History.

Rüti bei Büren is first mentioned in 1185 as "in litore Ruthi". In 1257 it was mentioned as "Ruti prope Burron".  Scattered neolithic items indicate that there was a small settlement near Rüti bei Büren. Other evidence of prehistoric settlements include; Hallstatt grave mounds at Rütiwald, a Roman era manor at Buchsi and Roman masonry at the church. The Roman road through the Swiss Plateau passed through the modern municipal borders. During the Early and High Middle Ages the Teufelsburg (Devil's Castle) in the Rütiwald stood over the village. The impressive castle had a large ring wall with four outer walls. The castle may have been the home of the Counts of Buchegg. Later, Rüti belonged to the Counts of Strassberg. In 1388, Bern acquired all their land, including Rüti. In 1393 it was assigned to the newly created Büren bailiwick.  The village church of St. Mauritius was first mentioned in 1251. The nave is a Romanesque construction, while the choir is early-Gothic. The church was expanded in 1689. In 1911, the murals from around 1450, were rediscovered and repaired.  Even after the construction of a railroad station on the Solothurn-Lyss rail line in 1912, the village remained small and isolated. Until about 1960 it was a primarily agricultural village with only a few small businesses. The largest factory was a small wooden goods factory. Around 1960 a chemical plant and a watch factory moved into the village. The watch factory employed about 300 people. However, by 1980, the watch making industry was in decline and many workers lost their jobs. By the 2000 census, over 70% of the working population commuted to Büren, Grenchen, Biel, Bern or Solothurn for work.

Geography.

Rüti bei Büren has an area of. Of this area, or 49.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 37.8% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 9.5% is settled (buildings or roads), or 3.5% is either rivers or lakes.  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 4.8% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.5%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.1% of the area Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 38.1% is used for growing crops and 10.0% is pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality is located on the right bank of the Aare river on the north-western edge of the Bucheggberg plateau.  On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Büren, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Seeland.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Gules two Grubbing-axes Argent handled Or in saltire between two Mullets of five of the second."

Demographics.

Rüti bei Büren has a population () of., 4.6% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000-2010) the population has changed at a rate of -12.7%. Migration accounted for -1.2%, while births and deaths accounted for -4.2%.  Most of the population () speaks German (849 or 94.5%) as their first language, French is the second most common (18 or 2.0%) and Albanian is the third (11 or 1.2%). There are 6 people who speak Italian. , the population was 49.2% male and 50.8% female. The population was made up of 387 Swiss men (46.5% of the population) and 23 (2.8%) non-Swiss men. There were 408 Swiss women (49.0%) and 15 (1.8%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 386 or about 43.0% were born in Rüti bei Büren and lived there in 2000. There were 254 or 28.3% who were born in the same canton, while 157 or 17.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 66 or 7.3% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 19.6% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 61.5% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 19%. , there were 354 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 439 married individuals, 60 widows or widowers and 45 individuals who are divorced. , there were 84 households that consist of only one person and 26 households with five or more people., a total of 346 apartments (92.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 16 apartments (4.3%) were seasonally occupied and 12 apartments (3.2%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 1.23%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Heritage sites of national significance.

The entire village of Rüti bei Büren is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Politics.

The municipal assembly forms the legislature of the municipality. the executive is a seven-member municipal council, chosen by proportional representation. It was voted in the autumn to reduce the size of the council to five seats and elect by majority.  In the 2011 federal election, the most popular party was the BDP which received 47.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (23.7%), the SPS (10%) and the Green Party (5.8%). In the federal election, a total of 311 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 45.5%.

Economy.

A business managing chemical waste is located in Rüti. The town gained fame across the country in the 1990s for the company's plans to build a facility for burning hazardous waste. It was eventually abandoned due to resistance from the population. , Rüti bei Büren had an unemployment rate of 2.02%., there were a total of 455 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 47 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 18 businesses involved in this sector. 138 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 13 businesses in this sector. 270 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 20 businesses in this sector. , there were 156 workers who commuted into the municipality and 329 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 2.1 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 13% used public transportation to get to work, and 59% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 95 or 10.6% were Roman Catholic, while 706 or 78.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there was 1 member of an Orthodox church, there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 20 individuals (or about 2.23% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 20 (or about 2.23% of the population) who were Islamic. There was 1 person who was Buddhist. 40 (or about 4.45% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 24 individuals (or about 2.67% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Rüti bei Büren about 362 or (40.3%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 72 or (8.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 72 who completed tertiary schooling, 72.2% were Swiss men, 18.1% were Swiss women.  The Canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.  During the 2009-10 school year, there were a total of 58 students attending classes in Rüti bei Büren. There was one kindergarten class with a total of 13 students in the municipality. The municipality had 3 primary classes and 45 students. Of the primary students, and 4.4% have a different mother language than the classroom language. , there was one student in Rüti bei Büren who came from another municipality, while 58 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Notable residents.

Samuel Schmid (SVP), member of the Swiss Federal Council (2000–2008) and President of the Swiss Confederation in 2005.

Rüti bei Büren is a municipality in the Seeland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. It is also a reformed church parish.


Demographics.

The 2007 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 48,537, of whom 24,360 were men and 24,177 were women; 8,352 or 17.21% of its population were urban dwellers. The majority of the inhabitants said they practised Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 59.83% of the population reporting they observed this belief, while 26.84% of the population were Moslem, and 12.85% practiced traditional beliefs.  Based on figures from the Central Statistical Agency in 2005, this woreda has an estimated total population of 42,059, of whom 20,778 are men and 21,281 are women; 5,596 or 13.31% of the population are urban dwellers which is greater than the Zone average of 10.7%. With an estimated area of 8,387.19 square kilometers, Dangur has a population density of 5 people per square kilometer which is less than the Zone average of 8.57.  The 1994 national census reported a total population for this woreda of 30,741 in 5,948 households, of whom 15,284 were males and 15,457 were females; 3,253 or 10.58% of its population were urban dwellers. The four largest ethnic groups reported in Dangur were the Awi (40.5%) a subgroup of the Agaw, Gumuz (34%), the Amhara (16.5%), and the Shinasha (3.3%); all other ethnic groups made up 5.7% of the population. Awngi is spoken as a first language by 40%, 34% speak Gumuz, 17.5% speak Amharic, and 3.2% speak Boro; the remaining 5.3% spoke all other primary languages reported. The majority of the inhabitants practiced Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 52% of the population reporting that they held that belief, while 21.6% traditional religions, and 21% were Muslim. Concerning education, 11.51% of the population were considered literate, which is less than the Zone average of 18.61%; 11.83% of children aged 7-12 were in primary school; 2.02% of the children aged 13-14 were in junior secondary school; and 0.18% of the inhabitants aged 15-18 were in senior secondary school. Concerning sanitary conditions, 12.6% of the urban houses and 2.9% of all houses had access to safe drinking water at the time of the census; 34% of the urban and about 7.4% of the total had toilet facilities.

Dangur is one of the 20 woredas in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia. It is named after the Dangur range of mountains, which extend southwest from the mountains along the west side of Lake Tana. The administrative center of this woreda is Manbuk.


Biography.

Early life and acting career.

Brown was born in Manhattan, New York, in 1961. Brown was raised in The Bronx, where he began playing poker in Italian cafés. He moved to Los Angeles in the early 1990s where he began working in Hollywood. Brown has had some minor roles in television series and films, including "Basket Case 2" and "Miami Hustle". He also appeared as an assistant host on the game show "Caesars Challenge" in the early 1990s.

Poker career.

Brown was the presenter of the Ultimate Poker Challenge television series. He has finished in the money at several events in the World Series of Poker (WSOP), including third in the 2002 $1,500 Omaha hi-lo split event, second to Ted Forrest in the 2004 $1,500 seven-card stud event and second in the 2005 $2,000 seven-card stud hi-lo event. Brown made back to back final tables at 2005 World Series of Poker circuit events, including a third-place finish behind Chris Ferguson and Prahlad Friedman. Brown made 10 Final Tables at the WSOP, but never won a WSOP Bracelet in open competition. He finished runner-up three times and in third place three times. In 2014 he was awarded an honorary World Series of Poker bracelet for his overall contributions to the game of poker.  Brown also made the final table of the World Poker Tour fourth season Bay 101 Shooting Stars Tournament, where he finished 6th. Brown won one of the biggest online poker tournaments in the 2006 World Championship of Online Poker $5000 H.O.R.S.E. event. He bested 174 other players to take down the $223,125 first prize and a gold bracelet. Brown made the finals of the NBC National Heads-Up Poker Championship, defeating Yosh Nakano, Gabe Kaplan, Brad Booth, Kristy Gazes, and Gavin Smith before losing to Paul Wasicka 2-0 in the best-of-three final.  In 2007, Brown cashed for the first time in the Main Event, coming in 97th place out of a field of 6,358 players, winning $67,535.  Brown's biggest win came at the 2009 Gulf Coast Poker Championship at the Beau Rivage Resort & Casino in Biloxi, Mississippi. Brown and Vanessa Rousso served as the official celebrity hosts of the tournament. For first place, Brown earned $225,567.  Brown was named Bluff Magazine’s Poker Player of the Year for 2006, and in his own words: “Winning player of the year is like an actor winning an Oscar”.  Brown's total live tournament winnings exceed $3,600,000. His 38 cashes at the WSOP account for $1,220,357 of those winnings.  Brown was married to professional poker player Vanessa Rousso. The couple separated in early 2012.

Death.

