Structure.

EBOV carries a negative-sense RNA genome in virions that are cylindrical/tubular, and contain viral envelope, matrix, and nucleocapsid components. The overall cylinders are generally approximately 80 nm in diameter, and have a virally encoded glycoprotein (GP) projecting as 7–10 nm long spikes from its lipid bilayer surface. The cylinders are of variable length, typically 800 nm, but sometimes up to 1000 nm long. The outer viral envelope of the virion is derived by budding from domains of host cell membrane into which the GP spikes have been inserted during their biosynthesis. Individual GP molecules appear with spacings of about 10 nm. Viral proteins VP40 and VP24 are located between the envelope and the nucleocapsid (see following), in the "matrix space". At the center of the virion structure is the nucleocapsid, which is composed of a series of viral proteins attached to an 18–19 kb linear, negative-sense RNA without 3′-polyadenylation or 5′-capping (see following); the RNA is helically wound and complexed with the NP, VP35, VP30, and L proteins; this helix has a diameter of 80 nm.  The overall shape of the virions after purification and visualization (e.g., by ultracentrifugation and electron microscopy, respectively) varies considerably; simple cylinders are far less prevalent than structures showing reversed direction, branches, and loops (e.g., U-, shepherd's crook-, 9-, or eye bolt-shapes, or other or circular/coiled appearances), the origin of which may be in the laboratory techniques applied. The characteristic "threadlike" structure is, however, a more general morphologic characteristic of filoviruses (alongside their GP-decorated viral envelope, RNA nucleocapsid, etc.).

Genome.

Each virion contains one molecule of linear, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA, 18,959 to 18,961 nucleotides in length. The 3′ terminus is not polyadenylated and the 5′ end is not capped. This viral genome codes for seven structural proteins and one non-structural protein. The gene order is 3′ – leader – NP – VP35 – VP40 – GP/sGP – VP30 – VP24 – L – trailer – 5′; with the leader and trailer being non-transcribed regions, which carry important signals to control transcription, replication, and packaging of the viral genomes into new virions. Sections of the NP, VP35 and the L genes from filoviruses have been identified as endogenous in the genomes of several groups of small mammals.<ref name="cite journal|doi= 10.7717/peerj.556"></ref>  It was found that 472 nucleotides from the 3' end and 731 nucleotides from the 5' end are sufficient for replication of a viral "minigenome", though not sufficient for infection. Virus sequencing from 78 patients with confirmed Ebola virus disease, representing more than 70% of cases diagnosed in Sierra Leone from late May to mid-June 2014, provided evidence that the 2014 outbreak was no longer being fed by new contacts with its natural reservoir. Using third-generation sequencing technology, investigators were able to sequence samples as quickly as 48 hours. Like other RNA viruses, Ebola virus mutates rapidly, both within a person during the progression of disease and in the reservoir among the local human population. The observed mutation rate of 2.0 x 10 substitutions per site per year is as fast as that of seasonal influenza.

Entry.

There are two candidates for host cell entry proteins. The first is a cholesterol transporter protein, the host-encoded Niemann–Pick C1 (NPC1), which appears to be essential for entry of Ebola virions into the host cell and for its ultimate replication. In one study, mice with one copy of the NPC1 gene removed showed an 80 percent survival rate fifteen days after exposure to mouse-adapted Ebola virus, while only 10 percent of unmodified mice survived this long. In another study, small molecules were shown to inhibit Ebola virus infection by preventing viral envelope glycoprotein (GP) from binding to NPC1. Hence, NPC1 was shown to be critical to entry of this filovirus, because it mediates infection by binding directly to viral GP.  When cells from Niemann–Pick Type C individuals lacking this transporter were exposed to Ebola virus in the laboratory, the cells survived and appeared impervious to the virus, further indicating that Ebola relies on NPC1 to enter cells; mutations in the NPC1 gene in humans were conjectured as a possible mode to make some individuals resistant to this deadly viral disease. The same studies described similar results regarding NPC1's role in virus entry for Marburg virus, a related filovirus. A further study has also presented evidence that NPC1 is the critical receptor mediating Ebola infection via its direct binding to the viral GP, and that it is the second "lysosomal" domain of NPC1 that mediates this binding.  The second candidate is TIM-1 (a.k.a. HAVCR1). TIM-1 was shown to bind to the receptor binding domain of the EBOV glycoprotein, to increase the receptivity of Vero cells. Silencing its effect with siRNA prevented infection of Vero cells. TIM1 is expressed in tissues known to be seriously impacted by EBOV lysis (trachea, cornea, and conjunctiva). A monoclonal antibody against the IgV domain of TIM-1, ARD5, blocked EBOV binding and infection. Together, these studies suggest NPC1 and TIM-1 may be potential therapeutic targets for an Ebola anti-viral drug and as a basis for a rapid field diagnostic assay.

Replication.

Being acellular, viruses such as Ebola do not replicate through any type of cell division; rather, they use a combination of host- and virally encoded enzymes, alongside host cell structures, to produce multiple copies of themselves. These then self-assemble into viral macromolecular structures in the host cell. The virus completes a set of steps when infecting each individual cell. The virus begins its attack by attaching to host receptors through the glycoprotein (GP) surface peplomer and is endocytosed into macropinosomes in the host cell. To penetrate the cell, the viral membrane fuses with vesicle membrane, and the nucleocapsid is released into the cytoplasm. Encapsidated, negative-sense genomic ssRNA is used as a template for the synthesis (3'-5') of polyadenylated, monocistronic mRNAs and, using the host cell's ribosomes, tRNA molecules, etc., the mRNA is translated into individual viral proteins.  These viral proteins are processed: a glycoprotein precursor (GP0) is cleaved to GP1 and GP2, which are then heavily glycosylated using cellular enzymes and substrates. These two molecules assemble, first into heterodimers, and then into trimers to give the surface peplomers. Secreted glycoprotein (sGP) precursor is cleaved to sGP and delta peptide, both of which are released from the cell. As viral protein levels rise, a switch occurs from translation to replication. Using the negative-sense genomic RNA as a template, a complementary +ssRNA is synthesized; this is then used as a template for the synthesis of new genomic (-)ssRNA, which is rapidly encapsidated. The newly formed nucleocapsids and envelope proteins associate at the host cell's plasma membrane; budding occurs, destroying the cell.

Ecology.

Ebola virus is a zoonotic pathogen. Intermediary hosts have been reported to be "various species of fruit bats... throughout central and sub-Saharan Africa". Evidence of infection in bats has been detected through molecular and serologic means. However, ebolaviruses have not been isolated in bats. End hosts are humans and great apes, infected through bat contact or through other end hosts. Pigs in the Philippines have been reported to be infected with Reston virus, so other interim or amplifying hosts may exist. Ebola virus outbreaks tend to occur when temperatures are lower and humidity is higher than usual for Africa. Even after a person recovers from the acute phase of the disease, Ebola virus survives for months in certain organs such as the eyes and testes.

Ebola virus disease.

Zaire ebolavirus is one of the four ebolaviruses known to cause disease in humans. It has the highest case-fatality rate of these ebolaviruses, averaging 83 percent since the first outbreaks in 1976, although fatality rates up to 90 percent have been recorded in one outbreak (2002–03). There have also been more outbreaks of Ebola virus than of any other ebolavirus. The first outbreak occurred on 26 August 1976 in Yambuku. The first recorded case was Mabalo Lokela, a 44‐year-old schoolteacher. The symptoms resembled malaria, and subsequent patients received quinine. Transmission has been attributed to reuse of unsterilized needles and close personal contact, body fluids and places where the person has touched. During the 1976 Ebola outbreak in Zaire, Ngoy Mushola travelled from Bumba to Yambuku, where he recorded the first clinical description of the disease in his daily log:  "The illness is characterized with a high temperature of about 39°C, hematemesis, diarrhea with blood, retrosternal abdominal pain, prostration with "heavy" articulations, and rapid evolution death after a mean of three days."  Since the first recorded clinical description of the disease during 1976 in Zaire, the recent Ebola outbreak that started in March 2014, in addition, reached epidemic proportions and has killed more than 8000 people as of January 2015. This outbreak was centered in West Africa, an area that had not previously been affected by the disease. The toll was particularly grave in three countries: Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. A few cases were also reported in countries outside of West Africa, all related to international travelers who were exposed in the most affected regions and later showed symptoms of Ebola fever after reaching their destinations.  The severity of the disease in humans varies widely, from rapid fatality to mild illness or even asymptomatic response. Studies of outbreaks in the late twentieth century failed to find a correlation between the disease severity and the genetic nature of the virus. Hence the variability in the severity of illness was suspected to correlate with genetic differences in the victims. This has been difficult to study in animal models that respond to the virus with hemorrhagic fever in a similar manner as humans, because typical mouse models do not so respond, and the required large numbers of appropriate test subjects are not easily available. In late October 2014, a publication reported a study of the response to a mouse-adapted strain of Zaire ebolavirus presented by a genetically diverse population of mice that was bred to have a range of responses to the virus that includes fatality from hemorrhagic fever.

Vaccine.

In December 2016, a study found the VSV-EBOV vaccine to be 70–100% effective against the Ebola virus, making it the first vaccine against the disease. VSV-EBOV was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in December 2019.

History and nomenclature.

