History and use.

Scanners developed from earlier tunable and fixed-frequency radios that received one frequency at a time. Non-broadcast radio systems, such as those used by public safety agencies, do not transmit continuously. With a radio fixed on a single frequency, much time could pass between transmissions, while other frequencies might be active. A scanning radio will sequentially monitor multiple programmed channels, or search between user defined frequency limits. The scanner will stop on an active frequency strong enough to break the radio's squelch setting and resume scanning other frequencies when that activity ceases.  Scanners first became popular and widely available during the heyday of CB radio in the 1970s. The first scanners often had between four and ten channels and required the purchase of a separate crystal for each frequency received. A US patent was issued to Peter W. Pflasterer on June 1, 1976. An early 1976 US entry was the Tennelec MCP-1, sold at the January 1976 Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago.

Features.

Many recent models will allow scanning of the specific DCS or CTCSS code used on a specific frequency should it have multiple users. One memory bank can be assigned to air traffic control, another can be for local marine communications, and yet another for local police frequencies. These can be switched on and off depending on the user's preference. Most scanners have a weather radio band, allowing the listener to tune into weather radio broadcasts from a NOAA transmitter.  Some scanners are equipped with Fire-Tone out. Fire tone out decodes Quick Call type tones and acts as a pager when the correct sequence of tones is detected.  Modern scanners allow hundreds or thousands of frequencies to be entered via a keypad and stored in various'memory banks' and can scan at a rapid rate due to modern microprocessors.  Active frequencies can be found by searching the internet and frequency reference books or can be discovered through a programmable scanner's search function. An external antenna for a desktop scanner or an extendable antenna for a hand held unit will provide greater performance than the original equipment antennas provided by manufacturers.

Uses.

Scanners are often used by hobbyists, railfans, auto race fans, aviation enthusiasts, off-duty emergency services personnel, and reporters.  Many scanner clubs exist to allow members to share information about frequencies, codes and operations. Most have Internet presence, such as websites, email lists or Web forums.

Legislation.

Australia.

It is legal to possess a scanner in Australia. It is legal to listen to any transmission that is not classified as telecommunication (i.e. anything not connected to the telephone network).

Brazil.

In Brazil it is legal to have a scanner, but the user should have a ham radio license. Individuals are prohibited from spreading or recording any information obtained.

Canada.

In Canada, according to the Radiocommunication Act, it is completely legal to install, operate or possess a radio apparatus that is capable only of the reception of broadcasting (digital and analogue, but not encrypted data) provided that private information is not passed on or disclosed to any other person(s) or party(s).  A situation that occurred in the Toronto area on 28 June 2011 involving York Regional Police officer Constable Garrett Styles was picked up by scanners. On-line streaming of communications between the officer and police dispatch while the fatally injured officer was in urgent need of emergency help were picked up by local media. The tragedy was widely reported before the officer's family was notified. Several media outlets rebroadcast the recorded emergency transmission. A police initiative pressuring the government to create legislation to stop online streaming of scanner captured police communications was announced in April 2012. Although it is currently legal to stream information from a scanner in Canada, using the information for profit is not legal. Some Canadian police forces use encrypted communications which cannot legally be unencrypted and streamed onto the Internet. Applications are available permitting anyone with an Internet ready computer or smart phone to access scanner communications that are streamed onto the Internet by private individuals who possess the appropriate scanner and computer equipment.

Italy.

Owning a scanner that is able to intercept the frequencies of law enforcement, is illegal and carries a jail sentence from one to five years. Art. 617 bis Civil Penal Code.

Japan.

It is legal to possess, install and operate a scanner in Japan. The radio law prohibits from disclosing or passing on information received to other persons and using the information to gain personal profit. It is illegal to listen to telephone communication and those transmitted using tapping devices. An amateur radio license is required when amateur radio apparatus is used to listen to radio.

Mexico.

In Mexico it is legal to have an unblocked scanner and listen to any radio spectrum frequencies including encrypted and cellular band. According to the Federal Law of General Ways of Communication, individuals are prohibited from spreading any information obtained via the mass media.

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands it is legal to listen to any radio spectrum frequency because of the "freedom of information"-doctrine However, if a "special" (i.e., unusual) effort is needed to intercept the information on a frequency (such as decrypting encrypted traffic or using an unauthorized scanner) then it is considered illegal. In 2008, the Dutch Supreme Court ruled that receivers that can solely be used to detect certain frequencies (such as radar detectors) are illegal because they cannot be used to "convey knowledge or thoughts" and thus are not covered by the aforementioned doctrine.

New Zealand.

In New Zealand, according to the Radiocommunications Act 1989 it is legal to possess and use a scanner at any time to tune to any private voice radio (not encrypted data) provided that private information is not passed on or disclosed to any other person(s) or party(s).

United Kingdom.

In the UK it is not illegal to own or use a scanner except in particular circumstances. For example, particular transmissions or frequencies should only be listened to with authorization an example of this being UK aviation frequencies, which in many other countries may be publicly listened to (and are even available to be streamed online) but in the UK are restricted.

United States.

The legality of radio scanners in the United States varies considerably between jurisdictions, although it is a federal crime to monitor cellular phone calls. Five US states restrict the use of a scanner in an automobile. Although scanners capable of following trunked radio systems and demodulating some digital radio systems such as APCO Project 25 are available, decryption-capable scanners would be a violation of United States law and possibly laws of other countries.  A law passed by the Congress of the United States, under the pressure from cellular telephone interests, prohibited scanners sold after a certain date from receiving frequencies allocated to the Cellular Radio Service. The law was later amended to make it illegal to modify radios to receive those frequencies, and also to sell radios that could be easily modified to do so. This law remains in effect even though few cellular subscribers still use analog technology. There are Canadian and European unblocked versions available, but these are illegal to import into the U.S. Frequencies used by early cordless phones at 43.720–44.480 MHz, 46.610–46.930 MHz, and 902.000–906.000 MHz can be picked up by many scanners. The proliferation of scanners led most cordless phone manufacturers to produce cordless handsets operating on a more secure 2.4 GHz system using spread-spectrum technology. Certain states in the United States such as New York and Florida, prohibit the use of scanners in a vehicle unless the operator has a radio license issued from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) (Amateur Radio, etc.) or the operator's job requires the use of a scanner in a vehicle (e.g., police, fire, utilities).  In some parts of the United States, there are extra penalties for the possession of a scanner during a crime, and some states, such as Michigan, also prohibit the possession of a scanner by a person who has been convicted of a felony in the last five years.  In the United States, Licensed Amateur Radio Operators with a valid FCC License may possess Amateur Radio Transceivers capable of reception beyond the Amateur Radio Bands per an FCC Memorandum & Order known as FCC Docket PR91-36 (also known as FCC 93-410).

A scanner (also referred to as a radio scanner) is a radio receiver that can automatically tune, or "scan", two or more discrete frequencies, stopping when it finds a signal on one of them and then continuing to scan other frequencies when the initial transmission ceases.


Life.

Paul Althaus, son of the Protestant theologian Adolf Paul Johannes Althaus (1861-1925), studied Protestant theology in Tübingen and Göttingen. In Tübingen he was especially influenced by Adolf Schlatter. In Göttingen his doctorate was supervised by Eduard Stange, and he passed his habilitation there in 1913/'14. In the First World War he served as a military chaplain. From 1919 Althaus was an ordinary professor in systematic theology at Rostock University. In 1925 he took up the chair in systematic and New Testament theology in Erlangen. From the summer semester of 1929 he was an honorary member of the Christian student union of Erlangen. He exclusively taught systematic theology until 1932, after which he also taught New Testament theology. Althaus held the position of university preacher from 1932 to 1964. Between 1926 and 1964 he was president of the Luther-Gesellschaft.  Having welcomed the National Socialist rise to power as a 'divine gift and miracle' in 1933, he nonetheless served after the end of the Second World War as the inaugural head of the internal university denazification commission. However, on 31 January 1947, after his involvement in National Socialism became public, he was removed from his post by the American military government in the course of its own denazification process. In 1948 he was once again granted permission to teach in the University of Erlangen, where he worked until his retirement in 1966. In 1953 he was elected as a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities.  The executor for his literary estate was the historian and political theorist Gotthard Jasper.

Theology.

Original Revelation.

With his doctrine of 'original' or 'fundamental' revelation, Althaus opposed the Christocentric theology of revelation of dialectical theology, especially that of Karl Barth, who had denied any self-disclosure of God outside Christ. For Althaus God reveals himself outside of Jesus Christ in, for example, human existence, in fate, in history, in nature and in humanity's consciousness of truth and sin. Original revelation is however subordinated to the revelation of salvation in Christ, owing to its being tainted by the attributes of the sinful world.

Doctrine of Creation.

Althaus treated institutions such as marriage, family, work, the economy, the people ("das Volk"), state, church and society as originally ordained by God as part of God's good creation. They are not to be understood (in Lutheran terms) as mere orders of preservation but as orders of creation, because God acts continually through them. The orders are the ways God draws the world towards God's kingdom and secures human common life. For this reason the orders bind humanity: it is obligated towards them in its freedom for responsible decision. Althaus' view of the people ("das Volk") as an order of creation led to his contentious declarations about National Socialism and Judaism.

