Early life and career.

Obhrai was born on July 5, 1950 in Oldeani, Tanganyika, now Tanzania, to a Hindu family. His father died when Obhrai was six, so he was raised by his mother, who worked at a bank. Obhrai went to primary school in Moshi, a town near Mount Kilimanjaro, and went to high school in Arusha before transferring to the prestigious Daly College in Indore, India. He moved to the United Kingdom and trained as an air traffic controller. Disillusioned by discrimination he faced in Britain, he returned to Tanzania to work. In 1976, Obhrai was on duty at a nearby Tanzanian airport when the Entebbe raid took place in neighbouring Uganda.  Obhrai immigrated to Canada in 1977 with his wife Neena, whom he had married in 1971, and his daughter Priti. He originally wanted to immigrate to Montreal, but decided to avoid Quebec and go to Calgary instead because of the recent election of René Lévesque's secessionist Parti Québécois. Obhrai retrained as an accountant in Calgary and got a job with the municipal government. With his wife, he established a dry cleaning business that expanded to three stores.  In the 1990s Obhrai became more involved in Calgary community life, serving as the president of the India-Canada Association of Calgary, the Monterey Park Community Association, and the Hindu Society of Calgary. He also was the vice-president responsible for Alberta in the National Indo-Canadian Council.

Municipal and provincial politics.

In 1993, Obhrai lost a race for an alderman position on Calgary City Council. He launched a failed bid for the Progressive Conservative nomination for a provincial byelection in Calgary-McCall in 1995, and for Calgary-Montrose in 1996.

Federal politics.

Obhrai's successful bid for the Reform Party of Canada nomination in the 1997 federal election was initially obstructed by the local riding association, prompting officials from the office of the party leader, Preston Manning, to intervene. He won the nomination and the riding, and was re-elected when the Reform Party became the Canadian Alliance in 2000. In 2004, 2006, 2008, 2011, and 2015 he was elected as a member of the Conservative Party of Canada. He was also one of four Alliance MPs who agreed to sit with the Progressive Conservative caucus after the December 9, 2003 creation of the merged Conservative Party. The Progressive Conservative and Canadian Alliance parliamentary caucuses were not officially merged until a few weeks later.  As an opposition member he served as the Opposition critic for International Cooperation, Multiculturalism, International Trade and of CIDA.  In February 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper appointed Obhrai as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs. In March 2008, he was given the additional responsibility of Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of International Cooperation, a role he held until November 2008; he would hold the role again from November 2010 to January 2011. During the 2011 Canadian federal election, Obhrai chose not to appear in an all-candidates debate in his riding, citing that his time was better spent talking with constituents. He also said that he "does not wish to debate a Liberal from Toronto," a reference to Calgary East Liberal candidate Josipa Petrunic, who despite her employment by the University of Toronto, was born and raised in Calgary, which was also where she conducted her research.  As a result of Gurbax Singh Malhi's defeat in the 2011 election, Obhrai became the longest serving member of parliament who was of South Asian and/or African ancestry. Obhrai penned a letter to the editor to the "Calgary Herald" and to his supporters saying that: "In my birth country, Tanzania, I would henceforth be referred to by the respectful title of "Mzee". In South Asia, I would receive the title of "Pradhaan". This means I have now reached the ranks of respected elders."  On September 19, 2013, Obhrai's role as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs was augmented when his role was expanded to include responsibility for international human rights. He was appointed to the Queen's Privy Council for Canada by Governor General of Canada David Johnston on the advice of Stephen Harper.  In September 2014, Obhrai received the Pride of India Award from the Indo-American Friends Group of Washington DC and the Indo-American Business Chamber in a dinner ceremony held on Capitol Hill for his contributions towards strengthening Canada's political, social and cultural relations with India and for his role in increasing Indian diaspora participation in pluralistic political activity.  Obhrai was the longest-serving Conservative MP in Canada's 42nd Parliament. Obhrai served as the International Development Critic in the Shadow Cabinet of Rona Ambrose, before resigning from the Shadow Cabinet to seek the Conservative Party leadership.

Conservative leadership campaign.

Obhrai ran in the 2017 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election. The focus of his campaign was promoting Conservative outreach to immigrant communities and opposing proposals by fellow leadership candidate Kellie Leitch to screen immigrants for Canadian values. Having received 0.41% of the vote on the first ballot, Obhrai was eliminated after the first round.

Post-leadership run.

Obhrai did not return to the Shadow Cabinet under new Conservative Leader Andrew Scheer.  In December 2017, it was reported that Obhrai was being challenged for the Conservative nomination in Calgary Forest Lawn for the 2019 election by former Calgary-East MLA Moe Amery.

Death.

Obhrai died of liver cancer on August 2, 2019 in Calgary. He had been diagnosed with the disease just a few weeks earlier. He was the longest-serving Conservative member of Parliament. A memorial service was held in Calgary several weeks after Obhrai's death. Stephen Harper and Andrew Scheer were among those who spoke at the service.

Deepak Obhrai (July 5, 1950 – August 2, 2019) was a Tanzania-born Canadian politician, representing the riding of Calgary East (until 2015) and Forest Lawn (from 2015) for the Reform Party of Canada and then the Conservative Party of Canada from 1997 until his death in 2019. He previously served as the Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was the first and only Hindu to become an MP in Canada, and at the time of his death was the longest continuously-serving Conservative MP. He ran in the 2017 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election, but was defeated in the first round of voting.


Early life and background.

Iha was born in Chicago, Illinois. He attended Elk Grove High School in Elk Grove Village, Illinois, which he described as "a boring, middle-class suburb of Chicago." Iha received average grades in high school, and, after a successful two-year stint at a local junior college, he majored in graphic design at Loyola University Chicago before dropping out to dedicate himself to the Smashing Pumpkins.  He is a second-generation Japanese-American and is able to speak only a little Japanese.  Like his bandmate Billy Corgan, Iha has a brother with a disability.  In the early 2000s, Iha had an imposter in the Chicago area, who was arrested. Iha designs and consults for his men's clothing brand Vaporize, a collaboration with the Japanese label Beams since 2001.

The Smashing Pumpkins.

In 1987 Iha, then playing guitar in the Chicago band Snake Train, met Billy Corgan via a friend. Corgan had already been telling people he was in a band called "Smashing Pumpkins", and decided to make it a real band with Iha.  Iha later became romantically involved with the band's bassist D'arcy Wretzky, but the couple broke up just prior to the band's performance at the Reading Festival in 1992. After a brief feud between the two, Iha sustained a friendly and close relationship with Wretzky, citing her as a best friend.  Iha wrote and sang a number of Smashing Pumpkins' songs, such as: "Blew Away" on "Pisces Iscariot", "Bugg Superstar" on "Vieuphoria", "Take Me Down" on "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness", "...Said Sadly", "Believe", "The Boy", and "The Bells" on "The Aeroplane Flies High", "Summer" on the "Perfect" single and "Go" on "Machina II/The Friends & Enemies of Modern Music". He co-wrote with Billy Corgan "I Am One" on "Gish", "Soma" and "Mayonaise" on "Siamese Dream", "Plume" on "Pisces Iscariot" and "Farewell and Goodnight" on "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness". He sang the band's covers of the Cure's "A Night Like This" and Syd Barrett's "Terrapin". During his time with the Pumpkins, Iha recorded with other bands, including Ivy, to which Adam Schlesinger contributes, and Swedish New Wave band the Sounds.  Billy Corgan has claimed that Iha played very little guitar on the first two Smashing Pumpkins albums, with Corgan himself playing most of the parts in the studio that Iha played live.  Iha was often considered the "quiet one" in Smashing Pumpkins, but he was known to engage in ad-libbed jokes and rap sessions at live performances. His humor was encapsulated in his use of the catchphrase, "I've seen a million faces, and I've rocked them all," originally from the Bon Jovi song "Wanted Dead or Alive".  In 1998, Iha released a moderately successful solo album, "Let It Come Down". One music video was produced from this album, for the song "Be Strong Now", which was released as a four-track single.  When his former bandmates Billy Corgan and Jimmy Chamberlin revived the "Smashing Pumpkins" name, Iha did not participate, and in fact had not spoken to Corgan in years. Corgan stated in a 2008 blog entry that when he and Chamberlin reunited, the "door was open" for Iha to rejoin, but he declined, and Corgan said that he "can now say definitively that Iha isn't ever coming back." However, in a 2012 interview about the band reformation, Iha stated that he was never even asked back into the band in the first place. Iha also admitted within the interview that he has not heard any of the band's new music since the reformation.  In a March 2013 interview, he was asked about looking back at the band's history and explained that he never really thought about his former success with the band, but did look back with fondness when asked about the 6 studio albums he made with them. He revealed that he and Corgan had not spoken in around ten years, but that he did speak to Wretzky "once in a while".  On March 26, 2016 and March 27, 2016, Iha joined Corgan and Chamberlin on stage unannounced at back to back Smashing Pumpkins shows at the Ace Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. Iha played a third show with the band in their hometown of Chicago at the Civic Opera house on April 14, 2016. In 2017, reunion rumors were leaked through various sources, and in 2018, Iha was spotted with Corgan, Chamberlin, and current Smashing Pumpkins guitarist Jeff Schroeder in the studio and at a photo shoot, confirming his return to the band.

Post-Pumpkins work.

2001–2004: A Perfect Circle, producing, Japan.

