Background.

In late 1805, First Lord of the Admiralty Lord Barham withdrew the Royal Navy blockade of the French Atlantic ports following the Trafalgar Campaign, in which the French Navy had lost 14 ships of the line. Barham believed that the French, having suffered such heavy losses, would be unable and unwilling to launch a major offensive in the Atlantic until after the winter. However, he had miscalculated the strength of the fleet at Brest, the principal French Atlantic seaport. The Brest fleet had not been engaged in the 1805 campaign and was therefore intact.  Taking advantage of the withdrawal of the British blockade, Emperor Napoleon ordered two squadrons to put to sea with orders to raid the British trade routes that crossed the Atlantic. These forces were to inflict as much economic damage to Britain as possible without engaging an equivalent British naval squadron and risking defeat and capture. The cruise was expected to last as long as 14 months, sustained by captured food supplies from British merchant ships. Sailing unopposed on 13 December 1805, the squadrons separated two days later in pursuit of British merchant convoys, one squadron steering for the South Atlantic under Contre-Admiral Jean-Baptiste Willaumez and the other, under Vice-Admiral Corentin-Urbain Leissègues, sailing for the Caribbean. The Admiralty in London did not discover that the French had sailed until 24 December, and the two squadrons they prepared in pursuit, under Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Strachan and Rear-Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, did not sail until January 1806, by which time the French had disappeared into the Atlantic.  There was however one British squadron that had maintained contact with the French: since the Battle of Trafalgar in October 1805, the Admiralty had stationed a squadron under Vice-Admiral Sir John Thomas Duckworth off Cadiz to watch the remnants of the combined fleet. In November 1805, reports reached Duckworth of a French squadron operating against British convoys off the Savage Islands between Madeira and the Canary Islands. This squadron, which belonged to Contre-Admiral Zacharie Allemand, had left France in July 1805. Immediately sailing to investigate, Duckworth abandoned Cadiz, leaving just two frigates to watch the Allied fleet at anchor. Passing the Savage and Canary Islands, Duckworth continued to the Cape Verde Islands before conceding that the French had escaped him and turning northwards again. Allemand was already far to the north. He eventually returned to France without incident on 23 December.

Duckworth's cruise.

During his return journey to Cadiz, on 23 December Duckworth encountered under Captain Charles Brisbane escorting a small group of merchant ships. Leissègues had intercepted, chased and dispersed Brisbane's convoy in the Bay of Biscay on 15 December, Brisbane retaining only the largest merchant ships to help cover the flight of the smaller vessels. Once he had escaped Leissègues' pursuit, Brisbane sailed in search of support at Cadiz, continuing southwards after realizing that Duckworth was not at his appointed station. Immediately setting a course that he believed would intercept Leissègues, Duckworth turned to the northwest and on 25 December discovered an enemy squadron approximately northwest of the Canary Islands. Duckworth ordered his squadron to pursue, the chase lasting throughout the day and continuing into 26 December, by which time it had become clear that his quarry was not Allemand. In fact, Duckworth had discovered Willaumez's squadron. However, the French admiral ordered his ships to run before Duckworth rather than give battle. By 13:00 on 26 December, it seemed certain that the British flagship,, would outstrip the rearmost French ship, when Duckworth suddenly called off the pursuit. He later claimed that he was concerned that the leading ships of his squadron would be overwhelmed by the concentrated French squadron before the stragglers, some of which were more than behind "Superb", could join the battle.  As Willaumez escaped into the South Atlantic, Duckworth ordered his squadron to sail for Barbados to resupply before making the long journey back to Cadiz. When he arrived on 12 January 1806, he ordered the frigate to St. Kitts to arrange the required water supplies, and moved the squadron to an anchorage off Basseterre on 19 January. There two ships of the Leeward Islands squadron, and, joined him. "Northumberland" was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Alexander Cochrane, commander of the station. Cochrane's arrival raised the number of admirals in the squadron to three, as Duckworth's second in command was Rear-Admiral Thomas Louis in. Leissègues was also "en route" to the Caribbean, winter storms off the Azores having delayed him, separated "Alexandre" and "Brave" and inflicted damage on "Jupiter" and "Diomède". Arriving at the French-held city of Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola on 20 January, Leissègues disembarked over 1,000 soldiers as reinforcements for the garrison, and made hasty repairs as he awaited the arrival of his missing ships, which appeared on 29 January. During his time in the harbour, Leissègues moved ashore and gave orders for the ships to be recaulked following their Atlantic voyage, a difficult and time-consuming process.  On 1 February the small sloop arrived at Basseterre with information that three French ships of the line had been sighted off Santo Domingo. Duckworth gave orders for the fleet to sail immediately. On 3 February the brig joined him at St. Thomas and on 5 February the frigate under Captain Adam Mackenzie joined near the Mona Passage. Mackenzie was accompanied by a Danish schooner that had sailed from Santo Domingo a few days before, and whose crew were able to provide a detailed account of the French squadron's composition. Before the schooner had sailed, a number of French officers had commented on the risk involved in allowing the vessel to leave port, but the admiral had refused their demands that he burn the Danish ship. Duckworth was now confident that he outnumbered and outgunned Leissègues. During the night of 5 February the British squadron slowly approached Santo Domingo, "Acasta" and "Magicienne" scouting ahead of the main fleet.

Battle.

Duckworth's attack.

At 06:00 on 6 February Duckworth's scouts sighted the French, observing two frigates, five ships of the line and one large merchant ship anchored in line at the entrance to Santo Domingo. Leissègues had reportedly issued orders for the squadron to sail for Jamaica, even though several of the French ships were not yet ready for sea, and two frigates were already under sail when the British arrived. Leissègues was not aboard "Impérial"; he and a number of his officers were still conducting their business in the town and were therefore forced to join the squadron in small boats, which delayed the squadron. Several officers, possibly including Leissègues, did not reach their ships until after the engagement had begun. Recognising that his enemy was in a vulnerable position, Duckworth raised all sail in an effort to close with the French. Leissègues too recognised the danger his ships were in and ordered them to raise anchor and then to sail westwards along the coast in the direction of Nizao. Maintaining close formation, the French formed a line of battle, Captain Pierre-Elie Garreau in "Alexandre" leading, with "Impérial", "Diomède", "Jupiter" and "Brave" following. The frigates and corvette took a position between the battle line and the shore. Duckworth was concerned that there might be other French forces to the west. He therefore angled his line of attack to pass across the front of the French line and signaled to his squadron to direct their fire at the front three ships: "Alexandre", "Impérial" and "Diomède". At 08:00 Duckworth's ships divided into two divisions, a westerly line to windward under Duckworth with "Superb", "Northumberland", and, and an eastern line under Louis with "Canopus", and "Atlas". The British frigates were gathered in formation to the west of the British lines, awaiting orders to assist if required. Over the next two hours the British slowly closed with the French squadron, the British divisions breaking up as the faster ships outpaced the slower. Louis' squadron fell behind Duckworth's, while "Agamemnon" dropped behind the other three vessels in her division, which otherwise remained in a tight formation. A slight shift in the wind allowed Leissègues to adjust his direction to the southwest, but the close presence of the land restricted French movements and at 10:10 "Superb" was able to open fire on "Alexandre". With the British flagship engaged with the leading French vessel, "Northumberland" opened fire on the next in line, Leissègues' flagship "Impérial". The French ship carried 120 guns to "Northumberland"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s 74, but Cochrane engaged closely, rapidly supported by "Spencer", which opened fire on "Impérial" and "Diomède" simultaneously. For 15 minutes the British continued to close, both squadrons sailing westwards along the coast with the wind. At 10:25, the damaged "Alexandre" suddenly swung out of the line in an attempt to drive between "Spencer" and "Northumberland" and rake them both. Captain Robert Stopford on "Spencer" responded rapidly, turning across "Alexandre"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s bow and raking her, before pulling along the opposite side of Garreau's "Alexandre" and opening fire from close range. In the smoke and confusion neither "Superb" nor "Northumberland" noticed "Spencer"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s move; both fired several shots into "Spencer" before they realized their mistake. With "Spencer" and "Alexandre" out of the way, "Impérial" was able to engage both of the leading British ships, threatening to overwhelm them. Cochrane moved to defend the flagship by pulling "Northumberland" between "Impérial" and "Superb", suffering terrible damage but preserving Duckworth's ship intact. "Impérial"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s fire was so heavy that several shot passed straight through "Northumberland" into "Superb".

Destruction of the French rear.

As the combat raged at the head of the line, the remainder of both squadrons strained to join the battle. The British eastern division under Louis reached the battling "Alexandre" and "Spencer" at 10:35, the two ships locked together to the south of the main engagement. As they passed, "Canopus", "Donegal" and "Atlas" all raked the French ship, bringing down all her masts and leaving her in a crippled state. "Canopus" then steered directly towards the battle around "Impérial", as "Donegal" and "Atlas" turned northwest to intercept "Brave" and "Jupiter" respectively. At 11:00, "Spencer" followed "Canopus" while "Alexandre"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s crew were preoccupied with extinguishing a fire that had broken out on board. "Alexandre" was so badly damaged that she was unable to either escape or continue the action; she formally surrendered ten minutes later.  Captain Pulteney Malcolm on "Donegal" attacked "Brave" directly, firing his starboard guns and then crossing "Brave"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s stern, inflicting severe damage with a raking broadside, before pulling alongside again and engaging from close range. Badly damaged, "Brave" surrendered. Malcolm then ordered Captain Richard Dunn in "Acasta" to take possession as "Donegal" moved forward to engage "Jupiter". With "Donegal" alongside "Jupiter", Captain Samuel Pym in "Atlas" abandoned his brief engagement with the French ship and steered for the melee surrounding the increasingly isolated "Impérial". Taking advantage of his ship's superior speed, Malcolm pulled ahead of "Jupiter" and then rammed her bow, securing the ships together to prevent the French vessel from escaping. Recognising that further resistance was hopeless, Captain Gaspard Laignel surrendered immediately. Malcolm then sent 100 men on board as a prize crew and attached a towline to the French ship, just as the trailing "Agamemnon" finally reached the battle.

Leissègues drives ashore.