Brown died on July 2, 2014. In February 2011, he was diagnosed with liposarcoma and had a ten-pound tumor removed from his abdomen. Brown resumed his poker career despite having the rare cancer, only slowing down when he was no longer physically able to compete. Just prior to his death, the World Series of Poker honored him by awarding him an honorary bracelet for his achievements in poker, but Brown was unable to make the ceremony due to his condition. He died in hospice care at Calvary Hospital in his native New York at the age of 52.

Chad Brown (August 13, 1961 – July 2, 2014) was an American actor, poker player and color commentator, based in Los Angeles, California.


Amateur career.

As an amateur, Bika was a member of the 2000 Cameroonian Olympic Team as a Light middleweight. He lost to Scott MacIntosh of Canada. Since the 2000 Olympics Bika fights out of Sydney, Australia.

Professional career.

Sakio took the opportunity to fight the German champion Markus Beyer for the WBC Super Middleweight world title in Germany in May 2005. After an accidental head clash in round 4 the doctor ruled Beyer unable to continue. Under WBC rules the bout was declared a technical draw. Sakio was awarded all 4 rounds on one judges score card, and the stoppage was considered controversial.

Bika vs. Calzaghe.

Bika On 14 October 2006 Bika challenged Joe Calzaghe at the MEN Arena in Manchester for the IBF and WBO titles. He was defeated unanimously by a wide margin.  Bika's then fought undefeated Lucian Bute at the Bell Centre, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Bute won by unanimous decision in a fight that was an IBF super middleweight title eliminator.  Sakio obtained his Australian citizenship in 2006. Although he bases himself in Sydney, Australia, Bika remains proud of his dual citizenship and his status as an African Australian.  He was one of the featured boxers on the 3rd season of the boxing reality TV series, The Contender, which premiered 4 September 2007 on ESPN. After wins against Donny McCrary and in a rematch with Sam Soliman (the only fighter to defeat Bika other than Calzaghe and Bute), Bika earned a place in the final against Jaidon Codrington at the TD Banknorth Garden in Boston on 6 November.

"The Contender" season 3.

On Tuesday, 6 November 2007, Bika knocked out Jaidon Codrington in the championship bout to win The Contender. The fight was wild, with both fighters being knocked down in the first round. In the end, Bika stopped Codrington in the eighth round by referee stoppage (TKO). Bika walked away with $750,000 in prize money.  After the Codrington fight, Bika returned to the ring in Australia with a first round KO of Argentinian Gustavo Javier Kapusi. Bika won the fight right at the end of the round with a body shot.  Bika returned to the ring on 13 November 2008, in a fight with former season one contestant Peter Manfredo Jr at the Dunkin' Donuts Center. Bika won by TKO in round 3. With the win, Bika became the International Boxing Organization super middleweight champion.  Bika fought Jean Paul Mendy on 31 July in Las Vegas, for an IBF #1 spot and a shot at the title. Bika lost the fight by disqualification in the 1st round after he hit Mendy following a knockdown and while Mendy was still on his knees.

Bika vs. Ward.

After the Mendy fight Bika was given a shot at unbeaten WBA super middleweight champion Andre Ward, A voluntary defence by Ward after he defeated Allan Green. Bika used a fast pace a threw a total of 612 punches (400 of which were power shots) landing 201, however this was not enough to ruffle the champion who used defence and counter punching to land clean and effective blows throughout. Winning on all three scorecards Ward took a dominant decision with scores of 120-108, 118-110, 118-110, handing Bika his fifth loss.  On 2 June 2012, on the undercard of Antonio Tarver vs Lateef Kayode, Bika fought Dyah Davis, the son of Olympic gold medalist Howard Davis. Bika dominated the fight, stopping Davis in round 10 to win the NABF and WBO inter-continental super middleweight titles.  He defeated Nikola Sjekloca via unanimous decision in a WBC Eliminator.

WBC super-middleweight champion.

On 22 June 2013, on the undercard of Adrien Broner vs. Paulie Malignaggi, Bika defeated Marco Antonio Peribán via 12-round majority decision to win the vacant WBC super middleweight title.  Bika had his first defense of the WBC super middleweight on the 7 December 2013 undercard of Paulie Malignaggi vs. Zab Judah. He retained his title after earning a split draw against Anthony Dirrell.  On 16 August 2014, at the StubHub Center in Carson, California, Bika faced Dirrell in a championship rematch. After 12 rounds, the judges awarded the fight and the title to Dirrell by unanimous decision.

Sakio Bika (born 18 April 1979) is a Cameroonian-Australian professional boxer. He held the WBC super-middleweight title from 2013 to 2014, and previously the IBO super-middleweight title from 2008 to 2010. In 2015 he challenged once for the unified light-heavyweight world title, and in 2007 won the third season of "The Contender" reality TV series.


Geography.

It adjoins Byfleet, Weybridge, Addlestone, Ottershaw and Rowhill/Row Town, West Byfleet and Woodham.  New Haw stands on an irregular south-west border close to Woking, the River Wey, the start of the Basingstoke Canal, and the (River Bourne, Addlestone Branch). The Wey Navigation rises through three steep locks in the relatively short New Haw section.

History.

"Haw" is an old word for "lock gate", and it is possible that New Haw developed following the installation of the "new" lock gate in 1653, near The White Hart pub.The Grade II Listed New Haw lock-keeper's cottage (pictured) dates from 1782 but was heavily rebuilt with steel strengthening beams added above the ground floor windows after a gas explosion and fire in 1982. It appeared as Mr. Bedford's "Cherry Cottage" in the 1964 science-fiction film First Men in the Moon, based loosely on the H.G. Wells novel of the same title published in 1901.  There is a little evidence of New Haw's history. The original village was a hamlet of Woking, around Crockford Park farm, bordering Addlestone.  Several aeroplanes are believed to have crashed in New Haw during the early decades of the 20th century. On 25 May 1912, an Avro Type F cabin monoplane landed upside down on nearby Addlestone Moor. Photographic evidence of this accident is held by Brooklands Museum.  The village centre lies around the junction of Woodham Lane and the Scotland Bridge Road roundabout and on the northwest side of the latter, until recently, a well-established motor vehicle sales business occupied an original 1930s garage, petrol station and workshop known for many years as "Woodham Motors". Although the front of the premises have been somewhat altered in recent years, the pre-war brick-built central two-story clock tower with large two-bay workshop behind survive in good condition and make an interesting local landmark.  With the commuter boom of the 1950/60s, New Haw expanded further southwest down Woodham Lane towards West Byfleet and Woodham and a popular shopping area for local residents is The Broadway, where a number of shops, public houses and restaurants are located.

Churches.

In 1873 All Saints School was founded as a school for Poor Persons, probably with a grant from John Marshall-Paine, who had previously lived at Sayes Court, Addlestone. The school opened in 1874 and included accommodation for 92 pupils. School records show that there were frequent absences during harvesting or at other times when help was needed on the farms. Conditions at the school were far from ideal. The schoolroom was often in need of repair, and during the winter of 1906 temperatures plummeted to 1 °C (35 degrees Fahrenheit), and at one time the teacher of the infants was herself only 11 years old.  In 1911 the school became All Saints' Church. It is part of the diocese of Guildford. All Saints' New Haw has a thriving congregation including a range of youth activities and a full programme of events for all ages. In 2009 Bosco's and Claire's Cafe were added to the church buildings.

Amenities.

The village has a number of open spaces. The largest is Heathervale Park, a green space bordering the Basingstoke canal. Fullbrook School offers local residents athletic facilities, including a gym, football pitches, and tennis courts. There are a number of public houses throughout the area: the Black Prince (dating from 1937 and still largely unaltered externally) on Woodham Lane and Scotland Bridge Road roundabout, the Station (was the Claremont, then the Catherine of Aragon) next to West Byfleet railway station, and The White Hart adjacent to the Wey Navigation on New Haw Road roundabout with Woodham Lane and Byfleet Road.

Education.

Local schools include: New Haw Junior School, Fullbrook School, the Grange Community Infant School, and the Grove nursery.

Transport.

The M25 motorway passes, without junctions for more than 3 miles, through the west of the village. The main north-south road, the A318 road in New Haw is one of few A-roads in the South East to have narrow sections for HGVs at the bridge crossing the Wey Navigation and with a sharp bend on the turn-off for Woodham. The route also has fixed and mobile speed cameras.  The village's railway stations are West Byfleet and Byfleet and New Haw, which was originally called West Weybridge. These stations are on the slow Waterloo to Woking service, but West Byfleet station has access to several quicker services. Numerous bus services run through the village, most run by Travel Surrey, who also have their depot in the area.

New Haw is a residential and part-nature reserve village in Surrey, England situated southwest by west of London which has a minor railway station on the South Western Main Line shared with Byfleet.


Life.

Early life.

Robert Knox was born in 1791 in Edinburgh's North Richmond Street, the eighth child of Mary (née Scherer) and Robert Knox (d. 1812), a teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at Heriot's Hospital in Edinburgh. As an infant, he contracted smallpox, which destroyed his left eye and disfigured his face. He was educated at the Royal High School of Edinburgh, where he was remembered as a 'bully' who thrashed his contemporaries "mentally and corporeally". He won the Lord Provost's gold medal in his final year.  In 1810, he joined medical classes at the University of Edinburgh. He soon became interested in transcendentalism and the work of Xavier Bichat. He was twice president of the Royal Physical Society, an undergraduate club to which he presented papers on hydrophobia and nosology. The final recorded event of his university years was his just failing the anatomy examination. Knox joined the "extramural" anatomy class of the famous John Barclay. Barclay was an anatomist of the highest distinction, and perhaps the greatest anatomical teacher in Britain at that time. Redoubling his efforts, Knox passed competently the second time around.

Life abroad.