After the Smashing Pumpkins' breakup in 2000, Iha pursued many projects. He continues to contribute to other artists' recordings, such as "Don't Be Sad" on Whiskeytown's "Pneumonia" released in 2001 and further guest appearances for bands Ivy and Fountains of Wayne, both of which he remained close to, appearing on virtually every release by both bands since 1997. Andy Chase of Ivy, and Adam Schlesinger of both Ivy and Fountains, recorded on most songs James produced or wrote for other artists. Schlesinger first recorded on Iha's song on "The Bells" by the Smashing Pumpkins.  Iha made bigger news when he joined the alternative rock supergroup A Perfect Circle in July 2003 in time for their "Thirteenth Step" club tour. He has since recorded on their 2004 album "eMOTIVe" as well as contributed remixes of "Blue" and "Outsider", and is back with the band following its near 6-year long hiatus. In 2003, he joined Vanessa and the O's. The group released an EP "Plus Rien" in Sweden the same year and followed up with the album "La Ballade d'O" in 2005–06 on the band's independent record company Rushmore Recordings playing live shows in Sweden during the summer of 2005.  Iha has collaborated on musical and fashion design projects in Japan. He collaborated on and produced two tracks with Japanese musician Chara for her 2001 album "Madrigal" called "Boku ni Utsushite" and "Skirt". The latter was accompanied by a music video featuring Iha as a hunter in a forest. With the help of longtime friend and manager Isao Izutsu, Iha started the clothing label Vaporize (f.k.a. 'Vapor') in 2001, and recorded "Never Ever", his first solo song since the Smashing Pumpkins demise, for Vaporize's first runway show.  In 2001, Iha played live with the Blank Theory and recorded on their album "Beyond the Calm of the Corridor" producing the song "Addicted" together with Schlesinger and contributing guitar playing.

2005–2007: Soundtracks, collaborations, remixes.

Iha scored the Japanese film "Linda, Linda, Linda", released in late summer of 2005. The same year he teamed with Schlesinger again to produce a duet cover of Bobby Darin's "Splish Splash" for the soundtrack to the Wayne Wang film "Because of Winn-Dixie". The same year Iha contributed guitar to some tracks of Chino Moreno's band Team Sleep second album, which has yet to be released.  Iha produced two tracks on the 2006 tribute album to Serge Gainsbourg, "Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited", "I love you (me either)", that featured Cat Power and model Karen Elson singing and "L'Hotel" with Michael Stipe on vocals. Iha recorded on the track "The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde" in a duet with singer Kazu Makino (of Blonde Redhead) on the US edition of the album.  In February 2006, a digital EP "In the Sun" produced by Iha featuring Michael Stipe and Chris Martin was released. The EP was for the benefit of Gulf Coast victims of Hurricane Katrina. The song was featured on an episode of "Grey's Anatomy". In collaboration with Stipe, Iha played guitar at the "Bring 'Em Back Home Now" concert in March 2006 in New York City to benefit Iraq War veterans peace groups such as Veterans for Peace.  Iha remixed "Me Plus One", a track from Norwegian pop singer Annie's debut album "Anniemal". Released in October 2006, Florida pop group the Postmarks's "Goodbye" EP features a remix by Iha. That same year, Iha teamed up with Schlesinger to co-produce folk band America's comeback album, "Here & Now", and recorded on Scottish singer Isobel Campbell's album, collaborating on her renditions of traditional Irish and Scottish folk songs. In 2006 Iha recorded a cover of "Judy Is a Punk" by the Ramones for 30th anniversary of a Japanese clothing label Beams.  In February 2007, Side-Line announced that Iha delivered a remix for the Ladytron single "Weekend Mixes" out on March 9 via Smoke & Mirrors. In April 2007, he recorded a remix for the Midnight Movies track "Patient Eye".  Iha appeared on stage with Swedish band the Sounds, on the season finale of MTV's "Bam's Unholy Union" in April 2007 and contributed guitar to the song "Seatbacks and Traytables", on Fountains of Wayne's 2007 album "Traffic and Weather". His former bandmate Melissa Auf der Maur contributed to that album.

2007–present: Second solo album.

In the spring of 2007, Iha told "Rolling Stone" magazine that he was writing and recording songs for a second solo album. In the spring of 2007, Iha remixed Midnight Movies and the Postmarks as freebies on the Internet. A Chicago weekly reported in June 2007 that Iha had been living in New York City for some time, running a recording studio and independent label. Iha had lived in Manhattan since 2000 and has since moved to Brooklyn.  In May 2008, Marilyn Manson said that Iha would be making a guest appearance on his new record; however, Iha was not credited as a guitarist on the album.  On December 22, 2008, the Swedish band A Camp (the solo project of the Cardigans vocalist Nina Persson) put out a press release announcing that their new album would come out on April 28, 2009, featuring guest appearances by Iha and other musicians.  On February 17, 2009, it was announced that Iha had, together with Taylor Hanson, Fountains of Wayne bassist Adam Schlesinger, and Cheap Trick drummer Bun E. Carlos formed a new band called Tinted Windows. The band played their first publicized gig at SXSW in Austin, Texas on March 20. Their first album was released on April 21, 2009 to generally positive reviews.  In April 2010, Iha' website reopened. According to the site, Iha considered his next solo album "halfway done (in his mind)". Shortly thereafter, a picture of Iha with Kelly Pratt and Jon Natchez from the band Beirut was posted on the Web site saying they would be playing horns on the album.  In August 2010, members of A Perfect Circle posted messages to their Twitter accounts telling fans of their return after a 6-year long hiatus. The band later announced tour dates in which they would be playing the entirety of each of their three albums at each concert, with one album being played per night. It was announced that the line-up would consist of Maynard James Keenan, Billy Howerdel, Josh Freese, Matt McJunkins, and Iha.  Iha's second solo album titled "Look to the Sky" was released in March 2012. To begin its promotion, Iha performed at the 2nd EMI ROCKS festival in Saitama, Japan in February 2012, and later in December that year performing a small European tour in London, Paris, Amsterdam and Lisbon.  In 2013, under management of David Bason, Iha collaborated with Japanese musician Yukihiro Takahashi, writing songs for and performing on Takahashi's album "Life Anew", and performing as part of Takahashi's band "In Phase" on tours in Japan.  In 2014 Iha scored the soundtrack to Lionsgate/Hulu series "Deadbeat".  On March 26, 2016 Iha rejoined Smashing Pumpkins onstage for several numbers.  In 2016 Iha composed the score for James Franco's film "Mother, May I Sleep with Danger?"  In 2017 Iha composed the score for the drama series "The Arrangement".

Smashing Pumpkins reunion (2018-present).

In 2018 the Smashing Pumpkins announced that both Iha and drummer Jimmy Chamberlin would rejoin the band for their "Shiny and Oh So Bright" U.S. tour in the Summer of 2018. The Pumpkins' first LP with their reunited lineup, "", was released on November 16, 2018 to generally positive reviews.

Iha has produced songs, contributed guitar and vocals, and produced remixes for a number of artists, including Midnight Movies, Isobel Campbell, Marilyn Manson, Whiskeytown, and Michael Stipe. He co-owned Scratchie Records, an independent record label, with Adam Schlesinger, and from 1999-2012 owned a recording studio with Schlesinger and Andy Chase of Ivy called Stratosphere Sound.


Construction of the chain.

There are two types of links alternating in the bush roller chain. The first type is inner links, having two inner plates held together by two sleeves or bushings upon which rotate two rollers. Inner links alternate with the second type, the outer links, consisting of two outer plates held together by pins passing through the bushings of the inner links. The "bushingless" roller chain is similar in operation though not in construction; instead of separate bushings or sleeves holding the inner plates together, the plate has a tube stamped into it protruding from the hole which serves the same purpose. This has the advantage of removing one step in assembly of the chain.  The roller chain design reduces friction compared to simpler designs, resulting in higher efficiency and less wear. The original power transmission chain varieties lacked rollers and bushings, with both the inner and outer plates held by pins which directly contacted the sprocket teeth; however this configuration exhibited extremely rapid wear of both the sprocket teeth, and the plates where they pivoted on the pins. This problem was partially solved by the development of bushed chains, with the pins holding the outer plates passing through bushings or sleeves connecting the inner plates. This distributed the wear over a greater area; however the teeth of the sprockets still wore more rapidly than is desirable, from the sliding friction against the bushings. The addition of rollers surrounding the bushing sleeves of the chain and provided rolling contact with the teeth of the sprockets resulting in excellent resistance to wear of both sprockets and chain as well. There is even very low friction, as long as the chain is sufficiently lubricated. Continuous, clean, lubrication of roller chains is of primary importance for efficient operation as well as correct tensioning.

Lubrication.

Many driving chains (for example, in factory equipment, or driving a camshaft inside an internal combustion engine) operate in clean environments, and thus the wearing surfaces (that is, the pins and bushings) are safe from precipitation and airborne grit, many even in a sealed environment such as an oil bath. Some roller chains are designed to have o-rings built into the space between the outside link plate and the inside roller link plates. Chain manufacturers began to include this feature in 1971 after the application was invented by Joseph Montano while working for Whitney Chain of Hartford, Connecticut. O-rings were included as a way to improve lubrication to the links of power transmission chains, a service that is vitally important to extending their working life. These rubber fixtures form a barrier that holds factory applied lubricating grease inside the pin and bushing wear areas. Further, the rubber o-rings prevent dirt and other contaminants from entering inside the chain linkages, where such particles would otherwise cause significant wear.  There are also many chains that have to operate in dirty conditions, and for size or operational reasons cannot be sealed. Examples include chains on farm equipment, bicycles, and chain saws. These chains will necessarily have relatively high rates of wear, particularly when the operators are prepared to accept more friction, less efficiency, more noise and more frequent replacement as they neglect lubrication and adjustment.  Many oil-based lubricants attract dirt and other particles, eventually forming an abrasive paste that will compound wear on chains. This problem can be circumvented by use of a "dry" PTFE spray, which forms a solid film after application and repels both particles and moisture.

Motorcycle chain lubrication.

Chains operating at high speeds comparable to those on motorcycles should be used in conjunction with an oil bath. For modern motorcycles this is not possible, and most motorcycle chains run unprotected. Thus, motorcycle chains tend to wear very quickly relative to other applications. They are subject to extreme forces and are exposed to rain, dirt, sand and road salt.  Motorcycle chains are part of the drive train to transmit the motor power to the back wheel. Properly lubricated chains can reach an efficiency of 98% or greater in the transmission. Unlubricated chains will significantly decrease performance and increase chain and sprocket wear.  Two types of aftermarket lubricants are available for motorcycle chains: spray on lubricants and oil drip feed systems.

Variants in design.

