History.

Early work.

Vector processing development began in the early 1960s at Westinghouse in their "Solomon" project. Solomon's goal was to dramatically increase math performance by using a large number of simple math co-processors under the control of a single master CPU. The CPU fed a single common instruction to all of the arithmetic logic units (ALUs), one per cycle, but with a different data point for each one to work on. This allowed the Solomon machine to apply a single algorithm to a large data set, fed in the form of an array.  In 1962, Westinghouse cancelled the project, but the effort was restarted at the University of Illinois as the ILLIAC IV. Their version of the design originally called for a 1 GFLOPS machine with 256 ALUs, but, when it was finally delivered in 1972, it had only 64 ALUs and could reach only 100 to 150 MFLOPS. Nevertheless, it showed that the basic concept was sound, and, when used on data-intensive applications, such as computational fluid dynamics, the ILLIAC was the fastest machine in the world. The ILLIAC approach of using separate ALUs for each data element is not common to later designs, and is often referred to under a separate category, massively parallel computing.  A computer for operations with functions was presented and developed by Kartsev in 1967.

Supercomputers.

The first successful implementation of vector processing occurred in 1966, when both the Control Data Corporation STAR-100 and the Texas Instruments Advanced Scientific Computer (ASC) were introduced.  The basic ASC (i.e., "one pipe") ALU used a pipeline architecture that supported both scalar and vector computations, with peak performance reaching approximately 20 MFLOPS, readily achieved when processing long vectors. Expanded ALU configurations supported "two pipes" or "four pipes" with a corresponding 2X or 4X performance gain. Memory bandwidth was sufficient to support these expanded modes.  The STAR was otherwise slower than CDC's own supercomputers like the CDC 7600, but at data related tasks they could keep up while being much smaller and less expensive. However the machine also took considerable time decoding the vector instructions and getting ready to run the process, so it required very specific data sets to work on before it actually sped anything up.  The vector technique was first fully exploited in 1976 by the famous Cray-1. Instead of leaving the data in memory like the STAR and ASC, the Cray design had eight vector registers, which held sixty-four 64-bit words each. The vector instructions were applied between registers, which is much faster than talking to main memory. Whereas the STAR would apply a single operation across a long vector in memory and then move on to the next operation, the Cray design would load a smaller section of the vector into registers and then apply as many operations as it could to that data, thereby avoiding many of the much slower memory access operations.  The Cray design used pipeline parallelism to implement vector instructions rather than multiple ALUs. In addition, the design had completely separate pipelines for different instructions, for example, addition/subtraction was implemented in different hardware than multiplication. This allowed a batch of vector instructions to be pipelined into each of the ALU subunits, a technique they called "vector chaining". The Cray-1 normally had a performance of about 80 MFLOPS, but with up to three chains running it could peak at 240 MFLOPS and averaged around 150 – far faster than any machine of the era.  Other examples followed. Control Data Corporation tried to re-enter the high-end market again with its ETA-10 machine, but it sold poorly and they took that as an opportunity to leave the supercomputing field entirely. In the early and mid-1980s Japanese companies (Fujitsu, Hitachi and Nippon Electric Corporation (NEC) introduced register-based vector machines similar to the Cray-1, typically being slightly faster and much smaller. Oregon-based Floating Point Systems (FPS) built add-on array processors for minicomputers, later building their own minisupercomputers.  Throughout, Cray continued to be the performance leader, continually beating the competition with a series of machines that led to the Cray-2, Cray X-MP and Cray Y-MP. Since then, the supercomputer market has focused much more on massively parallel processing rather than better implementations of vector processors. However, recognising the benefits of vector processing IBM developed Virtual Vector Architecture for use in supercomputers coupling several scalar processors to act as a vector processor.  Although vector supercomputers resembling the Cray-1 are less popular these days, NEC has continued to make this type of computer up to the present day, with their SX series of computers. Most recently, the SX-Aurora TSUBASA places the processor and either 24 or 48 gigabytes of memory on an HBM 2 module within a card that physically resembles a graphics coprocessor, but instead of serving as a co-processor, it is the main computer with the PC-compatible computer into which it is plugged serving support functions.

GPGPU.

Modern graphics processing units (GPUs) include an array of shader pipelines which may be driven by compute kernels, which can be considered vector processors (using a similar strategy for hiding memory latencies).

Description.

In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate one or two pieces of data at a time. For instance, most CPUs have an instruction that essentially says "add A to B and put the result in C". The data for A, B and C could be—in theory at least—encoded directly into the instruction. However, in efficient implementation things are rarely that simple. The data is rarely sent in raw form, and is instead "pointed to" by passing in an address to a memory location that holds the data. Decoding this address and getting the data out of the memory takes some time, during which the CPU traditionally would sit idle waiting for the requested data to show up. As CPU speeds have increased, this "memory latency" has historically become a large impediment to performance; see Memory wall.  In order to reduce the amount of time consumed by these steps, most modern CPUs use a technique known as instruction pipelining in which the instructions pass through several sub-units in turn. The first sub-unit reads the address and decodes it, the next "fetches" the values at those addresses, and the next does the math itself. With pipelining the "trick" is to start decoding the next instruction even before the first has left the CPU, in the fashion of an assembly line, so the address decoder is constantly in use. Any particular instruction takes the same amount of time to complete, a time known as the "latency", but the CPU can process an entire batch of operations much faster and more efficiently than if it did so one at a time.  Vector processors take this concept one step further. Instead of pipelining just the instructions, they also pipeline the data itself. The processor is fed instructions that say not just to add A to B, but to add all of the numbers "from here to here" to all of the numbers "from there to there". Instead of constantly having to decode instructions and then fetch the data needed to complete them, the processor reads a single instruction from memory, and it is simply implied in the definition of the instruction "itself" that the instruction will operate again on another item of data, at an address one increment larger than the last. This allows for significant savings in decoding time.  To illustrate what a difference this can make, consider the simple task of adding two groups of 10 numbers together. In a normal programming language one would write a "loop" that picked up each of the pairs of numbers in turn, and then added them. To the CPU, this would look something like this:  But to a vector processor, this task looks considerably different:  There are several savings inherent in this approach. For one, only two address translations are needed. Depending on the architecture, this can represent a significant savings by itself. Another saving is fetching and decoding the instruction itself, which has to be done only one time instead of ten. The code itself is also smaller, which can lead to more efficient memory use.  But more than that, a vector processor may have multiple functional units adding those numbers in parallel. The checking of dependencies between those numbers is not required as a vector instruction specifies multiple independent operations. This simplifies the control logic required, and can improve performance by avoiding stalls.  As mentioned earlier, the Cray implementations took this a step further, allowing several different types of operations to be carried out at the same time. Consider code that adds two numbers and then multiplies by a third; in the Cray, these would all be fetched at once, and both added and multiplied in a single operation. Using the pseudocode above, the Cray did:  The math operations thus completed far faster overall, the limiting factor being the time required to fetch the data from memory.  Not all problems can be attacked with this sort of solution. Including these types of instructions necessarily adds complexity to the core CPU. That complexity typically makes "other" instructions run slower—i.e., whenever it is not adding up many numbers in a row. The more complex instructions also add to the complexity of the decoders, which might slow down the decoding of the more common instructions such as normal adding.  In fact, vector processors work best only when there are large amounts of data to be worked on. For this reason, these sorts of CPUs were found primarily in supercomputers, as the supercomputers themselves were, in general, found in places such as weather prediction centers and physics labs, where huge amounts of data are "crunched".

Performance and speed up.

Let r be the vector speed ratio and f be the vectorization ratio. If the time taken for the vector unit to add an array of 64 numbers is 10 times faster than its equivalent scalar counterpart, r = 10. Also, if the total number of operations in a program is 100, out of which only 10 are scalar (after vectorization), then f = 0.9, i.e., 90% of the work is done by the vector unit. It follows the achievable speed up of:  formula_1  So, even if the performance of the vector unit is very high (formula_2) we get a speedup less than formula_3, which suggests that the ratio f is crucial to the performance. This ratio depends on the efficiency of the compilation like adjacency of the elements in memory.

Programming heterogeneous computing architectures.

Various machines were designed to include both traditional processors and vector processors, such as the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP3000. Programming such heterogeneous machines can be difficult since developing programs that make best use of characteristics of different processors increases the programmer's burden. It increases code complexity and decreases portability of the code by requiring hardware specific code to be interleaved throughout application code. Balancing the application workload across processors can be problematic, especially given that they typically have different performance characteristics. There are different conceptual models to deal with the problem, for example using a coordination language and program building blocks (programming libraries or higher order functions). Each block can have a different native implementation for each processor type. Users simply program using these abstractions and an intelligent compiler chooses the best implementation based on the context.

In computing, a vector processor or array processor is a central processing unit (CPU) that implements an instruction set containing instructions that operate on one-dimensional arrays of data called "vectors", compared to the scalar processors, whose instructions operate on single data items. Vector processors can greatly improve performance on certain workloads, notably numerical simulation and similar tasks. Vector machines appeared in the early 1970s and dominated supercomputer design through the 1970s into the 1990s, notably the various Cray platforms. The rapid fall in the price-to-performance ratio of conventional microprocessor designs led to the vector supercomputer's demise in the later 1990s.

Un processeur vectoriel est un processeur possédant diverses fonctionnalités architecturales lui permettant d'améliorer l’exécution de programmes utilisant massivement des tableaux, des matrices, et qui permet de profiter du parallélisme inhérent à l'usage de ces derniers.


Makeup of French Colonial Forces.

The "Armée coloniale" should not be confused with the famous North African regiments of the French Army such as the Foreign Legion, the Battalions of Light Infantry of Africa, Zouaves, Spahis, Algerian and Moroccan Tirailleurs (sharpshooters) and Goumiers, all of which were part of the Army of Africa. The North African units date from 1830 and were brought together as the XIX Army Corps in 1873, forming part of the French Metropolitan Army.  Instead the "Troupes Coloniales" can be divided into:  All colonial troops ("la Coloniale" or the Colonial) came under a single General Staff. The "troupes coloniales" were predominantly infantry but included artillery units as well as the usual support services. At various dates they also included locally recruited cavalry units in Indo-China as well as camel troops in sub-Saharan Africa.

