History.

Rai Bahadur Lala Sohan Lal the first Chairman of the Bank, founded OBC in 1943 in Lahore. Within four years of its coming into existence, OBC had to face Partition. The bank had to close down its branches in the newly formed Pakistan and shift its registered office from Lahore to Amritsar. Lala Karam Chand Thapar, the then Chairman of the Bank, in a unique gesture honoured the commitments made to the depositors from Pakistan and paid every rupee to its departing customers.  The Bank has witnessed many ups and downs since its establishment. The period of 1970–76 is said to be the most challenging phase in the history of the Bank. At one time, profit plummeted to 175; that prompted the owner of the bank, the Thapar Group, to sell / close the bank. Then employees and leaders of the Bank came forward to rescue the Bank. The owners were moved and had to change their decision of selling the bank and in turn, they decided to improve the position of the bank with the active cooperation and support of all the employees. Their efforts bore fruits and performance of the bank improved significantly. This was the turning point in the history of the bank.  The bank was nationalised on 15 April 1980. At that time, OBC ranked 19th among the 20 nationalised banks.  In 1997, OBC acquired Bari Doab Bank and Punjab Cooperative Bank. The acquisition of these two banks brought with it no additional branches.  The bank has progressed on several fronts, crossing the Business Mix mark of 2 lac crores as on 31 March 2010 making it the seventh-largest Public Sector Bank in India.  On 14 August 2004, OBC amalgamated Global Trust Bank (GTB). GTB was a leading private sector bank in India that was associated with various financial discrepancies leading to a moratorium being imposed by RBI shortly before it merged into OBC. The acquisition brought with it 103 branches, which increased OBC's branch total to 1092. As per March 2018 – 2019 annual report, it has 2390 branches and 2625 ATMs pan India.

Amalgamation.

On 30 August 2019, Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that the Oriental Bank of Commerce and United Bank of India would be merged with Punjab National Bank. The proposed merger would make Punjab National Bank the second largest public sector bank in the country with assets of and 11,437 branches. MD and CEO of United Bank, Ashok Kumar Pradhan, stated that the merged entity would begin functioning from 1 April 2020. The Union Cabinet approved the merger on 4 March 2020. Punjab National Bank announced that its board had approved the merger ratios the next day. Shareholders of Oriental Bank of Commerce and United Bank will receive 1,150 shares and 121 shares of Punjab National Bank, respectively, for every 1,000 shares they hold. The merge came into effect since 1 April 2020. Post merger, Punjab National Bank has become the second largest public sector bank in India

Chairpersons.

The Chairpersons (CMD) of the bank were as under:

Overview.

The bank offers a wide range of banking products and services such as deposit accounts, loans, debit cards, credit cards (with tie-up with SBI), Insurance products, ATMs, Internet banking, Mobile Banking, Self-banking halls, call centre, etc.  The Bank has launched yet another people's participation in the planning process at grass root level essentially to tackle the maladies of poverty. The Grameen Projects venture aims to alleviate poverty plus identify the reasons responsible for the failure or success.  OBC is already implementing a Grameen Project in Dehradun District (UK) and Hanumangarh District (Rajasthan). Formulated on the pattern of the Bangladesh Grameen Bank, the Scheme has a unique feature of disbursing small loans ranging from 75 (~US $1.50) onwards. The beneficiaries of the Grameen Project are mostly women. The Bank is engaged in providing training to rural folk in using locally available raw material to produce pickles, jams etc. This has provided self-employment and augmented income levels thus reforming lives of rural folk and encouraging cottage industries in rural areas.  OBC launched yet another unique scheme christened 'The Comprehensive Village Development Programme' on the auspicious day of Baisakhi, the 13th of April 1997 at three villages in Punjab namely Rurki Kalan (District. Sangrur), Raje Majra (District. Ropar) and Khaira Majha (District. Jaladhar) and two villages in Haryana, namely Khunga (District. Jind) and Narwal (District. Kaithal). The pilot launch was a great success. Emboldened by the success, Bank extended the programme to more villages. At present, it covers 15 villages; 10 in Punjab, 4 in Haryana and 1 in Rajasthan. The programme focuses on providing a comprehensive and integrated package providing rural finance to the villagers with Village Development as its focus, thus contributing towards infrastructural development and augmentation of income for each farmer of the village. The Bank has implemented 14 point action plan for strengthening of credit delivery to women and has designated 5 branches as specialised branches for women entrepreneurs.

Oriental Bank of Commerce ( ) was an Indian public sector bank. Headquartered at Gurgaon, Haryana, has 2390 branches and 2625 ATMs across India. (1943–2020)


History.

From colonial times the zone of Old Havana in which the building is now sited was populated by a diverse collection of family houses. At the beginning of the 20th century the Spanish retailer Antolín Blanco Arias bought a family house on the site, from his office colleague Manuel Llerandi y Tomé. The new owner demolished the very old house to construct the hotel, the work being in charge of the architect Luis Wise Hernandez.  In the 1930s this hotel was the property of the Asper family. Hotel Ambos Mundos was a family hotel, that attracted writers, actor and actresses and many Americans.  This hotel since has gained international note from its most famous long-time tenant: in 1932 a room on the upper (5th) floor became the “first home” in Cuba of writer Ernest Hemingway, who enjoyed the views of Old Havana, and the harbor sea in which he fished frequently in his yacht "Pilar". Hemingway rented the room for $1.50 per night ($1.75 for double occupancy) until mid-1939, when he transferred his winter residence from Key West (a U.S. island 90 miles from Cuba) to a house in the hills near Havana, Finca Vigia, which he shared with Martha Gellhorn (they were married in 1940). Hemingway began his novel "For Whom the Bell Tolls", a novel of the Spanish Civil War which he had witnessed over the previous several years, in the room in the Ambos Mundos, on March 1, 1939.  Today, his hotel room, No. 511, is presented as if the author might have left it, and is a small museum in the middle of the establishment, with tours given regularly in the daytime. The corner of the ground floor hotel lobby also has two walls of framed photographs dedicated to Hemingway.  In 1987, the hotel underwent some small restoration, with more complete work finalized in 1997 to turn it once again into a luxurious hotel reminiscent of its time. Between 2004–2005, further maintenance as carried out, cleaning and painting the Hotel's facades.

Structure.

As originally conceived, the three-story building plan had the following distribution: the ground floor served as a commercial center, and in the upper two floors were the rooms for the guests. The fused concrete and steel structure of the building gave an eclectic and modern character for its time of manufacture. In 1924, the original plan was extended, gaining height to a final five stories. Finally, the structure was officially declared habitable on January 6, 1925.  Five years after construction a hall was placed in the roof giving views of the Harbor from the top of the building, and adding a kitchen and services. Presently the building contains its original still-functioning Otis screen-cage elevators, and a lobby with a low open freshwater fountain/pool in which turtles are maintained.

The Hotel Ambos Mundos (, "Both Worlds Hotel") is a hotel of square form with five floors, built with an eclectic set of characteristics of 20th-century style architecture. It was built in 1924 on a site that previously had been occupied by an old family house on the corner of "Calle Obispo" and "Mercaderes" (Bishop and Merchants Streets) in La Habana Vieja (Old Havana), Cuba. It is a frequent tourist destination because it was home to the popular writer Ernest Hemingway for seven years in the 1930s.


Early life.

Michael Bennett was born on May 16, 1985 in Carver, Massachusetts. He has an older brother, an older sister, and a younger brother. He graduated from Carver High School in 2003 (presently, Carver Middle-High School).

Professional wrestling career.

Independent circuit (2002–2017).

Bennett made his professional wrestling debut in 2002. The following year, Bennett made a single appearance for the East Coast Wrestling Association, when he lost to Big Benny. On October 3, 2004, at the New England Wrestling Association's "Return to Exile" show, Bennett was part of a battle royal in which the final two competitors would face each other for the vacant NEWA Heavyweight Championship. Bennett and Brian Rogers were the final men left, and later that night Bennett defeated Rogers to win the NEWA Heavyweight Championship. Bennett also wrestled for Eastern Pro Wrestling (EPW). On April 27, 2007, Bennett lost to Derek Destiny. On February 29, 2008, Bennett lost to Nick Westgate. The following day, Bennett, who was accompanied by Gia Savitz, defeated Thom Kane. On January 16, 2010, Bennett unsuccessfully challenged Nick Westagte for the EPW Television Championship. On March 5, Bennett won the 'Rhodes Island Rumble' battle royal to become the number one contender to the EPW Heavyweight Championship.  Bennett and Bryce Andrews appeared on the April 9, 2007, episode of "WWE Heat", where they faced Cryme Tyme. On October 6, 2009, Bennett competed in dark match in losing effort against Kip James at the "TNA Impact!" taping. In a match for the Northeast Wrestling (NEW) promotion in March 2010, Bennett was a participant in a five-way match for the NEW Heavyweight Championship, which was won by Matt Taven. At NEW's "Spring Slam" show on April 15, 2011, Bennett lost to Matt Hardy. In 2010, Bennett debuted for Squared Circle Wrestling (2CW) by defeating Matt Taven on September 25. Three months later at 2CW's "Nightmare Before Christmas" show in December, Taven defeated Bennett in a rematch.  On September 14, 2012, Bennett made his debut for the Chikara promotion, when he and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson) entered the 2012 King of Trios tournament as Team ROH, defeating the Faces of Pain (The Barbarian, Meng and The Warlord) in their first round match. The following day, Team ROH advanced to the semifinals with a win over The Extreme Trio (Jerry Lynn, Tommy Dreamer and Too Cold Scorpio). Team ROH opened the third and final day of the tournament by defeating the all-female Team Sendai Girls (Dash Chisako, Meiko Satomura and Sendai Sachiko) in the semifinals. In the finals of the tournament, Team ROH was defeated by the Spectral Envoy (Frightmare, Hallowicked and UltraMantis Black), when Bennett submitted to Hallowicked's "Chikara Special".

New England Championship Wrestling (2003–2005; 2009–2010).