Under the shroud of heavy smoke that confused the positions and identities of the ships at the head of the line, manoeuvering became hazardous: "Atlas" fired two broadsides into "Impérial" as she arrived and then raked the French flagship before her tiller jammed just as "Diomède" loomed out the smoke. Receiving a heavy broadside from the French ship, "Atlas" subsequently collided with "Canopus" as she too appeared immediately ahead, tearing off her bowsprit in the collision. Turning back into the battle, "Atlas" engaged "Diomède" at close range as the rest of the British squadron concentrated their fire on the beleaguered "Impérial", with the exception of the damaged "Northumberland", which was drifting out of the line.  With his main and mizzen masts collapsed and escape impossible, Leissègues turned his ship towards the shore at 11:30, outdistancing the fire from the drifting "Northumberland" and leaving "Superb" behind, Duckworth reluctant to risk his ship in the shallow coastal shoals. "Canopus" maintained the pressure, pursuing the French flagship until it was clear at 11:40 that "Impérial" was hard aground on a coral reef, less than a mile from the beach. "Diomède", under attack by "Atlas" and the recently returned "Spencer", followed "Impérial" ashore. As they struck the reef, both French ships lost their remaining masts and suffered severe damage to their hulls. Their crews then gathered on deck and made preparations to abandon ship as the British squadron pulled back out of range of fire from the shore. During the engagement the French frigates and corvette had all slipped between the battling squadrons and the shoreline and escaped to the westwards. The British frigates were too preoccupied with boarding and towing prizes to initiate a chase.

Destruction of "Impérial" and "Diomède".

As Duckworth gathered his squadron, "Northumberland"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s mainmast collapsed across the deck, causing severe damage to the ship's fittings. Although Cochrane's flagship was the most severely damaged of the squadron, all had suffered to a degree: "Superb"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s men counted 60 shot holes while "Atlas" was out of control and "Donegal" had lost one of her topmasts. Casualties were also distributed throughout the fleet, with "Northumberland" and "Spencer" suffering the worst and "Atlas" the least except for the barely engaged "Agamemnon". Total losses were 74 killed and 264 wounded and several ships were damaged, but Duckworth was rapidly able to effect repairs as his ships remained on station to observe the situation ashore.  "Impérial" and "Diomède" had both run aground between Nizao and Point Catalan, their hulls broadside to the beach and their bottoms stove in by the reefs that lay offshore. Using the remaining ship's boats and with assistance from the shore, the wounded and survivors were ferried to the beach. These operations continued uninterrupted until 8 February, when Duckworth sent boats from "Acasta" and "Magicienne" to the wrecks. Boarding unopposed, the boat parties removed the remaining French crewmen as prisoners and set both ships on fire to deny their potential use to the French, although Leissègues had in fact already issued orders for them to be burnt once the last men had been evacuated. Her captain, Jean-Baptiste Henry, was among the 150 prisoners the British took from "Diomède". By contrast, the British found only six men still aboard "Impérial", none of them officers. French casualties in the engagement were very heavy, with over 500 men estimated to have been killed or wounded on "Impérial" alone and over 1,000 additional casualties shared among the rest of the fleet. "Jupiter" had not been severely damaged in the engagement and "Brave", although damaged in the hull, was in a sailing condition. Both ships had surrendered early in the engagement after losing their captains killed or wounded, in the initial exchanges. "Alexandre", by contrast, was a shattered wreck. Her British prize crew only just prevented the gaping holes smashed in her hull from sinking her.  Duckworth remained at anchor off Santo Domingo for several more days until his entire squadron and their prizes were ready for the voyage to Jamaica, sending Commander Nathaniel Day Cochrane to Britain in "Kingfisher" with the official despatches. Admiral Cochrane separated from the fleet on the day of departure and "Northumberland" and "Agamemnon" sailed for Barbados in case other French forces should appear in the Leeward Islands while the main fleet was repairing at Jamaica. Duckworth was received at Jamaica with "rapturous acknowledgments" and his prizes were refitted for the journey back to Britain. In the event, "Brave" foundered off the Azores with the loss of three men, and "Alexandre" was too badly damaged for further service, being broken up on arrival. Only "Jupiter", renamed HMS "Maida" after the recent French defeat at the battle of Maida in Italy, had any continued career in the Royal Navy. The only surviving French ships, the frigates "Comète" and "Félicité", and the corvette "Diligente" all returned to France without incident over the following months.

Aftermath.

The victory, just four months after the success at Trafalgar, was celebrated in Britain and across the Empire, particularly in the Caribbean. Mere rumours of Leissègues' presence had stifled trade and caused panic among the merchant houses of the West Indies and Duckworth's victory helped to restore confidence in commercial ocean travel once more. In Britain both the House of Commons and the House of Lords voted their thanks to the entire squadron when Duckworth's account of the action was read out, the motions led by Lord Grenville and Charles Grey, who both made expansive speeches in praise of Duckworth. Head money, a bounty on enemy servicemen killed, wounded or captured, was paid for 4,268 men, even though records showed that the French fleet carried significantly fewer men than that. Additional prize money was paid for the captured "Jupiter" and awards of money, ceremonial plate and ornate swords were made by patriotic societies and Lloyd's of London insurers. Admiral Louis was made a baronet and Cochrane a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath, while a number of promotions were distributed among the first lieutenants. Duckworth, however, received nothing beyond his share of the general rewards. Vice-Admiral Lord Collingwood, commander in chief of the Mediterranean, was furious that Duckworth had deserted his post off Cadiz, failed to bring Willaumez to battle in December and then sailed for the West Indies to resupply rather than returning to the Spanish coast. Historians William James and William Laird Clowes both considered that if Duckworth had not defeated Leissègues he would probably have faced a court martial. Duckworth's absence forced Collingwood to divert some of his own ships to the Cadiz blockade. The force provided still proved inadequate – on 26 February a French frigate squadron broke out of the port and escaped to Rochefort. Collingwood's influence was enough to block additional rewards to Duckworth, who subsequently returned to the Mediterranean and in 1807 commanded the fleet at the ineffectual Dardanelles Operation. Over four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal, awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847.  In France, the government press misrepresented the battle. "Le Moniteur Universel" published a report purportedly written by Captain Raymond Cocault of the corvette "Diligente". The report began by inaccurately claiming that the British squadron consisted of nine ships of the line. The report concluded with the information that two British ships had been destroyed on the San Domingo coast alongside three French and that two others had been dismasted and were badly damaged. The official French report, written by Leissègues but not published in France, contradicted this version of events. Leissègues stated that Cocault, with the other smaller warships, had made all sail to the westwards at the start of the engagement and that by the time the flagship drove ashore, "Diligente" was already out of sight. Leissègues remained on Santo Domingo for some time, but had returned to Europe by the time the colony fell to a joint British and Spanish force in July 1809. He later received a regional command in the Ionian Sea and took part in the Adriatic campaign.  The Atlantic campaign continued throughout the spring and summer. Willaumez was able to avoid the British squadrons searching for him by remaining deep in the South Atlantic. However, on 13 March 1806 the British under Warren intercepted and defeated an unrelated French squadron under Contre-Admiral Charles-Alexandre Durand Linois while he was returning from the Indian Ocean. Eventually forced north in search of additional food supplies, Willaumez entered the Caribbean, where he hoped to intercept the Jamaica convoy to Britain. The disobedience of one of his own captains foiled Willaumez's plan and he ordered his squadron to its final cruising ground, off Newfoundland. On 18 August 1806, while it was deep in the Central Atlantic, a ferocious hurricane caught the squadron and scattered it. Willaumez eventually found shelter in Havana; a number of his ships reached ports in the United States, some too badly damaged to ever sail again. Only four of the 11 ships of the line that left Brest in December 1805 ever returned to France. San Domingo was the last fleet battle of the Wars to be fought in open water; the only subsequent engagement between fleets was the Battle of Basque Roads, fought in the narrow, shallow waters at the mouth of the Charente River.

The Battle of San Domingo was a naval battle of the Napoleonic Wars fought on 6 February 1806 between squadrons of French and British ships of the line off the southern coast of the French-occupied Spanish colonial Captaincy General of Santo Domingo ("San Domingo" in contemporary British English) in the Caribbean.


Description.

While the nuclear force is usually associated with nucleons, more generally this force is felt between hadrons, or particles composed of quarks. At small separations between nucleons (less than ~ 0.7 fm between their centers, depending upon spin alignment) the force becomes repulsive, which keeps the nucleons at a certain average separation. For identical nucleons (such as two neutrons or two protons) this repulsion arises from the Pauli exclusion force. A Pauli repulsion also occurs between quarks of the same flavour from different nucleons (a proton and a neutron).

Field strength.

At distances larger than 0.7 fm the force becomes attractive between spin-aligned nucleons, becoming maximal at a center–center distance of about 0.9 fm. Beyond this distance the force drops exponentially, until beyond about 2.0 fm separation, the force is negligible. Nucleons have a radius of about 0.8 fm.  At short distances (less than 1.7 fm or so), the attractive nuclear force is stronger than the repulsive Coulomb force between protons; it thus overcomes the repulsion of protons within the nucleus. However, the Coulomb force between protons has a much greater range as it varies as the inverse square of the charge separation, and Coulomb repulsion thus becomes the only significant force between protons when their separation exceeds about 2 to 2.5 fm.  The nuclear force has a spin-dependent component. The force is stronger for particles with their spins aligned than for those with their spins anti-aligned. If two particles are the same, such as two neutrons or two protons, the force is not enough to bind the particles, since the spin vectors of two particles of the same type must point in opposite directions when the particles are near each other and are (save for spin) in the same quantum state. This requirement for fermions stems from the Pauli exclusion principle. For fermion particles of different types, such as a proton and neutron, particles may be close to each other and have aligned spins without violating the Pauli exclusion principle, and the nuclear force may bind them (in this case, into a deuteron), since the nuclear force is much stronger for spin-aligned particles. But if the particles' spins are anti-aligned the nuclear force is too weak to bind them, even if they are of different types.  The nuclear force also has a tensor component which depends on the interaction between the nucleon spins and the angular momentum of the nucleons, leading to deformation from a simple spherical shape.