Name changes.

The precise meaning of the terms "colonial troops", "colonial army", marine troops or "troops of the French colonies" has changed several times since the 18th century:

List of regiments in New France 1755–59.

Colony troops:  Regular regiments of the Royal Army assigned to colonial service:

Uniforms.

The European Colonial Infantry regiments were, until 1914, uniformed in a similar style to their metropolitan counterparts (though with yellow fringed epaulettes and medium blue trousers instead of the red epaulettes and red trousers of the line infantry). On colonial service white, dark blue or light khaki uniforms were worn with topees, according to circumstances. Between 1895 and 1905 a light blue/grey "bleu mecanicien" uniform was worn for field dress in Africa and Indo China (see photograph above). During and after World War I khaki became the norm for all colonial troops in contrast to the horizon blue of the metropolitan conscripts. The blue dress uniform was however restored for French personnel who enlisted as volunteers in either the Colonial Infantry or Colonial Artillery, from 1928 to 1939.  Tirailleur regiments in Africa wore red fezes and sashes with dark blue, or khaki uniforms until 1914. The Indo-Chinese units wore a salacco headdress and blue, white or khaki drill clothing based on local patterns. After World War I khaki became the normal dress for indigenous troops, although sashes and fezzes continued to be worn for parade until the 1950s.  The modern Troupes de Marine are distinguished in full dress by dark blue kepis with red piping and bronze anchor badges, red sashes and yellow fringed epaulettes. These traditional items are worn with the standard light beige or camouflage dress of the modern French Army on ceremonial occasions.

From Marines to Colonials and back again.

From 1822 to 1900 these troops, both French and indigenous, had been designated as "Troupes de Marine", though they were not directly linked to the French Navy. Both services were however administered by the "Ministre de la Marine" and shared an anchor badge. This insignia continued to be worn after the "Troupes de la Marine" became the "Troupes Coloniales" in 1900 and photographs of mehariste (camel corps) troopers taken in the 1950s show anchor badges even in the Mauritanian desert far from the sea. In 1961 the title of "Troupes de Marine" was readopted after a brief period (1958–61) as "Troupes d'Outre-Mer" (Overseas Forces).

Post colonial period.

As the remaining French African territories became independent in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the tirailleurs were discharged, usually to join their new national armies. In 1964, the 7th Regiment of Tirailleurs, formed in 1913 as the 7e Régiment de tirailleurs Algériens was redesigned the 170e Régiment d'Infanterie. The various "Tirailleurs Indochinois" regiments were dispersed by the Japanese coup of 10 March 1945 and were not reformed.  On 1 May 1994, in the presence of veterans of the armée d'Afrique, légionnaires, spahis, zouaves and artilleurs, the 170e Régiment d'Infanterie was redesignated as the 1er Régiment de Tirailleurs. It wears the insignia and bears the honors and traditions of the old 1er régiment de tirailleurs Algériens, which was disbanded in 1964.

Status of Colonial Forces.

Throughout their changing titles and roles the French "Troupes de Marine" or "Troupes coloniales" retained a reputation for toughness and professionalism. Whether French or indigenous they were, for the most part, long service regulars and as such comprised a genuine elite.

Modern.

The Marine Infantry, Marine Parachute, Artillery and Engineer units remain as a distinct branch within the modern French Army.

The Troupes coloniales ("Colonial Troops") or Armée coloniale ("Colonial Army"), commonly called La Coloniale, were the military forces of the French colonial empire from 1900 until 1961. From 1822 to 1900 these troops were designated "Troupes de marine" ("Marine Troops" or just "Marines"), and in 1961 they readopted this name. They were recruited from mainland France or from the French settler and indigenous populations of the empire. This force played a substantial role in the conquest of the empire, in World War I, World War II, the First Indochina War and the Algerian War.

Les troupes coloniales, dites « la Coloniale », étaient un ensemble d'unités militaires françaises stationnées dans les colonies et mises sur pied, à l'origine, pour assurer la défense des ports et des possessions outre-mer autres que l'Afrique du Nord (où les unités relèvent de l'Armée d'Afrique), même si ces troupes sont employées massivement en France métropolitaine et au Maghreb au cours du.


Early life.

Galbraith was born on 19 December 1991, in Hoo St Werburgh Kent, England to Siobhán and Alec Galbraith. His father is English and his mother is Irish. He has a younger sister Bernadette.  When Galbraith was a young boy, his grandfather, who played several musical instruments in a band, took Galbraith to fleadhs (concerts). The mix of Scottish and Irish musical traditions.

Musical career.

Galbraith insisted on performing spontaneously at the annual Rochester Dickens Festival, a two-day extravaganza with his sister Ayannah where people were invited to dress up in Victorian costumes to celebrate the life and times of the famous author Charles Dickens and his links with their town. Galbraith, dressed up as a chimney sweep, started singing. Soon after this, he started to enter local talent contests and within a year he had won 15 titles and more than £1,000.  As a result of his success in the talent shows, the major recording companies soon heard about Galbraith and he was signed to his first recording contract in England. His first recording was "Walking in the Air", which was released on a special Christmas Hits album, also featuring songs by Westlife, Elton John and Elvis Presley. Among some of his most memorable performances have been the Queen's Jubilee at St Paul's Cathedral, when he sang "Amazing Grace" accompanied by the St. Paul's Choir and a performance in front of more than 22,000 people at an Elton John concert. His first self-titled album, "Declan", with Irish traditional songs as well as specially written material became a big success and charted in the UK and Ireland. Within the year of release, it had soon sold 200,000 copies in Germany.  Another big success came during a nationwide tour of Young Voices concerts when breaking the Guinness World Record. It was at the Odyssey Arena, Belfast in December 2002 when he sang live with some 10,000 children and was also simultaneously linked, by radio and satellite, with more than 80,000 children in their schools all over the UK, who accompanied him in achieving the world's largest choral sing. His talent and reputation came to the attention of media mogul Haim Saban who signed Galbraith to his music group's new record label, Starwatch, and selected Germany as the first site to launch their first album. Galbraith parted company with Starwatch in February 2010 and is reportedly battling major contractual issues that prevent any releases for the time being.  For some considerable time, Declan has been working on redeveloping his music career again. In 2014, he announced he was planning a comeback. He has started to present his new, self-composed songs in small clubs. Currently, he is working in the studio.

Fame.

Galbraith has garnered fame outside the British Isles, especially in China, where his songs were chosen as part of the Chinese education curriculum for learning English. His songs are used to help Chinese children learn English as his songs are easy to remember and suitable for children. In May 2008, Galbraith undertook a successful two cities tour in China, of Beijing and Shenzhen.

Declan John Galbraith (born 19 December 1991) is an English singer. He is best known for his 2002 hit single, "Tell Me Why", which peaked at #29 in the UK Singles Chart.

Declan Galbraith (né le à Hoo St Werburgh, Kent) est un chanteur anglais d'origine écossaise et irlandaise. Lui et sa famille habitent à Hoo, un village près de Rochester, Kent. Son grand-père "Poppy Ben", faisant anciennement partie d'un orchestre, jouait de plusieurs instruments. Il emmenait Declan aux Fleadhs (festivals irlandais) il y participait et l'explosif mixage d'Ecossais et de musiques traditionnelles Irlandaises influencèrent Declan qui s'en inspire beaucoup maintenant. Declan est connu pour le contrôle et la précision de sa voix, ce qui l'aide pour interpréter des chansons de divers genres.


Biography.

Early life.

Born and raised on the East Coast of the United States, he was the only son of textile industry mogul and philanthropist Israel Rogosin. Lionel Rogosin attended Yale University and obtained a degree in chemical engineering in order to join his father's business. He served in the United States Navy during World War Two. Upon his return, he spent his free time traveling in war-ridden Eastern and Western Europe and Israel, as well as a trip to Africa in 1948. He then worked in his father's company until 1954, while teaching himself film with a 16mm Bolex camera. Concerned with political issues including racism and fascism, Rogosin participated in a United Nations film called "Out", a documentary about the plight of Hungarian refugees.

Career change.

At this juncture, Rogosin devoted himself to promoting peace and confronting issues such as nuclear war, imperialism, and racism. Apartheid was his first target, but in order to make a film against it, he decided to learn by filming the Bowery, New York's skid row, an effort influenced by the documentaries of Robert J. Flaherty. Thus he made "On the Bowery" in 1955-1956 in the tradition of neo-realism. The film was the first American film to receive the Grand Prize for Documentary at the Venice Film Festival in 1956. It also received a British Academy Film Award in 1956, and was nominated for an Academy Award.  "On the Bowery" received critical acclaim and made a great impression in Eastern Europe and England. The newly formed Free Cinema in London, founded by Lindsay Anderson, Lorenza Mazzetti, Karel Reisz, and Tony Richardson, invited Rogosin for its second program.  Turning to the struggle against Apartheid, Rogosin, with a small crew and under the pretense of making a commercial film on African music, clandestinely documented the life of a black South African migrant worker in Johannesburg. Completed in 1958 with nonprofessional actors and a young African singer named Miriam Makeba, "Come Back, Africa" won the Critics' Film Award at the Venice Film Festival. Rogosin arranged for Makeba to leave South Africa by bribing officials. He placed her under contract and arranged her first appearance on American television, on "The Steve Allen Show". Rogosin supported Makeba financially, paying for her trip and living expenses when she left South Africa and traveled throughout Europe and the United States.

Film exhibition and distribution.

Aware of the difficulties of distributing independent films in the United States, Rogosin purchased the Bleecker Street Cinema in New York City in 1960. The Bleecker became one of the most important independent art houses in New York, [along with the New Yorker and the Thalia] and a form of cinema university for emerging filmmakers such as Miloš Forman and Francis Ford Coppola, as well as many critics and cineastes. In the same period he was a founding and active member of the New American Cinema movement and The Film-Makers' Cooperative, along with Jonas and Adolfas Mekas, Shirley Clarke, Robert Downey Sr. and many others, whose films were shown at the Bleecker Street Cinema.  Between 1960 and 1965, Rogosin traveled the world to gather material for his antinuclear war film "Good Times, Wonderful Times", which was presented as the British entry at the Venice Film Festival in 1965. It was also shown at many American universities during the Vietnam War. Rogosin founded Impact Films in 1965 to distribute many political and independent films. That same year, Rogosin organized, along with others including Bertrand Russell, the British Artists' Protest, in August 1965, and the European Artists' Protest, in December 1965, against the Vietnam War.  In 1966 he tried his hand at comedy by filming two short, low-budget films called "How Do You Like Them Bananas" and "Oysters Are in Season" while running the Bleecker Street Cinema and Impact Films.