Bennett debuted for New England Championship Wrestling (NECW) on November 14, 2003, losing to Johnny Idol. The following March, Bennett earned his first win in NECW by defeating Bob Evans. In August 2004, Bennett began feuding with Ru Starr, trading victories with him, until Starr won the rubber match on February 12, 2005. In March, Bennett moved into a feud with Michael Sain, losing to him in two singles match that month, and again in a Stretcher match on April 16. He earned his first victory over Sain in June. He spent the next several months wrestling against competitors including Frankie Arion, Pat Masters, and Fergal Devitt, before taking a four-year hiatus from NECW.  He returned at "Spring Breakdown" on April 18, 2009, teaming with Guy Alexander to defeat TJ Richter and Mr. Munroe. At "NECW Tag Team Classic" in September, Bennett and Alexander defeated Richter and Munroe in the first round of a tournament, but their match against Scott Osborne and Brandon Locke ended in a double countout, eliminating both teams from the tournament. At the NECW television tapings on January 23, 2010, Bennett defeated David Cash.

Top Rope Promotions (2006–2014).

Bennett debuted for Top Rope Promotions (TRP) on February 17, 2006, where he defeated Stryker. On March 24, Bennett, as part of NRG, defeated Freightrain. The following month Bennett defeated Billy Warhawk. Bennett continued on a winning streak, defeating Joe Chece, Spike Dudley, DC Drake, and on June 23, he competed in the 2006 Kowalski Cup. He defeated Romeo Roselli and Chece en route to the final, where he defeated Slyck Wagner Brown to win the tournament. He suffered his first loss on July 1, when he was defeated by Antonio Thomas, and two weeks later he lost to Roselli. On September 1, Bennett defeated Dudley in a street fight to win the NRG Heavyweight Championship. The following night, he lost to Dudley in a steel cage match, and lost a Loser Leaves Town steel cage match to Dudley on September 29. Despite this, Bennett returned to TRP on January 5, 2007, teaming with Bryce Andrews to defeat 'Chunky But Funky' to win the TRP Tag Team Championship. After losing to The Aldren Brothers in a non-title match in February, Bennett and Andrews won a two out of three falls match to retain the championship on April 6. The following night, they lost to The Heart Throbs (Antonio Thomas and Romeo Roselli) in a non-title match, and at the following show in May, Bennett lost to Roselli in a singles match. On June 9, Bennett and Andrews defeated Kristian Frost and Brutus Beefcake. In July, Bennett aligned himself with Luscious Latasha, with the pair defeating Dudley and Leah Morrison in a mixed tag team match on July 15. In April 2008, Bennett lost to Dudley in a street fight. On May 30, Bennett lost to Andrews in a First Blood match. He continued competing in TRP for the remainder of the year, wrestling against Dudley, Brian Fury, Bushwhacker Luke, and Jason Blade. He formed a semi-regular tag team with Ryan Waters in January 2009, and the pair lost to the reigning TRP Tag Team Championship, The Alden Brothers on January 9.  On March 20, Bennett faced Stevie Richards in a match for the vacant TRP Heavyweight Championship, but was unsuccessful. On April 4, however, Bennett defeated Richards to win the TRP Heavyweight Championship for the first time. He successfully defended the championship against Jimmy Preston on July 12, Isys Ephex on September 18, and Ken Anderson on November 8. On January 1, 2010, Bennett defeated Kenny Dykstra to retain his TRP Heavyweight Championship, and retained it again against Colin Delaney on February 5, and against J. Freddie in a No Disqualification match on February 21. On April 9, at "The Anniversary", the TRP Heavyweight Championship was vacated when a match between Bennett and Freddie ended in a no contest. The following month, Freddie defeated Bennett in a Last Man Standing match.  At the 2010 Kowalski Cup Tournament, Bennett defeated TRP Interstate Champion Guy Alexander in a non-title match, provoking a feud between the two. In November, Bennett defeated Alexander in a strap match, with Ox Baker as the guest enforcer. At "Spindle City Rumble" in December, Bennett defeated Alexander by count-out, and so did not win the championship. On January 1, 2011, Bennett lost to Alexander in a steel cage match for the Interstate Championship. On February 19, Bennett debuted "Brutal" Bob Evans as his manager in TRP, and went on to defeat Frankie Arion.

Ring of Honor (2008–2015).

Bennett made his Ring of Honor (ROH) debut in 2008. In his first match he lost to Daniel Puder at "Proving Ground" in Boston, Massachusetts on January 11. His next appearance came three months later at "Bedlam In Beantown" in March, when he lost to Jason Blade. After attending a tryout camp in March 2010, which he heard about through announcer Kevin Kelly, Bennett appeared at the "Ring of Honor Wrestling" television tapings in July and August. Bennett signed a one-year contract with ROH in August 2010. In his next appearance he lost to Roderick Strong on September 10, but earned his first ROH victory at "Tag Title Classic II" on December 17, when he defeated Colt Cabana.  Video packages about Bennett began airing on ROH's television program, "Ring of Honor Wrestling" in November 2010, promoting his television debut. On the December 6 episode of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett and his manager "Brutal" Bob Evans appeared in the crowd to watch a match between the ROH World Television Champion Eddie Edwards and Christopher Daniels. Bennett made his in-ring television debut when he defeated Nick Dinsmore on the January 10, 2010, episode. During the February and March episodes of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett took part in the "Top Prospect Tournament". He defeated Adam Cole in the first round, Andy Ridge in the semi-finals, and Kyle O'Reilly in the final. Following each match in the tournament, Bennett was congratulated and given advice by Steve Corino, but Bennett rejected it and mocked Corino, provoking a feud between the two men. At the 9th Anniversary Show pay-per-view, Bennett pinned Corino to win a four-corner survival match, also involving Kyle O'Reilly and Grizzly Redwood. As a result of his victory in the 'Top Prospect Tournament', Bennett earned a match for the ROH World Television Championship against Christopher Daniels at "Defy or Deny" on March 18. Bennett and Evans had a verbal confrontation with Corino at the start of the show, and Corino prevented Evans from helping Bennett during his ROH World Television Championship match, which Bennett went on to lose. In a singles match between the two at "Manhattan Mayhem IV", Bennett defeated Corino and attacked him following the match with the aid of Evans. In a rematch at "Revolution: Canada" in early May, Bennett again prevailed with Evans' help.  Bennett received another shot at the ROH World Television Championship on October 1, but the title match with Jay Lethal ended in a fifteen-minute time limit draw. Shortly after this, he began an angle where he proclaimed that he had already won the match and proclaimed himself to be the true champion. Bennett challenged for the World Television Championship again at Final Battle 2011 in a three-way elimination match against Lethal and El Generico. Bennett was accompanied by his real-life girlfriend Maria Kanellis for the match, in which he was the final man eliminated, allowing Lethal to retain the championship. At the January 7, 2012, tapings of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett unsuccessfully challenged Lethal for the World Television Championship in a No Time Limit match. Bennett then started feuding with Lance Storm, with Bennett winning their initial singles match at Showdown in the Sun, and Storm winning the rematch at Border Wars. At the June 29 tapings of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett defeated Storm in the final match of their trilogy.  At the June 21 tapings of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett teamed up with Brutal Bob in a tag team match, where they were defeated by Adam Cole and Eddie Edwards. Afterwards Bennett, Bob, and Kanellis attacked Cole and Edwards, before being chased away by the returning Sara Del Rey. At the following internet pay-per-view, Boiling Point on August 11, Bennett and Kanellis were defeated in an intergender tag team match by Edwards and Del Rey, when Bennett submitted to Edwards. On December 16 at, Bennett defeated Jerry Lynn in his final ROH match before retirement. At the June 23, 2013, tapings of "Ring of Honor Wrestling", Bennett teased leaving ROH, before turning on Evans and announcing that "The Prodigy is dead". On July 11, Bennett, now working as "Michael Bennett", was announced as a participant in the upcoming ROH World Championship tournament. On August 3, it was reported that Bennett that re-signed a long-term deal with ROH, after failing to come to terms with WWE. That same night, Bennett's first round ROH World Championship tournament match ended without a winner, when his opponent B.J. Whitmer was legitimately injured after a piledriver on the ring apron. ROH later awarded the win to Bennett, giving him a spot in the quarterfinals of the tournament. On August 17, Bennett was eliminated from the tournament by Tommaso Ciampa. The following month, Bennett started a feud with Kevin Steen over who had the more dangerous piledriver. The two faced off on October 26 at Glory By Honor XII, where Bennett was victorious, following a distraction from Kanellis. On December 14 at Final Battle 2013, Bennett was defeated by Steen in a Stretcher match and, as a result, could no longer use the piledriver in ROH.  Bennett and Maria aligned themselves with the ROH World Champion Adam Cole, and Matt Hardy, as The Kingdom. Throughout the summer, Maria and Bennett would get involved in Matt Hardy's feud with The Briscoes (Mark and Jay, the former ROH World Champion Jay Briscoe, who was stripped from the title and used a custom belt as the Real World Championship), which would result a tag team match at the "Best in the World" pay-per-view on June 22, which Hardy and Bennett would lose despite Maria's interference. On September 18, 2015, at All Star Extravaganza VII, Bennett and Taven won the ROH World Tag Team Championship by defeating The Addiction (Christopher Daniels and Frankie Kazarian) and The Young Bucks (Matt and Nick Jackson) in a three-way match. They lost the title to War Machine (Hanson and Ray Rowe) on December 18 at Final Battle. Bennett and Kanellis left ROH after the following day's "Ring of Honor Wrestling" taping, after failing to come to terms on a new contract with the promotion.

New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2014–2015).

In May 2014, Bennett took part in a tour co-produced by ROH and New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW). On May 17 at War of the Worlds, Bennett was defeated by one of NJPW's top wrestlers, Hiroshi Tanahashi, in an interpromotional match. Through ROH's relationship with NJPW, Bennett made an appearance for the Japanese promotion on August 10 in Tokorozawa, Saitama, teaming with Adam Cole to defeat Captain New Japan and Jyushin Thunder Liger in a tag team match.  From November 23 to December 5, Bennett and Matt Taven represented ROH and The Kingdom in NJPW's 2014 World Tag League. The team finished their round-robin block with a record of four wins and three losses, failing to advance to the finals.  Bennett and Taven returned to NJPW on April 5, 2015, at Invasion Attack 2015, where they defeated Bullet Club (Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship. On July 5 at Dominion 7.5 in Osaka-jo Hall, The Kingdom lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship back to Bullet Club in their first defense. Bennett and Taven returned to NJPW in November to take part in the 2015 World Tag League, where they finished with a record of two wins and four losses, failing to advance from their block.

Total Nonstop Action Wrestling / Impact Wrestling (2016–2017).

