties. This led to the label laying off six of nine staff members. Appelgren told Punknews.org that the label would carry on in a scaled back form. Lookout Records turned 20 years old in 2008.  In December 2009, the company entered a major financial reconstruction period.  The label officially closed in January 2012. The label returned any remaining inventory, masters and artwork to the bands. Appelgren said he hoped bands would "... revisit their Lookout releases, with interesting and cool results."

Artists.

List of bands Lookout Records released at least one EP or full-length for:

Lookout Records was an independent record label, initially based in Laytonville, California and later in Berkeley, focusing on punk rock. Established in 1987, the label is best known for having released Operation Ivy’s only album, "Energy", and Green Day's first two albums, "39/Smooth" and "Kerplunk".

Lookout! Records était un label de musique indépendant basé à Berkeley en Californie et principalement axé vers le punk rock, le pop punk et le punk hardcore. Il a été créé en 1987 par Larry Livermore, et a officiellement fermé en. Le label a publié les deux premiers albums de Green Day, "1,039/Smoothed Out Slappy Hours" et "Kerplunk!", ce dernier étant un des albums les plus vendus au sein de Lookout! Records.


Plot.

At a farewell ceremony in Krasnoyarsk, a band of young Soviet Army recruits is preparing to leave for military duty. Lyutyi (Artur Smolyaninov) one of the conscripts forms a group along with Chugun (Ivan Kokorin), Gioconda (Konstantin Kryukov), Ryaba (Mikhail Evlanov), Stas (Artyom Mikhalkov), Seryi (Ivan Nikolaev), and Vorobey (Aleksey Chadov). They have different talents and personalities that made it hard for them to form a bond with each other at first.  On arrival at their bootcamp in the Fergana Valley of Uzbekistan, they meet another recruit, Pinochet (Soslan Fidarov), a Chechen recruit from Grozny, and their drill instructor, Senior Praporschik Dygalo, a seasoned, traumatized veteran of several tours in Afghanistan and a brutal trainer who treats the recruits harshly. During their training, the recruits overcome their differences and build bonds. Between the training sessions, they receive lessons in operating plastic explosives (which prompts some comic relief) and how to communicate with the locals in Afghanistan (underlining the vast cultural differences between Soviet and Afghan culture). During an orientation, a Soviet General asks if anyone in the VDV has changed their minds as they are about to be reassigned to another unit. Vorobey and Stas initially intend to quit but halt their decision and remain.  Later, Dygalo wakes up the recruits and beats everyone in a frantic manner. Although many claim that he is suffering from mental breakdown, they later learn that he wanted to go with them to Afghanistan but his request got rejected. The recruits then leave for Afghanistan via plane.  On their arrival at Baghram air base, they are greeted by a group of VDV troops who have fulfilled their military service and are due to return home. One of the departing soldiers gives one of the new arrivals, Lyutyi, a talisman that he claims has kept him safe through several tours and multiple firefights. Homeward bound, the departing soldier's transport plane is hit by enemy fire from the nearby mountains and crashes, giving the new recruits their first taste of war. Shortly thereafter, the soldiers are assigned to the 9th company, where their trainer and drill instructor, Dygalo, had previously served. Pinochet however is reassigned to another unit, separating him from Lyutyi and his friends.  Upon arriving there, they met Warrant Officer Pogrebnyak "Khokhol" (Fedor Bondarchuk) who is Dygalo's second-in-command. They also met Sergeant Afanasiev "Afanasiy" (Dmitry Mukhamadeev) and Sergeant Kurbanhaliev "Kurbashi" (Amadu Mamadakov) who were Dygalo's former companions as he was claimed to be discharged. Meanwhile, Chugun is given by Pomidor (Aleksandr Bashirov) the beaten up assault rifle that Private Samylin used during his duty in Afghanistan. Khokhol tells about Dygalo's life on the company and tells his habits during his tours of duty in Afghanistan. Later the company leaves the headquarters to deliver supplies in an outpost of Soviet troops which would be the new component of the 9th company. While traveling through the base, Afanasiy also warns the new members of the company against their allies, the Afghan Army that is demoralized and weakened by mass desertion of its officers during the war. Upon delivering all the supplies needed and spending most of the night in the base, Patefon (Aleksandr Sheyn) invits the company for a shooting exercise. They come across in skirmish with a group of mujahideen led by Akhmed (Marat Gudiev), who insults with Patefon before exchanging fire. The next day Vorobey encounters Akhmed, holds him at gunpoint and is led to kill him, making him the first one on the company to kill a Mujahideen. The company then leaves for its next mission.  