Final films.

In the 1970s, with rising financial difficulties, Rogosin made low-budget films supported by European television stations. Two of them, "Black Roots" and "Black Fantasy", dealt with economic and social hardships faced by African-Americans. He went on to make "Woodcutters of the Deep South", about a black and white cooperative, and finally "Arab-Israeli Dialogue", an attempt to give a voice and meeting ground to both parties through a discussion between a Palestinian poet and an Israeli journalist.  Rogosin sold the Bleecker Street Theater in 1974 and brought Impact Films to an end in 1978. Though he continued to develop many film projects on subjects such as Navajo Indians, police brutality, Paul Gauguin, and a musical about street children in Brazil, he was never able to raise enough money to film them. Despite critical success in Europe and among other American independent filmmakers, he was by and large neither recognized nor supported in the US. He moved to England in the 1980s where he turned to writing. His health deteriorating, he went back to Los Angeles in the late 1990s.  He died in Los Angeles in December 2000. He is interred in the Hollywood Forever Cemetery, Hollywood, California.

Lionel Rogosin (January 22, 1924, New York City, New York – December 8, 2000, Los Angeles, California) was an independent American filmmaker.

Lionel Rogosin (né à New York le et mort à Los Angeles le ) est un cinéaste américain indépendant connu pour avoir travaillé hors du système hollywoodien dans les années 1950.


History.

Bichena was important in the 18th century as the capital of the province of Gojjam; C.T. Beke, who visited the town in November 1841, reports that the town "which is pleasantly situated on a low eminence" was surrounded by "strong stone walls" and most of the houses were of stone too; however Paul B. Henze notes the nearby church of Weyname Kidane Mihret, which he found in the 1970s in a ruinous state, but the interior "was covered with extraordinary eighteenth-century paintings", although roughly a third were damaged beyond repair. Henze continues,  According to the locals, the church had lost the lands it depended on during the governorship of Ras Hailu Tekle Haymanot, and afterwards suffered from neglect. This may be the same church that L.A. Fuertes mentions seeing in 1936.  Bichena was the scene of a massacre by the Derg in August 1975, when a delegation visited to explain the meaning of land reform. One of the meetings became unruly and nervous soldiers opened fire into the crowd; "later artillery and planes were summoned to quell what the government feared would be a major disturbance. Reports of the death toll vary from one hundred to one thousand."  On 12 October 2003, following a large public meeting of the All Ethiopian Unity Party, government militia accosted party leaders Kassa Zewdu and Sinishaw Tegegn, beat them, and confined them in Bichena jail.

Demographics.

Based on figures from the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, Bichena has an estimated total population of 21,824, of whom 10,824 are men and 10,833 are women. The 1994 census reported this town had a total population of 12,484 of whom 5,695 were men and 6,789 were women.

Bichena is a town in west-central Ethiopia. Located in the Misraq Gojjam Zone of the Amhara Region on the hillside overlooking the Abay River, it has a latitude and longitude of and an elevation of 2541 meters above sea level. It is the administrative center of Enemay woreda.

Bichena est une ville de l'ouest de l'Éthiopie, située dans la woreda d'Enemay, subdivision de la zone Misraq Gojam de la région Amhara.


History.

Philip Briggs speculates that this town may be identified with the mysterious Ku'bar, said by al-Ya'qubi and al-Masudi to have succeeded Axum as the capital of Ethiopia.  Soqota is the historic seat of the Wagshum, the former ruler of Lasta, who claimed to trace an unbroken succession back to the last king of the Zagwe dynasty. However, verification for this tradition is slight. This town is not mentioned in the surviving records until 1746, when the soldiers of Emperor Iyasu II burned it down. The traveler Augustus B. Wylde wrote in the 1890s that the palace of the Wagshums in this town had been built around 1650. It was a three-storey structure which could not be dated with any precision, but he believed the masons and craftsmen were some of those who had worked at Gondar.  Nathaniel Pearce, who was living in Tigray at the time, notes that Soqota was where "Ras" Haile Wand Bewossen had his palace in 1813, and performed his annual review of his troops on 17 Masqaram, as was the custom. Charles Beke, who passed through Soqota in April 1843, described it as "a place of considerable size but is so very straggling that it is not easy to form a definite idea on the subject. It has a large market, held on Tuesday and Wednesday weekly, which is frequented by the merchants of the south and west, this place is the grand center of the salt-trade, the Tigre merchants coming thus far only, and then returning." In Wylde's time, the market at Soqota was still held each week on Tuesdays and Wednesdays.  During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, Soqota was occupied by the Italians 28 March 1936. During their occupation, the Italians built a road to Soqota passable by motorcars, and repaired the town's mosque. Beatrice Playne visited the town in late autumn of 1948, and found it "quite the most attractive Ethiopian town I have seen". She describes its "two-storied, stone houses, each with a little private garden, lying snugly amongst the surrounding wall of hills, like a Cotswold village", and its government offices were in "a low, Italian building in a square of grass."  Soqota was briefly held by the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) during the Ethiopian Civil War around 1980. In 1988 Soqota was the base of the Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement, founded by a group of former EPRP fighters, which operated in northern Wolo jointly with the TPLF.

Demographics.

Based on the 2007 national census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this town has a total population of 22,346, of whom 10,760 are men and 11,586 women. The majority of the inhabitants practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 95.98% reporting that as their religion, while 3.8% were Muslim. The 1994 census reported this town had a total population of 7,922 of whom 3,476 were males and 4,446 were females.

Soqota (Amharic: ሰቆጣ), formerly spelled Sokota and also known as Sakota, Sekota, &c., is a town and separate woreda in northern Ethiopia. The name is likely from the Agaw word "sekut", "fortified village." Located in the Wag Hemra Zone of the Amhara Region, Soqota has a latitude and longitude of and an elevation of 2266 meters above sea level. It is surrounded by woreda of Soqota.

Sekota (ou Sokota, Soqota) est une ville du nord de l'Éthiopie située dans la zone Wag Hemra de la région Amhara, dans le woreda du même nom, proche de la frontière avec le Tigray, à au nord de la ville historique de Lalibela et au sud de Mekele, la capitale du Tigray.


Plot.

Bill (John Phillip Law), a boy whose father was killed and mother and sister were raped and murdered in front of him by a gang, sets out 15 years later to exact revenge, having used the time to become an expert marksman with a gun. Each of the outlaws bears a characteristic that Bill memorized while watching his family slaughtered and his house set on fire: the first has a tattoo of four aces on his chest, the second a scar, the third one a distinctive earring and the fourth (who was the one who saved young Bill from the burning house) wears a necklace bearing a skull; while he saw the face of the fifth, he never saw the face of the man who saved him from the fire.  As he begins his journey, a gunfighter named Ryan (Lee Van Cleef) is released from a prison after serving 15 years there. He was framed for an armed robbery by the very same men who murdered Bill's family. When they meet along the way, Ryan gets the better of Bill, who is blinded by vengeance, but he does Bill no harm. In the next town, Ryan asks for a man named Cavanaugh (Anthony Dawson), whom Bill recognized later as the man with four aces tattoo. Bill manages to kill Cavanaugh in a duel, but the more experienced Ryan insists on tracking the other outlaws alone. They cross paths again in Lyndon City, where Ryan meets rich banker named Walcott (Luigi Pistilli) and demands his share of the robbery 15 years ago. Walcott stages a robbery on his bank and frames Ryan. When the tables are turned later, Bill reciprocates, helping Ryan escape from a jail. An equally determined Bill sets out ahead of him.  Bill reaches a Mexican town, where he recognizes the man with the big earring and guns him down. He is captured by the outlaws, beaten and buried alive from the neck down (He had also recognized the man with the scar and Walcott). Left to die in the hot sun, he is rescued by Ryan, who shoots several men standing guard. Preparing for the gang's return, Bill notices that Ryan is wearing a necklace with a skull. Ryan admits he was present during the murders. He gives his word that once the outlaws have been dealt with, he will remain to face whatever justice Bill seeks.  In a final shootout during a sand storm, the last remaining man who killed Bill's family has him dead to rights, only to be killed by Ryan's thrown knife. Bill nonetheless insists on revenge. Ryan's gun is empty, so Bill tosses a bullet to him. He has just one bullet left now himself. Ryan turns his back and walks away, daring Bill to shoot him in the back. Bill fires, but it is only to kill a surviving outlaw. A grateful Ryan then watches as he mounts his horse and rides away.

Production.

The screenplay and story of "Death Rides a Horse" was written by Luciano Vincenzoni. Vincenzoni went to work with director Giulio Petroni after having a falling out with Sergio Leone while the latter was making "The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly".

Releases.

"Death Rides a Horse" was released in Italy in August 1967. The film was released uncut in the United Kingdom and United States in 1969.

Reception.

In a contemporary reviews, the "Monthly Film Bulletin" declared the film to be a "display piece" for John Phillip Law and Lee Van Cleef, noting that Van Cleef was "in excellent form". The review declared the film to be "less gimmicky than most Italian Westerns, and all the better for it." The review noted that the recurring were "tiresome" but had relevance to the narrative. "Robe." of "Variety" said the film won't reach the popularity of earlier Clint Eastwood westerns, noting that script borrows from other Italian Westerns noting and that "good color photography and an interesting score by Ennio Morricone are pic's strong points. Otherwise, all technical elements are routine."

Analysis.