On the January 5, 2016 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett made his Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) debut with his wife Maria. He stated that he is "professional wrestling's Jesus". Three days later, at, Bennett made his in-ring debut, defeating Robbie E. Bennett challenged Kurt Angle on the Maximum Impact Tour; however, Angle said he does not wrestle anyone he does not respect, this caused Bennett to have a short feud with Drew Galloway, who Angle had respect for. His feud against Galloway culminated on the March 1 episode of "Impact Wrestling", where Bennett defeated Galloway. The feud ended on the March 15 episode of "Impact Wrestling", when Bennett and Maria defeated Galloway and Gail Kim. He started a feud against Ethan Carter III, during the April 12 episode of "Impact Wrestling", he had a match against him, which ended in a disqualification, when Carter attacked Bennett with a chair. On the April 26 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett defeated Carter, ended his unpinned streak. On June 12, at Slammiversary, Bennett was defeated by Carter in their rematch. On the June 21 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett defeated Eddie Edwards to win the TNA X Division Championship. The following week, Bennett successfully retained his title against Braxton Sutter after he won a battle royal to earn his title shot. On the July 5 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett dropped the X Division Championship back to Eddie Edwards in an Ultimate X match.  At Destination X, he interrupted the main event by attacking Eddie Edwards and Lashley, with the help of debuting Moose. On the July 21 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett enter the Bound for Glory Playoff to challenge for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Bound for Glory, defeating Jeff Hardy in the first round and Drew Galloway in the semi-final, but lost the final round against Ethan Carter III. On the August 25 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett won a battle royal by eliminating Eddie Edwards and Moose to earn a title match against Lashley for the World Heavyweight Championship. The following week on "Impact Wrestling", he lost the match, when Moose refused to help him. After the match, Bennett yelled at Moose, calling him "a failed football player", just before Moose attacked him. On October 2, at Bound for Glory, Bennett was defeated by Moose. Later that night, Bennett and Maria had a confrontation against the debuting Cody and his wife Brandi Rhodes. On the October 27 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett and Maria were defeated by Cody and Brandi Rhodes, thus ending the feud. On the November 10 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett defeated Moose to participate in a four-way match against Ethan Carter III, Lashley and Trevor Lee to determine the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship, which was won by Carter the following week. On the January 5, 2017 episode of "Impact Wrestling", Bennett was defeated by Moose and failed to win the Impact Grand Championship. After the match, Bennett challenged Moose for a rematch at, which was won again by Moose. At Joker's Wild 2017, Bennett and Braxton Sutter defeated Tyrus and Crazzy Steve later that night Bennett competed in the 14-person intergender Joker's Wild gauntlet battle royal which was won by Moose. On March 1, it was announced that Bennett, along with his wife, had left company.

WWE (2017-2020).

Brand switches (2017–2018).

On April 18, 2017, Bennett was reported to have signed with WWE. On June 18, at the Money in the Bank, now billed as Mike Kanellis, he made his debut alongside his wife, Maria Kanellis. Over the following weeks, the Kanellis couple would be unintentionally interrupted by Sami Zayn, leading the Kanellis couple to demand an apology on the July 11 episode, but Zayn refused. This prompted Maria to slap Zayn, and Mike to attack Zayn with a vase, establishing both as villians and beginning a feud with Zayn. On the July 18 episode of "SmackDown", Kanellis defeated Zayn in his WWE debut match, after interference from Maria. A rematch was subsequently scheduled for Battleground, which Zayn won. In total, he only wrestled four times on "SmackDown" due to going to rehab shortly after joining WWE and Maria getting pregnant around the same time.  On April 16, 2018, Kanellis was moved to the Raw brand as part of the Superstar Shake-up. At the Greatest Royal Rumble on April 28, Kanellis competed in the 50-man Royal Rumble match, but was quickly eliminated by Mark Henry after only three seconds. During his time on Raw, he did not win a match on their weekly show.

205 Live (2018–2020).

On the October 10 episode of "205 Live", Kanellis, alongside Maria, made his debut for the brand, attacking Lince Dorado. On the October 24 episode of "205 Live", he defeated Dorado in his debut match on the brand. Bennett would then join forces with TJP against Lucha House Party (Lince Dorado, Kalisto and Gran Metalik), with the feud ended on the December 4 episode of "205 Live", Bennett and TJP were defeated by Lucha House Party in a tornado tag team match. On the January 9, 2019 episode of "205 Live", Kanellis and Maria complained to the general manager Drake Maverick about how they had not been on the show for five weeks and that the new roster members that came to the brand would have to go through Kanellis first.  On January 16, Ryan Satin of Pro Wrestling Sheet reported that the Kanellis couple had asked WWE to release them from their contracts, and sources mentioned that the two have "been unhappy with the way they've been used in WWE for awhile." Maria would go on to deny that she asked for her release. Mike Johnson of "Pro Wrestling Illustrated" reported that they were not backstage at the following episode of "205 Live". They would not appear until the January 29 episode of "205 Live", where Kanellis would lose to Kalisto. On the March 19 episode of "205 Live", Kanellis defeated Akira Tozawa after a distraction from Maria, ending his losing streak. Kanellis went on to feud with Tozawa over the following weeks, culminating in a no disqualification match, won by Tozawa. In June, it was reported that the Kanellis couple signed multi-year extensions with WWE. A few weeks later, the Kanellis couple started appearing on "Raw", with a storyline began where Maria announced her pregnancy, but she would start berating Kanellis, saying he was not the father, always insulting him, and accusing of not being a man. During the storyline, Kanellis won the WWE 24/7 Championship, his first-ever title in the company, but Maria ordered him later in the show to lay on his back and let the referee count to three as she became the 24/7 Champion. Kanellis won the title for a second time, after hugging and pinning Maria on her OB-GYN's bed, but lost the title to R-Truth moments later, as he pinned Kanellis in the OB-GYN's waiting room, disguised as a woman.  On October 14, four months after he signed a multi-year contract with WWE, he requested his release from WWE. Kanellis returned from hiatus on the February 14, 2020 episode of "205 Live", teaming with Tony Nese to defeat Ariya Daivari and The Brian Kendrick.  On April 15, 2020, both Mike and Maria Kanellis were released by WWE along with several other superstars because of measures implemented by WWE due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Other media.

Filmography.

Kanellis made his video game debut as part of the Rising Stars Pack of downloadable content created for WWE 2K19 and also appeared in WWE 2K20.

Personal life.

In an interview in December 2011, Maria Kanellis confirmed she was dating Bennett, and they later got engaged. Bennett and Kanellis married on October 10, 2014. On September 25, 2017, Bennett and Kanellis announced they were expecting their first child. On April 3, 2018, Kanellis gave birth to a girl, Fredrica "Freddie" Moon Bennett. On February 3, 2020, their son Carver Mars was born.

Michael Bennett (born May 16, 1985) is an American professional wrestler who is currently a free agent. He wrestled for WWE under the ring name Mike Kanellis.


Career.

Banin joined Hapoel Haifa as a youngster. He trained in their football academy and played for many of Hapoel's youth teams. He made his full debut for the side at 17. Between the years of 1987–89 Banin played a total of 44 games for Hapoel in the second division and scored seven goals.  When Banin was 19 he signed a contract with arch rivals Maccabi Haifa in 1989, they continued his impressive development as a player. He left the club in 1992 after playing 94 games in "ligat ha`hal" and scoring seventeen goals.  When Banin was just 20 he became the second youngest Israeli to collect the "Player of the Year" accolade in 1991. During the same season he was an integral part in the Maccabi side that won the Israeli League and Cup "double".  Banin then returned to Hapoel Haifa, where he played for a further season playing 29 games and scoring 8 goals in the top division.  In 1993 Banin moved to French side Cannes. He led the side to a sixth position in the "Championnat de France de football Ligue 1", the French top division. As a result, Cannes qualified for Europe.  Whilst playing for Cannes, Banin picked up a knee injury. This problem proved to be serious. He began to suffer from a chronic knee problem that would plague him for the rest of his career.  Cannes offered to extend his contract, however after 23 games and two goals Banin declined and returned to Israel to join Hapoel Haifa. He proved to be their star player in what seemed to be a very average side. He remained at Haifa for three years playing a further 74 games for them and scoring 19 goals.  In 1997 Banin was on the move again, this time to Brescia in Italy. He played 26 games for them, scoring one goal. During that year Banin aggravated his knee injury and was unable to prevent Brescia from slipping from Serie A to Serie B. The next year Banin sat out the season through injury but a year later he oversaw Brescia's triumphant return to the top division.  At the insistence of his wife Banin returned to Israel to sign for Maccabi Tel Aviv. He became vital to the side, and was moulded into the spine of the team. Banin led Maccabi to victory in the State Cup in 2002.  The next season Banin helped Maccabi lift the league title for the first time since 1996.  In the next season's UEFA Champions League, Maccabi were knocked out in the first round. Head Coach Nir Klinger blamed it on the fights between Banin and Maccabi legend Avi Nimni. As a result, on August 13, 2003, they were both kicked out of the side. For a while, Banin was unable to find a team that would accept his high wage demands for the 2003–04 season. He finally moved to play for Bnei Yehuda for the remainder of the season.  In January 2005, Beitar Jerusalem signed the midfielder for the remainder of the 2004–05 season. Beitar were desperate for some steel in the middle after a run of humiliating defeats, aiming to try and avoid relegation.  Banin finished his career in Maccabi Netanya.

International career.

During his career Banin was called up to the Israeli national side due to his hard work in the middle of the field. Banin made his debut on May 16, 1990 against the USSR (or Russia as they are now known). He scored to lead Israel to a 3–2 win at the Ramat Gan Stadium.  He captained the country from 1997 until 2003. Banin is considered as one of the best defensive midfielders in the history of Israeli football.  Banin is a highly respected player in Europe, but unfortunately has been unable to fulfill his potential due to his crippling knee injury. Banin played 80 times for Israel scoring 12 goals.

Managerial career.

On April 8, 2008 he was appointed as the assistant manager of Nitzan Shirazi in Maccabi Petah Tikva.  After only two months in Petah Tikva, he moved on to coach the Israel national under-17 football team for two years.  On July 25, 2010 Banin was appointed as the assistant manager of Luis Fernández in the Israel national football team.  In the 2011–12 season he worked as the manager of Hapoel Haifa, helping the club avoid relegation. The day after the season ended he immediately signed a two years contract in Maccabi Netanya replacing Reuven Atar. He was sacked from Maccabi Netanya on 18 March 2013.  In November 2013 he signed a two years contract with Maccabi Ahi Nazareth in the Liga Leumit.  On February 16, 2015 he was appointed as the manager of Hapoel Haifa, once more, in order to help the club in the battle against relegation.

