Example.

In the example illustrated to the right (or above in some mobile versions), a particle or body P is at a fixed distance "r" from the origin, "O", rotating counterclockwise. It becomes important to then represent the position of particle P in terms of its polar coordinates ("r", "θ"). In this particular example, the value of "θ" is changing, while the value of the radius remains the same. (In rectangular coordinates ("x", "y") both "x" and "y" vary with time). As the particle moves along the circle, it travels an arc length "s", which becomes related to the angular position through the relationship:-

Measurements.

Angular displacement may be measured in radians or degrees. Using radians provides a very simple relationship between distance traveled around the circle and the distance "r" from the centre.  For example, if a body rotates 360° around a circle of radius "r", the angular displacement is given by the distance traveled around the circumference - which is 2π"r" - divided by the radius: formula_3 which easily simplifies to: formula_4. Therefore, 1 revolution is formula_5 radians. When a particle travels from point P to point Q over formula_6, as it does in the illustration to the left, the radius of the circle goes through a change in angle formula_7 which equals the "angular displacement".

Three dimensions.

In three dimensions, angular displacement is an entity with a direction and a magnitude. The direction specifies the axis of rotation, which always exists by virtue of the Euler's rotation theorem; the magnitude specifies the rotation in radians about that axis (using the right-hand rule to determine direction). This entity is called an axis-angle.  Despite having direction and magnitude, angular displacement is not a vector because it does not obey the commutative law for addition. Nevertheless, when dealing with infinitesimal rotations, second order infinitesimals can be discarded and in this case commutativity appears.  Several ways to describe angular displacement exist, like rotation matrices or Euler angles. See charts on SO(3) for others.

Matrix notation.

Given that any frame in the space can be described by a rotation matrix, the displacement among them can also be described by a rotation matrix. Being formula_8 and formula_9 two matrices, the angular displacement matrix between them can be obtained as formula_10. When this product is performed having a very small difference between both frames we will obtain a matrix close to the identity.  In the limit, we will have an infinitesimal rotation matrix.

Infinitesimal rotation matrices.

An infinitesimal angular displacement is an infinitesimal rotation matrix:  We can introduce here the infinitesimal angular displacement tensor or rotation generator associated:  Such that its associated rotation matrix is formula_13. When it is divided by the time, this will yield the angular velocity vector.

Generators of rotations.

Suppose we specify an axis of rotation by a unit vector ["x", "y", "z"], and suppose we have an infinitely small rotation of angle Δθ about that vector. Expanding the rotation matrix as an infinite addition, and taking the first order approach, the rotation matrix Δ"R" is represented as:  A finite rotation through angle θ about this axis may be seen as a succession of small rotations about the same axis. Approximating Δθ as θ/"N" where "N" is a large number, a rotation of θ about the axis may be represented as:  It can be seen that Euler's theorem essentially states that all rotations may be represented in this form. The product formula_16 is the "generator" of the particular rotation, being the vector ("x","y","z") associated with the matrix A. This shows that the rotation matrix and the axis-angle format are related by the exponential function.  One can derive a simple expression for the generator G. One starts with an arbitrary plane defined by a pair of perpendicular unit vectors a and b. In this plane one can choose an arbitrary vector x with perpendicular y. One then solves for y in terms of x and substituting into an expression for a rotation in a plane yields the rotation matrix R which includes the generator G = ba − ab.  To include vectors outside the plane in the rotation one needs to modify the above expression for R by including two projection operators that partition the space. This modified rotation matrix can be rewritten as an exponential function.  Analysis is often easier in terms of these generators, rather than the full rotation matrix. Analysis in terms of the generators is known as the Lie algebra of the rotation group.

Relationship with Lie algebras.

The matrices in the Lie algebra are not themselves rotations; the skew-symmetric matrices are derivatives, proportional differences of rotations. An actual "differential rotation", or "infinitesimal rotation matrix" has the form where is vanishingly small and, for instance with,  The computation rules are as usual except that infinitesimals of second order are routinely dropped. With these rules, these matrices do not satisfy all the same properties as ordinary finite rotation matrices under the usual treatment of infinitesimals. It turns out that "the order in which infinitesimal rotations are applied is irrelevant". To see this exemplified, consult infinitesimal rotations SO(3).

Exponential map.

Connecting the Lie algebra to the Lie group is the exponential map, which is defined using the standard matrix exponential series for For any skew-symmetric matrix, exp() is always a rotation matrix.  An important practical example is the case. In rotation group SO(3), it is shown that one can identify every with an Euler vector, where is a unit magnitude vector.  By the properties of the identification, is in the null space of. Thus, is left invariant by and is hence a rotation axis.  Using Rodrigues' rotation formula on matrix form with, together with standard double angle formulae one obtains,  where,.  This is the matrix for a rotation around axis by the angle in half-angle form. For full detail, see exponential map SO(3).  Notice that for infinitesimal angles second order terms can be ignored and remains exp(A) = I + A

Angular displacement of a body is the angle in radians (degrees, revolutions) through which a point revolves around a centre or line has been rotated in a specified sense about a specified axis. When a body rotates about its axis, the motion cannot simply be analyzed as a particle, as in circular motion it undergoes a changing velocity and acceleration at any time ("t"). When dealing with the rotation of a body, it becomes simpler to consider the body itself rigid. A body is generally considered rigid when the separations between all the particles remains constant throughout the body's motion, so for example parts of its mass are not flying off. In a realistic sense, all things can be deformable, however this impact is minimal and negligible. Thus the rotation of a rigid body over a fixed axis is referred to as rotational motion.


Plot.

Discharged Czechoslovak lieutenant Viktor Chotovický (Petr Čepek) returns to his homeland after spending much of the war in Aberdeen, Scotland employed at a RAF desk job. He has been appointed the trustee of an empty manor formerly occupied by the German family of a notorious Nazi war-criminal imprisoned by the Czechoslovak authorities. Viktor meets the Nazi's beautiful daughter Adelheid Heidenmann (Emma Černá), who is forced to work as a cleaning lady at her own mansion. Her brother is an SS officer who allegedly disappeared in the Eastern Front. Viktor makes Adelheid his captive maid, and soon falls in love with her. His heart is torn between feelings of desire and his national identity and sympathies. Adelheid also slowly becomes sympathetic towards Viktor, but at the same time silently hopes for the return of her brother Hansgeorg. When he does Viktor narrowly escapes death. Viktor refuses to testify against Adelheid because he is alone and has nobody else. However, Adelheid commits suicide in her cell, Viktor walks off into the snow-covered countryside and is last seen wandering towards a mine field.

Production.

As in other novels by Körner, the story is set in Sudetenland in Northern Moravia. The movie was shot in Lužec castle located close the town of Vroutek (German: "Rudig") in western Bohemia and in the villages close to Liberec in Northern Bohemia.  The soundtrack, adapted by Zdeněk Liška is based on existing music by Bach and Strauss, which complements the atmosphere of the film. The film was produced by Film Studio Barrandov Czechoslovakia in 1969.

Reception.

The film has received very positive reviews after its release in 1969. Many critics called it Vláčil's second best film (after "Marketa Lazarová"). The film wasn't taken pleasantly by authorities and it received limited release and propagation which resulted in a small attendance in cinemas.

Adelheid is a 1970 Czechoslovak drama film directed by František Vláčil, based on a 1967 novel of the same name by Czech writer Vladimír Körner. The story is about the complicated relationship between Czech man Viktor and German woman Adelheid, and about relationships between Czechs and Germans in postwar Czechoslovakia in general.


Plot.

The movie takes place against the backdrop of the political radicalization of Europe during the 1930s, more specifically the demise of the golden era of the First Czechoslovak Republic and the installation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under Nazi Germany in 1939. Spiritually, the movie takes place in the aftermath of the death of Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933.  Karl Kopfrkingl works at a crematorium in Prague. Obsessed with his duties, he believes he is not just cremating the dead, but liberating the souls of the departed. With Nazi forces gathering at the Czech border, he descends into a mania that allows him to enact his disturbed beliefs. He kills his wife and son due to their jewish heritage, under the belief that he is "liberating their souls". Afterwards, a Nazi leader discloses to him about the idea of gas chambers, which he very much approves of. He attempts to murder his daughter, but while in the process she gets away due to him having a schizo-like vision of his ideal self. At the end he is seemingly taken in by Nazi leaders, and they state that they will eliminate his daughter. The last scene is him driving away in a Nazi vehicle they put him in, stating "I shall save them all. The whole world".

Production.

"The Cremator" was director Juraj Herz's second feature film. The film is based on a novel by Ladislav Fuks "Spalovač mrtvol" (). The main character is played by Rudolf Hrušínský, an actor previously known for his comedic main role as the soldier Josef Švejk in "Dobrý voják Švejk" and "Poslušně hlásím".

Release.

Home media.

The film was released on DVD by Second Run on April 10, 2006. It was later re-released on DVD by Dark Sky Films on March 31, 2009. A new 4K transfer was released by the Criterion Collection on April 21, 2020.

Reception.