Knox graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1814, with a Latin thesis on the effects of narcotics which was published the following year. He joined the army and was commissioned Hospital Assistant on 24 June 1815, after having studied for a year under John Abernethy at St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. He was sent immediately to Belgium to attend the wounded from the Battle of Waterloo and returned two weeks later with the first batch of wounded aboard a hospital ship; during the voyage he successfully employed Abernethy's technique of leaving wounds open to the air. His army work at the Brussels military hospital (near Waterloo) impressed upon him the need for a comprehensive training in anatomy if surgery were to be successful. Knox was intelligent, critical and irritable. He did not suffer fools gladly and—in an aside with terrible consequences for his future career—he was critical of the surgical work of Charles Bell with casualties at the Battle of Waterloo. After a further trip to Belgium he was placed in charge of Hilsea hospital near Portsmouth, where he experimented with non-mercurial cures for syphilis.  In April 1817, he joined the 72nd Highlanders and sailed with them to South Africa. There were few army surgeons in the Cape Colony but Knox found the people healthy and his duties were light. He enjoyed riding, shooting and the beauty of the landscape with which he felt in spiritual harmony—an early expression of his transcendental world view. Knox developed an interest in observing racial types, and disapproved of what he saw as the Boers' contempt for the indigenous peoples. However, after an abortive Xhosa rebellion against the colonial forces, he was involved in a retaliatory raid commanded by Andries Stockenström, a magistrate and future Lieutenant Governor. Relations with Stockenström were marred when Knox accused O. G. Stockenström, Andries' brother, of theft, a charge apparently prompted by ill feeling between British and Boer officers. A court martial acquitted O. G. of the charge and Andries called Knox's conduct shameful. One of Stockenström's supporters, a former naval officer named Burdett, challenged Knox to a duel. Knox initially refused to fight, and Burdett "soundly horse whipped him on the parade before every Officer of the Garrison." Knox then grabbed a sabre and inflicted a slight wound to Burdett's arm. Knox's promotion to Assistant Surgeon was cancelled and he returned to Britain in disgrace, arriving on Christmas Day 1820. He remained only until the following October, after which he went to Paris to study anatomy for just over a year (1821–22). It was then that he met both Georges Cuvier and Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who were to remain heroes for his entire life, to populate his later medical journalism, and to become the subject of his hagiography, "Great artists and great anatomists". While in Paris he befriended Thomas Hodgkin, with whom he shared a dissecting room at l'Hôpital de la Pitié.

Career in Edinburgh.

Knox returned to Edinburgh by Christmas 1822. On 1 December 1823 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. During these years he communicated a number of well-received papers to the Royal and Wernerian societies of Edinburgh on zoological subjects. Soon after his election he submitted a plan to the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh for a Museum of Comparative Anatomy, which was accepted, and on 13 January 1825 he was appointed curator of the museum with a salary of £100.  In 1825, John Barclay offered him a partnership at his anatomy school in Surgeon's Square, Edinburgh. In order for his lectures to be recognised by the Edinburgh College of Surgeons, Knox had to be admitted to its fellowship; a formality, but, at £250, an expensive one. At this time most professorships were in the gift of the town council, resulting in such uninspiring teachers as the professor of anatomy Alexander Monro, who put off many of his students (including the young Charles Darwin who took the course 1825–1827). This created a demand for private tuition, and the flamboyant Knox—in sole charge after Barclay's death in 1826—had more students than all the other private tutors put together.  He turned his sharp wit on the elders and the clergy of the city, satirising religion and delighting his students. Knox routinely referred to the Bridgewater Treatises as the "bilgewater treatises" and his 'continental' lectures were not for the squeamish. John James Audubon was in Edinburgh at the time to find subscribers for his "Birds of America". Shown round the dissecting theatre by Knox, "dressed in an overgown and with bloody fingers", Audubon reported that "The sights were extremely disagreeable, many of them shocking beyond all I ever thought could be. I was glad to leave this charnel house and breathe again the salubrious atmosphere of the streets". Knox's school flourished and he took on three assistants, Alexander Miller, Thomas Wharton Jones and William Fergusson.

Marriage and personal life.

Little is known of Knox's wife, Susan Knox, whom he married in 1824. According to Knox's friend Henry Lonsdale the marriage was kept secret as she was 'of inferior rank.' During his time in Edinburgh, Knox lived at 4 Newington Place with his sisters Mary and Jessie, while Susan and his four children lived at Lilliput Cottage in Trinity, west of Leith. They had seven children, but only two of them survived into adulthood.

West Port murders.

Before the Anatomy Act of 1832 widened the supply, the main legal supply of corpses for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and dissection by the courts. This led to a chronic shortage of legitimate subjects for dissection, and this shortage became more serious as the need to train medical students grew, and the number of executions fell. In his school Knox ran up against the problem from the start, since—after 1815—the Royal Colleges had increased the anatomical work in the medical curriculum. If he taught according to what was known as 'French method' the ratio would have had to approach one corpse per pupil.  As a consequence, body-snatching became so prevalent that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave after burial, to stop it being violated.  In November 1827, William Hare began a new career when an indebted lodger died on him by chance. He was paid £7.10s (seven pounds & ten shillings) for delivering the body to Knox's dissecting rooms at Surgeons' Square. Now Hare and his accomplice, William Burke, set about murdering the city’s poor on a regular basis. After 16 more transactions, each netting £8-10, in what later became known as the West Port Murders, on 2 November 1828 Burke and Hare were caught, and the whole city convulsed with horror, fed by ballads, broadsides, and newspapers, at the reported deeds of the pair. Hare turned King's evidence, and Burke was hanged, dissected and his remains displayed.  Knox was not prosecuted, which outraged many in Edinburgh. His house was attacked by a mob of 'the lowest rabble of the Old Town,' and windows were broken. A committee of the Royal Society of Edinburgh exonerated him on the grounds that he had not dealt personally with Burke and Hare, but there was no forgetting his part in the case, and many remained wary of him.  Almost immediately after the Burke and Hare case, the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh began to harry him, and by June 1831 they had procured his resignation as the Curator of the museum he had proposed and founded. In the same year he was obliged to resign his army commission to avoid further service in the Cape. This removed his last source of guaranteed income, but fortunately his classes were more popular than ever, with a record 504 students. His school moved to the grander premises of Old Surgeons' Hall in 1833 but his class declined after Edinburgh University made its own practical anatomy class compulsory in the mid-1830s. Knox continued to purchase cadavers for his dissection class from such shadowy figures as the 'Black Bull Man,' but the 1832 Anatomy Act made bodies more available to all anatomists, he quarrelled with HM Inspector of Anatomy over the supply of bodies, and his competitive edge was lost. In 1837 Knox applied for the chair in pathology at Edinburgh University but his candidature was blocked by eleven existing professors, who preferred to abolish the post rather than appoint him. In 1842 he was unable to make payments to the Edinburgh funeratory system, from which bodies were supplied to private schools, and he relocated to Glasgow where, still short of subjects for dissection, he closed his school in 1844. In 1847 the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh found him guilty of falsifying a student's certificate of attendance (a not uncommon practice in private schools) and refused to accept any further certificates from him, effectively banning him from teaching in Scotland. In the same year he was expelled from the Royal Society of Edinburgh and had his election retrospectively cancelled.

London.

Knox left for London after the death of his wife (the remaining children were left with a nephew). He found it impossible to find a university post, and from then until 1856 he worked on medical journalism, gave public lectures, and wrote several books, including his most ambitious work, "The Races of Men" in which he argued that each race was suited to its environment and "perfect in its own way." His book about fishing sold best. In 1854 his son Robert died of heart disease; Knox tried for a posting to the Crimea but at 63 was judged too old.  In 1856 he became the pathological anatomist to the Free Cancer Hospital, London. He joined the medical register at its inception in 1858 and practiced obstetrics in Hackney. On 27 November 1860 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Ethnological Society of London, where he spoke in public for the last time on 1 July 1862. He continued working at the Cancer Hospital until shortly before his death on 20 December 1862, at 9 Lambe Terrace in Hackney. He was buried at Brookwood Cemetery near Woking, Surrey.

Ethnology and racism.

Knox's interest in race began as an undergraduate. His relevant political views were radical: he was an abolitionist and anti-colonialist who criticised the Boer as "the cruel oppressor of the dark races." Knox is generally considered to be a polygenist; however, some have argued that he was a monogenist, including biographer Alan Bates, who considers such claims to be "exaggerated". In his best-selling work, "The Races of Men" (1850), a "Zoological history" of mankind, Knox exaggerated supposed racial differences in support of his project, asserting that, anatomically and behaviourally, "race, or hereditary descent, is everything". He offered crude characterisations of each racial group: for example the Saxon (in which race he included himself) "invents nothing", "has no musical ear", lacks "genius", and is so "low and boorish" that "he does not know what you mean by fine art". No race was without its redeeming features, however; Knox described Saxons as "[t]houghtful, plodding, industrious beyond all other races, [and] a lover of labour for labour's sake". Such supposed racial characteristics meant that each race was naturally fitted for a particular environment and could not endure outside of it. While Knox maintained that all races were capable of some form civilized life, he maintained that a vast gulf stood between the limited attainments available to the 'negroid' and to most'mongoloid' races on one hand and the much greater past achievements and future potential of white men on the other. The Black, Knox remarked, 'is no more a white man than an ass is a horse or a zebra'. Ultimately however, all races were "[d]estined... to run, like all other animals, a certain limited course of existence", it mattering "little how their extinction is brought about". In 1862 Knox took the opportunity of a second edition of "The Races of Men" to defend the "much maligned races" of the Cape against accusations of cannibalism, and to rebuke the Dutch for treating them like "wild beasts".  From the perspective of a Lowland Scot Protestant, Knox's racist works espoused extreme racial hostility to Celts in general (incuding the Highland Scots and Welsh people, but particularly the Irish people). He considered the "Caledonian Celt" as touching "the end of his career: they are reduced to about one hundred and fifty thousand" and that the "Welsh Celts are not troublesome, but might easily become so." For Knox, "the Irish Celt is the most to be dreaded" and openy advocated their ethnic cleansing around the time that the Great Famine was happening, stating in "The Races of Men: A Fragment" (1850): "The source of all evil lies in the race, the Celtic race of Ireland. There is no getting over historical facts. Look at Wales, look at Caledonia; it is ever the same. [...] The race must be forced from the soil; by fair means, if possible; still they must leave. The Orange club of Ireland is a Saxon confederation for the clearing the land of all Papists and Jacobites; this means Celts. If left to themselves, they would clear them out, as Cromwell proposed, by the sword; it would not require six weeks to accomplish the work. But the Ecumbered Estates Relief Bill will do it better."