If the chain is not being used for a high wear application (for instance if it is just transmitting motion from a hand-operated lever to a control shaft on a machine, or a sliding door on an oven), then one of the simpler types of chain may still be used. Conversely, where extra strength but the smooth drive of a smaller pitch is required, the chain may be "siamesed"; instead of just two rows of plates on the outer sides of the chain, there may be three ("duplex"), four ("triplex"), or more rows of plates running parallel, with bushings and rollers between each adjacent pair, and the same number of rows of teeth running in parallel on the sprockets to match. Timing chains on automotive engines, for example, typically have multiple rows of plates called strands.  Roller chain is made in several sizes, the most common American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards being 40, 50, 60, and 80. The first digit(s) indicate the pitch of the chain in eighths of an inch, with the last digit being 0 for standard chain, 1 for lightweight chain, and 5 for bushed chain with no rollers. Thus, a chain with half inch pitch would be a #40 while a #160 sprocket would have teeth spaced 2 inches apart, etc. Metric pitches are expressed in sixteenths of an inch; thus a metric #8 chain (08B-1) would be equivalent to an ANSI #40. Most roller chain is made from plain carbon or alloy steel, but stainless steel is used in food processing machinery or other places where lubrication is a problem, and nylon or brass are occasionally seen for the same reason.  Roller chain is ordinarily hooked up using a master link (also known as a connecting link), which typically has one pin held by a horseshoe clip rather than friction fit, allowing it to be inserted or removed with simple tools. Chain with a removable link or pin is also known as cottered chain, which allows the length of the chain to be adjusted. Half links (also known as offsets) are available and are used to increase the length of the chain by a single roller. Riveted roller chain has the master link (also known as a connecting link) "riveted" or mashed on the ends. These pins are made to be durable and are not removable.

Wear.

The effect of wear on a roller chain is to increase the pitch (spacing of the links), causing the chain to grow longer. Note that this is due to wear at the pivoting pins and bushes, not from actual stretching of the metal (as does happen to some flexible steel components such as the hand-brake cable of a motor vehicle).  With modern chains it is unusual for a chain (other than that of a bicycle) to wear until it breaks, since a worn chain leads to the rapid onset of wear on the teeth of the sprockets, with ultimate failure being the loss of all the teeth on the sprocket. The sprockets (in particular the smaller of the two) suffer a grinding motion that puts a characteristic hook shape into the driven face of the teeth. (This effect is made worse by a chain improperly tensioned, but is unavoidable no matter what care is taken). The worn teeth (and chain) no longer provides smooth transmission of power and this may become evident from the noise, the vibration or (in car engines using a timing chain) the variation in ignition timing seen with a timing light. Both sprockets and chain should be replaced in these cases, since a new chain on worn sprockets will not last long. However, in less severe cases it may be possible to save the larger of the two sprockets, since it is always the smaller one that suffers the most wear. Only in very light-weight applications such as a bicycle, or in extreme cases of improper tension, will the chain normally jump off the sprockets.  The lengthening due to wear of a chain is calculated by the following formula:  formula_1  M = the length of a number of links measured  S = the number of links measured  P = Pitch  In industry, it is usual to monitor the movement of the chain tensioner (whether manual or automatic) or the exact length of a drive chain (one rule of thumb is to replace a roller chain which has elongated 3% on an adjustable drive or 1.5% on a fixed-center drive). A simpler method, particularly suitable for the cycle or motorcycle user, is to attempt to pull the chain away from the larger of the two sprockets, whilst ensuring the chain is taut. Any significant movement (e.g. making it possible to see through a gap) probably indicates a chain worn up to and beyond the limit. Sprocket damage will result if the problem is ignored. Sprocket wear cancels this effect, and may mask chain wear.

Bicycle chain wear.

The lightweight chain of a bicycle with derailleur gears can snap (or rather, come apart at the side-plates, since it is normal for the "riveting" to fail first) because the pins inside are not cylindrical, they are barrel-shaped. Contact between the pin and the bushing is not the regular line, but a point which allows the chain's pins to work its way through the bushing, and finally the roller, ultimately causing the chain to snap. This form of construction is necessary because the gear-changing action of this form of transmission requires the chain to both bend sideways and to twist, but this can occur with the flexibility of such a narrow chain and relatively large free lengths on a bicycle.  Chain failure is much less of a problem on hub-geared systems (e.g. Bendix 2-speed, Sturmey-Archer AW) since the parallel pins have a much bigger wearing surface in contact with the bush. The hub-gear system also allows complete enclosure, a great aid to lubrication and protection from grit.

Chain strength.

The most common measure of roller chain's strength is tensile strength. Tensile strength represents how much load a chain can withstand under a one-time load before breaking. Just as important as tensile strength is a chain's fatigue strength. The critical factors in a chain's fatigue strength is the quality of steel used to manufacture the chain, the heat treatment of the chain components, the quality of the pitch hole fabrication of the linkplates, and the type of shot plus the intensity of shot peen coverage on the linkplates. Other factors can include the thickness of the linkplates and the design (contour) of the linkplates. The rule of thumb for roller chain operating on a continuous drive is for the chain load to not exceed a mere 1/6 or 1/9 of the chain's tensile strength, depending on the type of master links used (press-fit vs. slip-fit). Roller chains operating on a continuous drive beyond these thresholds can and typically do fail prematurely via linkplate fatigue failure.  The standard minimum ultimate strength of the ANSI 29.1 steel chain is 12,500 x (pitch, in inches). X-ring and O-Ring chains greatly decrease wear by means of internal lubricants, increasing chain life. The internal lubrication is inserted by means of a vacuum when riveting the chain together.

Chain standards.

Standards organizations (such as ANSI and ISO) maintain standards for design, dimensions, and interchangeability of transmission chains. For example, the following Table shows data from ANSI standard B29.1-2011 (Precision Power Transmission Roller Chains, Attachments, and Sprockets) developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). See the references for additional information. For mnemonic purposes, below is another presentation of key dimensions from the same standard, expressed in fractions of an inch (which was part of the thinking behind the choice of preferred numbers in the ANSI standard):  A typical bicycle chain (for derailleur gears) uses narrow -inch-pitch chain. The width of the chain is variable, and does not affect the load capacity. The more sprockets at the rear wheel (historically 3–6, nowadays 7–12 sprockets), the narrower the chain. Chains are sold according to the number of speeds they are designed to work with, for example, "10 speed chain". Hub gear or single speed bicycles use 1/2" x 1/8" chains, where 1/8" refers to the maximum thickness of a sprocket that can be used with the chain.  Typically chains with parallel shaped links have an even number of links, with each narrow link followed by a broad one. Chains built up with a uniform type of link, narrow at one and broad at the other end, can be made with an odd number of links, which can be an advantage to adapt to a special chainwheel-distance; on the other side such a chain tends to be not so strong.  Roller chains made using ISO standard are sometimes called as isochains.

Roller chain or bush roller chain is the type of chain drive most commonly used for transmission of mechanical power on many kinds of domestic, industrial and agricultural machinery, including conveyors, wire- and tube-drawing machines, printing presses, cars, motorcycles, and bicycles. It consists of a series of short cylindrical rollers held together by side links. It is driven by a toothed wheel called a sprocket. It is a simple, reliable, and efficient means of power transmission.


Definitions of the degree.

From "S" to "S".

The simplest and most important case is the degree of a continuous map from the formula_1-sphere formula_2 to itself (in the case formula_3, this is called the winding number):  Let formula_4 be a continuous map. Then formula_5 induces a homomorphism formula_6, where formula_7 is the formula_1th homology group. Considering the fact that formula_9, we see that formula_10 must be of the form formula_11 for some fixed formula_12. This formula_13 is then called the degree of formula_5.

Between manifolds.

Algebraic topology.

Let "X" and "Y" be closed connected oriented "m"-dimensional manifolds. Orientability of a manifold implies that its top homology group is isomorphic to Z. Choosing an orientation means choosing a generator of the top homology group.  A continuous map "f" : "X"→"Y" induces a homomorphism "f" from "H"("X") to "H"("Y"). Let ["X"], resp. ["Y"] be the chosen generator of "H"("X"), resp. "H"("Y") (or the fundamental class of "X", "Y"). Then the degree of "f" is defined to be "f"(["X"]). In other words,  If "y" in "Y" and "f" ("y") is a finite set, the degree of "f" can be computed by considering the "m"-th local homology groups of "X" at each point in "f" ("y").

Differential topology.

In the language of differential topology, the degree of a smooth map can be defined as follows: If "f" is a smooth map whose domain is a compact manifold and "p" is a regular value of "f", consider the finite set  By "p" being a regular value, in a neighborhood of each "x" the map "f" is a local diffeomorphism (it is a covering map). Diffeomorphisms can be either orientation preserving or orientation reversing. Let "r" be the number of points "x" at which "f" is orientation preserving and "s" be the number at which "f" is orientation reversing. When the domain of "f" is connected, the number "r" − "s" is independent of the choice of "p" (though "n" is not!) and one defines the degree of "f" to be "r" − "s". This definition coincides with the algebraic topological definition above.  The same definition works for compact manifolds with boundary but then "f" should send the boundary of "X" to the boundary of "Y".  One can also define degree modulo 2 (deg("f")) the same way as before but taking the "fundamental class" in Z homology. In this case deg("f") is an element of Z (the field with two elements), the manifolds need not be orientable and if "n" is the number of preimages of "p" as before then deg("f") is "n" modulo 2.  Integration of differential forms gives a pairing between (C-)singular homology and de Rham cohomology: formula_17, where formula_18 is a homology class represented by a cycle formula_18 and formula_20 a closed form representing a de Rham cohomology class. For a smooth map "f" : "X"→"Y" between orientable "m"-manifolds, one has  where "f" and "f"* are induced maps on chains and forms respectively. Since "f"["X"] = deg "f" · ["Y"], we have  for any "m"-form "ω" on "Y".

Maps from closed region.

If formula_23is a bounded region, formula_24 smooth, formula_25 a regular value of formula_5 and formula_27, then the degree formula_28 is defined by the formula where formula_30 is the Jacobi matrix of formula_5 in formula_32. This definition of the degree may be naturally extended for non-regular values formula_25 such that formula_34 where formula_35 is a point close to formula_25.  The degree satisfies the following properties:  These properties characterise the degree uniquely and the degree may be defined by them in an axiomatic way.  In a similar way, we could define the degree of a map between compact oriented manifolds with boundary.