Jason Pirodsky of "The Prague Reporter" praised the film, writing, ""Spalovač mrtvol" is a masterpiece of atmosphere, conveying the horror of the Holocaust through style rather than story; stark black & white cinematography by Stanislav Milota is a real standout, while unusual rapid-fire editing by Jaromír Janáček helps to keeps the viewer off balance." Adam Schofield, writing in "A Black Pearl of the Deep: Juraj Herz's The Cremator" stated that audiences unfamiliar with Eastern Europe's political past could "surely enjoy it as a work of black comedy or psychological horror" as it was an "ingeniously orchestrated film, full of complexities, and capable of giving the horror genre a better name." Herz commented that the films reaction were different in every country, noting that "In Prague, people were depressed; in Slovakia, they laughed; in the Netherlands, it was a comedy from the beginning to the end" TV Guide awarded the film 3/5 stars, stating that "Hrusinsky's scary performance highlights this morbid, darkly funny work."

The Cremator () is a 1969 Czechoslovak dark comedy film directed by Juraj Herz, based on a novel by Ladislav Fuks. The screenplay was written by Herz and Fuks. The film was selected as the Czechoslovakian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 42nd Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. In 1972, it won the Festival de Cine de Sitges Best Film award, where it also received awards for its star Rudolf Hrušínský and cinematographer Stanislav Milota.


Biography.

Origins and military career.

Aemilian was born in the Roman province of Africa. According to the 4th century source "Epitome de Caesaribus", he was born at "Girba" (modern Djerba, an island off the coast of Tunisia) and was a Moor; a reference in the same source hints that he was born around 207. The 12th-century historian Joannes Zonaras, who calls him a Libyan (that is, coming from western Egypt-eastern Libya) rather than a Moor, and another chronicle of the 13th century hold that he was forty at the time of his death in 253.  Regarding his lineage, there are two versions, both exaggerated: while Eutropius and his translator Paeanius probably defame a failed usurper when they say that he was from an insignificant family, John of Antioch may refer to Aemilian's propaganda when he says that the usurper used his ancestry to take power. Aemilian married Cornelia Supera, a woman of African origin; the year of their marriage is unknown, but since both were from the same place, it is possible they married before Aemilian left Africa.  During the reign of Trebonianus Gallus and his son Volusianus (251–253), Aemilian was sent to the Balkans to command an army. His primary responsibility was to assure peace along the Danube frontier, which had been subject to several attacks by the Goths led by king Cniva.  Gallus secured the throne after the death of emperor Decius at the hands of Cniva in the Battle of Abrittus (251), and later had to manage an outbreak of plague that devastated Rome. He was not popular with the army, mainly due to humiliating treaties signed in 251 with the Goths and King Shapur I of Persia who attacked Syria. According to John of Antioch, upon his appointment to the Moesian command, Aemilian was already envious of Gallus and plotted treachery against him. He was also an opponent of the Roman Senate, and his seditious plans are confirmed by Jerome and Jordanes.

Victory against the Goths, overthrow of Gallus, short rule and death of Aemilian.

In 253, the Goths, led by king Cniva, claimed they had not received the tribute due from the Romans according to the treaty of 251. They crossed the border and attacked Cappadocia, Pessinus, and Ephesus. Modern historians believe that this missing payment was not a change in Roman policy, and the Goths were more likely trying to capitalize on their military prowess. Aemilian had command of the army assigned to defend the area, but the recent defeat at the Battle of Abrittus put his troops on edge. Aemilian exhorted them, reminding them of Roman honor (according to Zosimus) and promising tribute from the Goths (according to Zonaras). The Romans took the Goths by surprise, killing most of them, followed by an invasion of Goth territory resulting in booty and the liberation of prisoners. The Roman soldiers, gathered by Aemilian, acclaimed him Emperor. Jordanes claims, however, that Aemilian's troops plundered Roman territory, rather than keep the tribute of the Goths.  With his few men, Aemilian left his province unguarded and moved quickly towards Rome to meet the legitimate emperor Gallus before the latter could receive reinforcements. While Aemilian descended upon Rome along the Flaminian Way, Gallus and Volusianus had him proclaimed "enemy of the State" by the Roman senate, then exited Rome to meet the usurper. This strategy suggests that Aemilian's army was smaller than theirs, as they probably did not expect reinforcements to come in time but trusted their larger army to win the clash. The two armies met at the Battle of Interamna Nahars near modern Terni, at the southern end of the eastern branch of the Flaminia, and Aemilian won the battle; Gallus and Volusianus fled to the north with a few followers, probably as a delay tactic before the arrival of reinforcements, but, in August 253, at "Forum Flaminii" (modern San Giovanni Profiamma), on the western branch of the Flaminia, they were killed by some of their own guards, who thought that their betrayal could earn them a reward.  Aemilian continued towards Rome. The Roman senate, after a short opposition, decided to recognize him as emperor. According to some sources, Aemilian then wrote to the Senate, promising to fight for the Empire in Thrace and against Persia, and to relinquish his power to the Senate, of which he considered himself a general. Aemilian received the titles of "Pius", "Felix" and "Pater Patriae", the "tribunicia potestas", and was elevated to the rank of "pontifex maximus"; he was not, however, elevated to consulate (possibly a hint of his non-senatorial birth). His coinage shows that his propaganda focused on his capability as a military commander—he defeated the Goths when nobody thought this possible, and thus he was the right man for the job of restoring the power of the Roman Empire.  However, Valerian, governor of the Rhine provinces, was on his way south with an army which, according to Zosimus, had been called in as a reinforcement by Gallus. But modern historians believe this army, possibly mobilized for an incumbent campaign in the East, moved only after Gallus' death to support Valerian's bid for power. Emperor Aemilian's men, fearful of a civil war and Valerian's larger force, mutinied. They killed Aemilian at Spoletium or at the "Sanguinarium" bridge, between "Oriculum" and "Narnia" (halfway between Spoletium and Rome), and recognized Valerian as the new emperor. After Aemilian's death, which happened between late July and mid-September, a "damnatio memoriae" against him was declared.  It is possible that the usurper Silbannacus was an officer left by Aemilian in Rome before moving against Valerian, who later tried to become emperor but then was killed.  The troubled administration of emperor Aemilian was perhaps best summed up by Eutropius:

Aemilianus (Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus; c. 207/213 – September 253), also known as Aemilian, was Roman emperor for three months in 253.


"Star Wars".

The franchise, which began with the 1977 film "Star Wars", features a variety of droids designed to perform specific functions.

Protocol droid.

A protocol droid specializes in translation, etiquette and cultural customs, and is typically humanoid in appearance. The most notable example is C-3PO, introduced in "Star Wars" and featured in all sequels and prequels. 4-LOM is a protocol droid turned bounty hunter who responds to Darth Vader's call to capture the "Millennium Falcon" in "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980). TC-14 is a droid with feminine programming that appears in "" (1999), and ME-8D9 is an "ancient protocol droid of unknown manufacture" that resides and works as a translator at Maz Kanata’s castle on Takodana in the 2015 "".

Astromech droid.

An astromech droid is one of a series of "versatile utility robots generally used for the maintenance and repair of starships and related technology". These small droids usually possess "a variety of tool-tipped appendages that are stowed in recessed compartments". R2-D2 is an astromech droid introduced in 1977's "Star Wars" and featured in all subsequent films. The malfunctioning droid R5-D4 also makes a brief appearance in "Star Wars". U9-C4 is a timid droid sent on a mission with D-Squad, an all-droid special unit in "", C1-10P is an oft-repaired, "outmoded" astromech who is one of the "Star Wars Rebels" regular characters, and BB-8 is the astromech droid of X-wing fighter pilot Poe Dameron in "The Force Awakens".

Battle droid.

A battle droid is a class of military robot used as an easily controlled alternative to human soldiers, most notably seen in the "Star Wars" prequel trilogy of films and the "" TV series, in which 'B1' and 'B2' models are frequent antagonists. Due to their ubiquity, the terms 'B1' and 'battle droid' are used interchangeably; 'B2' models are also referred to as'super' battle droids.  The tall, thin B1 model resembles the Geonosian species, who designed the droids, and are known to "suffer programming glitches that manifest as personality quirks." The droideka is a three-legged heavy infantry unit with twin blasters and the ability to generate a force shield and transform into a disk shape. Multiple other types of specialized battle droids have been featured in the "Star Wars" fictional universe.  Within the "Star Wars Legends" continuity, HK-47 is a humanoid soldier robot, designed as a violent killer, which first appeared in the 2003 video game "".

Other droids.

During the production of "The Empire Strikes Back", Joe Johnston drew storyboard panels influenced by Dan O'Bannon and Moebius's short comic "The Long Tomorrow" (1975), one of which repurposes a pose Johnston admitted he borrowed from said work. The same panel of the comic features a robot design by Moebius, which may have been the basis of the probe droid (or "probot") design that concept designers Johnston and Ralph McQuarrie created for the film.  "Star Wars: The Clone Wars" has featured WAC-47, a "pit droid" programmed as a pilot and sent on a mission with the all-droid special unit D-Squad, and AZI-3, a medical droid serving the cloners of Kamino who helps uncover the secret of Order 66. The 2015 young adult novel "" by Cecil Castellucci and Jason Fry introduces the droid PZ-4CO, to whom Leia Organa dictates her memoirs. PZ-4CO also appears in "The Force Awakens" (2015). In the 2016 film "Rogue One", K-2SO is an Imperial enforcer droid reprogrammed by the Rebel Alliance.

Behind the scenes.