Luther.

Althaus is considered one of the foremost experts of Martin Luther's theology. In particular his works "The Theology of Martin Luther" and "The Ethics of Martin Luther" remain standard works in the field.

Capital Punishment.

Althaus called for the introduction of the death penalty after the passing of the German Constitution of 1949.

Criticism (Relation to Nazism, Antisemitism).

Like many Protestant theologians Althaus welcomed the National Socialists' rise to power. From 1936 he gradually distanced himself from the Third Reich, partly because of the increasing hostility to the church of Hitler's policies. Already in Althaus' writings before 1933, however, there were antisemitic views such as the idea of 'the people' ("das Volk") as one of the orders of creation (in Luther's sense). In 1933 Althaus and his colleague Werner Elert drafted a report for the Erlangen Faculty of Theology on a planned 'Aryan paragraph' for the Protestant Reich Church ("Reichskirche"). Althaus and Elert called in their report for the exclusion of 'nihilist' candidates for official church positions. 'Nihilists' who already held appointments were however - despite demands from the German Christians - not to be removed from office.

Honors.

In 1959 Paul Althaus was awarded the Bavarian Order of Merit, an honor instituted in 1957. It is awarded 'as a mark of respectful and grateful recognition for outstanding contributions to the Free State of Bavaria and the Bavarian people'.

Paul Althaus (4 February 1888 – 18 May 1966) was a German Lutheran theologian. He was born in Obershagen in the Province of Hanover, and he died in Erlangen. He held various pastorates from 1914 to 1925, when he was appointed associate professor of practical and systematic theology at the University of Göttingen, becoming full professor two years later. Althaus was moderately critical of Lutheran Orthodoxy and evangelical-leaning Neo-Lutheranism. He termed it a “mistake” to “defend the authenticity and infallibility of the Bible.”


Overview.

With this system, the outermost of several sets of successive driving wheel sets are not connected by coupling rods to crankshaft journals on the outside of the wheels, but by cogwheels located in the centre of the axles. The axles are housed in the locomotive frame such that they are able to move at right angles to the axis of the rails to a certain degree, likewise the cogwheels are able to slide relative to one another. In this way curves can be negotiated with less friction being generated.

Use.

Germany.

For the Hamburg Harbour railway with its tight curves, the ten-coupled steam locomotives of Class 87 were built with Luttermöller axles, front and rear. The 16 locomotives of this class were however retired as early as 1954, because they tended to overheat at higher speeds and could therefore only be used for shunting duties.  A five-axled, metre gauge, steam engine with the Luttermöller system was procured by the private South Harz Railway ("Südharz-Eisenbahn"; Braunlage - Walkenried - Tanne) in 1928 from Orenstein & Koppel with operating number 61. It proved itself so well on the winding route, that in 1930 two Mallet locomotives, built in 1925, were converted to the Luttermöller system by Henschel (operating numbers 56 and 57). Henschel had to obtain a licence from Orenstein & Koppel to use Luttermöller axles.

Indonesia.

Luttermöller axles found further use on narrow gauge lines, e.g. in Java (Indonesia).

Argentina.

Several 2' gauge Luttermöller locomotives built by Orenstein & Koppel were exported for use in Argentina at the Ingenio San Martin del Tabacal sugar cane refinery in the Salta Province near the town of Hipólito Yrigoyen, Salta. Four of these engines were bought by Preston Services and moved to Kent in the UK where three are currently stored with the fourth sold to new owners.

A Luttermöller axle is an unusual steam locomotive component. Steam locomotives with several axles or wheelsets connected to one another by coupling rods are not able to negotiate tight curves well. In order to assist such locomotives, the manager of the Orenstein & Koppel factory in Berlin, Dr. Luttermöller, built the axle system named after him.


Expedition route.

The party of three explorers departed Diamond City, Montana on September 6, 1869 and traveled up the Missouri River to Three Forks, Montana. They then began the easterly march up the Gallatin Valley, stopping in Bozeman, Montana for supplies on September 8, 1869. From Bozeman, they moved to the shadows of Bozeman Pass, camping four miles east of Fort Ellis. On September 10, 1869 they struck out over the pass and down Trail Creek to reach the Yellowstone River near Emigrant Gulch. They followed the river south until they entered the park region on September 13, 1869, at the confluence of the Gardner and Yellowstone rivers near present-day Gardiner, Montana. After crossing the mouth of the Gardner River, they traveled along the benches above the western side of the Yellowstone until they reached Tower Fall. At Tower Fall they forded the Yellowstone and explored the East Fork (Lamar River) and Lamar Valley probably as far as the confluence with Calfee Creek. From there, the party returned to the Yellowstone in a due West route which brought them to the area of Yellowstone Falls and the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone. The party continued south along the course of the Yellowstone River crossing the river twice until they reached the north shore of Yellowstone Lake near the mouth of Pelican Creek. From Pelican Creek, Cook-Folsom-Peterson followed the western shoreline of Yellowstone lake closely until they reached the West Thumb area. From West Thumb, the party stuck out due West over the Continental Divide and emerged on the northernmost point of Shoshone Lake. Turning northwest, they again crossed the divide and began traveling down the Firehole River into the geyser basins. They followed the Firehole River then Madison River out of the region, exiting the current park boundary near what is now the town of West Yellowstone, Montana on October 3, 1869. They followed the Madison down through Madison Canyon, emerging into familiar territory of the lower Madison River and mountains to the west around Virginia City, Montana. On the evening of October 11, 1869, Cook, Folsom and Peterson, after 36 days of travel returned to Diamond City, Montana.

Accounts of the expedition.

Shortly after his return from Yellowstone, Folsom was employed as field surveyor by Henry Washburn, the Surveyor General of the Montana Territory. While in that office, Cook and Folsom shared their experiences and diaries with Washburn and W. W. deLacy, the territorial map maker. From these discussions, deLacy published an updated map of the Yellowstone region.  When the Washburn party traveled into Yellowstone in August 1870, Henry Washburn was carrying copies of the Cook and Folsom diaries and the deLacy map.  Once Folsom was back in Helena, Montana as a surveyor, his friends Nathaniel P. Langford and Samuel Thomas Hauser asked him to give a talk on the expedition to a group of prominent Helena citizens. Folsom refused to relate the experiences publicly because he thought nobody would believe him. However, those who knew Folsom well, believed him and credited him with the inspiration needed to organize the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870.  Both Cook and Folsom kept journals during the trip. Peterson did not. After the expedition, Cook combined the two journals into a single version. This version was submitted to both the New York Tribune and Scribners for publication. Both declined citing the unreliability and improbability of the information. It was finally published in a significantly edited version in the "Western Monthly Magazine". In 1904, a version of the account was published in the "Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana". Sometime around 1900, William Peterson wrote "A Reminiscence of William Peterson" which was later published in the "Yellowstone Interpreter" in 1964. Charles Cook lived to participate in the 50th Anniversary celebration of Yellowstone's creation in 1922. That year he authored the "Reconstructed Diary of the Cook-Folsom Diary", published in the "Haynes Bulletin" in 1922-23. The most accurate and comprehensive account of the expedition was produced by Aubrey L. Haines, the Yellowstone National Park historian in 1965 when he produced "The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone" which was masterfully reconstructed from all the previous fragmented accounts.

Names given to park features.

The Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition did not name any park features discovered during the expedition that have persisted to the present day. In their journals they did refer to many features incorrectly (based on incomplete or inaccurate maps made from previous accounts), thus causing some confusion that had to be sorted out by later explorations and surveys. One name that took a few years to sort out was "Madison Lake", the small pond that is the headwater of the Firehole River. In some accounts, Shoshone Lake was actually referred to as "Madison Lake" because many believed Shoshone Lake was at the headwater of the Madison River drainage

The Cook–Folsom–Peterson Expedition of 1869 was the first organized expedition to explore the region that became Yellowstone National Park. The privately financed expedition was carried out by David E. Folsom, Charles W. Cook and William Peterson of Diamond City, Montana, a gold camp in the Confederate Gulch area of the Big Belt Mountains east of Helena, Montana. The journals kept by Cook and Folsom, as well as their personal accounts to friends were of significant inspirational value to spur the organization of the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition which visited Yellowstone in 1870.


Route.

Based on today's kilometre markers the line is long between its termini. It is double-tracked and electrified. Its maximum speed limit is, but this is only achievable in places on the southern part of the line. The Main–Weser Railway is one of the most important conventionally operated German railways.

History.

