Requirements.

In order to develop an effective emergency warning system, certain things are required:

United Nations program.

Early warning system is the term that the International Early Warning Programme coordinated by the United Nations uses for all systems that are used to send emergency population warnings.  The United Nations Development Programme uses the Send Word Now Emergency Notification System to alert its worldwide staff when an urgent situation arises.

Methods by country.

Australia.

The Standard Emergency Warning Signal was originally adopted by the Bureau of Meteorology in the 1970s for tropical cyclone warnings. It became a standard national emergency warning signal in 1995. It can be broadcast on radio, television, automated telephone calls and in some places by public address systems in the event of bushfire, flood, cyclone, tsunami, earthquake or terrorist attack.

Canada.

On June 11, 2009, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) approved a proposal by Pelmorex, owners of The Weather Network and MétéoMédia, to receive must-carry status for the channels, in exchange for developing a "national aggregator and distributor" of localized emergency alert messages compliant with the Common Alerting Protocol. The alert system, known as Alert Ready, built on a backend known as the National Alert Aggregation and Dissemination system (NAAD), was first established in 2010, and further expanded as a result of consultation with government officials, broadcasters, and the CRTC. In August 2014, the CRTC ruled that all television stations, radio stations, and broadcast distribution undertakings had to begin mandatory carriage of local alerts relayed through NAAD by March 31, 2015.  The province of Alberta had its own system called the Emergency Public Warning System (EPWS). The EPWS was put into place after a major tornado swept through the city of Edmonton in 1987, killing 27 and causing millions of dollars in damage. Unlike the American EAS, however, broadcast of the EPWS was not mandatory on radio and television stations. It was broadcast on the CKUA Radio Network and was televised on CTV Two Alberta and other participating stations. EPWS warnings could be initiated by municipal police and fire departments, the provincial government, county authorities, tribal government agencies, Environment Canada, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. CKUA developed and maintained the EPWS until January 2010, when it lost a bid to modernize the system to an outside vendor (the contract had provided 15% of the station's overall budget).  In June 2011, an updated version of the system known as Alberta Emergency Alert was introduced, which emphasized multi-platform availability of alerts and advisories on digital platforms, such as online and through a mobile app. Participation in AEA is now considered mandatory under the CRTC's national public alerting mandate.

France.

In France, the population warning is made via air raid siren. This network is called the "Réseau national d'alerte" (RNA). The system is inherited from the air-raid siren network ("défense passive") developed before World War II. It consists of about 4,500 electronic or electromechanical sirens placed all over France.  In some cases, the warning signal may be played by a mobile system installed on the fire department's vehicles.  The warning signal is described by "décret" (by law) of March 23, 2007. It consists in a modulated sound going up and down (up to 380 Hz) during the first minute, and repeated three times. The end of alert is a continuous signal lasting 30 seconds.  The system is tested every month, the first Wednesday at 11.45 in the north, 12.00 in the center, and at 12.15 in the south; for tests, the modulated signal is played only once.  When the warning signal sounds, people are expected to remain at home or the building they are in and listen to further instructions on radio via France Info, France Inter, or local stations.  Instructions may also be announced by police or fire department vehicles.

Japan.

The J-Alert system launched in 2007 aims to allow government officials to address the population directly via loudspeakers. It aims to cover earthquake, tsunami, volcano, and military emergencies.  The Earthquake Early Warning system is operated by the Japan Meteorological Agency. It is capable of delivering warnings a few seconds before S-waves can propagate to distant locations. Warnings are broadcast by radio and television stations, and compatible equipment can automatically turn on when receiving a message. EEW capability is also required for all domestic cell phones sold after 2007.  JMA also issues advisories regarding tropical cyclones in the western Pacific Ocean.

South America.

Many countries in South America have a mechanism called ""cadena nacional"" (). It enables the leader of the country to address the people simultaneously on all TV channels and radio stations, interrupting normal programming. In some countries, such as Argentina and Venezuela, the broadcast of these messages is obligatory. Many of these systems were created by past military governments, and political use of the mechanism is common.

United States.

The bulk of emergency warnings in the United States are sent through the Emergency Alert System, implemented in 1997. The EAS can be activated by national, state, regional, or local authorities, including police, fire, weather, and other governmental authorities. EAS is often activated when an unpredicted emergency such as a tornado, earthquake, or release of toxic gas happens. The vast majority of EAS alerts are generated by the National Weather Service.  The Integrated Public Alert and Warning System (IPAWS) program of the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency is an attempt to integrate multiple public warning technologies into a coordinated nationwide "system of systems" using the Common Alerting Protocol. Systems targeted for inclusion in IPAWS include the Emergency Alert System, the Commercial Mobile Alert System using cellular telephones and other wireless devices and the NOAA Weather Radio network.  Many states use existing air raid sirens to warn of tornadoes and flash floods. People living near certain nuclear facilities such as the Hanford Site in Washington have special radios in their home that are set to broadcast a warning signal in the event of a radiological emergency. Some emergencies (AMBER Alerts, for instance) are also sent out via e-mail, cellphone text message, and highway signs. Many U.S. institutions of higher education now use multiple warning technologies on their campuses, including outdoor and indoor sirens, public address systems, email and cell phone text messaging, and digital displays.  Prior to the adoption of the Emergency Alert System, the US used CONELRAD from 1951-1963 and the Emergency Broadcast System from 1963-1997.

An emergency population warning is a method whereby local, regional, or national authorities can contact members of the public en masse to warn them of an impending emergency. These warnings may be necessary for a number of reasons, including:


History.

Heitenried is first mentioned in French in 1228 as "Essers". The German name was first mentioned in 1257 as "Ried".

Geography.

Heitenried has an area of. Of this area, or 73.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 18.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 6.7% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.9% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.1% is unproductive land.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 3.6% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.3%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 42.8% is used for growing crops and 29.2% is pastures, while 1.1% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality is located in the Sense district, east of Fribourg on the border with the Canton of Bern. It consists of the village of Heitenried and the hamlets of Scheuergraben, Schönfels, Selgiswil, Unterwinterlingen and Wiler vor Holz.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per fess Gules a Fleur de Lys issuant Argent and of the last."

Demographics.

Heitenried has a population () of., 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 11.2%. Migration accounted for 9%, while births and deaths accounted for 5.1%.  Most of the population () speaks German (1,070 or 97.2%) as their first language, French is the second most common (7 or 0.6%) and Portuguese is the third (7 or 0.6%). There is 1 person who speaks Italian. , the population was 50.8% male and 49.2% female. The population was made up of 618 Swiss men (48.9% of the population) and 24 (1.9%) non-Swiss men. There were 599 Swiss women (47.4%) and 22 (1.7%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 485 or about 44.1% were born in Heitenried and lived there in 2000. There were 305 or 27.7% who were born in the same canton, while 236 or 21.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 38 or 3.5% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 27.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 61.7% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 11%. , there were 492 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 555 married individuals, 35 widows or widowers and 19 individuals who are divorced. , there were 386 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.8 persons per household. There were 79 households that consist of only one person and 53 households with five or more people., a total of 376 apartments (92.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 14 apartments (3.4%) were seasonally occupied and 16 apartments (3.9%) were empty., the construction rate of new housing units was 15.8 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.63%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Heritage sites of national significance.

The parish church of St. Michael is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance.

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 24.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (23.3%), the CSP (12.4%) and the SPS (11.7%).  The CVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (29.0% in 2007 vs 24.8% in 2011). The SVP moved from third in 2007 (with 18.4%) to second in 2011, the CSP moved from second in 2007 (with 18.9%) to third and the SPS moved from below fourth place in 2007 to fourth. A total of 506 votes were cast in this election, of which 5 or 1.0% were invalid.

Economy.

, Heitenried had an unemployment rate of 1.4%., there were 96 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 36 businesses involved in this sector. 44 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 10 businesses in this sector. 113 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 27 businesses in this sector. There were 611 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.7% of the workforce. , there were 96 workers who commuted into the municipality and 432 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 4.5 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 9.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 65.6% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 747 or 67.8% were Roman Catholic, while 259 or 23.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 4 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.36% of the population), and there were 24 individuals (or about 2.18% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 7 (or about 0.64% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 2 individuals who belonged to another church. 50 (or about 4.54% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 20 individuals (or about 1.82% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Heitenried about 405 or (36.8%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 118 or (10.7%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 118 who completed tertiary schooling, 75.4% were Swiss men, 17.8% were Swiss women.  The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 147 students attending 8 classes in Heitenried. A total of 233 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. There were 2 kindergarten classes with a total of 33 students in the municipality. The municipality had 6 primary classes and 114 students. During the same year, there were no lower secondary classes in the municipality, but 51 students attended lower secondary school in a neighboring municipality. There were no upper Secondary classes or vocational classes, but there were 21 upper Secondary students and 36 upper Secondary vocational students who attended classes in another municipality. The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes, but there was one specialized Tertiary student who attended classes in another municipality. , there were 13 students in Heitenried who came from another municipality, while 57 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Heitenried is a municipality in the district of Sense in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland. It is one of the municipalities with a large majority of German speakers in the mostly French speaking Canton of Fribourg.


