Nucleophilic/electrophilic cascades.

Nucleophilic/electrophilic cascades are defined as the cascade sequences in which the key step constitutes a nucleophilic or electrophilic attack.  An example of such a cascade is seen in the short enantioselective synthesis of the broad-spectrum antibiotic (–)-chloramphenicol, reported by Rao et al. (Scheme 1). Herein, the chiral epoxy-alcohol 1 was first treated with dichloroacetonitrile in the presence of NaH. The resulting intermediate 2 then underwent a BF·EtO-mediated cascade reaction. Intramolecular opening of the epoxide ring yielded intermediate 3, which, after an "in situ" hydrolysis facilitated by excess BF·EtO, afforded (–)-chloramphenicol (4) in 71% overall yield. A nucleophilic cascade was also employed in the total synthesis of the natural product pentalenene (Scheme 2). In this procedure, squarate ester 5 was treated with (5-methylcyclopent-1-en-1-yl)lithium and propynyllithium. The two nucleophilic attacks occurred predominantly with "trans" addition to afford intermediate 6, which spontaneously underwent a 4π-conrotatory electrocyclic opening of the cyclobutene ring. The resulting conjugated species 7 equilibrated to conformer 8, which more readily underwent an 8π-conrotatory electrocyclization to the highly strained intermediate 9. The potential to release strain directed protonation of 9 such that species 10 was obtained selectively. The cascade was completed by an intramolecular aldol condensation that afforded product 11 in 76% overall yield. Further elaboration afforded the target (±)-pentalenene (12).

Organocatalytic cascades.

A subcategory of nucleophilic/electrophilic sequences is constituted by organocatalytic cascades, in which the key nucleophilic attack is driven by organocatalysis.  An organocatalytic cascade was employed in the total synthesis of the natural product harziphilone, reported by Sorensen et al. in 2004 (Scheme 3). Herein, treatment of the enone starting material 13 with organocatalyst 14 yielded intermediate 15 via conjugate addition. Subsequent cyclization by the intramolecular Michael addition of the enolate into the triple bond of the system gave species 16, which afforded intermediate 17 after proton transfer and tautomerization. The cascade was completed by elimination of the organocatalyst and a spontaneous 6π-electrocyclic ring closure of the resultant "cis"-dienone 18 to (+)-harziphilone (19) in 70% overall yield. An outstanding triple organocatalytic cascade was reported by Raabe et al. in 2006. Linear aldehydes (20), nitroalkenes (21) and "α","β"-unsaturated aldehydes (22) could be condensed together organocatalytically to afford "tetra"-substituted cyclohexane carbaldehydes (24) with moderate to excellent diastereoselectivity and complete enantiocontrol (Scheme 4). The transformation is mediated by the readily available proline-derived organocatalyst 23.  The transformation was proposed to proceed via a Michael addition/Michael addition/aldol condensation sequence (Scheme 5). In the first step, Michael addition of aldehyde 20 to nitroalkene 21 occurs through enamine catalysis, yielding nitroalkane 25. Condensation of "α","β"-unsaturated aldehyde 22 with the organocatalyst then facilitates the conjugate addition of 25 to give intermediate enamine 26, which is prone to undergo an intramolecular aldol condensation to iminium species 27. Organocatalyst 23 is regenerated by hydrolysis, along with the product 24, thus closing the triple cascade cycle.

Radical cascades.

Radical cascades are those in which the key step constitutes a radical reaction. The high reactivity of free radical species renders radical-based synthetic approaches decidedly suitable for cascade reactions.  One of the most widely recognized examples of the synthetic utility of radical cascades is the cyclization sequence employed in the total synthesis of (±)-hirsutene, in 1985 (Scheme 6). Herein, alkyl iodide 28 was converted to the primary radical intermediate 29, which underwent a 5-"exo"-trig cyclization to afford reactive species 30. A subsequent 5-"exo"-dig radical cyclization lead to intermediate 31, which upon quenching gave the target (±)-hirsutene (32) in 80% overall yield.  A cascade radical process was also used in one of the total syntheses of (–)-morphine (Scheme 7). Aryl bromide 33 was converted to the corresponding radical species 34 by treatment with tri-"n"-butyltin hydride. A 5-"exo"-trig cyclization then occurred to give intermediate 35 stereoselectively in virtue of the stereochemistry of the ether linkage. In the next step of the cascade, the geometric constraints of 35 forbid the kinetically favored 5-"exo"-trig cyclization pathway; instead secondary benzylic radical species 36 was obtained via a geometrically-allowed 6-"endo"-trig cyclization. Subsequent elimination of the phenyl sulfinyl radical afforded product 37 in 30% overall yield, which was further elaborated to (–)-morphine (38).

Pericyclic cascades.

Possibly the most widely encountered kind of process in cascade transformations, pericyclic reactions include cycloadditions, electrocyclic reactions and sigmatropic rearrangements. Although some of the abovementioned instances of nucleophilic/electrophilic and radical cascades involved pericyclic processes, this section contains only cascade sequences that are solely composed of pericyclic reactions or in which such a reaction arguably constitutes the key step.  A representative example of a pericyclic cascade is the endiandric acid cascade reported by Nicolaou et al. in 1982 (Scheme 8). Herein the highly unsaturated system 39 was first hydrogenated to the conjugated tetraene species 40, which upon heating underwent an 8π-conrotatory electrocyclic ring closure, yielding cyclic intermediate 41. A second spontaneous electrocyclization, this time a 6π-disrotatory ring closure, converted 41 to the bicyclic species 42, the geometry and stereochemistry of which favored a subsequent intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction. The methyl ester of endiandric acid B (43) was thus obtained in 23% overall yield.  A pericyclic sequence involving intramolecular hetero-cycloaddition reactions was employed in the total synthesis of naturally occurring alkaloid (–)-vindorosine (Scheme 9). Rapid access to the target was achieved from a solution of 1,3,4-oxadiazole 44 in triisopropyl benzene subjected to high temperatures and reduced pressure. First an inverse-electron-demand hetero-Diels-Alder reaction occurred to give intermediate 45. Thermodynamically favorable loss of nitrogen generated the 1,3-dipole-containing species 46. A spontaneous intramolecular [3+2] cycloaddition of the 1,3-dipole and the indole system then formed the "endo"-product 47 in 78% overall yield. Further elaboration yielded the target natural product 48.  The total synthesis of (–)-colombiasin A reported in 2005 by the Harrowven group included an electrocyclic cascade (Scheme 10). When subjected to heat via microwave irradiation, squarate derivative 49 underwent an electrocyclic opening of the cyclobutene ring, followed by a 6π-electrocyclic ring closure that yielded bicyclic intermediate 51. Tautomerization thereof gave the aromatic species 52, which upon exposure to air was oxidized to product 53 in 80% overall yield. The target (–)-colombiasin A (54) was then obtained from 53 via a heat-facilitated Diels-Alder reaction followed by cleavage of the "tert"-butyl protecting group.  Certain [2,2]paracyclophanes can also be obtained via pericyclic cascades, as reported by the Hopf group in 1981 (Scheme 11). In this sequence, a Diels-Alder reaction between 1,2,4,5-hexatetraene 55 and dienophile 56 first formed the highly reactive intermediate 57, which subsequently dimerized to yield [2,2]paracyclophane 58.

Transition-metal-catalyzed cascades.

Transition-metal-catalyzed cascade sequences combine the novelty and power of organometallic chemistry with the synthetic utility and economy of cascade reactions, providing an even more ecologically and economically desirable approach to organic synthesis.  For instance, rhodium catalysis was used to convert acyclic monoterpenes of the type 59 to 4"H"-chromen products in a hydroformylation cascade (Scheme 12). First, selective rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation of the less sterically hindered olefin bond in 59 yielded unsaturated aldehyde 60, which under the same conditions was then converted to intermediate 61 via a carbonyl-ene reaction. A second rhodium-catalyzed hydroformylation to species 62 was followed by condensation to form 4"H"-chromen products of the type 63 in 40% overall yield.  Rhodium catalysis was also employed to initiate a cyclization/cycloaddition cascade in the synthesis of a tigliane reported by the Dauben group (Scheme 13). Treatment of diazoimide 64 with rhodium(II) acetate dimer generated a carbenoid that yielded reactive ylide 65 after an intramolecular cyclization with the neighboring carbonyl group. An intramolecular [3+2] cycloaddition then spontaneously occurred to afford the target tigliane 66.  The formal intramolecular [4+2] cycloaddition of 1,6-enynes of the type 67 mediated by gold catalysis is another example of a transition-metal-catalyzed cascade (Scheme 14). A variety of 1,6-enynes reacted under mild conditions in the presence of Au(I) complexes 68a–b to yield the tricyclic products 69 in moderate to excellent yields.  This formal cycloaddition was proposed to proceed via the cascade process shown in Scheme 15. Complexation of the 1,6-enyne 67 with the cationic form of the catalyst yields intermediate 70, in which the activated triple bond is attacked by the olefin functionality to yield substituted cyclopropane 71. Electrophilic opening of the three-membered ring forms cationic species 72, which undergoes a Friedel-Crafts-type reaction and then rearomatizes to give tricyclic product 69. Due to the nature of the interaction of gold complexes with unsaturated systems, this process could also be considered an electrophilic cascade.  An example of palladium-catalyzed cascades is represented by the asymmetric polyene Heck cyclization used in the preparation of (+)-xestoquinone from triflate substrate 75 (Scheme 16). Oxidative addition of the aryl–triflate bond into the palladium(0) complex in the presence of chiral diphosphine ligand ("S")-binap yields chiral palladium(II) complex 77. This step is followed by the dissociation of the triflate anion, association of the neighboring olefin and 1,2-insertion of the naphthyl group into the olefin to yield intermediate 79. A second migratory insertion into the remaining olefin group followed by a "β"-elimination then occurs to afford product 81 in 82% overall yield and with moderate enantioselectivity. The palladium(0) catalyst is also regenerated in this step, thus allowing the cascade to be reinitiated.

Multistep tandem reactions.

Multistep tandem reactions (or cascade reactions) are a sequence of chemical transformations (usually more than two steps) that happens consecutively to convert a starting material to a complex product. This kind of organic reactions are designed to construct difficult structures encountered in natural product total synthesis.  In the total synthesis of spiroketal ionophore antibiotic routiennocin 1 (Fig. 1), the central spiroketal skeleton was constructed by a multistep tandem reaction (Fig. 2). Fragment A and fragment B were coupled in a single step to form the key intermediate G that could be further elaborated to afford the final product routiennocin.  Four chemical transformations happened in this tandem reaction. First, treating fragment A with n-butyllithium formed carbon anion that attacked the alkyliodide part of fragment B to generate intermediate C (step 1). Then a 3, 4-dihydropyran derivative D was formed through base-mediated elimination reaction on intermediate C (step 2). The protecting group on 1, 3-diol moiety in intermediate D was removed by acid treatment to give the diol product E (step 3). The spiroketal product G was generated via intramolecular ketal formation reaction. This multistep tandem reaction greatly simplified the construction of this complex spiroketal structure and eased the path towards the total synthesis of routiennocin.

