Writings.

Melon was a close associate of John Law. Melon sought to adapt Colbertiste ideas with the views of English mercantilist economists. Melon followed John Law on monetary theory and defended paper currency.  Melon was a contemporary of Montesquieu, and belonged to the same Bordeaux coterie. His "Political Essay upon Commerce" followed Montesquieu's argument in "Considerations on the Causes of the Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans" and "Universal Monarchy". Melon and Montesquieu defended luxury against those who believed that decadence had been the cause of the fall of the Roman Empire, and who suggested parallels with the policies of Jean-Baptiste Colbert and Louis XIV. In a novel evoking Montesquieu's "Persian Letters", Melon presented a parable of military and peaceful means by which a country might achieve national greatness through the example of an Afghan ruler who conquered Persia and the Punjab.

"Political Essay upon Commerce".

In his "Political Essay upon Commerce", Melon argued that states follow either a "spirit of conquest" or a "spirit of preservation". To provide a modern illustration of this distinction, Melon proposed three models of commercial policy. He used these models to demonstrate that war against a country with a commercial monopoly was just—significant for the reason that England was regarded as a commercial monopolist in France in this period, and that a country with a commercial monopoly in food would defeat a country without such a monopoly. Melon did not desire a monopolistic empire for France, however, and preferred that countries become self-sufficient in food. Instead, Melon proposed that France seek a commercial monopoly and establish hegemony over Europe.  Melon's political economy was founded on a three-stages theory, in which basic necessities were followed by manufactured goods, which were in turn followed by luxuries. Progression from necessities to luxuries was only possible with a surplus in goods of each kind. Like the physiocrats, Melon believed that agriculture was the foundation of a nation's economy, but believed that manufactured goods were the source of a nation's greatness. Melon argued in favour of free trade in grain and inflationary monetary policies to improve France's balance of trade.  Melon presented arguments against those who opposed luxury, which they associated with decadence and the decay of civic virtue—a view popularised by the writings of François Fénelon—advocated sumptuary laws to correct the French balance of trade. For Melon, luxury was a promoter of trade, and represented a "spur for the multitude" oresent in every "well-governed society". Melon popularised Bernard Mandeville's defense of luxury in "The Fable of the Bees" in France.

Jean-François Melon (; 1675–1738) was a French political economist, considered one of the precursors of the Physiocracy movement. According to István Hont, his "Political Essay upon Commerce" was the most widely available defense of in France in the early 18th century.


Publication history.

Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko, Jameson first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #1 (March 1963). Stan Lee stated in an interview on "Talk of the Nation" that he modeled J. Jonah Jameson as a much grumpier version of himself. Later Spider-Man writers Tom DeFalco and Gerry Conway agreed that J. Jonah Jameson was as close as Lee ever came to a self-portrayal, with Conway elaborating that "just like Stan is a very complex and interesting guy who both has a tremendously charismatic part of himself and is an honestly decent guy who cares about people,

Fictional character biography.

Background.

According to "Behind the Mustache", a story featured in "Spider-Man's Tangled Web" #20 (January 2003), Jameson was raised as a child by David and Betty Jameson. David was an officer of the United States Army, a war veteran decorated as a hero; at home, however, David regularly abused his wife and son. As a result, J. Jonah Jameson grew convinced that "No one's a hero every day of the week" and "Even the real heroes can't keep it up all the time". Later issues of "The Amazing Spider-Man" clarified that David Jameson was in fact Jonah's foster father, and the brother of J. Jonah Jameson Sr., Jonah's biological father, who had to leave his son behind for undisclosed reasons. It is unknown if Jameson Jr. remembered him.  He was a Boy Scout during his childhood. In high school, his interests were mainly boxing and photography. He met his first wife, Joan, when they both joined their high school's photo club. When the school's three top athletes started bullying him, he fought back and beat all three of them

Spider-Man.

When Spider-Man becomes a media sensation, Jameson strives to blacken Spider-Man's reputation; casting the masked hero as an unhinged vigilante not only boosts the "Bugle"'s circulation, but also punishes Spider-Man for overshadowing Jameson's astronaut son. When Spider-Man tries to counter the bad press by rescuing his son from danger, Jameson accuses the hero of staging the situation for his own benefit. (A retcon had Jameson first targeting Spider-Man after John is dropped from a talk show to make room for the hero.)  This episode sets a pattern with Jameson's and Spider-Man's relationship: Jameson publicly accusing Spider-Man of numerous crimes and misdeeds, only to feel continually obliged to

Family ties.

In "Amazing Spider-Man" #162 (November 1976), Jameson introduces himself to Dr. Marla Madison, a distinguished scientist and daughter of a deceased friend of his. He asks for her help in creating a new Spider-Slayer, one of a series of robots created to defeat Spider-Man, although Spider-Man has managed to survive their attacks and destroy each of them. Madison is interested in the challenge, and joins Jameson in his efforts. The two grow closer, eventually marrying but not without another attack from the Scorpion, who kidnaps Marla

Relinquishing control.

The guilt for creating the Scorpion catches up with Jameson when the Hobgoblin blackmails him about it. When he receives the threats, rather than succumb to the Hobgoblin, Jameson chooses instead to reveal it to the world in a public editorial. He steps down as the "Bugle"'s editor-in-chief, delegating the post to his immediate subordinate, Joseph "Robbie" Robertson, but Jameson remains its publisher.  Jonah's control of the "Daily Bugle" is bought out from under him by multimillionaire Thomas Fireheart. Fireheart had felt that he owed Spider-Man a debt of honor and in an attempt to repay the hero, he

"Death".

When a duplicate of Spider-Man, created by Mysterio, jumps in front of Jameson's car while he is driving home from work one day, Jameson crashes his car into a tree. He is believed killed in the car crash, dying upon impact, and the media

Spider-Man unmasked.

Jameson's influence on the paper as its publisher is shown in the 2006–2007 "" when he pressures his staff into supporting the federal government's Superhuman Registration Act, still directing the general tone of the paper, despite losing his more hands-on position. When Spider-Man unmasks and reveals himself to be Peter Parker, Jameson faints in shock at the realization that the man he had been calling a menace had actually been on his payroll for years. On top of the Parker revelation, Jameson is forced to deal with the notion that She-Hulk had now become his daughter-in-law. This was not helped by the fact that She-Hulk and Spider-Man had previously sued him for libel. It

Heart attacks and recuperation.

Jameson has his first heart attack, a mild one, in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #70, while being threatened by Spider-Man when the latter finally loses his temper after many years of abuse and defamation.  After the status quo was revised in the "" storyline, Peter's identity is once again a secret. "The Daily Bugle" has hit hard times with Peter not selling as many Spider-Man pictures as usual and star reporter Ben Urich gone. These circumstances led to Jonah facing a buyout from the wealthy Dexter Bennett. This forced Jonah to stop everyone's checks to build the capital needed to save the paper, with everyone at the "Bugle" working temporarily for free as a sign of solidarity. Needing money for an apartment, Peter came to the "Bugle" claiming he was owed money, to which Jonah yelled at him, causing

Mayor of New York.

In a 2009 storyline, Jameson is elected the Mayor of New York City Spider-Man is in another dimension with the Fantastic Four, resulting in a month going by on Earth while they are only away for a few hours. In his new office, Jonah receives a visit from his estranged father, J. Jonah Jameson Sr., demanding that Jonah cease his vendetta against Spider-Man - the reasons being Spider-Man's many heroic deeds and the fact that the Avengers and even Captain America had accepted Spider-Man. Spider-Man then enters the mayor's office (hoping to establish a truce with Jameson) only for Jonah to announce that he has assembled an "Anti-Spider Squad" to capture Spider-Man. Spider-Man responds by taking his superhero work into overdrive, committing heroic deeds all over the city simply to enrage Jameson. Jameson responds by putting his squad on double-shifts, severely straining the city council's budget.  In the "Dark Reign" storyline, with Norman's rise to power, Dark Avengers member Spider-Man (really Mac Gargan) seeks to get revenge on Jameson. When Jameson arrived at his home, he was shocked to find a

Working with Superior Spider-Man.

After Superior Spider-Man (Doctor Octopus' mind in Spider-Man's body) stops the Sinister Six, Mayor J. Jonah Jameson comes to thank him personally, while Peter Parker's consciousness is shocked to see Jameson's drastically changed attitude towards the hero. On the top of the police station building Jameson, Chief Pratchett and Carlie Cooper stand near to the improvised "Spider-Signal". Jameson boasts about his wise ruling policy while Carlie doubts Superior Spider-Man will ever show up. But he finally does and short-circuits the signal. Jameson discharges oaths about wasted taxpayer dollars, and Superior Spider-Man explains they can hinder him using the signal, humiliating Jameson between the lines. When Massacre rigs the doors of Grand Central Station to explode, this even worries Jameson. While speaking in a press conference, Jameson is suddenly attacked by criminal pranksters Jester and Screwball who assault their victims and broadcast it through the internet in a web-show called "Jested" (similar to popular TV show "Punk'd"). Both pranksters humiliate Jameson and transmit it all over the world, where even

A new direction.

During the "Original Sin" storyline, the eye of the murdered Uatu the Watcher revealed that J. Jonah Jameson had fired a former "Daily Bugle" employee for viewing an embarrassing article that he wrote in which he praised Spider-Man in his early days of being a wrestler. Jameson later established the Fact Channel. As Silk battles against Electro and Spider-Man deals with Black Cat, Jameson remains on the channel forcing the cameraman to film the action. Black Cat deviate one of Electro's bolts hitting Spider-Man, knocking him down in the process. Black Cat attempts to unmask Spider-Man as Jameson (who hears the truth concerning Doctor Octopus) aims the camera. However, Jameson's angle prevents anyone seeing Spider-Man's face long enough for Silk to knock Black Cat back and Spider-Man to put his mask back on. He would later be seen taking charge of the Fact Channel's operations acting like he was head of the company and taking interest in Silk.  Following Regent's defeat and Betty Brant's exposé, Jameson brags to Glory Grant

Family members.