History.

Plasselb is first mentioned in 1324 as "Plannaseyva".

Geography.

Plasselb has an area of. Of this area, or 37.1% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 55.5% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 4.0% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.1% is either rivers or lakes and or 2.2% is unproductive land.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.0% and transportation infrastructure made up 1.6%. Out of the forested land, 51.9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 3.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 9.6% is pastures and 27.2% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality is located in the Sense district, at the foot of the Schweinsberg at the entrance to the Plasselbschlund. It consists of the village of Plasselb and, since 1971, Neuhaus.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Sable a Bar Argent and overall a Deer salient Or."

Demographics.

Plasselb has a population () of., 7.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of -3.2%. Migration accounted for -5.2%, while births and deaths accounted for 0.7%.  Most of the population () speaks German (913 or 93.2%) as their first language, French is the second most common (22 or 2.2%) and Albanian is the third (21 or 2.1%). There are 2 people who speak Italian. , the population was 52.1% male and 47.9% female. The population was made up of 465 Swiss men (47.0% of the population) and 50 (5.1%) non-Swiss men. There were 432 Swiss women (43.7%) and 42 (4.2%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 469 or about 47.9% were born in Plasselb and lived there in 2000. There were 298 or 30.4% who were born in the same canton, while 112 or 11.4% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 77 or 7.9% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 65% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 10.3%. , there were 419 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 479 married individuals, 39 widows or widowers and 43 individuals who are divorced. , there were 391 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 99 households that consist of only one person and 31 households with five or more people., a total of 376 apartments (82.8% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 55 apartments (12.1%) were seasonally occupied and 23 apartments (5.1%) were empty., the construction rate of new housing units was 1 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 3.13%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 38.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (15.8%), the FDP (12.5%) and the SPS (11.6%).  The SVP gained an additional 10.5% of the vote from the 2007 Federal election (28.3% in 2007 vs 38.8% in 2011). The CVP lost popularity (26.7% in 2007), the FDP retained about the same popularity (16.5% in 2007) and the SPS moved from below fourth place in 2007 to fourth. A total of 331 votes were cast in this election, of which 5 or 1.5% were invalid.

Economy.

, Plasselb had an unemployment rate of 1.6%., there were 46 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 15 businesses involved in this sector. 36 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 11 businesses in this sector. 60 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 25 businesses in this sector. There were 525 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 39.8% of the workforce. , there were 34 workers who commuted into the municipality and 419 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 12.3 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 9.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 72.6% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 797 or 81.3% were Roman Catholic, while 72 or 7.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 3 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.31% of the population), there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 10 individuals (or about 1.02% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 36 (or about 3.67% of the population) who were Islamic. 42 (or about 4.29% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 23 individuals (or about 2.35% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Plasselb about 346 or (35.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 71 or (7.2%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 71 who completed tertiary schooling, 69.0% were Swiss men, 16.9% were Swiss women, 11.3% were non-Swiss men.  The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 86 students attending 4 classes in Plasselb. A total of 163 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. There was one kindergarten class with a total of 18 students in the municipality. The municipality had 3 primary classes and 68 students. During the same year, there were no lower secondary classes in the municipality, but 33 students attended lower secondary school in a neighboring municipality. There were no upper Secondary classes or vocational classes, but there were 17 upper Secondary students and 24 upper Secondary vocational students who attended classes in another municipality. The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes, but there were 2 specialized Tertiary students who attended classes in another municipality. , there were 57 students from Plasselb who attended schools outside the municipality.

Plasselb is a municipality in the district of Sense in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland. It is one of the municipalities with a large majority of German speakers in the mostly French speaking Canton of Fribourg.


Gameplay.

Although "Chaos Strikes Back" describes itself as an expansion pack, the original "Dungeon Master" is not required. Whereas the first game saw the player following a fairly linear path through the adventure, with the completion of each flat level marked by a staircase leading down onto a new slightly harder level below, "Chaos Strikes Back" features a choice of paths which twist back and forth over all levels. The puzzles are far more convoluted, often demanding quick mastery of the control system to deal with intense combat, along with brain vexing riddles and room layouts.  The game is therefore pitched at a much higher difficulty level than its predecessor. The player can choose from a selection of moderately high-level characters or can import characters from a "Dungeon Master" saved game. In an indication of the game's uncompromising toughness, the player's very first task is to get out of a dark, enclosed room filled with ferociously toothed man-eating giant worms. The game is made a little easier by the inclusion of a separate program which dispenses cryptic hints based on the player's current saved game. Another new, useful feature is an ingame real time map of the dungeon, which makes use of the GOR magic glyph (It had no use in the first game though it's said it was used to create FUL bomb attack potions, which wasn't kept as a spell for the released game) The original had countless guides but the much harder sequel did not, perhaps due to the game itself having an inbuilt map as well as the 'oracle' hint feature, even so though a shorter game it is a lot harder.  The player's task is to collect four pieces of corbum, a magical material from which the eponymous Lord Chaos draws his power. This requires the traversing of four separate paths each leading to a piece of corbamite and each themed around one of the disciplines open to characters in the game. These disciplines are fighter, wizard, priest and ninja.

Champion Editor.

"Chaos Strikes Back" comes with a utility for editing the portraits and names of the four-character party. This utility allows custom character portraits to be created for both "Chaos Strikes Back" and for "Dungeon Master".  For users who do not want to draw new characters, but who would like more powerful looking versions of the existing characters (to better represent the higher levels), the game's utility disk also comes with "enhanced" versions of the game's prepackaged character art.

Reception.

The game was reviewed in 1991 in "Dragon" #171 by Hartley, Patricia, and Kirk Lesser in "The Role of Computers" column. The reviewers gave the game 4 out of 5 stars.

Legacy.

Notable reception received ""CSBWin"", an Atari ST version based reverse engineered source code reconstruction by Paul R. Stevens around 2003, which led to many ports for modern platforms like Windows and Linux.

Chaos Strikes Back is an expansion and sequel to "Dungeon Master", the earlier 3D role-playing video game. "Chaos Strikes Back" was released in 1989 and is also available on several platforms (including Atari ST, Amiga, X68000, PC-98, FM Towns). It uses the same engine as "Dungeon Master", with new graphics and a new, far more challenging, dungeon.


Gameplay.

A single encounter generator is available, but the standard mode of play is the career mode, where the player must take their boat to patrol far behind enemy lines with the mission to search for and destroy any enemy shipping. For best success, the player should concentrate their search on shipping lanes, which may be deduced from contact reports. There are also special missions which may be assigned to a boat, such as beach reconnaissance involving photographing potential landing beaches through the periscope, and the rescue of downed airmen. Both missions were performed by the fleet submarines of World War II. The boat is actually commanded by crewing various stations in first person (no crew is visible, even though their voices are heard), which is common in the genre.  In career mode, the game begins when war against Japan is declared and continues through until August 15, 1945, when CINCPAC (Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet) issues the order to cease all offensive operations against Japan. Success against the enemy rewards the Captain (the player) with medals as appropriate to the degree of success on a given patrol. However, there is a flip side to the game. One patrol without any sinkings will result in a verbal reprimand from COMSUBPAC (Commander, Submarines, Pacific Fleet). Two consecutive patrols with no sinkings will result in the Captain being relieved of command, as happened frequently in the Silent Service, particularly in the early days of the war. If a captain is relieved of command, the game is over. Also, it is possible for Japanese destroyers to sink a submarine by gunfire on the surface, or by depth charge attack while submerged. This also ends the game.  The submarines available in the game are the boats the United States Navy had during the war. They range from the ancient S-boats, and interwar boats like the "Tambor" class and "Sargo" class, to the later wartime "Gato"-class, "Balao" class, and "Tench" class subs. Technological advancements become available to the player at the same time in the game that the boats in the fleet got them. These include radar, the plan position indicator radar display, and the bathythermograph.  Weaponry similarly reflects what the boats had at any given point in the war. The torpedoes range from the Mark X used by the S-boats, to the Mark XIV steam torpedo and Mark XVIII electric torpedo, to the anti-escort "Cutie" acoustic homing torpedo. Deck guns, which are of minor value but have their uses, similarly range from three to five inch, again as the boats received them.

Reception.

The game received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings. Silent Hunter II developer Shawn Storc stated in an interview that Silent Hunter was a commercial success with 300,000 sold units. By December 1999, global sales had reached 350,000 copies. Bruce Geryk of GameSpot considered it a noteworthy hit in the simulation genre, a genre whose "era had passed" in his view.  "Silent Hunter" was nominated as "Computer Games Strategy Plus"s 1996 simulation of the year, although it lost to "Jane's AH-64D Longbow". The game was a finalist for "Computer Gaming World"s 1996 "Simulation Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "Jane's AH-64D Longbow".