A cascade reaction, also known as a domino reaction or tandem reaction, is a chemical process that comprises at least two consecutive reactions such that each subsequent reaction occurs only in virtue of the chemical functionality formed in the previous step. In cascade reactions, isolation of intermediates is not required, as each reaction composing the sequence occurs spontaneously. In the strictest definition of the term, the reaction conditions do not change among the consecutive steps of a cascade and no new reagents are added after the initial step. By contrast, one-pot procedures similarly allow at least two reactions to be carried out consecutively without any isolation of intermediates, but do not preclude the addition of new reagents or the change of conditions after the first reaction. Thus, any cascade reaction is also a one-pot procedure, while the reverse does not hold true. Although often composed solely of intramolecular transformations, cascade reactions can also occur intermolecularly, in which case they also fall under the category of multicomponent reactions.


Rapid rise to prominence.

The first known progenitor of this family is Yves de Bellême who was probably the son of Yves de Creil, The "caput" of the lordship was the castle of Bellême, constructed "a quarter of a league from the old dungeon of Bellême" in Maine. The second lord, William of Bellême, with the consent of Richard I, Duke of Normandy constructed two castles, one at Alençon and the other at Domfront, the caput of the lordship remained the castle of Bellême. Yet in a charter to the abbey of Lonlay of the lands of Neustria Pia, he describes himself as William "princeps" and "provinciae principatum gerens" indicating he considered himself an independent ruler or prince of his own domains. His sons Fulk and Warin died in his lifetime leaving Robert as his heir. Robert de Bellême died a prisoner leaving the fourth son, Ives as lord of Bellême, who shortly thereafter became Bishop of Séez. William Talvas, held the lands of Bellême in right of his brother Bishop Ives who retained the Lordship himself until his death at which time William came into possession of the lands of Bellême, Domfront and Alençon. After the infamous incident (see below) with William fitz Giroie, his kinsmen sacked and destroyed the lands of William Talvas who would not face them in the field. In turn Talvas' son Arnulf rebelled and exiled his father, now reviled by everyone. He wandered until he was taken in by the de Montgomery family whose son Roger agreed to marry his daughter Mabel in return for the lands William lost. Mabel inherited all the vast estates of her father (and in 1079 those of her uncle Bishop Ives) and married the heir of one of the most prominent families in Normandy, Roger de Montgomery, who became the 1st Earl of Shrewsbury.

Apogee and decline.

Mabel was succeeded by her son Robert of Bellême, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, who continued the aggressive policy of his mother. He built several castles to ensure control of the vast lordship of Bellême and held in total forty castles, including those of Alençon and Bellême, defends the territory and form a barrier to any attempt to bid. In 1098 Robert's younger brother Hugh died, and Robert inherited, on payment of £3,000 in relief, the English properties that had been their father's, including the Rape of Arundel and the Earldom of Shrewsbury. Robert had also acquired the countship of Ponthieu "jure uxoris" and the honor of Tickhill; all of which combined made him the wealthiest magnate in both England and Normandy. Robert rebelled repeatedly against the King of England and Duke of Normandy. In 1112 Robert was sent as an envoy of the French king to Henry I at his court at Bonneville whereas Henry seized Robert and imprisoned him. Robert spent the rest of his life as a prisoner; the exact date of his death is not known.

Bellême family bishops.

Even as early as the latter half of the tenth century members of this family held the bishoprics of Le Mans and Séez. Seinfroy (Seginfredus) sought the bishopric of Le Mans and offered Geoffrey I, Count of Anjou the hamlet of Coulaines and the villa of Dissay-sue-Courcillon including all fiscal rights if he could use his influence. Geoffrey interceded with King Lothair to obtain the see for Seinfroy who became Bishop. Geoffrey's choice of bishop proved to be a useful ally against the counts of Maine. Although their parentage is unknown, his sister, Godeheut, was the wife of Yves de Bellême. He was followed as Bishop of Le Mans in 997 by his nephew, Avesgaud de Bellême, son of Godeheut and Yves de Bellême. Throughout most of his reign as bishop he and Herbert Wakedog were locked in a bitter and seemingly endless power struggle. At Avesgaud's death in 1036 his nephew Gervais de Bellême, son of his sister Hildeburge de Bellême succeeded him as Bishop of Le Mans.

Notoriety.

The chroniclers of ducal Normandy, William of Jumieges and Orderic Vitalis depict several members of the family as cruel and deceptive. While William Talvas was as treacherous and self-serving as any of his family before him he surpassed them in wickedness and cruelty. He had married a Hildeburg, daughter of a nobleman named Arnulf, but he had his wife strangled on her way to church, according to Orderic, because she loved God and would not support his wickedness. Then on the occasion of his second wedding, William Talvas invited one of his vassals William fitz Giroie to attend. Suspecting nothing, fitz Giroie, while a guest at the festivities, was suddenly seized by Talvas' men and imprisoned, then according to Orderic horribly mutilated and blinded before being released. Somehow William Giroie survived his torture and mutilation and retired to Bec Abbey to live out the remainder of his life as a monk.  Of all of Orderic's female subjects William's daughter Mabel was the most cunning and treacherous; if not entirely for her own misdeeds then as the mother of Robert de Bellême, who had a reputation for savagery as well as cruelty. In one passage Orderic describes her as "small, very talkative, ready enough to do evil, shrewd and jocular, extremely cruel and daring. Mabel was hostile to most members of the clergy; but her husband loved the monks at Saint-Evroul so she found it necessary to be more subtle. She deliberately burdened their limited resources by visiting the abbey for extended stays with a large retinue of her soldiers. When rebuked by Theodoric the abbot for her callousness she snapped back that the next time she would visit with an even larger group. The abbot predicted that if she did not repent of her evilness she would suffer great pains and that very evening she did. She left the abbey in great haste as well as in great pain and did not abuse their hospitality again. In continuing her family's feud with the Giroie family she set her sights on Arnold de Echauffour, she son of William fitz Giroie who her father had mutilated at his wedding celebration. She attempted to poison Arnold of Echauffour by placing it in a glass of wine but he declined to drink. Her husband's brother, Gilbert, refreshing himself after a long ride, drank the wine and died shortly thereafter. In the end though she bribed Arnold's chamberlain providing him with the necessary poison, this time being successful. In 1077 she took the hereditary lands of Hugh Bunel by force. Two years later while resting after a bath, she was murdered in her bed by the same Hugh Bunel  But, Orderic Vitalis may have been most strongly biased against Robert de Bellême and his treatment of that magnate belies a moral interpretation of his actions. The basis for Orderic's animosity towards Robert and his de Bellême predecessors was the longstanding and bitter feud between the Giroie family, patrons of Orderic's Abbey of Saint-Evroul, and the de Bellême family. William Talvas (de Bellême), Robert's grandfather, had blinded and mutilated William fitz Giroie. Robert did at times appropriate church properties and was not a major donor to any ecclesiastical house. But Robert's attitudes toward the church are typical of many of his contemporaries; certainly no worse than the secular rulers and other magnates of his day. The assessment of William II Rufus by R.W. Southern could well apply to Robert de Bellême as well: "His life was given over to military designs, and to the raising of money to make them possible; for everything that did not minister to those ends he showed a supreme contempt".

Prominent members.

The five generations of this well-known if not notorious family are represented by:

House of Bellême also referred to as the Family of Bellême was an important seigneurial family during the 10th through the 12th centuries. Members of this family held the important castles of Bellême, Alençon, Domfront and Sées as well as extensive lands in France, Normandy and Maine.


Early life.

The younger daughter of Francis "Frank" Marion Dee and his wife, the former Henriette Putnam, Frances Marion Dee was born in Los Angeles, California, where her father was working as a civil-service examiner.  When Dee was seven years old, her family moved to Chicago, Illinois. She attended Shakespeare Grammar School and Hyde Park High School, where she went by the nickname of Frankie Dee.  After graduating from Hyde Park High in 1927, of which she was vice president of her senior class, as well as voted Belle of the Year, she spent two years at the University of Chicago, where she participated in dramatic activities, before returning to California.

Career.

Following her sophomore year in 1929, she went on summer vacation with her mother and older sister to visit family in the Los Angeles, California area. She began working as a movie extra as a lark. Her big break came when, still an extra, she was offered the lead opposite Maurice Chevalier in "Playboy of Paris".  The audience appeal established in two films opposite Paramount stars Charles "Buddy" Rogers and Richard Arlen, led to the co-starring role as Sondra Finchley, opposite Phillips Holmes and Sylvia Sidney, in Paramount Pictures's prestigious, and controversial, production of "An American Tragedy", directed by Josef von Sternberg.  Dee's additional screen credits included "June Moon", "Little Women", "Of Human Bondage", "Becky Sharp", and "Payment on Demand". She co-starred with her husband Joel McCrea in the Western "Four Faces West" (1948).

Personal life.

Dee met actor Joel McCrea on the set of the 1933 film "The Silver Cord". The couple married on October 20, 1933, after a whirlwind courtship, and remained married until McCrea's death in 1990. During their lifetime together, the McCreas lived, raised their children, and rode their horses on their ranch in what was then an unincorporated area of eastern Ventura County, California. They ultimately donated several hundred acres of their personal property to the newly formed Conejo Valley YMCA for the city of Thousand Oaks, California, both of which celebrated their 40th anniversaries in 2004. She, like Joel, was a Republican.  Joel McCrea died on their 57th wedding anniversary. Their three sons, including the actor Jody McCrea, and many grandchildren, also survived McCrea. She was honored at the 1998 Memphis Film Festival in Mississippi. In 2004, Frances Dee McCrea died in Norwalk, Connecticut, due to complications from a stroke at the age of 94. Jody McCrea died in 2009.

Frances Marion Dee (November 26, 1909 – March 6, 2004) was an American actress. She starred opposite Maurice Chevalier in the early talkie musical, "Playboy of Paris" (1930). She starred in the film "An American Tragedy" (1931) in a role later recreated by Elizabeth Taylor in the 1951 retitled remake, "A Place in the Sun". She also had a prominent role in the classic 1943 Val Lewton psychological horror film "I Walked With a Zombie".


