History.

The community was founded in 1799 by New Englanders who built mills along its creeks. The first settlement was established around 1790 and was called "Chester Four Corners."  The Chestertown Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.

Geography.

Chestertown is located at (43.6525664, -73.8009597) and its elevation is. The ZIP code is 12817 and it is in the Eastern Time Zone. The nearest city is Glens Falls.  According to the 2010 United States Census, Chestertown has a total area of, of which is land and is water.

Education.

Children from Chestertown, along with children from the neighboring communities of Adirondack, Brant Lake and Pottersville, attend North Warren Central School.

Community and economy.

The old school in the center of the village was transformed into the community center, with public library, town hall and Sheriff's office. There are also a theater and a medical center in the town. Main Street (U.S. Route 9) is lined with many stores, including Glens Falls National Bank. There are several hotels in the area.  The town has one public beach at Loon Lake.  Peckham Materials Corp., a manufacturer of asphalt and crushed stone, operates a large quarry at the southern end of the town.  Lincoln Logs Ltd., a manufacturer of log, timber, and cedar homes, which operates a large mill near the junction of Route 8 and U.S. Route 9.

Religion.

There are three churches in the center of Chestertown: the St. John the Baptist Roman Catholic Church of the St. Isaac Jogues Parish Community, the Community United Methodist Church, and the Faith Bible Church. There are also many other churches in the area.

Lakes.

There are three lakes in Chestertown, Friends Lake, Loon Lake, and Forest Lake. Friends and Loon Lakes are surrounded by vacation homes. Forest Lake is privately owned by Forest Lake Camp - a traditional overnight summer camp since 1926.

Chestertown is a hamlet of the Town of Chester, in Warren County, New York, United States. It is located by the junction of Route 8 and U.S. Route 9, in the Adirondack Mountains. The population was 677 at the 2010 census, which lists the community as a census-designated place.


Legal requirements.

For legal and official purposes, evidentiary documents and other official documentation are usually required in the official language(s) of a jurisdiction.  In some countries, it is a requirement for translations of such documents that a translator swear an oath to attest that it is the legal equivalent of the source text. Often, only translators of a special class are authorized to swear such oaths. In some cases, the translation is only accepted as a legal equivalent if it is accompanied by the original or a sworn or certified copy of it.  Even if a translator specializes in legal translation or is a lawyer in their country, this does not necessarily make them a sworn translator. The procedure for translating to legal equivalence differs from country to country.

Argentina.

In compliance with Law #20,305, all public documents (including personal papers and some commercial contracts) have to be translated and signed by a certified "public translator" ("traductor público"), whose seal and signature have to be legalized on each document by the Translators' professional body of their jurisdiction. All private persons, companies, the judiciary and other government departments are subject to this law regarding documents or depositions in a foreign language. In order to be certified as a public translator for a major European language, candidates have to attend university courses leading to the professional degree of "traductor público".

Austria.

Pursuant to section 14 of the Sworn and Certified Experts, Interpreters and Translators Act #137/1995 (SDG) as amended, regional courts are entitled to appoint sworn translators for translations between German and any language (including sign language), who have sworn an oath at court after having passed an official exam. To be admitted to the exam, candidates must present evidence of at least 5 years of professional experience as a translator or interpreter or of at least 2 years of such professional experience if they have graduated in translation studies at a University. Although mostly referred to as "Gerichtsdolmetscher", the correct name of their status is "allgemein beeidete/r und gerichtlich zertifizierte/r Dolmetscher/in". Sworn translators are entitled to create public instruments by signing and sealing of translations attached to originals. No further notarization of their signature on translations is needed, and sworn translators can apply at court for the adding of an apostille. Police are advised to involve sworn interpreters to overcome language barriers whenever this is possible. Most public authorities in Austria accept translations of documents as legally equivalent only when sealed and signed by a sworn interpreter for the given language. Authorization will lapse if a sworn interpreter will not attend regular professional training.

Belgium.

""Sworn Translators"" (singular Dutch: beëdigd vertaler, French: traducteur assermenté) or ""Sworn Interpreter"" (singular Dutch: beëdigd tolk, French: interprète assermenté) swear an oath before the President of the tribunal of first instance of the judicial district in which they have their place of residence. In the past translators and interpreters in all judicial districts aspiring to "sworn" status were screened for suitability by the Crown Prosecutor. The candidate has to state the language combinations for he or she wishes to be sworn. A diploma of translator/interpreter is usually regarded as adequate proof of competence. There is no limitation on the language combinations which can be recognized.  However, following a scandal involving an illegal immigrant who obtained sworn translator status, The president of the tribunal of first instance at Antwerp, launched an experimental scheme whereby aspiring sworn translators and interpreters have to undergo training organized by the Ministry of Justice and submit to examination. The same President, based on his interpretation of the language laws, also ruled that the only language combinations that could be recognized for sworn translator/interpreter status were those in which Dutch was either the original language or the target language. This view has not yet been adopted by other judicial districts in Belgium.

Brazil.

Official documents can only be translated by Public Sworn Translators and Interpreters, who are certified and accredited by the registry of commerce of each state. The applicants must pass highly demanding oral and written examinations for specific language pairs. They undergo background checks before receiving a registration number, which must be informed in the heading of every translation. "Ad hoc" (temporary) translators can also be appointed by the Registry of Commerce to do a single translation job, when there is no Public Translator registered for that specific language pair. The registry of commerce of each state also sets the translation fees.  Although the public sworn translator/interpreter must reside in the state of registration, his translations are valid in the entire country. Institutions and government agencies in cities and states different from those of residence of the public sworn translator may require the notarial verification of the translator's signature.  Foreign documents must be verified by a Brazilian consulate or embassy in the country they were issued before translation. Official documents translated into a foreign language need to have the public sworn translator's signature verified by the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs if the institution or government agency of the foreign country so requires.

Canada.

Official translation of documents can be produced in one of two ways. Certified translations are those completed by a certified translator and accompanied by the translator's declaration, signature and seal. The title of "certified translator" is a protected title in Canada, and only those individuals who are members in good standing of a provincial translators' association and have passed a certification exam can use this title and produce certified translations. An alternative method for producing official translations in Canada is by attaching a sworn affidavit signed by the translator in the presence of a notary public or commissioner for taking affidavits to the translation.

Germany.

German regional courts ("Landgerichte") have the power to appoint "sworn translators". The specific title and the appointment procedure are different in each state. In most cases, the candidates are required to pass an examination. Germany maintains an official database online at www.justiz-uebersetzer.de that lists all translators sworn-in in all federal states.

Hungary.