Droids are performed using a variety of methods, including robotics, actors inside costumes (in one case, on stilts), and computer animation.

Trademark.

Lucasfilm registered "droid" as a trademark in 1977. The term "Droid" has been used by Verizon Wireless under licence from Lucasfilm, for their line of smartphones based on the Android operating system. Motorola's late-2009 Google Android-based cell phone is called the Droid. This line of phone has been expanded to include other Android-based phones released under Verizon, including the HTC Droid Eris, the HTC Droid Incredible, Motorola Droid X, Motorola Droid 2, and Motorola Droid Pro. The term was also used for the Lucasfilm projects EditDroid, a non-linear editing system, and SoundDroid, an early digital audio workstation.  The name "Omnidroid" was used with permission of Lucasfilm for the 2004 Pixar movie, "The Incredibles".

A droid is a fictional robot possessing some degree of artificial intelligence in the "Star Wars" science-fiction franchise. Coined by special effects artist John Stears, the term is a clipped form of "android", a word originally reserved for robots designed to look and act like a human. The word "droid" has been a registered trademark of Lucasfilm Ltd since 1977.


Types of harvests.

The main aim of the Webarchiv project is to implement a comprehensive solution in the field of archiving of the national web, i.e. bohemical online-born documents. That includes tools and methods for collecting, archiving and preserving web resources as well as providing long-term access to them. Both large-scale automated harvesting of the entire national web and selective archiving are being carried out, including thematic „event-based“ collections. At present these methods are tested and are a subject of further research. To run all operations in a routine way, two conditions must be met: long-term funding has to be provided and the current legal issues have to be solved (primarily the legal deposit legislation).  Webarchiv have two collections of archived websites. One is available via online access. And its a limited dataset whose content is covered by agreements with its original publishers. Second collection can only be accessed in the Library. According to Czech copyright law online access to archived websites is based on agreement with website owner or on Creative Commons licence. Website without this agreement are blocked from our online archive and they are accessible only from the library terminals.

Comprehensive harvests.

The main focus of comprehensive crawls is to automatically harvest the biggest number of Czech web resources. The list of URLs is from organisation CZ.NIC.

Selective harvests.

Collection of resources with historical, scientific or cultural value manually selected. Collection is accessible online due to contracts with publishers.  The main focus of comprehensive crawls is to automatically harvest the biggest number of Czech web resources. The requirements of comprehensive crawls are:  Domain – Czech domain (.cz) web resources are collected. Resources with other domains can be also harvested, but they have to meet the optional requirements:  Other requirements are optional:  Format – harvesting different formats of resources depends on a technical settings of the harvester  Access – only freely accessible resources are harvested  Number of files – maximum 5000 files from one domain

Topic harvests.

Topic collections are collections of resources which are related to certain event of topic, for example elections.

Webarchiv is a digital archive of important Czech web resources, (i.e. published on the Internet) which are collected with the aim of their long-term preservation.


Territory.

It is generally believed that the tribal union included the regions of Moravia, Nitravia (Nitra), Silesia, Bohemia and Lusatia. According to Julius Bartl, the centre of the polity lay "somewhere in the area of southern Moravia, Lower Austria, and western Slovakia (Nitravia)".  According to J. B. Bury, "the assumption that his kingdom embraced Carantania, the country of the Alpine Slavs, rests only upon the Anonymus de conversione Bagariorum et Carantanorum".  Archaeological findings indicate that the empire was situated in present-day Moravia, Lower Austria and Slovakia. According to Slovak historian Richard Marsina, it is unlikely that the center of Samo's tribal union was in the whole territory of present-day Slovakia. The settlements of the later Moravian and Nitrian principalities (see Great Moravia) are often identical with those from the time of Samo's Empire.  According to the findings of some German archaeologists, the core of Samo's state was located north of the Danube, and in the upper Main region. In some historical sources of the early IX century, this region is described as ""regio Sclavorum"" or ""terra Slavorum"". Large amounts of early medieval Slavic ceramics are also found here. Many Slavic toponyms have also been found in this area, such as "Winideheim" ("The Hill of the Wends"), and "Knetzburg" (“Prince's Mountain”).

Prelude.

According to Fredegar, Samo, a Frankish merchant, went to the Slavs in 623–624. The dating has been questioned on the basis that the Wends would have most likely rebelled after the defeat of the Avars at the First Siege of Constantinople in 626. The Avars first arrived in the Pannonian Basin and subdued the local Slavs in the 560s. Samo may have been one of the merchants who supplied arms to the Slavs for their regular revolts. Whether he became king during a revolt of 623–24 or during the one which inevitably followed the Avar defeat in 626, he definitely took advantage of the latter to solidify his position. A string of victories over the Avars proved his ability to his subjects and secured his election as " (king). Samo went on to secure his throne by marriage into the major Wendish families, wedding at least twelve women and fathering twenty-two sons and fifteen daughters.  In 630–631, Valuk, the "duke of the Wends" (") was mentioned. These Wends referred to the Slavs of the Windic March, which according to some historians was the later March of Carinthia (Carantania) in present Slovenia and Austria. According to Jan Steinhubel, Valuk allowed Longobards to pass through his territory and attack Samo from south-west. Longobards were allies of Franks (Dagobert I.) against Samo. If Valuk allowed Longobards to go through his territory, his principality could have not been part of Samo's empire.

History.

The most famous event of Samo's career was his victory over the Frankish royal army under Dagobert I in 631 or 632. Provoked to action by a "violent quarrel in the Pannonian kingdom of the Avars or Huns", Dagobert led three armies against the Wends, the largest being his own Austrasian army. The Franks were routed near Wogastisburg; the majority of the besieging armies were slaughtered, while the rest of the troops fled, leaving weapons and other equipment lying on the ground. In the aftermath of the Wendish victory, Samo invaded Frankish Thuringia several times and undertook looting raids there. Dervan, the "duke of the Sorbs" (""), initially subordinate to the Franks, joined the Slavic tribal union after Samo defeated Dagobert I. The Sorbs lived to the east of the Saxon Saale. Dervan participated in the subsequent wars against the Franks, successfully fighting against Frankish Thuringia (631–634), until he was finally defeated by Radulf of Thuringia in 636.  In 641, the rebellious Radulf sought an alliance with Samo against his sovereign, Sigebert III. Samo also maintained long-distance trade relationships. On his death, however, his title was not inherited by his sons. Ultimately, Samo can be credited with forging a Wendish identity by speaking on behalf of the community which recognised his authority.

Aftermath.

The history of the tribal union after Samo's death in 658 or 659 is largely unclear, though it is generally assumed that it ended. Archaeological findings show that the Avars returned to their previous territories (at least to southernmost modern Slovakia) and entered into a symbiosis with the Slavs, whereas territories to the north of the Avar Khaganate were purely Slav territories. The first specific thing that is known about the fate of these Slavs and Avars is the existence of Moravian and Nitravian principalities in the late 8th century, which attacked the Avars, and the defeat of the Avars by the Franks under Charlemagne in 799 or 802–03, after which the Avars soon ceased to exist.  Great Moravia is viewed of as a continuation or successor state to Samo's Empire. The polity has been called the first Slavic state.

Samo's Empire (Also known as "Samo's Kingdom" or "Samo's State") is the historiographical name for the West Slavic tribal union established by King ("Rex") Samo, which existed between 631 and 658 in Central Europe. The centre of the union was most likely in Moravia and Nitravia (Nitra), additionally the union included Czech tribes, Sorbian tribes (under Dervan) and other West Slavic tribes along the river Danube (present Lower Austria). The polity has been called the first Slavic state.


The caves.

A hill called "Zlatý kůň" (Golden Horse) rises above the village of Koněprusy close to another hill called Kobyla (Mare), and nearby is a place called "V koníku" (In a Little Horse). A short journey westward leads to Kotýz, a karst plateau. Many legends have been woven about Kotýz and one of them tells about sacred horses used by the Celts for campaigns of war. A prehistoric settlement existed here, which, in Celtic times, some experts believe might well have served as a place of cult worship; druids possibly maintained a cult of the horse here.  Golden Horse hill conceals the most extensive cave system in Bohemia, accidentally discovered after an explosion in a nearby limestone quarry in 1950 and subsequently were made accessible for the public in 1959. Spanning two kilometers and three levels, the cave system inside the "Zlatý kůň" hill consists of passages and domed chambers interconnected by shafts developed in limestone of the Devonian age. The caves were formed by a small stream at the end of the Tertiary period, as well as by rainfall that seeped through cracks in the limestone. Rich speleothem formations were created by copious amounts of stalagmites and stalactites as well as by little sinter lakes. A tour leads visitors through the upper and middle levels, that present a chain of domed chambers, caverns and passages with dark abysses between them. The most beautiful area is deemed by experts to be the extensive Prošek chamber with its sinter "Jezírko lásky" (Little lake of love). The cave also offers the spectacular "Koněprusy Roses", a sight that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. They were formed by calcium carbonate dissolved in water, which then gradually precipitated on the walls of the underground lake in the shape of bushes, the tips of which later fell away to create an unusual formation reminiscent of rose blooms.

Findings.