Here are the known

Other versions.

1602.

In "", the sequel to "Marvel 1602", Jameson is an Irish colonist and friend of Ananias Dare. He prints the

Earth X.

In the alternate reality of "Earth X", everyone on Earth has been affected by the Terrigen Mists, granting everyone superpowers. Jameson is turned into a humanoid donkey (a human body with an equine head). It is also revealed that after he published information exposing Peter Parker

G.I. Joe.

In the original Marvel universe of "", Jameson is

House of M.

In the "House of M" reality created by the insane Scarlet Witch and in which mutants are dominant over baseline humans, Jameson is the maltreated publicist of Peter Parker, here a celebrity without a secret identity. Despising Peter and only keeping his job for

MC2.

In the MC2 continuity, an alternate future of the mainstream Marvel Universe, Jonah is still the publisher of "The Daily Bugle". His wife, Marla is still alive. He hires May Parker, the daughter of Peter, as a photographer. Ironically, he is very supportive of Spider-Girl, in contrast to his stance on her father (in the MC2 continuity,

Spider-Man: Reign.

In the "Marvel Knights" four-issue series "", set 35 years in the future, an elderly Jameson is seen returning to a totalitarian New York, with the mission of convincing a middle age Peter Parker to return as Spider-Man to save the city from being enclosed by Mayor Waters' WEBB security system. After attacking Reign officers, he is saved by the newly returned

Marvel Zombies.

In the alternate universe of "Marvel Zombies", Jameson is eaten by the zombified Spider-Man in his own office, when Zombie

Spider-Man Noir.

In "Spider-Man Noir", Jameson remains the owner of the "Daily Bugle". However, he's seemingly under the thumb of Norman Osborn, the "Goblin" and kills Ben

Fairy Tales.

Issue #1 of "" follows the fairy tale of "Little Red Riding Hood". Mary Jane takes the part

Spider-Verse.

In "Spider-Verse", Jameson was giving Peter Parker a call in order to demand that he go to Armstrong Park in order to take a picture of a new villain that had just appeared. This reality has

Spider-Gwen.

On Earth-65, J. Jonah Jameson is the Mayor of New

Marvel 2099.

In "Marvel 2099" on an alternate unnamed reality, an aged J Jonah Jameson was apparently alive in the year 2099 where he was the new CEO of Alchemax.

Ultimate Marvel.

In "Ultimate Spider-Man" and "", Jameson is essentially the same character as the original version, although younger in appearance. Jameson decries Spider-Man and other vigilantes, accusing them of being fraudulent hero figures in contrast to his astronaut son, who was killed during a mission. While Jameson does not necessarily hate Spider-Man, he has no qualms about painting him in a negative light to sell papers. Despite his adverse attitude towards Spider-Man, this version of Jonah still ends up unwittingly hiring Peter Parker to work at the "Daily Bugle" as its webmaster. During the "Ultimatum" storyline, Jameson drops his vendetta against Spider-Man after losing his wife in a massive flood

What If?

J. Jonah Jameson appeared in various issues of "What If?", which imagines changes to Marvel continuity during crucial points in history. "What If?" #24 of the first volume (December 1980), in which Jameson exposes Spider-Man's secret identity to the public, is one of the most highly regarded stories of the series. Issue #82 of the second volume ponders

Spider-Man: Life Story.

Jameson appeared in the miniseries "Spider-Man: Life Story", which explores how Spider-Man and the Marvel Universe at large would be if it were not set in a floating timeline. In the first issue, set in the 1960s, Jameson is shown to be

In other media.

Films.

Abandoned James Cameron Spider-Man film.

In the aborted James Cameron script for a Spider-Man film, Jameson is a TV executive instead of editor-in-chief of the "Daily Bugle", who has a strong dislike of the titular hero and attempts to defame him. Cameron had wanted R. Lee Ermey for the role.

Video games.

J. Jonah Jameson has appeared in many

Theatre.

Michael Mulheren plays J.

John Jonah Jameson Jr. is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, commonly in association with the superhero Spider-Man. The character was created by writer Stan Lee and artist Steve Ditko, and he first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #1 (March 1963).


Background.

Military situation.

The UN counter offensive between February and April 1951 had been largely successful, with the US Eighth Army pushing the PVA north of the Han River during Operation Killer, while Seoul was recaptured in mid-March during Operation Ripper and UN forces once again approached the 38th Parallel. Regardless, the strained relationship between UN commander, General Douglas MacArthur and US President Harry S. Truman led to MacArthur's dismissal as Commander-in-Chief, and his replacement by General Matthew B. Ridgway. Consequently, on 14 April 1951, General James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as commander of the US Eighth Army and the UN forces in Korea. Ridgway flew to

Prelude.

Opposing forces.

After reaching the "Utah Line", 27th Brigade was withdrawn from the front on 17 April, handing over its positions to the ROK 6th Division. Burke subsequently ordered his battalions into reserve positions north of the previously destroyed village of Kapyong, on the main road from Seoul to the east coast. Intelligence indicated that a new PVA offensive was imminent, and while the brigade settled in to rest it remained on three hours' notice to move to support IX Corps. Having been on operations continuously for the past seven months, the British intended to relieve the bulk of the brigade during its period in reserve. The two British battalions—the Argylls and the Middlesex—would be replaced by two fresh battalions from Hong Kong, while Burke and the headquarters of 27th

Battle.

South Korean collapse, 22–23 April 1951.

The ROK were holding positions at the northern end of the Kapyong Valley, having advanced since relieving the 27th Brigade. However, anticipating a PVA attack, the divisional commander—General Chang Do Yong—had halted his advance at 16:00 and ordered his two forward regiments—the 19th and the 2nd Infantry Regiments—to tie-in and develop defensive positions. Meanwhile, the 7th Infantry Regiment occupied reserve positions immediately behind the forward regiments. Suffering a reputation for unreliability in defence the ROK had been bolstered by the attachment of the New Zealand guns and a battery of M101 howitzers from the US 213th Field Artillery Battalion. Regardless, left with only one hour to halt its advance and step up defences, the forward ROK units were only able to occupy a series of hill-top positions while leaving the valleys and flanks exposed. Two PVA divisions—the 118th and the 60th Division—struck at 17:00, easily infiltrating through numerous gaps between the badly organised defensive positions. Under pressure all along the front, the defenders gave ground almost immediately and soon broke. Abandoning their weapons, equipment and vehicles, they disintegrated and began to stream south out of the mountains and through the valley, and by 23:00 Chang was forced to admit that he had lost all communication with his units. At 04:00 the decision was made to withdraw the New Zealanders to prevent their

Night battle, 23/24 April 1951.

Having successfully prevented the US 1st Marine Division from reinforcing the Imjin River front, the PVA 40th Army turned its attention towards the 27th Brigade on 23 April. The battle started during the night of 23/24 April, and continued until late the following day as the entire PVA 118th Division, totalling perhaps 10,000 men under the command of Deng Yue—engaged the two forward battalions of 27th Brigade. The initial PVA attack at Kapyong engaged 3 RAR on Hill 504, while in the early part of the battle the Middlesex and New Zealand gunners were all but cut off. However, the resistance of the Australians ultimately allowed them to safely withdraw and the Middlesex then moved into a reserve position astride the western bank of the river in order to provide depth to the brigade defence. The two battalions of the PVA 354th Regiment launched repeated attacks on the two forward Australian companies on the north-west spur of Hill 504. Assault after assault of massed PVA troops kept up the attack throughout the night, but the strong defence of the Australians on the brigade's right flank held them back, before they turned their attention to the Canadians the following day.  Using the retreating ROK troops to cover their movements, the PVA had infiltrated the brigade position in the initial stages of the battle, penetrating between A and B Companies, 3 RAR astride the road, and largely surrounding the latter before moving into the rear positions. The Australians struggled to distinguish the PVA from the ROK in the dark, although the Korean Service Corps porters attached to the battalion were able to provide valuable assistance to the defenders distinguishing the PVA by the sounds of their voices. At 21:30 the PVA launched their first attack on the forward platoon of American tanks, which had been posted on the road without infantry support. The initial moves were easily repelled; however, a stronger attack an hour later forced the tanks to withdraw after two of the tank commanders were

Day battle, 24 April 1951.

As daylight broke, the PVA now found themselves highly exposed in the open ground in front of the Australians. A and B Company supported by artillery, mortars, and tanks poured heavy fire onto the hapless Chinese, forcing them to withdraw leaving hundreds of casualties behind on the slopes. With the Australians remaining in possession of their original defensive locations the immediate situation had stabilised, although they were now effectively cut-off behind the front. Ammunition, food, and medical supplies were now extremely low throughout the forward area, and with casualty evacuation increasingly difficult, the battalion was at risk of being overrun unless it could be concentrated, resupplied, and supported. As such, in order to avoid each company being isolated and overwhelmed in a series of PVA attacks, at 07:15 B Company was ordered to leave its position and join the other companies on the high ground to form a defendable battalion position. The Australians subsequently withdrew as instructed, taking several dozen PVA prisoners with them that had been captured earlier by a standing patrol. The New Zealand gunners covered their movement across the open valley, laying a smoke screen to conceal the withdrawal, while the American tanks also provided support. As they moved across the valley the Australians exchanged a number of shots with a small groups of PVA who were still hiding in

3 RAR withdraws, evening 24 April 1951.

Although originally intending on holding until the Australians could be relieved by the US 5th Cavalry Regiment, Burke had decided during the morning to withdraw 3 RAR, and this had prompted the cancellation of B Company's assault. With the Australians facing encirclement, and mindful of the fate that had befallen the Glosters, Burke had ordered a fighting withdrawal back to the Middlesex area to new defensive positions in rear of the brigade. Indeed, despite holding the PVA at bay throughout the morning and afternoon, the increasing difficulty of resupply and casualty evacuation made it clear that the Australians would be unable to hold Hill 504 for another night in its exposed and isolated positions. Planning for the withdrawal had begun as the PVA renewed their assault on D Company around 11:30, while Ferguson and O'Dowd discussed the withdrawal by radio at 12:30. With the PVA dominating the road south, Ferguson ordered his companies to withdraw along a ridge running south-west from Hill 504, just east of the Kapyong River. The Middlesex position lay a further south-west of the foot of the ridge and could be reached by the ford secured earlier by Gerke, which would act as the battalion check point for the withdrawal. O'Dowd, as the senior company commander, was subsequently appointed

Defence of Hill 677, 24–25 April 1951.