Tal Banin (; born March 7, 1971 in Kiryat Haim, Haifa, Israel) is a retired football player and currently the manager of Maccabi Ahi Nazareth. Banin played as a defensive midfielder. A captain for the Israeli National Team for many years, Banin was also the only Israeli player to ever play in the Italian Serie A until 2011, when Palermo signed Eran Zahavi.


Geography.

Various definitions exist of Northern Alberta's boundaries. The definition used by the Northern Alberta Development Council, an agency of the provincial government, includes the communities of Whitecourt, Athabasca, Saddle Lake, St. Paul, and Cold Lake, while excluding Hinton, Edson, Mayerthorpe, and Westlock. This definition is also used by the University of Alberta to define eligibility for northern research grants.  The region consists of aspen parkland in the south, grading to boreal forest and muskeg in the north.  The southwest of the region is part of the Peace Country, an area that stretches into northeastern British Columbia consisting of fertile prairie, ranchland, and farmland along the Peace River and its tributaries.  Northern Alberta is crossed by the Peace River and the Athabasca River, both of which eventually convene to form the Slave River that ultimately drains into the Arctic Ocean via Great Slave Lake and the Mackenzie River within the Northwest Territories. Other major rivers are Wapiti, Smoky, Hay, Chinchaga, Petitot Rivers in the west, Wabasca River in the center and Firebag and Clearwater River in the east. Alberta's two largest waterbodies, Lake Athabasca and Lake Claire are located in the wetlands of northeastern Alberta, forming the Peace-Athabasca Delta, that drains through the Slave River towards the Arctic Ocean.  The Caribou Mountains are an elevated plateau in the relatively flat Albertan north which provide core habitat for an endangered woodland caribou herd. This area is conserved by the Caribou Mountains Wildland Park. The adjacent Wood Buffalo National Park is Canada's largest protected area.  Other tourist attractions in Northern Alberta include the Fort McMurray Historical Society-Heritage Park, Historic Dunvegan, Kimiwan Birdwalk and Interpretive Centre, Lesser Slave Lake Bird Observatory in the Lesser Slave Lake Provincial Park, Muskoseepi Park, and the Oil Sands Discovery Centre.  Northern Alberta contains several diamond bearing diatremes associated with kimberlite fields, including the Buffalo Head Hills and Birch Mountains kimberlite fields which in turn form the Northern Alberta kimberlite province.

Infrastructure.

Transportation.

Highway 43 and Highway 2 pass through the southwest of the region, this being the end of the CANAMEX corridor. Other important routes are the Mackenzie Highway and Bicentennial Highway in the northwest, the Northern Woods and Water Route in the southeast and Highway 63 in the east.  Grande Prairie Airport, Peace River Airport, and Fort McMurray Airport are regional air transportation hubs.

Health regions.

Northern Alberta's health region is controlled by Alberta Health Services.

Politics.

On a provincial level, northern Alberta is represented in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta by Members of the Legislative Assembly elected in the ridings of Athabasca-Redwater, Barrhead-Morinville-Westlock, Bonnyville-Cold Lake, Dunvegan-Central Peace, Fort McMurray-Conklin, Fort McMurray-Wood Buffalo, Grande Prairie Smoky, Grande Prairie Wapiti, Lac La Biche-St. Paul, Lesser Slave Lake, and Peace River.

Northern Alberta is a region located in the Canadian province of Alberta. An informally defined cultural region, the boundaries of Northern Alberta are not fixed. Under some schemes, the region encompasses everything north of the centre of the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor, including most of the province's landmass as well as its capital, Edmonton. Other schemes place Edmonton and its surrounding farmland in Central Alberta, limiting Northern Alberta to the northern half of the province, where forestry, oil, and gas are the dominant industries.


Decoration of the room.

Originally intended as a place from which the king could watch and assist in theatrical productions in the courtyard, the Salón de Reinos was turned into a throne room when it was decided to turn Buen Retiro into a full palace. It was still used for spectacles and soirees, so a balcony was added so that festivities could be viewed from above, but as a throne room it had to impress ambassadors and other distinguished members of the courts of Europe who visited the palace. This meant the room's decoration was the most sumptuous in the whole palace, well-illuminated by several windows between jasper tables and silver lions and with a ceiling covered in grotesques. There were also wall paintings full of political symbolism with the ultimate aim of glorifying Philip IV. The designer of the room's decorative programme is unknown, though ultimate responsibility lay in the hands of the conde duque de Olivares himself, along with Jerónimo de Villanueva (who gave the lions and effected the payments) and with the intellectual advice of Francisco de Rioja and of the painters closest to Philip and Olivares, Juan Bautista Maíno and Velázquez.  The Salón de Reinos is rectangular in plan, with narrow doors on the two longer sides. On its north and south sides hung twelve paintings (one now lost) on the theme of the major battles won by the armies of Philip IV in the early years of his reign. Between these paintings, and above the Salón's windows, were ten paintings by Zurbarán showing the labours of Hercules, comparing the exploits of the demi-god Hercules (then considered as the ancestor of the House of Habsburg) with those of the king.  The battle paintings juxtaposed examples by artists of the older generation such as Vicente Carducho or Eugenio Cajés (who had both served Philip III of Spain) with ones by younger artists trained in naturalism such as Juan Bautista Maíno, Zurbarán (summoned from Seville for this very commission), Jusepe Leonardo, Félix Castelo (who did his first major work there), Antonio de Pereda and especially Velázquez, Philip IV's favourite.  At the east and west ends were portraits by Velázquez of the royal family. The series was made up of equestrian portraits of Philip III and his wife Margaret of Austria (both on the west all) and equestrian portraits of Philip IV and his wife Elisabeth of France either side their son and heir Balthasar Charles (all three on the east wall). These five paintings' distribution and staggered positioning exemplified the concepts of hereditary monarchy and dynastic continuity.  Based on the titles held by Philip IV, the hall also contained shields showing the coats of arms of the twenty-four kingdoms and realms that made up his monarchy: Aragon, Archduchy of Austria, Lordship of Biscay, Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy of Brabant, Castile and León, Principality of Catalonia, Córdoba, County of Flanders, Galicia, Granada, Jaén, Mexico, Duchy of Milan, Murcia, Naples, Navarre, Peru, Portugal, Sardinia, Seville, Sicily, Toledo and Valencia (Philip IV also held the titles of Count of Habsburg, Count of Tyrol, and Lord of Molina, among others).

Paintings.

The layout of the portraits and battle paintings in the Salón, based on the reconstruction produced by Jose Alvarez Lopera, which is in turn based on the "Silva topográfica" by Manuel de Gallegos and the 1701 inventory, is as follows:

West wall (main entrance).

Three works by Velázquez:

Trials of Hercules.

Over the windows were paintings of the trials of Hercules by Zurbarán, all 130 cm x 160 cm, all oil on canvas, all now in the Prado:

Later history.

The Salón de Reinos, and the Salón de Fiestas (now the Casón del Buen Retiro) were the only parts of the palace to survive the intense French bombardment between 1808 and 1814 during the Peninsular War and the appearance of the buildings were transformed by post-war rebuilding. For a long time the Salón de Reinos housed the Museo del Ejército.

Restoration project.

In the early 21st century the Spanish Ministry of Culture launched a series of studies and reforms to move the Army museum to a larger, better and more modern setting at the Alcázar of Toledo, giving the Hall of Realms over to the Prado, which already had responsibility for the Casón and which could then return the Salón de Reinos to its 17th-century appearance and reinstate the paintings originally meant for it. This would be all the easier since the wall paintings, ceiling paintings and grotesques were still well preserved, but the initial proposal caused a debate on the building's final use, with some opposing it since it would separate works by Velázquez such as "The Surrender of Breda" from his other works in the Prado, and others since they felt that such a move was unjustified just to recreate a single room.  The Museo del Ejército reopened in Toledo in July 2010. The works on the Salón de Reinos to convert it for the use of the Prado were originally expected to occur from 2010 to 2012, with a budget of 42.5 million Euros. In the context of the financial crisis, deadlines went by, and in 2016 the project to add the building to the Museo del Prado’s Campus was being presented as part of the Museum’s 200th anniversary celebrations which were scheduled for 2019. In 2017 some of the design work was displayed in an exhibition in the Telefónica Building, Madrid, about the work of the architect Norman Foster. A comparison was drawn with an earlier project by the same architect, the Carré d'Art in Nîmes where he was working in proximity to an ancient temple. Foster ́s scheme for the Salon envisages the building stripped of some of its post 17th century accretions and combined with modernistic features.  Pending the beginning of building work, there has been scope to give over the Salón de Reinos and its adjoining rooms to activities such as temporary exhibitions. In 2017 the artist Cai Guo-Qiang used the Hall of Realms for 8 works of art using gun-powder.

The Salón de Reinos (translated as "Hall of the Kingdoms" or "Hall of Realms") or salón grande ("great hall") is a 17th-century building in Madrid, originally a wing of the Buen Retiro Palace. The Salón de Reinos and the Casón del Buen Retiro are the only survivors of the original grand scheme of the palace. Built between 1630 and 1635, the Hall of Realms housed the largest paintings in the royal collection, now all in the Museo del Prado. It is named after its paintings of the coats of arms of the 24 kingdoms which formed the Kingdom of Spain at the time of Philip IV of Spain.


Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013

Background.