The company is soon deployed to the front as a part of Operation Magistral, and receive the order to hold a nameless hill at all costs. They fortify the hill and turn it into a base. That night however, they are attacked by a group of mujahideen. Only Ryaba survives the attack as the far cordon was entirely annihilated by the attack, letting him speechless and crippled. To make sure that the mujahideen don't start an attack again, several soldiers are ordered to guard the hill. Stas however falls asleep during his duty and is beaten up by Khokhol. The next day, Gioconda is instructed to find matches. He encounters an old Afghan man, who, despite the language barrier, leads him to his village. Fearing an ambush, Gioconda arrives in the village and enters the house of the man. Upon seeing an old woman, says it's Haram. He is eventually given matches by a group of kids living there in return for food. As he leaves the village, he encounters members of the company led by Captain Bystrov (Aleksei Kravchenko), who were ready to storm the village.  Several days later, a convoy arrives to the base, but is ambushed by the mujahideen. Several vehicles are destroyed and many soldiers killed. During the shootout, an injured Ryaba suffers from a mental breakdown and was is in the head as he yells to the company to stop firing. Captain Bystrov is also killed in action during the fight. Meanwhile, Khokhol, Lyutyi, and Vorobey attack the underground positions of the mujahideen, but are forced to return upon learning that their enemies are already in the village. The company then invades the village, which seems to be empty. Stas sees a young boy and decides to spare him, but as soon as he turns around he is shot in the back by the boy and dies shortly thereafter. The company is forced to leave as the village is shelled by BM-21 Grad rocket launchers, while the company lament the death of Stas.  Later, Afanasiy leads some men of the company to steal food cans from a passing army convoy. The soldiers then tell each other their plans for the future after they are discharged from duty in Afghanistan. Tthat night, the company celebrates New Year's Eve by listening to Mikhail Gorbachev's speech on radio, drink to their fallen comrades. Pinochet then arrives in the company's base to reunite with his friends: he got into trouble with his unit and was thus reassigned to the 9th company. Welcoming him, the company then starts the party by dancing to some Soviet pop Music.  The next morning, while the entire company is asleep, Gioconda goes outside of the base to draw the landscape. As a large pocket of mujahideen arrives, he is immediately shot in the head and cannot warn the others of the upcoming assault. Reacting to this surprise attack, the 9th company fires back but are shelled by mortars. As he tries to ask for reinforcements by radio, Patefon is killed by a mortar shell which disrupts the communication lines. The company is able to return to the trenches and engage the mujahideen, Khokhol orders some of the men to shell the enemy positions with mortars but Khokhol's position is hit by a rocket that kills two of his men and abandoned any hopes to disrupt the enemy lines. Soon, the mujahidden break the line and hand in hand combat insues. Another shelling begins, a rocket kills Khokhol while Kurbashi is killed by a bullet. During the fight, Lyutyi along with the surviving members of the company fought their way to prevent the mujahideen from launching a complete ambush on the convoy. Vorobey is hit on his leg while fighting, unable to make his way to the lines of his comrades, Chugun uses his machine gun to attack the mujahideen in hopes to cover him but is killed instantly. As he is approached by two mujahideen fighters, Vorobey detonates a grenade to himself. This leads Lyutyi to fearlessly charge to the enemy lines with Samylin's machine gun along with the company. They briefly gain the upper hand and are able to push the fighters back in their positions.  Stranded with low ammunition and no means of communications, the company gathers: only seven of them survived and all officers are dead. Lyutyi along with Afanasiy leads the last men of the company in defense of the hill. They encounter the last fighters and fearlessly fight them till the last man when Mil Mi-24 helicopter gunships arrive and kill the remaining Afghan fighters. Afanasiy is shot on the chest while the last of the men are killed in the gunfight.  Lyutyi is the only one from the company who remains alive. Speechless and severely crippled, he tells the Colonel (Andrey Krasko) that the convoy now may pass as the 9th company has fulfilled their duty and mission. The colonel says that there will be no convoy as the Soviets are already withdrawing from Afghanistan and wonders why they haven't heard the orders on the radio. Upon realizing what happened to the 9th company, the colonel comforts him. Lyutyi passes through the dead bodies of the entire company and removes the Talisman from his neck as he kneels to ground crying.  Later on February 15, 1989, a column of BTR-80 is seen leaving Afghanistan. Lyutyi is in one of the vehicles along with other soldiers who had fulfilled their duty in Afghanistan. He expressed his sympathy as two years later the country they have been fighting for will vanish (Soviet Union). He also tells the fate of most of the people in the military. This includes Senior Praporschik Dygalo being reassigned to Tula to train recruits, who then dies on a night march a year later of a stroke. Snow White and her mother along with other Russian families remain in Fergana Valley, Uzbekistan until they all disappear without a trace. He also says that from years later the veterans like him in the conflict will be scattered ruthlessly by the new life. He concludes by saying that the 9th Company won its own war.