Transcendentalism.

In his writings Knox synthesised a perspective on nature from three of the most influential natural historians of his time. From Cuvier, he took a consciousness of the great epochs of time, of the fact of extinction, and of the inadequacy of the biblical account. From Étienne Geoffroy St-Hilaire and Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, he gained a spatial and thematic perspective on living things. If one had the skill, all living beings could be arranged in their correct placing in a notional table, and one would see both internally and externally the elegant variation of their organs and anatomy according to the principles of connection, unity of composition and compensation.  Goethe is another crucial addition to the Knoxian way of looking at nature. Goethe thought that there were transcendental archetypes in the living world which could be perceived by genus. If the natural historian were perspicacious enough to examine the creatures in this correct order he could perceive—aesthetically—the archetype that was immanent in the totality of a series, although present in none of them.  Knox wrote that he was concerned to prove the existence of a generic animal, "or in other terms, proving hereditary descent to have a relation primarily to genus or natural family". This way, he could lay claim to a stability in the natural order at the level of the genus, but let species be extinguished. Man was a genus; not a species.

Evolution.

According to Richards, "The Races of Men" advocated "a common material origin of life and its evolution by a process of saltatory descent"; that is to say, new species arose not by gradual change but by sudden leaps due to shifts in embryonic development. Knox tentatively concluded that "simple animals... may have produced by continuous generation the more complex animals of after ages... the fish of the early world may have produced reptiles, then again birds and quadrupeds; lastly, man himself?" Newly formed species survived or perished according to external conditions, which acted as "potent checks to an infinite variety of forms". For one contemporary reviewer, his claim that "Species is the product of external circumstances, acting through millions of years" was "bold, disgusting, and gratuitous atheism." In modern terms, he proposed a theory of saltatory evolution, in which "deformations" in embryonic development produced "hopeful monsters" that, if fortuitously suited to the prevailing environmental conditions, gave rise to new species in a single, macroevolutionary leap. In 1857 he wrote: "The conversion of one of these species into another cannot be so difficult a matter with Nature, especially when all or most of the specific characters are already present in the young. Thus a given species may perish, but another of the same consanguinité takes its place in space: it is a question of time... Thus parenté extends from species to genus and from genus to class and order, in characters not to be misunderstood."

Legacy.

Knox is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of African lizard, "Meroles knoxii".

Robert Knox, (4 September 1791 – 20 December 1862), was a Scottish anatomist, zoologist, ethologist and physician. He was a lecturer on anatomy in Edinburgh, where he introduced the theory of transcendental anatomy.


Name.

"Nicolaus Germanus" is the Latin form of the name "Nicholas the German". His exact name is unknown, although it is often given with "Donis", "Donnus", "Donmus", or "Donus". These are not, however, names but abbreviated forms of the Latin title "Lord" ("Dominus").

Life.

The exact dates of his birth and death are not known. He is sometimes referred to as a Humanist monk of the Benedictine order possibly from Reichenbach Priory (now in Baden-Württemberg). His manuscript edition of Ptolemy was ready by around 1468, but not published until 1482.

Works.

In 1477, two years after the opening of the Vatican Library, Nicolaus Germanus created a globe each for earth and sky, for which he was paid 200 ducats on 11 December 1477 according to a receipt. An additional three ducats were paid the next day for the adding of the papal coat of arms, and four more on 20 December for two covers. The globes are listed in an inventory of 1481. The marchesa of Mantua, Isabella, asked for copies in 1505. The globes were kept in Salle Pontifica (Magna Secreta) until they were lost in the 1527 Sack of Rome. The earth globe of Nicolaus Germanus is considered the first modern globe to be documented. Nicolaus Germanus's editions of Ptolemy are notable for including four new inset maps showing new European discoveries and for modifying the world map to reflect Italians' better knowledge of Scandinavia following Claudius Clavus's 1424 visit to Italy. Nicolaus Germanus was also the first Western cartographer to publish Ptolemy's more difficult second projection, in which parallels of latitude are made equidistant but meridians converge toward the poles; it became known in his time as the "Donis Projection".  It was reprinted the same year and again in 1486, with more gold. The 1486 edition is notable as the first atlas to be colored by its publisher prior to sale; uncolored editions are rare. The printing of the world maps in these books was credited to "Johann the Block-cutter" ("Johannes Schnitzer") or "Johann from Armsheim" (""), distinctive for his use of a reversed capital (i.e., ).

Nicolaus Germanus () was a German cartographer who published an edition of Jacopo d'Angelo's Latin translation of Ptolemy's "Geography". He also created two globes depicting earth and sky in 1477, predating Martin Behaim's "Erdapfel".


History.

Ashesi was founded by Patrick Awuah, a Ghanaian who spent over 15 years living and working in the United States. Awuah left Ghana in 1985 to attend Swarthmore College on a full scholarship, after which he worked for Microsoft Corporation as an engineer and a program manager for eight years. Experiencing first hand the dramatic impact that education can have on one's life, Awuah embarked on a mission in 1997 to provide greater educational opportunities in Ghana. He enrolled in business school at the University of California at Berkeley's Haas School of Business, both to evaluate the feasibility of his goal and to gain managerial skills with which to found and manage a university.

The Meaning of Ashesi.

"If there is anything you can do, or dream you can, begin it. Boldness has genius, power and magic in it. Begin it now." These words by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe are the inspiration behind the university's name, Ashesi, which means "beginning" in Fante, a Ghanaian language.

Feasibility study.

During the summer of 1998, a team of four MBA students from UC Berkeley's Haas School of Business travelled to Ghana to conduct extensive market research and evaluate the feasibility of establishing a new university. With the goal of gathering data to provide a foundation for business decisions, the team administered over 3,300 surveys to students and parents; conducted interviews and focus groups with parents, teachers and business leaders; and gathered secondary information from local and international sources. The result was a comprehensive feasibility study, analysing Ghanaian tertiary education.

Ashesi campus.

Set on 100 acres in Berekuso, overlooking Ghana's capital city of Accra, Ashesi's campus unites traditional Ghanaian design, modern technology and environmental best practices. The campus has interconnected courtyards, that emphasize a sense of community. The architecture borrows from the Ghanaian vernacular, with echoes of traditional compound houses, as well as elements of traditional Northern dwellings. The natural contours of the site are used in concert with buildings to create exterior gathering spaces throughout campus, as well as ramps that provide wheel chair access to buildings. Buildings are designed to maximize natural views, light and ventilation.  Ground water is supplemented with harvested rainwater, filtered and treated to provide potable water all year round. A community-scale sewage and organic treatment plant provides environmental and economic benefits by converting waste to biogas for some of the campus’ cooking needs and recycling treated water for landscaping.

Global Recognition.

On Wednesday 3 May 2018, President of the Republic of Ghana, H.E Nana Akufo-Addo awarded Ashesi University a Presidential Charter meaning the University will now award degrees to its graduated in its name. Ashesi, until this year was affiliated to the University of Cape Coast(UCC), Ghana meaning its graduates were awarded a UCC degree.  In 2012, the university was ranked by PwC as the seventh most respected organisation in Ghana, becoming the first university to make the list. Ashesi's president, Dr. Patrick Awuah, was also ranked the 4th Most Respected CEO in Ghana. In 2015, Africa.com again named Ashesi among its list of top 10 African Universities (excluding South Africa).  It has also been ranked as one of Ghana's 50 Best Places to work (2015), according to a survey by Ghanaian consulting firm Goodman AMC; it was again, the only university on the list.  In 2013, CNN shared the story of Ashesi and its founder on its African Voices programme. In the interview, Ashesi's president said: "If you come back in 30 years, universities will be competing for the best and brightest students. I hope that universities will also be competing on things such as whose students are the most ethical. If that happens, it will change the continent."  In 2015, Ashesi's president was ranked by Fortune (magazine) as one of the World's 50 Greatest Leaders, together with the likes of Bill & Melinda Gates, Pope Francis and founder of Amazon.com, Jeff Bezos. The list according to Forbes, was made up of men and women who "in an era that feels starved for leadership, will inspire you—some famous, others little known, all of them energizing their followers and making the world better."  In 2017, Ashesi was awarded the World Innovation Summit in Education Prize, one of the world's biggest prizes in education, for its impact on higher education in Africa. In 2018, Ashesi was also awarded a Charter by the President of Ghana, granting it full independence as a nationally recognised degree-granting institution. It was the youngest university to have been granted a Presidential Charter in Ghana's history, a rare accomplishment.  Key Projects Ashesi runs  See also

Ashesi University ( ) is a private, non-profit, university located in Ghana, West Africa. The mission of Ashesi University is to educate ethical, entrepreneurial leaders in Africa; to cultivate within students, the critical thinking skills, the concern for others, and the courage it will take to transform the continent.