Prior to the 2013 contest, Greece had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest thirty-three times since its first entry in 1974, winning it in 2005 with the song "My Number One" performed by Elena Paparizou, and having placed third three times: in 2001 with the song "Die for You" performed by the duo Antique; in 2004 with "Shake It" performed by Sakis Rouvas; and in 2008 with "Secret Combination" performed by Kalomoira. Following the introduction of semi-finals for the 2004 contest, Greece has had a top ten placing each year (except on 2012). Its least successful result was in 1998 when it placed twentieth with the song "Mia Krifi Evesthisia" by Thalassa, receiving only twelve points in total, all from Cyprus.  The Greek national broadcaster, Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), is in charge of Greece's participation each year, including the selection process for its entry. Although its selection techniques have varied over the decades, the most common has been a national final in which various acts compete against each other with pre-selected songs, voted on by a jury, televoters, or both. In most cases, internal selections have been reserved for high-profile acts, with the song either being selected internally or with multiple songs—by one or multiple composers—performed by the artist during a televised final. One of the more unusual methods was a reality television talent competition format inspired by the "Idol" series that ran for many months in 2004, ultimately being scrapped. The notability of the participants has also varied, from previously unsigned acts to established music superstars. Since the 2010s, ERT has used national finals with generally less-established acts.  In mid-November 2012, Johnny Kalimeris, executive member of the ERT board, initially confirmed that Greece would take part in the contest despite ongoing financial problems Greece was facing. Despite the earlier confirmation, the country's participation came into doubt later in the same month due to budget cuts the broadcaster had endured, the high costs associated with the contest, and the difficulty said costs would present in finding sponsors to cover the expenses. Additionally, various Greek politicians and the current government spokesman suggested that a participation in the 2013 contest would be distasteful during a time that Greeks were enduring drastic economic cuts to keep the economy afloat due to the ongoing finical crisis. Despite the uncertainty, Greece's participation was officially confirmed on 21 December 2012 when the European Broadcasting Union released a list of the countries that would participate in the 2013 contest. ERT later stated that its participation was decided on taking into consideration the high viewership and popularity of the event, on the condition that the broadcaster would not be burdened financially.

Before Eurovision.

Eurosong 2013 - a MAD show.

ERT announced on 15 January 2013 that it had reached an agreement with private music channel MAD TV to take on the organization and production of a national final to select a song to represent Greece in the contest. Additionally, MAD TV will also handle all related preparations associated with the contest.  On 21 January 2013, ERT and MAD TV officially announced four acts that will take part in a national final. All four acts are signed to the record label "Panik Records" or its imprint "Platinum Records". A special press conference to present the selected songs was held on 6 February 2013.

Final.

The final was held on 18 February 2013 at the Gazi Music Hall in Athens, hosted by Despina Vandi and Giorgos Kapoutzidis. The winner was chosen by 50% televoting and SMS voting and 50% internal jury voting.

At Eurovision.

Greece was allocated to compete in the second semi-final on 16 May for a place in the final on 18 May. In the second semifinal, the producers of the show decided that Greece would perform 9th, following Iceland and preceding Israel.  Greece qualified from the second semi-final. At the second semi-final winners' press conference, Greece was allocated to perform in the second half of the final. In the final, the producers of the show decided that Greece would perform 21st, following Azerbaijan and preceding Ukraine.

Points awarded by Greece.

Semi-final 2.

Points awarded in second semi-final:

Final.

Points awarded in the final:

Eurovision Channel ERT powered by MAD.

On February 7, 2013, ERT and MAD TV launched a special 24/7 channel called "Eurovision Channel ERT powered by MAD" exclusively on OTE TV. The channel is exclusively devoted to Eurovision coverage, and features clips of songs throughout the history of the Eurovision Song Contest, as well as special Eurovision programs.

Greece confirmed its participation in the Eurovision Song Contest 2013, to be held between 14 and 18 May 2013 in Malmö, Sweden. The Greek national broadcaster Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation (ERT), announced on 15 January 2013 that it had reached an agreement with private music channel MAD TV to take on the organization and production of a national final to select a song to represent Greece in the contest. Additionally, MAD TV will also handle all related preparations associated with the contest. ERT stated that it had taken this decision, after reaching out to record labels and failing to secure a deal with them as in previous years. A national final was held on 18 February 2013, with Koza Mostra & Agathonas Iakovidis winning with the song "Alcohol is Free".


History.

Formed in 1996, AFCA began as the Melbourne Film Critics’ Forum, expanding to a national organisation in 2004. In the same year, AFCA became an Australian representative of the International Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI), which comprises the national organisations of professional film critics and film journalists from around the world. FIPRESCI has members in more than 50 countries worldwide. AFCA helped to establish the first FIPRESCI jury at the Adelaide Film Festival.  AFCA's members, several of whom contribute to internationally recognised media outlets, are professional film critics, film reviewers and film journalists, from all media forums, who provide informed discussion, analysis and comment on Australian and world cinema. Here are some of them: Adam Ross, Lachlan Marks, Alan James, Laura Bennett, Alex Thomas, Lawrence Barber, Alexandra Heller-Nicholas, Lee Zachariah, Lisa Thatcher, Ashley Beks, Luke Buckmaster, Marcella Papandrea, Bede Jermyn, Madeleine Swain, Mark Lavercombe, Cameron Williams, Matthew Toomey, Carol Van Opstal, Nicholas Brodie, Paul Turner, Peter Krausz, Richard Alaba, David O'Connell, etc. The body supports both mainstream and independent cinema and highlights significant or challenging films.

Film Awards.

On 22 January 2008, AFCA announced the results of its inaugural Film Awards for 2007. The awards span four categories comprising Best Australian Film, Best Overseas Film, Best Documentary and Best Unreleased Film (in Australia at the time of the awards). The winning and commended films granted AFCA film awards are:  In 2011 acting awards were introduced and the Best Unreleased Film category was discontinued.

Writing Awards.

In conjunction with its 2009 film awards, AFCA announced the results of its inaugural writing awards. The categories and winners are:

The Australian Film Critics Association (AFCA), formerly Melbourne Film Critics’ Forum, is an Australian professional association for film critics, reviewers and journalists who work in the media, based in Melbourne. It is a member of the International Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI).


Motivation.

One of the motivating reasons for considering derivators is the lack of functoriality with the cone construction with triangulated categories. Derivators are able to solve this problem, and solve the inclusion of general homotopy colimits, by keeping track of all possible diagrams in a category with weak equivalences and their relations between each other. Heuristcally, given the diagramformula_1which is a category with two objects and one non-identity arrow and a functorformula_2to a category formula_3 with a class of weak-equivalences formula_4, and satisfying the right hypotheses, should have an associated functorformula_5where the target object is unique upto weak equivalence in formula_6. Derivators are able to encode this kind of information and provide a diagram calculus to use in derived categories and homotopy theory.

Definition.

Prederivators.

Formally, a prederivator formula_7 is a 2-functorformula_8from a suitable 2-category of indices to the category of categories. Typically such 2-functors come from considering the categories formula_9 where formula_3 is called the category of coefficients. For example, formula_11 could be the category of small categories which are filtered, whose objects can be thought of as the indexing sets for a filtered colimit. Then, given a morphism of diagramsformula_12denote formula_13 byformula_14This is called the inverse image functor. In the motivating example, this is just precompositition, so given a functor formula_15 there is an associated functor formula_16. Note these 2-functors could be taken to beformula_17where formula_4 is a suitable class of weak equivalences in a category formula_3.

Indexing categories.

There are a number of examples of indexing categories used in this construction

Derivators.

Derivators are then the axiomatization of prederivators which come equipped with adjoint functorsformula_25where formula_26 is left adjoint to formula_13 and so on. Heuristically, formula_28 should correspond to inverse limits, formula_26 to colimits.

In mathematics, derivators are a proposed new framework for homological algebra and various generalisations. It is intended to address the perceived deficiencies of derived categories and provide at the same time a language for homotopical algebra.


Background.

After the successful attack on Cadiz in 1596 the English army led by Sir Francis Vere were urgently required back in the Netherlands and went there directly. Due to the raid's damages Spain had gone bankrupt for the third time which meant that payments to the army dried up, which led to mutinies. During the winter of 1596/7 Archduke Albert's Spanish army of 4,600 under the command of the Burgundian Philibert de Rye, Count Varax had advanced to the village of Turnhout, about twenty miles south of Breda; their design was to surprise the town of Tholen on a rare winter offensive.  The Dutch Stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau, had received orders from the States General to collect a force at Geertruidenberg to counter the Spanish threat in the area of Turnhout. Though the town had not been walled, Turnhout was an important strategic town - it held a small castle, surrounded by a moat and contained a garrison of forty men. A force of nearly 6,000 men with two demi-cannons and two field pieces, was assembled at Geertruidenberg. Six companies of Dutch infantry were under Maurice - the Counts of Hohenlohe, Brederode and Solms arrived with contingents gathered from their various garrisons. Sir Francis Vere led the English force once more - nearly two thirds of Maurice's army were in fact English and Scots. A minority were subsidized allied troops or'religious volunteers' most of whom were long term mercenaries sent by Elizabeth I. Among these were Sir Alexander Murray's regiment of Scots, as well as eight companies of English infantry under the command of Captain Henry Docwra. The cavalry totalled 800 men commanded by Marcellus Bacx and included a contingent of a hundred elite pistoleers made up of volunteers from among the English gentry, 'the gentlemen of the (Protestant) religion', under Sir Robert Sydney and Sir Nicholas Parker.  On January 23, 1597 the expedition marched out of Geertruidenberg in four divisions, with the cavalry on the flanks and stopped off to camp at Ravels on the frozen ground.  The Spanish army under the command of Varax consisted of four battalions of infantry; the elite Spanish 'Naples' Tercio regiment under the Marquis of Treviso, the Germans under the Count of Sulz and a couple of Walloon and Burgundian regiments under the Comtes de Hachicourt and de Barlaymont. There were five squadrons of Spanish cavalry commanded by Nicolo Basta. The regiments of horse were commanded by Juan de Cordova, Alonzo de Mendoza, Juan de Guzman, Alonzo Mondragon and a Flemish force under de Grubbendonck. These were split into two units, one of heavy lancers and the other of lighter 'herreruelos' (mounted harquebusiers).<ref name="Coetzee/Eysturlid">Coetzee & Eysturlid pp 117-18</ref>  At midnight Maurice broke up his camp and after a forced march they reached the outskirts of Turnhout in the neighbouring village of Tielen by midnight.

Battle.