Nuclear binding.

To disassemble a nucleus into unbound protons and neutrons requires work against the nuclear force. Conversely, energy is released when a nucleus is created from free nucleons or other nuclei: the nuclear binding energy. Because of mass–energy equivalence (i.e. Einstein's formula ), releasing this energy causes the mass of the nucleus to be lower than the total mass of the individual nucleons, leading to the so-called "mass defect".  The nuclear force is nearly independent of whether the nucleons are neutrons or protons. This property is called "charge independence". The force depends on whether the spins of the nucleons are parallel or antiparallel, as it has a non-central or "tensor" component. This part of the force does not conserve orbital angular momentum, which under the action of central forces is conserved.  The symmetry resulting in the strong force, proposed by Werner Heisenberg, is that protons and neutrons are identical in every respect, other than their charge. This is not completely true, because neutrons are a tiny bit heavier, but it is an approximate symmetry. Protons and neutrons are therefore viewed as the same particle, but with different isospin quantum numbers; conventionally, the proton is "isospin up," while the neutron is "isospin down". The strong force is invariant under SU(2) isospin transformations, just as other interactions between particles are invariant under SU(2) transformations of intrinsic spin. In other words, both isospin and intrinsic spin transformations are isomorphic to the SU(2) symmetry group. There are only strong attractions when the total isospin of the set of interacting particles is 0, which is confirmed by experiment.  Our understanding of the nuclear force is obtained by scattering experiments and the binding energy of light nuclei. The nuclear force occurs by the exchange of virtual light mesons, such as the virtual pions, as well as two types of virtual mesons with spin (vector mesons), the rho mesons and the omega mesons. The vector mesons account for the spin-dependence of the nuclear force in this "virtual meson" picture.  The nuclear force is distinct from what historically was known as the weak nuclear force. The weak interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions, and plays a role in processes such as beta decay. The weak force plays no role in the interaction of nucleons, though it is responsible for the decay of neutrons to protons and vice versa.

History.

The nuclear force has been at the heart of nuclear physics ever since the field was born in 1932 with the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick. The traditional goal of nuclear physics is to understand the properties of atomic nuclei in terms of the 'bare' interaction between pairs of nucleons, or nucleon–nucleon forces (NN forces).  Within months after the discovery of the neutron, Werner Heisenberg and Dmitri Ivanenko had proposed proton–neutron models for the nucleus. Heisenberg approached the description of protons and neutrons in the nucleus through quantum mechanics, an approach that was not at all obvious at the time. Heisenberg's theory for protons and neutrons in the nucleus was a "major step toward understanding the nucleus as a quantum mechanical system." Heisenberg introduced the first theory of nuclear exchange forces that bind the nucleons. He considered protons and neutrons to be different quantum states of the same particle, i.e., nucleons distinguished by the value of their nuclear isospin quantum numbers.  One of the earliest models for the nucleus was the liquid drop model developed in the 1930s. One property of nuclei is that the average binding energy per nucleon is approximately the same for all stable nuclei, which is similar to a liquid drop. The liquid drop model treated the nucleus as a drop of incompressible nuclear fluid, with nucleons behaving like molecules in a liquid. The model was first proposed by George Gamow and then developed by Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. This crude model did not explain all the properties of the nucleus, but it did explain the spherical shape of most nuclei. The model also gave good predictions for the binding energy of nuclei.  In 1934, Hideki Yukawa made the earliest attempt to explain the nature of the nuclear force. According to his theory, massive bosons (mesons) mediate the interaction between two nucleons. In light of quantum chromodynamics (QCD)—and, by extension, the Standard Model—meson theory is no longer perceived as fundamental. But the meson-exchange concept (where hadrons are treated as elementary particles) continues to represent the best working model for a quantitative "NN" potential. The Yukawa potential (also called a screened Coulomb potential) is a potential of the form  where "g" is a magnitude scaling constant, i.e., the amplitude of potential, formula_2 is the Yukawa particle mass, "r" is the radial distance to the particle. The potential is monotone increasing, implying that the force is always attractive. The constants are determined empirically. The Yukawa potential depends only on the distance between particles, "r", hence it models a central force.  Throughout the 1930s a group at Columbia University led by I. I. Rabi developed magnetic resonance techniques to determine the magnetic moments of nuclei. These measurements led to the discovery in 1939 that the deuteron also possessed an electric quadrupole moment. This electrical property of the deuteron had been interfering with the measurements by the Rabi group. The deuteron, composed of a proton and a neutron, is one of the simplest nuclear systems. The discovery meant that the physical shape of the deuteron was not symmetric, which provided valuable insight into the nature of the nuclear force binding nucleons. In particular, the result showed that the nuclear force was not a central force, but had a tensor character. Hans Bethe identified the discovery of the deuteron's quadrupole moment as one of the important events during the formative years of nuclear physics.  Historically, the task of describing the nuclear force phenomenologically was formidable. The first semi-empirical quantitative models came in the mid-1950s, such as the Woods–Saxon potential (1954). There was substantial progress in experiment and theory related to the nuclear force in the 1960s and 1970s. One influential model was the Reid potential (1968).  In recent years, experimenters have concentrated on the subtleties of the nuclear force, such as its charge dependence, the precise value of the π"NN" coupling constant, improved phase shift analysis, high-precision "NN" data, high-precision "NN" potentials, "NN" scattering at intermediate and high energies, and attempts to derive the nuclear force from QCD.

The nuclear force as a residual of the strong force.

The nuclear force is a residual effect of the more fundamental strong force, or strong interaction. The strong interaction is the attractive force that binds the elementary particles called quarks together to form the nucleons (protons and neutrons) themselves. This more powerful force, one of the fundamental forces of nature, is mediated by particles called gluons. Gluons hold quarks together through color charge which is analogous to electric charge, but far stronger. Quarks, gluons, and their dynamics are mostly confined within nucleons, but residual influences extend slightly beyond nucleon boundaries to give rise to the nuclear force.  The nuclear forces arising between nucleons are analogous to the forces in chemistry between neutral atoms or molecules called London forces. Such forces between atoms are much weaker than the attractive electrical forces that hold the atoms themselves together (i.e., that bind electrons to the nucleus), and their range between atoms is shorter, because they arise from small separation of charges inside the neutral atom. Similarly, even though nucleons are made of quarks in combinations which cancel most gluon forces (they are "color neutral"), some combinations of quarks and gluons nevertheless leak away from nucleons, in the form of short-range nuclear force fields that extend from one nucleon to another nearby nucleon. These nuclear forces are very weak compared to direct gluon forces ("color forces" or strong forces) inside nucleons, and the nuclear forces extend only over a few nuclear diameters, falling exponentially with distance. Nevertheless, they are strong enough to bind neutrons and protons over short distances, and overcome the electrical repulsion between protons in the nucleus.  Sometimes, the nuclear force is called the residual strong force, in contrast to the strong interactions which arise from QCD. This phrasing arose during the 1970s when QCD was being established. Before that time, the "strong nuclear force" referred to the inter-nucleon potential. After the verification of the quark model, "strong interaction" has come to mean QCD.

Nucleon–nucleon potentials.

Two-nucleon systems such as the deuteron, the nucleus of a deuterium atom, as well as proton–proton or neutron–proton scattering are ideal for studying the "NN" force. Such systems can be described by attributing a "potential" (such as the Yukawa potential) to the nucleons and using the potentials in a Schrödinger equation. The form of the potential is derived phenomenologically (by measurement), although for the long-range interaction, meson-exchange theories help to construct the potential. The parameters of the potential are determined by fitting to experimental data such as the deuteron binding energy or "NN" elastic scattering cross sections (or, equivalently in this context, so-called "NN" phase shifts).  The most widely used "NN" potentials are the Paris potential, the Argonne AV18 potential, the CD-Bonn potential and the Nijmegen potentials.  A more recent approach is to develop effective field theories for a consistent description of nucleon–nucleon and three-nucleon forces. Quantum hadrodynamics is an effective field theory of the nuclear force, comparable to QCD for color interactions and QED for electromagnetic interactions. Additionally, chiral symmetry breaking can be analyzed in terms of an effective field theory (called chiral perturbation theory) which allows perturbative calculations of the interactions between nucleons with pions as exchange particles.

From nucleons to nuclei.

The ultimate goal of nuclear physics would be to describe all nuclear interactions from the basic interactions between nucleons. This is called the "microscopic" or "ab initio" approach of nuclear physics. There are two major obstacles to overcome:  This is an active area of research with ongoing advances in computational techniques leading to better first-principles calculations of the nuclear shell structure. Two- and three-nucleon potentials have been implemented for nuclides up to "A" = 12.

Nuclear potentials.

A successful way of describing nuclear interactions is to construct one potential for the whole nucleus instead of considering all its nucleon components. This is called the "macroscopic" approach. For example, scattering of neutrons from nuclei can be described by considering a plane wave in the potential of the nucleus, which comprises a real part and an imaginary part. This model is often called the optical model since it resembles the case of light scattered by an opaque glass sphere.  Nuclear potentials can be "local" or "global": local potentials are limited to a narrow energy range and/or a narrow nuclear mass range, while global potentials, which have more parameters and are usually less accurate, are functions of the energy and the nuclear mass and can therefore be used in a wider range of applications.

The nuclear force (or nucleon–nucleon interaction or residual strong force) is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms. Neutrons and protons, both nucleons, are affected by the nuclear force almost identically. Since protons have charge +1 "e", they experience an electric force that tends to push them apart, but at short range the attractive nuclear force is strong enough to overcome the electromagnetic force. The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei.


Fund goals.

The FSN is funded essentially by the State’s grants and by donations by Tunisian citizens and private companies on a totally voluntary basis. Tunisian society reacted with enthusiasm to President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s calls upon citizens to show solidarity with the needy. Thus, December 8 of every year—the historical date which marks the launch the Fund—witnesses a steady flow by Tunisians to various donation centers in order to contribute to the Fund.  The goals of the FSN are:  The FSN is funded essentially by the State’s grants and by donations by Tunisian citizens and private companies on a totally voluntary basis. Tunisian society reacted with enthusiasm to President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali’s calls upon citizens to show solidarity with the needy. Thus, December 8 of every year—the historical date which marks the launch the Fund—witnesses a steady flow by Tunisians to various donation centers in order to contribute to the Fund. All the funds collected go towards implementing projects. There are no overhead costs nor are the funds used to pay employees of the fund.