Ebola virus was first identified as a possible new "strain" of Marburg virus in 1976. The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) identifies Ebola virus as species "Zaire ebolavirus", which is part of the genus "Ebolavirus", family "Filoviridae", order "Mononegavirales". The name "Ebola virus" is derived from the Ebola River—a river that was at first thought to be in close proximity to the area in Democratic Republic of Congo, previously called Zaire, where the 1976 Zaire Ebola virus outbreak occurred—and the taxonomic suffix "virus".  In 1998, the virus name was changed to "Zaire Ebola virus" and in 2002 to species "Zaire ebolavirus". However, most scientific articles continued to refer to "Ebola virus" or used the terms "Ebola virus" and ""Zaire ebolavirus"" in parallel. Consequently, in 2010, a group of researchers recommended that the name "Ebola virus" be adopted for a subclassification within the species "Zaire ebolavirus", with the corresponding abbreviation EBOV. Previous abbreviations for the virus were EBOV-Z (for "Ebola virus Zaire") and ZEBOV (for "Zaire Ebola virus" or ""Zaire ebolavirus""). In 2011, the ICTV explicitly rejected a proposal (2010.010bV) to recognize this name, as ICTV does not designate names for subtypes, variants, strains, or other subspecies level groupings. At present, ICTV does not officially recognize "Ebola virus" as a taxonomic rank, but rather continues to use and recommend only the species designation "Zaire ebolavirus". The prototype Ebola virus, variant Mayinga (EBOV/May), was named for Mayinga N'Seka, a nurse who died during the 1976 Zaire outbreak.  The name "Zaire ebolavirus" is derived from "Zaire" and the taxonomic suffix "ebolavirus" (which denotes an ebolavirus species and refers to the Ebola River). According to the rules for taxon naming established by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), the name "Zaire ebolavirus" is always to be capitalized, italicized, and to be preceded by the word "species". The names of its members (Zaire ebolaviruses) are to be capitalized, are not italicized, and used without articles.

Virus inclusion criteria.

A virus of the genus "Ebolavirus" is a member of the species "Zaire ebolavirus" if:

Evolution.

"Zaire ebolavirus" diverged from its ancestors between 1960–1976. The genetic diversity of "Ebolavirus" remained constant before 1900. Then, around the 1960s, most likely due to climate change or human activities, the genetic diversity of the virus dropped rapidly and most lineages became extinct. As the number of susceptible hosts declines, so does the effective population size and its genetic diversity. This genetic bottleneck effect has implications for the species' ability to cause Ebola virus disease in human hosts.  A recombination event between "Zaire ebolavirus" lineages likely took place between 1996 and 2001 in wild apes giving rise to recombinant progeny viruses. These recombinant viruses appear to have been responsible for a series of outbreaks among humans in Central Africa in 2001-2003.  "Zaire ebolavirus" – Makona variant caused the 2014 West Africa outbreak. The outbreak was characterized by the longest instance of human-to-human transmission of the viral species. Pressures to adapt to the human host were seen at this time, however, no phenotypic changes in the virus (such as increased transmission, increased immune evasion by the virus) were seen.

References.

Citations

Zaire ebolavirus, more commonly known as Ebola virus (; EBOV), is one of six known species within the genus "Ebolavirus". Four of the six known ebolaviruses, including EBOV, cause a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans and other mammals, known as Ebola virus disease (EVD). Ebola virus has caused the majority of human deaths from EVD, and was the cause of the 2013–2016 epidemic in western Africa, which resulted in at least suspected cases and confirmed deaths.

Le virus Ebola est l'agent infectieux qui provoque, chez l'humain et les autres primates, des fièvres souvent hémorragiques — la maladie à virus Ebola — à l'origine d'épidémies historiques notables par leur ampleur et leur sévérité. La transmission entre humains a lieu avant tout par contact direct avec des fluides corporels. Il s'agit d'un virus à ARN monocaténaire de polarité négative (ordre des "Mononegavirales") et à génome non segmenté (groupe de la classification Baltimore). Il présente l'apparence filamenteuse caractéristique des filovirus, une famille à laquelle appartiennent également le virus Marburg, le virus de Lloviu (genre Cuevavirus) et le virus Měnglà (Genre Dianlovirus).


History.

The church was founded and built around 1230–1275 by Westphalian merchants, who came from Gotland in the 13th century. While the city was still unfortified, the church had heavy bars for closing the entrances, loopholes and hiding places for refugees. When the fortifications around Tallinn were finished in the 14th century (the town wall enclosed the church and the settlement in 1310), St. Nicholas Church lost its defensive function and became a typical medieval parish church. There are only a few parts of the original church that have been preserved through the present.  In 1405–1420, St. Nicholas Church obtained its current appearance, when the central aisle received a clerestory above the side aisles in the form known in architecture as a basilica. In 1515 the tower was built higher and covered with late-Gothic spire. In late 17th century the tower was strengthened and secured. The spire was replaced with a Baroque spire with airy galleries, which was raised higher stage by stage through several centuries. The tower is now high.  Saint Nicholas was the only church in Tallinn which remained untouched by iconoclasm brought by the Protestant Reformation in 1523 (or 1524). The head of the congregation poured molten lead into the locks of the church, and the raging hordes could not get in. The church was converted to a Lutheran congregation in the 16th century.  On March 9, 1944, the church was severely damaged by Soviet Bombing of Tallinn in World War II. The resulting fire turned the church into ruins and destroyed most of its interior (except that of St. Anthony's Chapel), including baroque pews, lofts and pulpit. The tower continued to smoke for about a month. Most precious art treasures survived thanks to their timely evacuation from the church. The renovation of the church started in 1953 and was completely finished in 1981.  The church tower was again damaged by a fire on October 12, 1982. The tower was burnt out and spire destroyed, roofs of the nave and the chapel of St. Anthony damaged.  After a restoration carried out under the guidance of conservator-restorer Villem Raam, the church was inaugurated in 1984 as a museum and concert hall, where the collection of medieval art of the Art Museum of Estonia is displayed. Due to its excellent acoustics, the church is very popular concert hall.

Artworks in the church.

Most famous of the artworks in the museum is perhaps a "Danse Macabre" by the Lübeck master Bernt Notke, which depicts the transience of life, the skeletal figures of Death taking along the mighty as well as the feeble ones. "Danse Macabre" or "The Dance of Death" was a popular medieval motif in art. Only the initial fragment of the original wide painting (accomplished at the end of the 15th century) has been preserved and is currently displayed in St Nicholas Church.  The museum contains several other notable late Gothic and early Northern Renaissance works of art.  The former High Altar of St Nicholas Church was made between 1478–1481 in the workshop of Hermen Rode, a master painter from Lübeck. It is one of the largest northern German altarpieces in the 15th-century Hanseatic League. Paintings on the outer flanks of this double-winged altar depict the life of Saint Nicholas and Saint Victor, the central part and the unfolded wings expose over thirty wooden sculptures forming the so-called gallery of saints. The outer wings show the emblems of the Great Guild of Tallinn and the Brotherhood of Blackheads. The predella shows Church Fathers and the founders of orders: St Bernard of Clairvaux, St. Gregory the Great, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, St. Ambrose and St Benedict of Nursia.  Several other altarpieces from the same period can be mentioned: the altarpiece of "St. Mary and the Brotherhood of Blackheads" from 1500, made in Bruges by the anonymous Master of the Legend of Saint Lucy.The other wings depict the Annunciation in grisaille technique in a scene with the archangel Gabriel and the Virgin Mary with an open book. The open wings show from left to right: Virgin Mary with a bared breast and donors, Christ pointing at the wound on His chest, God the Father enthroned, John the Baptist with donors. In the open view we see the Virgin Mary flanked by St George and St. Victor. The left wing shows St. Francis of Assisi and the right wing St. Gertrude of Nivelles. The retable remained in the house of the Brotherhood of the Blackheads from 1534 to 1943.  The altar of the Holy Kin from about 1490, made at Jan Borman’s workshop in Brussels; or the altar of Christ's Passion, made at the beginning of the 16th century by the workshop of the Brugge master Adrian Isenbrandt at the order of the powerful Brotherhood of Blackheads. A single panel painting by the Master of Schloss Lichtenstein, "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" (1430–1440) and several medieval woodcarvings by Henning von der Heide (depicting St. Nicholas, Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist) (1510–1520) are also on display.  There is a four-metre high, seven-branched, brass candelabrum from 1519, one of the largest in Europe. On top of the middle branch stands a double-sided figure of the Virgin Mary with Child on a throne. It was a donation in 1519 by the wealthy Tallinn merchant Hans Bouwer.  Of later works of art, the figure of St. Christopher by Tobias Heinze, (1624) a 350-year-old decorative screen of Bogislaus Rosen's chapel carved by Frans Hoppenstätt, and the epitaph of Antonius van der Busch by Arent Passer (1608) can be mentioned. Around the nave lie a series of 17th century tomb-top effigies like Berndt Reinhold von Delwig and Hermann Nieroth in full body armour.  The museum also contains a special silver chamber with the silver treasures of guilds, craft corporations and the Brotherhood of Blackheads

Charles Eugène de Croÿ.

The side chapel was used to hold the mummy of Duke Charles Eugène de Croÿ, the commander of the Russian army at Battle of Narva (1700), taken prisoner by Swedish King Charles XII. Charles Eugène de Croÿ died in 1702 and was left unburied, as nobody was willing to pay for the funeral. The air conditions in the chapel where the body was held protected the corpse from decaying and it became an attraction, remaining on display until 1897, when the authorities finally buried it.

St. Nicholas Church (, ) is a medieval former church in Tallinn, Estonia. It was dedicated to Saint Nicholas, the patron of the fishermen and sailors. Originally built in the 13th century, it was partially destroyed in the Soviet bombing of Tallinn in World War II. It has since been restored and today houses the Niguliste Museum, a branch of the Art Museum of Estonia, focusing mainly on ecclesiastical art from the Middle Ages onward. The former church is also used as a concert hall.

L'église Saint-Nicolas (en estonien : "Niguliste kirik") est une église catholique puis luthérienne de la ville basse de Tallinn. Elle est devenue en 1984 un musée et une salle de concert dont l'acoustique est excellente. Son clocher mesure.


Musical style, writing, composition.