The idea of building the Main–Weser Railway began in 1838 as a link between Kassel and the Rhine-Main area running exclusively through the territory of Hesse-Kassel (Kurhessen) and connecting the major cities of the electorate from Kassel to Hanau via Fulda. At that time it proved impracticable to build such a line (the route of the Frederick William Northern Railway and the Frankfurt–Bebra railway) because of its mountainous route, particularly at the watershed between the Fulda and Kinzig valleys at Distelrasen, where a tunnel was only completed in 1914.  So instead from 1841 negotiations commenced with some other states and was interrupted several times. On 5 April 1845, a treaty was signed between the Free City of Frankfurt, the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel, establishing a joint state railway company, known as a "condominium railway" ("Kondominalbahn"). This established the legal basis for the line via Marburg, Gießen and Friedberg through easier terrain to the originally preferred route, but which crossed national boundaries several times. In the southern sector the route ran after its exit from the Main-Weser station in Frankfurt approximately parallel with the street of Taunusstraße (at that time, only partly built), along the current streets of Friedrich-Ebert-Anlage and Hamburger Allee to the then Kurhessen town of Bockenheim, now the site of Frankfurt (Main) West station. It then ran again through the territory of Frankfurt in Hausen, through Kurhessen in Eschersheim, and through Frankfurt territory in Bonames. The line then went through the Grand Duchy of Hesse town of Boden bis Friedberg, then a piece of Frankfurt-owned territory in Dortelweil. Bad Nauheim was a Kurhessen enclave within the Grand Duchy of Hesse exclave of Oberhessen through which the line ran to Gießen. Under the treaty, each of the participating governments were responsible for the purchase of land on their territory. Financing the construction of the line proved to be more difficult. Construction occurred during the turmoil of the revolutions of 1848 and a financial crisis in the Grand Duchy of Hesse.  Work began on 6 August 1846 in Kurhessen territory. Here the Belgian engineer Frans Splingard and his colleague Edward Hacault were in charge. In Frankfurt construction was directed by Remigius Eyssen. The building of station on almost all sections of the line in Kurhessen was directed by Julius Eugen Ruhl, the first Director General of the Kurhessen railways.  The first section between Kassel and Wabern was opened on 29 December 1849. The first continuous rail service from Kassel to Frankfurt ran on 15 May 1852, after the opening of the line between Gießen and Langgöns, connecting the northern and the southern sections of the line.  The second track was added in 1865—following twelve years of negotiations. The cooperation of the participating countries had not improved despite rapidly developing rail services. The second track significantly eased the transport of Prussian troops in the War of 1866, a war which led to the annexation by Prussia of two of the states involved in Main–Weser Railway, Hesse-Kassel and the Free City of Frankfurt. Their shares were subsequently transferred to Prussia. In 1880, Prussia also acquired the Grand Duchy of Hesse's shares in the company.  Until the completion of the Frankfurt–Bebra line in 1866, all express trains between Frankfurt and Berlin ran on the Main–Weser Railway. These trains ran on to the Frederick William Northern Railway at Guntershausen to connect with the Thuringian Railway. Express trains continued to run from Frankfurt to Berlin via Kassel until the end of World War II. In the following years of the American occupation trains also ran on this route.  In 1878/79 the Treysa–Lollar section of the line was incorporated into the strategic railway known as the "Kanonenbahn" ("Cannons Railway") built between Berlin and Metz.  During the 1960s, the first section of the line was electrified between Frankfurt and Giessen; electrification of the line was completed on 20 March 1967.  The line was moved in the Kassel area in the second half of the 1980s in preparation for the construction of the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway. Construction began in July 1985. 420,000 m3 of soil was excavated over a length of 5.7 kilometres and relocated at a cost of DM 24.0 million. Operations on two tracks was maintained throughout.  Operation Steel Box also took place on the line in September 1990.

Long-distance services.

Services of Intercity line 26 run on the Main–Weser Railway from Stralsund or Hamburg-Altona via Kassel and Frankfurt am Main to Karlsruhe at two-hour intervals. Services on EuroCity line 62 also ran on the Gießen – Frankfurt section from December 2009 to December 2011. Until 2014 there were services that ran over the line to Konstanz, but these were cancelled at the timetable change at the end of 2014. There was also a direct connection to Berlin-Südkreuz until the end of 2015, which was the first Intercity service on the line from Monday to Saturday. Since then, this IC service runs to Hamburg like the others.  Even earlier there were direct long-distance services from Frankfurt via Gießen and Siegen to Hagen and beyond to Münster and the North Sea. One train even went to Copenhagen.

Regional services.

Regional-Express services run between Frankfurt and Kassel ("Main-Weser-Express") and between Frankfurt and Siegen (Main-Sieg-Express). The latter leave the line in Gießen, where they have to reverse to continue towards Siegen.  The Main-Weser-Express runs hourly and is operated alternatively by DB Regio as line 30 and by the Hessische Landesbahn (HLB) as line 98, but the latter service does not always go through to Kassel and has more intermediate stops. The Main-Sieg-Express is exclusively operated by the Hessischen Landesbahn as line 99 operated and runs on the Frankfurt-Gießen section at two-hour intervals, mostly in coupled-sets, together with line 98, with trains dividing in Gießen. It is also served by Regionalbahn services operated by DB Regio between Marburg and Gießen as well as between Gießen and Hanau via Friedberg. Since December 2006, Mittelhessen-Express services are formed in Gießen from two coupled Regionalbahn trains coming from Treysa and Dillenburg and then together run to Frankfurt at higher speed. In the opposite direction, uncoupling of the sets also takes place in Gießen, with both trains then continuing as Regionalbahn trains to Treysa or Dillenburg. There is also an S-Bahn service between Friedberg and Frankfurt South station via the City-Tunnel.  The Treysa–Kassel section was operated until December 2015 as part of Kassel RegioTram and was designated as line "RT 9". The weekend "RegioTram" services were, however, replaced by Regionalbahn services on at the end of May 2007 and services on working days were also later replaced as well. Since 14 December 2014, two of three services have been operated on weekdays by "Kurhessenbahn" (a Deutsche Bahn brand) using class 628 diesel multiple unit sets. FLIRT multiple units operated by Hessische Landesbahn replaced the RegioTrams on line RT 9 at the 2015/2016 timetable change on 13 December 2015.  Numerous trains that branch off on branch lines at Bad Vilbel, Friedberg, Gießen, Cölbe and Wabern also run for a while on the main line.  Many freight trains also run on the line, including numerous container trains or trains carrying new agricultural machinery (such as tractors and combine harvesters). Military trains also regularly use the line.

Rolling stock used.

Main line.

Talent 2 electric multiple units are used for the hourly Mittelhessen-Express between Frankfurt and Treysa, which are operated by DB Regio Mitte. Talent-2 sets have run since March 2013 on the through Gießen–Friedberg–Hanau Regionalbahn service, which has operated since December 2012. These sets replaced Silberling carriages hauled by class 143 locomotives or GTW 2/6 sets operated by Hessische Landesbahn. Class 143 locomotives occasionally haul modernised Silberling carriages between Gießen and Marburg, Kirchhain and Treysa in the peak hours.  The DB Regional-Express services between Frankfurt and Kassel are almost exclusively operated as double-deck push-pull trains, hauled by Bombardier TRAXX (class 146) locomotives. At the 2010/2011 timetable change, Hessische Landesbahn (HLB) took over the operation of some services between Frankfurt am Main, Marburg and Siegen, branded as the Main-Sieg-Express, on behalf of the Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (Rhine-Main Transport Association) and the "Zweckverband Nahverkehr Westphalen-Lippe" (municipal association for local transport of Westphalia-Lippe). Newly procured three and five-part Stadler Flirt railcars are used. These partly replaced Deutsche Bahn's double-deck push-pull trains and rebuilt Silberling carriages. The trains are usually uncoupled in Gießen with portions continuing to Marburg and Siegen.  The RegioTram service that ran between Kassel and Treysa until December 2015 consisted of a low-floor RegioCitadis (class 452). The S6 S-Bahn section south of Friedberg is operated by class 423 S-Bahn sets.  The ICE line 26 trains consist of ICE T sets. Occasionally, during construction or breakdowns on the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed railway, Intercity-Express services are also diverted between Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof and Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe, which as a result do not stop in Fulda and Hanau. Freight traffic is also operated in the form of end-to-end trains by various railway companies.

Feeder services.

The trains that connect Glauburg-Stockheim and Nidderau with Frankfurt over the Nidda Valley Railway, as well as Nidda to Frankfurt via Friedberg, are hauled by TRAXX (class 245) diesel locomotives in the peak hour, otherwise Desiro (class 642) railcars are used. Class 628 diesel railcars are found between Cölbe and Marburg, sometimes also running to Gießen, which serve the Kreuztal–Cölbe railway to Erndtebrück and the Warburg–Sarnau railway to Frankenberg (Eder). Most trains on the Edersee Railway ("Ederseebahn", Bad Wildungen–Wabern) continue over the Main–Weser Railway to Kassel Hbf.

Planned development.

New halt in Marburg.

It is planned in the medium term to build a new Regionalbahn halt called "Marburg Mitte" in the vicinity of the University of Marburg's multi-storey buildings. This has been planned for decades and was considered in the timetable concept for the Mittelhessen-Express. A start of construction has not yet been announced. A halt at "Gießen-Nord" to the north of Oswaldsgarten station is also considered as part of the Mittelhessen S-Bahn concept.