Properties.

The degree of a map is a homotopy invariant; moreover for continuous maps from the sphere to itself it is a "complete" homotopy invariant, i.e. two maps formula_54 are homotopic if and only if formula_55.  In other words, degree is an isomorphism between formula_56 and formula_57.  Moreover, the Hopf theorem states that for any formula_1-dimensional closed oriented manifold "M", two maps formula_59 are homotopic if and only if formula_60  A self-map formula_61 of the "n"-sphere is extendable to a map formula_62 from the "n"-ball to the "n"-sphere if and only if formula_63. (Here the function "F" extends "f" in the sense that "f" is the restriction of "F" to formula_2.)

Calculating the degree.

There is an algorithm for calculating the topological degree deg("f", "B", 0) of a continuous function "f" from an "n"-dimensional box "B" (a product of "n" intervals) to formula_65, where "f" is given in the form of arithmetical expressions. An implementation of the algorithm is available in TopDeg - a software tool for computing the degree (LGPL-3).

In topology, the degree of a continuous mapping between two compact oriented manifolds of the same dimension is a number that represents the number of times that the domain manifold wraps around the range manifold under the mapping. The degree is always an integer, but may be positive or negative depending on the orientations.


In the novel.

Part One: Fantine.

When Hugo introduces the Thénardiers, they have two daughters named Éponine and Azelma, whom they spoil and pamper as children, and a son called Gavroche. They run an inn in the town of Montfermeil. The Thénardiers are both described as being very ugly. He is "a skinny little runt, pale, angular, bony, rickety, who looked sick but was as fit as a fiddle". She is "tall, blond, ruddy, barrel-like, brawny, boxy, huge, and agile".  Fantine, a struggling single mother, arranges for her daughter Cosette to stay with them, if she pays a regular fee. The Thénardiers treat Cosette very badly, dressing her in rags, selling her clothes for 60 francs in the streets of Paris, forcing her to work, and beating her often. Fantine is eventually reduced to working as a prostitute in order to earn enough money to meet the Thenardiers' demands, as M. Thénardier extorts more money from Fantine by claiming that Cosette is ill. The Thénardiers spend the money Fantine sends them on their daughters.

Part Two: Cosette.

After Fantine's death, Jean Valjean arrives in Montfermeil on Christmas Eve. He finds Cosette all alone fetching a pail of water for the Thénardiers in a dark forest and accompanies her back to the inn. After arranging lodgings at the inn for the night, he observes how the Thénardiers abuse her and how Éponine and Azelma mimic their parents' behavior and complain when Cosette plays with their doll. Valjean leaves the inn and returns a moment later with a beautiful new doll, which he offers to Cosette. At first Cosette is unsure if the doll really is for her and is reluctant to take it, but then joyfully accepts it. Mme. Thénardier is furious but M. Thénardier tells her that Valjean can do as he wishes as long as he pays them.  On Christmas Day, Valjean informs the Thénardiers that he wants to take Cosette away with him. Mme. Thénardier immediately agrees, but M. Thénardier feigns affection for Cosette and reluctance to give her up. Valjean pays them 1,500 francs, settling all of Fantine's debts, and he and Cosette leave the inn. M. Thénardier tries to swindle more money out of Valjean. He runs after them and tells Valjean that he has changed his mind and wants Cosette back. He claims that Cosette's mother gave her into their care and that he cannot release Cosette without a note from her mother. Valjean hands him a letter signed by Fantine authorizing him to take charge of Cosette. M. Thénardier orders Valjean to either give back Cosette or pay a thousand crowns, but Valjean ignores him and departs with Cosette. M. Thénardier expresses regret that he did not bring his gun, and turns back to the inn.

Part Three: Marius.

The inn, which is forced to close down after Cosette is taken, is called "The Sergeant at Waterloo", because of a peculiar adventure that M. Thénardier had following the famous battle. While looting the corpses shortly after the fighting has ceased, M. Thénardier accidentally saves the life of a Colonel, The Baron Pontmercy. Not wanting to be revealed as a looter, Thénardier claimed to be a sergeant of Napoleon's army. The tale as told by Thénardier eventually transformed into one of him rescuing a General during the heat of battle under a hail of grapeshot, as it grew more elaborate with each telling. In a bizarre coincidence, the Thénardier family ends up living next to the disgraced son of the baron, Marius Pontmercy, at an apartment building named Gorbeau House nine years after the closing of the inn.  In the nine years following the inn's closing, the Thénardier family had assumed the name Jondrette. In addition, they had born two more sons, whom they essentially sold to Magnon so that she could pass them off as the children supported by Marius' grandfather M. Gillenormand for the sake of procuring child support. Magnon had accused M. Gillenormand of fathering the two children, which he denied, although he agreed to support them as long as Magnon did not bring him any more children to support. The Thénardiers' eldest son, Gavroche, was left to the streets, where he became a gamin.  The Jondrettes support themselves by sending letters begging for money to well-known philanthropists. Éponine comes in the apartment in a rush and announces that a philanthropist and his daughter are arriving any minute to visit them. In order to look poorer, M. Jondrette puts out their fire and breaks a chair. He then orders Azelma to punch out a window pane. Although hesitant, she does so, resulting in cutting her hand. M. Jondrette is pleased, for he had hoped for that result. The philanthropist and his daughter then come into their apartment; they turn out to be Valjean and Cosette. Marius, observing the Jondrettes through a crack in the wall, recognizes Cosette as the girl he met in the Luxembourg Garden. After their visit, M. Jondrette arranges with Valjean to meet again, but after recognizing Valjean, he plots to rob him upon his arrival with the aid of the street gang Patron-Minette. Marius learns of M. Jondrette's plan to rob Valjean, and goes to the police. At the police station, an inspector named Javert instructs Marius to stand lookout with two pistols, and to fire as soon as the crime is committed to signal the police to come. Marius returns to his apartment and continues to observe the Jondrettes. M. Jondrette sends Éponine and Azelma outside as look-outs. When Valjean returns with rent money, M. Jondrette and Patron-Minette ambush him and he reveals his real identity: M. Thénardier. Marius, hearing this, recognizes him as the man his father had mentioned in his will as a hero who was due any service that Marius could grant him. Marius, torn between his desire to aid Valjean and his sense of duty to the man who had once saved his father, does not signal the police. Valjean denies knowing M. Thénardier and that they have never met. Valjean then tries to escape through a window, but he is restrained and tied up. M. Thénardier orders Valjean to write a letter to Cosette, telling her to return to the apartment, and they would keep her as a hostage until Valjean delivers 200,000 francs to him. After Valjean writes the letter and gives his address, M. Thénardier sends out Mme. Thénardier to get Cosette. However, Mme. Thénardier comes back alone, and announces the address Valjean has given is a false address. It was during her absence that Valjean has managed to free himself. M. Thénardier decides with Patron-Minette that they have no choice but to kill Valjean. Marius remembers that Éponine had come into his apartment earlier and wrote on a sheet of paper "The cognes (police) are here" to prove her literacy. Marius grabs the paper and throws it in through the wall crack. M. Thénardier reads it and thinks Éponine threw it inside as a warning. The Thénardiers and Patron-Minette try to escape, but Javert arrives and arrests them all (except Gavroche, who is not present, and Montparnasse, who escapes). Valjean escapes through the window undetected.

Part Four: St. Denis.

Mme. Thénardier dies in prison and Éponine and Azelma are released. Gavroche, not involved with his family's crimes, encounters purely by chance his two younger brothers, who are unaware of their identities. He briefly takes care of them, but they soon leave him in search of their missing foster mother. It is unknown what has happened to the two after that.  Éponine is sent by Babet to investigate Valjean's house, but since she knows that Cosette, who now lives with Valjean, is the beloved of her former neighbor Marius (for whom she harbors some affection), sends back a biscuit to Babet (which is code for "not worth the trouble"). She leads Marius to Valjean's house so that he may be with his beloved. M. Thénardier and Patron-Minette, with the aid of Gavroche, manage to escape from jail and persist in robbing Valjean's house. However, Éponine wards them off by threatening to scream. The next day, Éponine tries to tear Cosette and Marius apart by sending Valjean a warning to "move out," and later telling Marius that his friends invited him to fight with them at the barricade at the Rue de la Chanvrerie, intending for both her and Marius to perish in the rebellion of 1832 so that she will not have to share him with Cosette. Both Éponine and Gavroche are killed at Rue de la Chanvrerie, despite Marius' efforts to protect the Thénardier family.

Part Five: Jean Valjean.

Marius himself is wounded in the battle, and Valjean attempts to save him by taking him through the sewers into safety. In the sewers, Valjean encounters Thénardier, who is hiding from Javert. Thinking Valjean to be a simple murderer, Thénardier offers Valjean his key to the sewer grating in exchange for the contents of Marius' pockets. He then searches Valjean and Marius' pockets. Believing Marius to be a corpse, he tears off part of Marius' coat in order to blackmail Valjean with it later. Thénardier finds only 30 francs, reluctantly takes the money, and lets Valjean out.  Thénardier and his child Azelma are in the Mardi Gras parade. When he sees Marius and Cosette's wedding party pass by, he recognizes Valjean as both the man who had ruined him and the man he had met in the sewer, and orders Azelma to follow him and find out where he lives.  Thénardier visits Marius dressed in a rented statesman's suit and identifying himself as "M. Thénard", but Marius eventually recognizes him. Thénardier attempts to blackmail Marius with what he knows about Valjean's past, but he inadvertently corrects Marius' misunderstandings about Valjean and reveals Valjean's good deeds. He then tries to expose Valjean for a murderer, producing the piece of Marius' jacket as proof. Marius realizes that it is a piece of his own jacket, and that that must mean that Valjean saved him from the battle and carried him through the sewers to safety. Marius pulls out his bloodied coat. He tells Thénardier he knows enough of his criminal past "to send you to the galleys", gives him 1500 francs, and orders him to leave and never return. Thénardier moves with Azelma to America, where he becomes a slave trader.