Frontman David Vincent's vocal style was influenced by the early English grindcore scene and fellow Floridian Chuck Schuldiner of Death. The album's style is also characterized by extremely fast performances, complex compositions, and technically demanding musicianship. Guitarist Trey Azagthoth has noted that psychedelic music was an inspiration for his writing on the album, particularly Pink Floyd. When writing guitar solos on the album, he abandoned the use of traditional scales and said that "I would just pick an area on the guitar and play it without really looking at it. I'd connect it in a different way." Speaking about his motivations at the time of writing and recording the album, Azagthoth said thatBack then, I really wanted to destroy everybody. I wanted people to have to work a lot harder after the fans witnessed what we had going on. I wanted to smoke people. I really believed that bands were challenging each other, trying to outdo each other and make each other quit - almost like the rivalries with East Coast and West Coast rappers. I really kind of thought people wanted to write parts that would engulf the whole world. I wanted to get onstage and have people go, "Holy shit - what the fuck is going on?" I wanted to write stuff that would make other bands run and hide. It's not really very nice, but that's what drove me."

Recording and release.

The album features a number of tracks that were originally recorded for what was supposed to be their debut album 'Abominations of Desolation', originally recorded in 1986 but which was only released in 1991. The band was unhappy with the final product of 'Abominations of Desolation', Azagthoth in particular, who did not believe it was what he had envisioned. In December 1988 the band returned to the studio to record what would become their true debut release, 'Altars of Madness'. Almost all of the songs on that original demo recording have since been re-recorded and appeared on various Morbid Angel albums. The band has explained that in many ways they felt unprepared when they entered the studio, despite them having practiced extensively beforehand. The band chose the studio because it was located close to the band in Tampa, and considered it the preeminent studio at the time. David Vincent called it a "trial run", but that he was "really pleased that everything came together when it finally did."  Bonus tracks were included on the CD version as well as the remastered 2003 release. These are remixed versions of songs from the album. The album saw a 2006 DualDisc release with the 2003 remaster on the audio side and "Live Madness 89" recorded at Nottingham Rock City on November 14, 1989, on the DVD side. The album was remastered and reissued by Earache Records in 2011 and 2015, and in May 2016 a 'Full Dynamic Range' remaster was released digitally and on vinyl. On November 23, 2018, there will be a digipak edition of the album, with remastered sound and the bonus tracks, along with a bonus clip of Immortal Rites.

Artwork.

The cover artwork, by Dan Seagrave, depicts "a flat disk made of a fossil material, that has captured souls". Seagrave has said that,This was something I'd been working on at home, which the band saw partially finished. It consequently became my first Death Metal cover. Prior to that I'd been making album covers for British thrash bands like Warfare, and Hydravein. Even though I was 18 when I did it, I still think it's quite interesting. It's not supposed to be spherical as has been suggested. It's more like a flat disk made of a fossil material, that has captured souls.

Reception and legacy.

Many death metal fans and critics consider "Altars of Madness" to be one of the best death metal albums of all time. Jason Birchmeier of Allmusic wrote that one "cannot deny its influence", and MetalSucks likewise wrote that it is "impossible to ignore the importance of this release to the death metal genre." UK magazine "Terrorizer" rates this album as both Morbid Angel's and death metal's finest hour, describing it as "bludgeoning and raw but also technical, exacting and intimidatingly consistent". "Altars of Madness" has appeared at the top of lists of the greatest death metal albums of all time by "Decibel" magazine and "Terrorizer" magazine. In April 2006, the album was inducted into the Decibel Hall of Fame. The magazine wrote that the album "would turn death metal both upside down and inside out." Robban Becirovic of "Close-Up Magazine" credits "Altars of Madness" with launching the popularity of death metal in Sweden: "...Morbid Angel's "Altars of Madness" changed everything [about the Swedish scene]. Before that there was no clear distinction between death, speed, or thrash among regular metalheads. It was just brutal metal. But "Altars of Madness" opened people's eyes, and made us realize something new was going on. Everybody bought that record. Everybody. And thrash was executed by it – the whole genre just disappeared."

Altars of Madness is the debut studio album of Florida-based death metal band Morbid Angel. It was released on May 12, 1989 through Combat Records/Earache Records. The album was recorded in December 1988 at Morrisound Recording in Tampa, Florida. The album is one of the earliest examples of death metal and is considered to have helped pioneer the sound along with Possessed's "Seven Churches" in 1985 and Death's "Scream Bloody Gore" in 1987, and set a new precedent for heaviness and extremity, both musically and lyrically. It is one of the most celebrated albums in death metal history, and one of the most influential heavy metal albums of all time. The overtly Satanic and occult lyrical themes were a significant influence on the early Norwegian black metal scene.

Altars of Madness est le premier album studio du groupe de death metal américain Morbid Angel. L'album est sorti le sous le label Earache Records.


Life and career.

Kurzel was born in 1976 and, with his older brother Justin Kurzel (born 1974), grew up in Gawler, South Australia. Their father, Zdzislaw Kurzel (1946–2006), was from Poland and had migrated to Australia in 1960, where he became a taxi driver. In the 1990s, Kurzel moved to Sydney, where Justin was studying at the National Institute of Dramatic Art (NIDA).  In 2001 Kurzel on lead vocals and guitar, Anthony Johnsen on drums and a bass guitarist formed a blues-rock group, the Mess Hall in Sydney – the bass guitarist soon left but was not replaced, they continued as a duo. Kurzel recalled "When the clubs asked us where our bass player was, we used to lie and say he was sick." Their debut album "The Mess Hall" was released in June 2003. In early 2004 Johnsen was replaced by Cec Condon on drums and vocals. Their third album "Devils Elbow" (October 2007) won the Australian Music Prize.  In 2000 Kurzel composed the film score for the short subject, "Sammy Blue", at the Australian Film, Television and Radio School, with Kim Farrant directing. He worked for Farrant again: providing the score for "Naked on the Inside" (2006), a feature film documentary on body image. In 2009 he composed music for "Castor & Pollux", a short film, directed by Ben Briand.  In 2011 Kurzel provided the music score for the directorial debut feature film by Justin, "Snowtown". At the APRA-AGSC Screen Music Awards of 2011 Kurzel won Feature Film Score of the Year. It was nominated for Australian Film Institute Award for Best Original Music Score. The related soundtrack album was nominated for ARIA Award for Best Original Soundtrack, Cast or Show Album in that same year.  Kurzel also wrote the scores for "Son of a Gun", "Slow West" and the documentary "All This Mayhem". In 2015, he worked again with his brother on "Macbeth", followed by "Assassin's Creed" in 2016. He replaced Harry Gregson-Williams as the composer of "".

Jed Danyel Kurzel (born 1976) is an Australian singer-songwriter-guitarist and film composer. He is a founding member of The Mess Hall (from 2001), a blues rock duo. His older brother Justin Kurzel is a film director and screenwriter.

Jed Kurzel est le chanteur et guitariste du groupe australien The Mess Hall. Il a joué dans un épisode de l'émission "RocKwiz" et est le compositeur pour les pièces "Castor & Pollux" (2009) et "Naked on the Inside" (2007). En 2011, il signe la bande originale du film "Les Crimes de Snowtown", réalisé par son frère Justin Kurzel, retraçant l'histoire du pire tueur en série qu'ait connu l'Australie.


Geography.

Underwood is located at (47.456080, -101.139601).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all of it land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 778 people, 326 households, and 211 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 377 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 95.5% White, 0.3% African American, 1.8% Native American, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.1% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.6% of the population.  There were 326 households of which 22.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.1% were married couples living together, 4.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.3% were non-families. 30.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.77.  The median age in the city was 49.8 years. 18.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23% were from 25 to 44; 32.9% were from 45 to 64; and 21.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 812 people, 323 households, and 229 families living in the city. The population density was 910.8 people per square mile (352.3/km2). There were 381 housing units at an average density of 427.3 per square mile (165.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 96.80% White, 1.11% Native American, and 2.09% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.25% of the population.  There were 323 households out of which 27.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.9% were married couples living together, 7.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.8% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.85.  In the city, the population was spread out with 20.9% under the age of 18, 6.0% from 18 to 24, 20.7% from 25 to 44, 29.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $35,250, and the median income for a family was $47,578. Males had a median income of $39,375 versus $18,611 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,916. About 7.1% of families and 11.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.8% of those under age 18 and 14.4% of those age 65 or over.

Climate.

This climatic region is typified by large seasonal temperature differences, with warm to hot (and often humid) summers and cold (sometimes severely cold) winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Underwood has a humid continental climate, abbreviated "Dfb" on climate maps.

Education.

Underwood Public School serves the community.

Underwood is a city in McLean County, North Dakota, United States. The population was 778 at the 2010 census. Underwood was founded along a Soo Line Railroad line between Bismarck and Max in 1903 and named after Fred D. Underwood, vice president of the railroad at the time.

La ville d’Underwood est située dans le comté de McLean, dans l’État du Dakota du Nord, aux États-Unis. Sa population s’élevait à lors du recensement, estimée à.


Company history.

In the 1950s, Faema began with horizontal boiler, lever piston machines, which were typical of the time. In 1961, however, Faema released the E61, an espresso machine introducing many 'firsts' which are still commonly found in most espresso machines. The most significant was the delivery of pressurized water through a mechanical pump at approximately 9 bar (130.5 pounds per square inch), replacing the piston-lever designs of the 1950s. Faema circumvented the problem of running heated water through the pump, by running cold water through the pump, through a heat exchange tube through the steam boiler to flash heat the water, before entering the diffusion block and through the ground coffee to create an espresso. Faema also introduced a new grouphead that was kept warm by circulating water from the boiler through the grouphead in a thermosyphon circuit. The grouphead was activated by a lever, which when partially open, allows the release of pressure created from the municipal water line. That pressure soaked the coffee with brew-temperature water, allowing for a smoother extraction. When the lever is fully raised, the pump is activated and the coffee is extracted at full pressure.  The implications of the technological innovation of the E61 was revolutionary, and allowed Faema to acquire a significant espresso machine market share within years. Faema recently reintroduced a replica model for commercial use.  Another impact of the E61 is in the home espresso machine market. A generic replica version of the E61 grouphead, coupled with the heat exchange boiler has become popularized in Europe, North America, and Australia. While the aesthetic appeal of the E61 group is cited as a reason for its popularity, the grouphead paired with a heat exchange boiler also created a new level of home espresso quality for consumers.