Varax heard reports of Maurice's army having approached not far from Turnhout itself. He immediately ordered a retreat and by dawn the whole of the Spanish force were in the process of withdrawing to Herentals. Maurice soon discovered that the rear guard of the Spanish had just marched out of the village. The country was intersected in all directions by hedges and ditches and having reached the banks of the River Aa, Varax removed all but one plank from the wooden bridge that transversed it. Parties of Spanish musketeers were stationed on the other side to contest any crossing attempt by Maurice, although the English advance guard swiftly forced them off.  Having come across a large wood further on from the river Vere called up his detached musketeers and placed them along the edges to conceal them. These skirmishers kept up a constant harassing fire on the Spanish rearguard, while Vere along with sixteen horsemen followed them along the highway in full sight and at the same time sent back a report to Maurice to come up in support. Vere had his horse shot from under him which slightly wounded his leg, but continued to lead on foot, until he was remounted. This skirmish between the Anglo-Dutch scouting force and the Spanish rearguard lasted for over three hours until the main body of the former's cavalry arrived. The Spanish had by then emerged onto an open heath, suitable for cavalry action.  Varax had his infantry formed in four solid squares of pikemen in the open space of the heath, with musketeers on the flanks as was standard practice for the Spanish tercios. His cavalry and wagons had entered an enclosed lane beyond. The first square consisted of Germans led by the Count of Sulz, then came the Walloons and Burgundian tercios. The Marquis of Treviso brought up the rear with a force of Italian and Spanish veteran tercios. Vere had followed them, until all of Maurice's cavalry had joined with him having emerged from the wood. The Anglo-Dutch then formed on the open heath in front of the Spanish. The Spaniards steadily continued their march but as they became aware of the allied movements on their left, their cavalry changed position and transferred from the right to the left of the line and rode between the infantry and the belt of woods. After the first volley by Vere's musketeers the Spanish harquebuisers on foot broke and fled. Varax ordered his cavalry to protect the retreat but Count Hohenlohe and his Dutch cavalry charged the Spanish right flank, as Vere followed suit upon their rear. Hohenlohe fell upon Sulz's regiment of Germans while the rearguard consisting of Treviso's tercios was assailed by Vere's English and Bacx's Dutch cavalry. The surprise was complete; the Spanish cavalry which included the famed squadrons of Guzman, Mondragon and Mendoza were hit hard at the first onset and within moments retreated for the pass. Most of them escaped through the hollow into the boggy ground beyond. Several companies of Parker's cavalry galloped down the Herentals road, in pursuit of the Spanish cavalry and baggage.  With the Spanish cavalry having been driven off, the Dutch and English cavalry fell upon the straggling Spanish infantry. The Walloon regiments tried to form a line with the flank protected by a copse, but their morale was already low after witnessing the flight of their cavalry. When they saw in the distance the mass of Dutch infantry appearing to support their cavalry they broke into a rout and tried to swim across the Aa river to reach Herentals. The musketeers of Sultz's regiment fell back in confusion upon the pikemen behind them and the whole formation promptly surrendered en masse upon being charged by the Anglo-Dutch cavalry. The veteran tercios of Treviso however managed to deploy in combat formation and resisted manfully for some time, but Vere and Bacx's charge upon them was decisive. The Dutch and English troopers rode up very close to the massed ranks of the Spanish infantry and discharged their pistols and carbines at point blank range, inflicting carnage. Varax, fighting in the front line with his men, was among the casualties. The cuirassiers' fire opened gaps within the Spanish ranks into which the troopers rode in and started attacking the formation from within, rapidly causing a rout.  While the veteran Spanish tercio were being broken, the surviving Germans in the front and the other tercios in the rear had been simultaneously shattered and the panicked survivors swamped the two other regiments, those of Hachicourt and La Barlotte which were placed between them, masking their field fire and spreading panic among them. The English and Dutch soon broke these formations as well and put nearly all of the Spanish infantry into rout. The pursuing cavalry harried them and the Spanish infantry were 'cut down with terrible slaughter'. Parker's cavalry had in the meantime gone through the pass and plundered the Spanish baggage train. The Spanish had been completely routed and the battle had lasted no more than half an hour.  The rest of the Spanish managed to retreat to Herentals where Nicolo Basta took command and rallied the survivors.

Aftermath.

Out of 4,000 Spanish soldiers and 500 horsemen nearly over 50% were casualties; 2000 were killed or wounded. In addition thirty-eight ensigns were taken and prisoners numbered around 600. Of the allied force only fifty were casualties including ten killed. The whole action was won by around 800 Dutch and English horsemen and the majority of the Dutch infantry were never brought into action. That night the victors rested in Turnhout and the next morning the castle there capitulated and the Dutch promptly burned parts of it. However, in a few days Maurice had to leave the city before the arrival of Spanish reinforcements led by the Archduke Albert who after hearing of the defeat left his winter quarters. The Spanish Tercios of Francisco Velasco and several units of cavalry, which together with the survivors of the battle advanced against him. The allied force then began their return march to Geertruidenberg. The victory at Turnhout therefore did not result in any long term strategic gain since there was no follow up.  On 8 February Maurice returned to the Hague - the Spanish standards captured from the battle were strung up in the Ridderzaal (the political headquarters of the States General) as a symbol of victory. The prisoners were treated with kindness and the wounded were cared for, even the body of Varas was sent to the Archduke. In return Albert assured the Dutch Prince that he would follow his generous example for the duration of the war. The English under Vere and Sidney greatly distinguished themselves. Vere accompanied Sidney to Willemstad, wrote his official despatches and gave them to one of Sidney's captains to deliver in England. Both generals spoke generously of each other - Vere thought that Sidney exceeded well in battle, being one of the first that charged. Sidney reported that the victory was only due to Vere.  News of the battle of Turnhout was received in England with great rejoicing, and congratulations poured in on all sides. The satirist Stephen Gosson composed a sermon called the "Trumpet of Warre" a justification of war with Spain. The battle was even dramatized in London, and introduced on the stage known as the "Overthrow of Turnholt". All of the officers who were present at the battle were impersonated.  Queen Elizabeth I herself wrote to Vere on February 7, 1597, in the following terms:

Analysis.

At the time the battle had great importance for the evolution of mounted warfare for two reasons. The first impact was that Maurice's army had demonstrated the superiority of the new type of cavalry, the cuirassiers or reiters, as used by Henry IV of France at the battle of Ivry. The cuirassiers wore half armour and a light headpiece and were armed with several pistols but also carried carbines as well as a sword. No lance was carried so instead of being arrayed in a thin line to maximize the number of lance being deployed they charged in a dense formations (eight in depth) and fired their pistols only in the moment of contact. This tactic, which had already defeated French gendarmes (lancers in full armour) at Ivry, proved to be effective as well against the lighter Spanish demi-lancer. The second impact was that the Dutch and English cuirassiers, with the support of a few hundred musketeers, had destroyed a regiment of Spanish tercios without the help of their own heavy infantry. These lessons on the value of the cuirassiers were quickly learned and most European armies abandoned the employment of lancers soon after, with only the Poles retaining them within their famed husaria. The Spaniards finally drew their conclusions after the defeat at Nieuwpoort three years later.

Cultural.

Music composer Kevin Houben commemorated the battle in his concert work, "Thyellene, battle on the heath". In September 2008, Brassband Kempenzonen Tielen played this work on the site where once the battle took place.  The defeat of Varax inspired the writing of the hymn "We Gather Together."

The Battle of Turnhout also known as the Battle of Tielenheide was a military engagement which took place on 24 January 1597 in the border area between the Northern and Southern Netherlands at Turnhout during the Eighty Years' War and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604).


Career.

Youth and college.

Marshall attended Rubidoux High School in Riverside, California, where he was an NCSAA All-American, "Parade" All-America selection, and "Parade"'s Best Defender in his senior year, and a "Parade" All-American his junior year. Coming out of high school he was rated as the top college soccer recruit in the country by "Soccer America". In addition to his soccer exploits, Chad was also an avid equestrian. He played club soccer for the prestigious club soccer team Irvine Strikers coached by the legendary club coach Don Ebert. He attended the IMG Soccer Academy in fall 2000 through spring 2001. Chad attended Stanford University for two years a brief stint at Harding University. After two seasons with the Cardinal, he decided to turn pro.

Professional.

Marshall was drafted second overall in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft by Columbus Crew. He had an exemplary first year, anchoring the Crew defense along with Robin Fraser, who won the MLS Defender of the Year award that season, and helped the team to an eighteen-game unbeaten streak and the MLS Supporters' Shield. He finished the season with twenty-seven starts, and was a close second to Clint Dempsey in the voting for the MLS Rookie of the Year Award. He only played in twelve matches in 2007 due to ongoing concussion issues that threatened to end his career.  Marshall's strongest campaign with the Crew came in 2008. He led the defense on the squad that won both the Supporters' Shield and the MLS Cup 2008, a game in which Marshall scored the game-winning goal. After the season, he was voted to the MLS Best XI and was also awarded the MLS Defender of the Year award, beating competition from Bakary Soumare and Jimmy Conrad.  Marshall's contract ran out after the 2008 campaign. After a brief trial for part of December with German 2. Fußball-Bundesliga side Mainz 05 he re-signed with Columbus on December 26, 2008.  On March 17, 2011, Marshall was named captain of Columbus Crew for the 2011 season to fill the void left by departing captain Frankie Hejduk. In December 2011, Columbus signed Marshall to a long-term contract extension through the 2015 MLS season.  On December 12, 2013, Marshall was traded to Seattle Sounders FC in exchange for allocation money and a third-round 2015 MLS SuperDraft pick. He scored his first goal as a Sounder, a game-winning header in the 84th minute, against the Philadelphia Union on May 3. He was named MLS Defender of the Year for the third time as the Sounders won the Supporters Shield.  On May 22, 2019, Marshall announced his retirement from professional soccer.

International.

As a teenager, Marshall trained at the United States Soccer Federation's exclusive Bradenton Academy and has played for several United States youth national teams. He played for the United States at the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship, now commonly known as the FIFA U-20 World Cup, in the United Arab Emirates. He later moved up and earned time with the Under-23 team.  Marshall earned his first cap and scored his first goal for the senior national team on March 9, 2005, against Colombia. Marshall was selected for the 2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup for the United States and received his first cap since 2005 in the side's opening match against Grenada. Marshall went on to play in five games throughout the tournament and garnered Gold Cup All-Tournament honors.  On May 11, 2010, Bob Bradley, the U.S. Men’s National Team head coach selected Marshall for the 30-man preliminary roster for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. On May 26, 2010, Bradley decided to keep Marshall off the 23 man roster for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.  On January 6, 2017 after almost 7 years of absence from international soccer, Marshall was called for the United States national team by coach Bruce Arena.

Chad Marshall (born August 22, 1984) is a retired American soccer player. During his 16-year career, he played for Columbus Crew and Seattle Sounders FC in Major League Soccer.


Background.

Youngs is the son of former Leicester and England scrum-half Nick Youngs, and the elder brother of current Leicester and England scrum-half Ben Youngs.  Originally a centre, he changed to play at hooker after advice from then Tigers' coach Heyneke Meyer.  Youngs played for Gresham's School and for England Schools, and also for Holt as a junior.