Historical parallel.

In the film, only one soldier from the company is shown to have survived unscathed and the company is said to have been "forgotten" by command because of the Soviet withdrawal. In reality, the 9th Company, 345th Independent Guards Airborne Regiment was pinned down under heavy fire on "Hill 3234" from 7–8 January 1988. They managed to stop three attacks by an estimated 200-250 mujahideen. The company lost a total of 6 men and killed around 200 mujahideen. Another 28 out of the total 39 were seriously wounded. Four of the killed soldiers were posthumously awarded the golden star of the Hero of the Soviet Union. The unit was in constant communication with headquarters and received everything the regimental commander, Colonel Valery Vostrotin, could provide in terms of rations, ammunition, reinforcements, and helicopter evacuation of the wounded.

Release.

Critical reception.

The film received a mixed reaction from the veterans of that war, who pointed to a number of inaccuracies, but nevertheless, judging by ticket sales, it was embraced by the general public and even by Russian President Vladimir Putin. Although first released in 2005, and broadcast on TV in several nations, it was not released in the US until 2010 on DVD.  Release dates:

Box office.

The film was released in September 2005 and became a Russian box office hit, generating $7.7 million in its first five days of release alone, a new domestic record.

Awards.

In 2006, Russia selected the film as its candidate for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film nomination. It was also given the Golden Eagle Award for Best Feature Film by the Russian Academy of Cinema Arts.

The 9th Company () is a 2005 Russian war film directed by Fedor Bondarchuk and set during the Soviet–Afghan War. The film is loosely based on a real-life battle that took place at Elevation 3234 in early 1988, during the last large-scale Soviet military operation (Magistral) in Afghanistan.

Le (, "9 rota") est un film russe réalisé par Fiodor Bondartchouk sur la guerre en Afghanistan (1979-1989), sorti en 2005 et qui remporte le prix de l'Aigle d'or à Moscou, en 2005.


Calendars.

If the preceding year is a common year starting on Friday, then the year begins in ISO week 52; if the preceding year is a leap year starting on Thursday, then the year begins in ISO week 53.

Applicable years.

Gregorian Calendar.

In the (currently used) Gregorian calendar, alongside Sunday, Monday, Wednesday or Friday, the fourteen types of year (seven common, seven leap) repeat in a 400-year cycle (20871 weeks). Forty-three common years per cycle or exactly 10.75% start on a Saturday. The 28-year sub-cycle will break at a century year which is not divisible by 400 (e.g. it broke at the year 1900 but not at the year 2000).