Quadruplication between Frankfurt and Friedberg.

Between Frankfurt West and Friedberg, S-Bahn, Regional, and long-distance services and freight traffic share the two tracks of the Main-Weser railway. To separate operations, the track in this area are to be rebuilt as four tracks during the next few years in two stages, after which two separate tracks will be available for the S-Bahn. The line speed will be raised to 140 km/h on both the S-Bahn and the long-distance tracks.  The two tracks for the S-Bahn are arranged east or south of the tracks of route 3900 and will be given the new route number of 3684. While the chainage (kilometre markings) on route 3900 ("Main-Weser-Bahn") is measured from Kassel in the north-south direction, the chainage on the new line for the S-Bahn will be measured from Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof in the south-north direction.  The planning approval process for the development of the first section from Frankfurt West to Bad Vilbel (with a planned construction period of four years) was completed on 13 May 2004, but not implemented. It was later amended by a planning change under section 76 subsection 1 of the Administrative Procedure Act ("Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz"). This was publicly announced in July 2009. As a result, the track would be largely equipped with two to six metre-high noise barriers, as a compensatory measure, and an old arm of the Nidda would be restored to a more natural condition.  The citizens' initiative "2statt4" was formed by some residents of Eschersheim and Ginnheim to oppose the whole upgrade through the courts. However, the works approval was already in effect in the Bad Vilbel area, so that the municipality of Bad Vilbel was able to proceed with a planned new underpass under the platforms.  In November 2011, the Hessian Administrative Court ("Hessische Verwaltungsgerichtshof", VGH) dismissed complaints from residents and the citizens' initiative "2statt4" against the planning approval decision and an appeal was not permitted. Previously, Deutsche Bahn had promised improvements.  The citizens' initiative "Bahnane" and a private claimant subsequently appealed against the VGH judgment. In various judgments, the Federal Administrative Court dismissed the appeals at the end of January 2013, with the final construction rights now being granted for the first phase of construction. The citizens' initiatives "2statt4" and "Bahnane" keep trying to prevent the construction of the second stage between Bad Vilbel and Friedberg and to have funding withdrawn for the first stage of construction.  In May 2015, Deutsche Bahn announced that construction would start in the second half of 2017. In addition to the construction of 12.6 kilometres of new tracks, 5 stations would be rebuilt and a station would be built. The cost of the project was stated to be €323 million. The development is scheduled to be completed in December 2022.

Neubau Station Frankfurt-Ginnheim.

During the construction of the S-Bahn line along the Main-Weser railway a new Frankfurt-Ginnheim station is to be built between Frankfurt West and Frankfurt-Eschersheim for the S-Bahn, which would allow a change to U-Bahn line U1 and U9. It does not yet have planning approval.  This was the location of the operating point of Ginnheim, consisting of an overtaking loop towards Kassel from km 194.0 to 193.2, which was abandoned for the construction of the tracks for the S-Bahn. It was the location of a temporary stop for visitors to the Federal Garden Show in 1989, which became the site of Nidda Park.

The Main–Weser Railway (German: "Main-Weser-Bahn") is a railway line in central Germany that runs from Frankfurt am Main via Gießen to Kassel. it is named after the railway company that built the line and also operated it until 1880. It was opened between 1849 and 1852 and was one of the first railways in Germany.


Example application.

The recording of a heart beat (an ECG), may be corrupted by noise from the AC mains. The exact frequency of the power and its harmonics may vary from moment to moment.  One way to remove the noise is to filter the signal with a notch filter at the mains frequency and its vicinity, but this could excessively degrade the quality of the ECG since the heart beat would also likely have frequency components in the rejected range.  To circumvent this potential loss of information, an adaptive filter could be used. The adaptive filter would take input both from the patient and from the mains and would thus be able to track the actual frequency of the noise as it fluctuates and subtract the noise from the recording. Such an adaptive technique generally allows for a filter with a smaller rejection range, which means, in this case, that the quality of the output signal is more accurate for medical purposes.

Block diagram.

The idea behind a closed loop adaptive filter is that a variable filter is adjusted until the error (the difference between the filter output and the desired signal) is minimized. The Least Mean Squares (LMS) filter and the Recursive Least Squares (RLS) filter are types of adaptive filter.  There are two input signals to the adaptive filter: formula_1 and formula_2 which are sometimes called the "primary input" and the "reference input" respectively. The adaption algorithm attempts to filter the reference input into a replica of the desired input by minimizing the residual signal, formula_3. When the adaption is successful, the output of the filter formula_4 is effectively an estimate of the desired signal.  The filter is controlled by a set of L+1 coefficients or weights.  The output is usually formula_3 but it could be formula_4 or it could even be the filter coefficients.(Widrow)  The input signals are defined as follows:  The output signals are defined as follows:

Tapped delay line FIR filter.

If the variable filter has a tapped delay line Finite Impulse Response (FIR) structure, then the impulse response is equal to the filter coefficients. The output of the filter is given by

Ideal case.

In the ideal case formula_24. All the undesired signals in formula_1 are represented by formula_26. formula_27 consists entirely of a signal correlated with the undesired signal in formula_26.  The output of the variable filter in the ideal case is  The error signal or cost function is the difference between formula_1 and formula_4  The error signal formula_3 is minimized in the mean square sense when formula_34 is minimized. In other words, formula_35 is the best mean square estimate of formula_26. In the ideal case, formula_37 and formula_38, and all that is left after the subtraction is formula_39 which is the unchanged desired signal with all undesired signals removed.

Signal components in the reference input.

In some situations, the reference input formula_40 includes components of the desired signal. This means g' ≠ 0.  Perfect cancelation of the undesired interference is not possible in the case, but improvement of the signal to interference ratio is possible. The output will be  The output signal to interference ratio has a simple formula referred to as "power inversion".  This formula means that the output signal to interference ratio at a particular frequency is the reciprocal of the reference signal to interference ratio.  Example: A fast food restaurant has a drive-up window. Before getting to the window, customers place their order by speaking into a microphone. The microphone also picks up noise from the engine and the environment. This microphone provides the primary signal. The signal power from the customer's voice and the noise power from the engine are equal. It is difficult for the employees in the restaurant to understand the customer. To reduce the amount of interference in the primary microphone, a second microphone is located where it is intended to pick up sounds from the engine. It also picks up the customer's voice. This microphone is the source of the reference signal. In this case, the engine noise is 50 times more powerful than the customer's voice. Once the canceler has converged, the primary signal to interference ratio will be improved from 1:1 to 50:1.

Adaptive Linear Combiner.

The adaptive linear combiner (ALC) resembles the adaptive tapped delay line FIR filter except that there is no assumed relationship between the X values. If the X values were from the outputs of a tapped delay line, then the combination of tapped delay line and ALC would comprise an adaptive filter. However, the X values could be the values of an array of pixels. Or they could be the outputs of multiple tapped delay lines. The ALC finds use as an adaptive beam former for arrays of hydrophones or antennas.

LMS algorithm.

If the variable filter has a tapped delay line FIR structure, then the LMS update algorithm is especially simple. Typically, after each sample, the coefficients of the FIR filter are adjusted as follows:(Widrow)  The LMS algorithm does not require that the X values have any particular relationship; therefore it can be used to adapt a linear combiner as well as an FIR filter. In this case the update formula is written as:  The effect of the LMS algorithm is at each time, k, to make a small change in each weight. The direction of the change is such that it would decrease the error if it had been applied at time k. The magnitude of the change in each weight depends on μ, the associated X value and the error at time k. The weights making the largest contribution to the output, formula_4, are changed the most. If the error is zero, then there should be no change in the weights. If the associated value of X is zero, then changing the weight makes no difference, so it is not changed.

Convergence.

μ controls how fast and how well the algorithm converges to the optimum filter coefficients. If μ is too large, the algorithm will not converge. If μ is too small the algorithm converges slowly and may not be able to track changing conditions. If μ is large but not too large to prevent convergence, the algorithm reaches steady state rapidly but continuously overshoots the optimum weight vector. Sometimes, μ is made large at first for rapid convergence and then decreased to minimize overshoot.  Widrow and Stearns state in 1985 that they have no knowledge of a proof that the LMS algorithm will converge in all cases.  However under certain assumptions about stationarity and independence it can be shown that the algorithm will converge if  In the case of the tapped delay line filter, each input has the same RMS value because they are simply the same values delayed. In this case the total power is  This leads to a normalized LMS algorithm:

Nonlinear Adaptive Filters.

The goal of nonlinear filters is to overcome limitation of linear models. There are some commonly used approaches: Volterra LMS, Kernel adaptive filter, Spline Adaptive Filter and Urysohn Adaptive Filter. Many authors include also Neural networks into this list. The general idea behind Volterra LMS and Kernel LMS is to replace data samples by different nonlinear algebraic expressions. For Volterra LMS this expression is Volterra series. In Spline Adaptive Filter the model is a cascade of linear dynamic block and static non-linearity, which is approximated by splines. In Urysohn Adaptive Filter the linear terms in a model  are replaced by piecewise linear functions  which are identified from data samples.