Cycling team.

Faema has a long history of sponsoring cycling teams. They have acted as the main or sole sponsor of numerous cycling teams for many years, but also as co-sponsor. The best-known rider competing for a team sponsored by Faema was 5-time Tour de France champion Eddy Merckx.

FAEMA (Italian acronym: Fabbrica Apparecchiature Elettromeccaniche e Affini) primarily engaged in the production of espresso machines, was founded in 1945 by Carlo Ernesto Valente, in Milan, Italy. Faema was to become synonymous with the post-war production boom in Italy, by actively pursuing technological innovation as the company's driving force.

FAEMA (acronyme en italien de : "Fabbrica Apparecchiature Elettromeccaniche e Affini") est une entreprise italienne productrice de machines à expresso, basée à Binasco, dans la province de Milan. C'est une entreprise du groupe Cimbali.


Structure.

The complex.

The complex is a large integral membrane protein composed of several metal prosthetic sites and 14 protein subunits in mammals. In mammals, eleven subunits are nuclear in origin, and three are synthesized in the mitochondria. The complex contains two hemes, a cytochrome a and cytochrome a, and two copper centers, the Cu and Cu centers. In fact, the cytochrome a and Cu form a binuclear center that is the site of oxygen reduction. Cytochrome c, which is reduced by the preceding component of the respiratory chain (cytochrome bc1 complex, complex III), docks near the Cu binuclear center and passes an electron to it, being oxidized back to cytochrome c containing Fe. The reduced Cu binuclear center now passes an electron on to cytochrome a, which in turn passes an electron on to the cytochrome a-Cu binuclear center. The two metal ions in this binuclear center are 4.5 Å apart and coordinate a hydroxide ion in the fully oxidized state.  Crystallographic studies of cytochrome c oxidase show an unusual post-translational modification, linking C6 of Tyr(244) and the ε-N of His(240) (bovine enzyme numbering). It plays a vital role in enabling the cytochrome a- Cu binuclear center to accept four electrons in reducing molecular oxygen to water. The mechanism of reduction was formerly thought to involve a peroxide intermediate, which was believed to lead to superoxide production. However, the currently accepted mechanism involves a rapid four-electron reduction involving immediate oxygen-oxygen bond cleavage, avoiding any intermediate likely to form superoxide.

Assembly.

COX assembly in yeast is a complex process that is not entirely understood due to the rapid and irreversible aggregation of hydrophobic subunits that form the holoenzyme complex, as well as aggregation of mutant subunits with exposed hydrophobic patches. COX subunits are encoded in both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. The three subunits that form the COX catalytic core are encoded in the mitochondrial genome.  Hemes and cofactors are inserted into subunits I & II. The two heme molecules reside in subunit I, helping with transport to subunit II where two copper molecules aid with the continued transfer of electrons. Subunits I and IV initiate assembly. Different subunits may associate to form sub-complex intermediates that later bind to other subunits to form the COX complex. In post-assembly modifications, COX will form a homodimer. This is required for activity. Both dimers are connected by a cardiolipin molecule, which has been found to play a key role in stabilization of the holoenzyme complex. The dissociation of subunits VIIa and III in conjunction with the removal of cardiolipin results in total loss of enzyme activity. Subunits encoded in the nuclear genome are known to play a role in enzyme dimerization and stability. Mutations to these subunits eliminate COX function.  Assembly is known to occur in at least three distinct rate-determining steps. The products of these steps have been found, though specific subunit compositions have not been determined.  Synthesis and assembly of COX subunits I, II, and III are facilitated by translational activators, which interact with the 5’ untranslated regions of mitochondrial mRNA transcripts. Translational activators are encoded in the nucleus. They can operate through either direct or indirect interaction with other components of translation machinery, but exact molecular mechanisms are unclear due to difficulties associated with synthesizing translation machinery in-vitro. Though the interactions between subunits I, II, and III encoded within the mitochondrial genome make a lesser contribution to enzyme stability than interactions between bigenomic subunits, these subunits are more conserved, indicating potential unexplored roles for enzyme activity.

Biochemistry.

Summary reaction:  Two electrons are passed from two cytochrome c's, through the Cu and cytochrome a sites to the cytochrome a- Cu binuclear center, reducing the metals to the Fe form and Cu. The hydroxide ligand is protonated and lost as water, creating a void between the metals that is filled by O. The oxygen is rapidly reduced, with two electrons coming from the Fecytochrome a, which is converted to the ferryl oxo form (Fe=O). The oxygen atom close to Cu picks up one electron from Cu, and a second electron and a proton from the hydroxyl of Tyr(244), which becomes a tyrosyl radical. The second oxygen is converted to a hydroxide ion by picking up two electrons and a proton. A third electron arising from another cytochrome c is passed through the first two electron carriers to the cytochrome a- Cu binuclear center, and this electron and two protons convert the tyrosyl radical back to Tyr, and the hydroxide bound to Cu to a water molecule. The fourth electron from another cytochrome c flows through Cu and cytochrome a to the cytochrome a- Cu binuclear center, reducing the Fe=O to Fe, with the oxygen atom picking up a proton simultaneously, regenerating this oxygen as a hydroxide ion coordinated in the middle of the cytochrome a- Cu center as it was at the start of this cycle. The net process is that four reduced cytochrome c's are used, along with 4 protons, to reduce O to two water molecules.

Inhibition.

COX exists in three conformational states: fully oxidized (pulsed), partially reduced, and fully reduced. Each inhibitor has a high affinity to a different state. In the pulsed state, both the heme a3 and the CuB nuclear centers are oxidized; this is the conformation of the enzyme that has the highest activity. A two-electron reduction initiates a conformational change that allows oxygen to bind at the active site to the partially-reduced enzyme. Four electrons bind to COX to fully reduce the enzyme. Its fully reduced state, which consists of a reduced Fe2+ at the cytochrome a3 heme group and a reduced CuB+ binuclear center, is considered the inactive or resting state of the enzyme.  Cyanide, azide, and carbon monoxide all bind to cytochrome c oxidase, inhibiting the protein from functioning and leading to the chemical asphyxiation of cells. Higher concentrations of molecular oxygen are needed to compensate for increasing inhibitor concentrations, leading to an overall reduction in metabolic activity in the cell in the presence of an inhibitor. Other ligands, such as nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide, can also inhibit COX by binding to regulatory sites on the enzyme, reducing the rate of cellular respiration.  Cyanide is a non-competitive inhibitor for COX, binding with high affinity to the partially-reduced state of the enzyme and hindering further reduction of the enzyme. In the pulsed state, cyanide binds slowly, but with high affinity. The ligand is posited to electrostatically stabilize both metals at once by positioning itself between them. A high nitric oxide concentration, such as one added exogenously to the enzyme, reverses cyanide inhibition of COX.  Nitric oxide can reversibly bind to either metal ion in the binuclear center to be oxidized to nitrite. NO and CN will compete with oxygen to bind at the site, reducing the rate of cellular respiration. Endogenous NO, however, which is produced at lower levels, augments CN inhibition. Higher levels of NO, which correlate with the existence of more enzyme in the reduced state, lead to a greater inhibition of cyanide. At these basal concentrations, NO inhibition of Complex IV is known to have beneficial effects, such as increasing oxygen levels in blood vessel tissues. The inability of the enzyme to reduce oxygen to water results in a buildup of oxygen, which can diffuse deeper into surrounding tissues. NO inhibition of Complex IV has a larger effect at lower oxygen concentrations, increasing its utility as a vasodilator in tissues of need.  Hydrogen sulfide will bind COX in a noncompetitive fashion at a regulatory site on the enzyme, similar to carbon monoxide. Sulfide has the highest affinity to either the pulsed or partially reduced states of the enzyme, and is capable of partially reducing the enzyme at the heme a3 center. It is unclear whether endogenous H2S levels are sufficient to inhibit the enzyme. There is no interaction between hydrogen sulfide and the fully reduced conformation of COX.  Methanol in methylated spirits is converted into formic acid, which also inhibits the same oxidase system. High levels of ATP can allosterically inhibit cytochrome c oxidase, binding from within the mitochondrial matrix.

Extramitochondrial and subcellular localizations.

Cytochrome c oxidase has 3 subunits which are encoded by mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, subunit II, and subunit III). Of these 3 subunits encoded by mitochondrial DNA, two have been identified in extramitochondrial locations. In pancreatic acinar tissue, these subunits were found in zymogen granules. Additionally, in the anterior pituitary, relatively high amounts of these subunits were found in growth hormone secretory granules. The extramitochondrial function of these cytochrome c oxidase subunits has not yet been characterized. Besides cytochrome c oxidase subunits, extramitochondrial localization has also been observed for large numbers of other mitochondrial proteins. This raises the possibility about existence of yet unidentified specific mechanisms for protein translocation from mitochondria to other cellular destinations.

Genetic defects and disorders.

Defects involving genetic mutations altering cytochrome "c" oxidase (COX) functionality or structure can result in severe, often fatal metabolic disorders. Such disorders usually manifest in early childhood and affect predominantly tissues with high energy demands (brain, heart, muscle). Among the many classified mitochondrial diseases, those involving dysfunctional COX assembly are thought to be the most severe.  The vast majority of COX disorders are linked to mutations in nuclear-encoded proteins referred to as assembly factors, or assembly proteins. These assembly factors contribute to COX structure and functionality, and are involved in several essential processes, including transcription and translation of mitochondrion-encoded subunits, processing of preproteins and membrane insertion, and cofactor biosynthesis and incorporation.  Currently, mutations have been identified in seven COX assembly factors: SURF1, SCO1, SCO2, COX10, COX15, COX20, COA5 and LRPPRC. Mutations in these proteins can result in altered functionality of sub-complex assembly, copper transport, or translational regulation. Each gene mutation is associated with the etiology of a specific disease, with some having implications in multiple disorders. Disorders involving dysfunctional COX assembly via gene mutations include Leigh syndrome, cardiomyopathy, leukodystrophy, anemia, and sensorineural deafness.