Club career.

He made his Tigers debut against London Irish on Boxing Day 2006, broke his leg after five minutes and came off after thirteen.  In the 2008/09 season, when he was persuaded to switch to hooker he was used by new head Coach Richard Cockerill in the Leicester "A" team as a hooker.  In the 2010-2011 season he was loaned to the Leicester feeder club Nottingham R.F.C. where he was first choice hooker.  Youngs started the 2013 Premiership final, alongside his brother Ben, as Leicester defeated Northampton Saints.  At the start of the 2016-17 season he was announced as club captain for the Tigers, replacing lock Ed Slater after being injured for nearly half of the previous season.

International career.

In 2007-08, he was a member of the England squad at Rugby sevens.  On England's summer tour to South Africa in 2012, Youngs was taken as part of the main touring squad for experience. He played in the midweek games and his performances led to him being touted as a future England starting hooker.  Due to an injury to England's first-choice hooker Dylan Hartley and the earlier retirement of second-choice Lee Mears, Youngs was awarded the number 2 shirt for England's first 2012 Autumn International match against Fiji, and was joined on the pitch by substitute brother Ben. The Youngs brothers became the second family to have a father and two sons play for England after Sir William Milton and his sons Jumbo and Cecil. An impressive performance meant that he retained the shirt for the second test.  He was named as part of the victorious Lions squad for the 2013 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia.  Youngs was named in Stuart Lancaster's 31- man squad in August 2015 for the 2015 Rugby World Cup and went on to start all 4 games as hooker. He was controversially overlooked for the Six Nations by new coach Eddie Jones and then was injured for the Summer tour of Australia. He was overlooked again for the 2016 Autumn Internationals and was not chosen for Jones' 45 EPS Squad for the Six Nations with skipper Dylan Hartley as first-choice, Jamie George as second choice and Tommy Taylor as third choice.

Thomas Nicholas Youngs (born 28 January 1987, in Norwich, England) is a rugby union player who plays as a hooker for Leicester Tigers in Premiership Rugby, between 2012–2015 he won 28 caps for, including selection for the 2015 Rugby World Cup and was selected for the 2013 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia where he played in all three test matches.


Exit slit.

Sellar and Boreman have argued that this SNR improvement can be considered as a result of freedom from needing an exit slit inside the spectrometer, since an exit slit reduces the light collected by the detector by the same factor.

Emission.

There is an additional multiplex advantage for emission lines of atomic and molecular spectra. At the peak of the emission line, a monochromator measurement will be noisy, since the noise is proportional to the square root of the signal. For the same reason, the measurement will be less noisy at the baseline of the spectrum. In a multiplexed measurement, however, the noise in a given measurement is spread more or less evenly across the spectrum, regardless of the local signal intensity. Thus, multiplexed measurements can achieve higher SNR at the emission line peaks. There is a corresponding multiplex "dis"advantage, however. When the signals of interest are "absorption" lines in the spectrum, then the same principle will produce increased noise at the valleys of the absorption lines relative to the noise of a scanning monochromator.

Shot noise.

However, if the detector is shot noise dominated (which is typically the case for a photomultiplier tube), noise will be proportional to the square root of the power, so that for a broad flat spectrum the noise will be proportional to the square root of "m", where "m" is the number of sample points comprising the spectrum, thus this disadvantage precisely offsets the Fellgett advantage. Shot noise is the main reason Fourier transform spectroscopy has never been popular for UV and visible light spectrometry.

Fellgett's advantage or the multiplex advantage is an improvement in signal to noise ratio that is gained when taking multiplexed measurements rather than direct measurements. The name is derived from P. B. Fellgett, who first made the observation as part of his PhD. When measuring a signal whose noise is dominated by detector noise, a multiplexed measurement such as the signal generated by a Fourier transform spectrometer can produce a relative improvement in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), compared to an equivalent scanning monochromator, of the order of the square root of "m", where "m" is the number of sample points comprising the spectrum.


Metabolism.

Thaumarchaea are important ammonia oxidizers in aquatic and terrestrial environments, and are the first archaea identified as being involved in nitrification. They are capable of oxidizing ammonia at much lower substrate concentrations than ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, and so probably dominate in oligotrophic conditions. Their ammonia oxidation pathway requires less oxygen than that of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, so they do better in environments with low oxygen concentrations like sediments and hot springs. Ammonia-oxidizing Thaumarchaea can be identified metagenomically by the presence of archaeal ammonia monooxygenase ("amoA") genes, which indicate that they are overall more dominant than ammonia oxidizing bacteria. In addition to ammonia, at least one Thaumarchaeal strain has been shown to be able to use urea as a substrate for nitrification. This would allow for competition with phytoplankton that also grow on urea. One study of microbes from wastewater treatment plants found that not all Thaumarchaea that express "amoA" genes are active ammonia oxidizers. These Thaumarchaea may be capable of oxidizing methane instead of ammonia, or they may be heterotrophic, indicating a potential for a diversity of metabolic lifestyles within the phylum. Marine Thaumarchaea have also been shown to produce nitrous oxide, which as a greenhouse gas has implications for climate change. Isotopic analysis indicates that most nitrous oxide flux to the atmosphere from the ocean, which provides around 30% of the natural flux, may be due to the metabolic activities of archaea.  Many members of the phylum assimilate carbon by fixing HCO. This is done using a hydroxypropionate/hydroxybutyrate cycle similar to the Crenarchaea but which appears to have evolved independently. All Thaumarchaea that have been identified by metagenomics thus far encode this pathway. Notably, the Thaumarchaeal CO-fixation pathway is more efficient than any known aerobic autotrophic pathway. This efficiency helps explain their ability to thrive in low-nutrient environments. Some Thaumarchaea such as "Nitrosopumilus maritimus" are able to incorporate organic carbon as well as inorganic, indicating a capacity for mixotrophy. At least two isolated strains have been identified as obligate mixotrophs, meaning they require a source of organic carbon in order to grow.  A study has revealed that Thaumarchaeota are most likely the dominant producers of the critical vitamin B12. This finding has important implications for eukaryotic phytoplankton, many of which are auxotrophic and must acquire vitamin B from the environment; thus the Thaumarchaea could play a role in algal blooms and by extension global levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Because of the importance of vitamin B in biological processes such as the citric acid cycle and DNA synthesis, production of it by the Thaumarchaea may be important for a large number of aquatic organisms.

Environment.

Many Thaumarchaea, such as "Nitrosopumilus maritimus", are marine and live in the open ocean. Most of these planktonic Thaumarchaea, which compose the Marine Group I.1a Thaumarchaeota, are distributed in the subphotic zone, between 100m and 350m. Other marine Thaumarchaea live in shallower waters. One study has identified two novel Thaumarchaeota species living in the sulfidic environment of a tropical mangrove swamp. Of these two species, Candidatus "Giganthauma insulaporcus" and Candidatus "Giganthauma karukerense", the latter is associated with Gammaproteobacteria with which it may have a symbiotic relationship, though the nature of this relationship is unknown. The two species are very large, forming filaments larger than ever before observed in archaea. As with many Thaumarchaea, they are mesophilic. Genetic analysis and the observation that the most basal identified Thaumarchaeal genomes are from hot environments suggests that the ancestor of Thaumarchaeota was thermophilic, and mesophily evolved later.

The Thaumarchaeota or Thaumarchaea (from the ) are a phylum of the Archaea proposed in 2008 after the genome of "Cenarchaeum symbiosum" was sequenced and found to differ significantly from other members of the hyperthermophilic phylum Crenarchaeota. Three described species in addition to "C. symbosium" are "Nitrosopumilus maritimus", "Nitrososphaera viennensis", and "Nitrososphaera gargensis". The phylum was proposed in 2008 based on phylogenetic data, such as the sequences of these organisms' ribosomal RNA genes, and the presence of a form of type I topoisomerase that was previously thought to be unique to the eukaryotes. This assignment was confirmed by further analysis published in 2010 that examined the genomes of the ammonia-oxidizing archaea "Nitrosopumilus maritimus" and "Nitrososphaera gargensis", concluding that these species form a distinct lineage that includes "Cenarchaeum symbiosum". The lipid crenarchaeol has been found only in Thaumarchaea, making it a potential biomarker for the phylum. Most organisms of this lineage thus far identified are chemolithoautotrophic ammonia-oxidizers and may play important roles in biogeochemical cycles, such as the nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle. Metagenomic sequencing indicates that they constitute ~1% of the sea surface metagenome across many sites.


Underlying causes.

Building practices.

In 1872, there was no strictly enforced building code in Boston. The streets were narrow and the buildings were close together. Many of the buildings were too tall for fire ladders to reach the upper levels, and the pressure from the fire hoses was often insufficient to extinguish flames on the roofs of the buildings. Thus, the fire could spread from rooftop to rooftop, and across narrow streets. Many of the affected buildings were made of brick and stone, but with wooden framing. Also, wooden mansard roofs were a common architectural trend of the time period. The steep pitch of a mansard roof allows for more storage in the upper levels of a building. However, these roofs are flammable due to their wooden construction. Additionally, the warehouses of downtown Boston commonly stored dry materials in the eaves of the roofs, increasing the flammability. Merchandise stored in the attics of warehouses was not considered taxable inventory.

Insurance.

Building owners in Boston had few incentives to implement fire-safety measures. Buildings were often insured above value or at full value. Arson to gain insurance money was not uncommon.

Fire alarm boxes.

In 1852, Boston became the first city in the world to install telegraph-based fire alarm boxes. The boxes served as a fire warning system. If the lever inside of the alarm box was pulled, the fire department was notified, and the alarm could be traced back to the box via a coordinate system so that firefighters were dispatched to the correct location. All of the fire alarm boxes were kept locked from the system's installation in 1852 until after the Great Fire of 1872 to prevent false alarms. A few citizens in each area of Boston were given a key to the boxes, and all other citizens had to report fires to the key-holders who could then alert the fire department. In 1872, witnesses watched the fire spread before the key-holder of the area was located and able to unlock the alarm box to alert the Boston Fire Department. Twenty minutes after the fire was first noticed, firefighters arrived on the scene.

Water infrastructure.