In the earth filled parts of the caves paleontologists have excavated thousands of prehistoric animal bones from the Pleistocene period. Dating back 200,000 to 300,000 years, findings include the remains of the ancestors of the elephant mastodon, sabre-tooth tiger, monkey, cave bear, deer, reindeer, cave lion, woolly rhino, wolf, beaver, hyena and horse amongst others.  The fossilized bones of prehistoric humans aged about 13,000 years, stone tools and decorative objects from the early Stone Age provide evidence that prehistoric man also found refuge in the caves. A counterfeiter's workshop, since dubbed "the Mint", was discovered by pot holers on the upper level of the caves. Here from 1460 to 1470 unknown forgers made the Hussite coins bearing the symbol of the Czech lion. Instead of silver they used copper thinly covered with silver amalgam. The descended underground through a shaft near the top of the Golden Horse hill. It offers panoramic views in all directions; when the weather is fine about one-sixth of Bohemia is visible. The tour of the caves is long and lasts about one hour.

Koněprusy Caves () is a cave system in the heart of the limestone region known as Bohemian Karst, Czech Republic. It is located southwest of Prague, south of Beroun in the Central Bohemian Region. The name derives from nearby village of Koněprusy. With the length of and vertical range of, it is the largest cave system in Bohemia.


History.

Recent times.

The team was promoted to Czech First League for the first time in its history in 2004 and in their first top-flight season fought against relegation, eventually finishing in 14th place. The club's greatest success was achieved in the 2005–06 season, as they finished runners-up in the Czech First League, earning a place in the qualifying rounds of the UEFA Champions League. They came through their first tie, defeating Vålerenga (3–1 and 2–2), then lost against Galatasaray (2–5 away, 1–1 home), dropping into the UEFA Cup first round. The club went on to achieve a surprising 4–3 aggregate victory over Marseille (1st leg: 0–1, 2nd leg 4–2). However, the team was eliminated after reaching the group stage, taking just 3 points from 4 matches (Panathinaikos 0–1, Hapoel Tel Aviv 1–1, Paris Saint-Germain 0–0, Rapid București 1–1).  The following season, the club qualified directly for the first round of the UEFA Cup after finishing 3rd in the league. (Luboš Pecka was the top goalscorer in the league that year.) Qualification for the group stage was only narrowly secured by beating Palermo 4–2 on penalties after a nail biting 1–1 aggregate scoreline. On the verge of being eliminated with the score reading 1–0 Palermo, (with their goal in the first leg still standing) in the 2nd leg, Tomáš Sedláček scored the winner in the 2nd leg with only seconds to spare. In their group Mladá Boleslav defeated IF Elfsborg 3–1, but again failed to reach the knockout stages of the competition after losing matches against Villarreal 1–2, AEK Athens 0–1 and Fiorentina 1–2. The club subsequently achieved a 7th place league finish in the 2007–08 season, missing out on European qualification.  The major sponsor of the club is Škoda Auto.

Player records.

Highlighted players are in the current squad.

FK Mladá Boleslav is a Czech football club based in the city of Mladá Boleslav. The club currently plays in the Czech First League.


Anatomy and stimulation.

The abundance of nerve endings in the anal region and rectum can make anal sex pleasurable for men or women. The internal and external sphincter muscles control the opening and closing of the anus; these muscles, which are sensitive membranes made up of many nerve endings, facilitate pleasure or pain during anal sex. "Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia" states that "the inner third of the anal canal is less sensitive to touch than the outer two-thirds, but is more sensitive to pressure" and that "the rectum is a curved tube about eight or nine inches long and has the capacity, like the anus, to expand".  Research indicates that anal sex occurs significantly less frequently than other sexual behaviors, but its association with dominance and submission, as well as taboo, makes it an appealing stimulus to people of all sexual orientations. In addition to sexual penetration by the penis, people may use sex toys such as a dildo, a butt plug or anal beads, engage in fingering, anilingus, pegging, anal masturbation or fisting for anal sexual activity, and different sex positions may also be included. Fisting is the least practiced of the activities, partly because it is uncommon that people can relax enough to accommodate an object as big as a fist being inserted into the anus.  In a male receptive partner, being anally penetrated can produce a pleasurable sensation due to the inserted penis rubbing or brushing against the prostate through the anal wall. This can result in pleasurable sensations and can lead to an orgasm in some cases. Prostate stimulation can produce a deeper orgasm, sometimes described by men as more widespread and intense, longer-lasting, and allowing for greater feelings of ecstasy than orgasm elicited by penile stimulation only. The prostate is located next to the rectum and is the

Male to female.

Behaviors and views.

The anal sphincters are usually tighter than the pelvic muscles of the vagina, which can enhance the sexual pleasure for the inserting male during male-to-female anal intercourse because of the pressure applied to the penis. Men may also enjoy the penetrative role during anal sex because of its association with dominance, because it is made more alluring by a female partner or society in general insisting that it is forbidden, or because it presents an additional option for penetration.  While some women find being a receptive partner during anal intercourse painful or uncomfortable, or only engage in the act to please a male sexual partner, other women find the activity pleasurable or prefer it to vaginal intercourse.  In a 2010 clinical review article of heterosexual anal sex, "anal intercourse" is used to specifically denote penile-anal penetration, and "anal sex" is used to denote any form of anal sexual

Prevalence.

Because most research on anal intercourse addresses men who have sex with men, little data exists on the prevalence of anal intercourse among heterosexual couples. In Kimberly R. McBride's 2010 clinical review on heterosexual anal intercourse and other forms of anal sexual activity, it is suggested that changing norms may affect the frequency of heterosexual anal sex. McBride and her colleagues investigated the prevalence of non-intercourse anal sex behaviors among a sample of men (n=1,299) and women (n=1,919) compared to anal intercourse experience and found that 51% of men and 43% of women had participated in at least one act of oral–anal sex, manual–anal sex, or anal sex toy use. The report states the majority of men (n=631) and women (n=856) who reported heterosexual anal intercourse in the past 12 months were in exclusive, monogamous relationships: 69% and 73%, respectively. The review added that because "relatively little attention [is] given to anal intercourse and other anal sexual behaviors between heterosexual partners", this means that it is "quite rare" to have research "that specifically differentiates the anus as a sexual organ or addresses anal sexual function or dysfunction as legitimate topics.

Male to male.

Behaviors and views.

Historically, anal sex has been commonly associated with male homosexuality. However, many gay men and men who have sex with men in general (those who identify as gay, bisexual, heterosexual or have not identified their sexual identity) do not engage in anal sex. Among men who have anal sex with other men, the insertive partner may be referred to as the "top" and the one being penetrated may be referred to as the "bottom". Those who enjoy either role may be referred to as "versatile".

Prevalence.

Reports regarding the prevalence of anal sex among gay men and other men who have sex with men vary. A survey in "The Advocate" in 1994 indicated that 46% of gay men preferred to penetrate their partners, while 43% preferred to be the receptive partner. Other sources suggest that roughly three-fourths of gay men have had anal sex at one time or another, with an equal percentage participating as tops and bottoms. A 2012 NSSHB sex survey in the U.S. suggests high lifetime participation in anal sex among gay men: 83.3% report ever taking part

Female to male.

Women may sexually stimulate a man's anus by fingering the exterior or interior areas of the anus; they may also stimulate the perineum (which, for males, is between the base of the scrotum and the anus), massage the prostate or engage in anilingus. Sex toys, such as a dildo, may also be used. The practice of a woman penetrating a man's anus

Female to female.

With regard to lesbian sexual practices, anal sex includes fingering, use of a dildo or other sex toys, or anilingus.  There is less research on anal sexual activity among women who have sex with women compared to couples of other sexual orientations. In 1987, a non-scientific study (Munson) was conducted of more than 100 members of a

Health risks.

General risks.

Anal sex can expose its participants to two principal dangers: infections due to the high number of infectious microorganisms not found elsewhere on the body, and physical damage to the anus and rectum due to their fragility. Unprotected penile-anal penetration, colloquially known as "barebacking", carries a higher risk of passing on sexually transmitted infections (STIs) because the anal sphincter is a delicate, easily torn tissue that can provide an entry for pathogens. Use of condoms, ample lubrication to reduce the risk of tearing, and safer sex practices in general, reduce the risk of STI transmission. However, a condom can break or otherwise come off during anal sex, and this is more likely to happen with anal sex than with other

Physical damage and cancer.

Anal sex can exacerbate hemorrhoids and therefore result in bleeding; in other cases, the formation of a hemorrhoid is attributed to anal sex. If bleeding occurs as a result of anal sex, it may also be because of a tear in the anal or rectal tissues (an anal fissure) or perforation (a hole) in the colon, the latter of which being a serious medical issue that should be remedied by immediate medical attention. Because of the rectum's lack of elasticity, the anal mucous membrane being thin, and small blood vessels being present directly beneath the mucous membrane, tiny tears and bleeding in the rectum usually result from penetrative anal sex, though the bleeding is usually minor and therefore usually not visible. By contrast to other anal sexual behaviors, anal fisting poses a more serious danger of damage due to the deliberate stretching of the anal and rectal tissues; anal fisting injuries include anal sphincter lacerations and rectal and sigmoid colon (rectosigmoid) perforation, which might result in death.  Repetitive penetrative anal sex may result in the

Other cultural views.

General.