Histochemistry.

The increased reliance of neurons on oxidative phosphorylation for energy facilitates the use of COX histochemistry in mapping regional brain metabolism in animals, since it establishes a direct and positive correlation between enzyme activity and neuronal activity. This can be seen in the correlation between COX enzyme amount and activity, which indicates the regulation of COX at the level of gene expression. COX distribution is inconsistent across different regions of the animal brain, but its pattern of its distribution is consistent across animals. This pattern has been observed in the monkey, mouse, and calf brain. One isozyme of COX has been consistently detected in histochemical analysis of the brain.  Such brain mapping has been accomplished in spontaneous mutant mice with cerebellar disease such as reeler and a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease. This technique has also been used to map learning activity in animal brain.

The enzyme cytochrome c oxidase or Complex IV, is a large transmembrane protein complex found in bacteria, archaea, and in eukaryotes in their mitochondria.

La cytochrome "c" oxydase, ou complexe de la chaîne respiratoire, est une oxydoréductase membranaire qui catalyse la réaction<ref name="10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_4"> <ref name="10.1007/978-3-319-12415-5_5"> :


Team changes from 2008–09.

On 2 February 2009, Bangor's board announced that they would not be able to renew their domestic licence due to financial difficulties, and thereby would not compete in this season's premiership. They finished the 2008–09 season in 11th place. As a consequence, 12th-placed Dungannon Swifts, who were originally going to be directly relegated to the IFA Championship, earned the relegation play-off berth from Bangor. After a two-legged series against 2008–09 Championship runners-up Donegal Celtic, which ended in an aggregated 2–2 tie, Dungannon eventually retained their Premiership status on away goals.  Promoted from the Championship were 2008–09 champions Portadown, which marked their return to the highest football league of Northern Ireland after a one-year hiatus.

Results.

Matches 1–22.

During matches 1–22 each team played every other team twice (home and away).

Matches 23–33.

During matches 23–33 each team played every other team for the third time (either at home, or away).

Matches 34–38.

During matches 34–38 each team played every other team in their half of the table once. As this was the fourth time that teams played each other this season, home sides in this round were chosen so that teams had played each other twice at home and twice away.

Promotion/relegation play-off.

The promotion/relegation play-off was slightly altered this season because Donegal Celtic, runners-up of the 2009–10 IFA Championship, were the only IFA Championship club to hold the Domestic Club Licence required to participate in the Premiership. Lisburn Distillery, who finished in 11th place, avoided having to play a relegation play-off, which was passed down instead to Institute, who finished in 12th place and would normally have been automatically relegated. The first leg ended 0-0, with Institute having a penalty saved in injury-time at the end of the game. The second leg stayed goalless until the 85th minute, when Stephen McAlorum scored for Donegal Celtic, to relegate Institute to the 2010–11 IFA Championship.  "Donegal Celtic won 1–0 on aggregate and were promoted, Institute were relegated"

IFA Premiership clubs in Europe 2009–10.

UEFA coefficient and ranking.

For the 2009–10 UEFA competitions, the associations were allocated places according to their 2008 UEFA country coefficients, which took into account their performance in European competitions from 2003–04 to 2007–08. In the 2008 rankings used for this season's European competitions, Northern Ireland's coefficient points total was 2.332. After earning a score of 0.500 during the 2007–08 European campaign, the league was ranked by UEFA as the 46th best league in Europe out of 53 - not moving from the previous season. This season Northern Ireland earned only 0.125 points, which was added to the points total for the 2010 rankings used in 2011–12 UEFA competitions.

UEFA Champions League.

Having won the league in 2008–09 Glentoran represented the league in the premier football competition. They started in the second qualifying round, and were handed a tough draw against Israeli side Maccabi Haifa. Their worst fears were confirmed as they were hammered 6–0 away and 4–0 at home, 10–0 on aggregate. This ended Glentoran's participation in European football for the season.

UEFA Europa League.

Due to the abolition of the Intertoto Cup in 2008, the remaining teams qualified for the new Europa League instead. Linfield and Lisburn Distillery entered in the first qualifying round. The Blues were drawn against Danish club Randers. This was not a pleasant experience however, as after a 4–0 defeat in Denmark, Randers completed the disappointment with a 3–0 win at Mourneview Park, with Linfield forced to use Glenavon's ground as work was being done to the pitch at their Windsor Park home.  Lisburn Distillery were handed a tie with FC Zestafoni from Georgia. Despite being confident of qualification, they were taken apart 5–1 at home. With only pride to play for in the second leg, Lisburn were dumped out of Europe after a 6–0 hammering, which meant they lost the tie 11–1 on aggregate.  The last remaining club from Northern Ireland, Crusaders entered in the second qualifying round. They were drawn with FK Rabotnički from Macedonia. With not even a draw for a Northern Irish side before they started, Crusaders were the only hope of restoring pride to the league after some damaging European experiences in the weeks before. In a superb home performance, they did just that with a welcome 1–1 draw. They were quite unlucky in the second leg, where they were defeated 4–2 and 5–3 on aggregate. This result ended the IFA Premiership's interest in European competition for the remainder of the season.

The 2009–10 IFA Premiership (known as the Carling Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the second season of the league in this format since its establishment after a major overhaul of the league system in Northern Ireland, and the 109th season of Irish league football overall. It began on 8 August 2009 and ended on 1 May 2010. Glentoran were the defending champions. On 27 April 2010, Linfield clinched the title after a 1–0 victory against Cliftonville at Windsor Park. On 14 May 2010, Institute were relegated to the 2010–11 IFA Championship, after losing the two-legged relegation play-off to Donegal Celtic, who took their place in the 2010–11 IFA Premiership.

Le Championnat d'Irlande du Nord de football 2009-2010 est la du Championnat d'Irlande du Nord de football. C’est aussi la deuxième saison depuis la mise en place d’une nouvelle formule de compétition. La saison commence le pour prendre fin le. Le Glentoran Football Club défend le titre de champion acquis au terme de la saison 2008-2009. Le, le Linfield Football Club remporte le titre de champion d’Irlande du Nord après avoir battu 1-0 le Cliftonville FC à Windsor Park.


History.

First Eras.

Today’s organized horse races as today were conducted in Izmir on 23 September 1856 for the first time. In the leadership of Evliyazade Refik Bey and the term’s Consul General of England Mr. Patterson, Smyrna Races Club was founded. Izmir races were organized annually on Easter days. S.R.C. races were in their golden ages at the beginning of the 20th century and this ended with the start of 1st World War..

Ottoman Jockey Club.

The opinions of organizing horse races and breeding by means of jockey club in Turkey was tried to be accomplished but there is no clear knowledge on the actions of this club. According to the directory published in 1909, Grand Vizier Sait Halim Pasha was the president of Ottoman Jockey Club.

Guild of Cavalryman Races.

Refik Evliyazade started working for regular races to be organized in Istanbul when S.R.C races came to an end with 1st World War. As a result of the support by the most powerful person of the era, Enver Pasha, Guild of Cavalryman Horse Riding Club and Society of Improving Horse Breed were founded in 1913. Choosing Veliefendi as racetrack coincides with the same era.

TJK Era.

Jockey Club of Turkey was founded on 23 October 1950 by the period’s Secretary of State Fevzi Lutfi Karaosmanoglu, Deputy of Kocaeli Saim Onhon, Halim Sait Turkhan, Nejat Evliyazade and Sait Akson with the approvals of the era’s President and Prime Minister. Lounge of the club was opened on the Ziya Gokalp street in Ankara with the attendance of President Celal Bayar on 14 April 1951.  In 1954, 43 races pwere organized with a daily programme in Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir. Today, number of the cities hosting horseraces are increased to 8 with the addition of Adana, Bursa, Sanliurfa, Elazig and Diyarbakir to Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir; also horseraces began to be organized during the whole year without interruption.  As a result of the practices of Jockey Club of Turkey, race incomes rose and huge investments has been made with those incomes. For example; modern racecourses has been built in 9 cities across Turkey in which races are organized. Also, a great importance has been attributed to horse breeding services and those facilities has been built: Pension stud farms in Bursa Karacabey for thoroughbred English Horses, Pension stud farms in Eskisehir Mahmudiye and in Sanliurfa for thoroughbred Arabic Horses. Apart from those facilities, Agean / Torbali, Izmit / Center, Adana / Seyhan, Thrace Insemination Stations has been built; valuable stud horses has been taken to both stud farms and insemination stations and been provided to service of the breeders. Izmir Kosekoy Rehabilitation Center was also opened by Jockey Club of Turkey. With a resolution of the extraordinary congress, headquarter of Jockey Club of Turkey was moved to Istanbul. In 1954 there were 24 founding members, today the number of these members increased to 116.

Activities.

Organizing Horseraces and Mutual Bettings : Authorized by the laws, TJK organizes national and international horseraces and mutual bettings.  Horse Breeding : To develop the horse breeding of thoroughbred English and Arabic horses, TJK serves to breeders in stud farms and insemination stations by importing stallions representing the most important blood lines in the world.  Horse Health : TJK provides all kinds of protective and medical services to the race horses at horse clinics located in racetracks, studfarms and insemination stations.  Training Activities : Since TJK is the only institution in its field and does not receive any support from the sources except the Horse Breeding and Racing Vocational schools that TJK and Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock; TJK has undertaken the role of providing the educated and well-trained human resources to keep the sector alive.  Human resources needed by the sector in Turkey:

National and International Races in Turkey.

Jockey Club of Turkey, holds 8 international races at Ankara 75th Year Racetrack (Elizabeth II. Race) and at Veliefendi Racetrack (7 International Races).  In 2014, on 6 and 7 September International Race Festival will take place with a prize of 1.343.000 € to be distributed in 6 races.

Facilities.