There are five qualification types for translators and interpreters in Hungary: technical translator, technical translator-proofreader, interpreter, technical interpreter and conference interpreter. These qualifications can be acquired in BA and MA programmes, postgraduate courses and in institutions accredited by the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice.  Anyone regardless of age and qualification may apply for a qualifying examination in interpretation. Qualifications for technical translation, technical translation proofreading, technical interpretation and conference interpretation can be obtained in the following fields: social science, natural science, technology and economics. Anyone with a degree in one of the above fields may apply for a qualifying examination in technical translation and technical interpretation in the given field. Qualified technical interpreters and technical translators may be further qualified for conference interpretation and technical translation proofreading, respectively.  The National Office for Translation and Attestation ("Országos Fordító és Fordításhitelesítő Iroda", OFFI) is a company in Hungary that has the exclusive right to certify translations both from and to Hungarian created by the office itself or a third party, and to make certified copies of documents written in a foreign language. Interpretation in courts of Budapest is provided by OFFI.  If the Office cannot provide an interpreter, and for courts outside Budapest, an interpreter registered by the local authorities will be appointed. If no official interpreter is available, a suitable person with a good command of the required language will be appointed.

India.

There is less documentation and sources known. A sworn-in Interpreter or Translator as per Maharashtra Courts Civil Law Chapter 26 of OATHS AND AFFIDAVITS prescribed under section 6 of the Oaths Act, 1969 (point 515) may with help of Form No.3 make an affidavit that he shall well and truly interpret evidences given by witnesses and translate correctly and accurately all documents given to him or her for translation.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, sworn translators are persons having attended and passed legal translation examination organized by the School of Linguistics and Cultural Sciences, University of Indonesia (FIB, UI). After passing the exam, they will be sworn in by the Governor of DKI Jakarta, provided that they have a Jakarta ID card. For other regions, each has to write to their respective Governor to take oath by their governor, thus obtain the status'sworn'.  Alternatively, the Association of Indonesian Translators or HPI also have exams for members who wants to have a certification as a competent, professional translator or interpreter. Upon passing, the certification will expire in 5 years.

Italy.

Both Italian courts and consulates have the power to appoint as "official translators" ("traduttori giurati" or "ufficiali") candidates who pass an examination or show proof of language proficiency (usually a university degree).

Mexico.

There are, in Mexico, two certifications for sworn translators: the local certification granted by the Superior Court of Justice corresponding to each of the 32 states and the one of the Superior Court of Justice corresponding to the federation. Both institutions establish that a written and oral examination shall be passed for a translator to be recognized as an expert or "sworn" (certified) translator ("perito traductor"); this type of translator does not swear before the court to be authorized. Although the local certification is officially valid for only one of the 32 states, a translator from any of the states may work for a client from any of the states, provided that the client accepts the translator.

Netherlands.

The Bureau for Sworn Interpreters and Translators, a department of the Dutch Legal Aid Council that has been entrusted by the Ministry of Justice with various implementation tasks in respect of the Sworn Interpreters and Translators Act. They have two levels of accreditation however only the highest level has legal validity.

Norway.

Candidates are certified by the Association of Government Authorized Translators, after they pass a very demanding examination. Successful candidates are then authorized by the Norwegian government to sign their translations, after the phrase "True Translation Certified." The Association was founded in 1913.

Poland.

The standards of translation in Poland are regulated by a relevant department of the Ministry of Justice, and every translator wishing to provide such services must pass a state examination. Afterwards such a person is entered on an official list, issued with a stamp and recognized as a sworn translator. However, for ordinary translations (business, administration, correspondence) it is enough to have an independent expert in the field.

South Africa.

In South Africa, the translator must be authorized by the High Court, and must use an original (or a sworn copy of an original) in his physical presence as his source text. The translator may only swear by his own translation. There is no requirement for an additional witness (such as a notary) to attest to the authenticity of the translation.

Spain.

In Spain, a sworn translation is a translation by a translator appointed by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, European Union and Cooperation. To become a sworn translator in Spain for a combination of Castilian and another language, the candidate has to be certified by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation as a "sworn translator and interpreter" ("traductor-intérprete jurado"). Then, the translator is required to register their stamp and signature with the Ministry, who includes the translator's data in a public list of sworn interpreters.  Sworn translators are professional translators (normally individuals who hold a degree in translation and interpretation) who have passed an exam given by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and are therefore authorized to translate from Spanish into another language and vice versa. Eligibility can be achieved either through a state exam or by completing the degree studies of Translation and Interpretation in a Spanish University, provided that the translator has passed certain law-related subjects.  Sworn translators for combinations including the other three co-official languages of Spain (Basque, Catalan and Galician) are certified by regional authorities following a similar procedure as the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.  As a rule, all documents submitted in Spain must be translated by a translator certified by the Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation; however, in many cases, documents translated internationally and submitted to various consulates and embassies can be translated within the respective country by translators certified within the country of submission. In other words, a certified translator in the United States is able to translate documents for one of the Spanish Consulates located in the United States, but not if the documents are to be presented in Spain.

Sweden.

The Legal, Financial and Administrative Services Agency is an official agency that authorizes interpreters and translators, who must pass a stringent examination arranged by the organization. Authorized translators hold a protected professional title, and their translations are considered legal and binding for all legal purposes.

United Kingdom.

In the UK, a certified translation is simply one which comes with a statement made by the translator or translation agency guaranteeing its accuracy, along with the date, the translator's credentials and contact details. They are often signed and stamped and should be proofread for an added guarantee of accuracy. This is the type of certification that is required by UK government bodies such as the Home Office, Passport Office and the UK Border Agency, as well as by universities and most foreign embassies in the UK. A certified translation guarantees its accuracy and contains the name and contact number of the translator or project manager, who can vouch for that accuracy and may be contacted by the requesting organisation in order to do so.

United States of America.

The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics states: ""There is currently no universal form of certification required of interpreters and translators in the United States, but there are a variety of different tests that workers can take to demonstrate proficiency.""

A certified translation is one which fulfills the requirements in the country in question, enabling it to be used in formal procedures, with the translator accepting responsibility for its accuracy. These requirements vary widely from country to country. While some countries allow only state-appointed translators to produce such translations, others will accept those carried out by any competent bilingual individual. Between these two extremes are countries where a certified translation can be carried out by any professional translator with the correct credentials (which may include membership of specific translation associations or the holding of certain qualifications).


History.

Habima was founded by Nahum Zemach in Białystok (then in Grodno Governorate, Russia) in 1912. Menahem Gnessin was one of its cofounders and early actors. Because its performances were in Hebrew, invoked the Jewish folk tradition, and dealt with issues of the Jewish people, it met with persecution by the Czarist government. Beginning in 1918, it operated under the auspices of the Moscow Art Theatre, which some consider its true beginning. It encountered difficulties under the Soviet government as well as after the Russian Revolution. Konstantin Stanislavsky arranged for the mainly Jewish Polish actors to be trained by Yevgeny Vakhtangov. The People's Commissar for Nationalities Affairs, Joseph Stalin, also authorized the theatre's creation. However, the Yevsektsiya attempted to use its influence to cut off state funds to Habima, branding it counter-revolutionary.