In the musical.

The Thénardiers are featured in the musical based on Hugo's novel. They own an inn in the town of Montfermeil, where they have been entrusted with the care of Cosette, Fantine's daughter. However, the Thénardiers treat Cosette as a servant whilst pampering their own daughter Éponine. They welcome all customers to their inn, but whilst they appear to look friendly and welcoming, they secretly con their customers with watered-down wine, sausages made with horse kidney or cat liver, and extra fees for ridiculous things such as lice, looking in their mirrors, and keeping their windows closed. ("Master of the House"). One night after sending Cosette out to draw water from the well, she returns to them in the company of Valjean. Valjean tells them of Fantine's passing and initially requests to take Cosette with him, but the Thénardiers attempt to con Valjean, deceivingly claiming they love Cosette as if she was their own daughter, have had to purchase expensive medicine to treat her for frequent illness, and are worried about the treacherous people she may encounter in the outside world ("The Thénardier Waltz of Treachery"). In the end, Valjean offers 1500 francs to take Cosette, and delighted with the money, the Thénardiers hand her over without question.  Nine years later, they are living in the slums of Paris, having lost their inn. One day, they hatch a plan to rob Valjean, whom they have learned is now also living in Paris ("The Robbery"). They disguise themselves as beggars and beg the passing Valjean and Cosette to give them money. With the help of robbers Brujon, Babet, Montparnasse, and Claquesous, they surround Valjean and rip open his shirt, revealing the brand on his chest. However, Éponine notices the police arriving and warns them, but they are captured by Javert and his constables. Thénardier tells Javert about Valjean and the brand on his chest and that he is the one who Javert should really arrest, and Javert releases them.  The Thénardiers then try to rob Valjean again ("The Attack on Rue Plumet"). Thénardier and his gang of robbers reach the gates of Valjean's house on Rue Plumet, when Éponine intercepts them and tries to force them to leave in order to protect Marius. Thénardier refuses to listen and orders Éponine to leave. Éponine is forced to scream in order to get them to leave. Thénardier threatens her but is forced to run, and he and his gang escape via the sewers. Afterwards, whilst the students plan to build the barricades, the Thénardiers plan to wait underground, in the hope that they will pick up lots of wealth and riches from the dead students after the battle is over ("One Day More").  After the barricade falls, Thénardier is in the Parisian sewers robbing the corpses of the rebels ("Dog Eats Dog"). Here he crosses a man carrying what he believes to be an unknown corpse (actually the unconscious Marius, wounded from the barricades). When the man collapses, Thénardier steals a ring from the Marius' body, and then departs upon realizing that the collapsed man is Jean Valjean. The Thénardiers appear at the wedding of Marius and Cosette, posing as the Baron and Baroness de Thénard. Marius sees through their disguise and orders them to leave, but they refuse to do so until they have properly extorted him. They attempt to blackmail Marius with the information that Valjean is a murderer, offering the stolen ring as evidence. Their plan backfires when Marius recognizes the ring as his own, realizing that Valjean must have rescued him after the barricades fell. He hits Thénardier and throws him the rest of his money before leading Cosette away, leaving the Thénardiers to enjoy the feast and gloat over their survival, despite their children's deaths ("Beggars At The Feast"). This was altered in the film adaptation, where the Thénardiers are thrown out of the party after their extortion attempt fails. Along with Javert, they do not appear in the show's finale, presumably due to their villainous roles, as well as the fact that they are among the few characters to survive the entire play.

Songs.

In the musical, the Thénardiers appear in the following songs:

Adaptations.

Since the original publication of "Les Misérables" in 1862, the characters of the Thénardiers have been presented in many adaptations of the novel in various media, including books, films, musicals, plays, and games.

The Thénardiers, commonly known as "Monsieur Thénardier" (; ) and "Madame Thénardier", are fictional characters, the secondary antagonists in Victor Hugo's 1862 novel "Les Misérables" and in many adaptations of the novel into other media.


Plot.

Steve Prefontaine, a Coos Bay, Oregon student, is too small to play most sports but becomes a talented distance runner. He enrolls at the University of Oregon in 1969, and meets fellow Oregon Ducks track and field athletes Pat Tyson and Mac Wilkins. With coaches Bill Bowerman and Bill Dellinger, "Pre" wins three national cross-country championships and four consecutive 5,000-meter runs, breaking the U.S. record in the latter. Prefontaine gains fame as an aggressive runner who likes to be out front from the start, rather than biding his time until a strong finish.  Prefontaine accompanies other top American runners including Frank Shorter and Jeff Galloway to the 1972 Munich Olympics, where they witness the terrorist attacks of the Munich Massacre which interrupt and almost cancel the games. In the 5,000-meter, after leading with only 150 meters to go, three different runners including the winner, Finland's Lasse Viren, pass Prefontaine and he does not win a medal.  After his college career ends, Prefontaine prepares for a rematch with Viren at the 1976 Montreal Olympics. The strict amateurism rules of American non-collegiate sports force Prefontaine to turn down a lucrative offer to become a professional runner, instead working as a bartender while living in a trailer home. He becomes an activist to help American athletes compete against better-funded international rivals. On May 30, 1975, after drinking alcohol at a post-meet party, Prefontaine is killed when his MG convertible flips while driving. After his death, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 gives athletes more control over their sports' governance.

Production.

The majority of the film was shot at the University of Puget Sound campus in Tacoma, Washington. Peyton Field was redecorated to resemble Hayward Field at the University of Oregon. For the role of Steve Prefontaine, Jared Leto immersed himself in the runner's life, meeting with members of the family and friends. He bore a striking resemblance to the real Prefontaine, also adopting the athlete's voice and upright running style. The transformation was so complete that when the runner's sister, Linda, first saw him in character, she broke down and cried. "Prefontaine" explores American athletes' amateur status and the conditions and lack of resources these athletes had to endure in their attempts to compete with the world's top athletes, who were provided all they needed to train and compete at a top level, while dealing with the pressure from their American fans who expected nothing but the best from them.

Critical reception.

Upon its premiere at the 1997 Sundance Film Festival, "Prefontaine" was positively received by critics and audiences, who greatly praised the film for Leto's acting and James' direction. As of March 2020, Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 36 reviews with an average score of 6.31 out of 10. On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 56 based on 15 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. Film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert praised the film giving it "two thumbs up" on their television program.

Prefontaine is a 1997 American biographical film chronicling the life of the American long-distance runner Steve Prefontaine and his death at age 24. Jared Leto plays the title character and R. Lee Ermey plays Bill Bowerman. The film was written by Steve James and Eugene Corr, and directed by James. "Prefontaine" tells the story from the point of view of Bill Dellinger, played by Ed O'Neill, the assistant coach who was with him day-to-day, and Nancy Alleman, the runner's girlfriend at the time of his death.


Life and career.

Allam was born in Bow, London, England. He was educated at Christ's Hospital and Manchester University. His father was vicar of St Mary Woolnoth.  He played Mercutio for the Royal Shakespeare Company, in 1983.  He played Inspector Javert in the original London production of the stage musical "Les Misérables" from 1985 to 1986.  He has also appeared in many radio dramas for the BBC. In 2001, he starred in BBC Radio 4's adaptation of "Les Misérables", as Valjean. In 2000 he played Hitler at the Royal National Theatre in David Edgar's "Albert Speer". He won an Olivier Award as Best Actor 2001, for his role as Captain Terri Denis in a revival of "Privates on Parade", opening in December 2001 at the Donmar Warehouse, Covent Garden. In November 2002 at the Comedy Theatre he co-starred with Gillian Anderson in Michael Weller's romantic comedy "What the Night Is For".  In 2003, he appeared as former West German federal chancellor Willy Brandt in Michael Frayn's play "Democracy" which opened at the Cottesloe Theatre, in the Royal National Theatre. He stayed with the show for its transfer to the West End. In December 2004 and January 2005, Allam appeared as the villainous Abanazar in a pantomime of "Aladdin" at the Old Vic theatre, co-starring Ian McKellen, Maureen Lipman and Sam Kelly. He reprised this role at the Old Vic, once again with Ian McKellen and Frances Barber in 2006–07. In August 2005, Allam appeared in "Blackbird" by David Harrower alongside Jodhi May at the Edinburgh Festival in a production by German star director Peter Stein. The play transferred to the Albery Theatre in London in February 2006. "Blackbird" subsequently won a best new play award.  In 2006 he appeared in Stephen Frears's film "The Queen", starring Oscar-winner Dame Helen Mirren, as the Queen's private secretary. In February 2007, he performed in the 1960s farce "Boeing-Boeing" at the Comedy Theatre in the West End, co-starring Mark Rylance, Frances de la Tour and Tamzin Outhwaite. In 2007, he appeared for the first time as Peter Mannion MP in the special episodes of the BBC comedy "The Thick of It". He reprised the role in the third series (2009), and returned in the final series (2012) as part of the expanded regular cast.  In 2008, Allam played the role of Max Reinhardt, the Salzburg Festival impresario in Michael Frayn's play "Afterlife", the production staged by Michael Blakemore on the National Theatre's Lyttelton stage. In 2009, Allam played Albin/Zaza in "La Cage aux Folles" at the Playhouse in London. Allam played Falstaff in "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Henry IV, Part 2" at Shakespeare's Globe, in the 2010 season. He won the Olivier Award for Best Actor. In October 2010, Allam was reunited with his former cast mates from "Les Misérables" in the 25th anniversary concert for a performance of "One Day More".  In January 2012, British TV audiences found him in the first series of "Endeavour", the prequel to the long-running "Inspector Morse", playing the gruff but kind-hearted Detective Inspector Fred Thursday, young Endeavour Morse's mentor in a 1960s Oxford. By 2018 Allam had portrayed his central character in five additional well received series, which are also aired in America as part of the PBS Masterpiece Mystery! series. In March 2019, the show's sixth season had concluded on ITV, was scheduled for broadcast in the summer in the United States, and had been recommissioned for a seventh season to be set in 1970.  In April 2012 he also starred as Uncle Vanya in the play by Anton Chekhov at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In 2013 he played the role of Prospero in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest" at Shakespeare's Globe theatre in London alongside Colin Morgan as Ariel. Allam presented Michael Frayn at the 2013 Olivier Awards with a Special Lifetime Award which was aired by ITV1. Allam has also reteamed with Stephen Frears in "Tamara Drewe", the film version of Posy Simmond's popular comic strip. He plays the crime novelist Nicholas Hardiment, who is bewitched by London journalist Tamara Drewe, played by Gemma Arterton. In the closing chapter of his "Timebends" autobiography (1987) Arthur Miller writes of Allam: "To play Adrian...in the 1986 Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Archbishop's Ceiling", Roger Allam gave up the leading role as Javert in the monster hit "Les Misérables" because he had done it over sixty times and thought my play more challenging for him at that moment of his career. Nor did he consider his decision a particularly courageous one. This is part of what a theatre culture means and it is something few New York actors would have the sense of security even to dream of doing."  Allam narrated the Channel 4 series "The Auction House".  In October and November 2016 Allam appeared as Brigadier Adrian Stone in the BBC series "The Missing".