John Damrell, Boston Fire Department's chief engineer at the time, had told Boston officials that the existing water infrastructure was inadequate. He was told not to "magnify the needs of his department" after requesting funding for water infrastructure repairs. The existing water main pipelines were old and leaky, causing the pressure in the pipes to be lower than acceptable. The lack of pressure was so severe that the pipes could not produce enough force to reach the top floors and roofs of newer buildings. The number of hydrants throughout the city was insufficient to adequately cover the surrounding buildings. As the fire spread, firefighters struggled to find hydrants with adequate water pressure. Additionally, the fire hydrant couplings were not standardized within Boston making it more difficult for firefighters to connect their hoses and related equipment.

Horse sickness.

Horses were used by the Boston fire department to pull fire engines, hoses, and ladders. At the time of the 1872 fire in early November, the northeast United States was experiencing an epizootic flu that affected and weakened the horses. When Damrell heard of the horse sickness he preemptively hired an additional 500 men to replace the horsepower that would typically haul the engines and other equipment to the sites of fires. After the fire, the city commission in charge of investigating the fire concluded that the response time of the fire department was only delayed by a few minutes in the absence of the horses.

Similarities to Great Chicago Fire.

In 1871, Chicago suffered massive destruction and an estimated 300 casualties due to a massive fire. Damrell, along with fire chiefs from various large cities, traveled to Chicago after the fire in an attempt to learn from the city’s mistakes. Like Boston, Chicago buildings were made primarily of wood and building codes were not enforced, making the densely developed neighborhoods susceptible to fire. General Phil Sheridan, in charge of military relief in Chicago post-fire, did not condemn the city's use of gunpowder to blow up buildings to create firebreaks. In theory, a firebreak creates a gap in flammable material that serves as a barrier where the fire will run out of "fuel" to spread any further. However, many fire chiefs from Southern cities were firmly opposed to gunpowder-created firebreaks after having seen the destruction they caused in the Civil War. Damrell returned to Boston and continued to request funding for improved water infrastructure and fire equipment.

Events of the fire.

Experts have deduced that the fire began in the basement of a warehouse on the corner Kingston Street and Summer Street, at approximately 83-85 Summer Street. In this particular area, most of the buildings were dedicated to retail or used as warehouses. The warehouse that first caught fire housed dry goods. From the basement, the flames spread to the wooden elevator shaft in the center of the building and moved up the floors, fueled by the flammable fabrics in storage. Finally, the building’s wooden mansard roof caught on fire and the flames were able to spread from rooftop to rooftop down the street. The heat was so powerful that granite buildings exploded. The fire spread through most of Boston's financial district which became known as the "burnt district." The glow of the fire was noted in ships' logs by sailors off the coast of Maine.

Fire department response.

At 7:24 pm, the first alarm was received from Box 52 at the corner of Summer Street and Lincoln Street. The first fire engine to arrive was Engine Co. 7 from a station at 7 East Street. The first water on the fire came from Hose Company 2 of Hudson Street. By 8 pm, all of Boston's twenty-one engine companies were fighting the fire. Telegraphs were sent to surrounding towns requesting help, but the messages were delayed due to most telegraph offices already having closed for the night. Eventually, support arrived from fire departments in every state of New England, except Vermont. Of these were two Amoskeag Steamers from Manchester, New Hampshire. One was the first Amoskeag ever constructed (serial number 1), owned by the Manchester Fire Department; the other was the first self-propelled Amoskeag that the manufacturer sent down. Boston purchased the self-propelled steamer after the fire, impressed with its performance. The self-propelled steamer was the first one in use in the country.

Crowd control.

During the fire, the narrow streets of Boston were packed with firefighters and their equipment as well as crowds of people. As building owners raced to retrieve valuables from their burning properties, looters ran in after them to collect whatever was left behind. Because the affected area was mostly commercial and not residential, spectators came from residential neighborhoods to watch the fire spread. Some historians estimate that over 100,000 bystanders watched the fire spread. The firefighters had to both extinguish the flames and keep people back from danger.

Gas lines.

Gas supply lines connected to street lamps and used for lighting in buildings could not be shut off promptly. The gas still running through the lines served as fuel to the fire. Many of Boston's gas lines exploded due to the fire.

Use of explosives.

As the fire spread, citizens asked Mayor William Gaston to authorize the use of gunpowder to blow up buildings in the path of the fire to create a firebreak. Mayor Gaston approved the creation of firebreaks and groups of citizens began packing buildings with gunpowder kegs. However, the firebreaks were not effective. Instead, they caused injury to the citizens involved and the flaming debris from the exploded buildings spread to surrounding buildings. Eventually, Damrell had to force citizens to stop using gunpowder.

Conclusion.

Citizens and firefighters alike worked to stop the fire. Along Washington Street, wet blankets and rugs were said to have been used to cover buildings to prevent the fire from spreading to the Old South Meeting House, the church in which the Boston Tea Party was planned. Some citizens and firefighters climbed to the roof of the meeting house to put out sparks. Most accounts of the fire credit the Kearsarge Engine 3 of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, with saving Old South Meeting House. The efforts to save this historic landmark finally halted the fire at the corner of Washington and Milk Streets, around midday on November 10.

Aftermath.

Rebuilding.

Following the fire, a citizen-formed committee urged Boston to restructure the layout of roadways in the damaged areas. Boston officials approved of this proposal, and many downtown streets were re-established to be wider and straighter. Most notably, Congress Street, Federal Street, Purchase Street, and Hawley Street were widened. The restructuring allotted space to establish Post Office Square at the intersection of Milk, Congress, Pearl, and Water Streets. Some of the rubble from destroyed buildings was moved into the harbor to expand Atlantic Avenue. Because over-insurance of buildings was common, many businesses had enough insurance money to begin rebuilding soon after the fire. In less than two years, Boston's financial district was rebuilt.

Economic effects.

In the rebuilding that followed the fire, land values of the "burnt district" increased, according to a study in "American Economic Review" in 2017. The forced reconstruction of the financial district brought about widespread, simultaneous building upgrades and updates, and many properties were rebuilt to suit the commercial nature of the district. The widening of roads and re-assembly of land plots into larger parcels also contributed to the rise in land values.

John Stanhope Damrell.

A new committee, the Fire Commission was established to oversee the Boston Fire Department and investigate the fire of 1872. John Damrell resigned from his position as chief engineer in 1874 in the wake of the Fire Commission's investigation. He had served as chief engineer for eight years and worked as a professional firefighter in Boston since 1858. In 1874, Boston began replacing and repairing its water mains, one of Damrell's main causes during his career. Damrell continued his career in firefighting and public safety. In 1873, he founded the National Association of Fire Engineers (NAFE, now called the International Association of Fire Chiefs, IAFC) and became the organization's first president. He also served as a building inspector for the city of Boston.

Building code and inspection.

While Damrell served as president of NAFE, the association published a list of eight fire safety concerns in building construction.  In 1877, Damrell was appointed Boston's building commissioner. He served the Department of Building Inspection for 25 years, until his son succeeded him. At the 20th Annual Convention of NAFE in 1892, Damrell is credited for Boston's formally established limits of building height and area. At the time, Boston was the only American city with these limitations.  In 1884, Damrell petitioned the National Association of Fire Engineers to create a more formalized building code during his presentation of "Building Code Report" at a NAFE convention.  In 1891, The National Association of Commissioners and Inspectors of Public Buildings (NACIPB) was established by Damrell, and he served as the first president. He served a second term as president when he was re-elected at the organization's annual conference in 1894.  A standardized building code wasn't established until 1905, the year of Damrell's death, when the National Board of Fire Underwriters published its "National Building Code".

Remembrance.

At the corner of Kingston and Summer Streets, a plaque was installed by The Bostonian Society to mark the start of the fire.  Old South Meeting House recognized the 138th anniversary of the fire in 2010 by displaying a partially-restored Kearsarge fire engine.  Harvey W. Wiley took part in fighting the fire while he was a student at Harvard University. He later wrote about it in his autobiography.  Author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. watched the fire from his home on Beacon Hill. He wrote a poem about the event called "After the Fire".

The Great Boston Fire of 1872 was Boston's largest fire, and still ranks as one of the most costly fire-related property losses in American history. The conflagration began at 7:20 p.m. on November 9, 1872, in the basement of a commercial warehouse at 83–87 Summer Street. The fire was finally contained 12 hours later, after it had consumed about of Boston's downtown, 776 buildings and much of the financial district, and caused $73.5 million in damage (equivalent to $ billion in ). The destruction to the buildings was valued at $13.5 million and the personal property loss was valued at $60 million. Despite these devastations, only thirteen people died in the inferno, including two Boston firemen.


Biography.

Prior to becoming a writer, Cannell was a former soldier in the Boer War and journalist for "The Daily Telegraph". Cannell began writing novels under the pen-name "E. Charles Vivian" in 1907. Cannell started writing fantastic stories for the arts magazine "Colour" and the aviation journal "Flying" (which Cannell edited after leaving the "Telegraph") in 1917–18, sometimes publishing them under the pseudonym "A.K. Walton". Vivian is best known for his Lost World fantasy novels such as "City of Wonder" the novel "Star Dust" about a scientist who can create gold. Critic Jack Adrian has praised Cannell's lost-world stories as ""bursting with ideas and colour and pace"", and ""superb examples of a fascinating breed"". Influences on Vivian's work included Rider Haggard, H.G. Wells, Arthur Machen and the American novelist Arthur O. Friel. Vivian also published fiction under several other pseudonyms, including Westerns as "Barry Lynd". Adrian has noted that some of the pseudonyms Cannell used ""will never now be identified"". For younger readers, Vivian wrote "Robin Hood and his Merry Men", a retelling of the Robin Hood legend.  Vivian also edited three British pulp magazines. From 1918 to 1922 Vivian edited "The Novel Magazine", and later, for the publisher Walter Hutchinson (1887–1950), "Hutchinson's Adventure-Story Magazine" (which serialised three of Vivian's novels) and "Hutchinson's Mystery-Story Magazine". In addition to UK writers, Vivian often reprinted fiction from American pulp magazines such as "Adventure" and "Weird Tales" in the Hutchinson publications.  Outside the field of fiction, Vivian was noted for the non-fiction book, "A History of Aeronautics".  Some of the popular errors about his life are now corrected in the first and only full-length biography, "The Shadow of Mr Vivian: The Life of E. Charles Vivian (1882-1947)" by Peter Berresford Ellis, PS Publishing Ltd, Hornsea, UK, 2014.

Evelyn Charles Henry Vivian ( – ) was the pseudonym of Charles Henry Cannell, a British editor and writer of fantasy and supernatural, detective novels and stories.