History.

In 1694 a number of Newport pirate vessels prepared to set sail with Tew, among them Joseph Bankes’ barque "Portsmouth Adventure". Bankes (or Banks) transferred his commission to Joseph Faro, who captained the 90-ton 6-gun "Portsmouth Adventure" with a crew of 60. Among his crew was future pirate captain Dirk Chivers.  After nearly a year on voyage, in 1695 Tew, Faro, and three other captains (William Mayes, Richard Want, and Thomas Wake) joined up with Every and his ship "Fancy" and waited for the Mughal's treasure-laden convoy. Most of the convoy escaped, but the "Gunsway" and her escort "Fateh Mohammed" were straggling behind and after a protracted fight was overtaken and brutally looted by Every and his crew. Tew had been killed during the battle while Want and Wake's slower ships were left behind. Only Faro and Mayes arrived in time to help Every, but Every denied Faro and his crew a full share of the vast riches, claiming they had never joined in the fighting.  Afterward, Faro took the "Portsmouth Adventure" into the Persian Gulf, and then back to Madagascar, where Faro's ship was wrecked on Mayotte. Every rescued Faro and some of his crew en route to the Bahamas; some of Faro's crew joined Every, and a few even made it back to Newport, while Chivers and others remained behind to be later rescued by Robert Glover in the "Resolution". Faro later captained the sloop "Sea Flower" which transported Every back to Ireland when the latter chose to retire.

Joseph Faro (fl. 1694-1696, last name occasionally Farrell, Firra, or Faroe) was a pirate from Newport active during the Golden Age of Piracy, primarily in the Indian Ocean. He is best known for sailing alongside Thomas Tew to join Henry Every’s pirate fleet which captured and looted the fabulously rich Mughal ship "Gunsway".


History.

Also known as the "Old Kenosha Light", it was replaced by the Kenosha North Pier Light in 1906. The keeper's house continued to be used for many years, however.  The light is listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the Kenosha Light Station, Reference #90000995. It has been an active aid to navigation since 1996, but is not listed in Volume VII United States Coast Guard light list. The lantern room was removed in 1913 but replicated in 1994. The Fresnel lens was replaced by a 300 mm Tidaland Signal plastic lens – a medium range lens commonly used on the Great Lakes.  A historical marker in front of the lighthouse reads:  A lightkeeper's house sits near the lighthouse tower. The original section of the house was built in 1866 at the same time as the lighthouse. It was two stories, with walls of cream brick similar to the tower, with a simple rectangular footprint. The moderate pitch of the roof and the frieze board under the eaves come from Greek Revival style. In 1907 the north ell with the two-story porch was added to the house, along with a 2-story addition to the kitchen at the southeast corner and bathrooms.  The light on Simmons Island was part of an effort to make Kenosha a major shipping port, and money was spent from the 1830s to the 1880s on infrastructure like the lighthouse. But this lighthouse was too far from the harbor to give entering craft a clear bearing, so a beacon was added to the pierhead in the 1860s. By the turn of the century, the better harbors and railroad connections at Chicago, Milwaukee and Racine prevailed and Kenosha was a minor port.

Current status and directions.

The building is currently maintained by the City of Kenosha and the Kenosha County Historical Society. It is also on the State List/Inventory, having been listed in 1975.  The keeper's house is open to the public on Saturdays and Sundays during the tourist season. The tower is open for climbers many weekends of the summer.  The lighthouse can be seen from Kenosha near the vicinity of 50th Street and 4th Avenue.

Kenosha Light (also called Southport Light) is a lighthouse and keeper's house on Simmons Island north of the channel into Kenosha's harbor in Kenosha County, Wisconsin, USA.


History.

The building, designed in 1891 by E. W. Mountford, opened in 1893 as Battersea Town Hall, the administrative headquarters of the Borough of Battersea, shortly after the borough was transferred from the county of Surrey to the newly formed County of London. It is built from Suffolk red brick and Bath stone.  Bertrand Russell's essay "Why I Am Not a Christian" was originally given as a talk in the hall, on 6 March 1927, under the auspices of the South London Branch of the National Secular Society.  Following proposals by London Borough of Wandsworth to demolish large parts of the building, a vociferous and ultimately successful campaign to save it was fought by the Victorian Society and Battersea Society it was given Grade II* listed protected status in February 1970.

Organ.

In 1901, a large pipe organ was installed in the Grand Hall by Norman & Beard. This was an unusual instrument designed by Robert Hope-Jones, a pioneering organ builder who invented many aspects of the modern pipe organ. His ideas went on to form the basis of the Wurlitzer theatre organ in the 1920s and 30s. It was said to be the largest Hope-Jones organ to survive, and was partially restored in 2008–2009. In the 2015 fire, although much of the organ was destroyed, including the console, bellows, wiring and architectural cases, the soundboards and much of the pipework survived as they were off site undergoing restoration. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register.

Arts centre.

The building became a community arts centre in 1974. BAC currently receives grants towards the building's operating costs from Arts Council England and the London Borough of Wandsworth, among others. The centre is a registered charity.  David Jubb has been the BAC's artistic director since 2004. He shared the Joint Artistic Directorship of BAC with David Micklem between 2007 and 2012. In October 2018, David Jubb announced that he would step down from his role in April 2019.  The theatre was founded in 1981.  BAC operates a "scratch" methodology as part of its "ladder of development" for new work. Performances are shown at various stages of development to an outside audience, whose input and criticism guides the further evolution of the work.

Use in film.

The old Town Hall was used as a location in the 1975 film "Slade In Flame" featuring rock band Slade. The Town Hall was the location for the 21st birthday party of the character played by Dave Hill. On 8 and 9 October 2012, the pop band McFly used the location to film a video for their single "Love Is Easy".

Beer festival.

Every February since 1991, the BAC has hosted the three-day-long Battersea Beer Festival.

Fire.

On 13 March 2015, during a major renovation programme, a fire broke out in the roof, and engulfed the building, causing severe structural damage, including the collapse of the tower. The Grand Hall and Lower Hall were destroyed. No injuries were reported.  The fire was tackled by about 80 London Fire Brigade firefighters and 12 fire engines. Firefighters were able to save a large part of the building including several of the smaller theatre spaces. Two shows went ahead as planned one day after the fire, and BAC has maintained much of its artistic programme, despite losing the ability to hire out the larger venues (a significant source of income).  Jubb launched a fundraising campaign to help the centre soon afterwards., and in May announced that during the rebuilding of the Grand Hall, BAC would also create a large off-site theatre from mid-2016 to end of 2017 "for the presentation of visionary and exciting new theatre while we rebuild the Grand Hall".

The Battersea Arts Centre ("BAC") is a Grade II* listed building near Clapham Junction railway station in Battersea, in the London Borough of Wandsworth that operates as a performance space specialising in theatre productions. It was formerly Battersea Town Hall. In March 2015, while a major programme of renovation works were underway, the Grand Hall was severely damaged by fire. Approximately 70% of the theatre, including the 200-capacity Council Chamber, the Scratch Bar and the Members Library, was saved from the fire and remains open.


Biography.

Eleanor Whitton was born as Eleanor Constance Beatty in 1879 in County Longford. She was the daughter of Church of Ireland minister, Rev. Alexander Beatty. She married Henry M. Whitton, registrar of the court of appeal in 1902. The couple had a son and two daughters. In 1954 their son, Cuthbert Henry Whitton, was appointed prime judge in the supreme court of Singapore. As a skilled horse rider, Whitton was one of the founding members of the South County Dublin Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (SPCA) in 1905, serving as the honorary secretary until 1954. She led a campaign against the export of horses for slaughter in 1928 by being an establishing member of the International League for the Protection of Horses (ILPH) in Ireland, and being the honorary director for the rest of her life. ILPH was described as "almost a one-woman show", Whitton conducted investigations into the shipping conditions of horses, and launched a campaign for the ban of the live export of horses. She is believed to have bought between 4000 and 9000 horses personally to rescue them, aiding in the purchase of "rest fields" for them in Rathfarnham, the first type of sanctuary of its kind in Ireland.  At the end of World War II, Ireland began exporting large numbers of horses for France and Belgium for horse meat, with Whitton sending a large portion of time watching the loading of live animals. She would ensure that the conditions on the ships were good, and that the horse were fit to travel. On one occasion she hired a vet to travel on a ship bound for France. She travelled across Ireland inspecting horses in her capacities in both the SPCA and ILPH. The work of Whitton and these groups came to public attention in 1952 when SPCA, ILPH, Our Dumb Friends' League and the Dublin Animals' Protection Association organised a protest march through central Dublin of 1000 people on 28 March 1952. They also held a well-attended meeting on 28 April 1952 at the Mansion House, Dublin. The common policy of the three groups was called the "five Ps", namely parades, posters, protest meetings, publicity and politics. Whitton did not live to see the ban on live horse exports from Ireland, but the campaigns resulted in legislation being passed to that effect in 1961, 1963 and 1964. Her work also secured the support of a number of TDs including Patrick O'Donnell, Alfred Patrick Byrne, William Norton, Patrick Cogan, Henry Morgan Dockrell, Michael Ffrench-O'Carroll, William Davin and taoiseach John A. Costello.  Whitton's work has been viewed as bringing animal welfare into Irish public policy. She died at her home at 10 Laburnum Road, Clonskeagh, Dublin on 28 March 1956.

Eleanor Whitton (1879 - 28 March 1956) was an Irish animal rights campaigner, being a founding member of the South County Dublin Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the Irish branch of the International League for the Protection of Horses.


Origins.

Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s by architects such as Buckminster Fuller and John C. Portman Jr.; architect and industrial designer Eero Saarinen, Archigram, an avant-garde architectural group (Peter Cook, Warren Chalk, Ron Herron, Dennis Crompton, Michael Webb and David Greene, Jan Kaplický and others); it is considered in part an evolution out of high-tech architecture, developing many of the same themes and ideas.  Although it was never built, the Fun Palace (1961) interpreted by architect Cedric Price as a "giant neo-futurist machine" influenced other architects, notably Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, whose Pompidou Centre extended many of Price's ideas.

Definition.