Personal life.

Allam is married to actress Rebecca Saire, with whom he has two sons, William, an actor, and Thomas.. He, Rebecca and William appeared together in the Endeavour episode Raga (series 7, episode 2, broadcast February 2020). In that episode, Rebecca and William played mother and son.

Audiobooks.

Allam has narrated several audiobooks, including "Solar" by Ian McEwan.

Roger William Allam (born 26 October 1953) is an English actor, known primarily for his stage career, although he has performed in film, television and radio.


Signs and symptoms.

The symptoms of dysautonomia, which are numerous and vary widely for each individual, are due to inefficient or unbalanced efferent signals sent via both systems. The primary symptoms in individuals with dysautonomia include

Causes.

Dysautonomia may be due to inherited or degenerative neurologic diseases (primary dysautonomia) or it may occur due to injury of the autonomic nervous system from an acquired disorder (secondary dysautonomia). The most common causes of dysautonomia include  In the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), predominant dysautonomia is common along with fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, and interstitial cystitis, raising the possibility that such dysautonomia could be their common clustering underlying pathogenesis.  In addition to sometimes being a symptom of dysautonomia, anxiety can sometimes physically manifest symptoms resembling autonomic dysfunction. A thorough investigation ruling out physiological causes is crucial, but in cases where relevant tests are performed and no causes are found or symptoms do not match any known disorders, a primary anxiety disorder is possible, but should not be presumed. For such patients, the anxiety sensitivity index may have better predictivity for anxiety disorders, while the Beck anxiety inventory may misleadingly suggest anxiety for patients with dysautonomia.

Mechanism.

The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral nervous system and comprises two branches: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS). The SNS controls the more active responses such as increasing heart rate and blood pressure. The PSNS slows down the heart rate and aids in digestion, for example. Symptoms typically arise from abnormal responses of either the sympathetic or parasympathetic systems based on situation or environment.

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis of dysautonomia depends on the overall function of three autonomic functions – cardiovagal, adrenergic, and sudomotor. A diagnosis should, at a bare minimum, include measurements of blood pressure and heart rate while lying flat, and after at least 3 minutes of standing. The best way to achieve a diagnosis includes a range of testing, notably an autonomic reflex screen, tilt table test, and testing of the sudomotor response (QSART or thermoregulatory sweat test).  Additional tests and examinations to determine a diagnosis of dysautonomia include

Vegetative-vascular dystonia.

Particularly in the Russian literature, a subtype of dysautonomia which particularly affects the vascular system has been called vegetative-vascular dystonia. The term "vegetative" reflects an older name for the autonomic nervous system: the vegetative nervous system.

Management.

The treatment of dysautonomia can be difficult; since it is made up of many different symptoms, a combination of drug therapies is often required to manage individual symptomatic complaints. Therefore, if an autoimmune neuropathy is the case, then treatment with immunomodulatory therapies is done, or if diabetes mellitus is the cause, control of blood glucose is important. Treatment can include proton-pump inhibitors and H2 receptor antagonists used for digestive symptoms such as acid reflux.  For the treatment of genitourinary autonomic neuropathy medications may include sildenafil (a guanine monophosphate type-5 phosphodiesterase inhibitor). For the treatment of hyperhidrosis, anticholinergic agents such as trihexyphenidyl or scopolamine can be used, also intracutaneous injection of botulinum toxin type A can be used for management in some cases.  Balloon angioplasty, a procedure referred to as transvascular autonomic modulation, is specifically not approved for the treatment of autonomic dysfunction.

Prognosis.

The prognosis of dysautonomia depends on several factors; individuals with chronic, progressive, generalized dysautonomia in the setting of central nervous system degeneration such as Parkinson's disease or multiple system atrophy have a generally poorer long-term prognosis. Consequently, dysautonomia could be fatal due to pneumonia, acute respiratory failure, or sudden cardiopulmonary arrest.  Autonomic dysfunction symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, gastroparesis, and gustatory sweating are more frequently identified in mortalities.

Dysautonomia or autonomic dysfunction is a condition in which the autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not work properly. This may affect the functioning of the heart, bladder, intestines, sweat glands, pupils, and blood vessels. Dysautonomia has many causes, not all of which may be classified as neuropathic. A number of conditions can feature dysautonomia, such as Parkinson's disease, HIV/AIDS, multiple system atrophy, autonomic failure, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy, and autonomic neuropathy.


Effects.

Cannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors.

The most prevalent psychoactive substances in cannabis are cannabinoids, particularly THC. Some varieties, having undergone careful selection and growing techniques, can yield as much as 34% THC. Another psychoactive cannabinoid present in "Cannabis sativa" is tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), but it is only found in small amounts and is a cannabinoid antagonist.  There are similar compounds in cannabis that do not exhibit psychoactive response but are obligatory for functionality: cannabidiol (CBD), an isomer of THC; cannabivarin (CBV), an analog of cannabinol (CBN) with a different side chain, cannabidivarin (CBDV), an analog of CBD with a different side chain, and cannabinolic acid. How these other compounds interact with THC is not fully understood. Some clinical studies have proposed that CBD acts as a balancing agent to regulate the strength of the psychoactive agent THC. CBD is believed to regulate the metabolism of THC by inactivating cytochrome P450, an important class of enzymes that metabolize drugs. Experiments in which babies were treated with CBD followed by THC showed that CBD was associated with a substantial increase in brain concentrations of THC and its major metabolites, most likely because it decreased the rate of clearance of THC from the body. Cannabis cofactors have also been linked to lowering body temperature, modulating immune function, and cell protection. The essential oil of cannabis contains many fragrant terpenoids which may synergize with the cannabinoids to produce their unique effects. THC is converted rapidly to 11-hydroxy-THC, which is also pharmacologically active, so the euphoria outlasts measurable THC levels in blood.  THC and cannabidiol are neuroprotective antioxidants. Research on rats has demonstrated that THC prevents hydroperoxide-induced oxidative damage as well as or better than other antioxidants in a chemical (Fenton reaction) system and neuronal cultures. Cannabidiol was significantly more protective than either vitamin E or vitamin C.  The cannabinoid receptor is a typical G protein-coupled receptor. A characteristic of this type of receptor is the distinct pattern of how the molecule spans the cell membrane seven times. Cannabinoid receptors are located on the cell membrane, and both outside (extracellularly) and inside (intracellularly) the cell membrane. CB1 receptors, the bigger of the two, are extraordinarily abundant in the brain: 10 times more plentiful than the μ-opioid receptors responsible for the effects of morphine. CB2 receptors are structurally different (the sequence similarity between the two subtypes of receptors is 44%), found only on cells of the immune system, and seems to function similarly to its CB1 counterpart. CB2 receptors are most prevalent on B-cells, natural killer cells, and monocytes, but can also be found on polymorphonuclear neutrophil cells, T8 cells, and T4 cells. In the tonsils the CB2 receptors appear to be restricted to B-lymphocyte-enriched areas.  THC and its endogenous equivalent anandamide additionally interact with glycine receptors.

Biochemical mechanisms in the brain.

Cannabinoids usually contain a 1,1'-di-methyl-pyran ring, a variedly derivatized aromatic ring and a variedly unsaturated cyclohexyl ring and their immediate chemical precursors, constituting a family of about 60 bi-cyclic and tri-cyclic compounds. Like most other neurological processes, the effects of cannabis on the brain follow the standard protocol of signal transduction, the electrochemical system of sending signals through neurons for a biological response. It is now understood that cannabinoid receptors appear in similar forms in most vertebrates and invertebrates and have a long evolutionary history of 500 million years. The binding of cannabinoids to cannabinoid receptors decrease adenylyl cyclase activity, inhibit calcium N channels, and disinhibit K channels. There are at least two types of cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2).  The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain and mediates the psychological effects of THC. The CB2 receptor is most abundantly found on cells of the immune system. Cannabinoids act as immunomodulators at CB2 receptors, meaning they increase some immune responses and decrease others. For example, nonpsychotropic cannabinoids can be used as a very effective anti-inflammatory. The affinity of cannabinoids to bind to either receptor is about the same, with only a slight increase observed with the plant-derived compound CBD binding to CB2 receptors more frequently. Cannabinoids likely have a role in the brain's control of movement and memory, as well as natural pain modulation. It is clear that cannabinoids can affect pain transmission and, specifically, that cannabinoids interact with the brain's endogenous opioid system and may affect dopamine transmission.

Sustainability in the body.

Most cannabinoids are lipophilic (fat soluble) compounds that are easily stored in fat, thus yielding a long elimination half-life relative to other recreational drugs. The THC molecule, and related compounds, are usually detectable in drug tests from 3 days up to 10 days according to Redwood Laboratories; long-term users can produce positive tests for two to three months after ceasing cannabis use (see drug test).

Toxicities.

Related to cannabinoids.