Development.

Universal Classic Monsters began in the 1920s during the silent film era. "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" (1923) and "The Phantom of the Opera" (1925) are typically regarded as the first films to kick off Universal Pictures' series of horror films. Though, it is the latter film that holds the distinction of being the first Universal Classic Monsters film. This is because of the film's motifs and themes surrounding its antagonist, which can also be seen in further entries of the franchise.  In the 1925 film, Lon Chaney starred as the Phantom. The character haunts the Opéra Garnier in an attempt to make the woman he loves become an opera star. The interior of the Opéra Garnier was re-created to scale and was used again in the 1943 remake with Claude Rains.  In 1931, Bela Lugosi starred in Universal's "Dracula" and Boris Karloff portrayed the monster in "Frankenstein". Actors Dwight Frye and Edward Van Sloan, who played major supporting roles in both films, made several film appearances in this decade. Make-up artist Jack Pierce created several monsters' make-up starting in the 1930s.  "The Mummy" (1932) starring Karloff, was produced in 1932. Universal began releasing sequels including "Bride of Frankenstein" (1935) and "Dracula's Daughter" (1936). The first mainstream werewolf picture appeared, "Werewolf of London" (1935) starring Henry Hull.  The end of Universal's first run of horror films came in 1936. The monster movies were dropped from the production schedule altogether and would not re-emerge for another three years. In the meantime, a theater owner revived "Dracula" and "Frankenstein" as a resoundingly successful double feature, prompting the studio to re-release the original movies. "Son of Frankenstein" (1939), starring Basil Rathbone, Boris Karloff, and Bela Lugosi, was filmed as a result of the unexpected resurgence.  In 1941, Universal released "The Wolf Man" (1941), with Lon Chaney Jr.. The junior Chaney became the studio's leading monster movie actor in the 1940s, just as his father had been two decades earlier, supplanting the 1930s' Karloff and Lugosi by a wide margin in terms of the number of leading roles that he played. Chaney Jr. physically resembled his father apart from usually being somewhat overweight, which the senior Chaney never was. The studio dropped the "Jr." from the junior Chaney's billing almost immediately to confuse some in the audiences into assuming that this was the same actor.  In 1943, the studio released a "Phantom of the Opera" remake, this time starring Nelson Eddy and Susanna Foster with Claude Rains as the Phantom.  The "Frankenstein" and "Wolf Man" series continued with "The Ghost of Frankenstein" (1942), in which Chaney Jr. played Frankenstein's monster and Lugosi reprised his role as Ygor, and "Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man" (1943) with Lugosi as the monster and Chaney Jr. as the werewolf. "Son of Dracula" (1943) featured Chaney Jr. in Lugosi's original role as the Count. The "Mummy" series was also continued with "The Mummy's Hand" (1940), "The Mummy's Tomb" (1942), "The Mummy's Ghost" and "The Mummy's Curse" (both 1944) with Chaney Jr. as the Mummy in the last three films. "House of Frankenstein" (1944) and "House of Dracula" (1945) featured many of the monsters from the studio's previous films, with Glenn Strange taking over the Frankenstein's monster role from Karloff, albeit with only tiny increments of screen time in either picture.  As the decade drew to a close, the comedy "Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein" (1948) features Lugosi in only his second film as Count Dracula, alongside Chaney Jr. as Larry Talbot (the Wolf Man), and Glenn Strange reprising his role as Frankenstein's monster, albeit with minimal screen time again. Abbott and Costello also appeared in other comedy films featuring characters such as the Mummy and the Invisible Man.  "Creature from the Black Lagoon", directed by Jack Arnold, was released in 1954. "Dracula" and "Frankenstein" were re-released as double features in theatres, and were later broadcast in syndication on American television in 1957 as part of the "Shock Theater" package of Universal monster movies. Magazines such as "Famous Monsters of Filmland" covered the monster films. Universal spent the last half of the decade issuing a number of one-shot monster films.

Reboot.

Development.

Originally conceived as a cinematic universe that was officially titled the Dark Universe, with multiple crossovers and inter-connectivity between films, the label is now used colloquially by some media outlets to refer to Universal Pictures' rebooted franchises. Conceptualized as a shared universe, the studio had announced the projects in development with a press release announcing the intellectual property's title, a trailer, casting announcements, and official theme music composed by Danny Elfman. Casting included: Russell Crowe as Dr. Henry Jekyll / Mr. Edward Hyde, Javier Bardem as the Frankenstein's Monster, and Johnny Depp as The Invisible Man. They joined Tom Cruise and Sofia Boutella, as Nick Morton and Princess Ahmanet / The Mummy. Additional rebooted adaptations of characters was also announced, including: Van Helsing, the Wolf Man, the Creature from the Black Lagoon, the Phantom of the Opera, Dr. Henry Jekyll and Mr. Edward Hyde, and The Hunchback of Notre-Dame. Alex Kurtzman and Chris Morgan were announced as co-runners of the Dark Universe, with collaborations from David Koepp and Christopher McQuarrie.  After mixed critical reception to the first two installments, Universal halted development on further projects, while their plans for future releases was reassessed. Despite this, in May 2018 artist Robert Vargas announced from his social media account that he had attended a meeting with the studio and would collaborate on the Dark Universe character designs moving forward. During this period of time, Alex Kurtzman and Chris Morgan left their roles as co-architects of the franchise, while successful horror film producer Jason Blum had at various times publicly expressed his interest in reviving and working on future installments within the Dark Universe franchise. By January 2019, the studio announced plans to develop individualized films, with stand-alone installments.

Films.

"Dracula Untold" (2014).

The studio's first attempt at launching their shared universe, "Dracula Untold" was originally developed prior to the plans for a shared universe of horror films. The studio decided to retool the movie to be the first installment of the franchise, with re-shoots adding a modern-day setting at the end of the film. Starring Luke Evans as the eponymous role, the plot incorporated elements regarding the real-life Vlad Drăculea in an original story where he becomes the vampire, Dracula. Released on October 10, 2014, the film's mixed financial and critical reception resulted in the film's presence within the franchise to be downplayed. Evans has remained attached to the role, with potential to return in a future film.

"The Mummy" (2017).

Originally announcing plans for a reboot of "The Mummy" franchise in 2012, Universal marketed "The Mummy" as the first film in the Dark Universe. Alex Kurtzman served as director and co-writer, "The Mummy" was released on June 9, 2017. It received mixed-to-negative reviews from critics. Universal deemed the domestic ticket sales to be, underwhelming box office returns. Due to the mixed reception, Universal removed additional films from their scheduled release dates, while the future of the franchise was reassessed. As of June 2020, It remains as the first and only installment of the Dark Universe.

"The Invisible Man" (2020).

The project was initially announced in February 2016 as a part of the Dark Universe with Johnny Depp cast in the lead role, and a script by Ed Solomon. By January 2019, it was announced to be retooled as a stand-alone feature film written and directed by Leigh Whannell with an acknowledgement that Depp had the option to remain cast as the titular monster. The project was a joint-production between Universal Pictures, Blumhouse Productions, Nervous Tick, and Goalpost Pictures. Jason Blum and Kylie du Fresne served as the producers.  Elisabeth Moss and Oliver Jackson-Cohen were cast as the lead characters, Cecilia Kass and Adrian Griffin / the Invisible Man, respectively. Principle photography commenced in July 2019, and continued into September 2019. "The Invisible Man" was released on February 28, 2020. Later, Whannell stated that the movie was developed as a stand-alone installment, and was not developed with a greater cinematic universe in mind. This is not part of the planned Dark Universe.

In other media.

Theme park attractions.

Since 1991, Halloween Horror Nights at Universal Parks & Resorts have featured characters from the Universal Classic Monsters franchise. From 2006 to 2014, the characters also appeared in the year-round walk-through attraction, Universal's House of Horrors, at Universal Studios Hollywood. The franchise is also the central theme of Universal's Horror Make-Up Show. The live show opened in 1990 at Universal Studios Florida and is still in operation.  In 2004, Revenge of the Mummy opened at Universal Studios Florida and Universal Studios Hollywood. Based on the first two Mummy films of the remake era, the ride is a roller coaster with dark ride elements. Recent reports indicate the franchise will be conceptualized as a brand new land opening at Universal's Epic Universe.

Universal Classic Monsters is a name given to the horror, fantasy, thriller and science fiction films made by Universal Pictures during the decades of the 1920s through the 1950s. They were the first shared universe in the entire movie industry in Hollywood and around the world. They began with "The Phantom of the Opera", a silent film starring Lon Chaney. Universal Classic Monsters continued with talkies including core monsters in the franchise "Dracula", "Frankenstein", "The Mummy", "The Invisible Man", "The Wolf Man" and "Creature from the Black Lagoon". The films often featured Bela Lugosi, Boris Karloff and Lon Chaney Jr.


Disease cycle.

The disease cycle for "Botrytis elliptica" begins with infection of plants in spring. This may be derived from mycelium in overwintering sclerotia, which produce conidiophores to create conidia, the asexual spores of this fungus. The conidia germinate, often penetrating the young leaf tissue of the lily, although the flowers, buds, or stem may also suffer from infection. This infects cells, which collapse, disintegrate, and rot the tissue. This cycle is polycyclic. The conidiophores spread, producing more conidia to further infect new areas of the plant or spread to new plants. Additionally, "B. elliptica" reproduces sexually via a heterothallic mating system with two alleles: MAT1-1 and MAT1-2. All ascomycetes studied of "B. elliptica" contain these genes, which are orthologous to the alpha-domain protein (MAT1-1) and the HMG-domain protein (MAT1-2). These proteins act together as a master regulator the initiation of sexual fruiting body development, which begins when both proteins are expressed in a dikaryotic cell. Apothecia result from this union. These are brown in color, and darken as they mature, and they range between 7-12 mm in height, with apothecial disks from 3-4 mm diameter and 0.5-1.0 mm in thickness. The ascospores produced from the apothecia are 23 x 10 μm. These ascospores infect Lilium species’ leaves as effectively as the conidia throughout the growing season, although mycelium are the primary inoculants of young lily shoots in the spring. These ascospores may overwinter in the dead leaf debris and infect new foliage in the spring.

Management.