An adaptive filter is a system with a linear filter that has a transfer function controlled by variable parameters and a means to adjust those parameters according to an optimization algorithm. Because of the complexity of the optimization algorithms, almost all adaptive filters are digital filters. Adaptive filters are required for some applications because some parameters of the desired processing operation (for instance, the locations of reflective surfaces in a reverberant space) are not known in advance or are changing. The closed loop adaptive filter uses feedback in the form of an error signal to refine its transfer function.


Characterizations.

Chordal bipartite graphs have various characterizations in terms of perfect elimination orderings, hypergraphs and matrices. They are closely related to strongly chordal graphs. By definition, chordal bipartite graphs have a forbidden subgraph characterization as the graphs that do not contain any induced cycle of length 3 or of length at least 5 (so-called holes) as an induced subgraph. Thus, a graph "G" is chordal bipartite if and only if "G" is triangle-free and hole-free. In, two other characterizations are mentioned: "B" is chordal bipartite if and only if every minimal edge separator induces a complete bipartite subgraph in "B" if and only if every induced subgraph is perfect elimination bipartite.  Martin Farber has shown: A graph is strongly chordal if and only if the bipartite incidence graph of its clique hypergraph is chordal bipartite. A similar characterization holds for the closed neighborhood hypergraph: A graph is strongly chordal if and only if the bipartite incidence graph of its closed neighborhood hypergraph is chordal bipartite.  Another result found by Elias Dahlhaus is: A bipartite graph "B" = ("X","Y","E") is chordal bipartite if and only if the split graph resulting from making "X" a clique is strongly chordal.  A bipartite graph "B" = ("X","Y","E") is chordal bipartite if and only if every induced subgraph of "B" has a maximum "X"-neighborhood ordering and a maximum Y-neighborhood ordering.  Various results describe the relationship between chordal bipartite graphs and totally balanced neighborhood hypergraphs of bipartite graphs. A characterization of chordal bipartite graphs in terms of intersection graphs related to hypergraphs is given in. A bipartite graph is chordal bipartite if and only if its adjacency matrix is totally balanced if and only if the adjacency matrix is Gamma-free.

Recognition.

Chordal bipartite graphs can be recognized in time for a graph with "n" vertices and "m" edges.

Complexity of problems.

Various problems such as Hamiltonian cycle, Steiner tree and Efficient Domination  Various other problems which can be solved efficiently for bipartite graphs can be solved more efficiently for chordal bipartite graphs as discussed in

Related graph classes.

Every chordal bipartite graph is a modular graph. The chordal bipartite graphs include the complete bipartite graphs and the bipartite distance-hereditary graphs.

In the mathematical area of graph theory, a chordal bipartite graph is a bipartite graph "B" = ("X","Y","E") in which every cycle of length at least 6 in "B" has a "chord", i.e., an edge that connects two vertices that are a distance > 1 apart from each other in the cycle.


Geography.

The St. Johns River flows out of the lake at the north end at Rocky Point. To the east of this is Salt Cove, taking the flow from Salt Creek. Just south of Salt Cove is Lisk Point, named for a Dr. Lisk who built a house near the point. Steamboats coming down from Jacksonville made a counter clockwise loop around the lake with their first stop at Lisk Point.  Lake George is the second largest lake in Florida, after Lake Okeechobee. Lake George was the third largest lake behind Lake Apopka, but conversion of the littoral zone on the northern side of Lake Apopka to farm fields in the previous century reduced its surface area.

History.

The name of Lake Welaka is taken from "Welaka" (meaning "chain of lakes"), the name for the St. Johns River in the language of the Timucua, who inhabited the region prior to European settlement. The first European to visit the lake was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who as the Spanish governor of Florida, explored the St. Johns River in the spring of 1596.  Later, the Florida territory was sold to Britain. The royal botanist in America to King George III, John Bartram, explored the St. Johns River in 1765. It was John Bartram who gave the lake the name Lake George, in honor of his king. In more recent years, Lake George has been home to an operational U.S. Military bombing and aerial mining range. The range is affiliated with the U.S. Navy's Pinecastle Bombing Range located in the Ocala National Forest just west of Lake George. The bombing ranges date back to World War II, when the Navy built bomb targets in Lake George and nearby Crescent Lake, and stationed personnel in the area to maintain the targets and perform search and rescue operations for downed pilots. Today, the range is under the operational control of nearby Naval Air Station Jacksonville.  The lake also hosts a wide variety of wildlife ranging from migratory water birds and alligators to a number of normally marine animals. Local springs in Lake George (and throughout the St Johns River) impart enough salt to the system to make the habitat suitable to resident and migratory marine species like Atlantic stingray, various species of mullet, striped bass and blue crabs. There is a large enough blue crab population to support a local fishery, making it one of the only fresh water blue crab fisheries in the world.

Lake George or Lake Welaka is a broad and shallow brackish lake on the St. Johns River in the U.S. state of Florida.


Visits numbers.

There is little evidence behind the number of antenatal visits, pregnant women receive and what care and information is given at each visit. It has been suggested that women who have low-risk pregnancies should have fewer antenatal visits. However, when this was tested, women with less visits had babies who were much more likely to be admitted to neonatal intensive care and stay there for longer (though this could down to chance results). 14% more babies died compared with those whose mothers had a standard number of visits. Women who had less antenatal visits were not as satisfied with the care they received compared with women who had the standard number of visits. A new alternative for some of the routine prenatal care visits is Telemedicine.

Group versus individual care.

Group antenatal care has a couple of obvious benefits: it costs less than one-to-one visits and the women have more hours of care as a group than on their own. Only small studies have been conducted looking at group care but they have found that mothers’ knew more about pregnancy, birth and parenting in the group setting. The mothers reported liking the group care and the review found no difference between how the pregnancies developed between the group and individual setting.

Midwife-led care.

Midwife-led care for low-risk women is where a midwife team (and GP if needed) is leading the care a woman receives and she does not usually see a specialist doctor in her pregnancy. Women with midwife-led pregnancies are more likely to give birth without being induced but have natural labours. However they are less likely to have their waters broken, an instrumental delivery, episiotomy or preterm birth. Around the same number of women in each group had a caesarean section.

Prenatal examinations.

At the initial antenatal care visit and with the aid of a special booking checklist the pregnant women become classified into either normal risk or high risk.  In many countries, women are given a summary of their case notes including important background information about their pregnancy for example their medical history, growth charts and any scan reports. If the mother goes to a different hospital for care or to give birth the summary of her case notes can be used by the midwives and doctors until her hospital notes arrive.  A review looking into women keeping their own case notes shows they have more risk of having a caesarean section. However the women reported feeling more in control having their notes and would like to have them again in future pregnancies. 25% of women reported their hospital notes were lost in hospital though none of the women forgot to take their own notes to any appointments.  Prenatal diagnosis or prenatal screening (note that "Prenatal Diagnosis" and "Prenatal Screening" refer to two different types of tests) is testing for diseases or conditions in a fetus or embryo before it is born. Obstetricians and midwives have the ability to monitor mother's health and prenatal development during pregnancy through series of regular check-ups.  Physical examinations generally consist of:  In some countries, such as the UK, the symphysial fundal height (SFH) is measured as part of antenatal appointments from 25 weeks gestation. (The SFH is measured from the woman’s pubic bone to the top of the uterus). A review into this practice found only one piece of research so there is not enough evidence to say whether measuring the SFH helps to detect small or large babies. As measuring the SFH is not costly and is used in many places, the review recommends carrying on this practice.  Growth charts are a way of detecting small babies by the measuring the SFH. There are two types of growth chart: A review looking into which of these charts detected small babies found that there is no good quality research to show which is best. More research is needed before the customized growth charts are recommended because they cost more money and take more time for the health care workers to make.  Obstetric ultrasounds are most commonly performed during the second trimester at approximately week 20. Ultrasounds are considered relatively safe and have been used for over 35 years for monitoring pregnancy. Among other things, ultrasounds are used to:  Generally an ultrasound is ordered whenever an abnormality is suspected or along a schedule similar to the following:  A review looking at routine ultrasounds past 24 weeks found that there is no evidence to show any benefits to the mother or the baby.  Early scans mean that multiple pregnancies can be detected at an early stage of pregnancy and also gives more accurate due dates so that less women are induced who do not need to be.  Levels of feedback from the ultrasound can differ. High feedback is when the parents can see the screen and are given a detailed description of what they can see. Low feedback is when the findings are discussed at the end and the parents are given a picture of the ultrasound. The different ways of giving feedback affect how much the parents worry and the mother’s health behaviour although there is not enough evidence to make clear conclusions. In a small study, mothers receiving high feedback were more likely to stop smoking and drinking alcohol however the quality of the study is low and more research is needed to say for certain which type of feedback is better.  Women experiencing a complicated pregnancy may have a test called a Doppler ultrasound to look at the blood flow to their unborn baby. This is performed to detect signs that the baby is not getting a normal blood flow and therefore is ‘at risk’. A review looked at performing Doppler ultrasounds on all women even if they were at ‘low-risk’ of having complications. The review found that routine Doppler ultrasounds may have reduced preventable numbers of baby deaths but the evidence was not strong enough to recommend that they should be made routine for all pregnant women.