Eligible drivers.

There were two ways to become eligible for the Budweiser Shootout: win a pole or win the Budweiser Shootout. For 2008, there were 23 eligible drivers: nine drivers being past winners with lifetime exemptions into the race as long as they remain active in the series, and 15 who were fastest in qualifying for NEXTEL Cup races in 2007.

Starting lineup.

The Budweiser Shootout lineup was determined by a draw of positions on Thursday, February 7, 2008 and aired live on Speed Channel.  1. (2) Kurt Busch° 3. (55) Michael Waltrip 5. (38) David Gilliland° 7. (88) Dale Earnhardt Jr. 9. (1) Martin Truex Jr. 11. (96) J.J Yeley 13. (49) Ken Schrader 15. (44) Dale Jarrett° 17. (16) Greg Biffle 19. (22) Dave Blaney 21. (07) Clint Bowyer 23. (12) Ryan Newman°  2. (8) Mark Martin 4. (26) Jamie McMurray 6. (41) Reed Sorenson 8. (9) Kasey Kahne 10. (20) Tony Stewart 12. (11) Denny Hamlin 14. (21) Bill Elliott°<br> 16. (5) Casey Mears° 18. (48) Jimmie Johnson° 20. (99) Carl Edwards 22. (24) Jeff Gordon° ° — Because of the wrecks in Happy Hour, or other reasons, these drivers went to the rear of the field.

Practice.

The final practice session, commonly known as "Happy Hour" was anything but for many drivers as two separate incidents turned into a wreckfest thanks to the restrictor plate style of racing. The first, known as in the restrictor plate races as "The Big One", involved among others, Clint Bowyer, Ryan Newman, Jeff Gordon, David Gilliland and Jimmie Johnson, forcing them to backup rides. The second incident was more notable, with tensions boiling over from an incident during the Autism Speaks 400 the previous June at Dover, Tony Stewart accidentally brushed Kurt Busch, then slammed into the wall. The driver of the #2 Dodge retaliated en route to the garage area by bumping Stewart's #20 Toyota three times preventing en route to pit road getting to the garage area. Busch was forced into a backup car and forfeited his pole position, and both drivers were ordered to visit the NASCAR Sprint Cup trailer to discuss the incident, and ordered to stay away from one another before the race. It had been reported that Stewart punched out Busch after he was called as "fat" in the trailer. On February 12, 2008, both were placed on probation for six races.

Race.

The race was broken down into two segments: The first segment, which was 20 laps, followed by a ten-minute intermission, followed by a 50-lap segment, during which teams are required to make a green flag pit stop to change a minimum of two tires. Unlike points-paying races, all restarts are double-file with lead lap cars in the front, and work can be done during red flag periods. When all was said and done, Dale Earnhardt, Jr. led an event record 46 of the 70 laps to win his first race with Hendrick Motorsports.  In a post-race inspection, Casey Mears' #5 Chevrolet was deemed to be too low.

The 2008 Budweiser Shootout was the first official, non-points paying event of the 2008 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. The race was run on Saturday, February 9, 2008 at Daytona International Speedway in Daytona Beach, Florida and was restricted to those who were the fastest qualifiers in the 2007 season as well as past winners of the event. Dale Earnhardt, Jr. won the event, his second shootout, and his first win with Hendrick Motorsports. Fox televised the race starting at 8 PM US EST.


Badminton career.

Anand started his badminton career in 1992 at the Mini Nationals in Mumbai. He was successful in doubles in his early badminton career, pairing with A. Prithvi, winning 12 year and 15 years age groups. He reached his first open nationals singles final in Kerala at age fifteen, but failed to win the title and was runner-up though he won the doubles pairing with A. Prithvi. Later, Prakash Padukone sent him to the World Academy camp in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where he made significant improvements to his game. Anand won the first singles title of his career at Chennai in a Junior major ranking tournament. The same year he made his mark in the senior category as well, reaching the semi-finals in all of the senior ranking tournaments, and reaching the top eight in the country. He became the Junior National Champion in 1999. In 2001, he won his first Asian Satellite tournament in Bangalore which marked his beginning in seniors. Later he won more than 15 major ranking tournaments in India.  Anand became the national badminton champion for first time in 2004 after faltering in the finals in 2002 and 2003 to Abhinn Shyam Gupta. He also won the Toulouse Open in France in 2004, recovering from a back injury during the summer 2004. In 2005 he won Irish and Scottish open badminton tournaments in Ireland and Scotland. In 2008 he won his first Grand Prix title at the Bitburger Open. He was also the Runner-up in Dutch Grand Prix in 2008 and followed them with a couple of quarterfinal appearances. He touched his career best world ranking 10 in 2009 February. In 2009, he won the Dutch Open Grand Prix which he lost in the finals in 2008. He also won the Jaypee Syed Modi Memorial Grand Prix at Lucknow in December 2009.

Personal life.

Anand was born to Harshavardhan and Suguna in Vijayawada, India and has a younger brother Sandeep Anand. Anand's father Harshavardhan had formerly been an annual participant in the Inter-state Lecturer's Tournaments. Anand also took a personal interest in badminton, and he started playing with his father. He did his schooling at Veeramachineni Paddayya Siddhartha public school and bachelors in engineering in Mechanical Manufacturing from the Potluri V Prasad Siddhartha Institute of Technology in Vijayawada. On 17 July 2005, Anand married fellow badminton player Jwala Gutta. And they got divorced in 2010. Chetan got married again to Sarada Govardhini Jasti in October 2012 and has two daughters. He is employed by the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation. He was signed as first Brand Ambassador for promoting Li Ning Sporting goods in India in 2009.

Record against selected opponents.

Results are from all international competitions since Chetan Anand made his debut in 2003. The athletes listed are athletes who regularly competed at badminton's major competitions, including those who he faced at the World Championship and Olympic competition.

Chetan Anand Buradagunta (born 8 July 1980) is a badminton player from India. Anand was a four time national champion in 2004, 2007, 2008 and 2010, also three times South Asian Games men's singles champion in 2004, 2006 and 2010. He has a career best world ranking of world no 10. His ranking has dropped to 54 since October 2010 due to his ankle injury. He is also the recipient of the prestigious Indian Arjuna Award in 2006.


Part 1: Classification of air cleanliness.

ISO 14644-1 covers the classification of air cleanliness in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. Classification in accordance with this standard is specified and accomplished exclusively in terms of concentration of airborne particulates. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-1:1999 in the United States, following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E.

Part 2: Specifications for testing and monitoring to prove continued compliance with ISO 14644-1.

Part 2 specifies requirements for periodic testing of a cleanroom or clean zone to prove its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. It also specifies requirements for the monitoring of a cleanroom or clean zone (installation) to provide evidence of its continued compliance with ISO 14644-1 for the designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness. It became an International Standard following the cancellation of FED-STD-209E. In the United States in 2000 it was adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-2:2000.

Part 3: Test Methods.

This part specifies test methods for designated classification of airborne particulate cleanliness and for characterizing the performance of cleanrooms and clean zones. These test methods are specified in the document for two different types of cleanrooms and clean zones; unidirectional flow and nonunidirectional flow.  The most important objectives of this highly referenced document are to provide an internationally common basis of measurement and evaluation of cleanrooms and, at the same time, not to prevent the introduction of new technologies.

Part 4: Design, construction and start-up.

This part specifies requirements for the design and construction of cleanroom and clean air devices, as well as requirements for start-up and qualification, but does not prescribe specific technological nor contractual means to meet the requirements. This document is intended for purchasers, suppliers, and designers of cleanroom installations. It was submitted as an American National Standard in 2001.

Part 5: Operations.

ISO 14644-5 provides the basic requirements for operating and maintaining cleanrooms and associated controlled environments. This standard addresses requirements that are basic to the operation of all cleanrooms, regardless of the application. Topics include:  This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-5:2004 in the United States.

Part 6: Vocabulary.

This part is an important document for any contamination control professional. This document describes all the terms and definitions in ISO 14644 and ISO 14698. In March 2008 this ISO Standard recently became an American National Standard.

Part 7: Separative devices (clean air hoods, gloveboxes, isolators and minienvironments).

This part of ISO 14644 specifies the minimum requirements for the design, construction, installation, testing and approval of separative devices in those respects where they differ from cleanrooms as described in Parts 4 and 5. Separative devices range from open to closed systems.  The limitations are:  This part was published as an International Standard in 2004. The document was submitted as an American National Standard and has been adopted as ANSI/IEST/ISO 14644-7:2004.

Part 8: Classification of airborne molecular contamination.

This part of ISO 14644 covers the classification of airborne molecular contamination (AMC) in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments, in terms of airborne concentrations of specific chemical substances (individual, group or category) and provides a protocol to include test methods, analysis and time-weighted factors within the specification for classification.  This document became a Standard in 2006. It was developed by the Secretariat of ISO Technical Committee 209, IEST.

Part 9: Classification of surface particle cleanliness.

This ISO document describes the classification of the particle contamination levels on solid surfaces in cleanrooms and associated controlled environments applications. Recommendations on testing and measuring methods as well as information about surface characteristics are given in informative annexes.

ISO 14644 Standards were first formed from the US Federal Standard 209E Airborne Particulate Cleanliness Classes in Cleanrooms and Clean Zones. The need for a single standard for cleanroom classification and testing was long felt. After ANSI and IEST petitioned to ISO for new standards, the first document of ISO 14644 was published in 1999, ISO 14644-1.


Life and career.

Early life and education.