In his investigation of narrative structures in Spaghetti Western films, writer Bert Fridlund ranges "Death Rides a Horse", together with "Day of Anger" as prime examples of a "tutorship variation" that further develops the play on age/experience between the protagonists in "For a Few Dollars More", with Lee Van Cleef playing the older partner in all three films. In the "Tutorship" films, a younger protagonist seeks the more or less reluctant partnership of an older one, but differences of motivation eventually bring them into conflict.

Death Rides a Horse () is a 1967 Italian Spaghetti Western directed by Giulio Petroni, written by Luciano Vincenzoni and starring Lee Van Cleef and John Phillip Law.

La mort était au rendez-vous ou "D'homme à homme" (titre original : "Da uomo a uomo") est un western spaghetti réalisé par Giulio Petroni sorti en 1967.


Career.

He was born in Los Angeles, California. After studying at university, he worked for Warner Brothers and Paramount, for whom he wrote the lyrics to ""The World Owes Me a Living"", composed by Leigh Harline and sung by Shirley Temple in the film "Now and Forever". He joined Disney in 1933, and wrote songs for several animated shorts, including "The Wise Little Hen" and "The Grasshopper and the Ants". Working with composer Frank Churchill, he then wrote some 25 songs for Disney's first full-length cartoon, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", in 1937. Eight of their songs were used in the film, including "Heigh-Ho", "Some Day My Prince Will Come", "Whistle While You Work", and "I'm Wishing", and the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Score.  In 1938 Morey collaborated with composer Albert Hay Malotte on the title song for "Ferdinand the Bull", which won an Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, and he worked with Frank Churchill on the score for "The Reluctant Dragon" in 1941. The following year he and Perce Pearce were responsible for adapting the book "Bambi" into the animated film of the same name. With Churchill, Morey was responsible for the film score, and both it and the song "Love Is a Song" were nominated for Oscars. In 1949, he received another Academy Award nomination, with composer Eliot Daniel, for the song "Lavender Blue (Dilly Dilly)", sung by Burl Ives in the film "So Dear to My Heart".  Morey died at the age of 66 in Santa Barbara, California.

Lawrence L. "Larry" Morey (March 26, 1905 – May 8, 1971) was an American lyricist and screenwriter. He co-wrote some of the most successful songs in Disney films of the 1930s and 1940s, including "Heigh-Ho", "Some Day My Prince Will Come", and "Whistle While You Work"; and was also responsible for adapting Felix Salten's book "Bambi, A Life in the Woods" into the 1942 Disney film, "Bambi".

Larry Morey est un compositeur, parolier et scénariste américain. Il est principalement connu pour son travail au sein de studios Disney.


Description.

The plumage coloring of both the Rouen drake and the Rouen duck are nearly identical to that of the Mallard drake and Mallard duck. The Mallard color pattern is referred to as gray. Males have green heads, white collars, black tail coverts and dark, ashy brown tail feathers, a gray body, and a deep claret breast. The female Rouen hens are a consistent shade of mahogany brown, with a brown crown and tan eye-stripes extending from bill to the back of the eyes. Another feature of the female color pattern is the distinct, detailed penciling found on feathers of the head, neck, body, most of the wing and tail. Rouen females can be much darker brown than Mallard females. Both sexes also have blue speculum feathers. However, Rouen speculum feathers are brighter in color and larger in size than that of the Mallard. Adult Rouen ducks are typically significantly larger than Mallard ducks. The Rouen duckling is identical to the Mallard duckling in terms of plumage coloring. In North America, two distinct types are bred: the common, or production-bred, variety that is larger than a Mallard but has a typical duck conformation, and the much larger and squarer standard-bred variety. The production variety normally weighs 6–8 lbs (2.7–3.6 kg) while the standard-bred weighs 9–12 lb (4.1–5.4 kg).  Rouen ducklings can be distinguished from wild mallard ducklings by the presence of a second stripe which runs across their face, just under their eye, whereas mallard ducklings have only one stripe which runs across their eye.

History.

The breed was first raised in France, but it was not until it reached England in the 19th century that it was refined into the breed recognized as the Rouen today. The French version resembled a larger than average Mallard, but by selective breeding the British developed the exhibition-type Rouen. The final product was a bird with a deep, long keel, boat-shaped profile, enormous appearance and refined markings, especially the penciling on the female. It was used chiefly as a roasting bird; though it produced 35 to 125 eggs a year, there were other breeds which were more reliable egg-layers with higher production. The eggs are typically white, but can have blue and green tints. Exhibition-typed Rouen ducks have been known to crush their eggs if allowed to set due to their massive frames. In 1861, Mrs. Beeton said of it:  The origin of the name is not known. When they arrived in England, they were variously called Rhône, after the region in southwest-central France, Rohan, after the cardinal of that name, Roan, for the mixture of colours, and Rouen after the northern French town, with Rouen eventually being adopted in both England and France. In France they are called Rouen Foncé (dark) as opposed to Rouen Clair, which are lighter in colour.  In 1850 the first Rouens were introduced to the United States by D. W. Lincoln of Worcester, Massachusetts, and used as general farm ducks until becoming popular as show birds. They were included in the "Standard of Perfection" of the American Poultry Association in 1874 and since then have won many titles, often having the most entries in the heavyweight class and doing well in competition with other breeds.

The Rouen is a heavyweight breed of domesticated duck raised primarily for decoration, exhibition or as general purpose ducks, since they are not prolific egg layers. Rouen ducks are frequently used for meat. The breed originated in France sometime before the 19th century.

Le canard de Rouen est une race de canard élevé en Normandie depuis de longues années. Il est issu de la sélection du canard colvert en vue d'augmenter sa masse. Ses couleurs sont presque identiques au canard colvert. On distingue le Rouen clair du Rouen foncé, celui-ci étant issu de la sélection du premier par les éleveurs anglais.


Location.

The name "Scarriff" comes from the Irish "scarbh", which may mean either a shallow, a rocky shore or a rough ford. All of these are appropriate to the early town, which lies at a crossing on the River Graney upstream from its mouth on Lough Derg. In 1831 the town of Scarriff had 120 houses, as well as oil and flour mills. There was one main street running up from the river. The small market town is popular with anglers who fish the Graney, the Shannon and Lough O'Grady, which is two miles west of the town. The town of Scariff is in the Catholic parish of Scariff and Moynoe. Parish churches are the Sacred Heart in Scariff and St Mary's in Clonusker. Scarriff is on the route of the East Clare Way, walking trail. Tuamgraney and Inis Cealtra are nearby.

History.

Little is known of the Scariff area in pre-Christian times. However, the presence of the remains of a wedge tomb at Cappabane tells us that the area has been inhabited for at least 4,000 years.  The name Scariff is derived from the Gaelic "Scairbh" which means a rocky ford or crossing place. Long before the present town came into being the area was of great strategic importance to those who held the territory about and to those who sought to hold it - the presence of the great river Shannon on the one hand and the mountainous terrain on the other rendered this Scairbh a most important crossing point on a journey north or south. The National School about a minute away from the town centre is the school for nearly all the children in the parish. The Camogie and Hurling teams are hugely successful with both getting to the semi-finals of the Feile Na nGael.  The name Scariff is first mentioned in 1315 in connection with a battle fought there during the civil wars of the period. The chipboard factory now occupies the site of the conflict. By the end of the fourteenth century, the Scariff area was under the control of the O'Grady clan. To maintain their dominance three castles or fortified houses were built, one at Tuamgraney (which still stands), one near the bridge at the Scairbh which no longer exists and a third, smaller building, at Moynoe. The earliest account of Scariff castle is from 1564.  In 1633 Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork, bought ten quarters of land north of the Graney River, including the castle and ironworks of Scarriff. These lands were combined with the old Moynoe parish to form the Scariff parish. Today Scariff and Moynoe is a parish of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe. Scariff as a town developed around the castle and its growth was helped by the presence of a smelting furnace which operated there. It is shown on a map of the Down survey in 1655. The town grew gradually in the following centuries, its fortunes generally in line with those of the country as a whole. In penal times Mass was celebrated at the Mass Rock at Cappabane.  Scariff suffered greatly during the Famine in the 19th century. A workhouse was built in 1841 at Drewsboro to provide some relief for the poor, and was opened in May 1842 to accommodate 600 persons. After the famine started in 1845 starving and destitute locals flocked to the workhouse. By 1846 the local graveyard was full with inmates from the workhouse and a new graveyard had to be opened outside Tuamgraney. The following year the workhouse ran out of food, water and clothing for the inmates, who were dying from fever and starvation at the rate of a dozen a day, along with those who were caring for them. The matron, her children and the parish priest, among other carers, died of fever. Even after the famine passed, in 1851, the workhouse had 3,212 inmates. The population in the Workhouse Union district in 1851 was reduced during the famine by more than 50% to 23,057. The East Clare Brigade of the IRA burned the remains of the workhouse down in 1921.  The 20th century however saw the town begin to prosper. New roads were built. It had a bank, a Police station, flour mills and a Market House reflecting its growing importance as a market town. As well as improved road connections, the Dock provided vital trade links and Scariff enjoyed its position as the business centre of north-east Clare. Two of the more prominent buildings - the workhouse and the Police station - were destroyed in the War of Independence. A large chipboard factory can now be found in Scarriff, but the town no longer has a bakery and the dock no longer operates as in former times. Its role now as a stopping point for pleasure crafts is perhaps indicative of the possibilities which exist for Scariff as a tourist centre.  Scariff is unique in that much of the town is situated across the river Graney in the neighboring parish of Bodyke, which sometimes is confused for the nearby Tuamgraney.

Education.

At primary level, the area is served by Scariff National School. The local secondary school is Scariff Community College.

Facilities.

Scariff acts as the local shopping centre and has several shops, bars and food outlets. There is also a station of the Garda Síochána. The Irish Seed Savers Association is located nearby.

Festivals.

There are a number of festivals and shows in Scarriff every year, including the Scariff Show (started in 1944), the Scariff Harbour Festival (started in 2003), and the Clare Drama Festival (started in 1947).

Scarriff or Scariff () is a large village in east County Clare, Ireland, situated in the midwest of Ireland. The town is on the West end of Lough Derg and is best known for its harbour. The Scarriff Market House is easily recognisable, and it is therefore often used to represent the town.