Despite the withdrawal from Hill 504 that evening, 27th Brigade had been reinforced on the afternoon of 24 April by the arrival of the 5th US Cavalry Regiment. The Americans had been dispatched earlier in the day to ensure that Kapyong remained in UN hands, and one of the battalions was subsequently deployed to the southwest of the D Company, 2 PPCLI on the summit of Hill 677 in order to cover the left flank. A second American battalion occupied a position across the river, southeast of the Middlesex. Likewise, despite heavy casualties in one of the Australian companies and battalion headquarters, 3 RAR had emerged from the intense battle largely intact and had successfully withdrawn in an orderly fashion. Meanwhile, one of the replacement British battalions, the 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers, had also arrived during the 24th and it took up positions with the Australians around Brigade Headquarters. With six UN battalions now holding the valley the PVA faced a difficult task continuing the

Fighting concludes, 25 April 1951.

Although the PVA had continued to mount small attacks, UN forces were now in control of the battle. Regardless, the PVA had succeeded in establishing blocking positions on the roads south of the Canadians, temporarily cutting them off from resupply. Anticipating that the battle would continue into the evening, Stone requested that food, ammunition, and water be airdropped directly onto Hill 677 and by 10:30 the required supplies—including mortar ammunition—were dropped by four American C-119 Flying Boxcars flying from an airbase in Japan. Anticipating a renewed PVA effort, the Canadians continued to improve their defensive position. Meanwhile, the Middlesex sent out patrols during the morning in order to clear the PVA that had infiltrated behind Hill 677 during the evening, and although the PVA blocking positions were relatively weak it was not until 14:00 that patrols from B Company, 2 PPCLI reported the road clear. Stone subsequently requested that further supplies

Aftermath.

Casualties.

With vastly superior numbers the PVA had attacked on a broad front, and had initially overrun a number of the forward UN positions. Regardless, the 27th Brigade had ultimately prevailed despite being outnumbered by a factor of five to one. Indeed, despite their numerical advantage the PVA had been badly outgunned and they could not overcome the well-trained and well-armed Australians and Canadians. The battlefield was littered with the corpses of PVA soldiers, a testament to the discipline and firepower of the defenders. And yet, despite their ultimate defeat, the battle once again demonstrated that the PVA were tough and skillful soldiers capable of inflicting heavy casualties on the Australians and forcing their eventual withdrawal, albeit both intact and orderly. As a result of the fighting Australian losses were 32 killed, 59 wounded and three captured, while Canadian casualties included 10 killed and 23 wounded. American casualties included three men killed, 12 wounded and two

Subsequent operations.

By 29 April, Chinese Spring Offensive was halted by UN forces at a defensive line north of Seoul, known as the "No-Name Line"; in total a withdrawal of in the US I and IX Corps sectors, and in the US X Corps and ROK III Corps sectors. Although the main blow had fallen on US I Corps, the resistance by British Commonwealth forces in the battles at the Imjin River and at Kapyong had helped to blunt its impetus, with the defence mounted by the 27th Brigade stopping the PVA from isolating US I Corps from US IX Corps, thereby helping to halt the PVA advance on Seoul and preventing its capture. The PVA had now nearly exhausted their resources of men and material, and were approaching the limit of their supply lines. Many PVA soldiers were now tired, hungry and short of equipment and during the fighting at Kapyong they had demonstrated a greater willingness to surrender than in previous encounters, with 3 RAR alone taking 39 prisoners, only eight of them wounded. Contingent on the rapid attainment of its objectives, the attempted PVA coup de main ultimately failed amid heavy casualties and they had little recourse but to abandon their attacks against US I and IX Corps. The PVA had suffered at least 30,000 casualties during the period 22–29 April. In contrast, US casualties during the same period numbered just 314 killed and 1,600 wounded, while

The Battle of Kapyong (, 22–25 April 1951), also known as the Battle of Jiaping (), was fought during the Korean War between United Nations Command (UN) forces—primarily Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand—and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA). The fighting occurred during the Chinese Spring Offensive and saw the 27th British Commonwealth Brigade establish blocking positions in the Kapyong Valley, on a key route south to the capital, Seoul. The two forward battalions—3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) and 2nd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2 PPCLI)—supported by an artillery battery from the Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery, occupied positions astride the valley and hastily developed defences. As thousands of soldiers from the Republic of Korea Army (ROK) began to withdraw through the valley, the PVA infiltrated the brigade position under the cover of darkness, and assaulted the Australians on Hill 504 during the evening and into the following day.


Psychology.

In psychology the term "early childhood" is usually defined as the time period from birth until the age of six years, therefore covering infancy, kindergarten and first grade. There are three simultaneous development stages:

Physical growth and development.

In this phase there is significant synaptic growth and myelination of neural fibers in the brain, especially within the frontal lobes. For example, between the ages 2 and 6, the brain increases from 70% of its adult weight to 90%. The growth of the brain is followed by a surge in cognitive abilities. Around the age of five, children start speaking properly and master their hand to eye coordination.  It is optimal that an environment is provided that encourages physical development and allows the children to explore and try out new things. The physical development in children follows a pattern. The large muscles develop before the small muscles. The large muscles are used for walking, running and other physical activities. These are known as gross motor skills. Small muscles are used for fine motor skills such as picking up objects, writing, drawing, throwing and catching.

Cognitive growth and development.

Called the preoperational stage by Jean Piaget, this is the stage during which the child repeatedly asks "Why?", and is used to build relationships with the child. The child can't yet perform the abstract thinking operations. The child has to be able to see what is being talked about, because they do not understand the concepts of logic, betrayal, contemplation, etc. This means that they think literally: if a child is told that they have to go to bed because "night is falling", they will ask how can the night (literally) fall from the sky. They also see the human characteristics in every object, e.g. the table "is bad" if they accidentally hit it with their foot and it hurts. They also exhibit egocentrism; not to be confused with egoism; that being said, they do not comprehend that the other person has beliefs and the children at this age think that what they think, everybody thinks. There is also a matter of perceptive centration, which causes the children to primarily see what is visually most prominent on someone/something, e.g. if a man has long hair, the child will think he's a woman.

Social-emotional growth and development.

This includes children understanding a sense of'self', relationships with others and sociability. The emotional development includes expressions, attachment and personality. Children manifest fear of dark and monsters and around the age of three notice whether they are a boy or a girl and start acting that way. Boys are usually more aggressive, whilst girls are more caring. However, aggression is manifested in two different ways: boys are more physically aggressive, while the girls are more socially aggressive (name-calling and ignoring). In this stage the individual differences become more prominent.

Physical development.

Gross motor skills.

Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop using the awkward, wide-legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.  The period of the most rapid development of motor behaviors is between 2 and 6 years (also known as the preschool years). Skills that appear are basic locomotor, ball-handling, fine eye–hand coordination, walking leads to running, jumping, hopping, galloping, and skipping, climbing evolves from creeping.

Fine motor skills.

There are several developmental expectations for children to reach by the time they reach the age of 2. Children are expected to be able to draw simple shapes such as circles, squares and triangles. The development of holding the pencil starts with a supinated grip and finishes with a "dynamic tripod" grip which involves three fingers stabilizing the utensil near the tip. They should also be able to cut out such shapes as these. By doing such activities as these develops the children's fine motor skills, by strengthening their fingers and developing their finger control.

Education.

Infants and toddlers experience life more holistically than any other age group Social, emotional, cognitive, language, and physical lessons are not learned separately by very young children. Adults who are most helpful to young children interact in ways that understand that the child is learning from the whole experience, not just that part of the experience to which the adult gives attention.  The most information learned occurs between birth and the age of three, during this time humans develop more quickly and rapidly than they would at any other point in their life. Love, affection, encouragement and mental stimulation from the parents or guardians of these young children aid in development. At this time in life, the brain is growing rapidly and it is easier for information to be absorbed; parts of the brain can nearly double in a year. During this stage, children need vital nutrients and personal interaction for their brain to grow properly. Children's brains will expand and become more developed in these early years. Although adults play a huge part in early childhood development, the most important way children develop is interaction with other children. Children develop close relationships with the children they spend a large period of time with. Close relationships with peers develop strong social connections that can be transferred later in life, even children at an early age have a preference of whom they want to interact with or form friendships with. Howes (1983) research suggested that there are distinctive characteristics of friendships, for infants, toddler and pre-school aged children.

Early childhood is a stage in human development. It generally includes toddlerhood and some time afterwards. Play age is an unspecific designation approximately within the scope of early childhood.


Biography.