International tour.

In 1926, the theatre left the Soviet Union to tour abroad, in countries including Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States. Their productions met with great success. In 1927, the company split up, with Zemach and some of the actors choosing to stay in the U.S.

Lodz Impact.

The theatre staff visited the city of Lodz, and the pre-war photographer and artist Mendel Grossman, photographed the actors and actresses from the wings of the stage. His life was changed as a result of the visit of the theatre.

Establishment in Palestine.

Other members of the theatre took the company to Mandate Palestine in 1928. In the 1928-29 season there, the Habima Players presented two plays, both under the direction of Aleksei Dikiy, from the Moscow Art Theatre. The first production, "Ha-otsar" (The Treasure), a translation of Sholem Aleichem's Yiddish play "Der Oytser", premiered on December 29, 1928. The second production, which premiered on May 23, 1929 in Tel Aviv, was "Keter David" (David's Crown), an adaptation by Hebrew writer Isaac Lamdan of "The Hair of Absalom" ("Los cabellos de Absalón"), by the 17th-century Spanish dramatist Calderón.  In 1930 the company traveled to Berlin, Germany, where it produced Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night", directed by Michael Chekhov, and Karl Gutzkow's "Uriel Acosta", under the direction of Alexander Granovski.  The company finally settled in Palestine in 1931. In 1945, it built a theatre in Tel Aviv, which it occupied before completion.

National Theatre of Israel.

Habima has been officially considered the national theatre of Israel since 1958, the year in which it received the Israel Prize for theatre. This was the first year in which the Prize was awarded to an organization. In the 21st century, Habima employs 80 actors, and another 120 staff members work at the complex.

Restoration.

In January 2012, the theatre reopened after four and a half years of renovations. Architect Ram Karmi was commissioned to redesign the historic building. More than NIS 100 million was invested in the makeover, which has added 500 square meters of floor space and three new rehearsal rooms. The building's four auditoriums were completely rebuilt. Each is a different size and color: Rovina is blue and seats 930 people; Meskin is lavender and seats 320; Bertonov (also known as Bamartef) is green and seats 220; and Habima 4 (formerly known as Heineken) is wood panelled and seats 170.

The Habima Theatre ( "Te'atron HaBima", lit. "The Stage Theatre") is the national theatre of Israel and one of the first Hebrew language theatres. It is located in Habima Square in the center of Tel Aviv.


History.

Ancient to medieval period.

Maharashtra people is dravid culture.  During the ancient period, around 230 BC, Maharashtra came under the rule of the Satavahana dynasty which ruled the region for 400 years. The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautami putra Satakarni. The Vakataka dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 3rd century to the 5th century. The Chalukya dynasty ruled Maharashtra from the 6th century to the 8th century. The two prominent rulers were Pulakeshin II, who defeated the north Indian Emperor Harsh, and Vikramaditya II, who defeated Arab invaders in

Early Modern period (1650-1818).

Political history.

In the mid-17th century, Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680) founded the Maratha Empire by conquering the Desh and the Konkan region from the Adilshahi, and established "Hindavi Swaraj" ('self-rule of Hindu people').) The Marathas are credited to a large extent with ending Mughal rule in India. After Shivaji's death, the Mughals, who had lost significant ground to the Maratha Empire under him, invaded Maharashtra in 1681. Shivaji's son Sambhaji, and successor as Chhatrapati, led the Maratha Empire valiantly against the much stronger Mughal opponent, but in 1689, after being betrayed, he was captured, tortured and killed by Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb. The war against the Mughals was then led by the Sambhaji's younger brother and successor Rajaram Chhatrapati. Upon Rajaram's death in 1700, his widow Tarabai took command of Maratha Empire forces and won many battles against the Mughals. In 1707, upon the death of Aurangzeb, the War of 27 years between the much weakened Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire came to an end. Shahu, the grandson of Shivaji, with the help of capable Maratha Empire administrators

Social history.

Before British rule, the Maharashtra region was divided into many revenue divisions. The medieval equivalent of a county or district was the Pargana. The chief of the Pargana was called Deshmukh and record keepers were called Deshpande. The lowest administrative unit was the village. Village society in Marathi areas included the Patil or the head of the village, collector of revenue, and Kulkarni, the village record keeper. These were hereditary positions. The Patil usually came from the Maratha caste. The Kulkarni was usually from Marathi Brahmin or CKP caste. The village also used to have

British colonial rule.

The British rule of more than a century in the present-day Maharashtra region saw huge changes for the Marathi people in every aspect of their lives. Areas that correspond to present day Maharashtra were under direct or indirect British rule, first under the East India Trading Company, and then under the British Raj from 1858. During this era Marathi people resided in the Bombay presidency, Berar, Central provinces, Hyderabad state and in various princely states that are currently part of present-day Maharashtra.The 1951 census of India had 4.5 million people in the erstwhile Hyderabad state who stated Marathi as their mother tongue. Significant Marathi populations also resided in Maratha princely states far from Maharashtra such as Baroda, Gwalior, Indore, and Tanjore.  The British

Modern period since Indian independence in 1947.

After India's independence in 1947, all princely states lying within the borders of the Bombay Presidency acceded to the Indian Union and were integrated into the newly created Bombay State in 1950.  The small community of Marathi Jews (Bene Israel - Sons of Insrael) started emigrating to the newly created country of Israel in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The number of Bene Israel remaining in India was estimated to be around 4,000-5,000 in 1988.  In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganised the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay Presidency State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad

Castes and communities.

The Marathi people form an ethnolinguistic group that is distinct from others in terms of its language, history, cultural and religious practices, social structure, literature, and art.  The traditional caste hierarchy was headed by the Brahmin castes-the Saraswats, Deshasthas, Chitpavans, Karhades, and the Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus. In Mumbai during British rule, this included the Pathare Prabhu community. As per a census, the upper castes—Marathi Brahmins, Saraswat Brahmins, Prabhus (CKPs, Pathare Prabhus)—were only about 4% of the population. The Marathas were 32% in Western Maharashtra and the Kunbis were 7%, whereas the Other Backward Class population (other than the Kunbi) was 27%. The other castes in the intermediate category include: Lingayats who came from north Karnataka and settled in south Maharashtra, Gujjars and Rajputs who migrated centuries ago to Maharashtra from northern India - and settled in north Maharashtra. The population of the Mahars was 8%.

Hindu castes in Maharashtra.

Majority of Marathi Hindu belong either to the cultivator class (Maratha-Kunbi) or one of the former village servant (Bara Balutedar) castes which include Lohar (Iron-smith), Suthar (carpenters), Mali

Marathi Diaspora.

In other Indian states.