Silent Hunter is a World War II submarine combat simulation for MS-DOS, developed by Aeon Electronic Entertainment and published by Strategic Simulations in 1996. The game takes place in the Pacific War during World War II, the player commanding a submarine of the United States Navy. Most contemporary US submarines and Japanese warships are featured along with some generic merchant ships.


First edition (1986–1998).

Titles.

Books one through five covered the three segments of "Robotech" as aired. The initial five volumes were written by Kevin Siembieda.  Books seven, eight, and all but one of the adventure books took place during or shortly after the "Macross" segment. The two "Robotech II" books also took place after Macross.  Book six and "Lancer's Rockers" took place after the series ended.  Other Palladium regulars and freelance authors contributed to the later sourcebooks and adventure books. Illustrations consisted of line art taken from original Japanese source material in addition to new black-and-white line art done by Palladium artists such as Kevin Long.  Palladium also published "", a separate RPG based on the "Macross II" anime, but this was entirely unrelated to the "Robotech" continuity.

Storyline.

The original "Robotech" RPG by and large followed the TV series storyline, attempting in its own way to fill in gaps just as the novelizations by Jack McKinney did. Several of the sourcebooks covered different parts of the world during or shortly after the Macross era, where there was the most room for expansion. However, the RPG diverged from the McKinney stories after the events covered in the "Robotech" series ended. Where McKinney followed Scott Bernard and the others in their search for Admiral Rick Hunter, leaving behind a peaceful planet earth, Palladium posited the Invid returning to earth a few months after they were driven away.  The books "Return of the Masters" and "Lancer's Rockers" were set during this second Invid invasion, and introduced concepts and events not suggested by the original material. "Return of the Masters", set in Asia, features a system of gladiatorial mecha martial arts combat called Mecha Su-Dai. "Lancer's Rockers" concerns a network of travelling performers following in the footsteps of New Generation rock star Lancer/Yellow Dancer, carrying protoculture-powered musical instruments that double as powerful weapons (reminiscent of, but unrelated to, similar developments in the Macross sequel "Macross 7").  The "Sentinels" RPG also diverged in some respects from the story covered in the "Sentinels" novels and comic books, having been developed independently based on the same incomplete source material provided by Harmony Gold. The two primary differences are the idea that the SDF-3 left with an entire fleet of REF ships accompanying them, and that the REF and the Sentinels joined in a protracted war against the Invid Regent. The game also suggested that members of the Sentinels' races would openly join the REF.

Game system.

The "Robotech" RPG used a modified version of the rule system used in the Palladium Fantasy Role-Playing Game introduced several years earlier. Clearly patterned after "Dungeons & Dragons", the "Palladium Fantasy RPG" used a very similar rule system based around physical and mental statistics generated by rolling 3D6 (three six-sided dice), and the use of a D20 (20-sided die) in combat. Percentile dice (two ten-sided dice, one read as a tens column and the other as a ones column) are used for skill resolution. The "Robotech" RPG introduced the concept of mega-damage—"super" hit-points that are equivalent to 100 ordinary-person hit points—to simulate the toughness of the heavily armored mecha. This concept would become widely used in Palladium's "Rifts" game.

Inaccuracies.

The creators of the "Robotech" RPG originally lacked access to the complete source material, working against deadlines based on what could be seen from show footage and limited-scope translations. As a result of incomplete availability, compounded by animation and dubbing errors, some descriptions of mecha and weapon systems given in the First-Edition books are inconsistent with either the animation or subsequently uncovered source material. The confusion is particularly strong in "Southern Cross", where the many humanoid robots, battloids, and suits of armor are often confused for one another. These inaccuracies are genuine errors and distinct from creative choices that Palladium writers made to elaborate on the Robotech storyline as discussed previously.

Cancellation.

Contractual issues in the wake of Harmony Gold's aborted "Robotech 3000" project, as well as a general refocusing of the company on production of its flagship "Rifts" line, caused Palladium to forgo renewing the "Robotech" license. The "Robotech" RPG line went out of print as of June 30, 2001.

Second edition (2008–2018).

In 2007 Palladium reacquired the "Robotech" license, coinciding with the DVD release of the animated feature film "Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles". The game was released under the new title "".  Palladium's license for the game expired on March 31st, 2018, and is not being renewed.

Robotech RPG Tactics (2013-2018).

On April 18, 2013, Palladium Books initiated a Kickstarter campaign to raise $70,000 needed to develop a new miniature wargaming system called "Robotech RPG Tactics". The campaign raised $1,442,312 from 5,342 backers by its close on May 20, 2013. The funded game was scheduled to ship in December 2013, but was eventually delayed.  As of September 2014 the game had begun to be shipped, with Wave 1 shipping expected to continue throughout the fall.  Partial delivery of the Kickstarter rewards had been in progress since 3Q 2014 through 1Q 2015. Despite all claims and given the history so far of Palladium Books regarding delivery dates, there had been no real evidence shown of any progress on the rest of the miniatures and no clue on a time frame as noted starting in the updates to the project from 30 Jan 2014 as the entire "Wave 1" line was put through preproduction starting after the delivery date was missed. No pictures of the "Wave 2" products were ever shown.  What was delivered so far was substandard in quality compared to even low end wargame miniatures manufacturers. This was noted by multiple miniature wargaming sites and model builders, such as talkwargaming, theminaturespage forums (where use of scale model rather than game miniature manufacturing processes was noted), and deltavector, whose summary reads:  As noted in the sample references above and simple comparisons to miniatures from Games Workshop, Zvezda, Battlefront (Flames of War), Wargames Factory, Hawk Wargames and many others revealed that RRPGT miniatures were less detailed, with glaring errors in manufacturing requiring additional work by customers to correct (seams highly visible in the middle of supposedly flat areas), extremely high piece counts comparable to much larger vehicle miniatures by other miniature manufacturers (Space Marine Terminators have six or so, Space Marines have eight or so, while none of the RRPGT minis were in single figures and many were closer to 20+ pieces) and the lack of simple industry standard basics like clear acrylic flight stands for flying units (see references to multiple miniature companies above). Also, posability out of the box was limited since many square peg & slot connections were used rather than round ones, which required yet further customer modification of the base miniatures to gain something other than a few different clones of each miniature, all available in the Kickstarter updates referenced above.  On 28th February 2018 it was announced that the Robotech® RPG Tactics Wave Two rewards would not be realised, and that Palladium's license has expired and is not being renewed.

Strange Machine Games.

After Palladium lost the license, it was picked up by Strange Machine Games, who published a new version of the "Robotech" RPG. The first volume was released in December, 2019.

The Robotech Role-Playing Game, based on the "Robotech" and "" series, was originally published by Palladium Books from 1986 to 1995 (and reprinted until 1998). A second series based on "" was released between 2008-2018.


Advertising campaigns.

One of the advertising campaigns for Caramilk bars revolved around the question of how the centre of the confection was put into the chocolate flavoured exterior. This theme led to the production of over fifteen separate television advertisements since the candy was introduced, making the series one of the most productive advertising efforts in Canadian history. The "Caramilk Secret" ad campaign was conceived by Gary Prouk when he was at Doyle Dane Bernbach. When Prouk left DDB to join Scali McCabe Sloves, the Cadbury account went with him. One notable advertisement involved two cone head aliens who were complimenting each other on successfully concealing the secret from humans, and also creating some of earth's other long standing works of wonder (e.g. the pyramids).  Another ad, featuring Leonardo da Vinci drawing the Mona Lisa as she eats a Caramilk, has won a Clio award.

Production.

Caramilk bars are produced at one location, the company's Gladstone Chocolate Factory in Toronto.

Ingredients.

Caramilk bars contain unsweetened chocolate and cocoa butter but are labelled as candy bars since only solid chocolate bars may be labelled as chocolate bars in Canada.

Similar products.

Cadbury Dairy Milk Caramel.

In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, a bar similar in premise (caramel-filled chocolate) but differing considerably in taste, shape, ingredients and packaging is sold as Cadbury Dairy Milk Caramel.

Cadbury Caramello (Australia and New Zealand).

In New Zealand, a bar similar to the United Kingdom product is sold as the Caramello variant of the Cadbury Dairy Milk line of blocks.

Cadbury Caramello (United States).

In the United States, a similar bar is produced under license by The Hershey Company and sold under the brand Cadbury's Caramello. It uses caramel filling, the chocolate has a sweet taste, and is chewy. The flavor of Cadburys Caramello is often used in ice creams in the United States. It gained popularity in the 1980s when advertising to children with the slogan, "I was right in the middle of a Caramello when I found gold."