No fatal overdoses with cannabis use have been reported. A review published in the "British Journal of Psychiatry" in February 2001 said that "no deaths directly due to acute cannabis use have ever been reported". (Deaths by indirect means, such as dehydration from cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS), have been reported.)  THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has an extremely low toxicity and the amount that can enter the body through the consumption of cannabis plants poses no threat of death. In dogs, the minimum lethal dose of THC is over 3 g/kg.  According to the Merck Index, the of THC (the dose which causes the death of 50% of individuals) is 1270 mg/kg for male rats and 730 mg/kg for female rats from oral consumption in sesame oil, and 42 mg/kg for rats from inhalation. It is important though to note that cannabinoids and other molecules present in cannabis can alter the metabolism of other drugs, especially due to competition for clearing metabolic pathways such as cytochromes CYP450, thus leading to drug toxicities by medications that the person consuming cannabis may be taking.  In 2011, there were more Emergency Room admissions for Marijuana than Heroin and Meth combined.

Related to smoking.

A 2007 study found that while tobacco and cannabis smoke are quite similar, cannabis smoke contained higher amounts of ammonia, hydrogen cyanide, and nitrogen oxides, but lower levels of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). This study found that directly inhaled cannabis smoke contained as much as 20 times as much ammonia and 5 times as much hydrogen cyanide as tobacco smoke and compared the properties of both mainstream and sidestream (smoke emitted from a smouldering 'joint' or 'cone') smoke. Mainstream cannabis smoke was found to contain higher concentrations of selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) than sidestream tobacco smoke. However, other studies have found much lower disparities in ammonia and hydrogen cyanide between cannabis and tobacco, and that some other constituents (such as polonium-210, lead, arsenic, nicotine, and tobacco-specific nitrosamines) are either lower or non-existent in cannabis smoke.  Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke or cigars. Over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke. These include nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene. Marijuana smoke was listed as a cancer agent in California in 2009. A study by the British Lung Foundation published in 2012 identifies cannabis smoke as a carcinogen and also finds awareness of the danger is low compared with the high awareness of the dangers of smoking tobacco particularly among younger users. Other observations include possible increased risk from each cigarette; lack of research on the effect of cannabis smoke alone; low rate of addiction compared to tobacco; and episodic nature of cannabis use compared to steady frequent smoking of tobacco. Professor David Nutt, a UK drug expert, points out that the study cited by the British Lung Foundation has been accused of both "false reasoning" and "incorrect methodology". Further, he notes that other studies have failed to connect cannabis with lung cancer, and accuses the BLF of "scaremongering over cannabis".

Short-term effects.

When smoked, the short-term effects of cannabis manifest within seconds and are fully apparent within a few minutes, typically lasting for 1–3 hours, varying by the person and the strain of cannabis. After oral ingestion of cannabis, the onset of effect is delayed relative to smoking, taking 30 minutes to 2 hours, but the duration is prolonged due to continued slow absorption. The duration of noticeable effects has been observed to diminish after prolonged, repeated use and the development of increased tolerance to cannabinoids.

Psychological effects.

The psychoactive effects of cannabis, known as a "high", are subjective and vary among persons and the method of use.  When THC enters the blood stream and reaches the brain, it binds to cannabinoid receptors. The endogenous ligand of these receptors is anandamide, the effects of which THC emulates. This agonism of the cannabinoid receptors results in changes in the levels of various neurotransmitters, especially dopamine and norepinephrine; neurotransmitters which are closely associated with the acute effects of cannabis ingestion, such as euphoria and anxiety. Some effects may include a general alteration of conscious perception, euphoria, feelings of well-being, relaxation or stress reduction, increased appreciation of the arts, including humor and music (especially discerning its various components/instruments), joviality, metacognition and introspection, enhanced recollection (episodic memory), increased sensuality, increased awareness of sensation, increased libido, and creativity. Abstract or philosophical thinking, disruption of linear memory and paranoia or anxiety are also typical. Anxiety is the most commonly reported negative side effect of smoking marijuana. Between 20 and 30 percent of recreational users experience intense anxiety and/or panic attacks after smoking cannabis; however, some report anxiety only after not smoking cannabis for a prolonged period of time. Inexperience and use in an unfamiliar environment are major contributing factors to this anxiety. Cannabidiol (CBD), another cannabinoid found in cannabis in varying amounts, has been shown to ameliorate the adverse effects of THC, including anxiety, that some consumers experience.  Cannabis produces many other subjective effects, including an increased enjoyment of food taste and aroma, and marked distortions in the perception of time (where experiencing a "rush" of ideas can create the subjective impression of much time passing). At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations, and ataxia from selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to acute psychosis and dissociative states such as depersonalization and derealization.  Any episode of acute psychosis that accompanies cannabis use usually abates after six hours, but in rare instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days. If the episode is accompanied by aggression or sedation, physical restraint may be necessary.  While psychoactive drugs are typically categorized as stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen, cannabis exhibits a mix of all of them, perhaps leaning more towards hallucinogenic or psychedelic properties, though with other effects quite pronounced. THC is considered the primary active component of the cannabis plant. Scientific studies have suggested that other cannabinoids like CBD may also play a significant role in its psychoactive effects.

Somatic effects.

Some of the short-term physical effects of cannabis use include increased heart rate, dry mouth, reddening of the eyes (congestion of the conjunctival blood vessels), a reduction in intra-ocular pressure, muscle relaxation and a sensation of cold or hot hands and feet and / or flushed face.  Electroencephalography or EEG shows somewhat more persistent alpha waves of slightly lower frequency than usual. Cannabinoids produce a "marked depression of motor activity" via activation of neuronal cannabinoid receptors belonging to the CB1 subtype.

Duration.

Peak levels of cannabis-associated intoxication occur approximately 30 minutes after smoking it and last for several hours.

Smoked.

The total short-term duration of cannabis use when smoked depends on the potency, method of smoking – e.g. whether pure or in conjunction with tobacco – and how much is smoked. Peak levels of intoxication typically last an average of three to four hours.

Oral.

When taken orally (in the form of capsules, food, or drink), the psychoactive effects take longer to manifest and generally last longer, typically lasting for an average of four to six hours after consumption. Oral ingestion use eliminates the need to inhale toxic combustion products created by smoking and therefore negates the risk of respiratory harm associated with cannabis smoking.

Neurological effects.

The areas of the brain where cannabinoid receptors are most prevalent are consistent with the behavioral effects produced by cannabinoids. Brain regions in which cannabinoid receptors are very abundant are the basal ganglia, associated with movement control; the cerebellum, associated with body movement coordination; the hippocampus, associated with learning, memory, and stress control; the cerebral cortex, associated with higher cognitive functions; and the nucleus accumbens, regarded as the reward center of the brain. Other regions where cannabinoid receptors are moderately concentrated are the hypothalamus, which regulates homeostatic functions; the amygdala, associated with emotional responses and fears; the spinal cord, associated with peripheral sensations like pain; the brain stem, associated with sleep, arousal, and motor control; and the nucleus of the solitary tract, associated with visceral sensations like nausea and vomiting.  Experiments on animal and human tissue have demonstrated a disruption of short-term memory formation, which is consistent with the abundance of C receptors on the hippocampus, the region of the brain most closely associated with memory. Cannabinoids inhibit the release of several neurotransmitters in the hippocampus such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and glutamate, resulting in a decrease in neuronal activity in that area.  In "in-vitro" experiments THC at extremely high concentrations, which could not be reached with commonly consumed doses, caused competitive inhibition of the AChE enzyme and inhibition of β-amyloid peptide aggregation, implicated in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Compared to currently approved drugs prescribed for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, THC is a considerably superior inhibitor of A aggregation, and this study provides a previously unrecognized molecular mechanism through which cannabinoid molecules may impact the progression of this debilitating disease.

Effects on driving.

While several studies have shown increased risk associated with cannabis use by drivers, other studies have not found increased risk. Cannabis usage has been shown in some studies to have a negative effect on driving ability. The British Medical Journal indicated that "drivers who consume cannabis within three hours of driving are nearly twice as likely to cause a vehicle collision as those who are not under the influence of drugs or alcohol".  In "Cannabis and driving: a review of the literature and commentary", the United Kingdom's Department for Transport reviewed data on cannabis and driving, finding although impaired, "subjects under cannabis treatment appear to perceive that they are indeed impaired. Where they can compensate, they do...". In a review of driving simulator studies, researchers note that "even in those who learn to compensate for a drug's impairing effects, substantial impairment in performance can still be observed under conditions of general task performance (i.e. when no contingencies are present to maintain compensated performance)."  A 2012 meta-analysis found that acute cannabis use increased the risk of an automobile crash. An extensive 2013 review of 66 studies regarding crash risk and drug use found that cannabis was associated with minor, but not statistically significant increased odds of injury or fatal accident.  In the largest and most precisely controlled study of its kind carried out by the U.S. Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, it was found that other "studies that measure the presence of THC in the drivers' blood or oral fluid, rather than relying on self-report tend to have much lower (or no) elevated crash risk estimates. Likewise better controlled studies have found lower (or no) elevated crash risk estimates". The study found that "after adjusting for age, gender, race and alcohol use, drivers who tested positive for marijuana were no more likely to crash than those who had not used any drugs or alcohol prior to driving".  On the other hand, a recent study of Journal of Transport & Health indicated that the numbers of fatal crashes involving marijuana after the recreational marijuana legalization or decriminalization have significantly increased in Colorado, Washington, and Massachusetts.

Cardiovascular effects.

Short-term (one to two hours) effects on the cardiovascular system can include increased heart rate, dilation of blood vessels, and fluctuations in blood pressure. There are medical reports of occasional heart attacks or myocardial infarction, stroke and other cardiovascular side effects. Marijuana's cardiovascular effects are not associated with serious health problems for most young, healthy users. Researchers reported in the "International Journal of Cardiology", "Marijuana use by older people, particularly those with some degree of coronary artery or cerebrovascular disease, poses greater risks due to the resulting increase in catecholamines, cardiac workload, and carboxyhemoglobin levels, and concurrent episodes of profound postural hypotension. Indeed, marijuana may be a much more common cause of myocardial infarction than is generally recognized. In day-to-day practice, a history of marijuana use is often not sought by many practitioners, and even when sought, the patient's response is not always truthful".  A 2013 analysis of 3,886 myocardial infarction survivors over an 18-year period showed "no statistically significant association between marijuana use and mortality".  A 2008 study by the National Institutes of Health Biomedical Research Centre in Baltimore found that heavy, chronic smoking of marijuana (138 joints per week) changed blood proteins associated with heart disease and stroke.  A 2000 study by researchers at Boston's Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard School of Public Health found that a middle age person's risk of heart attack rises nearly fivefold in the first hour after smoking marijuana, "roughly the same risk seen within an hour of sexual activity".  Cannabis arteritis is a very rare peripheral vascular disease similar to Buerger's disease. There were about 50 confirmed cases from 1960 to 2008, all of which occurred in Europe.