Neo-futurism was revitalised in 2007 after the publication of "The Neo-Futuristic City Manifesto" included in the candidature presented to the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) and written by innovation designer Vito Di Bari (a former executive director at UNESCO), to outline his vision for the city of Milan at the time of the Universal Expo 2015. Di Bari defined his neo-futuristic vision as the "cross-pollination of art, cutting edge technologies and ethical values combined to create a pervasively higher quality of life"; he referenced the Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development Theory and reported that the name had been inspired by the United Nations report "Our Common Future".  Jean-Louis Cohen has defined neo-futurism as a corollary to technology, noting that a large amount of the structures built today are byproducts of new materials and concepts about the function of large-scale constructions in society. Etan J. Ilfeld wrote that in the contemporary neo-futurist aesthetic "the machine becomes an integral element of the creative process itself, and generates the emergence of artistic modes that would have been impossible prior to computer technology." Reyner Banham's definition of "une architecture autre" is a call for an architecture that technologically overcomes all previous architectures but possessing an expressive form, as Banham stated about neo-futuristic "Archigram's Plug-in Computerized City, form does not have to follow function into oblivion."

In art and architecture.

Neo-futurism was inspired partly by Futurist architect Antonio Sant'Elia and pioneered from the early 1960s and the late 1970s by Hal Foster, with architects such as William Pereira, Charles Luckman and Henning Larsen..

People.

The relaunch of neo-futurism in the 21st century has been creatively inspired by the Pritzker Architecture Prize-winning architect Zaha Hadid, architect Santiago Calatrava.  Neo-futurist architects, designers and artists include people like, Patrick Jouin, Yuima Nakazato,artist Simon Stålenhag and artist Charis Tsevis. Neo-futurism has absorbed some high-tech architectural themes and ideas, incorporating elements of high-tech industry and technology іnto building design: Technology and context has been a focus for some architects such as Buckminster Fuller, Norman Foster, Kenzo Tange, Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers.

Neo-futurism is a late-20th- to early-21st-century movement in the arts, design, and architecture. It has been seen as a departure from the attitude of post-modernism and represents an idealistic belief in a better future.


History.

The Watlington area is likely to have been settled at an early date, encouraged by the proximity of the Icknield Way. The toponym means "settlement of Waecel's people" and indicates occupation from around the 6th century. A 9th-century charter by Æthelred of Mercia records eight'manses' or major dwellings in Watlington. The Domesday Book of 1086 identified the area as an agricultural community valued at £610. Medieval documents indicate that the modern street plan was in existence in the 14th century, as "Cochynes-lane" (Couching Street), and Brook Street are recorded.  There are records of inns in Watlington since the 15th century. In 1722 the town's market was listed as being held on a Saturday. By the end of the 18th century the town had six inns, all of which were bought up in the next few years by a local brewing family, the Haywards. The number of licensed premises increased until late in the 19th century when George Wilkinson, a Methodist bought six of them and closed them down. Today Watlington has three public houses: the Carriers Arms, The Chequers and The Fat Fox Inn.  Parliamentarian troops were billeted at Watlington during the English Civil War. It is thought that John Hampden stayed in the town the night before the Battle of Chalgrove Field.  In 1664–65 the Town Hall was built at the expense of Thomas Stonor. Its upper room was endowed by Stonor as a grammar school for boys, and in 1731 Dame Alice Tipping of Ewelme gave a further endowment to increase the number of pupils. In 1842 the town Vestry established a National School, which shared the same rooms in the Town Hall. In 1843 a National School for girls was built next to St Leonard's church. In 1872 the boys' and girls' schools were absorbed into a new Board school, which like its predecessors was affiliated to the National Society for Promoting Religious Education. In 1927 the school was divided into separate junior and senior schools. In 1956 a new secondary school – the Icknield School – opened for senior pupils and the primary school took over the old premises. The Icknield School is now Icknield Community College.  By 1895 the Town Hall, no longer used as a school, was in disrepair. In 1907 it was restored by public subscription. It is a landmark at the meeting point of three roads in the centre of the town.  Since 1990 Watlington has been twinned with the town of Mansle in the Poitou-Charentes region of France.  The Watlington Hoard, a collection of silver items dating back to the time of Alfred the Great in the 9th century, was rediscovered in Watlington by James Mather, an amateur metal-detectorist, in 2015. The hoard was subsequently excavated, and eventually purchased by the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford for £1.35m.

Watlington Hill.

The town of Watlington lies at the foot of Watlington Hill, a 240-metre peak on the western edge of the Chiltern Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.  The Ridgeway National Trail walking route, which is part of the longer Icknield Way, passes nearby between the town and the hill.  Due to its close proximity and easy access to the Chilterns, Watlington is a popular gateway to the many outdoor activities in the area, including hill walking, cycling and birdwatching, especially of the red kite, which is well established in the vicinity.  Watlington Hill is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna, and is designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) as part of Watlington and Pyrton Hills. It is managed by the National Trust. The nearby Shirburn Hill is another SSSI in the area.  The Watlington White Mark, a spire mark, is cut into the chalk soil of Watlington Hill. This was designed by local squire Edward Horne, who felt that the parish church of St Leonard, when viewed from his home, would be more impressive if it appeared to have a spire. He therefore had this unusual folly cut into the chalk soil in 1764, and it continues to this day to be maintained by the local residents. The mark is wide at its base and long.

Churches.

Church of England.

The oldest parts of the Church of England parish church of St Leonard are Norman, including a diapered tympanum that was over the north door until this was dismantled for the building of the north aisle. The church was extensively rebuilt in the 14th century, and the arcade of the south aisle survives from this period. The south chapel is 15th century, built for Maud Warner as a memorial for her husband Richard, a woolman. The tower is also Mediaeval. A few Decorated Gothic and Perpendicular Gothic windows survive, but in the 1870s some were moved to different positions within the church.  In 1763 Edward Horne, a local landowner, obtained permission to build a burial vault east of the Warner chapel and south of the chancel. In 1877 the architects H.J. Tollit and Edwin Dolby restored St Leonard's. The church is a Grade II* listed building.  The west tower had a ring of six bells until 1909, when two recently cast ones were hung and increased it to eight. Henry I Knight of Reading, Berkshire cast the fourth bell in 1587. Ellis I Knight cast the sixth bell in 1635. Henry II Knight cast the third and fifth bells in 1663. Charles and John Rudhall of Gloucester cast the seventh bell in 1785. Mears and Stainbank of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry cast the tenor bell in 1869 and the treble and second bells in 1905.  St Leonard's parish is now part of the Benefice of Icknield, along with the parishes of Britwell Salome, Pyrton and Swyncombe.

Roman Catholic.

During the English Reformation Oxfordshire had numerous recusant Roman Catholics. In 1549 William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton was sent to Oxfordshire with 1,500 troops to enforce the Reformation. Grey ordered William Boolar, a Catholic of Watlington, to be hanged as an example. Despite persecution, a number of local landowning families including the Stonors remained Catholic, and they and their chaplains supported small numbers of other Catholics in the area.  In 1930 Fr. William Brown, the chaplain at Stonor Park, brought about the building of the Roman Catholic church of the Sacred Heart in Watlington.  The present Roman Catholic church in Watlington is dedicated to St Edmund Campion, a Jesuit priest who was executed at Tyburn in 1581.

Non-conformist.

During the 17th and 18th centuries several nonconformist denominations existed in Watlington, with Quakers, Baptists and Seventh Day Baptists most prominent in different periods. Methodist preachers visited Watlington by invitation from 1764, with John Wesley himself preaching in the town in 1766, 1774 and 1775.  The current Wesleyan chapel was built in 1812, and now forms part of the Oxford Methodist Circuit.

Education.

Early years and primary education in Watlington is provided by Watlington Primary School.  Lower secondary education for students up to the age 16 from Watlington and many of the surrounding villages is provided by Icknield Community College, a mixed-sex comprehensive school.  Icknield Community College does not provide sixth form education, and instead works with three partnership schools in the area, Henley College in Henley-on-Thames, Lord Williams's School in Thame, and Wallingford School in Wallingford, as well as sending students to many other sixth forms and colleges in the area.

Amenities.

Watlington Town FC is a Non-League football club. Its first team plays in North Berks Football League Division 1.  Watlington has a cricket club. Its first eleven plays in Oxfordshire Cricket Association League Division 2.  The Watlington Club (previously the Watlington Memorial Club) provides facilities for the sports of tennis, squash and lawn bowls.  Watlington has a Women's Institute.

Notable people.

Decathlete Peter Gabbett was born in Watlington in 1941.  Actors Jeremy Irons and Sinéad Cusack have a home in Watlington.  First World War Royal Naval veteran Bill Stone lived in Watlington until he was 106.

In popular culture.

Five episodes of the TV series "Midsomer Murders" have been filmed partly in Watlington, with the library featuring as Midsomer Library.  At least one episode of the TV series "Inspector Morse" was filmed partly in Watlington, with the nearby Shirburn Castle featuring as the Balcombe family home in the episode Happy Families.  The 2014 film "Fury", starring Brad Pitt, was partly filmed in and near Watlington.  The pivotal balloon-accident-scene in the opening chapter of the novel "Enduring Love" by Ian McEwan takes place on an escarpment of the Chiltern Hills above Watlington.

Transport.

The M40 motorway is about from Watlington, with access at junctions 5 and 6.  There are frequent coach services to Oxford and London, and to London's Heathrow and Gatwick airports, from M40 junction 6 at nearby Lewknor.  Bus routes serving Watlington have been reduced in the 2010s because of funding cuts by Oxfordshire County Council. Earlier services to Thame, Wallingford and Reading have been discontinued. The only remaining service is the Thames Travel route T1 between Chinnor and Oxford, calling at Watlington, although services only extend to Oxford city centre at peak times, otherwise terminating at Cowley. There are no evening or Sunday bus services.  In 1872 the Watlington and Princes Risborough Railway was opened. Its Watlington terminus is in fact in Pyrton parish, from Watlington. In 1883 the Great Western Railway took over control of the line. In 1957 British Railways closed Watlington station and withdrew all passenger services between Watlington and, which was still being used by the local Chinnor Cement Works. In 1961 BR withdrew all services from the line, the track was lifted and the line left abandoned. Watlington railway station site remains, as does the station building, the corrugated iron carriage shed, and the brickwork of the goods shed.