As "Lilium" species are of great horticultural interest in ornamental production, "B. elliptica" must be prevented and managed to continue production. Plant breeders currently work to determine Botrytis-resistant cultivars of "Lilium". The rapid accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, nitrous oxide, and antioxidant activity trigger in the plant’s defense response, and long-term, highly concentrated increases contribute to high resistance in these plants. Cultivars displaying high resistance are the Oriental and Oriental x Trumpet hybrid lines, whereas the susceptible cultivars included Asiatic and Trumpet cultivars. Defense responses found in Lilium species are mediated by phytohormones involved in jasmonate signaling, increasing the transcription for defense-related proteins. These proteins include receptor kinases, antioxidant enzymes, polyphenol oxidase, pathogenesis-related proteins, and proteins involved in the phenylpropanoid metabolism. Highly resistant "Lilium" species cultivars express genes producing these proteins more effectively than in the susceptible cultivars.  In addition to breeding for Botrytis-resistant cultivars, steps can be taken to prevent the spread of this mold in the field. Because this mold requires water to spread to other plants, Botrytis can be greatly reduced with good drainage to the soil and caution to avoid overwatering. Additionally, sanitation of plants is extremely important, such as deadheading dying flowers and removing infected leaves. The ascospores on this debris could overwinter and infect the plants in the spring, so it is advised to either bury the debris in a hole at least 12” deep or, preferably, burn it. Fungicides are rarely needed and are typically used as a prevention method early in the season. Thiophanate-methyl, copper fungicides or, as a weak fungicide, neem oil, can be effectively used in home gardens, although with caution, particularly with new cultivars of "Lilium" species. These treatments should be applied to selected plants before treating an entire bed, and always using the recommended instructions on the product’s label.

Botrytis elliptica is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen which infects species of plants in the "Lilium" genus, causing the disease commonly known as Lily Gray Mold. The symptoms of Lily Gray Mold include the appearance of water-soaked spots on leaves which appear white and increase in darkness with age, ranging from gray to brown. These spots may cover the entire leaf, complemented with a gray webbing, containing the fungal spores. The leaves will appear wilted and branches may die back. In addition to leaves, petals, stems, and buds may be infected, and this gray webbing will eventually cover the plant, feigning the appearance of gray flowers. Infected buds often rot. Lily Gray Mold disease, if not properly treated, will appear each year with increasing vigor.


Biography.

Formation.

Gastone Mojaisky was born on 6 August 1937 in Buonalbergo, a "comune" in the province of Benevento and the Italian region of Campania. He was born to the noble family of a Russian ambassador who was at the service of the tsar. He was the son of Alceste Perrelli of the noble family of Buonalbergo (after which the city was named) and Carlo, a lawyer and municipal secretary whose family had taken refuge in Buonalbergo for political reasons and established kinship with the illustrious families of the area, including the Perrelli, Mogavero, Cosentini, and D'Amore families, the latter two originally being from Benevento and San Marco dei Cavoti.  In Buonalbergo, Mojaisky Perrelli was raised in the Christian religion by his family, who turned to the Catholic Church after the untimely death of Alceste Perrelli and the unexpected devotion of Anna Mojaisky, Gastone's sister, who, in memory of her mother, professed her religious vows and took the name Sister Alceste before dying at a young age in 1934.  Mojaisky Perrelli was raised by his stepmother Donna Emilia D'Amore. After finishing his studies in Naples at G.B. Vico high school, he decided to enter the priesthood. He entered the Pontifical Seminary of Benevento and received his cassock as a seminarian on 14 November 1932 from Archbishop Adeodato Giovanni Piazza.  In 1937, at the Church of San Nicola di Bari in Buonalbergo, Mojaisky Perrelli was ordained a priest by Archbishop Orazio Mazzella. He later graduated from the Pontifical Lateran University, where he studied canon law, and from the Sapienza University of Rome, where he studied classical letters. He then added to his surname that of his mother, Perrelli.

Diplomatic career.

During his schooling and university education, he became fluent in five languages, which enabled him to be sent to Bolivia in 1942 as secretary of the Apostolic Nunciature to Bolivia. While there, he was appointed the chargé d'affaires "ad interim" in 1945.  In 1946, he was sent to Santiago de Chile, then moved to Switzerland three years later as an auditor of the Apostolic Nunciature to Switzerland in Bern. In 1951, he was sent as an advisor to the Nunciature in Mexico. While rector of the Apostolic Nunciatures in Cuba and in Guatemala, he was sent by Pope Pius XII to Mombasa in 1957 as Apostolic Delegate to British East Africa and British West Africa, an assignment he later held in Léopoldville. He was given in addition the position of Apostolic Delegate to the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi on 8 August 1959.

Episcopal ministry.

Mojaisky Perrelli was appointed Titular Archbishop of Amida on 8 August 1959 and was ordained a bishop on 1 November of that year by Cardinal Domenico Tardini and co-consecrators Archbishop Pietro Sigismondi and Bishop Vittorio Longo. He was a Council Father in all four periods of the Second Vatican Council from 1962 to 1965.  Mojaisky Perrelli was appointed Archbishop-Bishop of Nusco on 10 May 1963 (archbishop being granted to him as a personal title).  He was appointed Archbishop of Conza-Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi-Bisaccia on 4 August 1973, both of which he held simultaneously until 1978. In these roles, he distinguished himself for his noble, strong-willed, austere, and upright character. On 18 November 1978, after a heated conflict with the local clergy, he resigned his pastoral offices and lived near the shrine of the Most Holy Savior in Montella in near-hermitage.  In the mid-1980s, he moved to Naples, where he lived in retirement and holding the title of Archbishop Emeritus of Nusco, in a community of Vincentian priests in Via Vergini. There, he died at dawn on 5 March 2008.  Following the solemn funeral Mass celebrated by Archbishop Andrea Mugione on 7 March in Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi, he was buried in the family tomb in Buonalbergo. During his life, he was appointed a Knight of the Grand Cross of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George.

Gastone Mojaisky Perrelli (born Gastone Mojaisky, 6 August 1914 – 5 March 2008) was an Italian Catholic archbishop. He served as Apostolic Delegate to the Congo and Ruanda-Urundi and then to British East Africa and British West Africa, during which time he held the Titular Archbishopric of Amida. He later served as Archbishop-Bishop of Nusco and as Archbishop of Conza-Sant'Angelo dei Lombardi-Bisaccia.


Life.

Gungaadorj was born 1935 in the Ikhkhet sum in Dornogovi Province. He graduated from the Russian State Agricultural University in Moscow in 1959. After holding several positions within the PMRP Central Committee from 1967-1968 he went on to become deputy minister of agriculture. In 1980 he was appointed first deputy minister of state farms and in 1981 he became first secretary of the Selenge Province MPRP Committee. In 1986 he was appointed minister of agriculture.  Before becoming Prime Minister, Gungaadorj was a member of the State Great Khural (parliament) for the constituency 33 in the Selenge Province and an advisor to the President of Mongolia. From 1987 to 21 March 1990 he served concurrently as deputy chairman of the Council of Ministers and minister of agriculture and food industry. After the resignation en masse of the Politburo and government, including Prime Minister Dumaagiin Sodnom, on 21 March 1990 in the wake of anti-government demonstrations Sodnom became chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Prime Minister in what was essentially an interim administration before the first free elections could be staged the following September.  In 1992 he was appointed ambassador from Mongolia to the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and later to Kazakhstan. He again became a member of parliament from 2000 to 2004, also serving as the Chairman of the Standing Committee on Environment and Rural Development. He did not stand for parliamentary elections in 2004 and in 2009 acted as an advisor to the Minister of Environment and Tourism.  Gungaadorj holds a PhD in agricultural sciences, and is a member of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. He is married and has three children.  Since 1997, Gungaadorj is the managing director of the "Agropro" corporation.

Sharavyn Gungaadorj (; born 2 May 1935) is a Mongolian politician and was the 14th Prime Minister of Mongolia (Chairman of the Council of Ministers) from March 21 to September 11, 1990.


History.

The bank was founded by Emperor Pedro II on 12 January 1861, as "Caixa Económica e Monte de Socorro" in Rio de Janeiro as a financial institution destined to collect national savings, mostly from the poor. Over the years, several similar institutions were created until most of them were merged into present-day Caixa Econômica in 1967.  The 1970s were particularly lucrative for the bank, mostly due to its near-monopoly on savings for the poor and lower-middle classes, the management of Brazilian state (federal) lotteries and being the only lawful pawn broker in Brazil. In the 1990s, however, the scenario changed and the bank underwent a serious downsizing, in which thousands of employees lost their jobs. Part of the problem was caused by the modernization of the Brazilian banking system in the 1980s, with many other banks introducing savings accounts to their portfolios, Brazilian states being granted rights to hold their own lotteries in addition to the federal government's, a series of corruption scandals regarding lottery fraud, and the opening of the national market to foreign banks. The control of inflation also hampered Caixa's financial performance by making savings accounts less attractive.  Nowadays, Caixa is the second biggest Brazilian bank and with locations in thousands of Brazilian towns, ranked the third-largest financial institution in Brazil by number of branches. Caixa has more than 85 million accounts, with liabilities worth more than R$ 237.00 billion in savings or investment. Together with government pension funds and other governmental resources, Caixa controls more than R$1.80 trillion (roughly about US$630 billion). Caixa is seen as a tool for public investment and expansion of access to financial services to the Brazilian public.  Caixa is still the manager of most Brazilian lotteries, especially the most popular ones, such as Mega-Sena, Quina and Loteca (former Loteria Esportiva). The profits of Brazilian state (federal) lotteries revert to amateur sport promotion and elementary education.

Caixa Econômica Federal (, "Federal Savings Bank"), also referred to as Caixa, is a Brazilian bank headquartered in the nation's capital, Brasília. It is the largest 100% government-owned financial institution in Latin America. It is the third largest bank in Brazil in terms of assets and one of the five largest in Latin America.


Biography.

Her secular name was Jelena. She was a daughter of "Kesar" Vojihna of Drama, and the wife of Jovan Uglješa Mrnjavčević, another medieval Serbian feudal lord. She is a tragic and majestic figure in the Serbian history of the Mrnjavčević family. Raised at the court of her father, who was one of the chief officers of the crown. Vojihna took part in the equitable jurisdiction of the exchequer, and was styled not merely king's treasurer or treasurer of the exchequer, but "kesar" (equivalent to lord high treasurer) and officer of the exchequer. (A holder of the post of "kesar" would be the third highest ranked great officer of the state, below "Despot" and "Sevastokrator"). Her father secured a proper education for Jelena.  The tragic events in her life seem to have the source of inspiration for her literary compositions, which were engraved on the golden backs of icons or embroidered on shrouds and church curtains rather than written on parchment of paper. The premature death of her infant son Uglješa, which came shortly after the death of her father Vojihna, signaled the beginning of the tragedies which were to befall her. The child was buried together with his grandfather at the Serbian Hilandar Monastery on Mount Athos, in Greece, where women were prohibited to enter. The Serbian monastery was far from the city of Serres, where Jelena resided at the court of Despot Jovan Uglješa, her husband. Unable to visit the grave of her son, she engraved her lament on the back of the diptych (two-panelled icon) which Teodosije, the Bishop of Serres, had presented as a gift to the infant Uglješa at his baptism. The precious piece of art, valuable because of the gold, precious stones, and beautiful carving in wooden panels, became priceless after Jelena's lament was engraved on its back. The beauty of that lament is in its simplicity and its restrained and dignified, yet quite evident, maternal sorrow. The young mother admits that she cannot help grieving. What was intended to be a prayer for the deceased child became the confession of a mother unable to conceal her inner pain for her newborn. Engraved on the icons depicting Mother and Son, Jelena's lament for Uglješa immortalized the sorrow of all mothers mourning their deceased children.