TJK serves to horse races ajnd breeding with real estates over 20 Millions m2:

Contribution to Employment and Economy.

Horse racing sector creates employment to 40.000 families (160.000 people) both directly and indirectly. Turkey is one of the 10 countries contributing to employment most in horse racing and breeding sector.  With the opportunities Jockey Club of Turkey creates:

Horse Population.

There were approximately 300 thoroughbred race horses in Turkey in the 1950s, however today there are:

Current Situation of Horse Races in Turkey Today.

Ottoman Jockey Club was founded in 1909 with the name of ‘’Jockey Club of Ottoman’’. It’s been stated that Ottoman Jockey Club had the purpose of controlling the horse races at the racetrack under the auspices of the Sultan and breed thorough bred English and Arabian horses. In 1912 Society of Improving Horse Breed started conducting races at Veliefendi. In 1920 an English company started conducting races at Veliefendi. Those races continued until 1922. In 1920, under the auspices of Mustafa Kemal Pasha TBMM organized races in Ankara. Between 1923-1926 various races were held in Istanbul. In 1927 with the attendance of Mustafa Kemal, Gazi Derby to which thoroughbreds could join. The first race with cup was held under the name of ‘’Presidency Race Cup’’ in 1939. In 1953 Jockey Club received the name of Jockey Club of Turkey. Since then, races have been continuing.  Synchronously with the development of Jockey Club of Turkey, modern horse races and horse race sector gains a big leap every year domestically and internationally. While horse races were being held in 3 racecourses in 1926, today 9 racecourses, television channels, printed and electronic publications and latest technology of the field serve to the sector.

References.

1. Akson, Sait, Yariscilik Anilari, Ankara Yari Acik Cezaevi Matbaasi, Ankara, 1971 2. Uyken, Nimet, Turkiye Jokey Kulubu Tarihcesi, TJK Publishing House, Istanbul, 2000 3. Turkish Bequestrian Federation

Jockey Club of Turkey (TJK) was founded on 2 November 1950. The club was recognized as public benefit society by the resolution of Council of Ministers in 1953 and named as Jockey club of Turkey by adding the Turkey afterwards the club’s name. It is the only institution authorized to conduct horse races and organize mutual betting.

Le Turkish jockey club est un organisme sans but lucratif, fondé en 1950, qui gère l'organisation des courses en Turquie.


Description.

The Elder Futhark (named after the initial phoneme of the first six rune names: F, U, Þ, A, R and K) has 24 runes, often arranged in three groups of eight runes; each group is called an "ætt" (pl. "ættir"). In the following table, each rune is given with its common transliteration:  þ corresponds to the Greek letter (theta). ï is also transliterated as æ and may have been either a diphthong or a vowel close to the or. z was Proto-Germanic, and evolved into Proto-Norse and is also transliterated as ʀ. The remaining transliterations correspond to the IPA symbol of their approximate value.  The earliest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates to 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland:  Two instances of another early inscription were found on the two Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates (6th century), showing the division in three ætts, with the positions of ï, p and o, d inverted compared to the Kylver stone: The Grumpan bracteate presents a listing from 500 which is identical to the one found on the previous bracteates but incomplete:

Origins.

Derivation from Italic alphabets.

The Elder Futhark runes are commonly believed to originate in the Old Italic scripts: either a North Italic variant (Etruscan or Raetic alphabets), or the Latin alphabet itself. Derivation from the Greek alphabet via Gothic contact to Byzantine Greek culture was a popular theory in the 19th century, but has been ruled out since the dating of the Vimose inscriptions to the 2nd century (while the Goths had been in contact with Greek culture only from the early 3rd century). Conversely, the Greek-derived 4th century Gothic alphabet does have two letters derived from runes, (from Jer j) and (from Uruz u).  The angular shapes of the runes, presumably an adaptation to the incision in wood or metal, are not a Germanic innovation, but a property that is shared with other early alphabets, including the Old Italic ones (compare, for example, the Duenos inscription). The 1st century BC Negau helmet inscription features a Germanic name, "Harigastiz", in a North Etruscan alphabet, and may be a testimony of the earliest contact of Germanic speakers with alphabetic writing. Similarly, the Meldorf inscription of 50 may qualify as "proto-runic" use of the Latin alphabet by Germanic speakers. The Raetic "alphabet of Bolzano" in particular seems to fit the letter shapes well. The spearhead of Kovel, dated to 200 AD, sometimes advanced as evidence of a peculiar Gothic variant of the runic alphabet, bears an inscription "tilarids" that may in fact be in an Old Italic rather than a runic alphabet, running right to left with a "T" and a "D" closer to the Latin or Etruscan than to the Bolzano or runic alphabets. Perhaps an "eclectic" approach can yield the best results for the explanation of the origin of the runes: most shapes of the letters can be accounted for when deriving them from several distinct North Italic writing systems: the p rune has a parallel in the Camunic alphabet, while it has been argued that d derives from the shape of the letter "san" (= ś) in Lepontic where it seems to represent the sound /d/.  The g, a, f, i, t, m and l runes show no variation, and are generally accepted as identical to the Old Italic or Latin letters "X", "A", "F", "I", "T", "M" and "L", respectively. There is also wide agreement that the u, r, k, h, s, b and o runes respectively correspond directly to "V", "R", "C", "H", "S", "B" and "O".  The runes of uncertain derivation may either be original innovations, or adoptions of otherwise unneeded Latin letters. suggests that all 22 Latin letters of the classical Latin alphabet (1st Century, ignoring marginalized "K") were adopted (þ from "D", z from "Y", ŋ from "Q", w from "P", j from "G", ï from "Z"), with two runes (p and d) left over as original Germanic innovations, but there are conflicting scholarly opinions regarding the e (from "E"?), n (from "N"?), þ ("D"? or Raetic "Θ"?), w ("Q" or "P"?), ï and z (both from either "Z" or Latin "Y"?), ŋ ("Q"?) and d runes.  Of the 24 runes in the classical futhark row attested from 400 (Kylver stone), ï, p and ŋ are unattested in the earliest inscriptions of ca. 175 to 400, while e in this early period mostly takes a Π-shape, its M-shape () gaining prevalence only from the 5th century. Similarly, the s rune may have either three () or four () strokes (and more rarely five or more), and only from the 5th century does the variant with three strokes become prevalent.  Note that the "mature" runes of the 6th to 8th centuries tend to have only three directions of strokes, the vertical and two diagonal directions. Early inscriptions also show horizontal strokes: these appear in the case of e (mentioned above), but also in t, l, ŋ and h.

Date and purpose of invention.

The general agreement dates the creation of the first runic alphabet to roughly the 1st century. Early estimates include the 1st century BC, and late estimates push the date into the 2nd century. The question is one of estimating the "findless" period separating the script's creation from the Vimose finds of ca. 160. If either ï or z indeed derive from Latin "Y" or "Z", as suggested by Odenstedt, the first century BC is ruled out, because these letters were only introduced into the Latin alphabet during the reign of Augustus.  Other scholars are content to assume a findless period of a few decades, pushing the date into the early 2nd century. Pedersen (and with him Odenstedt) suggests a period of development of about a century to account for their assumed derivation of the shapes of þ and j from Latin "D" and "G".  The invention of the script has been ascribed to a single person or a group of people who had come into contact with Roman culture, maybe as mercenaries in the Roman army, or as merchants. The script was clearly designed for epigraphic purposes, but opinions differ in stressing either magical, practical or simply playful (graffiti) aspects. concludes that in its earliest stage, the runic script was an "artificial, playful, not really needed imitation of the Roman script", much like the Germanic bracteates were directly influenced by Roman currency, a view that is accepted by in the light of the very primitive nature of the earliest (2nd to 4th century) inscription corpus.

Rune names.

Each rune most probably had a name, chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself.  The Old English names of all 24 runes of the Elder Futhark, along with five names of runes unique to the Anglo-Saxon runes, are preserved in the Old English rune poem, compiled in the 8th or 9th century. These names are in good agreement with medieval Scandinavian records of the names of the 16 Younger Futhark runes, and to some extent also with those of the letters of the Gothic alphabet (recorded by Alcuin in the 9th century). Therefore, it is assumed that the names go back to the Elder Futhark period, at least to the 5th century. There is no positive evidence that the full row of 24 runes had been completed before the end of the 4th century, but it is likely that at least some runes had their name before that time.  This concerns primarily the runes used magically, especially the Teiwaz and Ansuz runes which are taken to symbolize or invoke deities in sequences such as that on the Lindholm amulet (3rd or 4th century).  Reconstructed names in Common Germanic can easily be given for most runes. Exceptions are the "þ" rune (which is given different names in Anglo-Saxon, Gothic and Scandinavian traditions) and the "z" rune (whose original name is unknown, and preserved only in corrupted form from Old English tradition). The 24 Elder Futhark runes are: The rune names stood for their rune because of the first phoneme in the name (the principle of acrophony), with the exception of "Ingwaz" and "Algiz": the Proto-Germanic "z" sound of the "Algiz" rune, never occurred in a word-initial position. The phoneme acquired an "r"-like quality in Proto-Norse, usually transliterated with ʀ, and finally merged with r in Icelandic, rendering the rune superfluous as a letter. Similarly, the "ng"-sound of the "Ingwaz" rune does not occur word-initially. The names come from the vocabulary of daily life and mythology, some trivial, some beneficent and some inauspicious:

Inscription corpus.

Old Futhark inscriptions were found on artifacts scattered between the Carpathians and Lappland, with the highest concentration in Denmark. They are usually short inscriptions on jewelry (bracteates, fibulae, belt buckles), utensils (combs, spinning whorls) or weapons (lance tips, seaxes) and were mostly found in graves or bogs.

Scandinavian inscriptions.