United States.

Proper prenatal care affects all women of various social backgrounds. While availability of such services have considerable personal health and social benefits, socioeconomic problems prevent its universal adoption in both developing and developed nations, such as the US. Although women can benefit by utilizing prenatal care services, there exists various levels of health care accessibility between different demographics throughout the United States.

Prenatal care, also known as antenatal care, is a type of preventive healthcare. Its goal is to provide regular check-ups that allow doctors or midwives to treat and prevent potential health problems throughout the course of the pregnancy and to promote healthy lifestyles that benefit both mother and child. During check-ups, pregnant women receive medical information over maternal physiological changes in pregnancy, biological changes, and prenatal nutrition including prenatal vitamins. Recommendations on management and healthy lifestyle changes are also made during regular check-ups. The availability of routine prenatal care, including prenatal screening and diagnosis, has played a part in reducing the frequency of maternal death, miscarriages, birth defects, low birth weight, neonatal infections and other preventable health problems.


Geography.

Olching lies approximately halfway between Dachau and Fürstenfeldbruck, and stretches along both sides of the River Amper. There are two picturesque man-made lakes to the east of Olching, namely the "Olchinger See" (Lake Olching) and the eponymous "Kleiner See" (Small Lake), both of which border on the neighbouring community of Gröbenzell.  In recent years, Olching has expanded considerably through new building work to meet the demand for housing outside Munich while taking advantage of its good communications, which allow a reasonable commute for those still working in the city and its outskirts. These new developments, especially "Schwaigfeld", located north-east of the town centre — close to Olching's motorway exit — have attracted controversy amongst some locals for their apparently inconsistent planning and sometimes eclectic architecture.  The ongoing influx of younger families into these new developments would appear to show that they have become a significant part of the modern Olching community, and the developments continue to grow and generate their own infrastructure improvements. A small shopping centre was opened in "Schwaigfeld" in January 2008.

Neighbouring communities.

Olching is bordered to the west by "Gernlinden", and Maisach; in the north, Bergkirchen; in the East from Gröbenzell and the outskirts of metropolitan Munich and to the south by Puchheim, Eichenau, Emmering and Fürstenfeldbruck. The municipality of Olching is now (since 1978) made up of three main municipalities, namely Olching, Esting (including Neu-Esting), and Geiselbullach (including Graßlfing).

Communications.

Olching is located near the Autobahn A8 exits "Dachau/Fürstenfeldbruck" and "Lochhausen/Langwied", as well as the Autobahn A99 "Lochhausen". The Munich trunk ring road "B471" also has 2 exits for Olching.  The River Amper is neither navigable to leisure craft nor to goods traffic. Smaller watercraft such as dinghys and kayaks are however frequently underway in the summer months.

Public transport.

Olching is connected to the Munich S-Bahn network on the line. It takes about 20 minutes to München Hauptbahnhof (Munich Central Station). The line is part of the MVV, or "Münchener Verkerhrsverbund", which is a unified tariff zone that includes local buses, trams, and underground trains ("U-Bahnen") in the Munich area.  Olching station is located on—but not served by—the DB Munich–Augsburg mainline which also carries significant goods traffic. For express train travel, residents of Olching may travel via Munich Pasing and Munich Hauptbahnhof

Climate.

Olching lies in the transitional zone between the humid Atlantic climate and the dry continental climates. Other significant factors affecting the weather are the Alps, which act as south-central European border, and the Danube, which is a regional meteorological divide. Due to this constellation, the weather in the region is quite changeable.

Foehn.

The so-called foehn is a weather phenomenon particular to the region near to the Alps that occasionally brings warmer and drier air from the south to Olching, potentially occurring at any time of year. This is accompanied by extremely good visibility, in particular the much-clichéd Bavarian blue and white sky, and the Bavarian Alps may be clearly visible, apparently close-by, although they are approximately 100 kilometres (60 mi) away to the south. Some people suffer from headaches and circulatory problems as a result of the foehn.

History.

Early records.

Olching is an old bavarii settlement and was first mentioned in the Early Middle Ages. In 740 the Agilolfingian duke Tassilo II of Bavaria bestowed the town, together with its church and flour mill, to the Benediktbeuern Abbey (the authenticity of this document is contested). The early Gothic church was replaced by the Romanesque basilica "St. Peter und Paul" in 1903.  In 1258 Louis II, Duke of Bavaria founded a monastery as a form of penance for the execution of his wife Maria von Brabant, who had wrongfully been convicted of adultery. This monastery was relocated from Aibling to Olching in 1262. The monastery was relocated to Fürstenfeldbruck only one year later, either due to flooding or structural problems. The Fürstenfeld Abbey owned several estates in Olching until the period of secularization in Bavaria in 1802/1803.  Olching suffered severely as a consequence of the Thirty Years' War, particularly after the city of Munich was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 1632. Only nine out of formerly 67 estates remained in Olching after 1648.

Developments in the 19th century.

In 1821 Olching (which had until then been administered by Dachau) was transferred to the newly founded "" of Fürstenfeldbruck, and in 1823 it also came under the jurisdiction of Fürstenfeldbruck.  In 1834 the first school was established in Olching.  Until 1839 Olching was still very rural with about 50 farms and approximately 300 inhabitants. This changed with the construction of the railway line between Munich to Augsburg. The line between Munich and Olching was completed on 27 October 1839 and the rail service commenced the following year. At the same time a wood pulp factory opened in Olching, which in turn led to a strong influx of workers.

The 20th century.

The predominantly working class population had a large influence on the social and political culture of Olching during the 20th century. During the Weimar Republic the municipal council was solely dominated by left-wing parties. However, for some of these left-wing politicians, such as SPD-mayor Josef Tauscheck, their political beliefs had serious repercussions due to the rise of the right in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s. Some experienced a great degree of harassment, for others it led to internment in the infamous concentration camps after 1933. Just as in the rest of Germany the National Socialists also gained a large following in Olching in the run-up to and during the Third Reich.  During an allied air raid on 22 February 1944, 22 people were killed, including two of the approximately 1000 forced laborers located in and around Olching during the war.  After World War II about 5,000 Heimatvertriebene (expellees), mainly from Silesia and Czechoslovakia, arrived in Olching. In 1950 these new citizens made up 25% of the population of Olching and they contributed towards the dynamic development of Olching in the post-war era.  The erstwhile rural appearance of Olching has changed over time, as the cityscape of Olching is becoming more and more dominated by businesses and blocks of flats. Many of Olching's citizens use the S-Bahn to commute to work in Munich, which was built for the 1972 Summer Olympics. In 1978 Esting, Geiselbullach, and Graßlfing were merged into the larger community of Olching and this has contributed towards a continuous population growth, especially since the development of the Schwaigfeld area in the early 2000s.  Olching was named a city on 19 June 2011.

Coat of Arms.

Olching's coat of arms originates from the year 1951. The swept blue bar in the lower part symbolises the river Amper, which flows through Olching and is of major significance for the town. The reed in the middle reminds that Olching was once marshland; the head of wheat symbolises the agriculture and land cultivation. The upper part displays the chequered blue and white Bavarian standard.

Population.

The current figure (August 2009) for the population of Olching is 24,582. In the past ten years, the population has grown by 10% and is expected by local officials to rise to 25,750 by 2010. This development is mainly driven by the importance of Munich as a centre of employment and by a wish to avoid the higher urban property prices which have been driven by Munich's continuing economic success.

Demographics.

At present approximately 9% of the current population are of non-German origin.

Politics.

The Olching Gemeinderat, or local council, has 30 seats. Since the latest local elections on 2 March 2008 it is made up as follows:  The numbers in brackets indicate the gains and losses since the previous election in March 2002.

Religion and worship in Olching.

Amongst the adult population, the declared religious affiliation (which has fiscal consequences in Germany) breaks down as follows:

Churches in Olching.

In the centre of Olching, the skyline and Haupstrasse are dominated by the catholic church, there is a smaller protestant/Lutheran church near to the station and a modern catholic church in New Esting:

Other religious groups and organisations in Olching.

As well as groups such as kindergartens, attached to and or supported by the church community, other groups of various denominations are present and active in Olching:

Education.

Primary and secondary education.

The main schools in Olching are

Others.

Other educational establishments in Olching include

Leisure.