Greenberg, the son of Conservative Jewish parents, was raised in Columbus, Ohio. When he was about 15, he began studying with an Orthodox rabbi. He attended Yeshiva University in New York as an undergraduate and then as a rabbinical student. When he was 20, he went to study at the Yeshivat Har Etzion, a hesder yeshiva in Alon Shvut in Gush Etzion near Jerusalem. He received his BA in philosophy from Yeshiva University, and his rabbinic ordination from the rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (RIETS) in 1983.  While at Yeshivat Har Etzion, he was attracted to a fellow student and concluded that he was bisexual. He went to consult with rabbi Yosef Sholom Eliashiv, a respected old rabbi in Jerusalem, telling him: "Harav, I am attracted to both men and women. What shall I do?" And the rabbi replied according to Greenberg: "My dear one, my friend, then you have twice the power of love. Use it carefully." Greenberg remembers that he left with the trust that it would all work out. However, he realised that the rabbi wasn't permitting him to have sex with men, but was telling him that his desire was not ugly in and of itself.  Greenberg did not acknowledge he was gay until he was 28, and even afterwards continued to date women for another seven years. In 1993, he wrote the article "Gayness and God", admitting he was gay, and published it under the pseudonym "Yaakov Levado" (meaning Jacob alone) in "Tikkun" magazine, but only came out six years later in an article titled "In the name of partnership" published in the Israeli daily newspaper "Maariv" on March 5, 1999.

Career.

Early in his career, Greenberg held an Orthodox pulpit on Roosevelt Island in New York City. Since 1985, he has been a Senior Teaching Fellow and Director of the Diversity Project at CLAL – the National Jewish Center for Learning and Leadership, an interdenominational Jewish think tank, leadership training institute, and resource center. He is a co-founder and director of Eshel, a support, education and advocacy organization for orthodox LGBT Jews that saves lives and families. He is also on the faculty of the Shalom Hartman Institute of North America, a project of the Shalom Hartman Institute.  From 1996 to 1998 he spent two years as a Jerusalem Fellow with the Mandel Institute, studying educational policy issues and researching rabbinic attitudes toward homosexuality. Greenberg participated in the critically acclaimed 2001 documentary film "Trembling Before G-d", featured at the Sundance Festival. The film about gay men and women raised in the orthodox Jewish world helped break the silence around homosexuality in religious Jewish circles.  On November 10, 2011, Greenberg officiated a civil marriage according to the laws of the District of Columbia in Washington, D.C. It was widely misreported Greenberg performed a religious ceremony; Greenberg has repeatedly agreed that same gender kiddushin is incompatible with Jewish law.

2011 same-sex commitment ceremony.

Greenberg officiating at a civil marriage between two orthodox men in the United States, first reported by "+972 Magazine" on November 11, 2011, attracted controversy and was misunderstood and rejected by many within the orthodox Jewish community. Many were confused and thought that he had performed the rites of a Jewish wedding (kiddushin).  Greenberg described the wedding as a "same-sex commitment ceremony", commenting that "while it was a wedding according to the laws of the District of Columbia, it was not a kiddushin," adding "my position was and still is that kiddushin is not appropriate for same-sex couples." Two weeks later, he wrote in an article in the "Jewish Week", "I did not conduct a 'gay Orthodox wedding'. I officiated at a ceremony that celebrated the decision of two men to commit to each other in love and to do so in binding fashion before family and friends. Though it was a legal marriage according to the laws of the District of Columbia, as far as Orthodox Jewish law (halacha) is concerned, there was no kiddushin (Jewish wedding ceremony) performed."  On December 5, 2011, in response to the ceremony, more than 100 orthodox rabbis signed a statement calling gay marriage a "desecration of Torah values", saying: "We, as rabbis from a broad spectrum of the Orthodox community around the world, wish to correct the false impression that an Orthodox-approved same-gender wedding took place. By definition, a union that is not sanctioned by Torah law is not an Orthodox wedding, and by definition a person who conducts such a ceremony is not an Orthodox rabbi."

Personal life.

Greenberg currently lives in Boston with his family.

Publications.

Greenberg has been a frequent commentator for the media and has published several articles on Jewish law and church and state issues.  In a 2001 article "Between Intermarriage and Conversion: Finding a Middle Way" published in CLAL, Greenberg proposes using the rabbinic concept of "ger toshav", (resident alien), to provide an accepted place for non-Jewish partners of intermarried couples, allowing them to experience "the joys of living in a Jewish home without insisting on conversion". As a marriage of a Jew and a ger toshav would not be legitimate under halachic law, Greenberg suggests using "cultural creativity" to find "new rituals that partake of Jewish resources and speak honestly about what is actually happening", the same as for gay couples, where in his opinion "kiddushin, the traditional ritual for the Jewish wedding, simply doesn't apply".  In 2004 Greenberg's book, "Wrestling with God and Men: Homosexuality in the Jewish Tradition" was published, meeting with critical acclaim. In particular it addressed permitted and forbidden sexual behaviour: "While the common understanding of the verse 'Thou shall not lie with a male as one lies with a woman' [] has been taken to refer to both active and passive partners... it would appear that the verse directly refers only to the active partner engulfing his penis in the body of another man. According to this analysis the verse prohibits one, and only one, sexual practice between men, namely, anal intercourse, and speaks specifically to the active partner. There is no mention of any other behavior that this verse would prohibit." In Greenberg's reading "the verse prohibits the kind of sex between men that is designed to effect the power and mastery of the penetrator. Sex for the conquest, for shoring up the ego, for selfaggrandizement, or worse, for the perverse pleasure of demeaning another man is prohibited," and he adds that reading Leviticus 18:22 "as a law against sexual domination and appropriation... offers gay people a way to reconnect to God, Torah, and the Jewish people". Greenberg says that he interprets the passage in this way "because it offers me a way of coming back to Judaism. It's a radical reading, but if you believe that God hates what you are, why would you go to such a temple?"  In addition to it, Greenberg's interpretation of Leviticus 18:22, "the very verse that was for centuries read as requiring the ongoing demotion of women through the marking of intercourse as humiliation and thus femininity as degraded could be read as a full-fledged critique of the maledominated social hierarchy! The only way to redeem intercourse from its inevitable dominations is to press for gender equality on the deepest of emotional planes, to work formally toward ending the gender hierarchy, and to heal the ugly misogyny at its foundation".  "Wrestling with God and Men" received the 2005 Koret Jewish Book Award for Philosophy and Thought, considered one of the highest honors for authors writing prose on Jewish themes, and was a finalist for the 17th Annual Lambda Literary Awards.

Reception.

Some orthodox Jews have criticized Rabbi Greenberg and questioned his orthodox credentials. After Greenberg came out, Rabbi Moshe Tendler, Rosh Yeshiva at Yeshiva University stated: "Being an Orthodox Rabbi and actively gay is an oxymoron... [It is] the exact same as if he said, 'I'm an Orthodox rabbi and I eat ham sandwiches on Yom Kippur'. In Tendler's opinion "it is very sad that an individual who attended our yeshiva sunk to the depths of what we consider a depraved society" and called Greenberg "a Reform rabbi". Commenting on Greenberg's role in "Trembling before God", Rabbi Avi Shafran, a public relations professional for Agudath Israel of America who scolded the movie for not showing Orthodox Jews who have undergone conversion therapy to change their sexual inclinations, wrote: "Rabbi Steve Greenberg, billed as 'the first openly gay Orthodox rabbi'[, a]ddressing the Torah's strong prohibition of male homosexual acts,... suggests to the camera, without elaboration: 'There are other ways of reading the Torah'. What Rabbi Greenberg apparently believes is that elements of the Jewish religious tradition are negotiable, that the Torah, like a Hollywood script, can be sent back for a rewrite. That approach can be called many things, but 'Orthodox' is not among them."  In his review of "Wrestling with God and Men" for the Edah Journal, Rabbi Asher Lopatin affirmed Greenberg's "importance as a voice within the Orthodox community", and calls him "a brilliant, thoughtful and courageous rabbi" and his book "a brilliant work of creativity and research", he writes that ""Wrestling with God and Man" [sic], and Rabbi Greenberg's voice in this book fall outside the bounds of Orthodoxy" for three reasons: Because Greenberg "is not committing himself fully to Orthodoxy", because he "does not follow Orthodox methodology", and because he "is not sufficiently halakhically creative", not having "combined — in a novel way to be sure — [his] commitment to his homosexual identity and way of life with the binding nature of halakhah". At the same time, Lopatin is confident, that "Greenberg can write the Orthodox book that will show us that he is committed to staying the long and difficult course of persuasion that Orthodoxy demands".

Steven Greenberg (born June 19, 1956) is an American rabbi with a rabbinic ordination from the Orthodox rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (RIETS). He is described as the first openly gay Orthodox Jewish rabbi, since he publicly disclosed he was gay in an article in the Israeli newspaper "Maariv" in 1999 and participated in a 2001 documentary film about homosexual men and women raised in the Orthodox Jewish world.


Publication history.