Scarriff ou Scariff, anglicisme de l'irlandais An Scairbh (un « carrefour » ou un « gué » rocheux) est un village de l'est du comté de Clare en Irlande. Le village est, comme son nom l'indique, un carrefour important dans l'est-Clare, étant situé au sud-ouest du Lough Derg et approximativement à équidistance (env. 30 km) d'Ennis au sud-ouest, Limerick au sud et Gort sur la route de Galway.


History.

On August 30, 1996, Busch Gardens Williamsburg announced that they would be adding Alpengeist. It opened on March 22, 1997.

Trains.

Alpengeist has 3 trains with 8 cars, riders are arranged 4 across in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train. The trains feature a zero car at the front of the train which contains 680kg (1499 lbs) of weight which allows the trains to complete larger elements. The trains also feature skis on the side of each seat support beam which adds to the theming of the ride.

Ride experience.

Upon exiting the station, the floor drops beneath the riders feet and the train climbs the 167-foot-tall chain lift after hearing the send-off recording "Thank you and enjoy your avalanche of adventure on Alpengeist!" The top of the lift reaches 195 feet above the river below. The track turns right while dropping down a 170-foot spiral drop, going past The Land of The Dragons, with the train hitting 67 miles per hour. Following the drop, the track passes through an Immelmann loop, followed by a 106-foot vertical loop. The track then races through a wooden tunnel, which until recent years, had cameras for an on-ride photo (it has since been removed due to the two inside seats not being clear in the photos), before passing through a cobra roll over the Rhine River, adjacent to the Loch Ness Monster. Out of the cobra roll, the track crosses over the entrance to the cobra roll, passes by Griffon, then rises into the midcourse brake run. After the midcourse brakes, the track crosses over the exit from the Immelmann loop and then down a drop before entering a zero-g roll, alongside the Le Scoot log flume. After a short section of straight track close to ground level, the track goes through a corkscrew followed by a clockwise upward helix, before making a left turn to the final brake run.

Alpengeist is an inverted steel roller coaster at Busch Gardens Williamsburg. Manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard, Alpengeist has an Alpine mountain region theme. The name "Alpengeist" is German for "Ghost of the Alps" or "Alps Spirit" and the ride is themed to a runaway ski lift. Since it opened in 1997, Alpengeist has been the world's tallest complete circuit inverted coaster (Wicked Twister at Cedar Point is taller, but is a shuttle coaster).

Alpengeist est un parcours de montagnes russes inversées situé à Busch Gardens Williamsburg, à Williamsburg, dans le Comté de James City, en Virginie, aux États-Unis.


History.

Visitors to the area in the first decades of the 20th century frequently described the area a volcanic no-man's land between the Afar, Oromo (Karayyu), Somalis and Amhara. Somali settlers from the Dir clans of the Issa and Gadabuursi migrated to this region as railway workers towards the end of the era of Emperor Menelek II of Ethiopia. Later their numbers increased as relatives and kinsmen took permanent settlement there. On the eve of the Italian invasion, a German named Neitzel had been granted a concession to cultivate cotton and coffee. Despite that, few people lived in the area until the arrival of the Dutch corporation Handelsvereeningung Amsterdam (HVA), which established a factory to process sugar at Metehara, after it had been expelled from Indonesia in 1954.  In 1970, the Karayu staged an armed demonstration in Metehara which destroyed fences and buildings at the HVA plantation. The Derg announced 3 February 1975 that the sugar plantation, including the Dutch investments, would be fully nationalized.  During the 2002 drought, a Karayu leader was killed in Metehara, which increased tensions between the Karayu and Afar peoples. As a result the Afar, who traded at the Tuesday market, did not go to the market during that drought.

Demographics.

Based on figures from the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, Metehara has an estimated total population of 21,348 of whom 10,763 were men and 10,585 were women. The 1994 national census reported this town had a total population of 11,934 of whom 5,837 were males and 6,097 were females. It is the largest town in Fentale woreda.

Metehara is a town in central Ethiopia. Located in the Misraq Shewa Zone of the Oromia Region, it has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 947 meters above sea level.

Metehara est une ville d'Éthiopie, située dans la zone Misraq Shewa de la région Oromia, aux abords du lac Beseka. Elle se trouve à et à d'altitude.


Background.

The first Macedonian state was formally proclaimed under the name Democratic Federal Macedonia () at the First Plenary Session of the Anti-Fascist Assembly for the People's Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) during the National Liberation War of Macedonia in World War II. It was set up on 2 August 1944 in the Bulgarian occupation zone in Yugoslavia. This date is now celebrated by ethnic Macedonians as the day they were first allowed to freely state their nationality. It was chosen intentionally, as it was the date of the Ilinden Uprising against Ottoman rule in 1903. However, after the Bulgarian Army retreated from the region under Soviet pressure, on 8 September, right-wing IMRO nationalists declared a pro-German Macedonian puppet-state. In early October, under the leadership of the new Bulgarian pro-Soviet government, the Bulgarian Army reentered Yugoslavia to block the German forces in their withdrawal from Greece. In Macedonia the Bulgarians fought side-by-side with the fighters of the People's Liberation Army of Macedonia.  Vardar Macedonia was "de facto" liberated from the Germans and their collaborationists in late November 1944, so the ASNOM became operational in December, shortly after the German retreat. Nevertheless, in December anti-communist Albanian nationalists in Western Macedonia tried to remain in control of the region after the Yugoslav Partisans announced victory. They aimed to resist incorporation of the area into communist Yugoslavia and it was only in early 1945 that the Yugoslav Partisans were able to establish their control over the mountainous area.  The nature of the new Yugoslav state remained unclear immediately after the war. Yugoslavia was envisioned by the Partisans as a "Democratic Federation", including six federal states. When Tito's nomination as Prime Minister was accepted on 29 November 1945, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was declared, with its constitution coming into force in 1946. As a result, Macedonia changed its name to the People's Republic of Macedonia and was incorporated as a constituent republic in the Yugoslav Federation.  However, some people were against the federation and demanded greater independence from the federal authorities, leading to their persecution. One of the notable victims of these purges was the first president, Metodija Andonov - Čento. To wipe out the remnants of Bulgarophile sentiments, even though they were weak, the Macedonians continued a process of Macedonisation and nation-building, a process started in the 19th century. People with various degrees of allegedly being pro-Bulgarian (in the most cases they were pro Macedonian Independence/bigger authonomy of the Macedonian Republic) orientation were purged from their positions, then isolated, arrested and imprisoned on fabricated charges. In many cases they were executed en masse, such as during the Bloody Christmas of 1945. The number of victims is estimated to be around 50 000, including those killed, imprisoned, deported, sent to forced labor, tortured, etc. More purges followed after the Tito-Stalin split.  The state was formed on the territory of Vardar Macedonia, a part of the wider geographical region of Macedonia, which was divided between several countries. Some Macedonian politicians from the Republic advocated the idea of a United Macedonia, which would include Aegean Macedonia and Pirin Macedonia. The idea was somewhat supported by the federal Yugoslav authorities on some occasions, or repressed, depending on the regional and international political situation.  In 1963, the name of the state was changed to the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.

Constitution.

The Socialist Republic of Macedonia, which was defined as a nation-state of the Macedonians and also a state of its ethnic minorities, had some powers normally associated with an independent state. The Constitution also recognized the right of self-determination and secession. The borders of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia could only be changed by decision of the republic's parliament. Its inhabitants held both Yugoslav citizenship and an internal Macedonian citizenship for state business.  The Socialist Republic of Macedonia had its own constitution, presidency, government, parliament, official language, state symbols, Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, "Secretariat of Internal Affairs" (Interior ministry), "Bureau for Foreign Relations" (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and other state prerogatives. Also, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia had its own Territorial Defence armed forces (Macedonian: Територијална одбрана, Teritorijalna odbrana).

System.

The Socialist Republic of Macedonia was a one-party communist state, the ruling political party being the League of Communists of Macedonia (in Macedonian: "Сојуз на Комунистите на Македонија, Sojuz na Komunistite na Makedonija", abbreviation: "СКМ, SKM"). Being a constituent state of Yugoslavia, a leading founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, SR Macedonia pursued a neutral foreign policy and maintained a more liberal communist system compared to other communist states. The ruling ideology was based on Titoism and Workers' self-management (Macedonian: самоуправување, samoupravuvanje).

Minorities.

While the Macedonians were the majority and were one of the constituent nations of SFR Yugoslavia (official term: "narod") the rights of the ethnic minorities (official term: "narodnosti") were guaranteed by the Constitution. The official language of SR Macedonia was Macedonian, however Macedonian Albanians and Macedonian Turks had the right to use their own languages within the school system and the media. The constitution of the SR Macedonia defined the state as the national state of the ethnic Macedonians, but also as the state of Albanians and Turks.  From the start of Yugoslav rule in Macedonia, accusations surfaced that the new authorities were involved in retribution against people who did not support the formation of the new Macedonian national identity. The number of victims due to organized killings of Bulgarians is unclear. Bulgarian sources claim that thousands of people were killed after 1944 and that more than 100,000 people were put in prison under the "Law for the protection of Macedonian national honor". In SR Macedonia the "Bulgarophobia" increased to the level of State ideology.

Religion.

Although the ruling communists discouraged religion, religious freedom was allowed to a certain extent. The authorities allowed the existence of the Macedonian Orthodox Church, which proclaimed autocephaly in 1967. In 1972 the construction of the largest orthodox church "St. Clement of Ohrid" in the capital of Skopje began. Muslims, Catholics, Protestants and other religious communities also could maintain their own organisations and places of worship.

Geography.

The Socialist Republic of Macedonia was the 4th largest constituent country of SFR Yugoslavia both by area and population. Within Yugoslavia, it had an internal border with the Socialist Republic of Serbia to the north and its subunit the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo to the north-west and international borders with Greece to the south, the People's Republic of Bulgaria to the east and the People's Socialist Republic of Albania to the west.

Transition.