Watlington is a market town and civil parish about south of Thame in Oxfordshire, near the county's eastern edge and less than from its border with Buckinghamshire. The parish includes the hamlets of Christmas Common, Greenfield and Howe Hill, all of which are in the Chiltern Hills. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 2,727.


Biography.

In 1992, Salmivalli completed a master's degree in psychology from the University of Turku. She earned her doctoral degree in psychology from the University of Turku in 1998. Her research, on social and personality factors of school bullying, won the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters doctoral dissertation award in 1999.  Salmivalli joined the psychology faculty at the University of Turku as an adjunct professor in 2001, becoming a full professor of psychology in 2004. She has held several visiting professorships, including positions at the University of Stavanger in Norway; at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia; and at Shandong Normal University in Jinan, China.  In 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Finland, the Prime Minister's office appointed Salmivalli to lead a 13-member science panel to advise on efforts to mitigate the long-term effects of the pandemic.

Research.

Salmivalli conducts research within the fields of developmental psychology and prevention research, focusing on children's and adolescent's peer relations and evidence-based interventions to prevent peer adversities such as school bullying. She has published widely on the role of the peer group in bullying and on interventions aiming to change the peer dynamics contributing to bullying.

KiVa.

In 2006, Salmivalli began leading a team of researchers tasked by Finland's Ministry of Education and Culture to develop and evaluate a bullying intervention program. The resulting program, named KiVa (short for "kiusaamista vastan", Finnish for "against bullying"), includes lessons on emotions, healthy relationships, and bystander responses to bullying. The program also outlines a specific protocol for school staff to follow when they encounter incidents of bullying.  KiVa is Finland's national bullying prevention program; as of 2016, it had been implemented in over 2,300 Finnish schools. It is also used at schools in more than countries around the world, including Chile, Italy, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.  KiVa's effectiveness has been evaluated in a number of longitudinal studies. One study of more than 7,000 Finnish students found significant improvements among students' bullying and mental health at schools involved in KiVa, compared to control schools.

Awards and honours.

Salmivalli was named Psychologist of the Year by the Finnish Psychological Association in 2009. In 2017, the Minister of Education and Culture, Sanni Grahn-Laasonen, presented Salmivalli with the Finnish Science Prize, worth €100,000.

Christina Salmivalli (born September 18, 1967) is a professor of psychology and the deputy head of the INVEST research flagship at the University of Turku in Finland. Salmivalli is recognized as an expert on peer relations and school bullying.


Biography.

Sigrid Maria Schauman was born on 24 December 1877 at Chuguyev, in the Kharkov Governorate of the Russian Empire (present-day Ukraine), the daughter of general Fredrik Waldemar Schauman and Elin Maria Schauman. Her mother was the daughter of the Bishop of Porvoo, Finland. After living in Radom, Poland, the Schaumans returned to Finland in 1885 as the mother had died in 1884. In 1899 Sigrid began her studies in the Finnish Association of Arts Drawing School in Helsinki, where her teachers included Carl Jahn and Helene Schjerfbeck. In 1901 she participated for the first time in a group exhibition at the Ateneum.  In 1904 Schauman's brother, Eugen Schauman, murdered the Governor-General of Finland, Nikolai Bobrikov. After this she moved to Copenhagen, Denmark, and continued studying in Florence and in Paris, where she was at the Academie de la Palette in 1910 before travelling in Egypt.  She married Edvard Wolff, but he died shortly after the birth of their daughter Elisabeth in 1913.  In 1920 Schauman started work in the newspaper "Dagens Press" (from 1922 "Svenska Pressen", from 1945 "Nya Pressen") as an art critic, and worked for the newspaper for almost 30 years, publishing over 1500 art reviews, interviews and travel reports.  In 1939 she visited Rome and Paris.  After World War II, Schauman worked as a teacher in the Free School of Arts from 1945 to 1946. She retired in 1949, but continued painting on a grant provided by the City of Helsinki and an artist's pension from the State of Finland.  During the 1950s Schauman frequently travelled in France and Italy. She was a founding member of the Prisma group of artists in 1956.  Schauman's weakening eyesight prevented her from continuing to paint in the late 1960s. Even a year before her death, Schauman participated in a retrospective exhibition held in honour of her 100th birthday in the Amos Anderson Art Museum. In the same year, she was awarded the Prince Eugen Medal by the King of Sweden for her artistic contributions.  Sigrid Schauman published a biographical book "Min bror Eugen: En gestalt ur Finlands frihetskamp" ("My brother Eugen Schauman") in 1964.

Sigrid Maria Schauman (born 24 December 1877 in Chuguyev, Kharkov Governorate, Russian Empire [now Ukraine] — died 22 February 1979 in Helsinki, Finland) was a Finnish artist and art critic.


History of the Los Angeles Police Department

Early history.

During the California Gold Rush, Los Angeles was known for its violence, gambling and "vice" and lack of effective civil law enforcement. It was reputed to have the highest murder rate in the United States at the time and the countryside was infested with bandits. Most men went armed with pistols and knives and lynching was often the method used to dispose of lawbreakers, courts being few and ineffective. The first specific Los Angeles police force was founded in 1853 as the Los Angeles Rangers, a volunteer California State Militia company that assisted the existing County Sheriff in enforcing the law until disbanded in 1857. The Rangers were supplemented from 1853 by the Los Angeles Guards, a local volunteer California State Militia company that lasted until 1880 and by the Los Angeles City Guards (1855–1861). The first paid police force was created in 1869, when six officers were hired to serve under City Marshal William C. Warren. Warren was shot by one of his deputies, Joe Dye, in 1870 in a quarrel over a reward. To replace Warren, the newly created Board of Police Commissioners selected Jacob F. Gerkens. The latter was replaced within a year by saloon owner Emil Harris, the second of fifteen police chiefs from 1876 to 1889.  The first chief to remain in office for any time was John M. Glass; appointed in 1889, he served for eleven years and was a driving force for increased professionalism in the force. By 1900, there were 70 officers, one for every 1,500 people; in 1903, with the start of the Civil Service, this force was increased to 200, although training was not introduced until 1916. The rapid turnover of chiefs was renewed in the 1900s as the office became increasingly politicized; from 1900 to 1923 there were sixteen different chiefs. The longest-lasting was Charles E. Sebastian, who served from 1911 to 1915 before going on to become mayor.  In 1910 the department promoted the first sworn female police officer with full powers in the United States, Alice Stebbins Wells. Georgia Ann Robinson became the first African-American female police officer in the country in 1916.

World Wars.

During World War I the force became involved with federal offenses, and much of the force was organized into a special Home Guard. In the postwar period, the department became highly corrupt along with much of the city government; this state lasted until the late 1930s. Two police chiefs did work within a mandate for anti-corruption and reform. August Vollmer laid the ground for future improvements but served for only a single year. James E. Davis served from April 1, 1926 to December 29, 1929 and from August 10, 1933 to November 18, 1938. In his first term he fired almost a fifth of the force for bad conduct, and instituted extended firearms training and also the dragnet system of policing. In his second term Davis instituted a "Red Squad" to attack Communists and their offices.  With the replacement of Mayor Frank L. Shaw in 1938, the city gained a reformist mayor in Fletcher Bowron. He forced dozens of city commissioners out, as well as more than 45 LAPD officers. Bowron also appointed the first African American and the first woman to the Police Commission. The modernizer Arthur C. Hohmann was made chief in 1939 and resigned in 1941 after a strike at the North American Aviation plant in Inglewood, in which he refused to use the LAPD as strikebreakers.  During World War II, under Police Chief Clemence B. Horrall, the force was heavily depleted by the demands of the armed forces; new recruits were given only six weeks training (twelve was normal). Despite the attempts to maintain numbers the police could do little to control the 1943 Zoot Suit Riots. War Emergency personnel were given a "WE" designation with their badge numbers to distinguish them from other officers.  Among the department's more notorious cases of the Horrall years was the January 15, 1947 murder of Elizabeth Short, known as the Black Dahlia. Horrall and Assistant Chief Joe Reed resigned in 1949 under threat of a grand jury investigation related to the Brenda Allen scandal. Several of Horrall and Reed's more enduring actions, among others, were to approve a radio show about the LAPD titled "Dragnet" in the same year, with Jack Webb starring in the program, and the 1946 founding of the LAPD's secret "Gangster Squad" aimed to stop the rising threat of the American Mafia and organized crime (led by the local Los Angeles crime family) in the city.

1950–1965.

Horrall was replaced by a retired Marine general, William A. Worton, who acted as interim chief until 1950, when William H. Parker was chosen in tight competition with Thad Brown. Parker advocated police professionalism and autonomy from civilian administration, especially as concerned internal affairs. The Bloody Christmas scandal in 1951 led to calls for civilian accountability and an end to police brutality in the city itself.  Parker served until his death in 1966 from a heart attack, the longest period in office of any chief. The motto "To Protect and to Serve" was introduced in 1955. During this period, the LAPD set the standards of professionalism echoed in the contemporaneous TV series "Dragnet" and "Adam-12". The most serious challenge in this period was the 1965 Watts riots following accusations of mistreatment and police brutality toward minority communities by the City and the LAPD. For six days, buildings and businesses were looted and set on fire, and sniping also took place before the California Army National Guard were deployed to assist the overwhelmed LAPD in restoring order. Over 34 people died in the Watts riot and $40 million in damage was caused as almost 1,000 buildings were damaged or destroyed. Most of the physical damage was confined to white-owned businesses that were said to have caused resentment in the neighborhood due to perceived unfairness.

1978–2002.