Caramilk (Australia and New Zealand).

In the early-mid-1990s, a bar was sold in Australia by Cadbury Nestle under the name Caramilk which was solid caramel-flavoured chocolate. The wrapping Caramilk written on an angle displayed the look of the chocolate, brown and caramel colours on packaging. It was only available for a short time. It was re-released in 2017 as a limited edition run in New Zealand.

Caramilk is a chocolate bar made by Cadbury in Canada. It was first sold in 1968 in the United States, Australia and New Zealand.


Physical geography.

The physical geography of Bangladesh is varied and has an area characterised by two distinctive features: a broad deltaic plain subject to frequent flooding, and a small hilly region crossed by swiftly flowing rivers. The country has an area of and extends north to south and east to west. Bangladesh is bordered on the west, north, and east by a land frontier with India and, in the southeast, by a short land and water frontier () with Burma (Myanmar). On the south is a highly irregular deltaic coastline of about, fissured by many rivers and streams flowing into the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of Bangladesh extend, and the exclusive economic zone of the country is.  Roughly 80% of the landmass is made up of fertile alluvial lowland called the Bangladesh Plain. The plain is part of the larger Plain of Bengal, which is sometimes called the Lower Gangetic Plain. Although altitudes up to above sea level occur in the northern part of the plain, most elevations are less than above sea level; elevations decrease in the coastal south, where the terrain is generally at sea level. With such low elevations and numerous rivers, water—and concomitant flooding—is a predominant physical feature. About of the total area of Bangladesh is covered with water, and larger areas are routinely flooded during the monsoon season.  The only exceptions to Bangladesh's low elevations are the Chittagong Hills in the southeast, the Low Hills of Sylhet in the northeast, and highlands in the north and northwest. The Chittagong Hills constitute the only significant hill system in the country and, in effect, are the western fringe of the north–south mountain ranges of Burma and eastern India. The Chittagong Hills rise steeply to narrow ridge lines, generally no wider than, with altitudes from above sea level. At altitude, the highest elevation in Bangladesh is found at Saka Haphong, in the southeastern part of the hills. Fertile valleys lie between the hill lines, which generally run north–south. West of the Chittagong Hills is a broad plain, cut by rivers draining into the Bay of Bengal, that rises to a final chain of low coastal hills, mostly below, that attain a maximum elevation of. West of these hills is a narrow, wet coastal plain located between the cities of Chittagong in the north and Cox's Bazar in the south.  About 67% of Bangladesh's nonurban land is arable. Permanent crops cover only 2%, meadows and pastures cover 4%, and forests and woodland cover about 16%. The country produces large quantities of quality timber, bamboo, and sugarcane. Bamboo grows in almost all areas, but high-quality timber grows mostly in the highland valleys. Rubber planting in the hilly regions of the country was undertaken in the 1980s, and rubber extraction had started by the end of the decade. A variety of wild animals are found in the forest areas, such as in the Sundarbans on the southwest coast, which is the home of the royal Bengal tiger. The alluvial soils in the Bangladesh Plain are generally fertile and are enriched with heavy silt deposits carried downstream during the rainy season.

Human geography.

Urbanisation is proceeding rapidly, and it is estimated that only 30% of the population entering the labour force in the future will be absorbed into agriculture, although many will likely find other kinds of work in rural areas. The areas around Dhaka and Comilla are the most densely settled. The Sundarbans, an area of coastal tropical jungle in the southwest and last wild home of the Bengal tiger, and the Chittagong Hill Tracts on the southeastern border with Burma and India, are the least densely populated.

Climate.

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterised by wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Regional climatic differences in this flat country are minor. Three seasons are generally recognised: a hot, muggy summer from March to June; a hot, humid and rainy monsoon season from June to November; and a warm-hot, dry winter from December to February. In general, maximum summer temperatures range between. April is the hottest month in most parts of the country. January is the coolest month, when the average temperature for most of the country is during the day and around at night.  Winds are mostly from the north and northwest in the winter, blowing gently at in northern and central areas and near the coast. From March to May, violent thunderstorms, called northwesters by local English speakers, produce winds of up to. During the intense storms of the early summer and late monsoon season, southerly winds of more than cause waves to crest as high as in the Bay of Bengal, which brings disastrous flooding to coastal areas. Heavy rainfall is characteristic of Bangladesh causing it to flood every year. Except for the relatively dry western region of Rajshahi, where the annual rainfall is about, most parts of the country receive at least of rainfall per year. Because of its location just south of the foothills of the Himalayas, where monsoon winds turn west and northwest, the region of Sylhet in northeastern Bangladesh receives the greatest average precipitation. From 1977 to 1986, annual rainfall in that region ranged between per year. Average daily humidity ranged from March lows of between 55 and 81% to July highs of between 94 and 100%, based on readings taken at selected stations nationwide in 1986.  About 80% of Bangladesh's rain falls during the monsoon season. The monsoons result from the contrasts between low and high air pressure areas that result from differential heating of land and water. During the hot months of April and May hot air rises over the Indian subcontinent, creating low-pressure areas into which rush cooler, moisture-bearing winds from the Indian Ocean. This is the southwest monsoon, commencing in June and usually lasting through September. Dividing against the Indian landmass, the monsoon flows in two branches, one of which strikes western India. The other travels up the Bay of Bengal and over eastern India and Bangladesh, crossing the plain to the north and northeast before being turned to the west and northwest by the foothills of the Himalayas.  Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores—destructive waves or floods caused by flood tides rushing up estuaries—ravage the country, particularly the coastal belt, almost every year. Between 1947 and 1988, 13 severe cyclones hit Bangladesh, causing enormous loss of life and property. In May 1985, for example, a severe cyclonic storm packing winds and waves high swept into southeastern and southern Bangladesh, killing more than 11,000 persons, damaging more than 94,000 houses, killing some 135,000 head of livestock, and damaging nearly of critically needed embankments. Annual monsoon flooding results in the loss of human life, damage to property and communication systems, and a shortage of drinking water, which leads to the spread of disease. For example, in 1988 two-thirds of Bangladesh's 64 districts experienced extensive flood damage in the wake of unusually heavy rains that flooded the river systems. Millions were left homeless and without potable water. Half of Dhaka, including the runway at the Shahjalal International Airport—an important transit point for disaster relief supplies—was flooded. About of crops were reported destroyed, and relief work was rendered even more challenging than usual because the flood made transportation exceedingly difficult. A tornado in April 1989 killed more than 600 people, possibly many more.  There are no precautions against cyclones and tidal bores except giving advance warning and providing safe public buildings where people may take shelter. Adequate infrastructure and air transport facilities that would ease the sufferings of the affected people had not been established by the late 1980s. Efforts by the government under the Third Five-Year Plan (1985–90) were directed toward accurate and timely forecast capability through agrometeorology, marine meteorology, oceanography, hydrometeorology, and seismology. Necessary expert services, equipment, and training facilities were expected to be developed under the United Nations Development Programme.  Cold weather is unusual in Bangladesh. When temperatures decrease to or less, people without warm clothing and living in inadequate homes may die from the cold.

River systems.