As the Maratha Empire expanded across India, the Marathi population started migrating out of Maharashtra alongside their rulers. Peshwa, Holkars, Scindia, and Gaekwad dynastic leaders took with them a considerable population of priests, clerks, army men, businessmen, and workers when they established new seats of power. Most of these migrants were from the literate classes such as various Brahmin sub-castes and CKP. These groups formed the backbone of administration in the new Maratha Empire

Population in India by state.

Outside India.

In the early 1800s, a large number of Indian people were taken to Mauritius, Fiji, South Africa, Eastern Africa, the Malay Peninsula, and the Caribbean as indentured laborers to work on sugarcane plantations. The majority of these migrants were from the Hindustani speaking areas or from Southern India, however, a significant number of immigrants were Marathis.  Since the state of Israel was established in 1948, around 25,000-30,000 Jews have emigrated there, of which around 20,000 were from the Marathi speaking Bene Israel community of Konkan.  Indians, including Marathi People, have migrated to Europe and particularly Great Britain for more than a century. The Maharashtra Mandal of London was founded in 1932. A small number of Marathi people also

Culture.

Religion.

The majority of Marathi people are Hindus.

Marathi Hindu Customs.

The main life ceremonies in Hindu culture include those related to birth, weddings, initiation ceremonies, as well as death rituals. Other ceremonies for different occasions in Hindu life include "Vastushanti" and "Satyanarayan" which is performed before a family formally establishes residence in a new house. Satyanarayana Puja is a ceremony performed before commencing any new endeavour or for no particular reason. Invoking the name of the family's gotra and the "kuladaivat" are important aspects of these ceremonies for many communities.  Like most other Hindu communities, the Marathi people have a household shrine called a "devaghar" with idols, symbols, and pictures of various deities for daily worship. Ritual reading of religious texts known as "pothi" is also popular in some communities.  In some traditional families, food is first offered to the preferred deity in the household shrine, as "naivedya", before being consumed by family members and guests. Meals or snacks are not taken before this religious offering. In present

Ceremonies and rituals.

At birth, a child is initiated into the family ritually. The child's naming ceremony may happen many weeks or even months later, and it is called the "bārsa". In many Indian Hindu communities, the naming is most often done by consulting the child's horoscope, which suggests various names depending on the child's Lunar sign (called "Rashi"). However, in Marathi Hindu families, the name that the child inevitably uses in secular functions is the one decided by their parents. If a name is chosen on the basis of the horoscope, then that is kept a secret to ward off the casting of a spell on the child during their life. During the naming ceremony, the child's paternal aunt has the honor of naming the infant. When the child is 11 months old, they get their first hair-cut. This is also an important ritual and is called "Jawal (जावळ)". In the Maratha community, the maternal uncle is given the honour of the first snip during the ceremony.  In Brahman, CKP and Gaud Saraswat Brahman communities when a male child reaches his eighth birthday, he undergoes the initiation thread ceremony variously known as Munja (in reference to the Munja grass that is of official ritual specification), "Vratabandha", or Upanayanam.  Marathi Hindu people are historically endogamous within their caste but exogamous with their clan.Cross-cousin alliances are allowed by most Marathi Hindu communities. Hindu marriages, more often than not, take place by negotiation. The Mangalsutra is the symbol of marriage for the woman. Studies show that most Indians' traditional views on caste, religion, and family background have remained unchanged when it came to marriage, that is, people marry within their own castes, and matrimonial advertisements in newspapers are still classified by caste and sub-caste.  While arranging a marriage, "gana",

Hindu calendar and festivals.

The Marathi, Kannada and Telugu people follow the Deccan Shalivahana Hindu calendar, which may have subtle differences with calendars followed by other communities in India. The calendar follows the Amanta tradition where the lunar month ends on no moon day. Marathi Hindus celebrate most of the Indian Hindu festivals such as Dasara, Diwali and Raksha Bandhan. These are, however, celebrated with certain Maharashtrian regional variations. Others festivals like Ganeshotsav have a more characteristic Marathi flavour. The festivals described below are in chronological order as they occur during a Shaka year, starting with Shaka new year festival of Gudhi Padwa.  During this Navavatri, girls and women perform 'Bhondla/Hadga' as the Sun moves to the thirteenth constellation of the zodiac called 'Hasta' (Elephant). During the nine days, Bhondla (also known as 'Bhulabai' in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra) is celebrated in the garden or on the terrace during evening hours by inviting female friends of the daughter in the house. An elephant is drawn either with Rangoli on the soil or with a chalk on a slate and kept in the middle. The girls go

Festivals and celebrations observed by other communities.

Dhamma Chakra Pravartan Din.

On 14 October 1956 at Nagpur, Maharashtra, India, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar embraced Buddhist religion publicly and gave Deeksha of Buddhist religion to his more than 380,000 followers. The day

Christmas.

Christmas is celebrated to mark the birthday of Jesus Christ. Like in other parts of India, Christmas is celebrated with zeal by the indigenous Marathi Catholics such as the East Indians.

Food.

The many communities in Marathi society result in a diverse cuisine. This diversity extends to the family level because each family uses its own unique combination of spices. The majority of Maharashtrians do eat meat and eggs, but the Brahmin community is mostly lacto-vegetarian. The traditional staple food on Desh (the Deccan plateau) is usually "bhakri", spiced cooked vegetables, "dal" and rice. Bhakri is an unleavened bread made using Indian millet ("jowar"), "bajra" or "bajri". However, the North Maharashtrians and urbanites prefer roti, which is a plain bread made with wheat flour. In the coastal Konkan region, rice is the traditional staple food. An aromatic variety of "ambemohar" rice is more popular amongst Marathi people than the internationally known basmati rice. Malvani dishes use more wet coconut and coconut milk in their preparation. In the Vidarbha region, little coconut is used in daily preparations but dry coconut, along with peanuts, is used in dishes such as spicy "savji"s or mutton and

Attire.

Traditionally, Marathi women commonly wore the sari, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. Most middle aged and young women in urban Maharashtra dress in western outfits such as skirts and trousers or salwar kameez with the traditionally "nauvari" or nine-yard sari, disappearing from the markets due to a lack of demand. Older women wear the five-yard sari. In urban areas, the

Names.

Marathi Hindu people follow a partially Patronymic naming system. For example, it is customary to associate the father's name with the given name. In the case of married women, the husband's name is associated with the given name. Therefore, the constituents of a Marathi name as given name /first name, father/husband, family name /surname. For example:

Personal names.

Marathi Hindus choose given names for their children from a variety of sources. They could be characters from Hindu mythological epics such as the Ramayana or Mahabharat, names of holy rivers such as Yamuna and Godavari, Hindu historical characters from Maratha or Indian history such as Shivaji and Ashoka, Marathi varkari saints such as Tukaram, Dnyaneshwar, Janabai,

Surnames.