The successor to Davis, Daryl F. Gates, came into office just as Proposition 13 reduced the department's budget, cutting police numbers to less than 7,000 in seven years, just as drug and gang crime reached unprecedented highs. To combat the rising tide of gang-related violence, Gates introduced Operation Hammer in 1987, which resulted in an unprecedented number of arrests, mostly of black American and Hispanic youths. Gates retired in 1992, just after the Rodney King-related 1992 Los Angeles riots in April and May and the damaging Christopher Commission Report, and was replaced by Willie L. Williams, the fiftieth chief, the first African-American officer to hold the office and the first non-internal appointee for almost 40 years. In 1997, Williams was replaced by Bernard Parks, during whose term the LAPD was rocked by the Rampart Division/CRASH corruption scandal. In 1997, one of the biggest challenges for the LAPD and LAPD SWAT was the North Hollywood shootout in which two bank robbers armed with automatic rifles and wearing body armor shot twelve responding officers and two civilians. The suspects were eventually defeated by SWAT units after a gun battle that lasted nearly an hour.  In November 1997, the Department did something for the first time in forty years in taking over another police department—the MTA Transit Police. Originally touted as a merger process, this became a political football with members of the City Council fighting the mayor's "one city—one police department" plan to eliminate all of the smaller, specialized police forces (Transit Police, Airport Police, School Police, Park Rangers, etc.). In the end, only about 130 of the originally slated 200 officers of the MTA Transit Police came to the LAPD, with about the same number going to the LASD (Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department). After less than five years, the MTA removed LAPD from the transit policing contract it had established with LAPD and LASD, and LASD was given the entire MTA contract. As of 2006, only 96 of those officers remained with the LAPD.  In 2002, after a loss of approximately 1,700 officers in two years, mostly to other Southern California police departments and in the face of an unprecedented homicide rate, Mayor Hahn moved to have the Board of Police Commissioners refuse to accept Parks' application for another five-year term. Parks appealed to the City Council who refused to take up his cause. Parks initially threatened a lawsuit, but thought better of it and considered a run for City Council in the near future instead. Parks promptly left office, several months before his five-year term was up. Former Deputy Chief Martin Pomeroy was selected as an interim Chief until a permanent replacement could be found. Also in 2002, voters in the City passed the Proposition Q—Citywide Public Safety Bond to expand, renovate and replace existing police and fire facilities. This $600 million bond program included replacement of the West Valley, Rampart, Hollenbeck, and Harbor Police Stations; adding a new Emergency Operations Center; replacing the Parker Center Jail; adding a new Operations Valley Bureau/Valley Traffic Division; and adding two new Area Police Stations—20th (Olympic Area) and 21st (Topanga Area) Police Stations.

William J. Bratton as Chief.

Chief William J. Bratton came to the LAPD after having prior experience as Chief of Police for the NYPD, the NY City Transit Police, the Boston Police and the MBTA Transit Police. Bratton came in a manner very different from his most recent outsider predecessor, Chief Parks. Prior to his arrival, Bratton requested all captains and above submit resumes and biographies for consideration in his new administration. Bratton made his initial goals to fully implement the Federal Consent decree (left from the Parks administration), to implement a dramatic reduction in Part I crime and to create a world class counter-terrorism Bureau within LAPD (during Parks' tenure, a year after 9/11, officers still had no WMD training nor equipment; however, Parks had successfully implemented a "no US flag pin" policy for wear on officer's uniforms). Bratton later added community oriented policing to his list of goals. In 2005, the LAPD began showing action-packed mini-movies online and at movie theaters to promote recruiting. The movies feature real LAPD officers and what they do. Bratton retired as Chief of the LAPD on October 31, 2009 and became the chief executive officer of Altegrity Security Consulting, a private security firm based in Virginia.  On May 17, 2005, Los Angeles voters rejected a proposal (Proposition A) that would have merged LAPD and the Los Angeles Airport Police. The argument against this proposal was that officers of the Los Angeles Airport Police had more extensive training in airport law enforcement and security operations. LAPD officers would have needed more training in this new function. At the request of Airport Police, LAPD officers are assigned on an overtime basis to security checkpoints in the terminals at LAX. This assignment became available to LAPD officers and supervisory personnel due to staff shortages at the Airport Police.  In 2006, the Department temporarily relocated two LAPD stations, Hollenbeck and Harbor, to Temporary Stations, while the existing stations were demolished and new ones built on the same sites. Also in 2006, a longtime goal of the Department, to replace Parker Center, began moving towards fruition with demolition of the old Caltrans building at 2nd/ Spring Streets to make way for a new Police Administration Building. The Department broke ground for two new Community Police Stations as well as a replacement of three older stations. The groundbreaking for the 20th (Olympic Area) Police Station, was on May 4, 2006. Groundbreaking for the 21st (Topanga Area) Police Station, was on May 11, 2006.  Replacement Rampart Station was built on the site of the former Central Receiving Hospital (police hospital) that had been located on 6th Street and Valencia Street. As a sidenote, exteriors from Rampart division on Rampart and Benton were filmed for the "Adam-12" television series. The department does not permit the interiors of police stations filmed for motion picture purposes, so interiors were filmed at Universal Studios in Universal City, California.  The 21st (Topanga Area) Police Station opened on January 4, 2009 and was formed from parts of the existing West Valley Area and Devonshire Area in the Operations-Valley Bureau. The 20th Area Police Station area will be formed from portions of Wilshire, Hollywood and Rampart Police Station areas. Three additional police stations are planned for additions in the next ten years (2007–2016), one each for the South, West and Central Bureaus of the Department.  In 2006, Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa initiated gradual increases in trash collection fees paid by property owners to hire about 1,000 LAPD officers over the next five years.  On November 17, 2009, Charles L. Beck was sworn in by Mayor Villaraigosa to succeed William J. Bratton as the Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department. A 32-year veteran of the department, he is known for commanding and rehabilitating the Rampart Division after the Rampart Scandal.  On February 7, 2008, when LAPD responded to a call that an emotionally disturbed man killed three of his family members, the man shot two SWAT officers, one of whom was killed. Officer Randal Simmons was the first SWAT officer to be killed in the line of duty since the founding of SWAT.

The Los Angeles Police Department was formed in 1869, and has since become the third-largest law enforcement agency in the United States. They have been involved in various events in history, such as the Black Dahlia murder case, and the Rampart scandal.


Observations.

Following the March 2016 discovery that Gonggong was an unusually slow rotator, the possibility was raised that a satellite may have slowed it down via tidal forces. The indications of a possible satellite orbiting Gonggong led Csaba Kiss and his team to analyze archival Hubble observations of Gonggong. Their analysis of Hubble images taken on 18 September 2010 revealed a faint satellite orbiting Gonggong at a distance of at least. The discovery was announced on 17 October 2016, though the satellite was not given a proper provisional designation. The discovery team later also identified the satellite in earlier archival Hubble images taken on 9 November 2009.  From follow-up Hubble observations in 2017, the absolute magnitude of the satellite is estimated to be at least 4.59 magnitudes dimmer than Gonggong, or given Gonggong's estimated absolute magnitude of 2.34.

Orbit.

Based on Hubble images of Gonggong and Xiangliu taken in 2009 and 2010, the discovery team constrained Xiangliu's orbital period to between 20 and 100 days. They better determined the orbit with additional Hubble observations in 2017. Xiangliu is believed to be tidally locked to Gonggong.  Because the observations of Xiangliu only span a small fraction of Gonggong's orbit around the Sun, it is not yet possible to determine whether Xiangliu's orbit is prograde or retrograde. Based on a prograde orbit model, Xiangliu orbits Gonggong at a distance of around and completes one orbit in 25.22 days. Using the same prograde orbit model, the discovery team has estimated that its orbit is inclined to the ecliptic by about 83 degrees, implying that Gonggong is being viewed at a nearly pole-on configuration under the assumption that Xiangliu's orbit has a low inclination to Gonggong's equator.  The orbit of Xiangliu is highly eccentric. The value of 0.29 is thought to have been caused by either an intrinsically eccentric orbit or by slow tidal evolution, in which the time for its orbit to circularize is comparable to the age of the Solar System. It may have also resulted from the Kozai mechanism, driven by perturbations either from the Sun's tidal forces, or from higher order terms in the gravitational potential of Gonggong due to its oblate shape. The orbital dynamics are thought to be similar to that of Quaoar's satellite Weywot, which has a moderate eccentricity of about 0.14.

Physical characteristics.

In order for Xiangliu's orbit to remain eccentric over a timescale comparable to the age of the Solar System, it must be less than in diameter, corresponding to an albedo greater than 0.2. Upon its discovery, the diameter of Xiangliu was initially estimated at, under the assumption that the albedos of Xiangliu and Gonggong were equal. Photometric measurements in 2017 showed that Xiangliu is far less red than Gonggong. The color difference of = between Gonggong (V–I=) and Xiangliu (V–I=) is the largest among all known binary trans-Neptunian objects. This large color difference is atypical for trans-Neptunian binary systems: the components of most trans-Neptunian binaries display little color variation, unlike the Gonggong system.

Name.

The satellite's name is derived from Xiangliu, the nine-headed poisonous snake monster and minister of the water god Gonggong in Chinese mythology. Xiangliu is known for causing flooding and destruction. When the discoverers of Gonggong proposed choices for a public vote on its name, they chose figures that had associates that could provide a name for the satellite. Xiangliu's name was chosen by its discovery team led by Csaba Kiss, who had the privilege of naming the satellite. The names of Gonggong and Xiangliu were approved by the International Astronomical Union's Committee on Small Body Nomenclature and were simultaneously announced by the Minor Planet Center on 5 February 2020.

Xiangliu is the only known moon of the scattered-disc planetoid 225088 Gonggong. It was discovered by a team of astronomers led by Csaba Kiss during an analysis of archival Hubble Space Telescope images of Gonggong. The discovery team had suspected that the slow rotation of Gonggong was caused by tidal forces exerted by an orbiting satellite. Xiangliu was first identified in archival Hubble images taken with Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3 on 18 September 2010. Its discovery was reported and announced by Gábor Marton, Csaba Kiss, and Thomas Müller at the 48th Meeting of the Division for Planetary Sciences on 17 October 2016. The satellite is named after Xiangliu, a nine-headed poisonous snake monster in Chinese mythology that attended the water god Gonggong.


Games in the series.

"Aussie Rules Footy".

It was the first AFL video game. The game involves playing a game of Australian rules football from a third-person perspective, with the ability to perform the basic actions of a typical player of the sport. The game can be played by one person, or by two players against each other. There is also a kick to kick mode, and a season mode where one to six players can play multiple games in a season finishing with a grand final. It was developed by Beam Software, and was published by Mattel.

"AFL Finals Fever".

It was released for Windows PC only on 9 June 1996. You could play as one of the 16 clubs of the 1996 AFL season. It was also the last video game in the series to feature the Fitzroy Lions and the Brisbane Bears as playable teams before they were merged. The game was also the first game to be developed by Blue Tongue Entertainment and was published by Cadability.