The rivers of Bangladesh mark both the physiography of the nation and the life of the people. About 700 in number, these rivers generally flow south. The larger rivers serve as the main source of water for cultivation and as the principal arteries of commercial transportation. Rivers also provide fish, an important source of protein. Flooding of the rivers during the monsoon season causes enormous hardship and hinders development, but fresh deposits of rich silt replenish the fertile but overworked soil. The rivers also drain excess monsoon rainfall into the Bay of Bengal. Thus, the great river system is at the same time the country's principal resource and its greatest hazard.  The profusion of rivers can be divided into five major networks. The Jamuna-Brahmaputra is long and extends from northern Bangladesh to its confluence with the Padma. Originating as the Yarlung Tsangpo River in China's Xizang Autonomous Region (Tibet) and flowing through India's state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it becomes known as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma"), it receives waters from five major tributaries that total some in length. At the point where the Brahmaputra meets the Tista River in Bangladesh, it becomes known as the Jamuna. The Jamuna is notorious for its shifting subchannels and for the formation of fertile silt islands (chars). No permanent settlements can exist along its banks.  The second system is the Padma-Ganges, which is divided into two sections: a segment, the Ganges, which extends from the western border with India to its confluence with the Jamuna some west of Dhaka, and a segment, the Padma, which runs from the Ganges-Jamuna confluence to where it joins the Meghna River at Chandpur. The Padma-Ganges is the central part of a deltaic river system with hundreds of rivers and streams—some in length—flowing generally east or west into the Padma.  The third network is the Surma-Meghna River System, which courses from the northeastern border with India to Chandpur, where it joins the Padma. The Surma-Meghna, at by itself the longest river in Bangladesh, is formed by the union of six lesser rivers. Below the city of Kalipur it is known as the Meghna. When the Padma and Meghna join together, they form the fourth river system—the Padma-Meghna—which flows to the Bay of Bengal.  This mighty network of four river systems flowing through the Bangladesh Plain drains an area of some. The numerous channels of the Padma-Meghna, its distributaries, and smaller parallel rivers that flow into the Bay of Bengal are referred to as the Mouths of the Ganges. Like the Jamuna, the Padma-Meghna and other estuaries on the Bay of Bengal are also known for their many chars. A fifth river system, unconnected to the other four, is the Karnaphuli. Flowing through the region of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hills, it cuts across the hills and runs rapidly downhill to the west and southwest and then to the sea. The Feni, Karnaphuli, Sangu, and Matamuhari—an aggregate of some —are the main rivers in the region. The port of Chittagong is situated on the banks of the Karnaphuli. The Karnaphuli Reservoir and Karnaphuli Dam are located in this area. The dam impounds the Karnaphuli River's waters in the reservoir for the generation of hydroelectric power.  The Ganga–Brahmaputra rivers contribute nearly 1000 million tons/yr of sediment. The sediment contributed from these two rivers forms the Bengal Delta and Submarine fan, a vast structure that extends from Bangladesh to south of the Equator which is up to 16.5 km thick, and contains at least 1130 trillion tonnes of sediment accumulating over the last 17 million years at an average rate of 665 million tons/yr. The Bay of Bengal used to be deeper than the Mariana Trench, the present deepest ocean point.  During the annual monsoon period, the rivers of Bangladesh flow at about, but during the dry period they diminish to. Because water is so vital to agriculture, more than 60% of the net arable land, some, is cultivated in the rainy season despite the possibility of severe flooding, and nearly 40% of the land is cultivated during the dry winter months. Water resources development has responded to this "dual water regime" by providing flood protection, drainage to prevent over flooding and water logging, and irrigation facilities for the expansion of winter cultivation. Major water control projects have been developed by the national government to provide irrigation, flood control, drainage facilities, aids to river navigation and road construction, and hydroelectric power. In addition, thousands of tube wells and electric pumps are used for local irrigation. Despite severe resource constraints, the government of Bangladesh has made it a policy to try to bring additional areas under irrigation without salinity intrusion.  Water resources management, including gravity flow irrigation, flood control, and drainage, were largely the responsibility of the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Other public sector institutions, such as the Bangladesh Krishi Bank, the Bangladesh Rural Development Board, the Bangladesh Bank, and the Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation were also responsible for promotion and development of minor irrigation works in the private sector through government credit mechanisms.

Area and boundaries.

Area: "total:" 143,998 km "country comparison to the world:" 95 "land:" 130,168 km "water:" 13,830 km  Land boundaries: "total:" 4,413 km "border countries:" Myanmar 271 km, India 4,142 km  Coastline: 580 km  Maritime claims: "territorial sea:" "contiguous zone:" "exclusive economic zone:" "continental shelf:" up to the outer limits of the continental margin  Elevation extremes: "lowest point:" Indian Ocean 0 m "highest point:" In the Mowdok range at 1052 m (at N 21°47'12" E 92°36'36"), "NOT" Keokradong (883 m not 1,230 m) or Tajingdong (985 m not 1,280 m as sometimes reported)

Resources and land use.

Natural resources: natural gas, arable land, timber, coal  Land use: "Arable land:" 58.96% "Permanent crops:" 6.53% "other:" 34.51% (2012)  Irrigated land: 50,000 km (2008)  Total renewable water resources: 1,227 km (2011)  Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): "total:" 35.87 km/yr (10%/2%/88%) "per capita:" 238.3 m/yr (2008)

Environmental concerns.

Natural hazards: Much of the country is submerged by floodwater in the monsoon season (and traditional settlements and agriculture are adapted to this); damaging floods occur when rivers rise higher than normal; tropical cyclones (hurricanes) and storm surges; droughts; riverbank erosion along the country's major rivers and in the Meghna estuary; earthquakes; possibly tsunamis.  Environment – current issues: Country very densely populated (1,125 per km); rapid urbanisation taking place; many people landless, and many live on and cultivate land exposed to floods, riverbank erosion or cyclones; groundwater used for drinking water and irrigation is widely contaminated with naturally-occurring arsenic in some floodplain areas; water-borne diseases prevalent; surface water widely polluted by industrial, agricultural and urban effluents, affecting domestic supplies and inland fisheries; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in some northern and central parts of the country; increasing water and soil salinity in some coastal areas, especially in the south-west, due to abstraction of river and groundwater upstream; soil degradation due to intensive cropping, depletion of organic matter and unbalanced use of fertilisers; deforestation and soil erosion in hill areas.  Environment – international agreements: "party to:" Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

Bangladesh is a densely-populated, low-lying, mainly riverine country located in South Asia with a coastline of on the northern littoral of the Bay of Bengal. The delta plain of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna), and Meghna Rivers and their tributaries occupy 79 percent of the country. Four uplifted blocks (including the Madhupur and Barind Tracts in the centre and northwest) occupy 9 percent, and steep hill ranges up to approximately high occupy 12 percent in the southeast (the Chittagong Hill Tracts) and in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate characterised by heavy seasonal rainfall, high temperatures, and high humidity. Natural disasters such as floods and cyclones accompanied by storm surges periodically affect the country. Most of the country is intensively farmed, with rice the main crop, grown in three seasons. Rapid urbanisation is taking place with associated industrial and commercial development. Exports of garments and shrimp plus remittances from Bangladeshis working abroad provide the country's three main sources of foreign exchange income.


History.

Carnival Films was founded in 1978 by feature film producer Brian Eastman.  As of 2014 Carnival has produced over 500 hours of drama and comedy for television, cinema and stage. This included 70 hours of "Agatha Christie's Poirot" starring David Suchet and 24 hours of "Rosemary & Thyme", starring Felicity Kendal and Pam Ferris. In the action/adventure genre it produced "BUGS", "Oktober" and "The Grid", in comedy drama it produced "Jeeves and Wooster" starring Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry, teenage drama-comedy "As If", as well as the adaptations of Tom Sharpe's novels "Blott on the Landscape" and "Porterhouse Blue".  In 2004 the BBC's former Head of Drama Commissioning Gareth Neame joined Carnival as managing director. In 2007 former Creative Director of BBC Drama Sally Woodward Gentle joined the company as Creative Director. The two had previously worked together on "Spooks" (MI:5), "Tipping the Velvet" and "Cambridge Spies".  In 2008 Carnival was acquired by NBCUniversal as part of its plan to increase its presence in content creation outside the US. Following several more acquisitions Carnival is now part of NBCUniversal International Television Production alongside newer additions Monkey Kingdom, Working Title Television, Chocolate Media and Lucky Giant in the UK, Lark in Canada and Matchbox Pictures in Australia.  Under the direction of Gareth Neame, Carnival has produced series such as; "The Philanthropist" for NBC; hit BBC series "Hotel Babylon"; the critically acclaimed television films "Enid" starring Helena Bonham Carter and Matthew Macfadyen; "Page Eight" starring Bill Nighy, Rachel Weisz, Michael Gambon and Ralph Fiennes; landmark four-part drama "Any Human Heart" starring Jim Broadbent, Matthew MacFadyen, Hayley Atwell and Kim Cattrall; "The Hollow Crown", a BBC adaptation of Shakespeare's history plays starring Tom Hiddleston, Ben Whishaw and Jeremy Irons; "The Last Weekend", a three-part adaptation of Blake Morrison's novel; and "Whitechapel" for ITV.  Carnival's biggest hit, both critically and commercially, is "Downton Abbey", written and co-produced by Julian Fellowes. Its final episode aired on 25 December 2015.

Awards.

Carnival Films has won a wide variety of awards for its work on Television, Film and Stage productions. With the company itself winning the 'Best Independent Production Company' award at both the Televisual Magazine Bulldog Awards 2011, and the Broadcast Awards 2012. In addition Carnival's productions have together been awarded nine Primetime Emmy Awards; one Golden Globe; nineteen BAFTAs; one Screen Actors Guild Award; a Producers Guild of America Award; two National Television Award; three International Emmy Awards; five RTS awards; four BANFF Rockie Awards; three Ivor Novello Awards; two Broadcast awards; a Bulldog award; an Evening Standard Theatre Award; and a Tony.  Further to this success the company's productions have also received nominations from such varied awards bodies as the Academy Awards, the Laurence Olivier Awards, The Monte Carlo International Television Festival, The Screen Actors Guild, The American Society of Cinematographers, The Edgar Allan Poe Awards, The Rose D’Or and The San Sebastian Film Festival.

Carnival Films is a British television production company based in London, UK, founded in 1978. It has produced television series for all the major UK networks including the BBC, ITV, Channel 4, and Sky, as well as international broadcasters including PBS, A&E, HBO and NBC. Productions include single dramas, long-running television dramas, feature films, and stage productions.