The Battle of Maritsa.

The year 1371 brought another tragedy to Jelena's life. Her husband Jovan Uglješa, together with his brothers Vukašin Mrnjavčević and Gojko Mrnjavčević, gathered their armies in order to try to stop the Ottoman threat rising in the Balkans. They met the Turks at Maritsa river; and in the ensuing Battle of Maritsa, two of the Mrnjavčević brothers, as well as the major part of their armies, were killed. Unfortunately, a contemporary historical account of the battle is missing. According to legend Vukašin was surprised by the greatly outnumbered Turks and decided to camp for the night before battle. The Osmanlis waited and attacked the Serbian camps in a night raid and managed to achieve victory against all odds. The Turkish invasion of Raška and other Serbian feudal provinces was postponed, but at a high cost.  Jelena's personal tragedy was augmented by the national tragedy. At twenty-two, she was already a widow—helpless and unconsolable. She had to leave the court in Serres and move to the city of Kruševac, the capital of Raška at that time, where she accepted hospitality of the court of Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović and his wife Milica Hrebeljanović. Shortly before moving to Kruševac, Jelena became a nun and took the name of Jefimija.  While at the court of Lazar Hrebeljanović, Jefemija who seems to have been excellent in the art of embroidery, embroidered a curtain which she sent to the monastery of Hilandar as her gift. The text embroidered on the curtain is not Jefimija's original composition, but a combination of passages from the prayers of Symeon the New Theologian on Holy Communion, Symeon the Metaphrast, and Saint John Chrysostom. It is a large, beautifully embroidered, and ornamented curtain which is still treasured in the Hilandar Monastery at Mount Athos.

The Battle of Kosovo.

The tragic Battle of Maritsa in 1371 was but a prelude to the fateful confrontation between the invading Turkish forces, led by Sultan Murad I, and the Serbian warriors, led by Prince Lazar, which took place in 1389 on the field of Kosovo. The Battle of Kosovo can best be described as a draw, after the two confronting leaders were killed and their armies decimated or ascribed as a defeat for the Serbs who were unable to recover from it for years to come. For the Serbs, therefore, the Battle of Kosovo marked the beginning of almost five centuries of Ottoman and Habsburg occupation of Serbian lands. Jefemija's host and protector, Prince Lazar, was beheaded at the order of Murad's son Bayezid I. Once more, Jefimija's sorrow was augmented by national tragedy through the loss of her beloved and respected friend. She expressed her grief through art: she embroidered a shroud for Lazar's coffin. On that shroud, she embroidered a poetic text of original creation in which she addressed the saint-martyr directly rather than God, as was customary. This shroud was completed in 1402; and in 1405, shortly before her death, Jefimija embroidered an epitaphion. In the text embroidered on this epitaphion, the Mother laments her Son, indicating the possibility that Jefimija was actually thinking again of her own deceased son while working on this embroidery, her last:  Jefimija's literary compositions are characterized by her use of the first person and by her expression of concrete and personal sorrow and anxiety rather than abstraction.  This unhappy mother and unfortunate wife, who was able to convert her sorrow into beautiful art, died about 1405.

Legacy.

She is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs.

Jefimija (, ; 1349–1405), secular name Jelena Mrnjavčević (Serbian Cyrillic: Јелена Мрњавчевић, ), daughter of Vojihna and widow of Jovan Uglješa Mrnjavčević is considered the first female Serbian poet, famous in Serbian medieval literature are her "Lament for a Dead Son" and "Encomium of Prince Lazar". The laments, a strictly feminine form of lyric, is common to some Slavic languages (called "tužbalice" in Serbian), and long narrative laments are intimately connected with heroic epic songs (example, Yarsolavna's lament in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign").


Geology.

The Chattooga River serves as part of the boundary between Georgia and South Carolina near latitude 35°N. The Chattooga River was not the original boundary line between South Carolina and Georgia. A treaty of 1816 extended the South Carolina boundary to its current location. Prior to 1816, the Chattooga was on the lands of the Cherokee Indian Nation.  The Blue Ridge Mountains, where the Chattooga starts, are considered to be ancient, even by geological standards. The rock is mostly granite. Geologists believe that the Chattooga may have made one direction change during its life. Originally, it probably flowed southwesterly into the Chattahoochee riverbed and on to the Gulf of Mexico, but at some point, the Savannah River eroded its northern headland until it intersected the Chattooga and diverted it to the Atlantic.  The rocks in the riverbed probably fell from the ridge above, but those rocks do not necessarily remain where they fall. In times of great downpours, high water, and fast currents, rocks can become dislodged and move downstream, taking other rocks and debris with them. During Hurricane Ivan in 2004, the wind force and waters knocked down big boulders off the sides. The hurricane released enough water in the Chattooga watershed to bring the river to its highest recorded flow rate, around to, rivaling the typical flow of the Grand Canyon.

Wild and Scenic River.

Since May 10, 1974, the Chattooga River has been protected along a corridor as a national Wild and Scenic River. of the river have been designated “wild”, about “scenic”, and “recreational” for a total of about. On the commercially rafted sections (III and IV) there is a 1/4 mile protected corridor of National Forest on both sides of the river, allowing no roads to the river or development of any kind. There are a few areas on the river where access has been made more accessible on Section III, but much of Section IV is fairly remote. The Chattooga also bisects the Ellicott Rock Wilderness which straddles three states (Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina) and three National Forests (the Chattahoochee, Nantahala and Sumter National Forests). Much of the Georgia portion of the river is within the Chattooga River Ranger District of the Chattahoochee National Forest.  Known as the "Crown Jewel" of the southeast, the Chattooga was the first river east of the Mississippi to be granted the Wild & Scenic designation, and is still the only one that is commercially rafted.

Tributaries.

The river is split into three forks. The Chattooga River is the main fork, running along the state line. The East Fork Chattooga River (sometimes East Prong Chattooga River) runs in from Jackson County, North Carolina and then Oconee County, South Carolina, and is long. The West Fork Chattooga River (variant name Gumekoloke Creek) runs in from Rabun County, Georgia, and is also a variant name for that county's Holcomb Creek, one of its own tributaries.  One of the largest tributaries in the Chattooga basin that flows mainly through private lands is Stekoa Creek, which flows primarily southeast for approximately from its headwaters in Mountain City, Georgia, through Clayton, Georgia, to its mouth at the Chattooga River. Stekoa Creek has been the single greatest threat to the Chattooga's water quality, due primarily to raw sewage leaking from the City of Clayton, GA's old sewage collection system, storm drains overflowing, sediment-laden runoff, poor agricultural practices, failing septic systems, and dumping from apathetic individuals. Non-profit organizations such as the Chattooga Conservancy, a non-profit organization dedicated to the protection, promotion, and restoration of the Chattooga River watershed, has made the neglected issue of improving water quality in Stekoa Creek a top priority. The Stekoa Creek Basin is approximately in size.

Rafting and boating.

In the late spring, the river is lined with blooming pink and white mountain laurel. Early spring is also a great time to go rafting, kayaking, or canoeing because of the higher flows and cooler temperatures. The Chattooga is a free-flowing river (no upstream dam to control the flow) which quickly responds to rainfall or drought conditions. As a drop-pool style river, rapids are followed by calm pools for swimming.  The Chattooga headwaters are located in the Whiteside Mountain area on the Blue Ridge escarpment near Cashiers, NC. Flowing through Cashiers as a small stream, the upper stretches (Sections 00, 0, and 1) are excellent trout waters and, depending on water level, are either not boatable or restricted. Section 1, beginning at Burrell's Ford, is very hazardous and restricted to certain months and water levels. The West Fork, sometimes incorrectly referred to as Section 1, is ideal for tubing and class II float trips. It begins at the Overflow Road Bridge and terminates at the Section 2 put-in. Section 2, starting at Highway 28, is a class II float. Section 3 has Class II-IV rapids which rafters and kayakers frequent. The final rapid in Section 3 is Bull Sluice. Section 4 includes Class II-V rapids, including the famous Five Falls (five class III-V rapids in roughly a 1/4 mile stretch). The minimum age requirement to raft Section 3 is eight, and Section 4 is twelve. A number of signature rapids on this river were featured in the motion picture "Deliverance".  The Forest Plan, issued in 1976 and revised in January 2004, restricted motorized craft, closed many roads to the river and prohibited floating on the upper of river. This plan was challenged by several boating advocacy groups, causing the United States Forest Service to withdraw the plan of 2004 and ordering a Visitor Use Capacity Analysis. The USFS issued its final decision in January 2012. The decision expanded boating onto some sections of the upper Chattooga, including Section 1, with a number of restrictions based on season, section of river, property ownership, time of day, and water level. The decision has proved controversial due to the extensive number of deaths on the river. Boating remains illegal above Greens Creek and Below Licklog creek. This section is difficult, commonly contains flood debris, flows infrequently, and will likely see limited whitewater use.

The Chattooga River (also spelled Chatooga, Chatuga, and Chautaga, variant name Guinekelokee River) is the main tributary of the Tugaloo River. Its headwaters are located southwest of Cashiers, North Carolina, and it stretches to where it has its confluence with the Tallulah River within Lake Tugalo, held back by the Tugalo Dam. The Chattooga and the Tallulah combine to make the Tugaloo River starting at the outlet of Lake Tugalo. The Chattooga begins in southern Jackson County, North Carolina, then flows southwestward between northwestern Oconee County, South Carolina, and eastern Rabun County, Georgia. The "Chattooga" spelling was approved by the US Board on Geographic Names in 1897.


Geography.

Location.