Julian Calendar.

In the now-obsolete Julian calendar, the fourteen types of year (seven common, seven leap) repeat in a 28-year cycle (1461 weeks). A leap year has two adjoining dominical letters, (one for January and February and the other for March to December in the Church of England, as 29 February has no letter). Each of the seven two-letter sequences occurs once within a cycle, and every common letter thrice.  As the Julian calendar repeats after 28 years that means it will also repeat after 700 years, i.e. 25 cycles. The year's position in the cycle is given by the formula ((year + 8) mod 28) + 1). Years 10, 16 and 27 of the cycle are common years beginning on Saturday. 2017 is year 10 of the cycle. Approximately 10.71% of all years are common years beginning on Saturday.

A common year starting on Saturday is any non-leap year (i.e. a year with 365 days) that begins on Saturday, 1 January, and ends on Saturday, 31 December. Its dominical letter hence is B. The most recent year of such kind was 2011 and the next one will be 2022 in the Gregorian calendar or, likewise, 2017 and 2023 in the obsolete Julian calendar, see below for more. Any common year that starts on Wednesday, Friday or Saturday has only one Friday the 13th; The only Friday the 13th in this common year occurs in May. Leap years starting on Friday share this characteristic.

Une année commune commençant un samedi est une année de 365 jours dont le et le 31 décembre tombent un samedi, comme :


Electromagnetic.

LIM / LSM.

Linear induction motor (LIM) and linear synchronous motor (LSM) coasters use propulsion via electromagnets, which utilize large amounts of electricity to propel the coaster train along its track into the ride elements (e.g. inversions, twists, turns and short drops). Nine design companies managing these types of rides are Vekoma, Intamin, Gerstlauer, Premier Rides, Maurer, Zierer, Mack Rides, Bolliger & Mabillard, Rocky Mountain Construction and S&S Worldwide. Both Rocky Mountain Construction and Bolliger & Mabillard established their first LSM launched coasters recently with the RMC Topper Track Coaster, Lightning Rod, at Dollywood, and B&M's wingrider, Thunderbird, at HolidayWorld.  An example of an LSM launched roller coaster is Maverick at Cedar Point in Sandusky, Ohio.  These launch systems transfer electricity through a motor on the roller coaster's track so that it controls the speed at which it will urge the cars and train either forward or backward on a segment. LIMs are mainly used in Premier Rides roller coasters and Intamin impulse and blitz coasters. However, LIMs can also be used for general transport, such as the Tomorrowland Transit Authority PeopleMover in Magic Kingdom or monorail and maglev trains.

Fluid pressure.

Hydraulic Fluid.