History.

The oldest signs of human habitation in the commune are pieces of pottery dating back to 2000 BC. This is in line with the very early settlement of all south-western France by pre-historic peoples (e.g. in the Périgord)  A Roman military post was set up in the area, to ensure the security of the road to Noviomagus in the Medoc. Tiles and coins from the Roman occupation have been found around the site of the later fortress.  In the ninth century, a first medieval fortification was built. The white stone gave the fort the name "White Fort", in Latin "Blanca Fortis", which evolved into the modern name Blanquefort. During the English occupation of Aquitaine, the fortifications were expanded into a royal fortress at the end of the thirteenth century by Edward I of England. At the end of the Hundred Years War, the fortress became French. A wine-producing village grew around the fortifications, probably worked predominantly by serfs.  Blanquefort is located in a region which has been notable for wine production since ancient times. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a number of small chateaux were constructed in the prosperous village by wealthy wine merchants. The economy of the village focussed on wine production. In the seventeenth century, the Château Dillon was built in Blanquefort by the Dillon family which migrated to Blanquefort from Ireland.  During the French Revolution, as part of the central Gironde, the village was loosely connected with the conflict between Gironde deputies and Jacobins in the national government. As with the other nearby areas, the village would probably have supported a moderate course for the revolution and there was probably support for the federalist constitutional proposals which were popular in Bordeaux. The village was well within the territory of the federalist insurrection of 1793. Unfortunately, no historical records exist which discuss the politics of the village during revolution.  In 1900, the population was 2000. From the beginning of the twentieth century, the reliance of the village economy on wine production became a problem as economic crises took their toll. In 1962, the now-impoverished village created an industrial zone on former marshland. Combined with its proximity to Bordeaux, this led to a rapid growth of the village, which was now becoming a suburb of expanding Bordeaux.  In the early twenty-first century, as a result of Bordeaux's continuing expansion, new developments have been built to allow the population of Blanquefort to grow further.

Economy.

Since 1972, Blanquefort has been the location of a Ford transmission plant, which occupies a 103 ha site in the industrial zone. The plant was the result of an investment of 600 mIllion French francs, expected to generate 2,000 jobs. Initially, it was built to manufacture Ford C3 automatic transmission units for Ford's European models, with engine sizes from 1300 cc to 3000 cc. Despite recent reports that the plant has been sold by Ford in response to their need for money, it will continue for now to supply transmissions to the company.

Blanquefort (French) or Blancafòrt (Gascon) is a commune in the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France. Blanquefort is an outlying commune of the Bordeaux metropolitan area.


Description.

"Suillus grevillei" is a mushroom with a 5–10 cm (2–4 in) cap colored from citrus yellow to burnt orange, that is at first hemispherical, then bell-shaped, and finally flattened. It has a sticky skin, short tubes of yellow or brownish which descend down to the bottom of its cylindrical stalk (6–10 x 1–2 cm) which is cream-colored turning to reddish brown with a cream-white ring.  It has a thin meat which has consistency at first but then quickly becomes soft. It has an odor reminiscent of rumpled "Pelargonium" geranium leaves.  It grows in the soil of mixed forests, not always at the foot of larch (can be quite some distance away) with which it lives in symbiosis. It grows from June until November.  "Suillus grevillei" is an edible mushroom (without consistency nor flavor) if the slimy cuticle is removed off the cap. This mucousy skin layer is what is known to cause intestinal issues, as is the case with several other "Suillus" such as Slippery Jack ("S. luteus") or Jill ("S. salmonicolor"); often considered to be not worth the work.  Its name is derived from Robert Kaye Greville.

Habitat and distribution.

Grows only under larch trees. Widespread in North America and Europe. In Asia, it has been recorded from Taiwan.

Chemistry.

The fungus produces grevillin which is characteristic of this fungus. The genetic and enzymatic basis for atromentin, the precursor to various pulvinic acid-type pigments, has been characterized (an atromentin synthetase by the name, GreA). A cosmid library (31 249 bp in total) has been made from the genome. The estimated gene density based on the cosmid library is 1 per 3900 bp of genomic DNA. The genome has a GC content of 49.8%.

References.

Works in French.

"This article is based on a translation of the article on the French Wikipedia."

Suillus grevillei (commonly known as Greville's bolete and larch bolete) is a mycorrhizal mushroom with a tight, brilliantly coloured cap, shiny and wet looking with its mucous slime layer. The hymenium easily separates from the flesh of the cap, with a central stalk that is quite slender. The species has a ring or a tight-fitting annular zone.


Early history.

Archeologists place the earliest human settlement of the Samoan archipelago at around 2900–3500 years before present. This date is based upon the ancient Lapita pottery shards found throughout the islands, the oldest evidence being in Mulifanua as well as in Sasoa'a, Falefa. This area of Polynesia, Samoa and Tonga, contains evidence from dates of similar times, suggesting the area was settled during the same period. Whatever occurred between 750 BC and AD 1000 remains a mystery, though this may have been the period of great migrations that led to the settlement of present-day Polynesia. Another mystery is that the making of pottery suddenly stopped; there is no oral tradition among the people of Samoa that explains this but some theories suggest the lack of available pottery-making materials in Polynesia meant the majority of pottery was imported during migration and not locally sourced or made.  Samoa's history early was interwoven with that of certain chiefdoms of Fiji as well as the history of the kingdom of Tonga. The oral history of Samoa preserves the memories of many battles fought between Samoa and neighboring islands. Too, intermarriage of Tongan and Fijian royalty to Samoan nobility has helped build close relationships between these island nations that exist to the present; these royal blood ties are acknowledged at special events and cultural gatherings. Other Samoan folklore tells of the arrival of two maidens from Fiji who brought the tools necessary to create the art of tatau, or in English tattoo, whence came the traditional Samoan "malofie" (also known as "pe'a" for men and as "malu" for women).  The foundation of the cultural tradition of Samoa, the fa'asamoa, came with the rise of the warrior queen Nafanua. Her rule instituted traditions of the fa'amatai or local family and village and regional chiefly systems, a decentralized system. Her niece Salamasina continued under this system and their time is considered a golden age of Samoan cultural traditions. Linguistically, the Samoan language belongs to the Polynesian sub-branch of the Austronesian language family, whose origin is thought to be in Taiwan.  According to oral tradition, Samoa shares the common Polynesian ancestor of Tagaloa. The very earliest history of Samoa concerns a political center in the easternmost Samoan islands of Manu'a, under the rule of the Tui Manu'a. In the Cook Islands to the east, the tradition is that Karika, or Tui Manu'a 'Ali'a, came to the Cook Islands from Manu'a; suggesting that it was from Manu'a and Samoa that the rest of Polynesia as settled.

After European contact.

18th century.

Contact with Europeans began in the early 18th century but did not intensify until the arrival of the British missionaries. In 1722, Dutchman Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to see the islands. This visit was followed by the French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811), the man who named them the "Navigator Islands" in 1768. In 1787 Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse visited Samoa, where at Tutuila Island, in what is now American Samoa, there was a conflict leading to deaths on both sides, including the deaths of twelve Frenchmen.

19th century.

European and Tahitian and Cook Islander Missionaries and traders, led by John Williams (missionary) began arriving around 1830. Coming via Tahiti, they were known in Samoa as the Lotu Taiti. The Rev. John Williams was helped by the Ali'i Malietoa Vainu'upo to establish the Lotu Taiti, which became the Christian Congregational Church of Samoa.  The United States Exploring Expedition (1838–42) under Charles Wilkes reached Samoa in 1839 and appointed an Englishman, John C. Williams, son of the missionary, as acting U.S. consul. However this appointment was never confirmed by the U.S. State Department; John C. Williams was merely recognized as "Commercial Agent of the United States". A British consul was already residing at Apia.  In 1855 J.C. Godeffroy & Sohn expanded its trading business into the Samoan Islands, which were then known as the Navigator Islands. During the second half of the 19th century German influence in Samoa expanded with large plantation operations being introduced for coconut, cacao and hevea rubber cultivation, especially on the island of 'Upolu where German firms monopolized copra and cocoa bean processing. British business enterprises, harbour rights, and consulate office were the basis on which Britain had cause to intervene in Samoa. The United States began operations at the harbor of Pago Pago on Tutuila in 1877 and formed alliances with local native chieftains, most conspicuously on the islands of Tutuila and Manu'a (which were later formally annexed as American Samoa).  In the 1880s Great Britain, Germany and the United States all claimed parts of the kingdom of Samoa, and established trade posts. The rivalry between these powers exacerbated the indigenous factions that were struggling to preserve their ancient political system. The islands were divided among the three powers in the 1890s, And between the United States and Germany in 1899.

The First Samoan Civil War and the Samoan crisis.