In 1990 the form of government peacefully changed from socialist state to parliamentary democracy. The first pluralist elections were held on 11 November the same year. The once ruling communist party took a reformist direction and renamed itself "League of Communists of Macedonia – Party for Democratic Change" led by Petar Gošev. After the head of the last communist presidency Vladimir Mitkov resigned, Kiro Gligorov became the first democratically elected president of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia on 31 January 1991. On 16 April parliament adopted a constitutional amendment removing "Socialist" from the official name of the entity, and on 7 June the new name Republic of Macedonia was officially established. After the process of dissolution of Yugoslavia began, the Republic of Macedonia issued a Sovereignty Declaration on 25 January 1991 and later proclaimed itself a fully independent country, following a referendum held on 8 September 1991.  The Republic of North Macedonia is the legal successor to the Socialist Republic of Macedonia.

Heads of institutions.

Presidents.

This position was established in 1991, after the dissolution of the collective presidency.

The Socialist Republic of Macedonia (), commonly referred to as Socialist Macedonia or simply Macedonia, was one of the six constituent countries of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and a nation state of the Macedonians. After the transition of the political system to parliamentary democracy in 1990, the Republic changed its official name to Republic of Macedonia in 1991, and with the beginning of the breakup of Yugoslavia, it declared itself an independent country on 8 September 1991.

La République socialiste de Macédoine (macédonien : Социјалистичка Република Македонија, "Socijalistička Republika Makedonija") est une ancienne république socialiste membre de l'ancienne République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie. Après la transition du système socialiste à un régime parlementaire en 1990, la République modifie son nom en 1991 pour devenir la République de Macédoine (aujourd'hui la Macédoine du Nord). Avec le début de la dislocation de la Yougoslavie, elle déclare sa pleine indépendance le.


Demographics.

Based on the 2007 Census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), this Zone has a total population of 2,723,850, an increase of 48.79% over the 1994 census, of whom 1,383,198 are men and 1,340,652 women; with an area of 17,935.40 square kilometers, East Hararge has a population density of 151.87. While 216,943 or 8.27% are urban inhabitants, a further 30,215 or 1.11% are pastoralists. A total of 580,735 households were counted in this Zone, which results in an average of 4.69 persons to a household, and 560,223 housing units. The two largest ethnic groups reported were the Oromo (96.43%) and the Amhara (2.26%); all other ethnic groups made up 1.31% of the population. Oromo was spoken as a first language by 94.6%, Somali was spoken by 2.92% and Amharic by 2.06%; the remaining 0.42% spoke all other primary languages reported. The majority of the inhabitants were Muslim, with 96.51% of the population having reported they practiced that belief, while 3.12% of the population professed Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity.  The 1994 national census reported a total population for this Zone of 1,830,631 in 346,117 households, of whom 933,677 were men and 896,954 women; 98,012 or 5.35% of its population were urban dwellers at the time. (This total also includes an estimate for the inhabitants of 86 rural kebeles and one urban one, which were not counted; they were estimated to have 224,057 inhabitants, of whom 112,831 were men and 111,226 were women.) The three largest ethnic groups reported in East Hararge were the Oromo (93.69%), the Amhara (4.16%), and the Somali (1.84%); all other ethnic groups made up 0.31% of the population. Oromiffa was spoken as a first language by 92.57%, 4.02% spoke Amharic, and 3.05% spoke Somali; the remaining 0.36% spoke all other primary languages reported. The majority of the inhabitants were Muslim, with 95.28% of the population having reported they practiced that belief, while 4.51% professed Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity.  According to a May 24, 2004 World Bank memorandum, 3% of the inhabitants of East Harerge have access to electricity, this zone has a road density of 39.6 kilometers per 1000 square kilometers (compared to the national average of 30 kilometers), the average rural household has 0.5 hectare of land (compared to the national average of 1.01 hectare of land and an average of 1.14 for the Oromia Region) and the equivalent of 0.6 heads of livestock. 13% of the population is in non-farm related jobs, compared to the national average of 25% and a Regional average of 24%. Concerning education, 53% of all eligible children are enrolled in primary school, and 10% in secondary schools. Concerning health, 44% of the zone is exposed to malaria, and none to Tsetse fly. The memorandum gave this zone a drought risk rating of 367.

Notes.

East Hararghe (Afaan Oromo: Harargee Bahaa) is one of the Zones of the Region of Oromia. East Hararge takes its name from the former province of Hararghe. East Hararge is bordered on the southwest by the Shebelle River which separates it from Bale, on the west by Mirab Hararge, on the north by Diredhawa and on the north and east by the Somali Region. The Harari Region is an enclave inside this zone. The Administrative center of this zone is Harar.

La zone Misraq Hararghe, ou Est Hararghe, est l'une des 20 zones de la région Oromia en Éthiopie. Elle forme l'extrémité nord-est de la région Oromia et enclave la région Harar. Ses principales villes sont Alemaya et Babille.


Folk music.

Icelandic music has a very long tradition, with some songs still sung today dating from 14th century. Folk songs are often about love, sailors, masculinity, hard winters, as well as elves, trolls and other mythological creatures, and tend to be quite secular and often humorous. Bjarni Þorsteinsson collected Icelandic folk music between 1906 and 1909, and many of the songs he encountered were accompanied by traditional instruments like the langspil and fiðla, which are among the few musical instruments traditionally played in Iceland. Chain dances, known as víkivaki, have been performed in Iceland since the 11th century at a variety of occasions, such as in churches and during the Christmas season. An example is "Ólafur Liljurós", an Icelandic víkivaki folk song dating to the 14th century, about a man who, while on his way to meet his mother, is seduced, kissed, and stabbed by an elf woman while riding his horse, then eventually dies.  Iceland's isolation meant that, until the 18th century, foreign influences were almost completely absent, which resulted in the maintenance of a particular rhythm, called "hákveða", lost in other Nordic countries and considered one of the main characteristics of Icelandic folk music. Hákveða refers to a special emphasis placed on some of the words of a song, often the last word of each sentence in each verse. In the following example, taken from the song "Ólafur Liljurós", hákveða is shown in italics:  "Rímur" are epic tales sung as alliterative, rhyming ballads, usually a cappella. "Rímur" can be traced back to the Viking Age Eddic poetry of the skalds and employs complex metaphors and cryptic rhymes and forms. Some of the most famous "rímur" were written between the 18th and early 20th centuries, by poets like Hannes Bjarnason (1776–1838), Jón Sigurðsson (1853–1922) and Sigurður Breiðfjörð (1798–1846).  In the early 18th century, European dances like polka, waltz, reel and schottische begin to arrive via Denmark. These foreign dances are today known as "gömlu dansarnir" or literally the "old dances". After their arrival, native dance and song traditions fell into serious decline. For a long time, "rímur" were officially banned by the church. Paradoxically, many Icelandic priests were keen in making "rímur". "Rímur" remained popular recreation until the early 20th century. In recent years, efforts have been made to revive native Icelandic forms. For example, a modern revitalization of the "Rímur" tradition began in 1929 with the formation of the organization Iðunn.  Protestantism has also left its mark on the music of Iceland. Hallgrímur Pétursson wrote numerous Protestant hymns in the 17th century. In the 19th century, Magnús Stephensen brought pipe organs to Iceland, soon to be followed by harmonium pumped reed-organs. "Heyr himna smiður" ("Hark, Creator of the Heaven") is probably the oldest psalm which is still sung today; it was composed by Kolbeinn Tumason in 1208.

Popular music.

The music of Iceland includes vibrant folk and pop traditions and is expanding in its variety of sound styles and genres. Well-known artists from Iceland include alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, singers Björk, Hafdís Huld and Emilíana Torrini, and post-rock band Sigur Rós, as well as electronic music groups like GusGus. Iceland's traditional music is related to Nordic music forms.  Icelandic popular music today includes many bands and artists, ranging from indie and pop-rock to electronic music. It is also increasingly becoming recognized for its vibrant and growing metal and hardcore scene.  One widely known Icelandic artist is eclectic singer and composer Björk, who has received 13 Grammy nominations and sold over 15 million albums worldwide, including two platinum albums and one gold album in the United States. Another is the post-rock formation Sigur Rós and its lead singer Jónsi. Widely known outside Iceland, they were immortalized in an episode of "The Simpsons" and more recently in an episode of "Game of Thrones".

Popular artists.

Indie and pop-rock.

According to the Icelandic label Record Records, the indie pop-folk group Of Monsters and Men is Iceland’s biggest act since Björk and Sigur Rós. Their debut album "My Head Is an Animal", as well as their first single “Little Talks”, reached high positions in single and album charts worldwide. In 2013 they won the European Border Breakers Awards. Singer-songwriter Ásgeir Trausti did likewise in 2014, and ever since has been successfully touring Europe and the U.S. with his melodic-folk-pop songs, which he sings both in his native language Icelandic and in English. Female singer-songwriter Emiliana Torrini is an established Icelandic artist. Her song "Jungle Drum", from her 2008 album "Me and Armini", is well known abroad and reached number one in the German, Austrian, Belgium and Icelandic single charts. Her latest album "Tookah", released in 2013, reached the Top 50 album charts in several countries.  Other artists that are attracting attention outside Iceland include the electro-pop group FM Belfast, indie pop / rock / folk band Kaleo as well as the singers and composers Sóley and Sin Fang, who are both known as founding members of the band Seabear.

Alternative and metal.

The alternative and metal scene is vibrant with Icelandic bands playing large festivals in Europe and the United States. The metal-band Sólstafir is widely known outside Iceland. Already back in 1999 they had a contract for their debut album with a German record label. The Viking-Metal Band Skálmöld played two sold out shows with the Iceland Symphony Orchestra in the capital’s concert hall Harpa in December 2013. Agent Fresco combine metal, rock and alternative elements with the unique voice of singer Arnór Dan Arnarson and have also gained international attention. The instrumental post-rock and alternative-rock band For a Minor Reflection is widely known since supported Sigur Rós on tour back in 2009. Their sound is often compared to Explosions in the Sky or the Scottish post-rock band Mogwai. Dead Skeletons are not only known for their unique psychedelic-rock sound but also for their artwork and an art gallery in Reykjavik run by front man and singer Jón Sæmundur Auðarson. The Vintage Caravan, founded by two of the members in 2006 when they were only 12 years old, have played festivals in Europe, including the Wacken Open Air and toured with bigger bands like Europe and Opeth.  Iceland also has a thriving extreme metal scene which is gaining recognition abroad. The black metal band Svartidauði are widely considered a central figure in the development of the Icelandic black metal scene. Many of the scene's most significant albums were recorded and produced at Studio Emissary, a recording studio set up by Irish musician Stephen Lockhart, and the cassette label Vánagandr has also had a significant role in the development of the country's black metal scene. In 2016, the music festival Oration MMXVI debuted as Iceland's first black metal festival, and subsequently returned for two final instalments in 2017 and 2018. In 2016, black metal band Misþyrming were selected as one of Roadburn Fesitval's artists in residence.