Words frequently appearing in inscriptions on bracteates with possibly magical significance are alu, laþu and laukaz. While their meaning is unclear, alu has been associated with "ale, intoxicating drink", in a context of ritual drinking, and laukaz with "leek, garlic", in a context of fertility and growth. An example of a longer early inscription is on a 4th-century axe-handle found in Nydam, Jutland: wagagastiz / alu:??hgusikijaz:aiþalataz ("wagagastiz" "wave-guest" could be a personal name, the rest has been read as alu:wihgu sikijaz:aiþalataz with a putative meaning "wave/flame-guest, from a bog, alu, I, oath-sayer consecrate/fight". The obscurity even of emended readings is typical for runic inscriptions that go beyond simple personal names). A term frequently found in early inscriptions is Erilaz, apparently describing a person with knowledge of runes.  The oldest known runic inscription dates to 160 and is found on the Vimose Comb discovered in the bog of Vimose, Funen. The inscription reads harja, either a personal name or an epithet, viz. Proto-Germanic "*harjaz" (PIE "") "warrior", or simply the word for "comb" ("*hārijaz"). Another early inscription is found on the Thorsberg chape (200), probably containing the theonym Ullr.  The typically Scandinavian runestones begin to show the transition to Younger Futhark from the 6th century, with transitional examples like the Björketorp or Stentoften stones. In the early 9th century, both the older and the younger futhark were known and used, which is shown on the Rök Runestone where the runemaster used both.  The longest known inscription in the Elder Futhark, and one of the youngest, consists of some 200 characters and is found on the early 8th century Eggjum stone, and may even contain a stanza of Old Norse poetry.  The Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus reading raïhan "deer" is notable as the oldest inscription of the British Isles, dating to 400, the very end of Roman Britain and just predating the modifications leading to the Anglo-Saxon futhorc.

Continental inscriptions.

The oldest inscriptions (before 500) found on the Continent are divided into two groups, the area of the North Sea coast and Northern Germany (including parts of the Netherlands) associated with the Saxons and Frisians on one hand (part of the "North Germanic "Koine""), and loosely scattered finds from along the Oder to south-eastern Poland, as far as the Carpathian Mountains (e.g. the ring of Pietroassa in Romania), associated with East Germanic tribes. The latter group disappears during the 5th century, the time of contact of the Goths with the Roman Empire and their conversion to Christianity.  In this early period, there is no specifically West Germanic runic tradition. This changes from the early 6th century, and for about one century (520 to 620), an Alamannic "runic province" emerges, with examples on fibulae, weapon parts and belt buckles. As in the East Germanic case, use of runes subsides with Christianization, in the case of the Alamanni in the course of the 7th century.

Distribution.

There are some 350 known Elder Futhark inscriptions with 81 known inscriptions from the South (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) and 267 from Scandinavia. The precise numbers are debatable because of some suspected forgeries, and some disputed inscriptions (identification as "runes" vs. accidental scratches, simple ornaments or Latin letters). 133 Scandinavian inscriptions are on bracteates (compared to 2 from the South), and 65 are on runestones (no Southern example is extant). Southern inscriptions are predominantly on fibulae (43, compared to 15 in Scandinavia). The Scandinavian runestones belong to the later period of the Elder Futhark, and initiate the boom of medieval Younger Futhark stones (with some 6,000 surviving examples).  Elder Futhark inscriptions were rare, with very few active literati, in relation to the total population, at any time, so that knowledge of the runes was probably an actual "secret" throughout the Migration period. Of 366 lances excavated at Illerup, only 2 bore inscriptions. A similar ratio is estimated for Alemannia, with an estimated 170 excavated graves to every inscription found.  Estimates of the total number of inscriptions produced are based on the "minimal runological estimate" of 40,000 (ten individuals making ten inscriptions per year for four centuries). The actual number was probably considerably higher. The 80 known Southern inscriptions are from some 100,000 known graves. With an estimated total of 50,000,000 graves (based on population density estimates), some 80,000 inscriptions would have been produced in total in the Merovingian South alone (and maybe close to 400,000 in total, so that of the order of 0.1% of the corpus has come down to us), and estimates a population of several hundred active literati throughout the period, with as many as 1,600 during the Alamannic "runic boom" of the 6th century.

List of inscriptions.

After,.

Unicode.

The Elder Futhark is encoded in Unicode within the unified Runic range, 16A0–16FF. Among the freely available TrueType fonts that include this range are Junicode and FreeMono. The Kylver Stone row encoded in Unicode reads:  Encoded separately is the "continental" double-barred "h"-rune,. A graphical variant of the "ng"-rune,, is also encoded separately. These two have separate codepoints because they become independent letters in the Anglo-Saxon futhorc. The numerous other graphical variants of Elder Futhark runes are considered glyph variants and not given Unicode codepoints. Similarly, bindrunes are considered ligatures and not given Unicode codepoints. The only bindrune that can arguably be rendered as a single Unicode glyph is the i͡ŋ bindrune or "lantern rune", as, the character intended as the Anglo-Saxon Gēr rune.

The Elder Futhark, Elder Fuþark, Older Futhark, Old Futhark or Germanic Futhark is the oldest form of the runic alphabets. It was a writing system used by Germanic tribes for Northwest Germanic dialects in the Migration Period, the dates of which are debated among scholars. Runic inscriptions are found on artifacts, including jewelry, amulets, plateware, tools, weapons, and, famously, runestones, from the 2nd to the 8th centuries.

Le vieux Futhark (ou vieux Fuþark, ancien Futhark) est la plus ancienne forme d’alphabet runique, utilisée par les peuples germaniques pour écrire le germanique nord-occidental ainsi que des dialectes germaniques de l’époque des Grandes Invasions, du au, à la surface d’artefacts (bijouterie, amulettes, outils, armes) ou de pierres runiques. En Scandinavie, l’écriture fut simplifiée dès la fin du pour aboutir au Futhark récent (ou runes scandinaves), tandis que les Anglo-Saxons et les Frisons le complétèrent pour créer le Futhorc (ou runes anglo-saxonnes), principalement en raison de la transformation du proto-germanique en divers sons, dont le et le.


Plot.

After immigrant Mireya Sanchez is deported, ICE / Homeland Security Investigations Special Agent Max Brogan takes care of her little son and brings him to the boy's grandparents in Mexico. Later the woman is found dead near the border. Brogan returns to the grandparents to tell them the bad news.  Taslima Jahangir, a 15-year-old girl from Bangladesh, presents a paper at school promoting that people should try to understand the 9/11 hijackers. The school principal reports this to authorities. FBI agents raid the home and ransack the girl's room, reading her diaries and a school assignment on the ethics of suicide; they criticize her room as "too austere" and note that she has an account on an Islamic website. The profiler says this makes her look like a would-be suicide bomber. Taslima is not charged for this, but it turns out that she stays in the United States illegally. She was born in Bangladesh and brought to the United States at age three. Taslima's continued presence jeopardizes her chances and puts at risk her two younger siblings, who are US citizens because they were born in the country. Denise Frankel, the immigration defense attorney, suggests that instead of the whole family's being deported, Taslima can leave for Bangladesh with her mother while the rest of the family stays in the U.S.  Cole Frankel, an immigration examiner/officer, gets into a car accident with Claire Shepard, an aspiring actress from Australia. Realizing that she is in the country illegally, Cole makes an arrangement with Claire whereby she will have unlimited sex with him for two months in exchange for a green card. When Cole eventually says he wants to leave his wife for Claire, she makes it clear that she holds him in contempt and is only sleeping with him for the green card. In a moment of clarity, Cole exempts Claire from completing the two months and arranges for her to get her green card in the mail. Special Agents from the ICE / Office of Inspector General eventually confront Claire about the suspiciousness in her immigration paperwork, and she admits to the sexual arrangement she had with Cole and leaves the country "voluntarily". Cole is arrested by ICE/OIG for corruption. His wife Denise Frankel adopts a little girl from Nigeria, who has already been in the detention center for 23 months.  Brogan has a colleague, Hamid Baraheri. His sister, Zahra, is having sex with a married man, Javier Pedroza. The Baraheri family does not approve. Hamid's brother Farid plans to scare the couple, but things get out of hand: he shoots both of them, and goes to Hamid, who helps him hide the evidence. Brogan slowly suspects Hamid's involvement as the film progresses.  Javier Pedroza worked in a copy shop and made extra money by providing counterfeit immigration papers. Claire had previously paid him for false papers before she had made her arrangement with Cole. But when Javier was killed, the authorities discovered her documents among his belongings, leading the immigration team to examine Claire's case more closely.  South Korean teenager Yong Kim is about to be naturalized with the rest of his family, but he has started to hang out with a bad crowd and ultimately participates in a convenience store robbery to "pop his cherry" with his gang. Hamid happens to be at the same convenience store and kills the other robbers but (due to his own guilt over his involvement in his sister's death) lets Yong Kim go free.  Gavin Kossef, Claire's boyfriend and an atheist Jewish musician from the United Kingdom, pretends to be a religious Jew in order to get a job at a Jewish school, which allows him to stay in the U.S. When reporting to an immigration office, the immigration examiner/officer makes him demonstrate his familiarity with the Jewish religion in front of a rabbi visiting for other purposes – Kossef chants poorly but the rabbi gives his approval. After the test, in private, the rabbi requires Kossef to bring his "wonderful" voice to temple and to take lessons from him to eliminate the deficiencies in his knowledge.  Brogan investigates the murder of Zahra Baraheri and her boyfriend. He finds proof of Farid's guilt in the murders and Hamid's guilt in the cover-up. Disgusted by the brothers' actions he turns the evidence over to the Los Angeles Police Department. The LAPD arrests Farid for two counts of murder and Hamid as an accessory to two murders after the fact.

Production.

"Crossing Over" was filmed on location in Los Angeles in 2007.  The film was featured a scene in which an Iranian is murdered by her brother in an honor killing. Following complaints that the plotline was unrealistic and offensive, the killing was presented as an intended beating-up which got out of hand, removing the dialogue referring to "honor" and "family honor".  Additionally, Sean Penn filmed scenes as an immigration cop. However, his scenes were cut due to the controversy over the honor killing plot, though producer Harvey Weinstein later claimed that Penn's agent requested his scenes be cut out of the film.