The First Samoan Civil War was fought roughly between 1886 and 1894, primarily between rival Samoan factions, although the rival powers intervened on several occasions with military forces. There followed an eight-year civil war, where each of the three powers supplied arms, training, and in some cases, combat troops to the warring Samoan parties. The Samoan crisis came to a critical juncture in March 1889 when all three colonial contenders sent warships into Apia harbour, and a larger-scale war seemed imminent, until a massive storm on 15 March 1889 damaged or destroyed the warships, ending the military conflict.  Robert Louis Stevenson arrived in Samoa in 1889 and built a house at Vailima. He quickly became passionately involved in the attendant political machinations. His influence spread to the Samoans, who consulted him for advice, and he soon became involved in local politics. These involved the three colonial powers battling for control of Samoa - America, Germany and Britain - and the indigenous factions struggling to preserve their ancient political system. He was convinced that the European officials appointed to rule the Samoans were incompetent, and after many futile attempts to resolve the matter, he published "". The book covers the period from 1882 to 1892. This was such a stinging protest against existing conditions that it resulted in the recall of two officials, and Stevenson feared for a time it would result in his own deportation.

The Second Samoan Civil War and the Siege of Apia.

The Second Samoan Civil War reached a head in 1898 when Germany, Great Britain and the United States disputed over who should control the Samoan Islands.  The Battle of Apia occurred in March 1899. Samoan forces loyal to Prince Tanu were besieged by a larger force of Samoan rebels loyal to powerful chief Mata'afa Iosefo. Supporting Prince Tanu were landing parties from four British and American warships. Over several days of fighting, the Samoan rebels were defeated.  American and British warships shelled Apia on 15 March 1899; including the USS "Philadelphia". Following the initial defeat at Apia, Mata'afa's rebels defeated a combined American, British and Tanu allied force at Vailele on 1 April 1899, with the allies in retreat. According to a war correspondent associated with the Auckland Star newspaper, the aftermath saw Mata'afa's warriors leaving American and British corpses on the field being severed of their heads. Germany, Britain and the United States quickly resolved to end the hostilities by partitioning the island chain at the Tripartite Convention of 1899. With Tanu and his American and British allies' inability to defeat him in war, the Tripartite resulted in Mata'afa being promoted to Ali'i Si'i, the high chief of Samoa.

Division of islands.

The Samoa Tripartite Convention of 1899, a joint commission of three members composed of Bartlett Tripp for the United States, C. N. E. Eliot, C.B. for Great Britain, and Freiherr Speck von Sternburg for Germany, agreed to divide the islands.  The Tripartite Convention gave control of the islands west of 171 degrees west longitude to Germany, (later known as Western Samoa), containing Upolu and Savaii (the current Samoa) and other adjoining islands. These islands became known as German Samoa. The United States was given control the eastern islands of Tutuila and Manu'a, (present-day American Samoa). In exchange for Britain ceding claims in Samoa, Germany transferred their protectorates in the North Solomon Islands and other territories in West Africa. It does not appear that any Samoans were consulted about the partition and the monarchy was also abolished.

Independence.

From 1908, with the establishment of the Mau movement ("opinion movement"), Western Samoans began to assert their claim to independence. The Mau movement began in 1908 with the ‘Mau a Pule' resistance on Savai'i, led by orator chief Lauaki Namulau'ulu Mamoe. Lauaki and Mau a Pule chiefs, wives and children were exiled to Saipan in 1909. Many died in exile.  World War I broke out in August 1914, and soon after, New Zealand sent an expeditionary force to seize and occupy German Samoa. Although Germany refused to officially surrender the islands, no resistance was offered and the occupation took place without any fighting. New Zealand continued the occupation of Western Samoa throughout World War I. Under the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, Germany relinquished its claims to the islands.  In November 1918, the Spanish flu strongly hit the territory. 90% of the 38,302 native inhabitants were infected and 20% died. The American Samoa population was largely spared this devastation, due to vigorous efforts of its governor, John Martin Poyer. This led to some Samoan citizens petitioning in January 1919 for transfer to U.S. administration, or at least to the central British administration. The petition was recalled a few days later.  The Mau movement gained momentum with Samoa's royal leaders becoming more visible in supporting the movement but opposing violence. On 28 December 1929 Tupua Tamasese was shot along with eleven others during an otherwise peaceful demonstration in Apia. Tupua Tamasese died the following day; his final words included a plea that no more blood be shed.  New Zealand administered Western Samoa, or Samoa i Sisifo in the Samoan language, first as a League of Nations Mandate and then as a United Nations Trust Territory until the country received its independence on 1 January 1962 (from New Zealand) as Western Samoa. Samoa's first prime minister following independence was paramount chief Fiame Mata'afa Faumuina Mulinu'u II.  Samoa i Sisifo was the first Polynesian people to be recognized as a sovereign nation in the 20th century. Samoa became one of the Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations on 28 August 1970. In 1977, Queen Elizabeth II visited Samoa during her tour of the Commonwealth.  A conflict briefly emerged between Samoa and American Samoa following Samoa's decision to drop the adjective "Western" from its name. The change was made by an act of the Legislative Assembly of Western Samoa adopted on 4 July 1997. The step caused "surprise and uproar" in neighboring American Samoa, as for some American Samoans the change of name implied a claim to be the "real" Samoa and implied that American Samoa was just an American appendix. Some in the American territory said it implied that there was only one Samoa. Two members of American Samoa's legislature traveled to Apia in September 1997 to meet with Samoan head of State Malietoa Tanumafili II, and lobbied to have the name change reversed in order to maintain peace and good relations. An American Samoan petition to the United Nations for a ban on Samoa's using the name Samoa was seriously discussed and ten American Samoan representatives sponsored an unsuccessful bill aimed at preventing American Samoa from recognizing independent Samoa's new name. The proposed American Samoan bill was criticized by independent Samoa's Prime Minister Tofilau Eti Alesana who called the bill "rash and irresponsible".  In 2002, New Zealand's prime minister Helen Clark formally apologized for two incidents during the period of New Zealand's administration: a failure in 1918 to quarantine the, which carried the 'Spanish 'flu' to Samoa, leading to an epidemic which devastated the Samoan population, and the shooting of leaders of the non-violent Mau movement during a ceremonial procession in 1929.  In 2007, Samoa's first head of state, His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili II, died at age 95. He held this title jointly with Tupua Tamasese Lealofi until the latter's death in 1963. Malietoa Tanumafili II was Samoa's Head of State for 45 years. He was the son of Malietoa Tanumafili I, who was the last Samoan king recognized by Europe and the Western World.  Samoa's current head of state is His Highness Tui-Atua Tupua Tamasese Tupuola Efi, who was anointed the head of state title with the unanimous endorsement of Samoa's Parliament, a symbol of traditional Samoan protocol in alignment with Samoan decision-making stressing the importance of consensus in the 21st century.

Calendar usage in Samoa.

As European traders began commercial (and later domination) activities in the Samoan Islands, they imposed their datekeeping system on their transactions. Thus by the 19th century, Samoan calendars were aligned with those of the other Asiatic countries to the west and south. However, in 1892, American traders convinced the king to alter the country's dating system to align with the United States; thus the country lived through 4 July 1892, twice. But 119 years later, the economic geography of the island had changed, and most business was being done with Australia and New Zealand. To make the jump back to the Asian date Samoa and Tokelau skipped 30 December 2011.

The Samoan Islands were first settled some 3,500 years ago as part of the Austronesian expansion. Samoa's early and more current history is strongly connected with the histories of Tonga and Fiji, which are in the same region, and with whom it shares historical, genealogical, and cultural traditions.


Biography.

Martinez de Pasqually, whose biography is continually being researched, due to the lack of documentation, appears in the history of French freemasonry in 1754.  His exact date and place of birth, as well as his true nationality is unknown. Some say he was of Jewish descent, without being able to establish this with certainty.  Certain similarities between Pasqually's theurgy and Portuguese hermetic thought led philosopher Sampaio Bruno (1857-1915) to argue that he was probably of Portuguese origin. In 1772 Pasqually went to collect an inheritance in the island of Hispaniola. Grainville, one of his fervent disciples, came from the Caribbean. In any case, at the time he went to Saint Domingue, the French colony which was soon to become Haiti, he was traveling back and forth to a French colony and Spanish colony, not a Portuguese holding. He died within two years and appears to have influenced early mystic groups in the Caribbean. Others again claim he was born in Grenoble. In reality, we know nothing with certainty of his origin. His activities before 1760 are also poorly understood. This is largely due to the fact that he used several different names and signatures on official documents during his lifetime.

Elus Cohens.