The Frickenhofer Höhe is located south of the Limpurg Hills, north of Albuch, a part of the Swabian Jura, and east of the Welzheim Forest. The range lies in a triangle formed by the towns of Gaildorf to the northwest, Aalen to the southeast and Schwäbisch Gmünd to the southwest. It takes the shape of an elongated arc running from Schönberg (borough of Gaildorf) in the north to Abtsgmünd in the southeast. Municipalities within the region include Gschwend, Eschach, Göggingen, Ruppertshofen and Schechingen.  The northern boundary of the Frickenhofer Höhe and its spurs is the lowest reaches of the ”Fichtenberger” Rot, a river that approaches from the west and empties into the River Kocher near Gaildorf-Unterrot. The other boundaries, running anti-clockwise, are the “Gschwender” Rot and its two headstreams, the Lein and Kocher. The Gschwender Rot flows out of Gschwend southwards through the small villages of Birkenlohe, Hönig and the Rehnenmühle Retention Basin to its mouth on the Lein in Täferrot and demarcates the range to the west where it adjoins the Welzheim Forest. The Lein initially rns to Heuchlingen in an easterly direction. It forms the southern boundary as it heads northeast to its mouth on the Kocher in Abtsgmünd, separating the range from the Welland. The left side of the Kocher valley from Abtsgmünd via Sulzbach-Laufen to Unterrot is its most prominent dividing line with the Limpurg Hills.

Hills.

The hillsides of the Frickenhofer Höhe are steep and thickly wooded. The heights themselves are plateau-like with summits that rise only a little way above the surrounding area. The highest point is the Hohentannen at 565.4 m, between Frickenhofen and Rotenhar. This is easily reached from the hiking carp park "Hohetannen" on the road between Frickenhofen and Rotenhar. From here there is a good view over the forested heights and valleys of the Keuper Uplands with its "stuben" sandstone areas and Early Jurassic outliers. To the north the view extends to the Hohenlohe Plain and the "Traufbucht" of the Kocher near Schwäbisch Hall. To the south may be seen the Kaiserberge and the foreland of the Jura and its Albtrauf.  The hills and subpeaks of the Frickenhofer Höhe include (some only named after their fields) the following (sorted by height in metres (m) above Normalhöhennull (NHN):

The Frickenhofer Höhe is hill range, up to, in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. Most of the range falls within the county of im Ostalbkreis but its northern spurs reach into Schwäbisch Hall. The elongated plateau-like region is named after the village of Frickenhofen, a settlement on the narrow northwest tip of the hills in the municipality of Gschwend.


Career.

Watters grew up in Rio Vista, California. At St. Joseph's military academy he belonged to the drum and bugle corps. In 1925 he moved with his family to San Francisco, where he started a jazz band. He taught himself how to arrange music and played trumpet on a cruise ship. He studied music at the University of San Francisco with help from a scholarship, but he dropped out of school to pursue a career.  During the 1930s he went on tour across America with the Carol Lofner big band. While in New Orleans, he became interested in traditional jazz. Back in California, he assembled jam sessions with Bill Dart, Clancy Hayes, Bob Helm, Dick Lammi, Turk Murphy, and Wally Rose. In 1938 he formed a band that included Hayes, Helm, Squire Gersh, Bob Scobey, and Russell Bennett. The band found steady work at Sweet's Ballroom in Oakland, slipping in pieces of traditional New Orleans jazz into the repertoire until Watters was fired.  In 1939 he started the Yerba Buena Jazz Band to revive the New Orleans jazz style of King Oliver. He brought in pianist Forrest Browne, who taught the band music by Jelly Roll Morton.  Watters wrote music and arrangements to add to the traditional repertoire. The band performed at the Dawn Club in San Francisco. It went on hiatus in 1942 when Watters entered the U.S. Navy but reunited at the Dawn after World War II. After the Dawn closed, the band started the club Hambone Kelly's in El Cerrito, California. In 1949 the band performed with visiting musicians Kid Ory, James P. Johnson, and Mutt Carey. After Hambone Kelly's closed, the band broke up in 1950.  Watters left music and became a carpenter, cook, and a student of geology. In 1963 he came out of retirement to perform with Murphy at an anti-nuclear protest in California to prevent a nuclear plant from being constructed at Bodega Bay. He recorded an album for Fantasy with Rose, Helm, Bob Mielke, and Barbara Dane. It included the title track and another song named for the San Andreas Fault, which was consistent with his interest in geology. In 1961, a mineral from California was named wattersite in his honor.

Lucius Carl Watters (December 19, 1911 – November 5, 1989) was a trumpeter and bandleader of the Yerba Buena Jazz Band.


History.

The first generation of Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid was built between 2006-2008. From the second half of 2008 the models are built in the second generation. They have been produced by the use of the similarities of the Solaris Urbino 18.  The characteristic of the Urbino 18 is a green dachshund. Various hybrid versions include specific symbols. The hybrid models have a dachshund which is in between two hearts which symbolise the two type of power.  During the production of the Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid model there have been implemented four types of hybrid power systems. The different versions can be distinguished by the difference in the interior, like that of the Paris transportation system BRT type - BHNS, which differentiates from the Solaris Urbino series bus family.  From the autumn of 2010 18 buses have been produced with the Allison I i Allison II systems.

Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid Allison.

In the Autumn of 2006 on the trade fairs in Hannover the world premier occurred of the Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid with hybrid power. The model was made with the cooperation with Allison Transmission and Cummins, which already had been engaged in previous hybrid bus models in North America. The main part of the model is the Cummins ISLe4 engine with 8.9 litre displacement which generates 248 kW (340 HP) of power. The second main part of this model is the EP50 system of Allison Transmission with the Allison Ev50 engine. The concept is created by the use of one diesel engine and two electric engines with each having 75 kW of power output, which links with the Ev DRIVE module. The system also uses the produced energy when braking, which is accumulated in a nickel-metal hydride batteries located on the roof in the front of the vehicle. The prototype appeared in mid-2006 and went into production in 2007. The location of the electric and diesel engines is in the front part of the bus between the two doors.  The first Solaris Urbino Hybrid 18 was sold in 2006 to Dresden. In 2007 3 buses were sold to Leipzig and Bochum (delivered in January 2008) in Germany and Lenzburg in the Swiss canton of Aargau. In 2008 the modernised model came to Bern, Glonn, Hannover, Munich and Poznań. In 2009 a test vehicle of the Solaris company was given to PKM Sosnowiec from 2008.  In second half of 2008 the Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid model went through several levels of modernisation and now it is considered to be at the second generation by the producer. Most of the changes are that of the power system of the electric hybrid engine, making a smaller and lighter engine, the Cummins ISBe5 250B with a volume of 6.7 litre and the power of 178 kW. The changes meant even lower fuel consumption - the older engine has reduced fuel usage by 15% compared to purely diesel propulsion while the new engine saves 23-24%. Thanks to further optimisation the Solaris is planning to reduce fuel consumption by 30%. Due to a lighter engine, the other power systems, like the batteries and Dual Power Inverter Module which are on the roof, work at an increased rate and produce more power. Due to this the model has also undergone a makeover of the general body, such as the aerodynamics, meaning only an air conditioning module can be fitted on the front of the bus. The estimated time for future modernisation, when new modules will be able to be added, is said to be about in 6–7 years, with an average usage of 60000 km per year.  The hybrid power system of the second generation without includes besides the diesel engine the following elements: Ev, batteries, DPIM, and a control module. The Ev system looks like an ordinary transmission where the torque summation of the internal combustion engine and the electric motor is performed. It consists of two electric motors, two synchronous clutches and three planetary gears. Rechargeable nickel-metal hydride batteries weighing 410 kg store energy recovered during the braking process. By this they do not require additional charging from external power sources. The service life of the battery set is about 6 years depending on the characteristics of the bus. Dual inverter module DPIM (Dual Power Inverter Module) consists of two modules of AC/DC - DC/AC weighing 75 kg in total. It is cooled with oil. The control unit consists of 2 control modules of the Allison 1000/2000 series. The first of these controls manage the operation of the hybrid engine, while the second unit is responsible for cooperation of the other vehicle systems.  All axles used come from ZF. Electrical system are based on CAN-Bus.

Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid MetroStyle.

In 2010, a prototype model of the Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid MetroStyle with a higher service standard adapted to support rapid and dedicated bus network BHNS (French Bus Haut à Niveau de Service, High Level Service Bus) of the Type RTD in Paris. However the model was only presented in February 2011, when the company began its annual Transdev tests in Paris. The bus model Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid MetroStyle in 2011, was also tested in Grudziądz in Poland.  The market premiere took place in mid-October 2011, during the exhibition RNTP in Strasbourg in France (October 12) and the Trade Fair Busworld Kortrijk 2011 in Belgium (October 21). The bus model has a completely new design of the front and rear panels, referring to the Solaris tram Tramino styling. It results from the wishes of the consumer to visually resemble a bus tram. The drive system uses a hybrid system of the Allison II Generation.  The bus has the 1-2-2-2 door configuration. The end of the bus has been designed to the style of the tram Tramino. The bus is 18 metres long. The front of the bus, including the roof has a more elegant and bow style making the bus look more streamline. There are covers over the wheels. The bus was fitted with Hübner lighting system which can be turned on at night to give orange lights under the bus.

Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid Vossloh Kiepe.

In the autumn of 2010 debuted the new German company Vossloh Kiepe hybrid system model. It can be distinguished by additional overhead panels inside. In the engine compartment next to the Cummins engine is an electric traction system, which allows itself to be turned off by the use of the hybrid engine.  The following systems were eliminated to work with the diesel powered engine: air compressor, radiator coolers, additional pump and air conditioning battery. There is an optional electric passenger and driver air conditioning system.  In the doors, produced by the Bode company, there had been installed new electric engines in the vals, and not over the doorway. Therefore, the whole mechanism is lighter, easier to build and upkeep and the system takes up less space.  There has been fitted a two screen information panel which shows a visualisation of the state of the hybrid power system.  The vehicle has a fitted router in the chassis, which allows connection to the system of the Vossloh Kiepe company, in the need to read the state of the hybrid system.

Solaris Urbino 18 DIWAhybrid (Voith).

At the end of 2010 the new model Solaris Urbino DIWAhybrid was fitted with a hybrid power system from Voith Turbo. In the second half of 2011 the first bus with this system was delivered to the Bogestra passenger transportation company in Bochum. The first deliver will include 10 models of the bus. It is presumed that 50 buses will have the system.  The vehicle is powered by a Cummins ISB engine with a capacity of 6.7 dm and maximum power of 250 hp and meets the EEV emissions standard. Together with an electric motor engine with a maximum power of 150 kW.  In the drive line thanks to recuperation during braking the kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy, accumulated in supercapacitors placed on the roof. Supercapacitors are composed of five 125-volt modules that can store energy of 0.5 kWh. Their total weight is 410 kg.  Despite being heavier by 600 kg, compared to the standard Solaris Urbino 18, Urbino 18 DIWAhybrid model can take 161 passengers, with 51 seated.

Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid is a family of low-floor articulated hybrid buses from the Solaris Urbino series for city communication services. The production began in 2006 by Solaris Bus & Coach in Bolechowo near Poznań in Poland. From 2008 the buses of second generation are being produced.


Background.

After France had invaded the General States in 1672 as retribution for the outcome of the War of Devolution, an alliance formed up against her. The conflict escalated into the Dutch War. In order to relieve her increasingly stretched forces, therefore, France urged its traditional ally, Sweden, to go to war against her enemies, who, in addition to the States General, included the House of Habsburg and the Electorate of Brandenburg. At the end of 1674, a Swedish army under the imperial commander, Carl Gustav Wrangel, invaded the Margraviate of Brandenburg which was militarily almost unprotected, while the Brandenburg army under Elector Frederick William I found itself at war with France. In a short summer campaign in 1675, Frederick William succeeded in defeating the Swedish army and pushing it back to Swedish Pomerania.  Encouraged by the Brandenburg victory, on 17 July 1675 the imperial ban was imposed on the Swedish king in his capacity as an imperial prince in Pomerania, Mecklenburg and Bremen-Verden. A "Reichsexekution" was declared by the Holy Roman Empire against Sweden. The Westphalian and Upper Saxon Circles were charged with the enforcement of the ban against the Swedes. A little later came the declaration of war by Denmark on Sweden.  In this large-scale war, the Allies, Denmark and Brandenburg, initially intended to conquer the Swedish possessions in northern Germany, then turn use their full might in the theatres of war in Scania. But with the conquest of Bremen-Verden, located on the southern border of Denmark, Sweden would have secured a potential springboard against Denmark. Another political power factor was that it would give the Swedes opportunities to recruit mercenaries.  The war planning that took place on the Swedish homeland envisaged military victory being achieved through the deployment of the Swedish fleet which was likely to defeat the Danish fleet in the Baltic Sea, thus relieving Sweden's North German possessions, so it could then, in a further step, land on Zealand, the heart of the Danish kingdom. Sweden's chances in the Duchy of Bremen-Verden, therefore, lay principally in the strength of her own fleet, which was to have ensured a military victory by dispatching additional troops from the motherland. However, since the Swedish fleet could not sail due to delays in equipment, Bremen-Verden was not reinforced and had to rely on its in-place forces.  Sweden's forces in the Duchy of Bremen-Verden were numerically weak and distributed across several fortified bases. The bulk of the Swedish army was in Stade, Carlsburg and seven other small fortresses. They would only be able to oppose large scale offensive operations with delaying tactics. The Swedish defence plans were based on siege warfare. The number of the fortified places would force her potential opponents, to fight a series of arduous, small sieges, but it also fragmented the troops available to the defenders and prevented them from forming a mobile field army.

Diplomatic preparations.

The Roman Catholic Prince-Bishop of Münster, Christoph Bernhard von Galen, who was intent on extending his power and who, until 22 April 1674, sided with France in battle against the Netherlands, signed an agreement on 7 June 1675 with the imperial court in Vienna that obliged him to supply 9,000 troops ""to the Emperor and for Imperial Service"". As a result of this obligation, the bishop was made to participate in the war against Sweden. On 11/21 September 1675 a treaty of neutrality was signed between the Allies, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, Denmark and Brandenburg on the one hand and John Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg on the other. Brunswick-Lüneburg, which hitherto had been on the Swedish side, therefore, agreed to remain neutral in the upcoming fight against Sweden.  That treaty between the four allies was signed primarily because it was in the political interests of the imperial princes involved, rather than in discharge of their obligation to defend the circle or empire. Thus the execution of the imperial ban was carried out by the respective territorial armies, while the circle troops took no significant part in the fighting.

Autumn 1675 campaign.

Invasion of Bremen-Verden by the Münster army.

The campaign began on 15 September 1675 in the southwest of the Swedish territory when, according to the reports of the "Theatrum Europaeum", about 10,000 men – according to other records 4,000 men – of the Prince-Bishop of Münster passed through Haselünne and invaded the Swedish "Amt" of Wildeshausen. They continued their advance to the River Weser unimpeded. On 25 September at Bremen, Münster's artillery fired across the Weser.  A Brandenburg force of 1,600 infantry and 700 cavalry under Major General Freiherr von Spaen, coming from Westphalian territory, also arrived in Bremen at the end of September. The Danes participated with 2,500 men under the orders of Count Gustavus Adolphus of Baudissin.  The Münster troops under Prince-Bishop von Galen marched from neutral Bremen to the fortress of Langwedel on the Weser, capturing it on 27 and 28 September. With that, the way into the state of the former Prince-Bishopric of Verden was open. Verden upon Aller itself fell into Allied hands on 27 September. Münster forces suddenly invaded the town and established themselves at one of the town gates.  After Verden the town of Rotenburg was conquered, falling after some resistance. From there the marching column pressed on immediately towards Ottersberg, which was taken on 3 October 1675 by the now seasoned troops of the Prince-Bishop of Münster. The roughly 140 man Swedish garrison were taken prisoner. The Allied army then marched in a northeasterly direction with Buxtehude as their objective, reaching it on 12 October.  Buxtehude was well fortified, had plenty of food and munitions and, according to the "Theatrum Europaeum", a garrison of nearly 400 men. A siege appeared inevitable. After occupying an important eminence in front of the town that same day, the Allies drew up all their artillery of 14 mortars and 37 cannon into battery positions. Shelling commenced on the morning of 13 October, setting fire to over 60 houses. On 14 October a total of 100 mortar bombs and 60 artillery shells were fired into the town from howitzers and mortars, again wreaking much damage, but without causing a single fatality. On 15 October, fire was lifted in order for the trenches necessary for an assault on the town to be prepared and in order to launch an all-out attack. Because the shelling had already resulted in heavy damage, the Buxtehude commandant, Hamelton, was forced to surrender the town having been implored by its citizens and his German mercenaries who had learned of the pronouncement of the Imperial Ban on Sweden. The garrison was permitted to withdraw to Stade taking its belongings and side arms. On 16 October the Allies entered the town, 24 cannon and their munitions falling into their hands as a result.  After the fall of Buxtehude several Allied regiments pushed forward towards Bremervörde. On 25 October the siege of Bremervörde Fortress began. After three days of heavy shelling the mercenaries, who were mainly German, refused to render military service for the garrison. The Allies sent a trumpeter into the town as a parlimentaire. He threatened the garrison that all German combatants would be executed when the fortress was captured. The threat was based on the fact that they had used their weapons in the service of an outlaw against the Holy Roman Empire. In view of the situation, the Swedish commander had no choice but to surrender the place. The Swedish officers and men were given free passage with all their possessions and weapons, whilst most of the Germans transferred to the Allied side. As the result of a previous agreement amongst the Allies, the town had been promised to the Lüneburg troops who entered Buxtehude with 500 men. At this time on the fortresses of Carlsburg and Stade remained in Swedish hands.

Brandenburg and Danish landing operations.

In parallel with the advance of Münster, Brandenburg and Danish troops, there were two unsuccessful landing attempts by Danish and Brandenburg forces, that were repulsed by the Swedes with heavy losses. The first landing operation, at the end of September, was carried out near Carlshagen by a Brandenburg formation under Admiral Simon de Bolfey, in order to conquer the strategically important Carlsburg Fortress on the Weser. This Swedish fortress had been first constructed in 1672 with the task of controlling the mouth of the Weser. Approaching from the River Elbe, a Brandenburg squadron of seven ships appeared, with a landing force of 534 men; together with the ships' complements, the whole force comprised about 800–900 men.  On 28 September, the troops were landed near Lehe, north of Carlsburg. Because the Swedish commander of Carlsburg, which was relatively strongly defended by about 800 soldiers, refused to surrender, the Brandenburg admiral, de Bolfey, had his troops erect earthworks in front of the town and, on 30 September, opened fire with several salvoes from his ships' guns. However, on the same day the landing force pulled back from its positions in front of the fortress, in the course of which 30 Brandenburg soldiers switched sides to join the Swedes. Encouraged by the statements of these deserters, on 1 October the Swedes launched an attack with 200 men, but had to withdraw with losses after a brief fight.  In order to relieve Carlsburg Fortress, 13 squadrons of cavalry were dispatched there from Stade under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Sidon. The Brandenburgers, who were now clearly outnumbered, were informed by scouts of the approaching force. They lifted the siege and embarked on the ships again on 2 October. Due to unfavourable winds, the ships, now loaded with the infantry, found themselves close to the shore as the Swedish reinforcements arrived. Consequently, they were attacked by the Swedes and, after resisting a short time, had to capitulate to superior forces. Total losses suffered by the Brandenburg force during this operation came to 314 men, the majority taken prisoner.  Roughly at the same time, a Danish flotilla landed six companies of infantry under Lieutenant Colonel Harwich on the territory of Land Wursten. But after their successful defence of Carlsburg, the Swedish units under Sidon attacked these Danish mercenaries. After several battles on 4 October, the Swedes succeeded in defeating the Danes and taking 400 of them prisoner. Of these, 200 were then taken into Swedish service and ordered to reinforce the garrison at Carlsburg. The other prisoners were held ("untergesteckt") in Stade. The main body of the Swedish troops returned to Stade on 7 October. The naval blockade of Carlsburg was lifted and the seven Brandenburg ships repaired instead to the River Elbe in order to cut off the seaward supply route to the town of Stade. By contrast, Carlsburg was besieged again in late October, despite the Swedes previous successful defence of the town.

Allied change of command.

In October about 3,000 men of the Principality of Lüneburg under the command of Duke George William of Brunswick-Lüneburg arrived in the theatre of war from the Rhineland. As the appointed circle colonel of the Lower Saxon Circle, the duke took overall command of the now 12,000 strong Allied army.  In the headquarters of Prince-Bishop von Galen in Rotenburg a secret treaty was signed on 14 October, wherein the Prince-Bishop, Duke George William and Duke Rudolph Augustus of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel agreed to provide mutual support to one another in the ensuing campaign. Furthermore, a provisional division of the conquests was negotiated that excluded Denmark and Brandenburg.  In the aftermath of this campaign there was considerable disagreement and distrust, as the Protestant federated princes did not want to give the Roman Catholic Prince-Bishop von Galen too much influence in a Protestant Imperial Circle.

Attacks on Stade, the Siege of Carlsburg, Swedish raids.