The original title ran for 12 years and 124 issues. It was an anthology series that told war stories with horror, mystery, fantasy and science fiction elements. Changes in the Comics Code Authority made the use of horror elements possible. The first seven issues were reprinted material. Each issue beginning with issue #8 was hosted by Death, usually depicted as a skeleton dressed in a different military uniform each issue. The title's name was inspired by editor Joe Orlando. Walt Simonson's first professional published comic book work appeared in "Weird War Tales" #10 (January 1973). Roger McKenzie and Frank Miller's first collaboration was on a two-page story published in "Weird War Tales" #68 (October 1978). Recurring characters began to appear late in the series run, notably the G.I. Robot, and the return of "The War that Time Forgot" which originally ran in "Star Spangled War Stories". Writer J. M. DeMatteis and penciler Pat Broderick created the Creature Commandos in "Weird War Tales" #93 (November 1980).  In "Weird War Tales" #101 (July 1981), the G.I. Robot is deployed to a Pacific island alongside the Marines to fight the Japanese military. Although the robot is technically named "Jungle Automatic Killer - Experimental Number 1" (J.A.K.E. 1), it is given the nickname of the G.I. Robot. J.A.K.E. 1 is destroyed in "Weird War Tales" #111 (May 1982) but is replaced by J.A.K.E. 2, which continues to fight on various Pacific islands, including Dinosaur Island. It later teams with the Creature Commandos.  Several issues featured a series of short vignettes titled "The Day After Doomsday" featuring largely doomed characters dealing with various threats and harsh ironies of living in a post-nuclear war apocalyptic landscape. The first few stories dealt with a society reduced to medieval ways seven centuries after a war but most others dealt with the near-term aftermath, with the unexpected results of radiation or infrastructure damage almost always catching the characters by surprise.  Other stories featured robot soldiers, ghosts, the undead, and other paranormal characters from different eras of time.

Revival.

"Weird War Tales" was revived for DC Comics' Vertigo imprint in 1997. It was published as a four-issue limited series, followed by a single-issue special in 2000.

Weird War Tales was a war comic book title with supernatural overtones published by DC Comics. It was published from September–October 1971 to June 1983.


Biography.

Early life and career.

Sekowsky was born in Lansford, Pennsylvania, and began working in the comics medium in 1941, as an artist at Marvel Comics' predecessor, Timely Comics, in New York City. There he worked as both a cartoonist on such humor features as "Ziggy Pig and Silly Seal", and as a superhero artist on such star characters as Captain America and the Sub-Mariner in issues of "All Winners Comics", "Daring Comics", "Marvel Mystery Comics", "USA Comics", and "Young Allies Comics". Sekowsky developed a reputation as one of the fastest artists in the comics field. Fellow Timely artist Gene Colan commented on his work: "His pencils were something to behold. Very loose, but so beautifully done. At the time, there was no one like him."  During the 1940s, Sekowsky married his first wife, Joanne Latta. Concurrently, he began a complicated relationship with artist Valerie (a.k.a. Violet) Barclay, who was working at the Manhattan restaurant Cafe Rouge. As Barclay recalled in a 2004 interview, "I was 17, and... was making $18 a week as a hostess. Mike said, 'I'll get you a job making $35 a week as a [staff] inker, and you can [additionally] freelance over the weekend. I'll let you ink my stuff'. He went to editor Stan Lee and got me the job. I didn't know anything about inking. [Staff artist] Dave Gantz taught me — just by watching him". Sekowsky bestowed expensive gifts on her even after his marriage to Latta, causing friction in the Timely bullpen, which she left in 1949. She later described the office environment,  Sekowsky, one of the nascent Marvel Comics' mainstays, chose to remain and "make George's life hell", Barclay said in 2004. She further described, "I was married before I met Mike, but my husband's divorce was not final.... [I] had to go to court and get an annulment. Mike paid for it and it cost $350".  Sekowsky continued drawing for Timely in multiple genres through the 1940s and into the 1950s, on such Western characters as the Apache Kid, the Black Rider, and Kid Colt for Marvel's 1950s iteration, Atlas Comics. He later freelanced for other companies, drawing the television show spin-offs "Gunsmoke" and "Buffalo Bill, Jr." for Dell Comics; romance comics (for Crestwood, Fawcett Comics, Nedor, Quality Comics, and St. John Publications); the jungle adventure "Ramar of the Jungle" for (Charlton Comics); war, including Ziff Davis' "G.I. Joe", and others. He continued to draw for Dell in particular through the early 1960s.

DC Comics.

In 1952, Sekowsky began working at DC Comics, where he drew romance comics and science fiction titles under the editorship of Julius Schwartz. Sekowsky drew the first appearance of Adam Strange in "Showcase" #17 (Nov. 1958). Sekowsky and writer Gardner Fox co-created the Justice League of America in "The Brave and the Bold" #28 (March 1960). After two further appearances in that title, the team received its own series which Sekowsky drew for 63 issues. Fox and Sekowsky added to the membership of the Justice League by inducting new members Green Arrow, the Atom, and Hawkman. Among the adversaries which Fox and Sekowsky introduced for the team were Amazo and Doctor Light. "Justice League of America" #21 and #22 (Sept. 1963) saw the first team-up of the Justice League and the Justice Society of America as well as the first use of the term "Crisis" in reference to a crossover between DC's characters. The following year's JLA team-up with the Justice Society introduced the threat of the Crime Syndicate of America of Earth-Three.  Sekowsky married his second wife, Josephine, called Pat, in October 1967.  Sekowsky and writer Bob Haney introduced B'wana Beast in "Showcase" #66 (Feb. 1967). In 1968, Sekowsky became the penciler of "Metal Men". The following year, Sekowsky also became the writer and changed the direction of the series by having the Metal Men assume human identities. The series was canceled six issues later.  At roughly the same time, Sekowsky began working on "Wonder Woman" with issue #178 (Sept.-Oct. 1968), first as artist and then as writer and editor, until issue #196. His run on the series included a variety of themes, from espionage to mythological adventure. He contributed a story about Wonder Woman and Batman to "The Brave and the Bold". Comics historian Mark Voger has praised Sekowsky's work from this era by noting "More than any other artist then working for DC Comics, Sekowsky...captured the look and sensibility of the late 1960s."  Sekowsky wrote and drew features for the series-tryout comic-book series "Showcase" during the last three years of its run. This included "The Maniaks" in "Showcase" #68–69 (June–August 1967) and #71 (December 1967) and "Jason's Quest", an adventure series about a young man on a motorcycle searching for his family, in "Showcase" #88–90 (Feb.–May 1970). He became the writer/artist of the Supergirl feature in "Adventure Comics" as of issue #397 (Sept. 1970) and frequently disregarded continuity by scripting stories which contradicted DC's canon.

Later career.

Upon leaving DC, Sekowsky returned to Marvel, where he had gotten his start in the 1940s. From 1971 to 1975, he sporadically provided penciling for stories in "Amazing Adventures" vol. 2, featuring the Inhumans; and "Giant-Size Super-Villain Team-Up".  Sekowsky and writer Greg Weisman planned a "Black Canary" miniseries in 1984 for DC Comics. After the first issue was pencilled, the project went unpublished due to the character being used in writer/artist Mike Grell's "" series. Elements were used for Weisman's "" short film. Sekowsky returned to "Justice League of America" to pencil a flashback tale in issue #240 (July 1985), which featured the Justice League from his era.  For the last decade of his life, Sekowsky lived in Los Angeles and worked primarily on Hanna-Barbera animated television series, including "Scooby-Doo". After hospitalization with health problems stemming from diabetes, he began freelancing for publisher Daerrick Gross, who was developing a line of skateboard and ninja comics. Sekowsky died before he could complete the assignment.

Awards.

Sekowsky won a 1963 Alley Award for Favorite Novel ("Crisis on Earths 1 and 2" in "Justice League of America" #21 and #22 with Gardner Fox) and a 1981 Inkpot Award.

Michael Sekowsky (; November 19, 1923 – March 30, 1989) was an American comics artist known as the penciler for DC Comics' "Justice League of America" during most of the 1960s, and as the regular writer and artist on "Wonder Woman" during the late 1960s and early 1970s.


Biography.

Early life.

Payne was born on 4 December 1911 at Saltash, Cornwall. He was the son of Stephen Payne, an English naval architect, and Mireille Louise Antonia (Dorey) Payne, originally from France. He was educated at St. Paul's School in London, the Diocesan College at Rondebosch and the University of Cape Town in South Africa, the universities of Liverpool and Munich, and the Sorbonne.

Career.

As a young man Payne worked as a shipwright, in England and then at the Singapore Naval Base, where he transferred to Army Intelligence. He worked in China between 1941 and 1946, as cultural attaché to the British Embassy and as a teacher at Fuhtan University at Chungking and at Lianda University, Kunming. While in China he became a friend of Joseph Needham. In 1946, Payne met and interviewed Mao Zedong in Yenan, providing background for his 1950 work "". During the interview, Mao correctly predicted that it would take only a year and half for the Communist forces to conquer China after the armistice with Chiang Kai-shek and his followers was broken.  Payne moved to the United States in 1946 and from 1949-54 was Professor of English and author in residence at Alabama College, Montevallo. He became a US citizen in 1953 and settled in New York in 1954, devoting himself to writing and shifting his focus in part from novels and poetry to biography. He was chairman of the Translation Committee of PEN International, and in 1976 co-founded the Translation Center at Columbia University. He edited "The Russian Library" series for Washington Square Press. He died in Bermuda on 18 February 1983.

Marriages.

Payne married Rose Hsiung, daughter of Hsiung Hse-ling, a former prime minister of China, in 1942. They divorced in 1951. He married Sheila Lalwani in 1981.

Writing.