Zhang was born in 1881 in Yi County (now Laizhou) in Shandong. His family was poor; his father worked as head shaver and trumpeter, while his mother was an exorcist. In his teens, his family moved to Manchuria, where Zhang became involved in petty crime in Harbin. He eventually became a bandit in the countryside, though served as auxiliary for the Imperial Russian Army during the Russo-Japanese War in 1904–1905. Following the conflict, he returned to crime and rose to lead his own bandit gang. His activities during the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 are unclear, though he offered his band's services to the army of Jiangsu's military governor. By 1913, he commanded an army division, and served in various military factions during the Warlord Era's early stages.  He returned to Manchuria in 1922, and joined the Fengtian clique of warlord Zhang Zuolin. He made a good impression, with one story being that he rose in popularity one year at Zhang Zuolin's birthday party: in contrast to other guests who showered the warlord with expensive gifts, Zhang Zongchang sent him two empty coolie baskets and failed to turn up himself. Zhang Zuolin was baffled until the purpose of the gift was ascertained: Zhang Zongchang's empty basket implied he was a man willing to shoulder whatever heavy responsibilities the warlord entrusted him with. He was subsequently rewarded with a command position in his army, though only after proving himself in battle did Zhang Zongchang visit his superior in person.  Zhang Zongchang proved to be one of the more capable warlord generals, making effective use of armoured trains manned by experienced White Russian mercenaries. He recruited up to 4,600 White Russian refugees from the Russian civil war, from which he formed a cavalry regiment, complete with pseudo-Tsarist uniforms and regalia. He was also one of the first Chinese generals to incorporate women into the military on a large scale, including using a regiment of nurses consisting entirely of White Russian women. They trained their Chinese counterparts, resulting in greater efficiency in taking care of Zhang's wounded troops, a significant boost for morale and combat capability.  In 1924, he took part in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War and helped partition Shanghai between the opposing forces. In April 1925 he conquered Shanghai proper and then seized Nanjing, both for the glory of Zhang Zuolin's Fengtian clique. He was subsequently appointed military governor of Shandong, which he ruled as warlord until May 1928. Zhang traveled to Shanghai for frequent carousing sessions with Zhang Zuolin's son, Gen. Zhang Xueliang. Both men enjoyed opium, for which Shanghai was a key site in the smuggling trade, and the Fengtian economy became increasingly reliant on the drug. In an infamous incident in 1925, an argument in Zhang's headquarters over who among a group of officers should receive the biggest payment from an opium deal led to a shootout which saw three of them kill each other.  In 1928, during the Northern Expedition, Gen. Bai Chongxi led Kuomintang forces that defeated and destroyed Zhang Zongchang's army, capturing 20,000 of his 50,000 troops and almost capturing Zhang himself, who escaped beyond the Great Wall to Manchuria. He fled to Japanese protection in Dalian, though remained unwilling to accept his reduced status. From Dalian, he plotted to regain his former territories. Possibly enjoying covert support by Japan, Zhang, his long-time follower Chu Yupu and another warlord, Huang Feng-chi, returned to Shandong in 1929 and launched a major rebellion against Liu Zhennian, the Nationalist-aligned "de facto" ruler of eastern Shandong at the time. Gathering tens of thousands of demobilized soldiers who were still loyal to them, the three warlords fought for several months against Liu's followers, thereby causing great destruction and many casualties among the civilian population. In the end, the rebellion was defeated, though Zhang managed to escape back to Dalian. Later that year, he was living quietly in Beppu, Japan, with his mother, though he was thrown into the spotlight again when he "accidentally" shot Prince Xiankai (憲開), a cousin of the deposed emperor Puyi. According to Zhang the gun he was holding while standing at his hotel window happened to go off and shoot the young prince in the back, killing him instantly, though it was more likely he killed the playboy prince for dallying with one of Zhang's many concubines. He was charged, found guilty by a Japanese court and given the choice between 15 days' imprisonment or a $150 (US) fine. He chose the fine.  While visiting Shandong in 1932, he was assassinated by the nephew of one of his many victims, who was in turn given clemency and pardoned by the Kuomintang government. Contemporary claims were made that the "filial murder" might have been part of a plan set up by a local governor to remove Zhang as a political rival.

Personal life.

Nicknames and titles.

In course of his career, Zhang gained a great number of nicknames, most of them derogatory:

Character.

Zhang Zongchang was one of the most infamous Chinese warlords. Being of impressive height and physically strong, he was often regarded as a brute and loathed by his victims, though he could also be very sociable, charming and commanded the respect of his troops as well as superiors. Zhang Zongchang was often described as behaving "mindlessly brutal" during his military campaigns and having "the physique of an elephant, the brain of a pig and the temperament of a tiger". Writer Lin Yutang called Zhang "the most colorful, legendary, medieval, and unashamed ruler of modern China". Former Emperor Puyi remembered Zhang as "a universally detested monster" whose ugly, bloated face was "tinged with the livid hue induced by heavy opium smoking". A brutal man, Zhang was notorious for his hobby of splitting the skulls of prisoners with his sword, which he called "smashing melons". He loved to boast about the size of his penis, which become part of his legend. He kept some 30 to 50 concubines of different nationalities, who were given numbers since he could not remember their names nor speak their language. According to the "Time", several of his concubines had been forcibly seized from rich families in Shandong. He was free with his gifts, lavishly squandering money and concubines on superiors and friends. As a result, his commanders were very loyal to him, contributing to his military success. According to the wife of Wellington Koo:  Zhang Zongchang was also known for writing poetry, though his works (such as the "Poem about bastards", the "Daming Lake poem", "Visiting Penglai Pavilion" and "Pray for Rain") are generally considered to be quite bad. However, some sources have disputed these poems as being fabrications made by his political opponent Han Fuju to slander Zhang Zongchang.  Though not very pious, Zhang was reportedly superstitious. According to David Bonavia, he was strongly influenced by a Daoist diviner who had allegedly convinced the warlord of his powers by successfully prophesying that a train would derail. It was rumoured that the diviner had ensured this outcome by bribing some peasants to sabotage the tracks. Zhang also refused to drink any water except that which came from a minor tributary stream of the Jinan River. He preferred to drink the water directly from the stream, often excusing himself from dinner to go drink from the stream. After he participated in the partioning of Shanghai, he began drinking water solely from the Huangpu River. He claimed the water tasted "divine, as if the urine of heaven." In preparation for his military campaigns, he would instruct his soldiers to gather large quantities of drinking water from his favorite river at the time, which he would not allow others to drink. Whether near or far from his favorite river, his soldiers would present him with water from the nearest available source and claim it was water from his preferred river. There are no known accounts of Zhang disputing the water's origin. Zhang was regularly seen to relieve himself in both rivers.  While having a reputation as one of the most brutal and ruthless warlords, he was also one of the most colourful. After defeating the army of general Wu Peifu by making his enemy's forces defect, he rewarded the defectors by allowing them to keep their original ranks. He then promoted his own officers, but since there was not enough metal to make the gold and silver stars for their rank insignia, he ordered the stars to be made from the gold and silver paper foil in cigarette packages. During the mass promotion ceremony, the officers were surprised to find their insignia already torn even before the ceremony had ended. During one of his campaigns, he publicly announced he would win the battle or come home in his coffin. When his troops were forced back he was true to his word—he was paraded through the streets, sitting in his coffin and smoking a large cigar. It was also a matter of public amusement that he kept his aged mother with him at all times, except when on campaign, when he left her at his opulent palace.  During the Famine of Northwestern China in 1928–1930, a famine that struck Shandong particularly hard, Zhang Zongchang was reported to have gone into a temple of Zhang Xian where there were many people praying for rain and offering gifts to the deity, then walking up to the statue, he slapped it and said "Fuck your sister! How dare you make Shandong's people suffer by not giving us rain!" He then left the temple, the next day ordering his artillery to shoot into the sky until it rained. It rained the next day. This is also where his nickname of "72-Cannon Chang" came from.

Zhang Zongchang (13 February 1881 – 3 September 1932), was a Chinese warlord in Shandong in the early 20th century. "Time" dubbed him China's "basest warlord". He was known by many nicknames such as the "Dogmeat General" ().


Priory.

Burford Priory is a country house that stands on the site of a 13th-century Augustinian priory hospital. In the 1580s an Elizabethan house was built incorporating remnants of the building. It was remodelled in Jacobean style, probably after 1637, by which time the estate had been bought by William Lenthall, Speaker of the House of Commons in the Long Parliament. After 1912 the house and later the chapel were restored for the philanthropist Emslie John Horniman, MP, by the architect Walter Godfrey.  From 1949 Burford Priory housed the Society of the Salutation of Mary the Virgin, a community of Church of England nuns. In 1987, due to declining numbers, it became a mixed community including Church of England Benedictine monks. In 2008 the community relocated and sold the property which is now a private dwelling.  A "Time Team" excavation of the Priory in 2010 found pottery sherds from the 12th or 13th century.

Economic and social history.

The town began in the middle Saxon period with the founding of a village near the site of the modern priory building. This settlement continued in use until just after the Norman conquest of England when the new town of Burford was built. On the site of the old village a hospital was founded which remained open until the Dissolution of the Monasteries by King Henry VIII. The modern priory building was constructed some 40 years later, in around 1580.  The town centre's most notable building is the Church of St John the Baptist, a Church of England parish church, which is a Grade I listed building. Described by David Verey as "a complicated building which has developed in a curious way from the Norman", it is known for its merchants' guild chapel, memorial to Henry VIII's barber-surgeon, Edmund Harman, featuring South American Indians and Kempe stained glass. In 1649 the church was used as a prison during the Civil War, when the New Model Army Banbury mutineers were held there. Some of the 340 prisoners left carvings and graffiti, which still survive in the church.  The town centre also has some 15th-century houses and the baroque style townhouse that is now Burford Methodist Church. Between the 14th and 17th centuries Burford was important for its wool trade. The Tolsey, midway along Burford's High Street, which was once the focal point for trade, is now a museum.  The authors of "Burford: Buildings and People in a Cotswold Town" (2008) argue that Burford should be seen as less a medieval town than an Arts and Crafts town.

English Civil Wars – the Banbury Mutiny.

On 17 May 1649, three soldiers who were Levellers were executed on the orders of Oliver Cromwell in the churchyard at Burford following a mutiny started over pay and the prospect of being sent to fight in Ireland. Corporal Church, Private Perkins, and Cornet Thompson were they key leaders of the mutiny and, after a brief court-martial, were put up against the wall in the churchyard at Burford and shot. The remaining soldiers were pardoned. Each year on the nearest weekend to the Banbury mutiny is commemorated as 'Levellers Day'.