Hydraulic-launched roller coasters give the riders high acceleration, yet with improved smoothness, over the electromagnetic and catapult launch mechanisms. The Swiss manufacturer Intamin pioneered this new style.  The heart of the system is several (usually eight) powerful hydraulic pumps, each capable of producing around 500 horsepower (373 kW). Hydraulic fluid is pumped into several different hydraulic accumulators (energy storing devices) containing two compartments separated by a piston. As the incompressible hydraulic fluid is pumped into one compartment, nitrogen in the other compartment is compressed.  At launch, the fluid under pressure from the accumulators is used to drive a number (typically 16 or 32) of hydraulic motors, which spin a large winch drum that rewinds a cable attached to a catch-car under the train in a matter of seconds. The catch-car moves in a groove in the center of the launch track with the motor at one end, and the waiting train at the other.  While the train inches forward, the pusher moves back from the motor towards the train. Once the pusher connects, the anti-rollback braking system drops beneath the track, giving the train the green light to be launched. In the "Kingda Ka" roller coaster, the system as a whole can produce a peak power of up to 20,800 hp (15.5 MW) for each launch.  These launches are considered capable of giving a far greater and smoother acceleration than the LIM/LSM styles. The acceleration from a LIM/LSM launch is greatest at the beginning and dies off rapidly towards the end of the launch, but the acceleration from a hydraulic launch remains nearly constant throughout the launch.  The first hydraulic launch coaster was "Xcelerator" reaching in 2.3 seconds. The world's current tallest and 2nd fastest coaster "Kingda Ka" at Six Flags Great Adventure, which opened in the spring of 2005 is capable of reaching 128 mph (206 km/h) in 3.5 seconds. The fastest roller coaster in the world Formula Rossa, which reaches in 4 seconds, is also launched using this method.  Hydraulic launched rides usually have a tower after the launch, with differing layouts afterwards depending on the park's financial resources. "Top Thrill Dragster" brakes after the tower and "Kingda Ka" features a single hill after the tower, while "Storm Runner" at Hersheypark offers a series of overbanked turns and inversions after its 180 foot (55 m) tower drop. "Rita" at Alton Towers does not have a tower, only airtime hills and banked turns. "Stealth" at "Thorpe Park" has a large tower that travels to the left over the top hat, and then slows on an airtime hill with magnetic brakes. "Xcelerator" at Knotts Berry Farm offers two overbanked turns after the tower. Along with the height and speed, these coasters, named "Rocket Coasters" in the industry, are considered more comfortable because of a smoother launch than LIM-style launches.  A recent newcomer to the hydraulic launch industry is Vekoma, who opened a coaster in 2004 called "Booster Bike" at Toverland in the Netherlands, said to give riders a sensation of racing on high performance motorcycles over a low twisted layout, at speeds up to 47 mph (75 km/h). The cars imitate real motorcycles, and the riders sit in the same posture as real bikers.

Pneumatic (Compressed Air).

Using the same type of system as a Hydraulic launch, a pneumatic launch uses compressed air to launch the vehicle. The technology was developed by S&S as the "Thrust Air 2000" model. The first coaster of this type was the "Hypersonic XLC", opened at Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia, USA in 2001. This coaster closed in 2007. Another incarnation, the Ring Racer was open for only 4 days. Compressed air launches are able to provide more acceleration than traditional pneumatic launches, with Do-Dodonpa at Fuji-Q Highland in Japan holding the acceleration record since it opened as Dodonpa in 2001, launching passengers from 0 to 112 mph (180 km/h) in 1.56 seconds.

Other styles.

Catapult.

In the catapult launch, a dropped weight winds a cable to pull the train until it accelerates to its full speed. Dropped weights were used in early installations of Shuttle Loop.  These rides are often not very tall, and usually achieve speeds of 60 mph (96 km/h).

Flywheel.

Flywheel launches are used on some Anton Schwarzkopf designed shuttle loop coasters and Zamperla Motocoasters. A large flywheel is spun at high speeds and is attached to a cable that propels the train forward.

Electric motor and spring tension.

Arrow Dynamics' Launched Loop coasters, which were popular in the 1970s and 1980s, use a powerful electric motor and tensioned springs to propel a launch car forward. The launch car pushes the train outward to a drop, and then returns to its position. After the train reaches the opposite platform, another catch car works the same way. An example of this is Irn Bru Revolution.

Friction wheels.

Another type of launch is by friction wheels. The launch track consists of a series of horizontal tires that pinch the brake fins on the underside of the train. One example of this is the "Incredible Hulk Coaster" at Universal's Islands of Adventure.

Examples.

Belgium.

Brazil

The launched roller coaster is a modern form of roller coaster. In place of a traditional chain lift, the launched coaster initiates a ride with high amounts of acceleration via one or a series of linear induction motors (LIM), linear synchronous motors (LSM), catapults, or other mechanisms employing hydraulic or pneumatic power. This mode of acceleration powers many of the fastest rollercoasters in the world.

Les montagnes russes lancées (en anglais : "launched coaster") sont un type de montagnes russes qui ont la particularité de projeter leur trains à la place des traditionnelles remontées à chaînes. Les mécanismes de ce type de montagnes russes restent multiples (LSM, catapultage, LIM, hydraulique, pneumatique).