Early writing by Payne included two novels, "The War in the Marshes" and "The Mountain and the Stars". He also reported for newspapers on the Spanish Civil War and from China on the war with Japan. While in China he also wrote autobiographical works, historical novels, and worked on "The White Pony", a compilation of Chinese poetry.  A "workaholic" who often produced several books within a year, Payne wrote over 100 published books, including novels, histories and biographies. He was best known for the biographies, which included studies of Charlie Chaplin, Greta Garbo, Hitler, Lenin, Stalin, Trotsky, Gandhi, Albert Schweitzer, Dostoyevsky, Ivan the Terrible, Chiang Kai-shek, Karl Marx, Mao Zedong, Sun Yat-sen, André Malraux, Shakespeare, Alexander the Great, the White Rajahs of Sarawak and General George C. Marshall. Some of his works were Book of the Month Club selections: these were "The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler" and "The Life and Death of Lenin" as Main Selections; "The Gold of Troy" as a Dual Selection; "The Life and Death of Mahatma Gandhi" and "The World of Art" as Alternate Selections, and "The Rise and Fall of Stalin" and "The Dream and the Tomb" as other selections.  Payne's biographies were sometimes informed by his personal encounters with his subjects. Payne had actually met Hitler in 1937 in Munich at the Hotel Vierjahrenzeiten at the invitation of Rudolf Hess. As Payne recounted in his book "Eyewitness", Hitler offered him a strawberry cream cake. Payne also dined and had long conversations with Mao Zedong in 1946.  As a novelist, Payne used the pseudonyms Richard Cargoe, John Anthony Devon, Howard Horne, Valentin Tikhonov, and Robert Young. In 1954, he published a pastiche novella, "The Deluge", as Leonardo da Vinci; the book was mostly Payne's writing, incorporating "fragmentary da Vinci notes." He also performed translations into English from many languages, including works by Pasternak and Kierkegaard.  Payne contributed many articles to leading magazines including "The New York Times Magazine", "United Nations World" and "Saturday Review". The "New York Times" and "Saturday Review" frequently featured book reviews by him.  Many of Payne's better-known works have been re-published in digital form by the British publisher Endeavour Press. World rights to all works by Payne are handled by David Higham Associates, London, U.K.  Francis Ford Coppola, who was the co-screenwriter of the award-winning 1970 film "Patton", lifted almost verbatim the last words of the film from the first paragraph of Payne's book "The Roman Triumph", ending with the phrase, "all glory is fleeting." Payne received no screen credit for this contribution.

Critical reaction.

Payne was described in 1947 as "a poet and a believer in the permanent power of beauty", and as a "young English author whose versatility and prolific output have astonished the literary world". The New York Times in 1950 called him "the most versatile writer of the year". Orville Prescott, book reviewer for the "New York Times", claimed that "No man alive can write more beautiful prose than Robert Payne."  Payne's biography of Hitler was seen as attempting to "humanize the inhuman Hitler". The American critic Christopher Lehmann-Haupt wrote that the effect of this approach was "interesting and terrifying". The historian Alan Bullock commented that Payne's focus on Hitler's personal life resulted in a good account of Hitler's earlier years, but proved less productive for his later life when he "becomes absorbed in politics". "The Biography Book" recognised the "narrative and imaginative power" of Payne's account, while stating that "it incorporates speculation as fact". One example of this was the book's acceptance of claims by Bridget Dowling (Hitler's sister-in-law) and others that Hitler had spent time in Liverpool before 1914, a claim later described as "conclusively disproved".  Payne was said to be "a firm adherent to the conspiracy theory of politics" and among biographies of Lenin, Payne's book was described as "the easiest to read... also the easiest to forget". The "Los Angeles Times" commented on the Leonardo biography that "Payne makes a persuasive case... The biography is... a rendering of respect and admiration for the man."

Pierre Stephen Robert Payne (4 December 1911 – 18 February 1983) was an English-born author, known principally for works of biography and history, although he also wrote novels, poetry, magazine articles and many other works. After working in Singapore and China, he moved to the United States in 1946 and became a professor of English literature. From 1954 onwards he lived as a writer in New York.


In Scotland.

The term is widely used in Scotland, particularly the Highlands, to describe such roads. Passing places are generally marked with a diamond-shaped white sign with the words "passing place" on it. New signs tend to be square rather than diamond-shaped, as diamond signs are also used for instructions to tram drivers in cities. On some roads, especially in Argyll and Bute, passing places are marked with black-and-white-striped posts. Signs remind drivers of slower vehicles to pull over into a passing place (or opposite it, if it is on the opposite side of the road) to let following vehicles pass, and most drivers oblige. The same system is found very occasionally in rural England and Wales, as well as Sai Kung District in the New Territories. Sometimes two small vehicles can pass one another at a place other than a designated passing place.  Some A-class and B-class roads in the Highlands are still single-track, although many sections have been widened for the sake of faster travel. In 2009, the A830 "Road to the Isles" and A851 on the Isle of Skye have had their single-track sections replaced with higher-quality single-carriageway road.

In mountains.

In remote backcountry areas around the world, particularly in mountains, many roads are single-track and unmarked. These include many U.S. Forest Service and logging roads in the United States. In Peru, the second of two overland transportation routes between Cuzco and Madre de Dios Region, a 300 km heavy-truck route, is a single-track road of gravel and dirt.  When practical, it is usually considered better for the vehicle going downhill to yield the right of way by stopping at a wide spot. The reason seems to be that it may be harder for the vehicle going up to get started again. At least in California, it is also the vehicle going downhill that must back up, if it is too late to stop at a wide spot.

Types.

Chicanes.

Chicanes are often placed on residential streets as a more aesthetic means to slow-down cars.

One-lane passages.

Sometimes, for budget reasons, and where traffic is fairly low, bridges exist as single-track corridors. Tunnels in remote areas can also be one lane when the tunnel is short and traffic is low, when building a hill or blasting away the mountain is too cost prohibitive.

One-way single-track roads.

Single-track roads also exist as one-way stretches. Exit and entrance ramps for freeways and motorways are among common examples of one-way single-track roads.

Private single-track roads.

The most common example of private single-track roads are long driveways of rural properties such as country houses and farm property.

Ice roads.

The mountain passes on the Dalton Highway in Alaska have a rule where goods-carrying northbound truck traffic has the right of way, while returning southbound traffic has to stop, as mentioned on "Ice Road Truckers". The reason behind this procedure is that traffic going north is in somewhat of a hurry to deliver equipment to Deadhorse, Prudhoe Bay, and the drill site over the frozen Arctic Ocean.

Temporary one-lane restrictions.

When reconstruction is being done on 2-lane highways where traffic is moderately heavy, a worker will often stand at each end of the construction zone, holding a sign with "SLOW" or "GO" written on one side and "STOP" on the reverse. The workers, who communicate through yelling, hand gestures, or radio, will periodically reverse their signs to allow time for traffic to flow in each direction. A modification of this for roadways that have heavier traffic volumes is to maintain one direction on the existing roadway, and detour the other, thus not requiring the use of flaggers. An example of this is the M-89 reconstruction project in Plainwell, MI, where westbound traffic is detoured via county roads around town.

User etiquette.

If lines of sight are long, and both drivers are familiar with the road, vehicles heading towards each other can adjust their speed so as to arrive at a wide spot at the same time and pass slowly, avoiding the need for either vehicle to stop.  When two vehicles meet head-on, generally the drivers confer to decide in which direction lies the closest wide spot, and together they travel there, the lead vehicle necessarily in reverse gear.  In Scotland, most drivers are accustomed to single-track roads. When opposing traffic is encountered, the first driver to reach the nearest passing place pulls over, no matter which side, and flashes the headlights to signal the other car to proceed forward. It is customary for both drivers to then acknowledge each other with a wave as they pass. At night, both drivers acknowledge each other by flashing their headlights as they pass.  Usually when there is a brief one-lane bottleneck of a 2-lane road, traffic will usually yield to oncoming traffic already in the bottleneck. One-lane single-track roads usually have no conflict.  In the United States, if the situation permits, both vehicles will pull off the road slightly and pass in this manner. Although saving time, this process can cause ruts and erosion along the edge of the road. For this reason, single track roads are generally used in places with very low traffic volumes, though one-lane stop-gap measures will have a STOP and YIELD on a sign construction workers flip.  If there are no passing places or wide parts of the road then start of the road is considered as the passing place.

A single-track road or one-lane road is a road that permits two-way travel but is not wide enough in most places to allow vehicles to pass one another (although sometimes two compact cars can pass). This kind of road is common in rural areas across the United Kingdom and elsewhere. To accommodate two-way traffic, many single-track roads, especially those officially designated as such, are provided with passing places (United Kingdom) or pullouts or turnouts (United States), or simply wide spots in the road, which may be scarcely longer than a typical car using the road. The distance between passing places varies considerably, depending on the terrain and the volume of traffic on the road. The railway analog for passing places are passing loops.


Design and description.

The last 17 boats of the third batch were significantly modified from the earlier boats. They had a stronger hull, carried more fuel and their armament was revised. The submarines had a length of overall, a beam of and a draft of. They displaced on the surface and submerged. The S-class submarines had a crew of 48 officers and ratings. They had a diving depth of.  For surface running, the boats were powered by two diesel engines, each driving one propeller shaft. When submerged each propeller was driven by a electric motor. They could reach on the surface and underwater. On the surface, the third batch boats had a range of at and at submerged.  "Spur" was armed with six 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes in the bow. She carried six reload torpedoes for a grand total of a dozen torpedoes. Twelve mines could be carried in lieu of the torpedoes. The boat was also equipped with a 4-inch (102 mm) deck gun.

Construction and career.

HMS "Spur" was built by Cammell Laird and launched on 17 November 1944. So far she has been the only ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name "Spur". During her wartime career, "Spur" claimed to have sunk a total of eleven junks in the Strait of Malacca, during her service in the Far East. The boat survived the Second World War and was sold to the Portuguese navy in November 1948, where she was renamed NRP "Narval". She was broken up on 1 October 1969.

HMS "Spur" was a S-class submarine of the third batch built for the Royal Navy during World War II. She survived the war and was sold to Portugal in 1948.