Results.

Ever since its creation till to date, the FSN has realized thousands of projects involving hundreds of millions of Tunisian Dinars in favor of the underprivileged categories, thus meeting most of its objectives. Indeed, the FSN has been able to bring about a perceptible change in the life quality of those categories as well as in the landscape of the once secluded and poor areas. Amongst these realizations are:

The Tunisian National Solidarity Fund (also known as the 26-26 Fund after its postal account number or as FSN) is a public-service institution which relies on both public and private donations for the implementation of development projects in favor of underprivileged social categories and needy individuals. The FSN was created on December 8, 1992, following an unexpected visit by President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to two secluded and destitute villages, «Zwakra» and «Barrama» in the south-eastern part of the country. That visit was to be the launch pad of a continuing anti-poverty campaign.


History.

Early Years.

The championship was initially run with a mix of classes, divided according to engine capacity, racing simultaneously. This often meant that a driver who chose the right class could win the overall championship without any chance of overall race wins, thereby devaluing the title for the spectators – for example, in the 1980s Chris Hodgetts won two overall titles in a small Toyota Corolla prepared by Hughes Of Beaconsfield, at that time a Mercedes-Benz/Toyota main dealer when most of the race wins were going to much larger cars; and while the Ford Sierra Cosworth RS500s were dominating at the front of the field, Frank Sytner took a title in a Class B BMW M3 and John Cleland's first title was won in a small Class C Vauxhall Astra.

Modern Era.

Super Touring Cars.

In 1990, the BTCC introduced a class for cars with an engine displacement up to 2.0 litres which would later be adopted by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile and become the Super Touring regulations that were used in various championships in Europe and around the world. In their first year, these cars were run alongside a second class which continued to allow larger engines and was once again dominated by the Ford Sierra Cosworth RS500, however from 1991 they became the only cars eligible to compete. The new one-class system was popular with manufacturers from the beginning with six manufacturer supported teams from BMW, Ford, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Toyota and Vauxhall entered in the championship. During the first seasons, the cars were not fitted with aerodynamic aids such as a front splitter or a rear wing which were allowed from 1995 after Alfa Romeo caused controversy a year earlier, when they entered the 155 fitted with a rear wing - an item that was delivered with the road-going version of the 155, however unfitted in its boot. Audi joined the BTCC in 1996 with its four-wheel drive A4 Quattro, and went on to take that year's title. The continuously high number of manufacturer-backed teams meant rapid development on the cars and quickly growing costs to compete which caused several manufacturers to withdraw from the championship until the 2000 season, when only Ford, Honda and Vauxhall remained in the championship. To this day, the'super touring era' during the 1990s is still looked at as the most successful period of the BTCC. The high number of manufacturer-backed teams provided very close competition, close and hard-fought racing on track and many spectators at the circuits.

BTC Touring and Super 2000 cars.

In order to reduce the costs to compete in the championship, the organisers introduced new regulations for the 2001 season. The BTC Touring regulations cut costs dramatically but both manufacturer and spectator interest was low. The Super 2000 rules were adopted for the 2007 season. The 2000s saw cheaper cars than the later Supertouring era, with fewer factory teams and fewer international drivers.

Next Generation Touring Car.

In 2009, the BTCC released details of its Next Generation Touring Car (NGTC) specification, to be introduced from 2011. The introduction of these new technical regulations were designed to dramatically reduce the design, build and running costs of the cars and engines as well as reducing the potential for significant performance disparities between cars. The NGTC specification also aimed to cut costs by reducing reliance on WTCC/S2000 equipment, due to increasing costs/complexity and concerns as to its future sustainability and direction.

Current NGTC cars.

Currently, the cars used are a mix of 2.0 L saloons (sedans) such as the BMW 3-Series and Infiniti Q50, and hatchback cars such as the Honda Civic, Toyota Corolla and Ford Focus, based on models from a variety of manufacturers, using NGTC regulations. S2000 cars continued running in the Jack Sears Trophy until the 2014 season.

Teams.

BTCC teams are a mixture of manufacturer entries (currently Honda, BMW, Vauxhall, and Toyota) and independent teams such as BTC Racing, and Motorbase Performance.  In 2010, following Vauxhall's decision to pull out of the series, there were two new works teams, : Chevrolet, run by RML; and Honda, run by Team Dynamics.  In 2005, Team Dynamics became the first independent outfit to win the BTCC drivers and team championships; Matt Neal won the overall and independent drivers contests in his Team Dynamics Honda Integra. This included finishing all 30 championship races that year, something no other driver had achieved before and only equalled by Adam Morgan some 10 years later in 2015. This ended Vauxhall's run of 4 victories in the drivers and teams championships between 2001 and 2004. Neal and Dynamics were also victorious in 2006, before Vauxhall won the 2007 title with Italian Fabrizio Giovanardi. Team Dynamics also achieved the first overall independents race win in the 'Supertouring' era when Neal won a round of the 1999 BTCC at Donington Park, earning the team prize-money of £250,000.  As a result of Matt Neal's championship victories, and the fact that Team Dynamics were designing and building their own S2000 Honda Civic Type R (with unofficial support from Honda), they were no longer entered into the Independents category, and were classed as neither an "independent" or "works" team until the 2009 season, when the Manufacturers championship was renamed Manufacturers/Constructors Championship to allow both Team Aon and Team Dynamics to compete with at the time the sole works entry of Vauxhall.

Car regulations.

Current regulations.

As of the 2014 British Touring Car Championship, all cars are built to the same regulations:

Cost control measures.

There are strict limits to the modifications which can be made to the cars, which are intended to reduce the cost of running a competitive team, which had become prohibitive in the final years of the Super Touring rules. These cost reductions saw a rise in independent entries – teams or individuals entering cars purchased from the manufacturer teams when they update their chassis.  With the introduction of the NGTC rules, all cars share a number of common components provided through a contract with RML Group. This has allowed many independent teams to enter without the need for manufacturer support, and negating the need to source ex-works cars. Teams can install an engine from their marque's broad 'family' of cars, or opt to lease an engine from TOCA, built by Swindon Engines which also helps to make the cost of entry more affordable.  To further keep costs in check, the BTCC uses a single tyre supplier, with Dunlop the current supplier of rubber to all the teams. For dry races, the Dunlop SportMaxx Prime tyre is used, along with the use of the Option tyre (Soft/Hard) mandated at one race each meeting. For wet races, the Dunlop SportMaxx BluResponse tyre is used.

Fuels.

The rules previously allowed for a variety of different fuels in a bid to encourage more efficient cars. In 2004 Mardi Gras Motorsport independently entered a Liquified petroleum gas powered Super 2000 Honda Civic Type-R (which was subsequently replaced by a more competitive BTC-Touring Peugeot 406 Coupé, still LPG powered), and in 2005 Tech-Speed Motorsport converted an ex-works Vauxhall Astra Coupé to run on bio-ethanol fuel. In the middle of 2006, Kartworld's owner-driver Jason Hughes converted his 4-cylinder MG ZS to run on Bio-Ethanol, soon followed by the West Surrey Racing cars of championship contender Colin Turkington and Rob Collard, and for the final event at Silverstone, Richard Marsh converted his Peugeot 307 to run on bio-ethanol fuel. Only Hughes continued on this fuel in 2007 and 2008. The regulations also permitted cars to run on diesel; attempted first in the 2007 season by Rick Kerry in a BMW 120d E87 run by Team AFM Racing. In 2008 SEAT Sport UK entered two Turbo Diesel Power SEAT Leons – the first diesel powered manufacturer entered cars. At the start of the 2010 season, it was announced that Team AON racing had converted both of their Ford Focus ST cars to run on LPG.  Under current NGTC regulations, all entrants use Carless HiperFlo 300 which is a 101/102 RON and 89/90 MON unleaded gasoline with approximately 2% oxygen content that meets the FIA ‘Appendix J’ gasoline specification.

Previous regulations.

The following regulations have been applied to the championship:

Circuits.

Being a national championship, the British Touring Car Championship has visited circuits throughout the United Kingdom over its long history. Currently the series visits eight different tracks in England and Scotland over the course of ten meetings. These tracks are: Brands Hatch (Indy Layout), Donington Park, Thruxton Circuit (the fastest track ever visited by the BTCC, with an average speed of 111.31 mph, set by Andrew Jordan during qualifying in 2014), Oulton Park, Croft Circuit, Snetterton Motor Racing Circuit, Knockhill Racing Circuit, and Silverstone Circuit (National and International layouts), with a return to Brands Hatch (GP Layout) at the end of the season.  In the past, the BTCC has visited Mondello Park in Ireland and Pembrey Circuit in Wales. A street race around the city of Birmingham known as the Birmingham Superprix, was held in 1989 and 1990. Rockingham Motor Speedway, Aintree Motor Racing Circuit, Crystal Palace circuit and Goodwood Circuit have all hosted rounds in the past.

Race format.

On the Saturday of a race weekend there are two practice sessions followed by a 30-minute qualifying session which determines the starting order for the first race on the Sunday, the fastest driver lining up in pole position.  Each race typically consists of between 16 and 25 laps, depending on the length of the circuit. A race may be extended by three laps if three or more laps have been run behind a safety car.  The grid for race two is based on the finishing order of race one. For race three, a draw takes place to decide at which place the grid is'reversed'. This means drivers finishing race two in positions 6th through 12th could take pole position for race 3 depending on the outcome of the draw. For example, if ball number 7 is drawn, the driver finishing in 7th position in race two starts on pole, 6th place starts in second place, 5th place starts in third etc. Drivers finishing in 8th place and beyond would start race three in their finishing order for race two. The draw is normally conducted by a celebrity or VIP, live on TV. For 2014, this was changed so that the driver who finished Race 2 in 10th position made the draw. Fabrizio Giovanardi has twice managed to put himself on pole position by drawing out number 10.  Before 2006, the driver finishing in 10th place in race two took pole position for race three. This initiated deliberate race 'fixing', whereby some drivers attempted to finished in 10th place during race two to gain pole position in race three. This "reverse grid" rule polarised opinion: some fans enjoy the spectacle afforded by having unlikely drivers on pole position while faster ones have to battle through the field; others feel it detracts from the purity of the racing. For example, some drivers might decide to slow down and let others pass them, thereby improving their own starting position for the "reverse grid" race, which is contrary to the spirit of motor racing – which is to try to come first in every race. It also led to some safety concerns as drivers would slow dramatically on the approach to the finish line, with cars behind forced to take evasive action to avoid collecting slower cars ahead. These factors contributed the rule change for the 2006 season.