"AFL 98".

It was released in 1997 for Microsoft Windows. It was based on the 1997 season. 16 teams were available in the game and it was the first in the series to feature and. It is also the first game in the series to have commentary, which was provided by Bruce McAvaney. The game was developed by Creative Assembly and published by EA Sports.

"AFL 99".

It was released in 1998 for the PlayStation and Microsoft Windows. It was based on the 1998 season and you could play as any of the 16 teams. The commentary is provided by Bruce McAvaney and Leigh Matthews. The game was developed by Creative Assembly and published by EA Sports. The game's music was composed by Jeff van Dyck.

"Kevin Sheedy AFL Coach 2002".

It was the first AFL video game to be developed by IR Gurus. The game was released as a PC only game. In the game you assume the role of an AFL Coach, you tell your players commands such as the type of play you want them to play (attacking, defensive, Normal) and when to interchange. It sold well for a "then" IR Gurus game but not too well on the market.

"AFL Live 2003".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox. The game is based on the 2002 AFL season with team rosters. It was first released on 5 September 2002 in Australia. It was developed by IR Gurus and published by Acclaim Entertainment. It is also the first game in the series to feature a live action intro of AFL games in the 2003 season. The game was only released in Australia.

"AFL Live 2004".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox on 28 August 2003. The game is based on the 2003 AFL season with team rosters based on that year. AFL Live 2003 includes all 16 official AFL teams and 8 stadiums which were, MCG, Telstra Dome, Optus Oval, Kardinia Park, AAMI Stadium, Subiaco Oval, Gabba, SCG. It also included all 22 home and away matches and the finals series. The game was published by Acclaim with the song Lost Control by Grinspoon as the intro song. It was developed by IR Gurus.

"AFL Live: Premiership Edition".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2 and Xbox on 29 April 2004. The game is based on the 2004 AFL season with team rosters based on that year. It was developed by IR Gurus and was the final AFL game to be published by Acclaim Entertainment, before their bankruptcy on 1 September 2004.

"AFL Premiership 2005".

It is based on the 2005 AFL season and was released only for the PlayStation 2. This is the next edition after AFL Premiership Edition. When Acclaim shut down its operations in Australia, Sony Computer Entertainment got publishing and distributing rights to the game. Because Sony Computer Entertainment had an exclusive period with the title, initially it was only launched on PlayStation 2. However, THQ released a Microsoft Windows and Xbox version of the game. It was released on 22 September 2005 and is only available in Australia.

"AFL Premiership 2006".

AFL Premiership 2006 is the tenth game in the series. a follow-up to AFL Premiership 2005, it is based on the 2006 AFL season and was released only for the PlayStation 2. The revamped kicking system requires the players to time the button presses to kick straight, because holding it down for too long results in the ball turning in the opposite side. There are several modes: training mode (provides the basics), short match, Wizard Cup, Premiership and Finals. A newly introduced multiseason allows the management of certain team aspects. That includes things like improving player skills, trading players at the end of the season, and putting the emphasis on draft.

"AFL Premiership 2007".

It is a simulation game for the PlayStation 2 based on the AFL. The game marks the final AFL game to be developed by Australian games company IR Gurus and was published by Sony Computer Entertainment, IR Gurus seventh collaboration in the series, and was released on 28 June 2007. The game includes all 16 teams, more than 600 AFL players with updated stats and all of the major stadium. Game modes in AFL Premiership 2007 are Single Match, Season Mode, Career Mode, Mission Mode and Training Mode. It was a follow-up to AFL Premiership 2006.

"AFL Challenge".

It was released for the PlayStation Portable. The game was developed by Wicked Witch Software and co-published by Tru Blu Entertainment and Sony Computer Entertainment. It was released on 10 September 2009. The game is based on the 2009 AFL season and includes all 16 teams and players.

"AFL Live".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 based on the 2011 AFL season. It was developed by Big Ant Studios and released on 21 April 2011. The Game of the Year Edition, an updated version of the game for the 2012 AFL season was released on 6 June 2012.

"AFL Live 2".

It was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on 12 September 2013. The 2014 Season Pack was released on 30 June 2014 for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 on 9 July 2014. A mobile port was released on iOS on 28 May 2015 and Android on 26 September 2015.

"AFL Evolution".

It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. It was developed by Wicked Witch Software and was released on May 5, 2017 for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, with the Microsoft Windows version released on July 21, 2017 via Steam. The 2018 Season Pack was later released on May 3, 2018.

"AFL Evolution 2".

It will be released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch.  It was released for the Nintendo DS on 2 July 2009. Focused more on the League's Mascots then on the sport itself, the central component of the game is the adventure the players Mascot will experience in the themed worlds. Is an AFL simulation video game based on the 2011 AFL season for the Wii, developed by Wicked Witch Software. It was released on 19 May 2011. Is an iOS AFL simulation video game based on the 2011 AFL season, released on 14 December 2011. The 2012 AFL season update was released on 4 June 2012. It was developed by Wicked Witch Software and had similar gameplay to AFL on the Wii.

The "AFL" video game series is a series of Australian rules football video games based on the AFL. Released originally by Beam Software, it has since been developed by several other game developers.


Authorship.

Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz were working at the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) when the future chairman of the Federal Reserve, Arthur Burns, suggested that they collaborate on a project to analyze the effect of the money supply on the business cycle. Schwartz was already gathering much of the relevant historical data at that point, while Friedman was already a professor at the University of Chicago and also at the NBER. They began work in the late 1940s and eventually published "A Monetary History" through Princeton University Press in 1963. The Depression-related chapter, "The Great Contraction," was republished as a separate book in 1965.

Content.

The book discusses the role of the monetary policy in the U.S. economy from the Civil War Reconstruction Era to the middle of the 20th century. It presents what was then a contrarian view of the role of monetary policy in the Great Depression. The prevalent view in the early 1960s was that monetary forces played a passive role in the economic contraction of the 1930s. The "Monetary History" argues that the bank failures and the massive withdrawals of currency from the financial system that followed significantly shrank the money supply (the total amount of currency and outstanding bank deposits), which greatly exacerbated the economic contraction. The book criticizes the Federal Reserve Bank for not keeping the supply of money steady and not acting as lender of last resort, instead allowing commercial banks to fail and allowing the economic depression to deepen.

Themes.

The book's main theme is the "money supply". It tracks this through three numbers:  The money supply (cash + deposits) can be computed from these three numbers. The supply shrinks when people withdraw money from the bank, banks hold more reserves, or high-powered money leaves the country (e.g., gold is exported). During a crisis, all three can happen.  Another theme is "gold". For the time period, it was the unit used for international trade with Europe. So even when the US is not on the gold standard, it plays a significant role. The authors are precise about the gold standard. The authors say the US was on the gold standard from 1879 to 1923. That is, paper money could be exchanged for bullion and international trade was settled immediately with gold. From 1923 to 1933, the authors say that international trade was "sterilized" by the Fed inflating the money rather than immediately being settled by gold. Lastly, they term the period from 1934 to 1960 (when the book was published) as a "managed standard". Paper money cannot be exchanged for bullion. The authors compare gold to a subsidized commodity, like grain.  Another theme is "silver". China and Mexico used it for their currency and the US used it for smaller coins. From 1879 to 1897, there was a populist push to switch the gold-backed dollar to silver. The US Treasury bought silver, but that didn't help when the country was on gold. Later, during the Great Depression, the US bought gold at inflated prices to help silver miners. The result was tragic for the money supplies of China and Mexico.  The authors measure the velocity of money. The authors talk about it a lot, but do not make any conclusions about it.  Lastly, a theme is "decision making at the Federal Reserve". The authors try to find out the people making the decisions and what information they had. Probably just as important is the decision making process. The NY Fed Bank initially lead the decision making process, but eventually it migrated to the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, DC. To a lesser extent, the Secretary of the Treasury's decisions are included.

Thesis.

The thesis of "Monetary History" is that the money supply affects the economy. In the final chapter, they specify 3 occasions where the Federal Reserve acted strongly during relatively calm times and present these as an experiment for the reader to judge their thesis.  The three actions by the Fed were the raising the discount rate in 1920, the raise of it in 1931, and the raise of the reserve requirement in 1937. Each of these actions caused a large contraction of the money supply over the next 12 months (9%, 14%, 3%). In fact, these were the three sharpest declines they saw in their data. In those 12 months, industrial production fell dramatically (30%, 24%, 34%). Other metrics fell at similar rates. These were 3 of the 6 worst 12-month periods for industrial production. The others were 1929-1931 (the Great Depression) and 1945, when the economy switched from wartime to peacetime production.  Having demonstrated their thesis, they can now use it. They claim that the Great Depression was due to the Fed letting the money supply shrink from 1929 to 1933.

Great Depression.

Friedman and Schwartz identified four main policy mistakes made by the Federal Reserve that led to a sharp and undesirable decline in the money supply:

Influence.

The book was the first to present the then novel argument that excessively tight monetary policy by the Federal Reserve following the boom of the 1920s turned an otherwise normal recession into the Great Depression of the 1930s. Previously, the consensus of economists was that loss of investor and consumer confidence following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 was a primary cause of the Great Depression.  The "Monetary History" was lauded as one of the most influential economics books of the twentieth century by the Cato Institute book forum in 2003. It was also cited with approval in a 2002 speech by then-Federal Reserve board member Ben Bernanke stating "the direct and indirect influences of the Monetary History on contemporary monetary economics would be difficult to overstate", and again in a 2004 speech as "transform[ing] the debate about the Great Depression".  The Depression-related chapter of "A Monetary History" was titled "The Great Contraction" and was republished as a separate book in 1965. Some editions include an appendix in which the authors got an endorsement from an unlikely source at an event in their honor when Ben Bernanke made this statement:  Let me end my talk by abusing slightly my status as an official representative of the Federal Reserve. I would like to say to Milton and Anna: Regarding the Great Depression, you're right. We did it. We're very sorry. But thanks to you, we won't do it again.  Monetarist economists used the work of Friedman and Schwartz to justify their positions for using monetary policy as the critical economic stabilizer. This view became more popular as Keynesian stabilizers failed to ameliorate the stagflation of the 1970s and political winds shifted away from government intervention in the market into the 1980s and 1990s. During this period, the Federal Reserve was recognized as a critical player in setting interest rates to counter excessive inflation and also to prevent deflation that could lead to real economic distress.