A large number of Maharashtrian surnames are derived by adding the suffix "kar" to the village from which the family originally hailed. For example, Junnarkar came from town of Junnar, Waghulkar comes from the town of Waghul. Names like Kumbhar, Sutar, Kulkarni, Deshpande, Deshmukh, Patil, Pawar, Desai, and Joshi denote the family's ancestral trade or professions.  Families of the historical Maratha chiefs use their clan name as their surname. Some of these are Jaadhav, Bhosale, Chavan, Shinde, Shirke, More, Nimbalkar, Pawar, and Ghatge. Members of the numerically largest Maratha Kunbi cultivator class among Marathi people have also adopted some of the Maratha clan names, whether to indicate allegiance to the Maratha chief they served, or as an attempt at upward mobility.

Language and Literature.

It has been noted by scholars that there is Dravidian influence in the development of the Marathi language.

Ancient Marathi inscriptions.

Marathi, also known as Suena at that time, was the court language during the reign of the Yadava Kings. Yadava king Singhania was known for his magnanimous donations. Inscriptions recording these donations are found written in Marathion on stone slabs in the temple at Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Composition of noted works of scholars like

Classical literature.

Marathi people have a long literary tradition which started in the ancient era. It was the 13th-century saint, Dnyaneshwar who produced the first treatise in Marathi on the Geeta. The work called Dnyaneshwari is considered a masterpiece. Along with Dnyaneshwar, his contemporary, Namdev was also responsible for

Modern Marathi literature.

The first English book was translated into Marathi in 1817 while the first Marathi newspaper started in 1841. Many books on social reform were written by Baba Padamji ("Yamuna Paryatana", 1857), Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Lokhitawadi, Justice Ranade, and Hari Narayan Apte (1864–1919). Lokmanya Tilak's newspaper "Kesari" in Marathi was a strong voice in promoting Ganeshotsav or Shivaji festival. The newspaper also offered criticism of colonial government excesses. At this time, Marathi efficiently aided by Marathi Drama. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar's newspaper, "Bahishkrut Bharat," set up in 1927, provided a platform for sharing literary views.  In the mid-1950s, the 'little magazine movement' gained momentum. It published writings which were non-conformist, radical, and experimental. The Dalit literature movement also gained strength due to the little magazine movement. This radical movement was influenced by the philosophy of non-conformity, and challenged the literary establishment, which was largely middle class, urban, and upper caste. The little magazine movement was responsible for many excellent writers including the well-known novelist, critic, and poet Bhalchandra Nemade. Dalit writer N. D. Mahanor is well known for his work, while Dr. Sharad Rane is a well-known children's writer.

Martial tradition.

Although ethnic Marathis have taken up military roles for many centuries, their martial qualities came to prominence in seventeenth century India, under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji. He founded the Maratha Empire, which at the time of the mid 18th century controlled practically the entire Indian subcontinent. It was largely an ethnic Marathi polity, with its chiefs and nobles coming

Ghati people.

"Ghati people", literally means the "people of hills or ghats", is an exonym used especially for marathi people from the villages in Western Ghats (Sahyadri range) on western coast of Maharashtra. At times the word is used pejoratively to describe all Marathi people.

The Marathi people, also rendered as Marathis or Maharashtrian, are an ethnolinguistic group who speak Marathi, an Indo-Aryan language as their native language. They inhabit the state of Maharashtra as well as districts bordering the state, such as Belgaum and Karwar of Karnataka and the state of Goa in western India as well as districts of southern Gujarat and parts of Madhya Pradesh. The term 'Maratha' is generally used by historians to refer to all Marathi-speaking peoples, irrespective of caste, although presently it refers to a set of Maharashtrian castes called Maratha. The Marathi community came into political prominence in the 17th century when the Marathas, under Shivaji, established the Maratha Empire, which is credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule.


Personal life.

Zverev was born in Moscow, USSR, the son of former Russian tennis player Alexander Zverev Sr., who is also his coach. Internationally, he represents Germany and resides in Monte Carlo, Monaco. His younger brother, Alexander Zverev, also plays on the tour.  He married his girlfriend Evgenija in a ceremony in the Maldives in November 2017.

Juniors.

Zverev had a very successful junior career, attaining a No. 3 combined world ranking and making the semifinals of the US Open (losing to Andy Murray), as well as the quarterfinals of Roland Garros (losing to Alex Kuznetsov) and the Australian Open (losing to Novak Djokovic) in 2004. In doubles he reached the final of the French Open in the same year.  As a junior, he compiled a 123–50 win/loss record in singles (and 79–33 in doubles).

Professional career.

2006.

In October 2006, he made his first quarterfinal at ATP level in Bangkok, Thailand, beating former world No. 1 Juan Carlos Ferrero and former world No. 5 Rainer Schüttler before losing to Marat Safin, also a former world No. 1.

2007: Cracking the top 100.

He spent all of 2007 inside the top 200 and, in July, made a second quarterfinal in Rhode Island. He then won a Challenger title in August at a tournament held in Istanbul and followed that up with another quarterfinal run at the Bronx Challenger, which saw him crack the top 100 for the first time in his career.

2008: First doubles title.

At the 2008 Australian Open, Zverev nearly upset 11th seed Tommy Robredo in the first round. He took the first two sets but went down in five. In June 2008, Zverev managed to secure his first ATP title victory by winning the doubles together with his partner Mikhail Youzhny at the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, Germany.  At the 2008 Wimbledon Championships, Zverev surprisingly reached the third round after wins over Alexander Peya and Juan Carlos Ferrero, but was then forced to retire in his third round match against Stan Wawrinka due to pain in his left thigh.

2009: Italian Open quarterfinal.

In May, he reached the quarterfinals of the Italian Open, losing to world No. 2 Roger Federer in straight sets. He later helped Germany reach the final of the ARAG World Team Cup with teammates Nicolas Kiefer, Rainer Schüttler and Philipp Kohlschreiber. At the 2009 Wimbledon Championships, Zverev beat 25th seed Dmitry Tursunov in straight sets. He faced Philipp Petzschner in the second round and lost in five sets. He was nominated by Davis Cup captain Patrik Kühnen for the quarterfinal against Spain in Marbella. He lost his doubles match with Nicolas Kiefer to Feliciano López and Fernando Verdasco in four sets.

2010: First ATP final.