Bell foundry.

Burford has twice had a bell foundry: one run by the Neale family in the 17th century and another run by the Bond family in the 19th and 20th centuries.  Henry Neale was a bell founder between 1627 and 1641 and also had a foundry at Somerford Keynes in Gloucestershire. Edward Neale had joined him as a bell-founder at Burford by 1635 and continued the business until 1685. Numerous Neale bells remain in use, including at St Britius, Brize Norton, St Mary's, Buscot, St James the Great, Fulbrook and SS Peter and Paul, Steeple Aston. A few Neale bells that are no longer rung are displayed in Burford parish church.  Henry Bond had a bell foundry at Westcot from 1851 to 1861. He then moved it to Burford where he continued until 1905. He was then succeeded by Thomas Bond, who continued bell-founding at Burford until 1947. Bond bells still in use include four of the ring of six at St John the Evangelist, Taynton, one and a Sanctus bell at St Nicholas, Chadlington and one each at St Mary the Virgin, Chalgrove and St Peter's, Whatcote in Warwickshire.

Easter Synod.

For many years before the 7th century there had been strife between the Celtic Church and the Early Church over the question of when Easter Day should be celebrated. The Britons adhered to the rule laid at the Council of Arles in AD 314, that Easter Day should be the 14th day of the Paschal moon, even if the moon were on a Sunday. The Roman Church had decided that when the 14th day of the Paschal moon was a Sunday, Easter Day should be the Sunday after.  Various Synods were held in different parts of the kingdom with the object of settling this controversy, and one was held for this object at Burford in AD 685. Monk deduces from the fact of the Synod being held at Burford, that the Britons in some numbers had settled in the town and neighbourhood. This Synod was attended by Æthelred, King of Mercia, and his nephew Berthwald (who had been granted the southern part of his uncle's kingdom); Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury; Bosel, Bishop of Worcester; Seaxwulf, Bishop of Lichfield; Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury; and many others.  Aldhelm was ordered at this conference to write a book against the error of the Britons in the observance of Easter. At this Synod Berthwald gave 40 cassates of land (a cassate is enough land to support a family) to Aldhelm who afterwards became Bishop of Shereborne. According to Spelman, the notes of the Synod were published in AD 705.

Battle of Burford and the Golden Dragon.

Malmesbury and other chroniclers record a battle between the West Saxons and Mercians at Burford in AD 752. In the end Æthelhum, the Mercian standard-bearer who carried the flag with a golden dragon on it, was killed by the lance of his Saxon rival. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records "A.D 752. This year Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, in the 12th year of his reign, fought at Burford, against Æthelbald king of the Mercians, and put him to flight." The historian William Camden (1551–1623) wrote "... in Saxon Beorgford [i.e. Burford], where Cuthred, king of the West Saxons, then tributary to the Mercians, not being able to endure any longer the cruelty and base exactions of King Æthelbald, met him in the open field with an army and beat him, taking his standard, which was a portraiture of a golden dragon."  The origin of the golden dragon standard is attributed to that of Uther Pendragon, the father of King Arthur of whom Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote: [Uther Pendragon] "... ordered two dragons to be fashioned in gold, in the likeness of the one which he had seen in the ray which shone from that star. As soon as the Dragons had been completed this with the most marvellous craftsmanship – he made a present of one of them to the congregation of the cathedral church of the see of Winchester. The second one he kept for himself, so that he could carry it around to his wars."  In the late 16th or early 17th century the people of Burford still celebrated the anniversary of the battle. Camden wrote: "There has been a custom in the town of making a great dragon yearly, and carrying it up and down the streets in great jollity on St John's Eve". The field traditionally claimed to be that of the battle is still called Battle Edge.  According to Reverend Francis Knollis' description of the discovery, "On 21 November 1814 a large freestone sarcophagus was discovered near Battle Edge below ground, weighing with the feet pointing almost due south. The interior is long and wide. It was found to contain the remains of a human body, with portions of a leather cuirass studded with metal nails. The skeleton was found in near perfect state due to the exclusion of air from the sarcophagus." The coffin is now preserved in Burford churchyard, near the west gate.  "Whose fame is in that dark green tomb? Four stones with their heads of moss stand there. They mark the narrow house of death. Some chief of fame is here! Raise the songs of old! Awake their memory in the tomb." – Ossian

Amenities.

Burford County Primary School is the town's primary school. Burford School, a mixed comprehensive school, is the town's secondary school. The primary school fête, held every summer, includes a procession (including a dragon) down High Street to the school, where there are stalls and games.  The Blue Cross National Animal Welfare Charity is based at Burford. In September 2001 Burford was twinned with Potenza Picena, a small town in the Marche, on the Adriatic coast of Italy.  In April 2009 Burford was ranked sixth in "Forbes" magazine's list of "Europe's Most Idyllic Places To Live".

Local legend and literature.

Local legend tells of a fiery coach containing the judge and local landowner Sir Lawrence Tanfield of Burford Priory and his wife flying around the town that brings a curse upon all who see it. Ross Andrews speculates that the apparition may have been caused by a local tradition of burning effigies of the unpopular couple that began after their deaths. In real life Tanfield and his second wife Elizabeth Evans are known to have been notoriously harsh to their tenants. The visitations were reportedly ended when local clergymen trapped Lady Tanfield's ghost in a corked glass bottle during an exorcism and cast it into the River Windrush. During droughts locals would fill the river from buckets to ensure that the bottle did not rise above the surface and free the spirit.  Burford is the main setting for Cynthia Harnett's historical novel for children, "The Wool-Pack".

Burford is a small medieval town on the River Windrush, in the Cotswold hills, in the West Oxfordshire district of Oxfordshire, England. It is often referred to as the 'gateway' to the Cotswolds. Burford is located west of Oxford and southeast of Cheltenham, about from the Gloucestershire boundary. The toponym derives from the Old English words "burh" meaning fortified town or hilltown and "ford", the crossing of a river. The 2011 Census recorded the population of Burford parish as 1,410 and Burford Ward as 1,847.


In the novel.

Dom Claude Frollo is a pious and highly knowledgeable man who was orphaned along with his younger brother Jehan when their parents died of the plague. His studies led him to become the Archdeacon of Josas, which is his position during the events of the novel. He also has a small fief which brings him a little money, most of which goes to fund his brother's alcoholism.  During a holiday at Notre Dame called Quasimodo Sunday, he rescues a deformed hunchback child whom he finds abandoned on the cathedral's foundlings bed. He adopts the boy, names him "Quasimodo" after the holiday, raises him like a son, and teaches him a sort of sign language when Quasimodo is deafened by the cathedral’s bells. Frollo is a respected scholar and studies several languages, law, medicine, science and theology. However, he becomes infatuated with alchemy, which leads townspeople to spread the rumor that he is a sorcerer. He also believes strongly in fate. All this, along with his extreme and irrational fear of women, contribute further to his isolation from society.  Frollo also has strong passions, even though he is a celibate due to his station within the church. These passions erupt in him through his contact with the beautiful gypsy girl Esméralda, and eventually, they prove his undoing. He considers her to be a temptation sent by the Devil to test his faith, and curses her as a demon. He finds that he cannot resist her, however, and determines to give in to temptation. Esmeralda, however, is repulsed by his advances. Frollo orders Quasimodo to abduct her, and then abandons him when the hunchback is suddenly captured by Captain Phoebus de Chateaupers and his guards. Frollo even ignores Quasimodo when he sees him being publicly humiliated for the crime. When Frollo discovers that Esmeralda is in love with Phoebus, he spies on the meeting between them which Esmeralda has arranged – with Phoebus' consent, as Phoebus only wants one night of passion. As Phoebus and Esmeralda are about to make love, Frollo, in a jealous rage, stabs Phoebus, and kisses Esmeralda when she faints before fleeing.  Frollo does not attempt to intercede when Esmeralda is turned over to the magistrate on charges of witchcraft and attempted murder, but he stabs himself during her torture and shows her the wound as a proof of his lust for her. She is unmoved, however, as she is still in love with Phoebus. Shortly before the day she is to be executed, Frollo leaves Paris in a feverish madness, not realizing that Quasimodo – who is in love with her – has rescued her from the gallows. When he returns to the news that Esmeralda is still alive, he becomes as jealous of Quasimodo as he was of Phoebus. Frollo later attempts to rape her at her sanctuary in the cathedral, but Quasimodo – who doesn't realize who Esmeralda's attacker is at first – comes to the girl's defense and beats him up. Angered and humiliated, Frollo decides to rid himself of Esmeralda by handing her over to the authorities.  Frollo's time comes when a group of scoundrels, enraged by news that the French monarchy has ordered Esmeralda to be taken from the cathedral and hanged within three days, arm themselves to assault Notre Dame Cathedral. While Quasimodo is busy fighting off the scoundrels, Pierre Gringoire, Esmeralda's husband – whom she only married to save his life – and a hooded figure sneak into the Cathedral and convince Esmeralda to sneak out with them. The man's face is hidden behind a hood, leaving Esmeralda to guess his identity. They flee to a boat on the River Seine, then separate when they head to shore, with Gringoire taking her goat, Djali, and leaving Esmeralda with the unknown man. The hooded figure drags Esmeralda to a nearby gallows and identifies himself as Frollo by removing his hood.  Frollo issues Esmeralda his final ultimatum: either she must submit to him, or he will hand her over to the authorities. She rejects him, so he leaves her to an anchoress to hold her for the royal soldiers coming to hang her and goes back to Notre Dame Cathedral. He then walks up to one of the cathedral's towers to watch the girl being hanged, unaware that Quasimodo has spotted him and followed him upstairs. He watches calmly while Esmeralda is taken to the gallows.  When Quasimodo sees him laughing at Esmeralda's hanging, he becomes enraged and pushes Frollo off the balustrade. A gargoyle stops his fall, and he cries out to Quasimodo for help, but Quasimodo remains silent. Then Frollo falls down off the cathedral, colliding with the roof of a house. He slides down the roof, hits the pavement of the town square and dies.