Different cultures have had different views on anal sex throughout human history, with some cultures more positive about the activity than others. Historically, anal sex has been restricted or condemned, especially with regard to religious beliefs; it has also commonly been used as a form of domination, usually with the active partner (the one who is penetrating) representing masculinity and the passive partner (the one who is being penetrated) representing femininity. A number of cultures have especially recorded the practice of anal sex between males, and anal sex between males has been especially stigmatized or punished. In

Ancient and non-Western cultures.

From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and did not regard anal sex as taboo. "Entu" priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man "keeps saying to his wife: 'Bring your backside.'" Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse. The "gala", a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities. The Sumerian sign for "gala" was a ligature of the signs for "penis" and "anus". One Sumerian proverb reads: "When the "gala" wiped off his ass [he said], 'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress [i.e., Inanna].'"  The term "Greek love" has long been used to refer to anal intercourse, and in modern times, "doing it the Greek way" is sometimes used as slang for anal sex. Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, "Most citizens are "europroktoi" (wide-arsed) now." The terms "kinaidos", "europroktoi", and "katapygon" were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. Pederastic practices in ancient Greece (sexual activity between men and adolescent boys), at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to avoid penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a "clean" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as

Western cultures.

In many Western countries, anal sex has generally been taboo since the Middle Ages, when heretical movements were sometimes attacked by accusations that their members practiced anal sex among themselves. At that time, celibate members of the Christian clergy were accused of engaging in "sins against nature", including anal sex.  The term "buggery" originated in medieval Europe as an insult used to describe the rumored same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from a sect originating in Bulgaria, where its

Religion.

Judaism.

The Mishneh Torah, a text considered authoritative by Orthodox Jewish sects, states "since a man's wife is permitted to him, he may act with her in any manner whatsoever. He may have intercourse with her whenever he so desires and kiss any

Christianity.

Christian texts may sometimes euphemistically refer to anal sex as the "peccatum contra naturam" (the sin against nature, after Thomas

Islam.

"Liwat", or the sin of Lot's people, which has come to be interpreted as referring generally to same-sex sexual activity, is commonly officially prohibited by Islamic sects; there are parts of the Quran which talk about smiting on Sodom and Gomorrah, and this is thought to be a reference to unnatural sex, and so there are hadith and Islamic laws which prohibit it. While, concerning Islamic belief, it is objectionable to use the words "al-Liwat" and "luti" to refer to homosexuality because it is blasphemy toward the prophet of Allah, and therefore the terms "sodomy" and "homosexuality" are preferred, same-sex male practitioners of anal sex are called "luti" or "lutiyin" in plural and are seen as criminals in the same way that a thief is a criminal.

Anal sex or anal intercourse is generally the insertion and thrusting of the erect penis into a person's anus, or anus and rectum, for sexual pleasure. Other forms of anal sex include fingering, the use of sex toys for anal penetration, oral sex performed on the anus (anilingus), and pegging. Although "anal sex" most commonly means penileanal penetration, sources sometimes use "anal intercourse" to exclusively denote penileanal penetration, and "anal sex" to denote any form of anal sexual activity, especially between pairings as opposed to anal masturbation.


History.

As originally envisioned by the constitution in 1992, the president had little more than a ceremonial role with respect to state decorations. Article 63 promulgated an order or an award on the recommendation of the government, as expressed by the signature of the Prime Minister. The constitution did not clearly give the president a way to refuse such a referral, unless it came to him by way of a law to be enacted, thus subject to his veto. Nothing in the constitution suggests that a recommendation for decoration be voted on by parliament.  Article 63 allows for the president to be granted powers by a lesser law to "exercise powers not explicitly defined in the Constitutional Act". Such a law came into effect in 1994, which allowed for the president to award state decorations on his own authority. It also seemed to multiply the legislative routes by which a person could be recommended for an award. As a consequence of this 1994 change, the Senate, the Chamber of Deputies, the Government, or the President can all recommend a person to receive a decorations. In any of these cases, however, it is still the responsibility of the president, or his designee, to actually present the award.  The Act on the State Decorations of the Czech Republic 1994 codifies what are the orders and medals capable of being conferred or awarded. Annexes (or amendments) to the Act instructed that the designs for the insignia associated with the state decorations should be chosen following a public competition.  By law, insignia for all state decorations are individually numbered, and accompanied by a matching numbered certificate.

Bestowal rules.

The Order is conferred upon citizens of the Czech Republic and awarded to persons who are not citizens of the Czech Republic.  After the demise of a holder of an order who was a Czech citizen his/her numbered insignia of the order is returned to the Office of the President of the Republic. After the demise of a person who has been decorated with a medal or the demise of a holder of an order who was not a citizen of the Czech Republic the survivors will keep both the insignia and the certificate on the award. If there are no survivors the insignia and the certificate will be returned to the Office of the President.  By law, President of the Czech Republic is entitled to the class I insignia of this order; after leaving the office, the order may be conferred upon him for life by a joint resolution of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.  The days designated for the bestowal of decorations is January 1 and October 28. By tradition the president presents the honors and awards in the evening of October 28 during a ceremony held at the Prague Castle.

State decorations of the Czech Republic recognize outstanding acts of service to the Czech Republic. They are awarded by the President of the Czech Republic, usually, but not necessarily, on the recommendation of the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate or the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic. They may also be promulgated solely on the president's authority. They come in two varieties: "orders" being the higher honor and "medals" the lower.


Services.

Transport layer services are conveyed to an application via a programming interface to the transport layer protocols. The services may include the following features:

Analysis.

The transport layer is responsible for delivering data to the appropriate application process on the host computers. This involves statistical multiplexing of data from different application processes, i.e. forming data segments, and adding source and destination port numbers in the header of each transport layer data segment. Together with the source and destination IP address, the port numbers constitute a network socket, i.e. an identification address of the process-to-process communication. In the OSI model, this function is supported by the session layer.  Some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, support virtual circuits, i.e. provide connection-oriented communication over an underlying packet-oriented datagram network. A byte-stream is delivered while hiding the packet mode communication for the application processes. This involves connection establishment, dividing of the data stream into packets called segments, segment numbering and reordering of out-of order data.  Finally, some transport layer protocols, for example TCP, but not UDP, provide end-to-end reliable communication, i.e. error recovery by means of error detecting code and automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocol. The ARQ protocol also provides flow control, which may be combined with congestion avoidance.  UDP is a very simple protocol, and does not provide virtual circuits, nor reliable communication, delegating these functions to the application program. UDP packets are called datagrams, rather than segments.  TCP is used for many protocols, including HTTP web browsing and email transfer. UDP may be used for multicasting and broadcasting, since retransmissions are not possible to a large amount of hosts. UDP typically gives higher throughput and shorter latency, and is therefore often used for real-time multimedia communication where packet loss occasionally can be accepted, for example IP-TV and IP-telephony, and for online computer games.  Many non-IP-based networks, such as X.25, Frame Relay and ATM, implement the connection-oriented communication at the network or data link layer rather than the transport layer. In X.25, in telephone network modems and in wireless communication systems, reliable node-to-node communication is implemented at lower protocol layers.  The OSI connection-mode transport layer protocol specification defines five classes of transport protocols: "TP0", providing the least error recovery, to "TP4", which is designed for less reliable networks.

Protocols.

This list shows some protocols that are commonly placed in the transport layers of the Internet protocol suite, the OSI protocol suite, NetWare's IPX/SPX, AppleTalk, and Fibre Channel.

Comparison of OSI transport protocols.

ISO/IEC 8073/ITU-T Recommendation X.224, "Information Technology - Open Systems Interconnection - Protocol for providing the connection-mode transport service", defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols designated class 0 (TP0) to class 4 (TP4). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. All OSI connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics of the classes are shown in the following table:  There is also a connectionless transport protocol, specified by ISO/IEC 8602/ITU-T Recommendation X.234.

In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides services such as connection-oriented communication, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing.


Early life.

Urban was born in Sokolov in 1967 and grew up in Bohemia. He spent a part of his childhood living in the Czechoslovak embassy in London before moving back to Prague to study Nordic and English Studies at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University, which included a year studying abroad at Oxford University. After graduating he worked as an editor for Mladá fronta, then as editor-in-chief for Argo, the publishing house which later released his books. In 1996 Urban won the Mladá fronta Prize for his translation of "Flaubert's Parrot" by British writer Julian Barnes.

Literary career.