Zverev began his comeback at the Brisbane International in January after a right wrist fracture. However, he lost to Australian wildcard Carsten Ball in straight sets. He made his next appearance at the Medibank International in Sydney where he lost in the first round of qualifying. At the 2010 Australian Open, he lost to Łukasz Kubot from Poland in straight sets.  He regained his form at the European indoor tournaments. In Marseille he reached the semifinal, defeating world No. 17 Tommy Robredo along the way. He lost to eventual champion Michaël Llodra. His good form carried on – he went on to win after saving a match point in his first round match in Delray Beach against Michael Russell before falling to Mardy Fish in two sets. He lost his opening match in Indian Wells. At the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, Zverev was knocked out in the first round of qualifying. He would not win a main draw match in a tournament for the next seven weeks. In preparation for Wimbledon he accepted a Wildcard into the 2010 Gerry Weber Open where he defeated Florent Serra and Jürgen Melzer before falling to Benjamin Becker. Again, he seemed to have found some form – however, he was defeated by Andre Begemann in the first round of qualifying at Wimbledon. Zverev then decided to enter more ATP Challenger Tour events and reached the quarterfinals of the Oberstaufen Challenger. Despite being granted a wildcard into both Stuttgart and Hamburg, he could not manage to win more than one match.  At the 2010 US Open, he was knocked out in the first round of qualifying again. He then returned to Europe playing a clay court ATP Challenger Tour Event in Genoa. He reached the quarter-finals where he was defeated by eventual champion Fabio Fognini. Two weeks later he managed to qualify for the Open de Moselle in Metz. Zverev reached his maiden ATP World Tour singles final after victories over Horacio Zeballos, Nicolas Mahut, Jarkko Nieminen and the retirement of Richard Gasquet in the semifinals. In the final Zverev played Gilles Simon to whom he lost in two sets. He qualified for the main draw of the ATP World Tour Masters 1000 tournament in Shanghai. In the main draw he lost to Juan Mónaco in the third round after beating Sergiy Stakhovsky and Nikolay Davydenko in the first and second rounds respectively. At the end of October he again qualified for an ATP tournament, this time at Montpellier. He defeated Robin Haase in the first round before falling to Nikolay Davydenko in the second round. He finished the year at No. 82, having made $318,805 in prize money in addition to a compiling a singles match record of 13–18.

2011.

Zverev had a slow start to 2011, losing four matches in a row before capturing his first win of the season in Indian Wells, where he made the second round after defeating Matthew Ebden. He then lost another four matches in a row again, prior to his victory over Dudi Sela in the first round at the Serbia Open.

2012–2015.

Zverev played mainly in tournaments either on the ATP Challenger Tour or the ITF Men's Circuit during this time.

2016: Shanghai Masters quarterfinal.

In April 2016, Zverev won his first ATP Challenger singles title in over eight years at the Sarasota Open.  At the 2016 Shanghai Masters, the German defeated world No. 14 Nick Kyrgios in the second round. He then beat Marcel Granollers before losing a close match to world No. 1 Novak Djokovic in the quarterfinals.  Zverev got to the semifinals at the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel after beating world No. 3 Stan Wawrinka.

2017: First Grand Slam quarterfinal, first seeding at a Grand Slam & cracking the top 30.

Zverev started his 2017 season at the Brisbane International with a loss to Rafael Nadal in the second round, winning only two games. However, at the 2017 Australian Open, Zverev was able to reach the quarterfinals after defeating world No. 1 Andy Murray in the fourth round, marking the biggest accomplishment of his career to date. Zverev ultimately ended up losing to the eventual champion and 17th seed, Roger Federer in straight sets, ending his remarkable run. In Indian Wells he was the 29th seed, marking the first time he has been seeded in a Masters tournament and thus meaning he would get a bye into the second round. In the second round he faced former world No. 28 Joao Sousa and defeated him in straight sets, then faced 8th seed Dominic Thiem against whom he lost to in straight sets. At the 2017 Miami Open he was the 28th seed, again receiving a bye into the second round, but he lost to qualifier Jared Donaldson. Zverev made his 2nd ATP level final at the Geneva Open losing in 3 sets to Stan Wawrinka. He was seeded for the first time at a Grand Slam in Paris as the 32nd seed, but lost in the first round to the unseeded Stefano Napolitano. At the 2017 MercedesCup the home crowd saw him reach the semifinals, where he lost a close three setter to Feliciano Lopez. Then at the 2017 Gerry Weber Open he won against Lukas Lacko in straight sets, before losing in two close sets to eight time Halle champion Roger Federer. In Halle doubles action he would make his second final of the year, partnering his younger brother Alexander. At the 2017 Wimbledon Championships as the 27th seed Zverev reached the third round after beating Bernard Tomic and Mikhail Kukushkin. By virtue of his Wimbledon showing, Mischa would move up to a career-best world No. 25 in the ATP rankings. As the 23rd seed, he made the fourth round at the next Grand Slam, the US Open. Zverev would go on to finish the year ranked No. 33, improving 18 spots from his previous best finish in 2016.

2018: First ATP title.

After pulling out of the first round of the Australian Open while trailing Hyeon Chung 6–2, 4–1, Zverev was fined a record $45,000 for an 'unprofessional first round performance', becoming the first player to be fined under the new rule. The fine represented nearly all of the prize money he would have received for losing in the first round.  Zverev won his first career ATP title at the 2018 Eastbourne International, defeating Nicolás Jarry, seventh seed Steve Johnson, third seed Denis Shapovalov, Mikhail Kukushkin, and Lukáš Lacko.

Performance timelines.

Singles.

"Current through the 2020 Mexican Open."

Record against other players.

Record against top-10 players.

Zverev's match record against players who have been ranked in the Top 10, with those who are active in boldface. Includes only ATP Tour main draw matches.

Records.

"The following record was attained during the Open Era."

Mikhail "Mischa" Alexandrovich Zverev (, ; born 22 August 1987) is a German professional tennis player of Russian descent. He achieved a career-high singles ranking of world No. 25 on 24 July 2017.


Early life.

Bridie was born and raised in Melbourne, Australia, the eldest of three children. She has two younger brothers. Her mother, Kiffy Rubbo, was a gallery director.

Career.

Carter has been acting since the age of six and started her first classes at the Bouverie Street Theatre in Carlton, Melbourne. She graduated from the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1994. She is perhaps best known for her starring role as Tess Silverman McLeod in the hit Nine Network television series "McLeod's Daughters"; she appeared on the show for its first six seasons. She was nominated for many Silver and Gold Logies for her performance as Tess McLeod, including the industry-voted Most Outstanding Actress in 2004.  Carter's recent television credits include "Wild Boys" for the Seven Network and "" for the Nine Network, both in 2011. Other television credits include "G.P.", "Water Rats", "All Saints", "Home and Away", "Murder Call", and "Above the Law", where she had the starring role of Senior Constable Debbie Curtis. Her film credits include Princess Pictures' "I Love You Too", "Fresh Air", and the short film, "There's A Hippopotamus on My Roof Eating Cake".  In 2009, she reunited with her "McLeod's Daughters" costar Aaron Jeffery in A.R. Gurney's "Love Letters". She appeared in "No Names No Packdrill" at Sydney's Parade Theatre in 2006.  In 2007, she won the seventh season of Australian "Dancing with the Stars" with her dance partner, Craig Monley.  She played Jan, a recurring role, in the Aussie/New Zealand hit "800 Words".