Adaptations.

Victor Hugo's novel has been adapted to film on numerous occasions. Due to policy of the NAMPI Thirteen Points, the filmmakers of the 1923 film adaptation would not portray a member of the Roman Catholic Church in a negative and controversial light. As a result, Claude Frollo is not the villain, but instead a good-hearted archdeacon of Notre Dame, and the villain of the film is actually his younger brother Jehan (played by Brandon Hurst). The 1939 film had a similar change for the same reason due to policy of the Hays Production Code; the only difference is that Claude is portrayed as the Archbishop of Paris and Jehan (played by Sir Cedric Hardwicke) is portrayed as King Louis XI's chief justice of Paris. In Disney's 1996 animated film, Claude is Paris' judge/Minister of Justice and the villain as in the novel, the Archdeacon of Notre Dame is a separate character entirely (and voiced by David Ogden Stiers), and the character of Jehan is omitted.  However, Jehan appeared as he was originally portrayed in the novel in the following adaptations:  Among the actors who played Claude Frollo over the years in each adaptation of the novel are:

Disney version.

In Disney's 1996 animated film version of "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", Judge Claude Frollo was voiced by Tony Jay, whom directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale chose for the role based on his brief appearance as Monsieur D'Arque in their previous film, "Beauty and the Beast" (1991) and animated by Kathy Zielinski. The character's features were inspired by those of the actor Stewart Granger and, only specifically his appearance in the 1953 film "The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T", of Hans Conreid. The film's producer, Don Hahn, stated that the character of Frollo was inspired by Ralph Fiennes' performance as Amon Göth from "Schindler's List", who murders Jews yet desires his Jewish maid. Screenwriter Tab Murphy made Frollo Paris' justice minister rather than an archdeacon, thus avoiding religious sensibilities in the finished film.  Frollo is portrayed in the film as the cruel, infamous, ruthless, self-righteous, and fanatically religious Minister of Justice of Paris. He despises Paris’ Gypsy population and desires to wipe out their entire race. Like his original character in Victor Hugo's novel, Frollo lusts after Esmeralda to the point of obsession, and demands her to choose to be his or die. Frollo believes everything he does is in accordance with God's will, despite frequent disagreements with the Archdeacon of Notre Dame. While in the novel Frollo genuinely cares for Quasimodo, in this film he is Quasimodo's reluctant guardian and took him in only out of fear of God’s punishment and the hope that the hunchback will someday be useful to him. Trousdale described the film's Frollo as "a horrible, horrible person", while Jay compared him to Hannibal Lecter in "The Silence of the Lambs".  In the beginning of the film, Frollo and his soldiers capture a group of Gypsy peasants attempting to sneak illegally into Paris on a boat. A Gypsy woman in the group attempts to flee with her deformed baby, but Frollo kills her outside Notre Dame Cathedral. He tries to kill the baby as well, but the cathedral's archdeacon intervenes and accuses Frollo of murdering an innocent woman. Fearing divine retribution, Frollo reluctantly agrees to raise the deformed child in Notre Dame as his son, naming him "Quasimodo", and teaching him that the world outside the cathedral is a sinful place full of people who would hate him for his deformity.  Twenty years later, in the Palace of Justice, Frollo appoints a new Captain of the Guard, Phoebus, stating his intent to eradicate the city's Gypsy population by discovering their sanctuary, the "Court of Miracles". While attending the annual Festival of Fools, Frollo discovers a Gypsy dancer, Esmeralda, who attracts him with her beauty. He finds that Quasimodo has left the bell tower and joined the Festival. Quasimodo is humiliated by the crowd after two of Frollo's guards start a riot. Frollo refuses to help Quasimodo, going so far as to refuse Phoebus' request to stop it, and he is angered when Esmeralda defiantly decides to help Quasimodo. Esmeralda rebukes Frollo before claiming sanctuary inside the cathedral.  Frollo soon develops lustful feelings for Esmeralda and begs the Virgin Mary to save him from her "spell"; he then resolves that “she will be mine, or she will burn”. When Frollo learns that she has escaped Notre Dame, he instigates a citywide manhunt for her, even going as far as capturing and bribing Gypsies and burning countless houses in his way. Phoebus is appalled by Frollo's actions and openly defies him, and Frollo sentences him to death. While fleeing on Frollo's horse, Phoebus is struck by an arrow and falls into the River Seine, but Esmeralda rescues him just in time and takes him to Notre Dame for refuge.  Frollo returns to Notre Dame later that night and discovers that Quasimodo had helped Esmeralda escape. He lies to Quasimodo, saying that he knows about the Court of Miracles and that he intends to attack at dawn with 1,000 men. Following Quasimodo and Phoebus to the Court of Miracles, Frollo and his men capture all the Gypsies present. Frollo prepares to burn Esmeralda at the stake, but offers to spare her life if she submits to his desires. A disgusted Esmeralda refuses and spits on his face, and Frollo prepares to execute her. Quasimodo rescues her, however, and brings her to the cathedral. Frollo orders his soldiers to attack and seize the cathedral. Phoebus releases the Gypsies and rallies the citizens of Paris against Frollo and his men. Quasimodo pours molten lead onto the streets to ensure that no one enters, but Frollo manages to get inside. Frollo attempts to kill Quasimodo, but Quasimodo overpowers him, and openly rejects everything that Frollo raised him to believe. Frollo pursues Quasimodo and Esmeralda to the balcony, where he taunts Quasimodo with the truth about his mother. Frollo knocks Quasimodo over the edge, but Quasimodo manages to hold on and ends up pulling Frollo along with him. Frollo climbs onto a gargoyle and raises his sword to strike at Esmeralda, but the gargoyle crumbles underneath him, causing him to lose his balance. In a vision, Frollo sees the gargoyle's face transform into that of Satan. Terrified, Frollo screams as the gargoyle breaks off entirely, sending him falling to his death into the molten lead below.

"Monseigneur" Claude Frollo () is a fictional character and the main antagonist of Victor Hugo's 1831 novel "The Hunchback of Notre-Dame" (known in French as "Notre-Dame de Paris"). He is the Archdeacon of Notre Dame.


History.

Gun Owners of America was founded in 1975 by the NRA board member and California state senator H. L. Richardson when legislation to ban all handguns was introduced in California. Richardson was the chairman of Gun Owners of America until his death in 2020. Richardson also founded Gun Owners of California, which deals specifically with gun ownership rights in California. GOA's current executive director as of 2018 is Erich Pratt, son of the previous director Larry Pratt, who also hosts GOA's audio webcast, Live Fire.

Goals.

Gun Owners of America is a 501(c)(4) nonprofit organization whose main goal is to preserve and defend the Second Amendment. Gun Owners of America sees the right to bear arms as a fundamental freedom issue. GOA's stance is to "never compromise" and not to accept the status quo. According to Gun Owners of America's official website, its board contends that Americans have lost some of their gun rights, and GOA strives to get them back. For 30 years, Gun Owners of America has been building a nationwide network of lawyers to aid in challenging gun control legislation in the courts. Gun Owners of America has been involved in legal proceedings in almost every state in the hopes of maintaining and advancing pro-gun legislation and rights.

Branches.

By its own account, Gun Owners of America spent over $1.75 million lobbying Congress in 2004, and over $18 million between 1998 and 2004. Gun Owners of America's Federal Political Action Committee is "Gun Owners of America Inc. Political Victory Fund" (C00278101). It raises funds to support the election of pro-gun candidates at all levels of government.  Gun Owners Foundation is an educational nonprofit foundation. It acts as the research arm for GOA. Its main objective is to hold seminars around the country to inform the public, media outlets, and various government officials on Second Amendment issues. The Gun Owners Foundation around 2008 began a new campaign by creating Public Service Announcements to promote what it calls "PROPER Gun Safety". According to Gun Owners Foundation, its campaign objective is "to generate public awareness of the dangers of not having a gun ready for protection and to encourage gun owners not to lock up their best means of self-defense". The public service announcements focus mainly on trying to persuade their target audience, American adults in gun owning households, to not lock up fire arms, but instead to keep them ready and accessible. According to the public service announcements:

Recent campaigns.

Gun Owners of America publicly denounced then-President-elect Barack Obama, stating that "Based on his voting record in the Illinois state senate and in the U.S. Senate, President-elect Barack Obama will be the most anti–Second Amendment president in the history of America." Gun Owners of America was worried that with the Democratic Party majority in the 111th Congress, having Obama alongside Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi and Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (both rated F− by the GOA), will mean Second Amendment–protected rights could be affected. Gun Owners of America concerns about the Obama administration and current Congress include:  Gun Owners of America failed in its battle against New York Senator Chuck Schumer's NICS Improvement Amendments Act of 2007. The group claimed the bill ( and S 2084) would give authorities—including courts, psychiatrists, and in some cases psychologists—the ability to revoke the Second Amendment rights of veterans who had been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder. Gun Owners of America contended that this would be an infringement on the rights of veterans with mental disorders.

GOA victories.

On June 6, 1995, Gun Owners of America helped in lobbying the House of Representatives to vote against the Moran Amendment, by a vote of 278 to 149. The amendment would have banned.50 caliber weapons from being licensed for export.  On July 13, 2006, Senator David Vitter saw an 84–16 vote for his amendment prohibiting the use of federal money for federal agents to confiscate weapons during a declared state of emergency. This bill was passed less than a year after the devastation in Vitter's home state from Hurricane Katrina.  On June 27, 2007, the Pence Amendment passed. The bill, named after then-Representative Mike Pence, was passed by a vote of 309–115. According to Gun Owners of America, the amendment blocked the Federal Communications Commission's ability to use the Fairness Doctrine to limit the free speech allowed by organizations like Gun Owners of America over the airwaves.  On August 9, 2007, Gun Owners of America supported Vitter's work in pushing through a bill stating that no U.S. funds can be used by the United Nations or any group affiliated with the United Nations to restrict or tax Second Amendment rights. If they attempt to do so, the U.S. can withdraw their funds from the organization. This bill, HR-2764, also known as the Consolidated Appropriations Act, passed by an 81–10 vote.  On February 25, 2008, Senator Jim DeMint amended bill S-1200, the Indian Health Care Improvement Act. The act stated that the funds were to be used for "violence prevention". Once the funds were attempted to be used for gun buybacks, DeMint pushed through an amendment to the act stating that the money cannot be used for any anti-gun programs. DeMint's amendment passed by a margin of 78–11.