Electronic music.

The techno house group GusGus is one of Iceland’s most successful exports in the field of electronic music. So far they released nine studio albums. The latest "Lies Are More Flexible" came out in February 2018.  Other artists include DJ duo Gluteus Maximus, Hermigervill, Bloodgroup and Sísý Ey.  The international franchise Sónar held their first festival in Reykjavik in 2013 with a long roster of international and local electronic acts.

Experimental.

Ben Frost, born in Melbourne, living in Reykjavik, is bringing together electronic soundscapes with classical elements and noisy tunes. His latest album, "Aurora", was released in June 2014.  Classical elements also characterize the symphonic music of Icelandic born composer and singer Ólafur Arnalds. Other widely known experimental bands are Múm and the high school originated Hjaltalín.  The trio Samaris have gained attention, especially in Europe, and have played festivals all over Europe. Their self-released EP, "Stofnar falla", received positive reviews and was followed by their self-titled debut album, released in July 2013.  Mengi in Reijkjavik is a centre for avant garde music, experimental music and contemporary music. The organisation organizes performances, exhibitions, conferences and runs a recording studio and a record label.

Classical music.

Composition.

Classical music came to Iceland comparatively late, with the first Iceland composers working in the western, classical tradition emerging in the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Among them was Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson, who is considered to have been the first Icelandic professional composer. Among his contributions to Icelandic music is the national anthem, Lofsöngur. Belonging to this first generation of Icelandic composers were Sigvaldi Kaldalóns and Sigfús Einarsson, and Emil Thoroddsen, best known for their songs with piano accompaniment. The most significant Icelandic composer in the first half of the 20th century was Jón Leifs.  Today, Iceland has a vibrant classical music scene, with numerous composers of contemporary music achieving international success. These include Haukur Tómasson, Anna Thorvaldsdottir, Daníel Bjarnason, Jóhann Jóhannsson and Hugi Gudmundsson.

Performance.

The first proper orchestral concert in Iceland was held in 1921, in conjunction with the royal visit of Christian X of Denmark, the reigning monarch of Iceland. The ensemble created for the occasion was given the name Hljómsveit Reykjavíkur (The Reykjavík Orchestra), and performed sporadically in the years that followed under the direction of Sigfús Einarsson and Páll Ísólfsson. Following the founding of the Icelandic National Broadcasting Service in 1930, and the festivities at the 1000th anniversary of the Alþingi, and through the pioneering work of musicians like Franz Mixa, Victor Urbancic and Róbert A. Ottóson, this ensemble was slowly transformed into the professional symphony orchestra known today as the Iceland Symphony Orchestra. The orchestra resides in Harpa, Reykjavík's largest concert house, and holds weekly concerts in its Eldborg hall.  Additionally, a number of musical ensembles regularly perform in Reykjavík, playing music that ranges from Baroque to contemporary music. These include Reykjavík Chamber Orchestra, CAPUT ensemble and Nordic Affect. Several classic music festivals are held in Reykjavík and all around Iceland annually, including Dark Music Days and Reykjavík Midsummer Music.  Icelandic classical instrumentalists have achieved success internationally. Undoubtedly, the most famous Icelandic citizen within the world of classical music is the Russian pianist Vladimir Ashkenazy, who settled in Iceland with his Icelandic wife Þórunn Jóhannsdóttir in 1968, following their defection from the Soviet Union. He was awarded Icelandic citizenship in 1972. Other notable, Icelandic classical instrumentalists with international careers include Sigurbjörn Bernharðsson, violinist and member of the Pacifica Quartet, Elfa Rún Kristinsdóttir, violinist, Víkingur Ólafsson, pianist, and the cellist Sæunn Thorsteinsdóttir.

National anthem.

The national anthem of Iceland is "Lofsöngur", written by Matthías Jochumsson, with music by Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson. The song, in the form of a hymn, was written in 1874, when Iceland celebrated the one thousandth anniversary of settlement on the island. It was first published under the title "A Hymn in Commemoration of Iceland's Thousand Years".

Festivals.

Iceland hosts a variety of music festivals. The biggest festival is Iceland Airwaves with over 9000 guests. It takes place in the central area of Iceland’s capital city Reykjavík for five days at the beginning of November. There is also an up-and-coming festival, Secret Solstice, which was held for the first time in the summer of 2014, June 20–22. The festival took place at the Laugardalur recreational area, also known as Hot Spring Valley, which is located just 15 minutes from downtown Reykjavik. There are also a number of intimate and transformative festivals that happen year-round in the countryside, such as Saga Fest in Selfoss and LungA Art Festival in Seyðisfjörður.  Other festivals are:

Venues.

Concert hall Harpa held its opening concert on May 4, 2011. Bigger concerts are held in sportshalls Laugardalshöll, Egilshöll and Kórinn. Theaters such as Gamla bíó, Bæjarbíó and Iðnó are used for concerts. Austurbær is an old movie theater.  Smaller concerts are held at smaller venues or pubs located mainly around capital area.

Record labels.

Some of the labels mostly concentrate on one genre, whilst others are promoting many types of music. 12 Tónar and Smekkleysa run record stores in Reykjavik.

The music of Iceland includes vibrant folk and pop traditions, as well as an active classical and contemporary music scene. Well-known artists from Iceland include medieval music group Voces Thules, alternative rock band The Sugarcubes, singers Björk, Hafdís Huld and Emiliana Torrini, post-rock band Sigur Rós, post-metal band Sólstafir, indie folk/indie pop band Of Monsters and Men, blues/rock band Kaleo, metal band Skálmöld and techno-industrial band Hatari. Iceland's traditional music is related to Nordic music forms. Although Iceland has a very small population, it is home to many famous and praised bands and musicians.

La musique islandaise est liée aux autres musiques scandinaves, partageant une musique traditionnelle inspirée à la fois de la mythologie nordique et du christianisme catholique et protestant. Longtemps sous domination danoise, l'Islande isolée ne devait pas connaître de grands développements musicaux du fait de l'absence de mécénat et de l'interdiction de la musique à danser pendant un temps. La musique médiévale monophonique avec ses modes archaïques devait perdurer jusqu'au.


Synopsis.

Fatty has been dragged along to Coney Island by his wife who insists they spend their time together on the beach. Getting inspiration from a dog digging a hole in the sand, Fatty ditches his wife by burying himself in the sand then making a run for the amusement park as she searches for him. Fatty's wife enlists the help of an old friend (Al St. John, referred to as "Old Friend") who enters the park to look for Fatty, however once inside he notices an attractive young lady (Alice Mann, referred to as "Pretty Girl") who is there on a date with a young man (Buster Keaton, referred to as "Rival") and promptly woos her into entering the park with him rather than Rival, leaving the latter distraught.  Finding he has no money, Rival gains entry to the park by hiding in a barrel and follows Pretty Girl and Old Friend around the park. Once inside, Rival and Old Friend both attempt to impress Pretty Girl, Rival by trying to win on the high striker and Old Friend by buying her ice cream but Pretty Girl is ultimately unimpressed by both men's childish behavior  Fatty shows up on the scene and is likewise smitten with Pretty Girl and begins making polite conversation with her. When Old Friend returns with the ice cream, Fatty pretends he got them for her in order to impress her which it does. Old Friend furiously threatens Fatty, but Fatty kicks a nearby policemen in the rear and makes him think Old Friend did it leading to the latter being arrested.  Fatty and Pretty Girl next go for a ride on the log flumes but the force of the impact upon hitting the water sends both flying into the surrounding pool. Rival saves Pretty Girl and Fatty but is immediately knocked accidentally into the pool by Fatty who, seeing that Rival can swim and will not drown, once again walks off with Pretty Girl. Spotting his wife looking for him, Fatty takes Pretty Girl into a nearby boathouse and the two dress up (Fatty as a woman and Pretty Girl in a new dress and a long wig) to avoid detection before heading to the beach.  Arbuckle's wife has heard that Old Friend has been arrested and bails him out of jail and the two go to the beach to come up with a new plan where they bump into Fatty and Pretty Girl in their disguises. Old Friend finds himself attracted to Fatty dressed up as a woman and flirts with him before Rival arrives on the scene and reveals that the woman is in fact Fatty. Furious, Old Friend chases Fatty to the sea where they begin to fight. Pretty Girl, realizing that Old Friend is a sleazy womanizer and Fatty has a wife, decides to return to Rival and the two run off down the beach together. Fatty's wife calls the police to break up the fight and three police officers (The Keystone Cops) arrive at the beach to arrest both men. They are taken to jail but before they can be locked up they overpower all of the cops and throw them in the jail cell. Before Fatty can leave he receives a furious dressing down from his wife until he can take no more and throws her in the jail cell as well.  In the film's closing moments Fatty and Old Friend stand on the police steps and agree that the pursuit of women was the reason for all of their misfortune today and both swear off women for good. However, just after making this pact two attractive women walk past them and the two gleefully give chase.

Production notes.

The film was shot on location at Coney Island, and prominently features many contemporary rides and attractions as venues for the slapstick action. These include The Witching Waves and Shoot-the-Chutes.  "Coney Island" was filmed before Keaton had fully established his screen persona. Because of this, he employs a wide range of facial expressions, including mugging and laughing, differing drastically from his subsequent unsmiling, but still eloquent, expression.  Arbuckle breaks the fourth wall in one scene where, about to change his clothes, he directly looks at the camera and gestures for it to raise its view above his waist; the camera obligingly does so.

Reception.