Release.

Although the film was shot in 2007, it was not released until 2009, and even then only in a limited theatrical run. The film's original running length was 140 minutes, but the film's producer (who had final cut privilege) was convinced to edit the film down to 113 minutes when Harvey Weinstein threatened to release the film straight to DVD and bypass a theatrical release altogether. In many countries outside of the US, the film went straight to DVD anyway.  The film was distributed in the United States by MGM and The Weinstein Company. It was given a limited theatrical release on February 27, 2009, and ultimately grossed less than US$500,000 in North America, and just over US$2.5 million internationally. The film has reportedly made another US$1.7 million in U.S. DVD sales.

Reception.

The film received generally negative reviews. Review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes reports that 16% of 106 critics gave the film a positive review, for an average rating of 4.1/10. The site's consensus reads that: "Crossing Over is flagrant and heavy-handed about a situation that deserves more deliberate treatment, and joins its characters with coincidences that strain believability." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 38 based on reviews from 31 critics indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".

Crossing Over is a 2009 American crime drama film written and directed by Wayne Kramer. It follows illegal immigrants of different nationalities struggling to achieve legal status in Los Angeles: dealing with the border, document fraud and extortion, the asylum and green card process, work-site enforcement, naturalization, the office of counter-terrorism, and the clash of cultures. The film is based on Kramer's similarly titled 1995 short film. He produced the film alongside Frank Marshall.

Droit de passage (titre original : "") est un film américain écrit et réalisé par Wayne Kramer, mettant en vedette Harrison Ford et sorti en 2009.


Text.

The Kannagi story first appears in the Sangam era poem "Narrinai 312". A more extended version appears in the post-Sangam era Tamil epic in "Silappatikaram" ("Epic of the Anklet).

Legend.

Kannagi was the daughter of the merchant and ship captain "Manayakan" from Puhar"." She marries the son of "Macattuvan", Kovalan, whose family were sea traders and had the sea goddess "Manimekalai" as patron deity. Later, Kovalan met a dancer Madhavi and had an affair with her, which prompted him to spend all his wealth on the dancer. At last, penniless, Kovalan realised his mistake and returned to his wife Kannagi. Kovalan hoped to recoup his fortunes by trade in Madurai, by selling the precious anklet of Kannagi.  Madurai was ruled by Pandya king Nedunj Cheliyan I. When Kovalan tried to sell the anklet, it was mistaken for a stolen anklet of the queen. Kovalan was accused of having stolen the anklet and was immediately beheaded by the king without trial. When Kannagi was informed of this, she became furious, and set out to prove her husband's innocence to the king.  Kannagi came to the king's court, broke open the anklet seized from Kovalan and showed that it contained rubies, as opposed to the queen's anklets which contained pearls. Realizing the fault, the king committed suicide in shame, after having delivered such a huge miscarriage of justice. Kannagi uttered a curse that the entire city of Madurai be burnt. The capital city of Pandyas was set ablaze resulting in huge losses. However, at the request of Goddess Meenakshi, she calmed down and later, attained salvation. The story forms the crux of Silapathikaram written by poet Ilango Adigal.

Worship.

Kannagi or Kannaki Amman is eulogized as the epitome of chastity and is worshiped as a goddess in select regions. She is worshiped as goddess Pattini in Sri Lanka by the Sinhalese Buddhists, Kannaki Amman by the Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus and as Kodungallur Bhagavathy & Aatukal Devi in the South Indian state of Kerala. Keralites believe Kannaki to be an incarnation of Goddess Bhadrakali who reached Kodungalloor and attained salvation in the Kodungalloor temple.

In popular culture.

A Tamil epic film "Kannagi" directed by R.S Mani released in 1942. This was the first Tamil film based on the epic Silapadhigaaram. A similar second movie named "Poompuhar" released later in 1964. A statue of Kannagi holding her anklet, depicting a scene from "Silapathikaram" was installed on Marina Beach, Chennai. It was removed in December 2001 citing reasons that it hindered traffic. The statue was reinstalled in June 2006.  A Sinhala film called Paththini was released on 5 May 2016 in Sri Lanka. The role of the goddess Paththni or Kannagi was played by Pooja Umashankar.  A famous television serial named "Upasana" was broadcast on Doordarshan in the early 1990s and was based on the twin novels Silappatikaram & Manimekalai.

Kannagi, sometimes spelled Kannaki, is a legendary Tamil woman who forms the central character of the Tamil epic "Silapathikaram". Kannagi is described as the chaste woman who stays with her husband despite his unfaithfulness, their attempt to rebuild their marriage after her husband had lost everything but repented, how her husband is falsely framed then punished without the due checks and processes of justice. Kannagi proves and protests the injustice, then curses the king and city of Madurai leading to the death of the unjust Pandyan King of Madurai, who had wrongfully put her husband Kovalan to death. The society that had made her suffer, suffers in retribution as the city Madurai is burnt to the ground because of her curse. In the Chera (Kerala) and Tamil tradition, Kannagi has been deified as the symbol – sometimes as goddess – of chastity, with sculptures or reliefs in Hindu temples iconographically reminding the visitor of her breaking her anklet or tearing her bleeding breast and throwing it at the city. The earliest Tamil epic "Silapathikaram" features her as the central character.

Kannagi ou Kaṇṇaki () est une femme légendaire tamoule, héroïne de l'épopée d'Inde du Sud appelée "Silapathikaram". Selon la légende, Kannagi se vengea du roi de Madurai, à la suite de l'exécution sommaire de son mari Kovalan, en jetant une malédiction sur la cité. Son mari avait de fait été décapité, car les gardes du roi avaient cru à tort que le bracelet d'or qu'il voulait vendre était celui qui venait d'être volé à la reine.


History.

Storm Lake was incorporated in 1873. The city of Storm Lake is named from the lake where it is said a trapper experienced a severe storm.

Geography.

Storm Lake is located in the northwestern part of the state, near its namesake Storm Lake.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 10,600 people, 3,536 households, and 2,280 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 3,791 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 68.4% White, 4.4% African American, 0.4% Native American, 9.8% Asian, 0.9% Pacific Islander, 13.6% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 36.1% of the population.  There were 3,536 households of which 36.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.5% were non-families. 30.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.44.  The median age in the city was 30.8 years. 25.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 16.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.5% were from 25 to 44; 21.7% were from 45 to 64; and 12.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.1% male and 49.9% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 10,076 people, 3,466 households, and 2,207 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,521.2 people per square mile (972.6/km2). There were 3,706 housing units at an average density of 927.3 per square mile (357.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 79.68% White, 0.53% African American, 0.17% Native American, 7.82% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 9.55% from other races, and 2.23% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 21.05% of the population.  There were 3,466 households out of which 32.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.6% were married couples living together, 8.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.3% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.20.  Age spread 24.1% under the age of 18, 18.0% from 18 to 24, 24.9% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.6 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $35,270, and the median income for a family was $42,236. Males had a median income of $27,321, and females of $20,869. The per capita income for the city was $15,150. About 8.0% of families and 11.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.1% of those under age 18 and 7.9% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

Storm Lake‘s public school district has a high school, a middle school (grades 5-8), an elementary school (grades PK-4), and an early childhood center. The new elementary school opened in 2009 and replaced four separate elementary buildings. As of the 2008–2009 school year the Storm Lake Community School District served 2028 students.  St. Mary's Catholic Church operates its own private K-12 school system,  Storm Lake is also home to Buena Vista University  The school district has an increasingly diverse community. Since 1994–95, enrollment increased, its racial makeup changed from 82% white to 31% white, and ELL students increased from 319 to 1110. Approximately 67% of students receive free or reduced lunch and 12% receive special education services. Over 50% of students are hispanic, and over 10% are Asian. Most students come from California or rural areas of Mexico because of new job opportunities. Because 40% of the district's students are from migrant families, the schools struggle to meet No Child Left Behind Act’s requirements. However, the school district is known throughout the state for its excellence in fine arts. In 2003, the Iowa Music Educators Association (IMEA) awarded Storm Lake the Exemplary Music Program of the year. In 2006, Buena Vista University produced a documentary about the Storm Lake music program and its accomplishments called "Notes: A Noteworthy Story of Music." Storm Lake schools also excel in art, speech, and the National History Day competition.

Emergency services.

The Storm Lake Police Department (SLPD) provides law enforcement services to the city of Storm Lake, Iowa. The department currently consists of 19 sworn officers, 2 community services officer, and 2 park rangers. The department responded to 51,148 calls of service in 2009. The current Chief is Mark Prosser.  The department is headquartered at 401 E. Milwaukee Ave., Storm Lake, IA 50588.  The SLPD patrol division has 13 officers. Each patrol is supervised by a lieutenant. These officers patrol in a patrol vehicle, on bike, or on foot. There is currently one K9 officer who assists the department as well as partner agencies with narcotics detection, suspect apprehension, evidence and subject searches, building searches, and crowd control.  The department also has an investigative division, administrative division, narcotics unit, and a SWAT team.  The police department also has a park ranger program. These rangers patrol the parks around the lake in the city. They serve as the eyes and ears of the department in these areas and report any crimes. They also provide backup to police officers in the area.  The department was also honored by the VERA Institute for best practices in a multilingual community.

Health care.

Storm Lake is served by Buena Vista Regional Medical Center, a 54-bed critical access hospital. The city also hosts Buena Vista County Public Health Department.

Storm Lake is a city in Buena Vista County, Iowa, United States. The population was 10,600 in the 2010 census, an increase from 10,076 in the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Buena Vista County. Storm Lake is home to Buena Vista University, originally Buena Vista College. Tyson Foods operates a large hog slaughterhouse, meat packing plant, and turkey processing plant.

La ville de Storm Lake est le siège du comté de Buena Vista, dans l’État de l’Iowa, aux États-Unis. Elle comptait habitants lors du recensement de 2000.