Personal life.

In early May 2004, she married clothing designer Michael Wilson; they have two children.

Bridie Carter (born 18 December 1970) is an Australian actress best known for her role as the main character of Tess Silverman McLeod on the television drama series "McLeod's Daughters".


Personal.

Camarda is a native of Ozone Park, Queens, New York and graduated from academic and athletic powerhouse Archbishop Molloy High School in 1970. Speaking of his early interest in space flight, Camarda said, "It was a time when spaceflight was so intriguing. It was natural for me to want to be an astronaut, to dream of being an astronaut." He has one daughter, Chelsea Camarda Morton, one grandson, Vincent Cash Morton, and one granddaughter, Kennedy Grace Morton.

Education.

Camarda graduated from Nativity B.V.M. and went to Archbishop Molloy High School. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in aerospace engineering from Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn in 1974, a master's degree in engineering science from George Washington University in 1980, and a doctorate in aerospace engineering from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1990.

Career.

After receiving his bachelor's degree, Camarda began work as a research scientist at the NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. In the Thermal Structures Branch, he was responsible for demonstrating the viability of a heat-pipe cooled leading edge for the Space Shuttle. Camarda then headed up the High-Speed Research and Reusable Launch Vehicle programs and oversaw several test facilities such as the Thermal Structure Laboratory, where he worked on numerous Shuttle component developments.  Camarda holds seven patents on various innovations, including NASA's Heat-Pipe-Cooled Sandwich Panel, named one of the top 100 technical innovations of 1983 by Industrial Research Magazine. After more than 20 years of experience in diverse Shuttle technology applications, he made a career change that put him closer to his work while achieving his dream. Camarda was named a mission specialist in 1996. He also served as a faculty at NYU Poly.

NASA career.

Camarda served as a back-up crew member for Expedition 8 of the International Space Station. His first space flight was STS-114, NASA's "return to flight" mission following the loss of Space Shuttle "Columbia".  Camarda continues to work for NASA and has pioneered an engineering pedagogical approach called EPIC - that explores how to develop a mission as a collaborative training project. He has toured with this including in Finland in 2018.

Charles Joseph "Charlie" Camarda (born May 8, 1952 in Queens, New York) is an American engineer and a NASA astronaut who flew his first mission into space on board the Space Shuttle mission STS-114. He served as Senior Advisor for Engineering Development at NASA Langley Research Center.


Homologues.

The most studied homologues of cyclin D are found in yeast and viruses.  The yeast homologue of cyclin D, referred to as CLN3, interacts with Cdc28 (cell division control protein) during G1.  In viruses, like Saimiriine herpesvirus 2 ("Herpesvirus saimiri") and Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8/Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus) cyclin D homologues have acquired new functions in order to manipulate the host cell's metabolism to the viruses’ benefit. Viral cyclin D binds human Cdk6 and inhibits Rb by phosphorylating it, resulting in free transcription factors which result in protein transcription that promotes passage through G1 phase of the cell cycle. Other than Rb, viral cyclin D-Cdk6 complex also targets p27, a Cdk inhibitor of cyclin E and A. In addition, viral cyclin D-Cdk6 is resistant to Cdk inhibitors, such as p21 and p16 which in human cells inhibits Cdk4 by preventing it from forming an active complex with cyclin D.

Structure.

Cyclin D possesses a tertiary structure similar to other cyclins called the cyclin fold. This contains a core of two compact domains with each having five alpha helices. The first five-helix bundle is a conserved cyclin box, a region of about 100 amino acid residues on all cyclins, which is needed for Cdk binding and activation. The second five-helix bundle is composed of the same arrangement of helices, but the primary sequence of the two subdomains is distinct. All three D-type cyclins (D1, D2, D3) have the same alpha 1 helix hydrophobic patch. However, it is composed of different amino acid residues as the same patch in cyclins E, A, and B.

Function.

Growth factors stimulate the Ras/Raf/ERK that induce cyclin D production. One of the members of the pathways, MAPK activates a transcription factor Myc, which alters transcription of genes important in cell cycle, among which is cyclin D. In this way, cyclin D is synthesized as long as the growth factor is present.  Cyclin D levels in proliferating cells are sustained as long as the growth factors are present, a key player for G1/S transition is active cyclin D-Cdk4/6 complexes. Cyclin D has no effect on G1/S transition unless it forms a complex with Cdk 4 or 6.

G1/S transition.

One of the best known substrates of cyclin D/Cdk4 and -6 is the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (Rb). Rb is an important regulator of genes responsible for progression through the cell cycle, in particular through G1/S phase.  One model proposes that cyclin D quantities, and thus cyclin D- Cdk4 and -6 activity, gradually increases during G1 rather than oscillating in a set pattern as do S and M cyclins. This happens in response to sensors of external growth-regulatory signals and cell growth, and Rb is phosphorylated as a result. Rb reduces its binding to E2F and thereby allows E2F-mediated activation of the transcription of cyclin E and cyclin A, which bind to Cdk1 and Cdk2 respectively to create complexes that continue with Rb phosphorylation. Cyclin A and E dependent kinase complexes also function to inhibit the E3 ubiquitin ligase APC/C activating subunit Cdh1 through phosphorylation, which stabilizes substrates such as cyclin A. The coordinated activation of this sequence of interrelated positive feedback loops through cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases drives commitment to cell division to and past the G1/S checkpoint.  Another model proposes that cyclin D levels remain nearly constant through G1. Rb is mono-phosphorylated during early to mid-G1by cyclin D-Cdk4,6, opposing the idea that its activity gradually increases. Cyclin D dependent monophosphorylated Rb still interacts with E2F transcription factors in a way that inhibits transcription of enzymes that drive the G1/S transition. Rather, E2F dependent transcription activity increases when that of Cdk2 increases and hyperphosphorylates Rb towards the end of G1. Rb may not be the only target for cyclin D to promote cell proliferation and progression through the cell cycle. The cyclin D-Cdk4,6, complex, through phosphorylation and inactivation of metabolic enzymes, also influences cell survival. Through close analysis of different Rb-docking helices, a consensus helix sequence motif was identified, which can be utilized to identify potential non-canonical substrates that cyclin D-Cdk4,6 could use to promote proliferation.

Docking to Rb.