Like many American films of the time, "Coney Island" was subject to cuts by city and state film censorship boards. The Chicago Board of Censors required a cut of a scene with a girl raising her dress above her knee.

Coney Island (also known as Fatty at Coney Island) is a 1917 American two-reel silent comedy film written by, directed by, and starring Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle and featuring Buster Keaton.

Fatty à la fête foraine (titre original : "Coney Island") est un film américain réalisé par Roscoe Arbuckle, sorti en 1917.


Family life.

Mahmoud Djellouli was born into the influential and patrician Djellouli family, which dated back to the Hafsid dynasty, according to historian Ahmad ibn Abi Diyaf. They were Sfax nobility of Arab origin, merchants and shipowners at the end of the 16th century, and became farmers and qaids in the 17th century, then part of the Capital Tunis aristocracy at the beginning of the 19th century.

Business.

Mahmoud Djellouli began his career by taking over his father's business and administrative responsibilities: he succeeded his father Baccar, who died in 1782, as qaid of Sfax and later also added responsibility for Sousse and for the Sahel. He relied on trade to acquire key positions. His business is linked to exported farm products to Europe and the Levant: leathers, olive oil, grain, wool and so on. His agricultural estates supplied his business above all and participated also in the collective fiscal surplus.  Rivalries between France and Britain at the end of the 18th century offered him the opportunity to participate in arming the corsairs. He was among the four forces in the arms market at the time, along with the beys, the Ben Ayed family and Saheb Ettabaâ.  In 1804, he gained control of the custom houses of the regency. Between 1808 and 1810 he invested 600,000 piastres for his sons Mohammed, Farhat, Hassan and Hussein in this enterprise. In 1805 he became the "qumrugi" or head of customs. He had a monopoly on the principal exports and also held the seal that had to be applied to permits or "teskérès".  On October 27, 1795, he formed a company with Ahmed Sallami and Ahmed El Kharrat and invested 38,505 piastres. At that point he was the richest man in the country, and the bey made him his minister of Finance. In 1807, as ministre et councillor for the sovereign, Hammouda Pacha, he loaned the money to arm the regency and tried to convince the nobility to join the war against the Ottomans of Algiers, which the regency eventually won.  The bey named him the regency's ambassador, envoy and a commercial and political representative to Malta between 1810 and 1813. During this period he provided political, military and especially commercial intelligence to Tunisian authorities, allowing the bey to keep track of arm sales and of the efforts of the dey of Algiers to recruit Anatolian janissaries.  In 1814-1815, with the disappearance of his protectors Hammouda Pacha and Youssef Saheb Ettabaâ, he left government administration to devote himself to business. This did not make him any less influential, and his sons all had business and administrative careers as well.  The writer Prince Hermann, Fürst von Pückler-Muskau visited his son Farhat, then the qaid of Sfax, in 1836. He later wrote that the qaid was the son of the "rich Djellouli of Tunis", whose fortune was estimated to be three million piasters and therefore was an important man. William Jowett and Joseph Greaves also mentioned Djellouli's wealth and influence in an of the latter's visit to the regency of Tunis in 1826. A street in the medina quarter of Tunis where he bought a palace in 1794, was renamed "Street of the Rich Man" in his honor.

Mahmoud Djellouli (1755–1839) was a trader and Tunisian diplomat. He was a member of the same clan as and among the important figures of his time.

Mahmoud Djellouli (), né vers 1750 et décédé le, est un homme d'affaires et diplomate tunisien. Rattaché au clan de Youssef Saheb Ettabaâ, il compte parmi les personnages importants des règnes d'Ali I Pacha (1759-1782) et d'Hammouda Pacha (1782-1814).


College career.

Brister began 1983 as Tulane's starting quarterback, before being replaced by Jon English. He then transferred to Northeast Louisiana.

Pittsburgh career.

When Brister was selected, comparisons were almost immediately made between him and Steelers great Terry Bradshaw, who is also from Louisiana. Over the years, Pittsburgh sports writers and Steelers fans frequently made jokes about Brister's thick Southern accent and perceived lack of sophistication, traits that were similarly mocked in Bradshaw. In a similar vein, his name was often misspoken. In a 1999 "Sports Illustrated" article, Brister cited "Bubba Brewster" and "Bobby Blister" as common manglings.  Brister spent two years as the backup to Bradshaw's immediate successor, Mark Malone, starting two games as a rookie in 1986 and appearing briefly in relief in two games in 1987. In his NFL debut in October 1986 Pittsburgh played on Monday Night Football against rival Cincinnati Bengals and Brister passed for 191 yards and scored a rushing touchdown, although the team lost, 24–22. He won a three-way competition for the Steelers' starting quarterback job with Todd Blackledge and Steve Bono.  Career highlights during his 1988–1991 run as Pittsburgh's starting QB included ranking 4th in the NFL in average yards per pass completion in 1988 and ranking 10th in the league in passer rating in 1990. Brister had five scoring passes that were 65 yards or longer in 1988, including an 89-yard touchdown to Louis Lipps vs the Philadelphia Eagles on November 13 that was the longest pass completion by a Steeler in Three Rivers Stadium history. In 1989, he set a team record with 15 consecutive pass completions in a road win over Detroit, including a 48 yarder to Lipps. Brister also set a team record in 1989 throwing 178 consecutive passes without an interception. It was 1990 that Brister established career highs for starts (16), yards passing (2,725) and touchdown passes (20). Brister missed 8 games with injuries in 1991, setting up a competition with back up Neil O'Donnell for the starting job. Pittsburgh went 5-3 when Brister played, only 2-6 with O'Donnell as a starter. Brister was the starting quarterback during Hall Of Fame Coach Chuck Noll's final post season run with the Steelers, winning the 1989 AFC Wild Card in overtime on the road against the Houston Oilers, then losing a close game to eventual AFC champion Denver Broncos. Brister led an 82-yard drive at the end of the 4th quarter to tie the Houston game and force overtime. Against Denver, he passed for 229 yards and 1 touchdown, with no turnovers.  One of Brister's famous quotes came after a 1991 game between the Houston Oilers and Pittsburgh Steelers. Pittsburgh was getting blown out, and coach Chuck Noll wanted to pull starter Neil O'Donnell and replace him with Brister to finish the hopeless game. Brister replied "I don't mop up for anybody." O'Donnell was starting in place of an injured Brister. Even though Brister was not forced to enter that late-season loss against Houston, he did however supplant the struggling O'Donnell the next week, starting the team's final two games, both wins over Cincinnati and Cleveland.  Brister played for the Steelers for 7 years, several of them as the regular starter at quarterback. In 1992, new Steelers head coach Bill Cowher chose backup quarterback O'Donnell over Brister, effectively ending his career as a starting player for the Steelers. Still, Brister played a significant role in the team's 1992 success. Brister won two games as a starter for an injured O'Donnell against the Indianapolis Colts and Cleveland Browns. In the Cleveland game, the Steelers needed to win to clinch home field advantage throughout the AFC Playoffs and Brister passed for 223 yards, 1 touchdown, and no interceptions, and had a string of 11 consecutive pass completions in one stretch. In two other games Brister came off the bench, relieving a struggling O'Donnell when he was hurt and led fourth-quarter comebacks over the Seattle Seahawks and Detroit Lions.

Later career.

After brief stops as a backup quarterback for the Eagles and New York Jets, Brister sat out the 1996 season. In his first season in Philadelphia in 1993, Brister ranked 7th in the league in passer rating and 4th in lowest interception percentage, starting 8 games with two relief appearances subbing for an injured Randall Cunningham. Highlights that season included his 27 completion, 245 yard, two touchdown performance vs. the Super Bowl champion Dallas Cowboys on Monday Night Football, and his 353-yard, three-touchdown performance in the final game of the regular season, again on Monday Night Football, leading the Eagles to a win over NFC West champion San Francisco. Brister's interception percentage that year was the lowest in Eagles team history for more than a decade until eclipsed by Donovan McNabb. His former teammate in Philadelphia, linebacker Bill Romanowski, had signed with the Denver Broncos and, in 1997, suggested to Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan that he take a look at Brister. Brister signed with Denver and became their number 3 quarterback for the 1997 season, backing up Hall of Fame quarterback John Elway and Jeff Lewis. Brister's only significant playing time in the 1997 season came in a week 17 game against the San Diego Chargers. Before the 1998 season, Lewis had fallen out of favor with the Broncos; thus, Brister became the primary backup quarterback. During the 1998 season, Elway was forced to sit out a number of games due to injury and Brister started those games in his place. He played well and the Broncos went undefeated in all of his starts (4-0); Brister also broke the team's (then) record for longest rushing touchdown by a quarterback and recorded a higher passer rating than Elway. However, when Elway retired in 1999, Brister was passed over for the starting spot in favor of Brian Griese, and the Broncos released him after that season. During his three seasons with the Broncos, he won two Super Bowl rings.  Brister spent 2000 with the Vikings. He signed with the Kansas City Chiefs in 2001 but was cut before the season began. He then retired from football. He finished his career with a passing record of 1,207 completions in 2,212 attempts for 14,445 passing yards and 81 touchdowns.  Brister played in three conference championship games and two Super Bowls.

After retiring.

After retiring from football, Brister spent a short time as a television sports analyst for Fox Sports Rocky Mountain in Denver. In 2003, Brister became the co-host of a hunting and fishing oriented show called "Louisiana Outdoor Adventures" on The Outdoor Channel. In 2005, he joined the staff of Hunter's Specialties, a producer of hunting and fishing adventure videos.  He lives in Mandeville, Louisiana, with his wife and two children.

Walter Andrew "Bubby" Brister, III (born August 15, 1962) is a former American football quarterback in the NFL for the Pittsburgh Steelers, Philadelphia Eagles, New York Jets, Denver Broncos, and Minnesota Vikings. He played quarterback at Tulane and Northeast Louisiana and was taken in the third round of the 1986 NFL Draft by the Steelers.

Walter Andrew « Bubby » Brister, III (né le à Monroe en Louisiane aux États-Unis) est un joueur de football américain qui évoluait au poste de Quarterback. Il a remporté deux Super Bowls avec les Broncos de Denver.