Gun Owners of America (GOA) is a gun rights organization in the United States with over two million members. It makes efforts to differentiate itself from the larger National Rifle Association (NRA) and has publicly criticized the NRA on multiple occasions for what it considers to be compromising on gun rights.


Section 33 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Text.

The section states:

Function.

The Parliament of Canada, a provincial legislature or a territorial legislature may declare that one of its laws or part of a law applies temporarily ("notwithstanding") countermanding sections of the "Charter", thereby nullifying any judicial review by overriding the "Charter" protections for a limited period of time. This is done by including a section in the law clearly specifying which rights have been overridden. A simple majority vote in any of Canada's 14 jurisdictions may suspend the core rights of the "Charter". However, the rights to be overridden must be either a "fundamental right" guaranteed by Section 2 (such as freedom of expression, religion, and association), a "legal right" guaranteed by Sections 7–14 (such as rights to liberty and freedom from search and seizures and cruel and unusual punishment) or a Section 15 "equality right". Other rights such as section 6 mobility rights, democratic rights, and language rights are inviolable.  Such a declaration lapses after five years or a lesser time specified in the clause, although the legislature may re-enact the clause any number of times. The rationale behind having a five-year expiry date is that it is also the maximum amount of time the Parliament or legislature may sit before an election must be called. Therefore, if the people wish for the law to be repealed, they have the "right" to elect representatives that will carry out the wish of the electorate. (The provisions of the "Charter" that deal with elections and democratic representation (§§3–5) are not among those that can be overridden with the notwithstanding clause (§§2,7–15).)  The notwithstanding clause reflects the hybrid character of Canadian political institutions. In effect, it protects the British tradition of parliamentary supremacy under the American-style system of written constitutional rights and strong courts introduced in 1982. Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien also described it as a tool that could guard against a Supreme Court ruling legalizing hate speech and child pornography as freedom of expression.

History.

The idea for the clause was proposed by Peter Lougheed as suggested by Merv Leitch. The clause was a compromise reached during the debate over the new constitution in the early 1980s. Among the provinces' major complaints with the "Charter" was its effect of shifting power from elected officials to the judiciary, giving the courts the final word. Section 33, in conjunction with the limitations clause in section 1, was intended to give provincial legislators more leverage to pass law. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau at first strongly objected to the clause, but eventually consented to its inclusion under pressure from the provincial premiers. The clause was included as part of what is known as "The Kitchen Accord". At the end of a conference on the constitution that was poised to end in deadlock, Jean Chrétien, the federal justice minister, as well as Roy McMurtry and Roy Romanow, both provincial ministers, met in a kitchen in the Government Conference Centre in Ottawa and sowed the seeds for a deal. This compromise ultimately caused two major changes to the constitution package: the first was that the "Charter" would include the "notwithstanding clause", and the second was an agreed-upon amending formula. They then worked through the night with consultations from different premiers, and agreement from almost everybody. However, they notably excluded René Lévesque, the premier of Quebec, in the negotiations. At any rate, he refused to agree to the deal, and ultimately the Quebec government declined to endorse the constitutional amendment. Chrétien would later say on the notwithstanding clause, "Canada probably wouldn't have had any "Charter" without it."  According to Chrétien, in 1992, Trudeau blamed him for the notwithstanding clause, saying "you gave them that". Chrétien replied, "Sorry, Pierre. I recommended it. "You" gave it."  During the January 9, 2006, party leaders' debate for the 2006 federal election, Prime Minister Paul Martin unexpectedly pledged that his Liberal government, if returned, would support a constitutional amendment to prevent the federal government from invoking section 33, and challenged Conservative leader Stephen Harper to agree. This sparked a debate as to how the notwithstanding clause can be amended. Some argued that the amending formula required the federal government to gain the approval of at least seven provinces with at least half the national population (the standard procedure). Others argued that since the proposal would only limit the federal Parliament's powers, Parliament could make the change alone.

Usages of the override.

Two provinces have used the power of override. Saskatchewan used it to force provincial employees to work and to allow the government to pay for non-Catholics to attend a Catholic school, and Quebec used it to allow the government to restrict language of signage. Neither of the usages were renewed, and they each therefore expired after five years. Both Saskatchewan and Quebec have introduced new legislation that invokes the override and may still come into effect.  Three jurisdictions—Yukon, Alberta, and Ontario—have introduced bills that invoked the override but never came into effect for various reasons. Other provinces and territories, and the federal government, have not used it.

Alberta.

Same-sex marriage.

Alberta has never successfully invoked the notwithstanding clause, but in March 2000, the Legislature of Alberta passed Bill 202, which amended the province's "Marriage Act" to include an opposite-sex-only definition of marriage as well as the notwithstanding clause in order to insulate the definition from "Charter" challenges. However, a legislature may only use the "notwithstanding clause" on legislation it would otherwise have the authority to enact, and the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in "Reference re Same-Sex Marriage" that the definition of marriage is within the exclusive domain of the Parliament of Canada, thus finding the legislation "ultra vires", or beyond the constitutional powers of the Alberta Legislature.

Compensation for forced sterilization.

In 1998, Alberta introduced, but later abandoned, a bill that would attempt to use the notwithstanding clause to limit lawsuits against the government for past forced sterilizations approved by the Alberta Eugenics Board before the "Sexual Sterilization Act" was repealed.

Other discussions of its use in Alberta.

There were also discussions to invoke the notwithstanding clause following the Supreme Court of Canada's 1998 decision in "Vriend v Alberta", but were resisted by Premier Ralph Klein at the time.

New Brunswick.

Mandatory Vaccinations.

On November 22, 2019, Education Minister Dominic Cardy introduced a bill in the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick to end non-medical exemptions to vaccinations in school children, known as Bill 39 which includes invoking the notwithstanding clause. The purpose of this in the minister's words was to pre-empt any court and charter challenges to the bill by "an organized, well-financed lobby out there that's intent on derailing efforts to protect vulnerable children".

Ontario.

Municipal elections.

In August 2018, the government of Ontario passed the "Better Local Government Act", which, among other things, ordered the Toronto City Council to change its electoral ward boundaries for the upcoming municipal election to match the boundaries used for federal and provincial electoral ridings, thus reducing the number of wards from 47 to 25. Premier of Ontario Doug Ford stated that the current council had "failed to act on the critical issues facing the city", and claimed cost savings of $25 million over the next four years. The bill was controversial for both its intent and its timing, as it came in the midst of a municipal election campaign. The electoral boundaries had already been realigned for the 2018 election to expand it from 44 to 47 wards, by consolidating several existing wards and adding new ones.  On September 10, 2018, the Act was struck down by Superior Court Justice Edward Belobaba as unconstitutional, ruling that the larger wards infringed voters' rights to an election whose outcome provides "effective representation", and that unilaterally changing electoral boundaries in the middle of a campaign infringed on candidates' freedom of expression. Shortly afterward, Ford announced his intent to table legislation authorizing an invocation of the notwithstanding clause to overturn the ruling, which, if passed, would have been the first time that the notwithstanding clause would ever be invoked in Ontario. However, on September 19, the Court of Appeal for Ontario granted a stay of the Superior Court's decision, allowing the province to again enact a 25-ward structure for the City of Toronto. During the oral argument for that case, the counsel for the Attorney General stated that the provincial government would not proceed with the legislation to invoke the notwithstanding clause if the stay was granted.

Quebec.

Blanket application.

After the Charter came into force in 1982, the Parti Québécois government in Quebec inserted wording pursuant to section 33 into every law passed by the National Assembly of Quebec, as well as retroactively amending every existing law, in an attempt to ensure that no provincial law could ever be challenged in the courts. This stopped in 1987, when the newly elected Quebec Liberals discontinued the practice.  The way the Quebec legislature deployed the clause in the late 1980s diminished public respect in the rest of the country for section 33. Due to the mass opposition that its use, or even threatened use, as in the case of Alberta (listed below), would evoke, the act of invoking the notwithstanding clause would be more politically costly even than had always been apprehended, according to some.

Sign laws.

On December 21, 1988, after the decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in "Ford v Quebec (AG)", the National Assembly of Quebec employed section 33 and the equivalent section 52 of the "Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms" in their Bill 178. This allowed Quebec to continue to restrict the posting of certain commercial signs in languages other than French. In 1993, after the law was criticized by the United Nations Human Rights Committee, the Bourassa government had the National Assembly rewrite the law to conform to the "Charter" and the notwithstanding clause was removed.

An Act Respecting the Laicity of the State.

On March 28, 2019, the recently elected Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ) government applied the notwithstanding clause in Bill 21 (An Act respecting the Laicity of the State). The bill was passed on June 16, 2019 and prevents public workers in positions of authority from wearing religious symbols. It also prevents people from receiving public services with their faces covered.

Saskatchewan.

Back-to-work order.

In 1986, the Legislature of Saskatchewan enacted a law, the "SGEU Dispute Settlement Act", in which workers were ordered back to work. The Court of Appeal for Saskatchewan had previously held that a similar back-to-work law was unconstitutional because it infringed workers' freedom of association. The government appealed that decision to the Supreme Court of Canada. Since the Court of Appeal decision was still the statement of law at the time of the "SGEU Dispute Settlement Act", a clause was written into the act, invoking the section 33 override. The earlier law was later found by the Supreme Court to be consistent with the "Charter", meaning the use of the clause had been unnecessary.