Points system.

Current points system.

Points are awarded to the top fifteen drivers in each race as follows:

Previous points system.

Points are awarded to the top ten drivers in each race as follows:

Television coverage.

The BBC screened highlights of every race from 1988 to 2001. The F1 commentator at the time, Murray Walker, commentated. From 1997, some races were screened live with Charlie Cox joining Murray Walker. After 1997 the commentary team was Charlie Cox and John Watson with Murray Walker dedicating his time to Formula 1.  In the UK, ITV covered the series from 2002, with commentary from Ben Edwards and former champion Tim Harvey, with Toby Moody replacing Edwards after he replaced Martin Brundle on the BBC's F1 coverage in 2012 and David Addison replaced Toby Moody for the 2013 season. In 2006 the ITV coverage included highlights from the first and second race of the day and live coverage of the third and final race. This returned in the second half of 2007, after the first five meetings had been on ITV3 (a digital channel with fewer viewers), with a half-hour late-night highlights show. ITV also has a Sunday night show called Motorsport UK, featuring many of the supporting races. From 2008, the races were screened live on ITV4, along with the support races. ITV has a one-hour highlights programme on the Monday night following the race.  The series is screened in other countries. In Australia, Fox Sports Australia have been covering the BTCC championship since 2000. From 2009 the ITV coverage has screened on ONE HD. Speed TV screened several seasons in the USA over the winter, but this ended when the network became Fox Sports 1 in 2013. BTCC returned to the air in the US with the 2015 season, being aired on CBS Sports Network in condensed, one-hour packages like those aired on Speed. Unlike Speed's offering as the series being winter programming filling the void after the American racing season, CBSSN airs events a week or so after their actual running.  Motors TV used to show all the races live, including some support races, both in the UK and across Europe. In 2007 Setanta Sports showed all the races live, including the support races; this ceased when the entire day's coverage moved to ITV4.

Live timing.

Live timing for the BTCC and its support races, as well as testing, is provided by Timing Solutions Ltd from their website. This service allows you to follow free practice and qualifying as well as race day action via a timing screen from your computer or mobile phone.

Previous champions.

Currently, five championships are awarded per season. The overall driver's championship is the driver gaining the most points overall throughout the season. Since 1992, the Independents driver championship has also been awarded to the leading non-manufacturer-backed driver. There are also awards for the best overall team, leading manufacturer and, since 2005, the top independent team. Previous championship titles were awarded to the leading "Production" (or "Class B") driver and team between 2000 and 2003. The Jack Sears Trophy was introduced for the 2013 season and was awarded to the highest scoring driver competing in S2000 machinery. For 2014, with S2000 cars no longer eligible to compete, it was awarded to the drive that had made up the most places from their grid position throughout the season. From the 2015 season the Jack Sears Trophy has been awarded to the highest placed rookie driver at the end of the season. For the 60th anniversary year in 2018, any driver who had yet to take an overall podium was eligible to contest the Jack Sears Trophy.

Series sponsors.

The BTCC has had several championship sponsors over the years.

Manufacturer/Constructor Entries.

The BTCC features entries with the backing, funding and technical support of a motor manufacturer. This may be a motor racing team running cars on behalf of the manufacturer or cars being run directly by the factory. Below is a timeline of manufacturer/constructor entries from the beginning of the 2-litre era.

Support races.

Each BTCC race meeting, the crowds are kept further entertained by the appearance of high-profile supporting championships, known as the TOCA Support Package, from the manufacturers Ford, Ginetta, Porsche and Renault.

TOCA support package.

The TOCA Support Package consists of five main support championships, which support the championship at almost every round, along with several smaller championships supporting one or two events. All the support championships are either Single Make Championships or Formula racing.  After previously supported the BTCC in the late 1990s and then in 2013 and 2014, the British Formula Ford Championship announced that it was folding to become the MSA Formula, the FIA's Formula 4 championship in the UK for the 2015 season. Known as F4 British Championship from 2016, the championship uses Mygale carbon-fibre monocoque chassis and a Ford 1.6L EcoBoost engine as used in the more modern Formula Ford cars.  The Ginetta GT Supercup is a GT style, multi class championship. The main class is the G55 class, utilising Ginetta's G55 car. The second class, known as the G50 class, utilises the older and less powerful Ginetta G50. Most weekends in 2013 see three Supercup races with a few rounds hosting only two races. Ginetta also run a championship on the support package that caters for up and coming young talent in the form of the Ginetta Junior Championship. These 14- to 17-year-olds race in identical Ginetta G40J cars with strict regulations which help keep costs down. In 2013, the championship with run two races at all BTCC weekends.  Out of all the current support series, the Porsche Carrera Cup GB is the longest serving support championship. Drivers compete in identical Porsche 911 GT3 Cup (Type 997) cars which produce 450 bhp. The three tier championship splits drivers according to their racing experience. Professional drivers compete in the Pro class, with semi-professional and amateur drivers racing in either Pro-Am1 or Pro-Am2. From 2013, the Carrera Cup has held two races at each BTCC meeting.  Finally, the Renault Clio Cup UK allows aspiring touring car drivers to showcase their talent in this single make series, utilising Clio Renaultsport 200 cars. The championship awards three different titles for drivers. Along with the overall drivers’ championship, younger rookie drivers can chase points for the Graduate Cup and older gentlemen drivers can seek points for the Masters Cup. During 2013, the Clio Cup will hold two races at all BTCC weekends except the rounds at Croft and Knockhill.  For 2020, the Renault Clio Cup UK has been replaced by the Mini Challenge, which joins from the British GT package. The Clio Cup has joined the British GT Package instead.

The Kwik Fit British Touring Car Championship is a touring car racing series held each year in the United Kingdom, currently organised and administered by TOCA. It was established in 1958 as the British Saloon Car Championship and was renamed as the British Touring Car Championship for the 1987 season. The championship, currently running Next Generation Touring Car regulations, has been run to various national and international regulations over the years including FIA Group 2, FIA Group 5, FIA Group 1, FIA Group A, FIA Super Touring and FIA Super 2000. A lower-key Group N class for production cars ran from 2000 until 2003.


Life.

Born in Yorkshire, England, Kirby immigrated with his parents to the United States in 1832, and then to Canada in 1839. After visiting Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec City, he settled in Niagara, Ontario, where his house still stands.  Kirby practised as a tanner until his marriage with Eliza Madeline Whitmore, with whom he had three children (one of whom died in infancy.) For more than twenty years, Kirby was the editor of the "Niagara Mail" (1850–1871) which he purchased from the founder in 1850. From 1871–1895, he was a collector of customs at Niagara, and in 1883, he became a charter member of the Royal Society of Canada. He died at Niagara on 23 June 1906.  Kirby's first full-length work was a long narrative, "The U.E.: a tale of Upper Canada". Written in 1846 the poem spoke to his political views of the time. He was unsuccessful in his attempts to have it published until 1859, when he published it himself in the "Niagara Mail".

"The Golden Dog".

Kirby's importance as a Canadian writer rests largely on his novel "The Golden Dog". Taking fifteen years to write, the historical romance was set in New France in 1748. Kirby finished writing the novel in 1873.  Although the first edition of the book was filled with errors, it was still very well received by the public and, to Kirby's delight, it was rumoured to have been read by Queen Victoria. The book was described as having both good characterisation and description used to describe rural and urban locations. It was heavily influenced by the collection "Maple Leaves", by James LeMoine (7 vol. 1863–1906). This provided Kirby with the history, legends, and oral traditions needed to write his book.  "The Golden Dog" was initially published in English and distributed within the United States without his permission in 1877. Kirby's publisher Lovell, Adam Wesson and Company neglected to register the novel properly, so Kirby lost all royalties for his book. The copyright laws of the time stated all Canadian residents must register, publish, and distribute in Canada first, before distributing the book elsewhere, to secure copyright protection. The book was then picked up by New York publisher Richard Worthington, and re-issued in 1878, Kirby, once again, was neglected royalties.  In 1885, Kirby secured some rights when the French translation ("Le Chien d'Or") was published. Copied versions of the story were, at this time, widely available, but unfortunately for Kirby, the translated version did not sell nearly as well.  Sometime later, Kirby was approached by L.C. Page and Company, a publishing company from Boston, with an offer of publishing a revised version of "The Golden Dog". Kirby accepted this offer and revised the book, making corrections to the book in accordance with new developments in Quebec's history.

William Kirby, (13 October 1817 – 23 June 1906) was a Canadian author, best known for his classic historical novel, "The Golden Dog".


Background.

Victorious in the Battle of Ourique, in 1139, Afonso Henriques benefited from the developed action by the archbishop of Braga, D. João Peculiar, in favor of the constitution of the new Kingdom of Portugal. To reconcile Afonso Henriques and his cousin Alfonso VII of León, the archbishop made arrangements for them to meet in Zamora in 4 and 5 of October 1143 in the presence of the cardinal Guido de Vico.

Result.