Urban's first novel was "The Final Mark on the Manuscripts", released in 1998, a mockumentary novel released under the pseudonym "Josef Urban", also the name of the novel's narrator. The book's plot revolves around the manuscripts of Dvůr Králové and of Zelená Hora. It was positively received and later re-issued by Argo in 2005 under Urban's real name.  Later the same year, Urban released his best-known work, "The Seven Churches", (), a Gothic historical thriller set in Nove Mesto, Prague, about a man named Kvetoslav Svach, and how he is linked to murders in seven cathedrals of the city. It has been acclaimed as a masterpiece of modern gothic literature; Urban was praised as "the dark knight of Czech literature" and the book has been translated into 11 languages (English, German, French, Dutch, Hungarian, Russian, Spanish, Slovene, Croatian, Polish, and Bulgarian). "The Seven Churches" was the first of a loose trilogy known as the "church trilogy".  "Hastrman" came out in 2001. The novel received the Magnesia Litera Award for prose writing, and has been translated into Hungarian. A film based on the novel was produced in 2018. It is a controversial, uncompromising story combining motifs from Czech myths and folktales with the issue of ecology. Urban follows the story of a water-goblin through several centuries to create a parable for the environmental damage caused by humans. This book was followed the following year by "Memoirs of an MP", the so-called "sexy novel" and a considerable departure from Urban's previous books, which was described as "the most searing, most bizarre and most anarchistic condemnation of democratic totalitarianism".  Urban next returned to the final two books of the "church trilogy": "Shadow of the Cathedral" (2003), which sold out within two weeks of its release, and "Santini's Language" (2005), which drew comparisons to Dan Brown. In 2007 Urban released "Fields and Palisades: The Myth of the Princess and the Farmer", a version of the story of Přemysl the Ploughman and Libuše, the legendary origin story of the Czech people, as part of the Canongate Myth Series. This was followed by 2008's "Dead Girls", an anthology of gothic mysteries written between 2002 and 2006. A review in Czech daily "Právo" said that "Urban writes wonderful gothic mystery stories – and even Jakub Arbes might envy him this collection". "Lord Mord", released the same year, is set amid the slum clearance of Prague in the late 19th century, in which the murder of prostitutes is employed as an allegory for the harm caused to the city.  In 2011 Urban released "Boletus arcanus", a satire about drug dependency and human need that references the Czech pastime of mushroom picking. "Praga Picolla", released the following year, is a more traditional historical novel set in the time of the First Czechoslovak Republic. This was followed in 2014 by "She Came From The Sea", a detective mystery about a girl who emerges from the sea on the British coast one day without explanation. In 2015, Urban released "Urbo Kune", a sci-fi tinged novel written as a response to a request from Vienna architect, Jan Tabor, for European artists and writers to join a project dedicated to a united Europe.

Personal life.

Urban now lives in the Bohnice district of Prague, and works as a writer, translator, and editor in a publishing house.

Miloš Urban (born 4 October 1967 in Sokolov, Czech Republic) is a Czech novelist and horror writer, known as the "dark knight of Czech literature". He is best known for his 1999 novel "Sedmikostelí", a Gothic crime horror set in Prague, which was translated into 11 languages. He is also a translator, and has translated works by authors including Isaac Bashevis Singer and Julian Barnes into Czech. He was the winner of the 2002 Magnesia Litera prize for prose writing for his 2001 novel "Hastrman", as well as the 1996 Mladá fronta prize for his translation of Barnes' "Flaubert's Parrot". As well as the Czech Republic, Urban's books have found considerable commercial success in Spanish-speaking countries.


Indexed color.

With the relatively low color depth, the stored value is typically a number representing the index into a color map or palette (a form of vector quantization). The colors available in the palette itself may be fixed by the hardware or modifiable by software. Modifiable palettes are sometimes referred to as pseudocolor palettes.  Old graphics chips, particularly those used in home computers and video game consoles, often have the ability to use a different palette per sprites and tiles in order to increase the maximum number of simultaneously displayed colors, while minimizing use of then-expensive memory (and bandwidth). For example, in the ZX Spectrum the picture is stored in a two-color format, but these two colors can be separately defined for each rectangular block of 8×8 pixels.  The palette itself has a color depth (number of bits per entry). While the best VGA systems only offered an 18-bit (262,144 color) palette from which colors could be chosen, all color Macintosh video hardware offered a 24-bit (16 million color) palette. 24-bit palettes are pretty much universal on any recent hardware or file format using them.  If instead the color can be directly figured out from the pixel values, it is "direct color". Palettes were rarely used for depths greater than 12 bits per pixel, as the memory consumed by the palette would exceed the necessary memory for direct color on every pixel.

List of common depths.

1-bit color.

2 colors, often black and white (or whatever color the CRT phosphor was) direct color. Sometimes 1 meant black and 0 meant white, the inverse of modern standards. Most of the first graphics displays were of this type, the X window system was developed for such displays, and this was assumed for a 3M computer. The first Macintoshes, Atari ST high resolution. In the late 80's there were professional displays with resolutions up to 300dpi (the same as a contemporary laser printer) but color proved more popular.

2-bit color.

4 colors, usually from a selection of fixed palettes. The CGA, gray-scale early NeXTstation, color Macintoshes, Atari ST medium resolution.

3-bit color.

8 colors, almost always all combinations of full-intensity red, green, and blue. Many early home computers with TV displays, including the ZX Spectrum and BBC Micro.

4-bit color.

16 colors, usually from a selection of fixed palettes. Used by the EGA and by the least common denominator VGA standard at higher resolution, color Macintoshes, Atari ST low resolution, Commodore 64, Amstrad CPC.

5-bit color.

32 colors from a programmable palette, used by the Original Amiga chipset.

8-bit color.

256 colors, usually from a fully-programmable palette. Most early color Unix workstations, VGA at low resolution, Super VGA, color Macintoshes, Atari TT, Amiga AGA chipset, Falcon030, Acorn Archimedes. Both X and Windows provided elaborate systems to try to allow each program to select its own palette, often resulting in incorrect colors in any window other than the one with focus.  Some systems placed a color cube in the palette for a direct-color system (and so all programs would use the same palette). Usually fewer levels of blue were provided than others, as the normal human eye is less sensitive to the blue component than to the red or green (two thirds of the eye's receptors process the longer wavelengths) Popular sizes were:

12-bit color.

4096 colors, usually from a fully-programmable palette (though it was often set to a 16×16×16 color cube). Some Silicon Graphics systems, Color NeXTstation systems, and Amiga systems in HAM mode.

High color (15/16-bit).

In high-color systems, two bytes (16 bits) are stored for each pixel. Most often, each component (R, G, and B) is assigned five bits, plus one unused bit (or used for a mask channel or to switch to indexed color); this allows 32,768 colors to be represented. However, an alternate assignment which reassigns the unused bit to the G channel allows 65,536 colors to be represented, but without transparency. These color depths are sometimes used in small devices with a color display, such as mobile phones, and are sometimes considered sufficient to display photographic images. Occasionally 4 bits per color are used plus 4 bits for alpha, giving 4096 colors.  The term "high color" has recently been used to mean color depths greater than 24 bits.

18-bit.

Almost all of the least expensive LCDs (such as typical twisted nematic types) provide 18-bit color (64×64×64 = 262,144 combinations) to achieve faster color transition times, and use either dithering or frame rate control to approximate 24-bit-per-pixel true color, or throw away 6 bits of color information entirely. More expensive LCDs (typically IPS) can display 24-bit color depth or greater.

True color (24-bit).

24 bits almost always use 8 bits each of R, G, and B. As of 2018, 24-bit color depth is used by virtually every computer and phone display and the vast majority of image storage formats. Almost all cases of 32 bits per pixel assigns 24 bits to the color, and the remaining 8 are the alpha channel or unused.  2 gives 16,777,216 color variations. The human eye can discriminate up to ten million colors and since the gamut of a display is smaller than the range of human vision, this means this should cover that range with more detail than can be perceived. However, displays do not evenly distribute the colors in human perception space, so humans can see the changes between some adjacent colors as color banding. Monochromatic images set all three channels to the same value, resulting in only 256 different colors and thus, potentially, more visible banding, as the average human eye can only distinguish between about 30 shades of gray. Some software attempts to dither the gray level into the color channels to increase this, although in modern software this is more often used for subpixel rendering to increase the space resolution on LCD screens where the colors have slightly different positions.  The DVD-Video and Blu-ray Disc standards support a bit depth of 8 bits per color in YCbCr with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling. YCbCr can be losslessly converted to RGB.  Macintosh systems refer to 24-bit color as "millions of colors". The term "true color" is sometimes used to mean what this article is calling "direct color". It is also often used to refer to all color depths greater or equal to 24.

Deep color (30-bit).

"Deep color" consists of a billion or more colors. 2 is approximately 1.073 billion. Usually this is 10 bits each of red, green, and blue. If an alpha channel of the same size is added then each pixel takes 40 bits.  Some earlier systems placed three 10-bit channels in a 32-bit word, with 2 bits unused (or used as a 4-level alpha channel); the Cineon file format, for example, used this. Some SGI systems had 10- (or more) bit digital-to-analog converters for the video signal and could be set up to interpret data stored this way for display. BMP files define this as one of its formats, and it is called "HiColor" by Microsoft.  Video cards with 10 bits per component started coming to market in the late 1990s. An early example was the Radius ThunderPower card for the Macintosh, which included extensions for QuickDraw and Adobe Photoshop plugins to support editing 30-bit images. Some vendors call their 24-bit color depth with FRC panels 30-bit panels; however, true deep color displays have 10-bit or more color depth without FRC.  The HDMI 1.3 specification defines a bit depth of 30 bits (as well as 36 and 48 bit depths). In that regard, the Nvidia Quadro graphics cards manufactured after 2006 support 30-bit deep color and Pascal or later GeForce and Titan cards when paired with the Studio Driver as do some models of the Radeon HD 5900 series such as the HD 5970. The ATI FireGL V7350 graphics card supports 40- and 64-bit pixels (30 and 48 bit color depth with an alpha channel).  The DisplayPort specification also supports color depths greater than 24 bpp in version 1.3 through "VESA Display Stream Compression, which uses a visually lossless low-latency algorithm based on predictive DPCM and YCoCg-R color space and allows increased resolutions and color depths and reduced power consumption."  At WinHEC 2008, Microsoft announced that color depths of 30 bits and 48 bits would be supported in Windows 7, along with the wide color gamut scRGB.  High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC or H.265) defines the Main 10 profile, which allows for 8 or 10 bits per sample with 4:2:0 chroma subsampling. The Main 10 profile was added at the October 2012 HEVC meeting based on proposal JCTVC-K0109 which proposed that a 10-bit profile be added to HEVC for consumer applications. The proposal stated that this was to allow for improved video quality and to support the Rec. 2020 color space that will be used by UHDTV. The second version of HEVC has five profiles that allow for a bit depth of 8 bits to 16 bits per sample.  A few smartphones use 30-bit color depth, namely the OnePlus 8 Pro, the Oppo Find X2 & Find X2 Pro, the Sony Xperia 1 II and the Sharp Aquos Zero 2.