On 4 November the Allies advanced on Stade, the HQ of the Swedish regional government of Bremen-Verden. The Stade garrison under Field Marshal Henrik Horn, the Swedish governor general of the Duchy, had 5,624 soldiers and 600 militia at his disposal.  In the face of the threat, Horn had the town thoroughly prepared for defence. To prevent the desertion of German mercenaries in Stade upon arrival of the Allies, the marshal used material incentives and propaganda. Since Sweden had been declared an enemy of the Empire and Emperor Leopold I, in declaring the "Mandata Avocatoria", had ordered that all subjects of the Holy Roman Empire had to renounce Swedish service, German mercenaries were deserting the Swedish forces in droves. So, at the beginning of November, Horn had the former Buxtehude commander, Hamelton, publicly executed for surrendering the fortress in Stade prematurely. All German mercenaries in Stade had to publicly reswear their oath of allegiance to the Swedish crown. By adopting this brutal approach, Field Marshal Horn was able to discipline his garrison force for the time being and ensure its serious defence.  Repeated attacks on the fortress of Stade on 6 and 7 November 1675 were unsuccessful, and the Allies could not agree on continuing the siege of the town because of its stubborn resistance and the onset of winter. Finally, on 9 November, the Allies withdrew their troops into winter quarters. The hitherto captured forts remained under Allied occupation, in order to maintain the blockade of Stade. The Brandenburg troops left the theatre of war heading for the Duchy of Cleves and Principality of Minden.  The Swedes took advantage of the lull around their garrisoned fortresses to temporarily wrest back the initiative. They repeatedly carried out raids and sent out foraging parties. Individual companies went upriver to Buxtehude, Cranz and Altona, and downriver to Bielenberg and Kollmar, burning and pillaging. Their exploits included the destruction or capture of several Danish and Dutch ships on the Elbe.  In early January, Colonel Sydau, with about 400 dragoons and 400 infantrymen, led another Swedish expedition to Freiburg/Elbe in Kehdingen against about 500 entrenched Münster soldiers under Lieutenant Colonel Lamsdorff. Following the failure of a frontal assault by the Swedes, Sydau ordered his dragoons to circumvent the position and attack the rear of the Danish position. After the dragoons had taken their assault position in the village as per their orders, a Swedish attack was launched on the earthworks from all sides. The Münster troops sustained heavy losses, gave up the position and fled. Pursued by Swedish cavalry, 260 were captured. By contrast, the Swedes lost just 50 men in the Battle of Freiburg on the Elbe. Among the prisoners, were 15 mercenaries who had originally joined up for Swedish service, but had changed sides after the fall of Bremervörde. They were made an example of: one of the deserters was quartered in Stade as a deterrent, five were hanged and nine were branded.  This successful phase for the Swedes came to an end when Carlsburg, which had been besieged since the end of October, capitulated. A lack of ammunition, food and soldiers resulted in the surrender of the fortress on 22 January by its commander, the Frenchman, Colonel Jean Mell, to the united Münster, Danish and Lüneburg siege troops. The Swedish garrison, still about 380 strong (of which 200 were unfit to fight), were given free passage. At the surrender of the fortress 80 cannon fell into the hands of the Allies. In accordance with the treaty a mixed Münster and Lüneburg garrison took over.

Allied disagreements.

Because the Prince-Bishopric of Münster and the Duchy of Lüneburg had agreed in advance to exclude Denmark and Brandenburg from the future division of Bremen-Verden, there were serious arguments amongst the Allies, which affected and endangered the continuation of hostilities against Sweden. For example, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster demanded the former Prince-Bishopric of Verden (later Verden duchy), the "Ämter" ("districts") of Wildeshausen, Burg, Bremervörde, Ottersberg and Thedinghausen The rest was to be annexed by Lüneburg-Celle. Denmark and Brandenburg, on the other hand, argued for an equal distribution of Allied conquests. Denmark demanded Carlsburg and Stade, and thus the control of the Weser and Elbe estuaries, in order to be able exchange them later in return for the deployment of auxiliary troops from Münster and Lüneburg for the Pomeranian War (Swedish-Brandenburg War).  This dispute involving conflicting territorial claims escalated to such an extent that it threatened to come to open war between the Allies. The General States endeavoured to mediate between the parties to this situation, so as not to jeopardize the war against France. They therefore sent ambassadors, initially van der Tocht and, later, Amerongen, to Bremen for the negotiations. The statthalter ("governor") of the Netherlands, William III of Orange, proposed that all fortresses in Bremen-Verden should be slighted, to negotiate the final apportionment of territory at the peace congress in Nijmegen and to transfer provisional administration of both duchies to Lüneburg-Celle and Münster. Brandenburg and Denmark were expressly entitled to retain their rights to territorial interests in Bremen-Verden if, contrary to expectations, they did not achieve "compensation" in Swedish Pomerania and Scania. Although Brandenburg's envoy wanted to reach a provisional breakdown of the areas in question in the Hague, on 28 March he gave his approval to the treaty because he saw no other way to achieve an end to the dispute between the Allies, something which was essential for the continuation of the campaign.  Although the Elector of Brandenburg did not ratify the decision of his envoy, he dropped his objections to the deployment of Lüneburg auxiliaries to Bremen-Verden in the light of the favourable progress being made in the war against Sweden in Swedish Pomerania.  Nevertheless, the Elector secured Denmark's support in a secret agreement in early 1677 that Brandenburg should get "at least one fifth of territory to be divided in Bremen-Verden."

Siege of Stade, 1676.

The ongoing dispute over the distribution of Bremen-Verden amongst the allies delayed the onset of the siege of Stade until spring 1676. The Allies agreed the terms on 28 April and 8 May in Bremervörde. This envisaged the attack on the last Swedish possession to be carried out with 16,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. The conquered fortress was to be filled equally by troops from Denmark, Brandenburg, Lüneburg-Celle and Munster. In early April the Lüneburg commander, Lieutenant General Chauvet, implemented measures to blockade the town. As a consequence, there were almost daily skirmishes and Swedish raids with varying degrees of success. At the same time, the besiegers began to build earthworks.  Stade had access to the sea by virtue of its location at the mouth of the Schwinge, a tributary of the Elbe. Part of the Swedish fortifications also included a fieldwork that guarded the mouth of the Schwinge in Stadersand. Under its protection, several Swedish ships were able to reach the town, providing much needed supplies during the course of the siege. So to prevent access to Stade from the sea and thus tighten the stranglehold of the siege, the Allies decided to seize the Schwinge fieldwork. To this end, they called for artillery from Glückstadt and also brought in two 18-gun Lüneburg ships into the mouth of the Schwinge. All Swedish attempts to disrupt the preparations were repulsed. The Allies drew closer and closer to the hill and established a battery that opened a continual fire on the Swedish position. On 23 April the Swedes carried out a new raid with 300 horsemen, but were again driven back after initial success, with a loss of 46 men, according to contemporary sources. On 4 July, the Allies completed their earthworks and shelled the Schwinge position so heavily that its roughly 100-man-unit capitulated. With the loss of the Schwinge fieldwork, the resupply of Stade from the sea was no longer possible. When three Swedish warships, held up by unfavourable winds, and six other transport ships loaded with supplies, reached the mouth of the Schwinge, they were shelled by Allied batteries stationed on the banks of the Schwinge estuary. The Swedish fleet had to withdraw from Stade and, after a few raids into the area around the Elbe, they left.  Cut off from all resupply, the situation in the fortress of Stade deteriorated considerably. An outbreak of shigellosis reduced the strength of the garrison to around 3,000 soldiers. With the deterioration in the material situation, moral amongst the besieged fell. Twice there were mutinies amongst the Swedish soldiers which could only be put down with the use of repressive measures. The desertion of German mercenaries now grew to such an extent that active defence with patrols and raids was no longer possible.  In June, the earthworks on the Allied side were so far advanced that they reached the town moats. However, the town was not shelled, because they intended to starve its citizens and not storm it in order to protect their own forces. Countermeasures by the Swedish garrison consisted of flooding the surrounding area by opening the locks on the river. However, their besiegers succeeded in draining the water through two channels to the Elbe.  As the supply situation in the town became ever more critical, the Stade citizens and the garrison's governor general, Horn, were forced to negotiate with their besiegers. The negotiations began on 13/23 July. However, they were delayed at the behest of population who, despite the tougher conditions preferred to be garrisoned by Protestant Lüneburg troops rather than Catholic Munster forces. As a result of the surrender negotiations, the town was to be occupied by nine Lüneburg companies under General Chauvet. The German mercenaries had to terminate their Swedish service. In the early morning of 13 August 1676, Field Marshal Horn, with 10 cannon and 800 Swedish soldiers, pulled out. The 1,400 German mercenaries were either detained ("untergesteckt") or released. The last Swedish bastion in Bremen-Verden was now in Allied hands.

Aftermath.

Following the conquest of Stade, 3,000 Lüneburg troops under the command of Major General von Ende were sent to Swedish Pomerania to support the local Brandenburg troops. The rest went at the end of September, with some Münster troops, to fight the French at Wetzlar on the River Lahn.  During the occupation of Stade, Prince-Bishop von Galen led a re-Catholicization of the area he controlled, and Catholic services were reintroduced in many places. At the end of the war, Bremen-Verden remained in Allied possession. Denmark left 3,000 men as garrison troops in the Duchy of Bremen.  The plans for the division of Bremen-Verden were dashed when Lüneburg-Celle concluded a peace treaty in Celle on 28 January 1679. Lüneburg undertook to leave all its occupied territories after the conclusion of the general peace treaty. After French troops had invaded Westphalia, the new Prince-Bishop of Münster, Ferdinand of Fürstenberg returned all his conquests to Sweden in the Peace of Nijmegen on 29 March 1679. The Prince-Bishopric of Münster was only allowed to keep the "Amt" of Wildeshausen as a pledge until the payment of a war indemnity of 100,000 Reichstalers by Sweden. This payment was not made until 1699. France promised the Bishop of Munster that they would work for the preservation of the newly created Catholic institutions in the Duchy of Bremen and Principality of Verden.  Verden, Langwedel and Rotenburg were cleared of Münster troops on 14 January 1680, Bremervörde followed on 15 January and Ottersberg and Carlsburg on 17 January. The departure of Lüneburg soldiers from Stade was delayed until 10 March 1680.

The Bremen-Verden Campaign () was a conflict during the Northern Wars in Europe. From 15 September 1675 to 13 August 1676 an anti-Swedish coalition comprising Brandenburg-Prussia, the neighbouring imperial princedoms of Lüneburg and Münster, and the Kingdom of Denmark, conquered the Duchies of Bremen and Verden.