By the terms of the treaty, Alfonso VII agreed that the County of Portugal would become a kingdom, and that D. Afonso Henriques would be its king. The Portuguese sovereignty, recognized by Alfonso VII in Zamora, was only confirmed by Pope Alexander III in 1179, but the title of "rex", which D. Afonso Henriques used since 1140, was confirmed at Zamora, when the Portuguese monarch committed, before the cardinal, to consider himself a vassal of the Holy See, being then obliged, himself and his descendants, to pay an annual tithe to the Pope.  From 1143, D. Afonso Henriques would send repentance letters to the Pope declaring himself his lord vassal and committing himself to sending a determined amount of gold every year. The negotiations would last several years, from 1143 to 1179. In 1179, Pope Alexander III would send D. Afonso Henriques the papal bull "Manifestis probatum", in which the Pope accepted that D. Afonso Henriques would pay him direct vassalage, acknowledging definitely the independence of the Kingdom of Portugal without vassalage to Alfonso VII (because a vassal couldn't have two direct lords) and D. Afonso Henriques as first king of Portugal, Afonso I of Portugal.

The Treaty of Zamora (5 October 1143) recognized Portuguese independence from the Kingdom of León. Based on the terms of the accord, King Alfonso VII of León recognized the Kingdom of Portugal in the presence of his cousin King Afonso I of Portugal, witnessed by the papal representative, Cardinal Guido de Vico, at the Cathedral of Zamora. Both kings promised durable peace between their kingdoms. By this treaty Afonso I of Portugal also recognized the suzerainty of the Pope.


History.

BARLA was created in 1973 in Huddersfield at the George Hotel by a group of enthusiasts concerned about the dramatic disappearance of many amateur leagues and clubs. Fewer than 150 amateur teams remained with a mere thirty youth rugby league teams. The 'breakaway' from the RFL was acrimonious and was strongly contested with a vote 29–1 against recognising BARLA. Thanks to Tom Mitchell, this changed to a unanimous vote of approval for BARLA within twelve months.  One of BARLA's first acts was to merge the vast majority of the district leagues into five regional leagues: the Yorkshire League (initially still called the Leeds & District League), the short-lived Cumbria League, the West Yorkshire Sunday League, the Pennine League and the North Western Counties League. For geographical reasons the Hull & District League (renamed Humberside League) and the Southern League were left unmerged. This allowed clubs to play at more appropriate standards as there were more divisions, and this factor along with the improved governance of BARLA saw the standard and numbers of clubs rise quickly.  The Yorkshire County Cup and Lancashire County Cup knock-out competitions were started in 1973 as well as the BARLA National Cup.  In 1977 BARLA toured Australia and New Zealand for the first time. In that year the BARLA Young Lions made their first inaugural tour setting a lasting trend by giving future stars of the game such as David Hobbs their first taste of international rugby league.  A Cumbria County Cup was started in 1982.  The best amateur clubs were still divided between six leagues and thus the desire for an amateur National League arose. The BARLA National League first took place in the 1986/1987 season with 10 teams.  The association has always been a champion of the amateur ethos and in 1987 BARLA played a major role in the establishment of the 'free gangway' between the two codes at amateur level. The agreement allowed players to inter-change between rugby league and rugby union without fear of discrimination.  The BARLA National League soon proved popular and the 1989/90 season also saw the addition of a second division.  On 30 November 1990, BARLA's new headquarters at West Yorkshire House, Huddersfield was opened by Queen Elizabeth II.  In 1993, BARLA provided the first Great Britain team to tour South Africa. The BARLA National League was rebranded the National Conference League and expanded to three divisions (now named premier, first and second) in 1993.  By 1999, there were more than 1,400 teams and 900 youth and junior teams. On an average weekend in the season, almost 23,000 players will be in action.  BARLA's work in the international expansion of the game was recognised by their inclusion as affiliate members of the International Federation (equivalent to the International Board at the time) in 1999 and by BARLA's inclusion in the Emerging Nations World Championship in 2000.  BARLA won the Emerging Nations World Championship beating Italy 20–14 in the final.

Competitions.

BARLA runs many leagues, mainly based in the 'heartland' areas of the sport (Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria). The top division under their control is the National Conference League, with regional leagues including the North West Counties, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Pennine Hull & District and Barrow & District leagues.  Its top knock-out competition is the BARLA National Cup and there are county cups for Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria.  There is an InterTown Series played over the summer between sides representing different districts.  It also runs youth leagues such as the Yorkshire Combination Youth League and Hull Youth and Junior. There are county cups at age group level, known as the Yorkshire Youth Cup, Lancashire Youth Cup and the Cumbria Youth Cup.

Representative rugby league.

BARLA selects an international team consisting of community players, the BARLA Lions. This team tours many parts of the rugby league world, and have competed in the Rugby League Emerging Nations Tournament. The association has made 31 tours to and from the Southern Hemisphere. These include pioneer visits with matches against Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Cook Islands and South Africa. In the Northern Hemisphere games have been played against Moldova, Russia, Morocco Pakistan and the USA.

Cumbria.

North West Allerdale, Barrow & South Lakes, Copeland and Eden

North West.

Halton, Lancashire, Rochdale, Oldham, Salford, St Helens, Warrington & Cheshire, Wigan & Leigh, fylde

Yorkshire.

Bradford, Calderdale, Hull, Kirklees, Leeds, North Yorkshire, South Yorkshire, Wakefield

Non-heartlands.

London & South East, North East, Scotland, Wales

The British Amateur Rugby League Association (BARLA) is an association for social and recreational rugby league. It works jointly with the Rugby Football League through the RFL Community Board.


History.

Founding.

Bellevue traces its origins to the city's first permanent almshouse, a two-story brick building completed in 1736 on the city common, now City Hall Park.  In 1798, the city purchased Belle Vue farm, a property near the East River several miles north of the settled city, which had been used to quarantine the sick during a series of yellow fever outbreaks. When the grid system of streets was established in 1811, the survey had to take the hospital into account, and the placement of First Avenue on the grid is mainly because of the location of Bellevue. The hospital was formally named "Bellevue Hospital" in 1824.  By 1787 Columbia University's College of Physicians and Surgeons had assigned faculty and medical students to Bellevue. Columbia faculty and students would remain at Bellevue for the next 181 years, until the restructuring of the academic affiliations of Bellevue Hospital in 1968. New York University faculty began to conduct clinical instruction at the hospital in 1819. In 1849, an amphitheater for clinical teaching and surgery opened. In 1861, the Bellevue Hospital Medical College, the first medical college in New York with connections to a hospital, was founded. By 1873, the nation's first nursing school based on Florence Nightingale's principles opened at Bellevue, followed by the nation's first children's clinic in 1874 and the nation's first emergency pavilion in 1876; a pavilion for the insane, an approach considered revolutionary at the time, was erected within hospital grounds in 1879. For that reason, the name "Bellevue" is sometimes used as a metonym for psychiatric hospitals.  Bellevue initiated a residency training program in 1883 that is still the model for surgical training worldwide. The Carnegie Laboratory, the nation's first pathology and bacteriology laboratory, was founded there a year later, followed by the nation's first men's nursing school in 1888. By 1892, Bellevue established a dedicated unit for alcoholics.

City reorganization.

In 1902, the administrative Bellevue and Allied Hospitals organization were formed by the city, under president John W. Brannan. B&AH also included Gouverneur Hospital, Harlem Hospital, and Fordham Hospital. B&AH opened doors to female and black physicians. In the midst of a tuberculosis epidemic a year later, the Bellevue Chest Service was founded.  Bellevue opened the nation's first ambulatory cardiac clinic in 1911, followed by the Western Hemisphere's first ward for metabolic disorders in 1917. New York City's Office of the Chief Medical Examiner began on the second floor in 1918. German spy and saboteur Fritz Joubert Duquesne escaped the hospital prison ward in 1919 after having feigned paralysis for nearly two years.  PS 106, the first public school for the emotionally disturbed children located in a public hospital, opened at Bellevue in 1935. In 1939, David Margolis began work on nine Work Projects Administration murals in entrance rotunda titled "Materials of Relaxation", which were completed in 1941. Bellevue became the site of the world's first hospital catastrophe unit the same year; the world's first cardiopulmonary laboratory was established at Bellevue by Andre Cournand and Dickinson Richards a year later, and the nation's first heart failure clinic opened, staffed by Eugene Braunwald, in 1952. In 1960. New York City's Office of the Chief Medical Examiner moved out of the second floor and into its new building at 520 First Avenue, but still maintained close relations with Bellevue. In 1962, Bellevue established the first intensive care unit in a municipal hospital, and in 1964, Bellevue was designated as the stand-by hospital for treatment of visiting presidents, foreign dignitaries, injured members of the City's uniformed services, and United Nations diplomats. Bellevue joined the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation as one of 11 acute care hospitals in 1970.  In 1981, Bellevue was certified as an official heart station for cardiac emergencies; a year later it was designated as a micro-surgical reimplantation center for the City of New York, by 1983 as a level one trauma center, and by 1988 as a head and spinal cord injury center. In 1990, it established an accredited residency training program in Emergency Medicine. The building that formerly served as the hospital's psychiatric facility started to be used as a homeless intake center and a men's homeless shelter in 1998. The publication of the "Bellevue Literary Review", the first literary magazine to arise from a medical center, commenced in 2001; Bellevue Literary Press was founded six years later as a sister organization of the Bellevue Literary Review.  In April 2010, plans to redevelop the former psychiatric hospital building as a hotel and conference center connected to NYU Langone Medical Center fell through. The aftermath of Hurricane Sandy in October 2012 required evacuation of all patients due to power failure and flooding in the basement generators. Bellevue was renamed NYC Health + Hospitals/Bellevue in November 2015 as a reflection of its parent organization's rebranding.

Medical firsts.