36-bit.

Using 12 bits per color channel produces 36 bits, approximately 68.71 billion colors. If an alpha channel of the same size is added then there are 48 bits per pixel.

48-bit.

Using 16 bits per color channel produces 48 bits, approximately 281.5 trillion colors. If an alpha channel of the same size is added then there are 64 bits per pixel.  Image editing software such as Photoshop started using 16 bits per channel fairly early in order to reduce the quantization on intermediate results (i.e. if an operation is divided by 4 and then multiplied by 4, it would lose the bottom 2 bits of 8-bit data, but if 16 bits were used it would lose none of the 8-bit data). In addition, digital cameras were able to produce 10 or 12 bits per channel in their raw data; as 16 bits is the smallest addressable unit larger than that, using it would allow the raw data to be manipulated. These systems did not take advantage of 16 bits for high dynamic range, and some assign almost mystical capabilities to 16 bits that are not actually true.

High dynamic range and wide gamut.

Some systems started using those bits for numbers outside the 0–1 range rather than for increasing the resolution. Numbers greater than 1 were for colors brighter than the display could show, as in high-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI). Negative numbers can increase the gamut to cover all possible colors, and for storing the results of filtering operations with negative filter coefficients. The Pixar Image Computer used 12 bits to store numbers in the range [-1.5,2.5), with 2 bits for the integer portion and 10 for the fraction. The Cineon imaging system used 10-bit professional video displays with the video hardware adjusted so that a value of 95 was black and 685 was white. The amplified signal tended to reduce the lifetime of the CRT.

Linear color space and floating point.

More bits also encouraged the storage of light as linear values, where the number directly corresponds to the amount of light emitted. Linear levels makes calculation of light (in the context of computer graphics) much easier. However, linear color results in disproportionately more samples near white and fewer near black, so the quality of 16-bit linear is about equal to 12-bit sRGB.  Floating point numbers can represent linear light levels spacing the samples semi-logarithmically. Floating point representations also allow for drastically larger dynamic ranges as well as negative values. Most systems first supported 32-bit per channel single-precision, which far exceeded the accuracy required for most applications. In 1999, Industrial Light & Magic released the open standard image file format OpenEXR which supported 16-bit-per-channel half-precision floating-point numbers. At values near 1.0, half precision floating point values have only the precision of an 11-bit integer value, leading some graphics professionals to reject half-precision in situations where the extended dynamic range is not needed.

More than three primaries.

Virtually all television displays and computer displays form images by varying the strength of just three primary colors: red, green, and blue. For example, bright yellow is formed by roughly equal red and green contributions, with no blue contribution.  Additional color primaries can widen the color gamut of a display, since it is no longer limited to the shape of a triangle in the CIE 1931 color space. Recent technologies such as Texas Instruments's "BrilliantColor" augment the typical red, green, and blue channels with up to three other primaries: cyan, magenta and yellow. Mitsubishi and Samsung, among others, use this technology in some TV sets to extend the range of displayable colors. The Sharp Aquos line of televisions has introduced Quattron technology, which augments the usual RGB pixel components with a yellow subpixel. However, formats and media supporting these extended color primaries are extremely uncommon.  For storing and working on images, it is possible to use "imaginary" primary colors that are not physically possible so that the triangle does enclose a much larger gamut, so whether more than three primaries results in a difference to the human eye is not yet proven, since humans are primarily trichromats, though tetrachromats exist.

Color depth or colour depth (see spelling differences), also known as bit depth, is either the number of bits used to indicate the color of a single pixel, in a bitmapped image or video framebuffer, or the number of bits used for each color component of a single pixel. For consumer video standards, such as High Efficiency Video Coding (H.265), the bit depth specifies the number of bits used for each color component. When referring to a pixel, the concept can be defined as bits per pixel (bpp), which specifies the number of bits used. When referring to a color component, the concept can be defined as bits per component, bits per channel, bits per color (all three abbreviated bpc), and also bits per pixel component, bits per color channel or bits per sample (bps). Color depth is only one aspect of color representation, expressing the precision with which colors can be expressed; the other aspect is how broad a range of colors can be expressed (the gamut). The definition of both color precision and gamut is accomplished with a color encoding specification which assigns a digital code value to a location in a color space.


The name "Tanakh".

"Tanakh" is an acronym of the first Hebrew letter of each of the Masoretic Text's three traditional divisions: Torah (‘Teaching’, also known as the Five Books of Moses), Nevi'im (’Prophets’), and Ketuvim (’Writings’)—hence TaNaKh. (On the "a"s of the word, see abjad.) Central to Judaism is that the books of the Tanakh are passed from generation to generation, "l'dor v'dor" in the Hebrew phrase. According to rabbinic tradition, they were accompanied by an oral tradition, called the Oral Torah.  The three-part division reflected in the acronym ’Tanakh’ is well attested in the literature of the Rabbinic period. During that period, however, ’Tanakh’ was not used. Instead, the proper title was "Mikra" (or "Miqra", מקרא, meaning ’reading’ or ’that which is read’) because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era. "Mikra" continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken Hebrew, they are interchangeable.

The term "Hebrew Bible".

Many biblical studies scholars advocate use of the term "Hebrew Bible" (or "Hebrew Scriptures") as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g. "Tanakh" or Old Testament). The Society of Biblical Literature's "Handbook of Style", which is the standard for major academic journals like the "Harvard Theological Review" and conservative Protestant journals like the "Bibliotheca Sacra" and the "Westminster Theological Journal", suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as...Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either. Alister McGrath points out that while the term emphasizes that it is largely written in Hebrew and "is sacred to the Hebrew people", it "fails to do justice to the way in which Christianity sees an essential continuity between the Old and New Testaments", arguing that there is "no generally accepted alternative to the traditional term 'Old Testament.'" However, he accepts that there is no reason why non-Christians should feel obliged to refer to these books as the Old Testament, "apart from custom of use."  Christianity has long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible and New Testament, although there have sometimes been movements like Marcionism (viewed as heretical by the early church), that have struggled with it. Modern Christian formulations of this tension include supersessionism, covenant theology, new covenant theology, dispensationalism and dual-covenant theology. All of these formulations, except some forms of dual-covenant theology, are objectionable to mainstream Judaism and to many Jewish scholars and writers, for whom there is one eternal covenant between God and the Israelites, and who therefore reject the term "Old Testament" as a form of antinomianism.  Christian usage of "Old Testament" does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books but, rather, varies depending on denomination. Lutheranism and Protestant denominations that follow the Westminster Confession of Faith accept the entire Jewish canon as the Old Testament without additions, although in translation they sometimes give preference to the Septuagint (LXX) rather than the Masoretic Text; for example, see.  "Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra), written and printed in Aramaic square-script, which was adopted as the Hebrew alphabet after the Babylonian exile.

Development and codification.

There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty, while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.  According to Louis Ginzberg's "Legends of the Jews", the twenty-four book canon of the Hebrew Bible was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the Second Temple period.  According to the Talmud, much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the Great Assembly ("Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah"), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.  The twenty-four book canon is mentioned in the Midrash Koheleth 12:12: "Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion".

Language and pronunciation.

The original writing system of the Hebrew text was an abjad: consonants written with some applied vowel letters (""matres lectionis""). During the early Middle Ages scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of vocalization. This was chiefly done by Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, in the Tiberias school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name Tiberian vocalization. It also included some innovations of Ben Naftali and the Babylonian exiles. Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and cantillation to derive from the revelation at Sinai, since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses. The combination of a text ( "mikra"), pronunciation ( "niqqud") and cantillation ( "te`amim") enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.

Number of different words used.

The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are hapax legomena. The number of distinct roots, on which many of these Biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.

Books of the Tanakh.

The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books: it counts as one book each Samuel, Kings, Chronicles and Ezra–Nehemiah and counts the Twelve Minor Prophets () as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their prominent first word(s).

Torah.

The Torah (תּוֹרָה, literally ""teaching""), also known as the Pentateuch, or as the ""Five Books of Moses"". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called ""Chamisha Chumshei Torah""" ( ""Five fifth-sections of the Torah"") and informally a ""Chumash"".

Nevi'im.

"Nevi'im" (, ""Prophets"") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains three sub-groups. This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the Land of Israel until the Babylonian captivity of Judah (the ""period of prophecy"").  Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.  The Former Prophets ( )  The Latter Prophets ( )  The Twelve Minor Prophets (, "Trei Asar", ""The Twelve""), which are considered one book

Ketuvim.