Criticism.

The book lays most of the blame for the Great Depression upon the Federal Reserve, arguing that it did not do enough to prevent the Depression. Economists such as Peter Temin have raised questions about whether or not most monetary quantity levels were endogenous rather than exogenously determined, as " A Monetary History" argues, especially during the Depression. Paul Krugman has argued that the 2008 financial crisis has shown that, during a financial crisis, central banks cannot control broad money, and that money supply bears little relationship to GDP. According to Krugman, the same was true in the 1930s, and the claim that the Federal Reserve could have prevented the Great Depression is highly dubious.  Economic historian Barry Eichengreen, in "The Golden Fetters", has argued that because of the then internationally prevailing gold exchange standard, the Federal Reserve's hands were tied. According to Eichengreen, in order to maintain the credibility of the gold standard, the Federal Reserve could not undertake actions (such as drastically increasing the money supply) in the manner advocated by Friedman and Schwartz.  James Tobin, while appreciating the rigor with which Friedman and Schwartz demonstrated the importance of the monetary supply, questions their measures of the velocity of money and how informative this measure of the frequency of monetary transactions really is to understanding the macroeconomic fluctuations of the early-to-mid 20th century.

A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960 is a book written in 1963 by Nobel Prize–winning economist Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz. It uses historical time series and economic analysis to argue the then-novel proposition that changes in the money supply profoundly influenced the U.S. economy, especially the behavior of economic fluctuations. The implication they draw is that changes in the money supply had unintended adverse effects, and that sound monetary policy is necessary for economic stability. Economic historians see it as one of the most influential economics books of the century. The chapter dealing with the causes of the Great Depression was published as a stand-alone book titled "The Great Contraction, 1929–1933".


Contents.

In the postface to the "Kongzi Jiayu", its author describes the collection as discussions Confucius had with his disciples and others, recorded by his disciples. Selected discussions were published as the "Analects" ("Lunyu"), while the rest was collected in the "Jiayu". This characterization is consistent with the content of the "Jiayu", which contains nearly all the Confucian lore found in such diverse ancient texts as the "Zuozhuan", "Guoyu", "Mencius", "Han Feizi", "Book of Rites", "Han Shi Waizhuan", "Lüshi Chunqiu", "Huainanzi", etc., except what is included in the "Analects", the "Classic of Filial Piety", and a few other works.  The topics covered by the "Kongzi Jiayu" include Confucius' detailed ancestry, his parents, his birth, episodes and events from his life, and his sayings. His disciples also feature prominently, including one section devoted entirely to Yan Hui, Confucius' favourite. In all, 76 disciples are mentioned by name.

Influence and controversy.

The postface to the "Kongzi Jiayu" asserts that it was compiled by Kong Anguo, an influential scholar and descendant of Confucius who lived in the 2nd century BC, from actual recordings of Confucius' sayings made by his disciples. Soon after Wang Su, who was a critic of the scholar Zheng Xuan, published his version of the "Jiayu", Ma Zhao (馬昭), a follower of Zheng, declared that it had been "amended and enlarged" by Wang.  Despite lingering doubts about its authenticity, the "Jiayu" was influential throughout the Tang and Song dynasties. Sima Zhen, author of an important commentary to Sima Qian's "Shiji", valued it as highly as the "Shiji" itself. Zhu Xi, the leading Neo-Confucianist, also held it in high regard.  A new rationalist intellectual movement, Han learning, gained influence during the Qing dynasty and began a thorough criticism of the "Kongzi Jiayu" and other purportedly authentic ancient works. A large number of scholars, including Sun Zhizu (孫志祖), Fan Jiaxiang (范家相), Yao Jiheng (姚際恒), Cui Shu (崔述), Pi Xirui (皮錫瑞), Wang Pinzhen (王聘珍), and Ding Yan, all reached the same verdict that the "Jiayu" was a forgery. Sun and Fan both wrote detailed analyses supporting their conclusion. Although the "Jiayu" had its defenders, represented by Chen Shike (陳士珂), they were a small minority.  In the 20th century, Gu Jiegang, the leading force of the highly influential Doubting Antiquity School, reaffirmed the Qing scholars' conclusion that the "Kongzi Jiayu" was a forgery by Wang Su, and called it "worthless" for the study of Confucius. As a result, few modern scholars studied the work.

Western scholarship.

Due to the controversy surrounding the "Kongzi Jiayu", and the fact that much of its content was known from other ancient texts, early Western sinologists did not pay much attention to the work. A few, however, including James Legge, Alfred Forke, and Richard Wilhelm, believed the "Jiayu" was authentic, despite the forgery verdict reached by the Chinese scholars.  Robert Paul Kramers translated the first ten sections of the "Kongzi Jiayu" into English, published in 1950 under the title "K'ung Tzu Chia Yü: The School Sayings of Confucius". In his introduction, Kramers rejects the possibility that Wang Su may have forged the entire work.

Archaeological discoveries.

In 1973, Chinese archaeologists excavated a large Western Han dynasty tomb in Bajiaolang, Dingzhou, Hebei province, which was dated to 55 BC. Among the bamboo strips discovered in the tomb was a text entitled "Ru Jia Zhe Yan" (, "Words of the Ru (Confucian) Lineage"), which bears great similarities to the "Kongzi Jiayu".  In 1977, archaeologists discovered the Shuanggudui tomb, sealed in 165 BC, in Fuyang, Anhui province. A wooden board found in the tomb contains the table of contents of "Ru Jia Zhe Yan", which is also very similar to the received text of the "Kongzi Jiayu".  These archaeological discoveries, together with research on the Shanghai Museum bamboo slips, and publication of the "Kongzi Jiayu" text from the Dunhuang manuscripts in the British Library, have convinced many scholars that the received text of the "Kongzi Jiayu" could not have been forged by Wang Su, and could well have been compiled by Kong Anguo, as Wang had claimed. Scholars are now paying renewed attention to the text. Yang Chaoming (楊朝明), author of the 2005 book "Kongzi Jiayu Tongjie" (孔子家語通解), considers the "Kongzi Jiayu" no less valuable than the "Analects" to the study of Confucius.

The Kongzi Jiayu (), translated as The School Sayings of Confucius or Family Sayings of Confucius, is a collection of sayings of Confucius (Kongzi), written as a supplement to the "Analects" ("Lunyu").


Coastal GasLink pipeline project.

The Coastal GasLink (CGL) pipeline is a long natural gas pipeline designed to carry natural gas from mines in north-eastern British Columbia to a liquefaction plant located at the port of Kitimat. The project is intended to supply natural gas to several Asian energy companies, who are partners in the project. The pipeline's route passes through unceded lands of several First Nations peoples, including of <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> territory. Within the Wetʼsuwetʼen territory, the pipeline does not pass through reserves, only through traditional territory.  The consortium developed its plans for the pipeline route in the early 2010s, securing the approval of several First Nations councils along the route, but did not secure the approval of the Office of the Wetʼsuwetʼen, the hereditary government of the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> peoples, although most of the elected band councils of the Wetʼsuwetʼen First Nations did enter into a benefits agreement with TCEnergy, the owner of the pipeline project. In 2014, British Columbia authorities approved the environmental assessment of the project, then approved permits to construct the project in 2015 and 2016. TC Energy was given final approval by its partners to begin construction of the project in 2018, still without the consent of all of the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> hereditary chiefs. Only one of the nine sitting house chiefs, Samooh (Herb Naziel) supports the project.

Wet’suwet’en opposition.

Background.

The Wet’suwet’en are an Indigenous nation made up of five clans including the: Gilseyhu (Big Frog), Laksilyu (Small Frog), Gitdumden (Wolf/Bear), Laksamshu (Fireweed) and the Tsayu (Beaver Clan). These five clans' territory lies in the central western portion of British Columbia. The language spoken by the Wet’suwet’en people is Babine-Witsuwit’en, one of the Athabaskan languages. Their traditional government, predating Confederation, is a system of chiefs representing each clan, called the hereditary chiefs. The chiefs have been represented by the non-profit Office of the Wetsuweten since 1994, before having a joint office with the Gitxsan. The elected band councils were created by order of the Government of Canada, under the "Indian Act", to govern the reserves put in place, of which the Wet’suwet’en have several.  According to hereditary chief Na’Moks (John Ridsdale), "it's the hereditary chiefs' duty to protect the territory". According to Na’Moks, the pipeline "is going along rivers, it will go over rivers and even in some instances, it will go under. 190 kilometres of the proposed route will run through our territory. It threatens our water, our salmon, and our rights, our title, our jurisdiction". The pipeline would also go through areas of cultural significance to the Wet’suwet’en.  In 1997, the Supreme Court of Canada issued the Delgamuukw-Gisday’wa decision, which ruled that aboriginal title exists as an exclusive territorial right for indigenous people. The ruling was made in an appeal of a Supreme Court of British Columbia decision, which had ruled against recognition of Wet’suwet’en and Gitxsan land rights. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a new trial was warranted, but encouraged a negotiated settlement. The Wet’suwet’en and Gitxsan then entered the treaty process with the BC government. However, the BC government's position that the Nations would only receive 4-6 per cent of their territory was unacceptable and the nations walked away from the process. Hence, the boundaries of the Wet’suwet’en and Gitxsan nations' traditional territories are not yet recognized in Canadian law. In the absence of an agreement over aboriginal title and rights, the hereditary chiefs' position is that their full consent is required for any energy or resource projects within their territory, and the CGL does not have their consent. The rights and title issue has also been the basis for several solidarity protests, which have also objected to the actions and presence of the RCMP within the Wet’suwet’en traditional territory (known in Babine-Witsuwit’en as ).

Blockades, injunctions and RCMP interventions.

2010.

Beginning in 2010, the Wetʼsuwetʼen hereditary chiefs and their supporters set up barricades and checkpoints along the Morice West Forest Service Road that provides access to the construction of pipeline projects that threatened their territory, originally the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines, and later also Coastal GasLink (planning for which began in 2012). The largest of those camps is Unistʼotʼen Camp, directly in the path of the pipeline, established in 2010 as a checkpoint, and has since added a healing centre.

2018.