Combination with other drugs.

A confounding factor in cannabis research is the prevalent usage of other recreational drugs, especially alcohol and nicotine. Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis that have stronger controls, and investigations into alleged symptoms of cannabis use that may also be caused by tobacco. Some critics question whether agencies doing the research make an honest effort to present an accurate, unbiased summary of the evidence, or whether they "cherry-pick" their data to please funding sources which may include the tobacco industry or governments dependent on cigarette tax revenue; others caution that the raw data, and not the final conclusions, are what should be examined.  The Australian National Household Survey of 2001 showed that cannabis in Australia is rarely used without other drugs. 95% of cannabis users also drank alcohol; 26% took amphetamines; 19% took ecstasy and only 2.7% reported not having used any other drug with cannabis. While research has been undertaken on the combined effects of alcohol and cannabis on performing certain tasks, little research has been conducted on the reasons why this combination is so popular. Evidence from a controlled experimental study undertaken by Lukas and Orozco suggests that alcohol causes THC to be absorbed more rapidly into the blood plasma of the user. Data from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing found that three-quarters of recent cannabis users reported using alcohol when cannabis was not available, this suggests that the two are substitutes.

Memory and learning.

Studies on cannabis and memory are hindered by small sample sizes, confounding drug use, and other factors. The strongest evidence regarding cannabis and memory focuses on its temporary negative effects on short-term and working memory.  In a 2001 study looking at neuropsychological performance in long-term cannabis users, researchers found "some cognitive deficits appear detectable at least 7 days after heavy cannabis use but appear reversible and related to recent cannabis exposure rather than irreversible and related to cumulative lifetime use". On his studies regarding cannabis use, lead researcher and Harvard professor Harrison Pope said he found marijuana is not dangerous over the long term, but there are short-term effects. From neuropsychological tests, Pope found that chronic cannabis users showed difficulties, with verbal memory in particular, for "at least a week or two" after they stopped smoking. Within 28 days, memory problems vanished and the subjects "were no longer distinguishable from the comparison group". Researchers from the University of California, San Diego School of Medicine failed to show substantial, systemic neurological effects from long-term recreational use of cannabis. Their findings were published in the July 2003 issue of the "Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society". The research team, headed by Dr Igor Grant, found that cannabis use did affect perception, but did not cause permanent brain damage. Researchers looked at data from 15 previously published controlled studies involving 704 long-term cannabis users and 484 nonusers. The results showed long-term cannabis use was only marginally harmful on the memory and learning. Other functions such as reaction time, attention, language, reasoning ability, perceptual and motor skills were unaffected. The observed effects on memory and learning, they said, showed long-term cannabis use caused "selective memory defects", but that the impact was "of a very small magnitude". A study at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine showed that very heavy use of marijuana is associated with decrements in neurocognitive performance even after 28 days of abstinence.

Appetite.

The feeling of increased appetite following the use of cannabis has been documented for hundreds of years, and is known colloquially as "the munchies" in the English-speaking world. Clinical studies and survey data have found that cannabis increases food enjoyment and interest in food. A 2015 study suggests that cannabis triggers uncharacteristic behaviour in POMC neurons, which are usually associated with decreasing hunger. Rarely, chronic users experience a severe vomiting disorder, CHS, after smoking and find relief by taking hot baths.  Endogenous cannabinoids ("endocannabinoids") were discovered in cow's milk and soft cheeses. Endocannabinoids are also found in human breast milk. It is widely accepted that the neonatal survival of many species "is largely dependent upon their suckling behavior, or appetite for breast milk" and recent research has identified the endogenous cannabinoid system to be the first neural system to display complete control over milk ingestion and neonatal survival. It is possible that "cannabinoid receptors in our body interact with the cannabinoids in milk to stimulate a suckling response in newborns so as to prevent growth failure".

Pathogens and microtoxins.

Most microorganisms found in cannabis only affect plants and not humans, but some microorganisms, especially those that proliferate when the herb is not correctly dried and stored, can be harmful to humans. Some users may store marijuana in an airtight bag or jar in a refrigerator to prevent fungal and bacterial growth.

Fungi.

The fungi "Aspergillus flavus", "Aspergillus fumigatus", "Aspergillus niger", "Aspergillus parasiticus", "Aspergillus tamarii", "Aspergillus sulphureus", "Aspergillus repens", "Mucor hiemalis" (not a human pathogen), "Penicillium chrysogenum", "Penicillium italicum" and "Rhizopus nigrans" have been found in moldy cannabis. "Aspergillus" mold species can infect the lungs via smoking or handling of infected cannabis and cause opportunistic and sometimes deadly aspergillosis. Some of the microorganisms found create aflatoxins, which are toxic and carcinogenic. Researchers suggest that moldy cannabis should thus be discarded to avoid these serious risks.  Mold is also found in smoke from mold-infected cannabis, and the lungs and nasal passages are a major means of contracting fungal infections. Levitz and Diamond (1991) suggested baking marijuana in home ovens at 150 °C [302 °F], for five minutes before smoking. Oven treatment killed conidia of "A. fumigatus", "A. flavus" and "A. niger", and did not degrade the active component of marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)."

Bacteria.

Cannabis contaminated with "Salmonella muenchen" was positively correlated with dozens of cases of salmonellosis in 1981. "Thermophilic actinomycetes" were also found in cannabis.

Long-term effects.

Exposure to marijuana may have biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral, and social health consequences and is "associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, eyesight, and vasculature" according to a 2013 literature review by Gordon and colleagues. The association with these diseases has only been reported in cases where people have smoked cannabis. The authors cautioned that "evidence is needed, and further research should be considered, to prove causal associations of marijuana with many physical health conditions".  Cannabis use disorder is defined in the fifth revision of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM-5) as a condition requiring treatment. Several drugs have been investigated in an attempt to ameliorate the symptoms of stopping cannabis use. Such drugs include bupropion, divalproex, nefazodone, lofexidine, and dronabinol. Of these, dronabinol has proven the most effective.  Marijuana use can cause apathy and amotivational syndrome.  Regular marijuana use may also cause anhedonia.  A 2019 meta-analysis found that 34% of people with cannabis-induced psychosis transitioned to schizophrenia. This was found to be comparatively higher than hallucinogens (26%) and amphetamines (22%).

Effects in pregnancy.

Cannabis consumption in pregnancy might be associated with restrictions in growth of the fetus, miscarriage, and cognitive deficits in offspring based on animal studies, although there is limited evidence for this in humans at this time. A 2012 systematic review found although it was difficult to draw firm conclusions, there was some evidence that prenatal exposure to cannabis was associated with "deficits in language, attention, areas of cognitive performance, and delinquent behavior in adolescence". A report prepared for the Australian National Council on Drugs concluded cannabis and other cannabinoids are contraindicated in pregnancy as it may interact with the endocannabinoid system.

The effects of cannabis are caused by chemical compounds in the cannabis plant, including 400 different cannabinoids such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), allow its drug to have various psychological and physiological effects on the human body. Different plants of the genus Cannabis contain different and often unpredictable concentrations of THC and other cannabinoids and hundreds of other molecules that have a pharmacological effect, so that the final net effect cannot reliably be foreseen.


Gameplay.

At the start of a game, the player must choose a noble by either selecting one of the default nobles or creating a new one. Nobles act as user accounts within the game, wherein completed campaigns and saved games are local to each noble. A noble consists of three customizable features: "housename", "portrait", and "heraldry".  Once a noble is selected, the player can choose to play a campaign or battle map, or load a saved game. While all the battle maps are available when a noble is created, the campaigns require that the player complete each level in sequence. The game has four campaigns, each with several scenarios.

Battle maps.

In a battle map, the player is placed in a battlefield and is provided with predefined companies of soldiers available to them. The only victory condition of these battles is to defeat all enemy companies. The gameplay is consistent with that of the battle mode in the campaigns.

Layers.

Except for the tutorials, campaigns consist of three layers of gameplay: the "strategy layer", the "diplomacy layer", and the "battle layer". The layers allow the player to control different components of the game.

Strategy layer and vassalage.

The strategy layer allows the player to see a large overview of the lands to command their armies and assign vassals to the lands they possess. The land that the player possesses is subdivided into parcels. The player must assign a vassal to each parcel to manage the land for them.  There are several different types of parcels that dictate what they will produce. Furthermore, each parcel is of a certain quality which determines how fast they will upgrade their land and produce units. The different categories of vassals are as follows:

Diplomacy layer.

In the diplomacy screen, the player may assess his progress and the progress of the other nobles as well as engage in politics such as trade, war declarations, and forming alliances. The diplomacy screen shows a diplomatic map of all the lands, colored by the nobles who own them, that displays parcel usage, army locations, and territorial control. The player can view their "chivalry", "Christianity", and "honor" levels, and their progress in obtaining the next level in each of them.

Battle layer.

The battle layer engages the player in the battlefield, allowing them to manually control their companies.

Reception.

"Lords of the Realm III" received "mixed" reviews according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. A common complaint was, relative to its predecessors, the simplification of province management and the departure from the turn-based strategy map.  "Lords of the Realm III" was a runner-up for "Computer Games Magazine"s 2004 "Best Budget Game" award, but lost to "The Political Machine".

Lords of the Realm III is a medieval themed real-time strategy computer game published in March 2004 by Sierra Entertainment, a subsidiary of Vivendi Universal Games. It is the third installment in the "Lords of the Realm" series, and the last game made by Impressions Games.