Olching is well known for its motorcycle speedway club and track, the so-called "Speedwaybahn". It hosts a number of events, including international motorcycling events. Olching is also known for its attractive golf course which lies between Olching and "Geiselbullach". There are also championship—and leisure—minigolf courses located at separate, neighbouring clubs.  There are also a number of sports clubs, including "SC Olching", "SV Esting", and the "TSV Geiselbullach". Furthermore, the river Amper, its backwater "Mühlbach" and the local bird-park Vogelpark Olching, open spring to autumn, offer idyllic walks and views to locals and visitors. Nearby is the "Schuttberg"; (rubble-hill), a little hill between Olching and Esting (situated next to the "Tony-März-Stadion", the home ground of "SC Olching"). Nowadays this mound is a popular spot for children, teenagers and adults alike for town-centre sledging during the winter.  Right next to the "Schuttberg" is the "Volksfestplatz", (a fairground), a site which acts in the off-season as a cycle practice range, incorporates a go-kart training area, has a small skate-park and hosts monthly flea-markets throughout the summer. It is most popular, however, when it is used for the "Olchinger Volksfest", which is Olching's very own Oktoberfest in May/June.  A further popular spot is the, which is a picturesque lake that attracts plenty of visitors from the surrounding area.

KOM Kulturwerkstatt am Olchinger Mühlbach.

A listed building originating from 1877 that was sympathetically renovated and opened in 2004 for cultural events of all sorts. Located at the western end of the "Hauptstrasse", its various intimate rooms are used for exhibitions, chamber and classical music performances, and seminars and meetings by various Olching clubs.

Events.

Carnival Parade; "Faschingsumzug".

The carnival parade ("Faschingsumzug") takes place annually on Shrove Tuesday at 2:00 pm and has a long tradition in Olching. The first procession was organised by the so-called young farmers' club () in 1923. Between 1938 and 1952, these parades were suspended due to the political environment and other factors such as World War II. It was only in 1953 when six masked men—three of them musicians—took to the streets on that this tradition was reinstated on a regular basis.  The procession grew ever bigger due to the involvement of local clubs and groups. Over the course of time, the procession in Olching has become the largest in Upper Bavaria. Since 1953 it has only been cancelled on three occasions: In 1962 as a mark of respect for the victims of the catastrophic surge-tide in Hamburg; in 1990 due to a hurricane-force storm called "Wiebke"; and in 1991 due to the first Gulf War.  Over the following years as many as 30,000–40,000 spectators have attended this spectacle regularly in the hope of catching a handful of sweets that are thrown from the floats for the children and to laugh at the politically and satirically themed floats as the procession moves down the High Street ("Hauptstrasse") in Olching.

Easter Fire; "Osterfeuer".

A tradition that is more widespread in northern and central parts of Germany, the Easter Fire, (Ger.), is also traditionally celebrated in Olching on the town's fairground (see below), the so-called "Volksfestplatz". A large bonfire is lit after dusk on Easter Saturday. Spectators of the event can also browse the numerous stalls while the Olching volunteer fire brigade "Freiwillige Feuerwehr" manage the fire.  There is also an unofficial competition between neighboring communities and families, (typically in more rural areas) to see who can set up the largest fire. This is done to dispose of superfluous wood (including remaining Christmas trees) while earning donations for local charitable groups and organizations.  The origin of this festival in Germany is a mixture of pagan celebrations intended to drive away the winter and its evils, and Christian beliefs (another name for this celebration in parts of Bavaria and Austria is "Judasfeuer" (literally: Judas fire)).

Fair; "Volksfest".

The fair ("Volksfest") in Olching takes place annually during the second holiday week of Whitsun ("Pfingsten"). The fair consists of rides, stalls, food and entertainment, and a large beer tent, which are set up on the "Volksfestplatz" (fairground). There are various themed events in the beer tent, including a regional boxing "fight night". The community organises a broad range of events during the festival, including a popular large firework display, usually on the first Monday of the fair. The day of Corpus Christi is usually a raceday, which takes place at the "Speedwaybahn" as part of the festivities.

References.

The initial text content of this site is based upon the German language Wikipedia entry for Olching,

Olching is a town in the district of Fürstenfeldbruck, in Bavaria, Germany. It is situated approximately 20 km (12 mi) northwest of Munich.


History.

Winslow was named for either Edward F. Winslow, president of St. Louis and San Francisco Rail Road, which owned half of the old Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, or Tom Winslow, a prospector who lived in the area.  The last Harvey House (La Posada Hotel), designed by Mary Colter, opened in 1930. The hotel closed in 1957 and was used by the Santa Fe Railway for offices. The railroad abandoned La Posada in 1994 and announced plans to tear it down. It was bought and restored by Allan Affeldt and it serves as a hotel.  U.S. Route 66 was originally routed through the city. A contract to build Interstate 40 as a bypass north of Winslow was awarded at the end of 1977. I-40 replaced U.S. Route 66 in Arizona in its entirety.  Winslow achieved national fame in 1972 in the Eagles / Jackson Browne song “Take It Easy” which has the line “standing on a corner in Winslow, Arizona."

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 9,520 people, 2,754 households, and 1,991 families residing in the city. The population density was 773.1 people per square mile (298.6/km2). There were 3,198 housing units at an average density of 259.7 per square mile (100.3/km2). The city's racial makeup was 40.8% White, 28.84% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 23.47% Native American, 13.49% from other races, 5.18% Black or African American, 1.03% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander and 4.18% from two or more races.  There were 2,754 households, of which 40.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.2% were married couples living together, 16.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.7% were non-families. 23.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.40.  In the city, the population was spread out with 29.8% under the age of 18, 11.0% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 122.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 134.6 males.  The city's median household income was $29,741, and the median family income was $35,825. Males had a median income of $28,365 versus $20,698 for females. The city's per capita income was $12,340. About 17.5% of families and 20.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.9% of those under age 18 and 16.3% of those age 65 or over.

Geography and climate.

Winslow is at (35.028482, −110.700782). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of, all land. It is approximately 75 miles SE of Flagstaff, 320 miles W of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and 329 miles SE of Las Vegas.  Winslow experiences a dry, temperate arid climate (Köppen "BWk"), with a wide diurnal temperature variation year-round, averaging. Winters are cool and dry, while summers are hot, and bringing the largest portion of the annual precipitation, which is ; snowfall averages per season (July 1 through June 30 of the subsequent year).

Education.

Winslow is served by the Winslow Unified School District.  The city has three public elementary schools: Bonnie Brennan Elementary School, Jefferson Elementary School, and Washington Elementary School. Winslow Junior High School and Winslow High School serve the city. Winslow also hosts the Little Colorado Campus of Northland Pioneer College.

Transportation.

Winslow is served by Winslow-Lindbergh Regional Airport (IATA: INW, ICAO: KINW). Originally constructed by Transcontinental Air Transport, there is no commercial airline service here. The Winslow airport was designed by Charles Lindbergh, who stayed in Winslow during its construction. When it was built, it was the only all-weather airport between Albuquerque, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California.  The city is on BNSF Railway's Southern Transcon route which runs between Los Angeles and Chicago, Illinois. It is also a crew change point for BNSF Railway. The city also has twice-daily Amtrak service at Winslow (Amtrak station) (one train eastbound and one westbound).  Hopi Senom Transit provides bus service from Winslow to the Hopi Reservation.  Interstate 40 runs just north of Winslow; the town is on the historic U.S. Route 66 in Arizona.

Main sights.

The historic La Posada hotel has been beautifully restored. It is home to acres of flower and vegetable gardens, the museum of painter Tina Mion, and the Turquoise Room, a world class restaurant and martini bar.  The nearby Meteor Crater, sometimes known as the Barringer Crater and formerly as the Canyon Diablo crater, is a famous impact crater.  Standin' On The Corner Park is a park featuring murals depicting the famous "Girl my Lord in a flatbed Ford". Winslow also has an annual Standin' On The Corner street festival, traditionally held the last week of September.  The Painted Desert and Petrified Forest are about east of Winslow. The Little Painted Desert is north of Winslow.

Historical events.

In the era of steam locomotives, Winslow was an important stop on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway for adding water and fuel to trains. Passengers could disembark and have enough time to have a meal during the extended stop. During the 1920s many celebrities chose to come west to Hollywood and when they stopped in Winslow a parade took place. The local newspaper often documented these special events.  Winslow was also home to a roundhouse and maintenance depot for the Sante Fe. When the station at Barstow, California was given the engineering responsibility for newer diesel locomotives, Winslow began its slow decline. Company brass moved out, as did other employees needed for maintenance and repairs.  In 1949 when the Shah of Iran came to America and toured some sights, he chose to come to the Grand Canyon. His plane landed at the Winslow airport and the entourage took land transport to get to the canyon.  In the 1970s, Winslow was chosen as the site of one of ten Decision Information Distribution System radio stations, designed to alert the public of an enemy attack. The system was never implemented and the station was never built.

9-11 Remembrance Gardens.

Winslow is home to the 9-11 Remembrance Gardens, a memorial honoring those who lost their lives during the September 11 attacks. The memorial was constructed using two beams recovered from the wreckage of the World Trade Center towers in New York City.  The 9-11 Memorial in Winslow is a result of the efforts of Bill Herron and Councilwoman Dee Rodríguez, along with a committee, planning for a remembrance. There was news of beams from the Trade Center towers' wreckage being given away and the persons in charge of the wreckage were contacted and agreed to give Winslow beams of 14 and 16 foot length.  Walmart supplied the transportation to Winslow. A large number of citizens donated time and money to the erection of the memorial, which was in place and celebrated on the first anniversary of the event, September 11, 2002. The memorial is at the corner of Transcon Lane and old Route 66 near the Flying J Truck Stop.