For twenty years, spanning from 1754 to 1774, the year of his death, Pasqually worked ceaselessly to establish and promote his "Ordre des Chevaliers Maçons Élus Coëns de l'Univers".  In 1754 he founded the "Chapter of Scottish Judges" in Montpellier.  In 1761, he became affiliated with the lodge "La Française" in Bordeaux and founded a Cohen Temple there.  In 1764 " La Française" was reorganized by him as "Française Élue Écossaise" to indicate that it now had a Chapter of superior degrees.  In 1766 the directors of the Masonic province of Bordeaux declared that they were abolishing all constitutions relating to higher grades apart from the first three (Regular Blue- or St. John's degrees of: Apprentice, Fellowcraft and Master). As a result, all the works of the Chapter were suspended. This same year Martinez travelled to Paris and found a new and explicit Elus Cohen-temple together with Bacon de Chivalerie, Jean-Baptiste Willermoz, Fauger d'Ignéacourt, the Count of Lusignan, Henri de Loos, Grainville, and several others that were to play important parts in the history the Order.  In 1767, he established the "Sovereign Tribunal" who would direct the whole Order of the Elus Coens.  In 1768 he met with Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin. The personality and teachings of Pasqually made a deep and lasting impression on Saint-Martin. Conversely, Pasqually himself was influenced by Saint-Martin who decided to leave his military career in 1771 and become the personal secretary of Martinez, replacing Abbe Pierre Fournié. From this period the notable development of the rituals of the order starts and Pasquallys drafting of his magnum opus, the "Treatise on the Reintegration of Beings", the main doctrinal foundation of the Martinist theosophy and theurgy.  In 1772 Martiez, embarked on a trip to Santo Domingo to receive an inheritance, and subsequently died there in 1774. Thereafter, the Order disintegrates.  In 1776, the Coens Temples of La Rochelle, Marseilles, and Libourne fall into the grasp of the Grand Lodge of France.  In 1777, the rites are no longer in operation and institutional use, except from some circles in Paris, Versailles and Eu.  Finally, in 1781, Sebastien Las Casas, third and last 'Grand Sovereign' of the Elus Cohens (successor of Caignet de Lester, who died in 1778) ordered the closure of the eight remaining temples that still recognize his authority. Neither Las Casas nor Caignet played a very important role in the orders development.  Despite the official closure, the Elus Coens continued to both practice theurgy, and to conduct initiations. On the other hand, the theosophical teaching of Martinez was not lost, in masonry, it spreads even long after the death of the leader through the Masonic system established by Willermoz shortly after death his master.  Besides Willermoz and Saint-Martin, the last known personal disciple of Martinez was Abbe Pierre Fournié. It was around 1768 that he met the teacher who would make him turn around his life completely, and of whom would be employed as secretary. Initiated as an Elus Coën, the tonsured cleric Fournié resides mainly in Bordeaux, where he mediates the correspondences between different members of the Order.  In 1776, Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin is quoted as describing him as an Elus Cohen exceptionally favored in supernatural manifestations; the source is Fournié himself in his own work What we've been, what we are and what we become (1802), in fear of saying too much. At the time of the revolution Fournié emigrated to England, where he remained until his death, and in this period, from 1818 to 1821, he befriends the Theosophist of Munich Franz von Baader.

The structure of the Elus Cohens.

This doctrine, he intended for an elite chosen from the ranks of his contemporary masons, and gathered under the banner of the 'Elus Coens' (Elect Priests). Quickly this order gained quite the reputation in French masonic circles, but the theurgic operations remained reserved for the higher degrees. Martinez did not, to a greater extent, graft his system solely on freemasonry. Until 1761, it is to be located in Montpellier, Paris, Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Avignon.  In 1761 he built a special temple in Avignon, where he resided himself until 1766. At that time, the Order of the Elect Coens is worked as a high-degree system superimposed on the Blue Lodges: The first class has three symbolic degrees, and that of'maître parfait élu', then the grades Coens proper: apprentice Coën, fellowcraft Coën, and master Coën, Grand Master Coën or Grand Architect, Chevalier d'Orient or Knight Zorobabel, Commandeur d'Orient or Commander Zorobabel, and finally the last degree, the supreme consecration of Reaux Croix.  In 1768, Jean-Baptiste Willermoz is ordained Reau-Croix by Bacon Chivalerie. Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin commenced the system in 1765, rising quickly to Commander of the Orient. The years 1769 and 1770 saw the Coen-groups multiply extensively in France. In 1772, Saint-Martin was ordained Reau-Croix.

Recent discoveries on Pasqually's ancestry.

According to the researches of George C. and the elements discovered by Michele Friot and Nahon, namely a certificate of Catholicism (published in "Bulletin de la Société Martines de Pasqually", Bordeaux) and the letters from Martinez regarding the Guers affair, neither Martinez nor his father could be Jewish. The third reason is that at the time, Jews were not accepted as Freemasons in France. These facts disprove the hypothesis proposed by the late Martinist-scholar Robert Amadou who proposed that Martinez was a Spanish Jew "(Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin et le Martinisme," Paris, Éditions Le Griffon d'or, 1946).  The theory of Martinez being Portuguese is also contested: The fact that Martinez traveled to Santo Domingo to receive an inheritance, does not support the theory of Portugal as his ethnic background. The island of St. Domingo (Hispaniola) was never under Portuguese rule, seeing that the French settlers, the 'Frères de la Côte Français' seized control over areas gradually abandoned by the Spaniards.  In a word, the western part was under French sovereignty and that of the Spaniards was located to the east. (Henri Bernard Catus May 27, 2009). The place of residence for Martinez, namely Leogane and Port-au-Prince, was French and occupied by the regiment of Foix, the same military operation from which Saint-Martin himself was recruited.  The wife of Martinez is believed to come from the very rich French settlers of the island; Collas de Mauvignié originally from Gornac near Bordeaux. Martines married Collas Angelique Marguerite, daughter of Anselm Collas on August 27, 1767 at Gornac.  However, if Martinez spoke French very well, he wrote very badly. His son, according to a police report, spoke Spanish very well. The hypothesis of a Spanish origin should therefore be retained. Research done in Grenoble by G.C. on all civil records on marriage certificates shows that Martinez is not registered in Grenoble. But it is possible that children born in the military forces at the time were not recorded in parish registers. Grenoble keeps track of a document stating that Captain Pasqually was stationed there, but it may be a namesake at the recovery of bodies of troops from Spain and used in the French army.  De Grainville was one of the most loyal of secretaries of Martinez, and also attained the degree of Reaux-Croix. He was born June 21, 1728, in the island of Bourbon (now Reunion Island), a native of Normandy (historical archives of the Army Château de Vincennes Paris). He ended his military career in 1780 with the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Doctrine.

The doctrine of Martinez is described as a key to any eschatological cosmology. God, the primordial Unity, had a desire to "emanate" beings from his own nature, but Lucifer, who wanted to exercise his own creative power, fell victim to his own faults. In his fall, which included his followers, he found himself trapped within an area designated by God to serve as their prison. God sent man, in an androgynous body and endowed with glorious powers, to keep Lucifer's rebels at bay and work towards their reconciliation. Adam prevaricated himself and fell into the very prison he was to contain, becoming a physical and mortal being, and was so thus forced to try to save both himself and the original creation. It can be done via inner perfection with the help of Christ, but also by the theurgic operations that Martinez taught to the "men of desire" he found worthy of receiving his initiation.  Through these rites, the disciple is to enter into relations with angelic entities that appear in the operations as "passes". These are to appear mostly in the form of characters or hieroglyphs of spirits invoked by the operator, as proofs that he is on the proper way of "reintegration".

Legacy.

After World War 2 Robert Ambelain created a new "Martinist Order of the Élus Cohen" as a revival of the Order of Pasqually. This was officially closed, as publicly announced in the Martinist magazine "L'Initiation", in 1964.  However, several strains of martinist-orders have continued to operate the Elus Cohens in succession of the Ambelain resurgence.  Today the Elus Cohens is mainly worked in two different manners, one in the fashion of Robert Ambelain, heavily influenced by his own Gnostic Church, the rite of Memphis-Misraim and his personal take on the kabbalah.  There also exists another manner of operation, where Pasquallys original system is practiced more in tune with the intents of the system as it were in the 1770s, where neo-gnostic tendencies and kabbalah is removed, in favor of the original doctrines. In France one such circle is supposed to exist, but not in public.  Officially, Ordre Reaux Croix is working the Elus Cohens in a similar manner, and also including women, as Pasqually himself did on two occasions.

Jacques de Livron Joachim de la Tour de la Casa Martinez de Pasqually (1727?–1774) was a theurgist and theosopher of uncertain origin. He was the founder of the l'Ordre de Chevaliers Maçons Élus Coëns de l'Univers - Commonly referred to as the 'Elus Cohens' in 1761. He was the tutor, initiator and friend of Louis-Claude de Saint-Martin and Jean-Baptiste Willermoz, and therefore regarded as the originator of Martinism.