Multiple firsts were performed at Bellevue in its early years. In 1799, it opened the first maternity ward in the United States. By 1808, the world's first ligation of the femoral artery for an aneurysm was performed there, followed by the first ligation of the innominate artery ten years later.  Bellevue physicians promoted the "Bone Bill" in 1854, which legalized dissection of cadavers for anatomical studies; two years later they started to also popularize the use of the hypodermic syringe. In 1862, the Austin Flint murmur was named for Austin Flint, prominent Bellevue Hospital cardiologist.  By 1867, Bellevue physicians were instrumental in developing New York City's sanitary code, the first in the world. One of the nation's first outpatient departments connected to a hospital (the "Bureau of Medical and Surgical Relief for the Out of Door Poor") was established at Bellevue that year. In 1868, Bellevue physician Stephen Smith became first commissioner of public health in New York City; he initiated a national campaign for health vaccinations. A year later, Bellevue established the second hospital-based, emergency ambulance service in the United States.  In 1889, Bellevue physicians were the first to report that tuberculosis is a preventable disease; five years later was the successful operation of the abdomen for a pistol shot wound. William Tillett discovered streptokinase, later used for the acute treatment of myocardial infarction, at Bellevue in 1933. Nina Starr Braunwald performed the first mitral valve replacement in 1960 at the hospital. In 1967, Bellevue physicians perform the first cadaver kidney transplant. In 1971, the first active immunization for hepatitis B was developed by Bellevue physicians. Bellevue played a key role in the development of the "Triple Drug Cocktail" or HAART, a breakthrough in the treatment of AIDS, in 1996.  In October 2014, Bellevue took in an Ebola patient, Craig Spencer, an individual who worked with Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) in Guinea a month prior during the 2014 Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa.

Facilities.

One of the largest hospitals in the United States by number of beds, it handles nearly 460,000 non-ER outpatient clinic visits, nearly 106,000 emergency visits and some 30,000 inpatients each year. More than 80 percent of Bellevue's patients come from the city's medically underserved populations. Bellevue is a safety net hospital, in that it will provide healthcare for individuals regardless of their insurance status or ability to pay.  The hospital occupies a 25-story patient care facility with an ICU, digital radiology communication and an outpatient facility. The hospital has an attending physician staff of 1,200 and an in-house staff of about 5,500.  Bellevue features separate pediatric (0-25) and adult (25+) emergency departments.

In popular culture.

Bellevue has entered popular consciousness through its status as a major hospital in the largest city in the United States. The hospital notably treated the author Norman Mailer, who was taken to Bellevue after he stabbed his wife; and Mark David Chapman, who shuttled between Bellevue and the jail complex on Rikers Island after he shot and killed musician John Lennon. The poet Allen Ginsberg, also a former patient, mentioned the hospital by name in his famous poem "Howl" (1955).  Bellevue has been the subject of books including "Bellevue: Three Centuries of Medicine and Mayhem at America’s Most Storied Hospital", by historian David Oshinsky, "Twelve Patients: Life and Death at Bellevue Hospital", by Dr. Eric Manheimer, a former Bellevue medical director, "Singular Intimacies: Becoming a Doctor at Bellevue", by Dr. Danielle Ofri, a long-time physician at Bellevue.  The NBC television series "New Amsterdam" (2018-) takes place at a fictionalized version of Bellevue, renamed "New Amsterdam" in the show. Based on Manheimer's book, the series has filmed scenes at Bellevue and other New York City public hospitals.

Bellevue Hospital (officially NYC Health + Hospitals/Bellevue and formerly known as Bellevue Hospital Center) is a hospital in New York City and the oldest public hospital in the United States. One of the largest hospitals in the United States by number of beds, it is located at 462 First Avenue in the Kips Bay neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City. Bellevue is also home to FDNY EMS Station 08, formerly NYC EMS Station 13.


Personal background and professional career.

Maurer grew up as the son of a poor farmer in the Zürcher Oberland. After a commercial apprenticeship, Maurer received a federal accountant's diploma. He was director of the Zürich Farmers' Association from 1994 to 2008 and president of the Swiss Vegetable Farmers' Association and the Farmers' Machinery Association ("Maschinenring") until his election to the Federal Council.  Maurer is married and has six children and currently resides in Hinwil in the canton of Zürich. He has served in the Swiss Army with the rank of major, commanding a bicycle infantry battalion.

Political career.

Cantonal politics.

From 1978 to 1986, Maurer was a member of the municipal government of Hinwil. He was elected to the cantonal parliament of Zürich in 1983, which he presided over in 1991. In that year, he lost an election to the cantonal government against Moritz Leuenberger, as his opponents derided Maurer's campaign as inept and himself as a naïve devotee of party strongman Christoph Blocher. In the same year's national election, though, Maurer was elected to the National Council.

National career and party presidency.

In 1996, at Blocher's behest, Maurer was elected president of the Swiss People's Party. Not taken seriously at first and parodied by TV comedian Viktor Giacobbo as Blocher's servile sycophant so memorably that his taunted children regularly returned from school in tears, his presidency saw the party double its voter base, establish itself in the French-speaking part of Switzerland and become the country's strongest political party. These successes have been largely credited to Maurer's leadership, who was able to make up a lack of charisma with astonishingly hard work, the imposition of strict party discipline, a keen sense for promising populist issues (such as opposition to European integration, foreigners and political correctness) as well as a penchant for headline-grabbing soundbites, as attested by an often-cited statement of his: "As long as I talk of negroes, the camera stays on me".  As president of the People's Party, Maurer was a leading force behind the party's aggressive and successful populist campaigns – campaigns that drew the ire of the Swiss political mainstream and the concern of foreign observers – signing off on cartoonish posters attacking leftists, foreigners and other undesirables. In a breach with Swiss political etiquette, he did not shy away from direct personal attacks on fellow politicians, labeling the center-right Free Democrats as "softies", Social Democratic voters as deranged, and renegade Federal Councillors Schmid and Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf as "appendices" requiring excision. Nonetheless, Maurer was able to keep his public persona separate from the way his colleagues in Parliament perceived him. In the National Council, his personal stature grew during his service and even political opponents credited his personal integrity, collegial demeanour and solid grasp of political issues. His good professional relations with Social Democratic women representatives were particularly noted by puzzled political observers.  Even as his and his party's star rose, however, relations between Maurer and his longtime mentor Blocher slowly cooled, even though the two men remained strong allies in public. Blocher, used to exercising authoritarian leadership as the party's undisputed leading figure, did not approve of Maurer questioning some of his strategic approaches, and increasingly exercised power through a close-knit circle of followers instead of through Maurer and the party secretariat. In October 2007, after the People's Party won its greatest electoral victory in history, Maurer resigned as party president and was succeeded against his wishes by Toni Brunner, one of Blocher's close confidants, on 1 March 2008. After losing a run-off election for a Council of States seat against Verena Diener, Maurer contented himself with the presidency of the Zürich section of the People's Party.

Swiss Federal Council.

On 27 November 2008, the party's parliamentary group unanimously nominated both Maurer and Blocher as candidates to succeed Schmid as Federal Councillor. With Blocher – who was ousted from the Council in 2007 – considered unelectable by all other parties, the "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" and other Swiss media called Maurer the clear frontrunner for the Council seat even before his nomination. On 10 December 2008 Maurer was elected to the Federal Council in the third round of voting with 122 votes, a margin of a single vote.  Maurer was elected Vice President of the Confederation for 2012, alongside President Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf. On 5 December 2012 he was elected President of the Confederation for 2013.  Maurer was reelected as Federal Councillor on 8 December 2015, and on 11 December 2015 he was selected to become head of the Federal Department of Finance, with newly elected Guy Parmelin, a fellow member of the SVP, replacing his position as head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports.  As Finance Minister, Maurer attended the 2017 G20 Hamburg summit, becoming the first federal councillor to attend a G20 summit.  Maurer became President of the Confederation for a second time for 2019.  On 29 April 2019, during his visit in China, Maurer signed a Memorandum of Understanding under the Belt and Road Initiative.  On 16 May 2019, Maurer met U.S. President Donald Trump in the White House, becoming the first Swiss president to meet a U.S. president in that location. The two discussed several issues, including Iran and a potential free trade agreement.

Ulrich "Ueli" Maurer (born 1 December 1950) is a Swiss politician who served as President of the Swiss Confederation in 2013 and 2019. A member of the Swiss People's Party, he has been a member of the Swiss Federal Council since 2009. Formerly head of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sports (2009–2015), Maurer has served as head of the Federal Department of Finance since 2016.


Alternative names.

This plant is commonly called mashua in Peru and Ecuador, but other names include:  In Boyacá, Colombia it is also named Nabu

Agronomy.

The plant grows vigorously even in marginal soils and it competes well with weeds. It is well-adapted to high-altitude subsistence agriculture, and gives high yields; 30 tonnes per hectare are yielded at a height of 3000 metres, but up to 70 tons per hectare have been produced under research conditions. Its extraordinary resistance to insect, nematode and bacterial pests is attributed to high levels of isothiocyanates. Although mashua is fully domesticated, it can persist in wild vegetation because of its aggressive growth and robustness. In Colombia, it is planted as a companion crop to repel pests in potato fields.

Mashua as a food.

The tuber is pungent in flavor when raw, but this quality disappears when cooked. The tubers comprise as much as 75 percent of the mature plants by dry weight (40 percent is typical for cereals). Up to 75 percent of dry matter reaches the tubercle.  Popularization of mashua may be limited by its strong flavor, and its reputation as an anaphrodisiac. Father Bernabé Cobo records that in the 16th century the Inca used to give enormous amounts of mashua to their troops so that they would forget their wives. However, mashua tubers roasted in traditional earthen field ovens, built at harvest, are considered a delicacy. Also, the raw tubers can be shredded thinly and added to salads, to confer a spicy flavour and crunchy texture.

Cultivation as an ornamental.

In its native range, mashua is mainly cultivated for its edible tubers, but it has ornamental value in the temperate zone because of its trailing habit and showy, bi-coloured tubular flowers, which appear in summer and autumn. The sepals are orange-red while the petals are bright yellow. In areas prone to frost, it requires some protection in winter. The cultivar "T. tuberosum" var. "lineamaculatum" 'Ken Aslet' has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Medicinal properties.

Mashua has putative anaphrodisiac effects. It has been recorded by the Spanish chronicler Cobo that mashua was fed to their armies by the Inca Emperors, "that they should forget their wives". Studies of male rats fed on mashua tubers have shown a 45% drop in testosterone levels due to the presence of isothiocyanates.

Tropaeolum tuberosum (mashua, see below for other names) is a species of flowering plant in the family Tropaeolaceae, grown in the Andes, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, and to a lesser extent in Ecuador as well as in some areas of Colombia, for its edible tubers, which are eaten cooked or roasted as a vegetable. It is a minor food source, especially to native Amerindian populations. Mashua is a herbaceous perennial climber growing to in height. It is related to garden nasturtiums, and is occasionally cultivated as an ornamental for its brightly coloured tubular flowers.