In popular culture.

Winslow was mentioned in the popular 1972 song "Take It Easy" written by Jackson Browne and Glenn Frey and performed by the Eagles.  The city was also mentioned in the song 'In the springtime of his voodoo' by Tori Amos.  "The Crew" video game featured Winslow as a location, as did its sequel "The Crew 2". However, it is incorrectly called Winston, Arizona. It may have been confused with the name of a small town called Winston, New Mexico.

Winslow () is a city in Navajo County, Arizona, in the United States. According to the 2010 census, the population of the city is 9,655. It is approximately SE of Flagstaff, W of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and SE of Las Vegas.


Editions and translation.

There have been at least 300 editions of the book, starting in the 1590s. According to the 1622 edition, the first three editions - one printed in Lublin and two in Kraków - had by then not survived.  After the 1622 edition, which came out in two volumes (the Pentateuch; the Haftarahs and Five Scrolls), most were published as one volume and in a variety of formats (for example, each weekly portion together with its particular haftarah). Some editions were illuminated, and in the 17th century, a section of the first portion of Genesis was translated into Latin. At the end of the 18th century, publication of the "Tseno Ureno" shifted from Western to Eastern Europe. At this point considerable changes in the language of the writing became apparent. The book turned into a kind of living Yiddish-language laboratory, and had at the same time a significant influence on the development of Yiddish, both written and spoken. Some East European editions reflect the spirit of Hasidic Judaism or the Haskalah. In the 19th century, versions appeared in Western Europe with different purposes or aims — mainly Germanization of the language, modernization or actualization of the contents, and structural rearrangement — alongside partial translations into different languages. The title "Tseno Ureno" was sporadically used for other similar books of sermons and teaching of the Bible, and also appeared on the title page of a number of copies of the 1822 Basel edition of Moses Mendelssohn’s "Bi’ur".  A number of later editions of the "Tseno Ureno" include various supplements, such as Yiddish translations of Targum Sheni on the Scroll of Esther, the book Naḥalat Tsevi on the Torah portions and the Scrolls, Judah Messer Leon's "Nofet tsufim" on the haftarahs, and selected portions of the "Sefer haYashar" Isaiah Horowitz's "Shenei Luḥot HaBerit".  The 20th century saw full translations into English and Hebrew, as well as a partial translation into modern Yiddish. Among these translations-adaptations we find "Maskilic", Hasidic, and Zionist versions of the classic work.  Parts of "Tseno Ureno" were translated into German in 1910 by Bertha Pappenheim as "Zennah u-Reenah". Only the first part of her translation of the Women's Bible appeared ("Bereschit", corresponding to the Book of Genesis). The translations of the second and third books ("Schemot" and "Wajikra") have apparently been lost.  Morris M. Faierstein published a first critical translation into English in 2017.  The book continues in print today, especially for Hasidic communities. ArtScroll published a two-volume English translation in 1993 (), under the title "The Weekly Midrash: Tz'enah Ur'enah the Classic Anthology of Torah Lore and Midrashic Commentary".

The Tseno Ureno (), also spelt Tsene-rene, Tz'enah Ur'enah, sometimes called the Women's Bible, is a Yiddish-language prose work of c.1590s whose structure parallels the weekly Torah portions and Haftarahs used in Jewish prayer services. The book was written by Jacob ben Isaac Ashkenazi (1550–1625) of Janów Lubelski (near Lublin, Poland), and mixes Biblical passages with teachings from Judaism's Oral Torah such as the Talmud's Aggadah and Midrash, which are sometimes called "parables, allegories, short stories, anecdotes, legends, and admonitions" by secular writers.


Coat of arms.

The coat of arms shows the local patron St. Michael. It was conferred on the village in 1581 by Julius Echter of Mespelbrunn, then Bishop of Würzburg.

Geography.

Geographic data.

Located in the rain shadow of Rhön and Spessart, the average annual rainfall is. This makes the Main valley one of the driest regions of Germany.

Neighbouring communities.

Thüngersheim has common borders with Retzbach in the north, Retzstadt in the northeast, Güntersleben in the east, Veitshöchheim in the west and Zellingen and Erlabrunn (both separated from Thüngersheim by the river Main).

Religion.

Denominations.

Thüngersheim is predominantly Catholic (parish church St. Michael). In 2003 a parish community was formed with St. Maternus Güntersleben.

Pilgrimage to the Kreuzberg (Cross Mountain).

A prominent religious event is the pilgrimage to the Kreuzberg. It is undertaken once a year. The destination is the Kreuzberg in the Rhön, which is also called the holy mountain of the Franconians. It dates back to the 18th century.

Politics.

Municipal council.

The municipal council consists of 14 members (plus the mayor). Seven members belong to the free voters community, five to the Christian Social Union (CSU), and two to the Social Democratic Party (SPD).

Town twinning.

Thüngersheim is twinned to St. Aignan de Grand Lieu (France). More information (in German and French ) is available at.  1996: female 1,300, male 1,315

Culture and sights.

Buildings.

The parish church St. Michael is worth seeing (literature - in German - is referenced below). Three of the once four gate lodges are still present. They were part of the fortification (a ring of walls surrounding the town centre).

Associations.

(all the information is in German)
 Gesangverein
 Musikverein

Libraries.

Municipal library located in the former town hall and Catholic public library.

Businesses and infrastructure.

Thüngersheim is the domicile of the Winzergenossenschaft Thüngersheim eG (vinters' co-operative) founded in 1930. With more than, Thüngersheim is one of the largest vine villages in Franconia.

Transport.

Thüngersheim is located at the Bundesstraße (federal road) 27 and on the railroad line Würzburg-Gemünden.

Education.

The only school is the elementary school (first to fourth grade).

Thüngersheim is a community located in Germany. The community is situated on the River Main. It is a community in the district of Würzburg (Bavaria, Administrative region Lower Franconia). The village is molded by the surrounding vineyards, more than.


Development.

Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, "instructional theory" is influenced by three basic theories in educational thought: behaviorism, the theory that helps us understand how people conform to predetermined standards; cognitivism, the theory that learning occurs through mental associations; and constructivism, the theory explores the value of human activity as a critical function of gaining knowledge. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives—one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published "Conditions of Learning" for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.

Definition.

Instructional theory is different than learning theory. A learning theory "describes" how learning takes place, and an instructional theory "prescribes" how to better help people learn. Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction). Instructional theory helps us create conditions that increases the probability of learning. Its goal is understanding the instructional system and to improve the process of instruction.

Overview.

Instructional theories identify what instruction or teaching should be like. It outlines strategies that an educator may adopt to achieve the learning objectives. Instructional theories are adapted based on the educational content and more importantly the learning style of the students. They are used as teaching guidelines/tools by teachers/trainers to facilitate learning. Instructional theories encompass different instructional methods, models and strategies.  David Merrill's First Principles of Instruction discusses universal methods of instruction, situational methods and core ideas of the post-industrial paradigm of instruction.  Universal Methods of Instruction:  Situational Methods:  based on different approaches to instruction based on different learning outcomes: Core ideas for the Post-industrial Paradigm of Instruction: Four tasks of Instructional theory:

Critiques.

Paulo Freire's work appears to critique instructional approaches that adhere to the knowledge acquisition stance, and his work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" has had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship.  Freire explains, "Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into "containers", into "receptacles" to be "filled" by the teacher. The more completely she fills the receptacles, the better a teacher she is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the better students they are." In this way he explains educator creates an act of depositing knowledge in a student. The student thus becomes a repository of knowledge. Freire explains that this system that diminishes creativity and knowledge suffers. Knowledge, according to Freire, comes about only through the learner by inquiry and pursuing the subjects in the world and through interpersonal interaction.  Freire further states, "In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates education and knowledge as processes of inquiry. The teacher presents himself to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he justifies his own existence. The students, alienated like the slave in the Hegelian dialectic, accept their ignorance as justifying the teacher's existence—but, unlike the slave, they never discover that they educate the teacher." Freire then offered an alternative stance and wrote, "The raison d'etre of libertarian education, on the other hand, lies in its drive towards reconciliation. Education must begin with the solution of the teacher-student contradiction, by reconciling the poles of the contradiction so that both are simultaneously teachers and students."  In the article, "A process for the critical analysis of instructional theory", the authors use an ontology-building process to review and analyze concepts across different instructional theories. Here are their findings:

References.

Linking Premise to Practice: An Instructional Theory-Strategy Model Approach By: Bowden, Randall. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, v5 n3 p69-76 Mar 2008

An instructional theory is "a theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop." It provides insights about what is likely to happen and why with respect to different kinds of teaching and learning activities while helping indicate approaches for their evaluation. Instructional designers focus on how to best structure material and instructional behavior to facilitate learning.