After TC Energy received its partners' go-ahead in November, it appealed to the Supreme Court of British Columbia to grant an injunction to stop the blockade of its intended route through the Wetʼsuwetʼen territory. A temporary injunction was issued in December by BC Supreme Court Judge Marguerite Church to allow CGL pre-construction work.

2019.

On January 7, the RCMP conducted a raid to enforce TC Energy's injunction, removing the barricades on the Morice Forest Service Road and arresting 14 of the Wetʼsuwetʼen land defenders. The RCMP faced criticism from protesters for the amount of force used in the bloodless raid, including police snipers. The RCMP set up a continuous presence along the road, setting up a local detachment called the Community Industry Safety Office. The Wetʼsuwetʼen remained in place along the road, but did not make any further efforts to disrupt the CGL pre-construction work.  In December, TC Energy prepared to start construction in the Wetʼsuwetʼen territory. It applied for an extension of the injunction order as the land defenders had resumed blockading access after the pre-construction work was done. This injunction was extended by Judge Church of the BC Supreme Court on December 31. The extension included an order authorizing the RCMP to enforce the injunction. In her decision, Church stated: "There is a public interest in upholding the rule of law and restraining illegal behaviour and protecting of the right of the public, including the plaintiff, to access on Crown roads," and "the defendants may genuinely believe in their rights under indigenous law to prevent the plaintiff from entering Dark House territory, but the law does not recognize any right to blockade and obstruct the plaintiff from pursuing lawfully authorized activities." In a public statement, the Wetʼsuwetʼen chief rejected the decision.

2020.

On January 1, after rejecting the injunction, the hereditary chiefs ordered the eviction of the RCMP and Coastal GasLink personnel from the Wetʼsuwetʼen territory.  On January 30, the RCMP announced that they would stand down while the hereditary chiefs and the province met to discuss and try to come to an agreement. On February 3, the Office of the Wetʼsuwetʼen asked for a judicial review of the environmental approval for the pipeline. All parties issued statements on February 4, 2020 that the talks had broken down.  On February 6, the RCMP began removing the blockades on Wetʼsuwetʼen territory, arresting 28 land defenders at camps along the route between February 6 and 9. All were released within two days. The RCMP also detained several reporters and were accused of interfering with the freedom of the press. Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs Grand Chief Stewart Phillip stated that "we are in absolute outrage and a state of painful anguish as we witness the Wetʼsuwetʼen people having their title and rights brutally trampled on and their right to self-determination denied."  On February 11, the RCMP announced that the road to the construction site was cleared and TC Energy announced that work would resume the following Monday. After the hereditary chiefs made it a condition for talks with government, the RCMP closed their local office and moved to their detachment in Houston on February 22.  On June 5, the BC Prosecution Service issued a statement saying that criminal contempt charges for 22 members of the Wetʼsuwetʼen Nation and their supporters would not be pursued. Additionally, Coastal GasLink issued a statement that they would not pursue civil contempt charges against the protesters.

Meetings and MOU.

On February 27, 2020 meetings began between the hereditary chiefs and the Canadian and BC governments, represented by Crown-Indigenous Relations Minister Carolyn Bennett and BC Indigenous Relations Minister Scott Fraser. The meetings were planned to last two days. They took place in Smithers, British Columbia. For the duration of those two days, the RCMP agreed to stop all patrols on the Morice West Forest Service Road and to shut down their mobile detachment (CISO) in the area. In addition, Coastal GasLink agreed to suspend operations in the territory during the talks. RCMP and CGL work resumed on the territory once the meetings were complete.  On March 1, after three days of meetings, the Canadian Crown-Indigenous Relations Minister, the BC Indigenous Relations Minister and representatives of the Wet’suwet’en, including hereditary chiefs and matriarchs announced a proposed agreement to address the Wet’suwet’en land rights, title and a protocol for addressing any future projects impacting on their territory, in the form of a memorandum of understanding (MOU). Specific details of the agreement were not immediately released, because the MOU had to first be seen and ratified by the broader Wet’suwet’en nation. However, it was made clear by all parties to the discussions that the agreement did not concern the Coastal GasLink Pipeline project.  On March 10, a statement was released by Theresa Tait-Day, president and one of three founders of the Wet’suwet’en Matrilineal Coalition (WMC), who was stripped of the subchief name Wi’hali’yte in the mid-2010s over her support of the pipeline project and suspected conflict of interest. Tait-Day stated that the proposed agreement made on March 1 was not inclusive of the entire community, saying "the government has legitimized the meeting with the five [sic] hereditary chiefs and left out their entire community. We can not be dictated to by a group of five guys [sic]." According to Tait-Day, "over 80 per cent of the people in our community said they wanted LNG [(First Nations LNG Alliance)] to proceed."  Meetings were held among the individual clans of the Wet’suwet’en throughout March. The memorandum of understanding was ratified by the attendees of one meeting of the Laksilyu (Small Frog Clan). They held a meeting via Zoom on April 22. According to the hereditary chiefs, the Gilseyhu (Big Frog Clan) met once and endorsed the MOU, as did the Laksamshu (Fireweed and Owl Clan) and the Tsayu (Beaver Clan) after two meetings. The Gitdumden (Wolf and Bear Clan) met twice, but their third meeting (scheduled for March 16) was cancelled due to a death in the community.  A planned all-clans meeting on March 19 was cancelled, for a variety of factors including concerns among the hereditary chiefs over the spread of COVID-19 and death in the community (unrelated to COVID-19).  On April 30th, the hereditary chiefs made a joint statement with the provincial and federal governments that all five clans had agreed to ratify the MOU after having reviewed and discussed it in the prior weeks. However, the elected chiefs of five Wet’suwet’en band governments (Nee Tahi Buhn Indian Band, Skin Tyee Nation, T’silh Kaz Koh First Nation, Wet’suwet’en First Nation, and Witset First Nation) released their own joint statement in response the following day, calling on the agreement to be withdrawn, saying they weren't consulted properly. A further statement released on May 11 called once again for the agreement to be withdrawn so the elected governments could be consulted properly, and further calling for Minister Bennett to resign. The May 11 statement was not signed by Chief Sandra George of Witset or Chief Cynthia Joseph of Hagwilget.  The draft agreement was finally distributed to the elected band councils on May 7, to all other Wet’suwet’en the following day, and finally it was published on the Office of the Wet’suwet’en website on May 12.  The MOU was signed by hereditary chiefs, Minister Bennett, and Minister Fraser on May 14, 2020, in a virtual ceremony via Zoom. The memorandum does not address the Coastal GasLink Pipeline project, nor does it alter Wet’suwet’en rights and title. The MOU states that the Canadian and British Columbian governments recognize that those rights and title are held under the Wet’suwet’en's own system of governance, and commits Canada and BC to a three-month process to craft a formal Affirmation Agreement that confirm aboriginal title as a legal right. It also establishes a twelve-month timeline for negotiation on jurisdiction including over land-use planning, resources, water, wildlife, fish, and child and family wellness. Further, it acknowledges that reunification of the rift between the hereditary leadership and the elected band councils is an essential part of the implementation of the MOU.

Solidarity protests.

Protests on January 20, 2020 disrupted BC ferry service leaving from Swartz Bay, which is Victoria's main ferry link to the BC mainland. BC ferries later obtained a preemptive injunction to prevent anticipated future demonstrations from blocking Vancouver-Victoria ferry service.  Once the RCMP began to take down the Wetʼsuwetʼen blockades, protests sprang up across Canada in solidarity with the hereditary chiefs and the land defenders. On February 11, protesters surrounded the BC Legislature in Victoria, preventing the traditional ceremonies around the reading of the Throne Speech by the Lieutenant Governor. Members of the Legislature had to have police assistance to enter or used alternate entrances. Other protests took place in Nelson, Calgary, Regina, Winnipeg, Toronto, Ottawa, Sherbrooke, and Halifax.  Several major protests blocked access to the Port of Vancouver, Deltaport, and two other ports in Metro Vancouver for a number of days before the Metro Vancouver police began enforcing an injunction on the morning of February 10, 2020, arresting 47 protesters who refused to cease obstructing the port.  Protests on February 16 and 17 temporarily blocked the Rainbow Bridge in Niagara Falls, Ontario and Thousand Islands Bridge in Ivy Lea, Ontario, two major border crossings between the United States and Canada. At the same time, Miꞌkmaq demonstrators partially blocked access to the Confederation Bridge, the sole road link to Prince Edward Island. On February 18, several activists were arrested for trespassing at BC Premier Horgan's residence.  A nation-wide student walkout occurred March 4, with university students across the country showing their support for the Wetʼsuwetʼen protesters.  The protests led to the creation of several hashtags, used widely on social media in relation to coverage of the protests. These include #ShutDownCanada, #WetsuwetenStrong, #LandBack, and #AllEyesOnWetsuweten.

Rail disruptions.