Catholic school funding.

In May 2018, the Saskatchewan Legislature invoked the notwithstanding clause to overrule the Court of Queen's Bench ruling in "Good Spirit School Division No 204 v Christ The Teacher Roman Catholic Separate School Division No 212", 2017 SKQB 109, which stated the government could not provide funding for non-Catholic students to attend Catholic separate schools.

Other discussions of its use in Saskatchewan.

Following a Supreme Court of Canada decision of January 30, 2015, which struck down Saskatchewan essential service legislation, Premier Brad Wall publicly considered using the notwithstanding clause to protect the province's ability to force essential service employees back to work.

Yukon.

Committee appointments.

In 1982, the legislature of Yukon made use of the notwithstanding clause in the "Land Planning and Development Act". This was the first use, by any Canadian legislature, of the section 33 override. However, as constitutional scholar Peter Hogg notes, the "statute... was never brought into force and so scarcely counts as an example".

Comparison with other human rights instruments.

Constitutional scholar Peter Hogg has remarked that the notwithstanding clause "seems to be a uniquely Canadian invention". The United States Constitution gives no such powers to the states (see: Nullification), but Article III, sect. 2 does authorize the Congress to remove jurisdiction from the Federal Courts. Not since World War II has Congress mustered the requisite majority.  However, the concept of the notwithstanding clause was not created with the "Charter". The presence of the clause makes the "Charter" similar to the "Canadian Bill of Rights" (1960), which, under section 2, states that "an Act of the Parliament" may declare that a law "shall operate notwithstanding the Canadian Bill of Rights". A primary difference is that the "Bill of Rights" notwithstanding clause could be used to invalidate "any" right, not just specified clauses as with the "Charter". The Saskatchewan "Human Rights Code" (1979), the "Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms" (1977) and the Alberta "Bill of Rights" (1972) also contain devices like the notwithstanding clause.  Outside Canada, Israel added a device similar to the notwithstanding clause to one of its Basic Laws in 1992. However, this power could be used only in respect of the right to work.  In Victoria, Australia, section 31 of the "Victorian Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities" fulfils a similar purpose.

Section 33 of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" is part of the Constitution of Canada. It is commonly known as the notwithstanding clause (or in French), or as the override power, and it allows Parliament or provincial legislatures to temporarily override certain portions of the "Charter.


Luis Firmín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión

Early career and 1793.

Luis Fermín De Carvajal was born in 1752 in Lima. King Charles III of Spain conferred upon him the title Conde de la Unión on 2 August 1778. At the outbreak of the War of the Pyrenees in 1793, he commanded the fortress of San Fernando at Figueres. Under the command of Antonio Ricardos the Spanish army was generally successful in 1793, capturing and holding part of French Rousillon. As a Lieutenant General, De la Unión led a division under Ricardos in a victory at the Battle of Truillas on 22 September 1793. When Ricardos died in Madrid in early 1794, and his successor Alejandro O'Reilly expired soon after, King Charles IV of Spain appointed de la Unión to command the army.

In command.

In April 1794, the newly organized and reinforced French Army of the eastern Pyrenees under Jacques François Dugommier launched a powerful offensive against the Spanish foothold in France. On 30 April and 1 May, the French defeated de la Unión at the Battle of Boulou, forcing the Spanish army south of the Pyrenees. The French recaptured the port of Collioure at the end of May, and blockaded the Spanish garrison of the Fort de Bellegarde at the Pass of Le Perthus. De la Unión made two attempts to break through the blockade. The first try was repulsed at La Junquera on 7 June. The second attempt ended in failure at the Battle of San Lorenzo de la Muga on 13 August and Bellegarde fell on 17 September. De la Unión built a chain of 90 redoubts running from Sant Llorenç de la Muga to the coast. The lines were designed to protect the Alt Emporda from French invasion, but were manned by troops of uneven quality. The best units were the Spanish Guard and Walloon Guard, with three battalions each. Regular line infantry and provincial militia also manned the defenses.  The French blow fell in the early hours of 17 November and the Battle of the Black Mountain ensued. On the first day, the French gained ground on the western flank, but were repulsed in the center and on the eastern flank. A Spanish artillery shell killed Dugommier on the 18th and his successor Dominique Catherine de Pérignon ordered a temporary halt in the fighting. On 20 November, Pérignon resumed the attack and the French rapidly broke through the first and second Spanish lines. The French assaulted the 25-gun Notre-Dame-del-Roure redoubt for three hours, finally seizing the key position at 3:00 PM. Arriving at Pont de Molins, de la Unión led a counterattack by 1,300 cavalry against two brigades of French infantry. During the subsequent struggle, he fell, fatally hit by two bullets.  The battle ended in a rout of the Spanish army. The French inflicted 10,000 casualties on the Spanish, while suffering only 3,000 losses. Jerónimo Girón-Moctezuma, Marquis de las Amarillas succeeded to the army command and retreated south of the Rio Fluvià where he was unable to save the fortress of San Fernando from capture. Girón was soon replaced in command by José de Urrutia y de las Casas. Pérignon and Pierre Sauret successfully concluded the Siege of Roses in early February. The Peace of Basel ended the conflict in July 1795.

Luis Fermín de Carvajal, Conde de la Unión (1752 – 20 November 1794) became a general officer in the army of the Kingdom of Spain. In 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars, he commanded the Spanish Army in a mostly unsuccessful effort to hold back the army of the First French Republic. He died in battle fighting the French.


Life and career.

Early life and career beginnings.

Born in Madrid, Mai is the junior of six siblings. Due to her parent's itinerant work, she grew up in Zaragoza and Jaen, and later settled in Madrid to attend college, where she received in 2000 a JD degree (law) from Universidad San Pablo CEU (Madrid).  She first rose to fame as a contestant of the second season of "Operación Triunfo" (Spanish TV singing contest). After her participation, she released her first single, titled "Vuelve".  In 2005, Mai Meneses formed the band Nena Daconte in Barcelona along with musician Kim Fanlo. Mai. In 2010, Fanlo left the formation and Mai Meneses continues as the lead singer and songwriter of Nena Daconte.

He perdido los zapatos (2006).

In 2006, Mai, acting as the lead singer and songwriter of Nena Daconte, released its debut album titled "He Perdido Los Zapatos" (I Have Lost My Shoes) under their own label, Daconte Music. The following year, she signed a record deal with Universal Music Spain and the album was re-released with a new bonus track (a remix of the song "Idiota").  "Idiota" (Idiot) was the first single of the record. Later editions of the album included a new version of "Idiota" produced by Carlos Jean and mastered in New York City. "Idiota" reached number 25 of the Spanish billboard charts.  The second single was "En que estrella estará" (In What Star Will It Be). The song was selected to be the official theme for the "Vuelta Ciclista a España" (Spanish Cycling Tour) of 2006. "En que estrella estará" reached the number 1 position on the Spanish billboard charts for 5 weeks.  Nena Daconte ́s debut album went Gold in Spain. Later on that same year, Nena Daconte was nominated for an MTV Europe Music Awards. "He Perdido Los Zapatos" became the 3rd best selling album in Spain in 2006 and "En que estrella estará" also became, that same year, the most downloaded song in Spain.

Retales de carnaval (2008).

Their second album, titled "Retales De Carnaval" (Carnival Leftovers), was released two years later, on September 30, 2008. The first single, "Tenia Tanto que Darte" (I Had a Lot To Give You), premiered on August 23, 2008. As with the first record, this second album was entirely composed by Mai. In November 2008, "Tenia tanto que darte" reached the No.1 position on the Spanish billboard chart (40 Principales), clinching it for two consecutive weeks. The song ́s music video has over 5 million views on YouTube "Tenia tanto que darte" became Spain's Best Selling song of 2008 on iTunes. Likewise, record sales made the album become Platinum in September 2009.

Una mosca en el cristal (2010).

In 2010, Nena Daconte released its third album titled "Una mosca en el cristal" (A Fly in the Window), produced by Alejo Stivel. The single "No te invite a dormir" (I Didn ́t Invite You Over) reached number 17 on the Spanish billboard charts (40 Principales). In February 2011, "Perdida" (Lost) was released as the second single. On that same year, Nena Daconte started an acoustic tour throughout Spain under the name Nena Daconte Club. Likewise, in late 2011, Mai Meneses participated on a tribute album for Antonio Vega, giving voice to the song Tesoros along with composer LA (native singer from Mallorca). In 2012, Mai took a role in the single "Pero si tu no estás", which was the main theme and soundtrack of "La Fuga", a Spanish TV series.

Solo muerdo por ti (2013).

On April 30, 2013, Nena Daconte released in Spain their fourth studio álbum titled ""Solo muerdo por ti"". It was recorded in Madrid at estudios Sonobox and produced by Manuel Colmenero and Jabibu Carretero (also produced of Spanish groups Vetusta Morla, Eladio y los seres queridos).  The álbum contains 13 new tracks (plus two more tracks in their digital edition), all composed by Mai Meneses. The album takes its title from the nursery rhyme that Mai composed for her son (track number 13). On the same day of its debut, "Solo muerdo por ti" became number 1 in sales in iTunes Spain.  According to Mai Meneses “"I feel that this album is more mature and I have meditated each phrase for almost two years... there is nothing left to chance, everything is measured: every lyric, step, there is lots of work".”  As per the critics, the album is ""clear and direct"". As for its sound, it is as genuine as the origins of Nena Daconte. The first single is titled ""Dispare"" and its on-air debut was on March 5, 2013. The music video was recorded at the abandoned factory of Pegaso, at the outskirts of Madrid and produced by Zoo and SevenSenses.

María Isabel González-Meneses García-Valdecasas (; born January 4, 1978), known mononymously as Mai Meneses (), is a Spanish singer and songwriter and leader of the Spanish pop band Nena Daconte.