"Ketuvim" (, ""Writings"") consists of eleven books, described below. They are also divided into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of "Sifrei Emet" and "Hamesh Megillot".  The three poetic books ("Sifrei Emet")  The Five Megillot ("Hamesh Megillot"). These books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parenthesis.  Other books  The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b — 15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.  In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.

Poetic books.

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as "Sifrei Emet" (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields "Emet" אמ"ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").  These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

Five scrolls ("Hamesh Megillot").

The five relatively short books of the Song of Songs, the Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and the Book of Esther are collectively known as the "Hamesh Megillot" (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon, with the latest parts having dates ranging into the 2nd century BCE. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the year in many Jewish communities.

Other books.

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics.

Nach.

Nach, also anglicized "Nakh", refers to the "Neviim" and "Kesuvim/Ketuvim" portions of "Tanakh".  "Nach" is often referred to as being its own subject, separate from "Chumash".  It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which they subsequently attend, and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach Chumash. In addition to Rashi, the major commentary taught for Chumash, for "Nach" it's also "Metzudot".  In Orthodox high schools for boys, by contrast, the curriculum does not include much of "Nach", except to a limited extent "Yeshoshua" and "Shoftim" plus the five "Megilos".

Jewish commentaries.

There are two major approaches towards study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is divinely inspired. Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation. In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresy by the Orthodox Jewish community. As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden by rabbis teaching in Orthodox yeshivas. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as Abraham Ibn Ezra, Gersonides, and Maimonides, used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of history, science, and philology. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.  The Modern Orthodox Jewish community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world, e.g. the Da'at Miqra series. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. "Jewish commentaries on the Bible", discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the Targums to classical rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day commentaries.

The Hebrew Bible, which is also called the Tanakh (;, or ; also "Tenakh", "Tenak", "Tanach"), or sometimes the Miqra (מִקְרָא), is the canonical collection of Hebrew scriptures, including the Torah. These texts are almost exclusively in Biblical Hebrew, with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic instead (in the books of Daniel and Ezra, the verse, and some single words). The Hebrew Bible is also the textual source for the Christian Old Testament. The form of this text that is authoritative for Rabbinic Judaism is known as the Masoretic Text (MT) and it consists of 24 books, while the translations divide essentially the same material into 39 books for the Protestant Bible.


History.

William F. Albright has dated his reign to 786–746 BC, while E. R. Thiele says he was coregent with Jehoash 793 to 782 BC and sole ruler 782 to 753 BC.  He was victorious over the Arameans (), conquered Damascus (), and extended Israel to its former limits, from "the entering of Hamath to the sea of the plain".  In 1910, G. A. Reisner found sixty-three inscribed potsherds while excavating the royal palace at Samaria, which were later dated to the reign of Jeroboam II and mention regnal years extending from the ninth to the 17th of his reign. These ostraca, while unremarkable in themselves, contain valuable information about the script, language, religion and administrative system of the period.  Archaeological evidence confirms the biblical account of his reign as the most prosperous that Israel had yet known. By the late 8th century BC, the territory of Israel was the most densely settled in the entire Levant, with a population of about 350,000. This prosperity was built on trade in olive oil, wine, and possibly horses, with Egypt and especially Assyria providing the markets. According to the prophet Amos, the triumphs of the king had engendered a haughty spirit of boastful overconfidence at home (). Oppression and exploitation of the poor by the mighty, luxury in palaces of unheard-of splendor, and a craving for amusement were some of the internal fruits of these external triumphs.  Under Jeroboam II, the God of Israel was worshiped at Dan and Beth-el and at other old Israelite shrines, through actual images, such as the golden calf. These services at Dan and Beth-el, at Gilgal and Beer-sheba, were of a nature to arouse the indignation of the prophets, and the foreign cults (Amos 5), both numerous and degrading, contributed still further to arousing of the prophetic spirit. Jeroboam's reign was the period of the prophets Hosea, Joel, Amos and Jonah, all of whom condemned the materialism and selfishness of the Israelite elite of their day: "Woe unto those who lie upon beds of ivory... eat lambs from the flock and calves... [and] sing idle songs..." (). The book of Kings, written a century later, condemns Jeroboam for doing "evil in the eyes of the Lord", meaning both the oppression of the poor and his continuing support of the cult centres of Dan and Bethel, in opposition to the temple in Jerusalem.

Earthquake in Israel c. 760 BC.

A major earthquake had occurred in Israel c. 760 BC, which may have been during the time of Jeroboam II, towards the end of his rule. This earthquake is mentioned in the Book of Amos as having occurred during the rule of "Jeroboam son of Jehoash" ().  Geologists believe they have found evidence of this big earthquake in sites throughout Israel and Jordan. Archeologists Yigael Yadin and Israel Finkelstein date the earthquake level at Tel Hazor to 760 BC based on stratigraphic analysis of the destruction debris. Similarly, David Ussishkin arrives at the same date based on the "sudden destruction" level at Lachish.  According to Steven A. Austin, the magnitude of this earthquake may have been at least 7.8, but more likely as high as 8.2. "This magnitude 8 event of 750 B.C. appears to be the largest yet documented on the Dead Sea transform fault zone during the last four millennia."  The epicenter of this earthquake may have been 200–300 km north of present-day Israel.  Multiple biblical references exist to this earthquake in the Book of Amos (,,, ), and also in Zechariah.  Recent excavations by Aren Maeir in ancient Gath have revealed evidence of a major earthquake. "Based on the tight stratigraphic context, this can be dated to the mid-8th cent. BCE"...

In the Bible.

His name occurs in the Old Testament only in ; ; ; 1 Chronicles ; Book of Hosea ; and Book of Amos ;. In all other passages it is Jeroboam I, the son of Nebat that is meant.

Jeroboam II ( "Yarov‘am"; ; ) was the son and successor of Jehoash (alternatively spelled Joash) and the thirteenth king of the ancient Kingdom of Israel, over which he ruled for forty-one years in the eighth century BC. His reign was contemporary with those of Amaziah () and Uzziah (), kings of Judah.


Derivation.

The word "critic" comes, which is a Greek derivation of the word "(krités)", meaning a person who offers reasoned judgment or analysis, value judgment, interpretation or observation. Early English meaning of criticism was based mainly on the criticism of literature and it was in the 17th century that more general forms of criticism began.

Critics' views of criticism.

Cultural critic Clement Greenberg wrote that a good critic excels through "insights into the evidence... and by... loyalty to the relevant"; poet and critic T.S. Eliot wrote "a critic must have a very highly developed sense of fact".  In 1971, Harold C. Schonberg, chief music critic of "The New York Times" from 1960 to 1980, said that he wrote for himself, <nowiki>"</nowiki>not necessarily for readers, not for musicians....It's not a critic's job to be right or wrong; it's his job to express an opinion in readable English.<nowiki>"</nowiki> Schonberg was the first music critic to receive the Pulitzer Prize for criticism.  Daniel Mendelsohn described the equation of criticism for critics as knowledge + taste = meaningful judgement.  Restaurant critic Terry Durack explained that from a critic "you hope for a thorough, objective and legitimate discussion" that puts "opera, art or book into context, so that it adds to your own body of knowledge"; in the context of a restaurant criticism, this means it is "not about me liking it or not; it's about me helping you decide whether you are going to like it or not."

Social and political critics.

Social and political critics have used various forms of art to express their criticism, including literature and music. Pierre Beaumarchais, for example, prior to the French Revolution, used his play "The Marriage of Figaro" to denounce aristocratic privilege. A critic's influence is enhanced by subsequent reworkings such as the operatic versions of Beaumarchais's play ("The Barber of Seville") by Rossini and ("The Marriage of Figaro") by Mozart. Among the most famous social/political criticism in literary form are Jonathan Swift's satire "Gulliver's Travels" and George Orwell's satire "Animal Farm". Some political critics, such as Ai Weiwei use visual art as their medium. Throughout history, political critics have faced higher risks, including the risk of imprisonment or death.

Online critics.

Several websites have developed for the purpose of compiling or publishing original critical reviews. Examples include "BlogCritics Magazine", Rotten Tomatoes, and Yelp. According to A. O. Scott, chief film critic for "The New York Times", everyone on the Internet is a critic. Some critics like Roger Ebert achieve iconic status in pop culture and become well regarded.

Cinematography and television.

The American film critics Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel collaborated and appeared on television sometimes agreeing on their review of cinematographic works; sometimes they would differ.  Film critics may use star classification to qualify the reviewed works.  Characters depicting critics have been part of some movies, and have been represented in comedies, such as a food critic in the animated fantasy-comedy "Ratatouille", and as an art critic in one of the initial parts of the anthology comedy film "The History of the World Part I".

Responses to critics.

People whose work is the subject of criticism have a full range of responses to it. For example, they may be appreciative, offended, distressed, encouraged, amused or nonplussed.

A critic is a professional who communicates an assessment and an opinion of various forms of creative works such as art, literature, music, cinema, theatre, fashion, architecture, and food. Critics may also take as their subject social or government policy. Critical judgments, whether derived from critical thinking or not, weigh up a range of factors, including an assessment of the extent to which the item under review achieves its purpose and its creator's intention and a knowledge of its context. They may also include a positive or negative personal response.