Other First Nations, activists and other supporters of the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> hereditary chiefs targeted railway lines for their demonstrations of solidarity. Near Belleville, Ontario, members of the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte First Nation began a blockade of the Canadian National Railway rail line just north of Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory on February 6, 2020, causing Via Rail to cancel trains on their Toronto–Montreal and Toronto-Ottawa routes. The line is critical to the CNR network in Eastern Canada as CNR has no other east–west rail lines through Eastern Ontario. However, in order to mitigate major economic disruption, CNR brokered a "workaround" agreement with Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) to share tracks in order to avoid the Mohawk protesters.  Other protests blocking rail lines halted service on Via Rail's Prince Rupert and Prince George lines, running on CNR tracks. Protests on the CNR line west of Winnipeg additionally blocked the only trans-Canada passenger rail route. Protests disrupted GO train lines in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) and Exo's Candiac line in Montreal. CPR rail lines were also disrupted in downtown Toronto and south of Montreal. The Société du Chemin de fer de la Gaspésie (SCFG) freight railway between Gaspé and Matapedia was blockaded on February 10 by members of the Listuguj Miꞌgmaq First Nation.  Starting on February 6, Via Rail announced passenger train cancellations on a day-to-day basis. Trains on the Toronto-Ottawa and Toronto-Montreal routes were cancelled first. Prince George-Prince Rupert service was suspended on February 11. Canadian National Railway (CNR) rail freight traffic was also halted along these lines. Other Canadian routes were intermittently disrupted as well.  On February 13, CNR shut down its rail lines east of Toronto. On the same day Via Rail, which rents these lines for its passenger service, announced it would be shutting down its entire network, with the exception of the Sudbury–White River train line and the Winnipeg–Churchill train between Churchill and The Pas, until further notice.  Amtrak international service from New York City to Toronto and Montreal was not affected. Amtrak rail service between Seattle and Vancouver on BNSF Railway Company lines was intermittently blocked; Amtrak's bus operation over the same route was not affected.  CNR issued multiple injunctions against the protestors, including several separate injunctions against the Mohawk protesters near Belleville. The Ontario Provincial Police decided not to act immediately on the injunctions.  The rail blockade of Prince Rupert was lifted on February 14. On February 18, VIA announced partial restoration of passenger service starting February 20, between Ottawa and Quebec City. Via later announced it would resume some south-western Ontario routes. Trans-Canada passenger service was not restored.  On February 19, a group of about 20 protesters from a group called "Cuzzins for Wet’suwet’en" erected a blockade on a CN rail line in west Edmonton, Alberta. CN obtained a court injunction, and less than twelve hours after the blockade began, it was dismantled by counter-protesters after a CN legal representative arrived to serve the injunction.  On February 19, activists set up a blockade on the Mont-Saint-Hilaire rail line in Saint-Lambert, Quebec, promising to stay until the RCMP leaves the disputed zone in Wetʼsuwetʼen territory. The blockade caused Via Rail to postpone resuming service between Montreal and Quebec City. The Mont-Saint-Hilaire rail line was cleared on February 21, 2019 after Quebec Police arrived to enforce a CNR injunction.  On February 20, another blockade of CPR tracks sprang up between Kamloops and Chase in British Columbia. The protesters left voluntarily on February 21, after the RCMP offered to leave the Wet’suwet’en land. The group vowed to return in four days if a dialogue was not started between the prime minister and the hereditary chiefs. This was followed by CPR writing an open letter to Prime Minister Trudeau, asking him to speak directly with the hereditary chiefs. The Mont-Saint-Hilaire rail line was cleared on February 21, 2020 after Quebec Police arrived to enforce a CNR injunction.  On March 5, the rail blockades in Kahnawake and the Gaspé Peninsula were removed peacefully by the First Nations involved.  In early March, Canada's medical officer had advised against gatherings, as part of the country's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and by the second week of March, most blockades had come down. Despite the widespread closures in response to the pandemic, CGL is continuing construction in the disputed territory. Pipeline opponents launched a letter-writing campaign urging the company to stop on March 21.  Businesses attacked by protesters, such as CN Rail, have filed lawsuits against protesters to recover damages.

Impact.

The blockades led to the shutdown of CNR's Eastern Canadian network, causing a complete halt of freight traffic from Halifax west to Toronto. On February 19, Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters estimated that million in goods were being stranded each day of the shutdown. An executive of the Business Council of Canada called the shutdown "potentially a catastrophe for the economy" and said that rail "is the backbone of infrastructure in this country."  Due to a poor growing season which resulted in an unusually late harvest just before Christmas, Canadian wheat and barley shipments were already in a backlog and were further impacted by the rail blockades. Spring farm supplies such as fertilizer were also delayed by the rail shutdown. Canadian grain farmers have previously advocated to have rail transport declared an essential service. Canadian Federation of Agriculture president Mary Robinson warned of "huge financial consequences" as farmers do not get paid until products are delivered to the market.  Dennis Darby, president and CEO of the Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters Association, states that Canadian manufacturers rely on 4,500 rail cars per day, which represent both supply chain and delivery of finished products. Many of these products are too large or bulky to be shipped by other means. The total value of these deliveries amounts to billion annually. Chemicals trade group Responsible Distribution Canada warned of shortages of chlorine to purify drinking water. Supply chains for chlorine, jet fuel and de-icing fluid all rely on rail transport: "You can't put it in a truck and send it down the 401" said an executive of the Chemistry Industry Association of Canada. Mining, which accounted for 20% of Canada's 2018 exports, also moves "most" of its output by rail. By February 21, 4,000 containers reportedly sat on the docks of Montreal waiting for transport and no grain had arrived for shipment at the port. In Halifax, the Atlantic Container Line has diverted to New York and Baltimore. In Vancouver, goods waiting to be shipped east led to a backlog of 50 ships waiting to be unloaded.  The disruption of propane rail shipments was expected to lead to shortages and rationing, during a time when many communities were experiencing extremely cold weather. In Atlantic Canada, at the end of the propane supply line, reserves fell to a five-day supply by February 14. Superior Propane, Canada's largest supplier, rationed distribution in Atlantic Canada.  SCFG laid off five of its 30 employees on February 14. On February 18, CNR laid off 450 employees for reasons related to the pipeline disruptions; the company has stated that as many as 6,000 of its 24,000 employees could be laid off. On February 19, Via Rail announced temporary layoffs of up to 1,000 people due to the blockades. By the first week of March, the majority of the laid-off Via Rail employees and all of the affected CNR employees were recalled.  On March 13, Parliamentary Budget Officer Yves Giroux released a report that the protests would leave "a minimal dent in the pace of economic growth", estimating that the blockades would reduce Canadian economic growth by 0.2% for the first quarter of 2020. For the whole year, the expectation was for the GDP to fall by, about 0.01% of the total GDP, which Giroux referred to as "a blip", despite the warnings by businesses of shortages, referred to by the PBO as "overblown". The PBO said that the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic would likely have a greater impact on the economy.

Federal government response.

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said politicians should not be telling the police how to deal with protesters and that resolution should come through dialogue. The Canadian government does not tell the police what to do operationally. In any case, the police services are under provincial or municipal control.  On February 12, Canada's Indigenous Services Minister Marc Miller began a dialogue with several indigenous leaders from different parts of Canada. On February 15, Miller met the Mohawks in a ceremonial encounter on the CNR train tracks to renew a 17th Century treaty between the Iroquois and the British Crown known as the Silver Covenant Chain. Miller then discussed the blockade with the leaders of Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte First Nation, along with Kanenhariyo, one of the primary organizers of the protest near Tyendinaga. Miller asked for a temporary drawback of the protest but his request was refused after Wetʼsuwetʼen hereditary Chief Woos, who was on the phone, stated that the RCMP was still on his territory and "they are out there with guns, threatening us." Leaked audio of the meetings included a Mohawk resident in the meeting telling the minister to "Get the red coats out first, get the blue coats out... then we can maybe have some common discussions". Miller returned to Ottawa and met with Prime Minister Trudeau and other members of the Cabinet called the "Incident Response Group". Trudeau had returned from a foreign relations trip to deal with the issue.  On February 18, the House of Commons of Canada resumed after the winter break. Trudeau addressed the Commons asking Canadians for patience as the government sought a negotiated end. "On all sides, people are upset and frustrated. I get it. It's understandable because this is about things that matter — rights and livelihoods, the rule of law and our democracy." Opposition leader Andrew Scheer condemned the government's refusal to use the police to stop the illegal blockades, calling it "the weakest response to a national crisis in Canadian history. Will our country be one of the rule of the law, or will our country be one of the rule of the mob?" Trudeau held a private meeting with the other opposition parties' leaders, barring Scheer after his comments.  On February 18, the Assembly of First Nations (AFN) held a press conference in Ottawa. AFN National Chief Perry Bellegarde called for all parties to engage in dialogue. "It's on everybody. It's not on any one individual. I'm just calling on all the parties to come together, get this dialogue started in a constructive way."  On February 20, according to a statement from Canadian Public Safety Minister Bill Blair, the RCMP agreed to move its personnel from Wetʼsuwetʼen territory to nearby Houston. The next day, Prime Minister Trudeau held a press conference to state "Canadians have been patient. Our government has been patient, but it has been two weeks and the barricades need to come down now. The government had made repeated overtures to the hereditary chiefs to hold meetings but had been ignored. You can’t have dialogue when only one party is coming to the table. Our hand remains extended should someone want to reach for it. We have come to a moment where the onus is now on Indigenous leadership."  Shortly after Trudeau's statement on February 21, the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> hereditary chiefs released a statement reaffirming that discussions would continue once all RCMP and CGL personnel vacate the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> territory. At the same time, the Mohawk of Tyendinaga asserted that their rail blockade would be removed as soon as Wet’suwet’en legal observers confirm that the RCMP is off their land. On February 24, the day of the Mohawk blockade removal by the OPP, Indigenous Services Minister Miller repeated that the Liberal government was "still open for dialogue" and willing to negotiate.

Criticism.

On February 24, in a statement signed and supported by over 200 Canadian lawyers and legal scholars, Beverly Jacobs and Sylvia McAdam of the University of Windsor, Alex Neve of Amnesty International, and Harsha Walia of the BC Civil Liberties Association responded to the calls for the "rule of law." In their opinion, it is the Canadian federal and provincial governments that are breaking international law, not the <nowiki>Wetʼsuwetʼen</nowiki> hereditary chiefs. They also pointed out that the requirements laid out in the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples have continued to be ignored by Canadian courts, although Canadian governments have expressed a willingness to follow the UN resolution. They call for an end to the violation of indigenous persons' right to free, prior and informed consent.  In early May, the elected chiefs of several Wetʼsuwetʼen band councils (primarily Nee-Tahi-Buhn, Skin Tyee, Tsʼil Kaz Koh, and Wetʼsuwetʼen First Nations) called on Minister Bennett to resign, as the Canadian and BC governments, along with the hereditary chiefs, pressed forward with the memorandum of understanding. In a statement on May 11, before the signing of the memorandum, the elected chiefs called on Minister Bennett to resign due to her "disregard for [their] special relationship". They repeated this demand in a statement on May 14, after the signing of the MOU, and added a call for Minister Marc Miller to speak up about his "intention to protect the programs and services the We people depend on".

The 2020 Canadian pipeline and railway protests were a series of civil disobedience protests held in Canada. The main issue behind the protests was the construction of the Coastal GasLink Pipeline (CGL) through of Wetʼsuwetʼen First Nation territory in British Columbia (BC), land that is unceded. Other concerns of the protesters were indigenous land rights, the actions of police, land conservation, and the environmental impact of energy projects.