History.

The trio of Ricky Bell, Michael Bivins, and Ronnie DeVoe has their origins as founders of the Boston-based quintet New Edition, which had gained notice of famed producer Maurice Starr at a talent show in 1981, and as children had several hits with songs like "Candy Girl" and "Cool It Now". Throughout the 1980s, the line-up changed and the group matured and sought to branch out in new musical directions. During a hiatus in 1990, and at the suggestion of producers Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, the three decided to form a new group, and were signed by MCA Records. With help from Public Enemy producers Eric Sadler, Hank and Keith Shocklee and several others, Bell Biv Devoe released its debut album "Poison" in 1990, an album credited as pioneering the "new jack swing" sound of the early 1990s, combining hip-hop, funk, soul, and pop music. This fusion of styles helped to expose them to a fan base which preferred a harder edged sound. "Poison" reached number 1 on "Billboard"s R&B/Hip-Hop chart, and its title track, along with its second single, "Do Me!", both reached number 3 on "Billboard"s Hot 100 chart. Shortly thereafter, Richard Wolf and Epic Mazur were responsible for the remix of "Do Me!" (which hit number six on the dance charts). "Poison" also spawned the singles "B.B.D. (I Thought It Was Me)?", "When Will I See You Smile Again?" and "She's Dope!" "Poison" sold over four million copies, and was followed up by a remix album titled "WBBD-Bootcity". Richard Wolf and Epic Mazur helped create BBD's premiere album, blending rhythm, blues, pop, and rock, and Poison achieve triple Platinum success.  Bell Biv DeVoe released "Hootie Mack" in 1993 on MCA Records, and the more hardcore rap/R&B influenced "BBD" in 2001 on Biv 10 Records. Neither album was as successful as "Poison", though "Hootie Mack" did reach Gold success. Despite the fact that the group has only released 4 albums, the members of Bell Biv Devoe continue to perform together as a group. They also participated in several New Edition reunions, and continue to perform with them on tour as part of the group. On May 30, 2013, Bell Biv DeVoe performed their hit song "Poison" for Boston Strong, a benefit concert to raise money for victims of the Boston Marathon bombing.  In 2016, BBD released their first track in 15 years, "Run", along with an accompanying music video. It was the first single off the album "Three Stripes", which was released January 27, 2017.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Bell Biv DeVoe among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Awards and nominations.

In 1991, the group received the award for Best R&B/Urban Contemporary Album of the Year, Group, Band or Duo for "Poison" at the Soul Train Music Awards.  The group also received an American Music Award for Favorite Soul/R&B Band/Duo/Group in 1992.

Discography.

Singles.

Notes

Bell Biv DeVoe, also known as BBD, is an American music group formed from members of the New Edition, consisting of Ricky Bell, Michael Bivins, and Ronnie DeVoe.


History.

The original Silver Screen Partners, L.P. was organized by New York film investment broker Roland W. Betts to fund movies for HBO in 1982. The limited partnerships (13,000) sold through EF Hutton were oversubscribed and raised $83 million. HBO made a 50% guarantee on their investment for exclusive cable rights. Another 40% was guaranteed by Thorn EMI, a British firm, for foreign distribution and foreign TV and videocassette markets. Additional income was lined up for domestic videocassette sales. HBO's film division was just starting out so film output was slow. For the Silver Screen/HBO films, the partnership was active in the process from selecting film pitches and negotiating release dates with the distributor. In 1984, the first HBO/Silver Screen movie, "Flashpoint", was released through TriStar Pictures as were all the HBO/Silver Screen films.  Organized in 1985, Silver Screen Partners II, L.P. financed films for The Walt Disney Company with $193 million from 20,000 limited partners. Silver Screen was hands off with Disney given its name and new management team led by Michael Eisner, formerly at Paramount. HBO was expecting that Silver Screen would return to them for its third limited partnership. However, in January 1987, Silver Screen III began financing movies for Disney with $300 million raised, the largest amount raised for a film financing limited partnership by E. F. Hutton.  Silver Screen's fourth limited partnership was also set up to finance Disney's studios. On October 23, 1990, The Walt Disney Company formed Touchwood Pacific Partners which supplanted the Silver Screen Partnership series as their movie studios' primary source of funding. In 1991, Silver Screen Partners III, L.P. along with the other production companies were sued for copyright infringement over "Who Framed Roger Rabbit"'s "End Title" song.

Structure.

The partnerships paid for the movie's production costs and shared in the gross dollars in all markets from theater to television. Limited partners received their return before the production company could defray any of their expenses. This is preferred by investors as it guarantees some return if the film fails or has budget overrun and from the producer's overhead. Nor can profits from a single film be used to cover losses on other films, but this makes the partnership somewhat risky.

Silver Screen Partners refers to four limited partnerships organized as an alternative funding source for movies. The managing general partner for the partnerships was Silver Screen Management, Inc.


Club career.

Born in Albacete, Castile-La Mancha, Santi began playing professionally with hometown's Albacete Balompié. He made his La Liga debut at age 18, and automatically became an undisputed starter in a side that constantly managed to retain their top flight status.  In the summer of 1995, Santi signed with Atlético Madrid, being crowned league and Copa del Rey champion in his first season as part of a defensive line which also included club youth graduates Juan Manuel López and Roberto Solozábal. He appeared in 37 league matches during the campaign.  Following Atlético's 2000 relegation (he collected a career-worst 17 yellow cards), Santi gradually lost his importance in the team's plans. In 2004–05, after the signing of Pablo Ibáñez – who also came from Albacete – he featured in no games at all during the first half of the season, and was subsequently allowed to leave on loan in January 2005 for his first club. The move was made permanent in June and he retired after two more years, with Albacete now in the second division.  Santi eventually returned to Atlético Madrid in early February 2009, as assistant to newly appointed Abel Resino who had replaced Javier Aguirre. He was a caretaker manager for the game against RCD Mallorca on 24 October, before the appointment of Quique Sánchez Flores.

International career.

Santi was capped twice for Spain, his debut coming on 11 October 1997 in a 1998 FIFA World Cup qualifier against Faroe Islands (3–1 in Gijón, playing the entire match). He still featured in a friendly win over Sweden in March 1998, but did not make the final cut for the final stages in France.  Previously, Santi appeared for the nation at the 1996 Summer Olympics.

Honours.

Club.

Atlético Madrid

International.

Spain U21

Santiago Denia Sánchez (born 9 March 1974), commonly known as Santi, is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender, and is a manager.


Campaign.

According to a poll released on the eve of the election, the Liberal Party entered the campaign with a lead over the Progressive Conservatives. This poll's accuracy was disputed by many, however, and even Liberal leader Dalton McGuinty cast doubt on it: noting that most polling companies claim to be accurate 19 times out of 20, he suggested that this might have been the 20th. Subsequent polls taken in the early period of the campaign showed the Progressive Conservatives with a commanding lead over the Liberals, in a manner more consistent with pre-election numbers.  Harris' government had delivered large tax cuts and significantly reduced the deficit, but they had also severely cut spending in the process. They had the support of the legendary Tory political machine, bolstered by a group of American experts imported from the United States' Republican Party. They targeted Dalton McGuinty as inexperienced ("Dalton McGuinty is not up to the job" was a Tory campaign slogan), and attacked him for lacking a clear vision. This was successful due to McGuinty having a reputation for being uncomfortable and stiff in the media. During the leader's debates, McGuinty had a poor performance, being unable to explain his party's platform clearly and being compared to fictional serial killer Norman Bates by NDP leader Howard Hampton.  The extensive use of attack ads and wedge issues by the Tories was a new development in Canadian politics, and some commentators worried the election process was becoming Americanized.  The third major party, the Ontario New Democratic Party led by Howard Hampton, spent much the campaign battling the memory of Bob Rae's unpopular government in the early 1990s. Despite Hampton's efforts to reach out to labour, the NDP were substantially weakened as the major unions deserted them in favour of the Liberals, hoping to defeat the Tories by strategic voting.  The province was enjoying strong economic growth at the time which also vindicated the Conservatives' deficit-cutting measures in the public. The Liberal Party managed to recover some support late in the campaign, but it was not enough and the Tories were re-elected with a second consecutive majority government.

Results.

Notes:  It is possible that some independent candidates were actually members of these or other unregistered parties.

Constituency results.

Note: Expenditure entries are taken from official candidate reports as listed by Elections Ontario. The figures cited are the "Total Candidate's Campaign Expenses Subject to Limitation", and include transfers from constituency associations.

Hamilton-Wentworth, Burlington & Niagara.

Stoney Creek

By-elections.

Six by-elections were held between the 1999 and 2003 elections.

The 1999 Ontario general election was held on June 3, 1999 to elect members of the 37th Legislative Assembly of the Province of Ontario, Canada.


Background.

Until the Modern Era, Latin was the common language for scholarship and mapmaking. During the 19th and 20th centuries, German scholars in particular have made significant contributions to the study of historical place names, or "Ortsnamenkunde". These studies have, in turn, contributed to the study of genealogy. For genealogists and historians of pre-Modern Europe, knowing alternate names of places is vital to extracting information from both public and private records. Even specialists in this field point out, however, that the information can be easily taken out of context, since there is a great deal of repetition of place names throughout Europe; reliance purely on apparent connections should therefore be tempered with valid historical methodology.

Caveats and notes.

Latin place names are not always exclusive to one place — for example, there were several Roman cities whose names began with "Colonia" and then a more descriptive term. During the Middle Ages, these were often shortened to just "Colonia". One of these, "Colonia Agrippinensis", retains the name today in the form of Cologne.  Early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and spellings of the Latin names.  The modern canonical name is listed first. Sources are listed chronologically. In general, only the earliest source is shown for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources. Where the source differs in spelling, or has other alternatives, these are listed following the source. As an aid to searching, variants are spelled completely, and listed in most likely chronology.  Superscripts indicate:

References.

In order of likely publication:

This list includes African countries and regions that were part of the Roman Empire, or that were given Latin place names in historical references.