RxL- and LxCxE- based docking mutations broadly affect cyclin-Cdk complexes. Mutations of key Rb residues previously observed to be needed for Cdk complex docking interactions result in reduced overall kinase activity towards Rb. The LxCxE binding cleft in the Rb pocket domain, which has been shown to interact with proteins such as cyclin D and viral oncoproteins, has only a marginal 1.7 fold reduction in phosphorylation by cyclin D-Cdk4,6 when removed. Similarly, when the RxL motif, shown to interact with the S phase cyclins E and A, is removed, cyclin D-Cdk4,6 activity has a 4.1 fold reduction. Thus, the RxL- and LxCxE based docking sites have interactions with cyclin D-Cdk4,6 like they do with other cyclins, and removal of them have modest a modest effect in G1 progression.  Cyclin D-Cdk 4,6 complexes target Rb for phosphorylation through docking a C-terminal helix. When the final 37 amino acid residues are truncated, it had previously been shown that Rb phosphorylation levels are reduced and G1 arrest is induced. Kinetic assays have shown that with the same truncation, the reduction of Rb phosphorylation by cyclin D1-Cdk4,6 is 20 fold and Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) is significantly increased. The phosphorylation of Rb by cyclin A-Cdk2, cyclin B-Cdk1, and cyclin E-Cdk2 are unaffected.  The C terminus has a stretch of 21 amino acids with alpha-helix propensity. Deletion of this helix or disruption of it via proline residue substitutions also show a significant reduction in Rb phosphorylation. The orientation of the residues, along with the acid-base properties and polarities are all critical for docking. Thus, the LxCxE, RxL, and helix docking sites all interact with different parts of cyclin D, but disruption of any two of the three mechanism can disrupt the phosphorylation of Rb in vitro. The helix binding, perhaps the most important, functions as a structural requirement. It makes evolving more difficult, leading the cyclin D-Cdk4/6 complex to have relatively small number of substrates relative to other cyclin-Cdk complexes. Ultimately this contributes to the adequate phosphorylation of a key target in Rb.  All six cyclin D-Cdk4,6 complexes (cyclin D1/D2/D3 with Cdk4/6) target Rb for phosphorylation through helix-based docking. The shared α 1 helix hydrophobic patch that all cyclin D's have is not responsible for recognizing the C-terminal helix. Rather, it recognizes the RxL sequences that are linear, including those on Rb. Through experiments with purified cyclin D1-Cdk2, it was concluded that the helix docking site likely lies on cyclin D rather than the Cdk4,6. As a result, likely another region on cyclin D recognizes the Rb C-terminal helix.  Since Rb's C – terminal helix exclusively binds cyclin D-Cdk4,6 and not other cell cycle dependent cyclin-Cdk complexes, through experiments mutating this helix in HMEC cells, it has been conclusively shown that the cyclin D – Rb interaction is critical in the following roles (1) promoting the G1/S transition (2) allowing Rb dissociation from chromatin, and (3) E2F1 activation.

Regulation.

In vertebrates.

Cyclin D is regulated by the downstream pathway of mitogen receptors via the Ras/MAP kinase and the β-catenin-Tcf/LEF pathways and PI3K. The MAP kinase ERK activates the downstream transcription factors Myc, AP-1 and Fos which in turn activate the transcription of the Cdk4, Cdk6 and cyclin D genes, and increase ribosome biogenesis. Rho family GTPases, integrin linked kinase and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) activate cyclin D gene in response to integrin.  p27 and p21 are cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs) which negatively regulate CDKs. However they are also promoters of the cyclin D-CDK4/6 complex. Without p27 and p21, cyclin D levels are reduced and the complex is not formed at detectable levels.  In eukaryotes, overexpression of translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) leads to an increased level of cyclin D protein and increased amount of cyclin D mRNA outside of the nucleus. This is because eIF4E promotes the export of cyclin D mRNAs out of the nucleus.  Inhibition of cyclin D via i.a. inactivation or degradation leads to cell cycle exit and differentiation. Inactivation of cyclin D is triggered by several cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor protein (CKIs) like the INK4 family (e.g. p14, p15, p16, p18). INK4 proteins are activated in response to hyperproliferative stress response that inhibits cell proliferation due to overexpression of e.g. Ras and Myc. Hence, INK4 binds to cyclin D- dependent CDKs and inactivates the whole complex. Glycogen synthase kinase three beta, GSK3β, causes Cyclin D degradation by inhibitory phosphorylation on threonine 286 of the Cyclin D protein. GSK3β is negatively controlled by the PI3K pathway in form of phosphorylation, which is one of several ways in which growth factors regulate cyclin D. Amount of cyclin D in the cell can also be regulated by transcriptional induction, stabilization of the protein, its translocation to the nucleus and its assembly with Cdk4 and Cdk6.  It has been shown that the inhibition of cyclin D (cyclin D1 and 2, in particular) could result from the induction of WAF1/CIP1/p21 protein by PDT. By inhibiting cyclin D, this induction also inhibits Ckd2 and 6. All these processes combined lead to an arrest of the cell in G0/G1 stage.  There are two ways in which DNA damage affects Cdks. Following DNA damage, cyclin D (cyclin D1) is rapidly and transiently degraded by the proteasome. This degradation causes release of p21 from Cdk4 complexes, which inactivates Cdk2 in a p53-independent manner. Another way in which DNA damage targets Cdks is p53-dependent induction of p21, which inhibits cyclin E-Cdk2 complex. In healthy cells, wild-type p53 is quickly degraded by the proteasome. However, DNA damage causes it to accumulate by making it more stable.

In yeast.

A simplification in yeast is that all cyclins bind to the same Cdc subunit, the Cdc28. Cyclins in yeast are controlled by expression, inhibition via CKIs like Far1, and degradation by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis.

Role in cancer.

Given that many human cancers happen in response to errors in cell cycle regulation and in growth factor dependent intracellular pathways, involvement of cyclin D in cell cycle control and growth factor signaling makes it a possible oncogene. In normal cells overproduction of cyclin D shortens the duration of G1 phase only, and considering the importance of cyclin D in growth factor signaling, defects in its regulation could be responsible for absence of growth regulation in cancer cells. Uncontrolled production of cyclin D affects amounts of cyclin D-Cdk4 complex being formed, which can drive the cell through the G0/S checkpoint, even when the growth factors are not present.  Evidence that cyclin D1 is required for tumorigenesis includes the finding that inactivation of cyclin D1 by anti-sense or gene deletion reduced breast tumor and gastrointestinal tumor growth in vivo. Cyclin D1 overexpression is sufficient for the induction of mammary tumorigenesis, attributed to the induction of cell proliferation, increased cell survival, induction of chromosomal instability, restraint of autophagy and potentially non-canonical functions.  Overexpression is induced as a result of gene amplification, growth factor or oncogene induced expression by Src, Ras, ErbB2, STAT3, STAT5, impaired protein degradation, or chromosomal translocation. Gene amplification is responsible for overproduction of cyclin D protein in bladder cancer and esophageal carcinoma, among others. In cases of sarcomas, colorectal cancers and melanomas, cyclin D overproduction is noted, however, without the amplification of the chromosomal region that encodes it (chromosome 11q13, putative oncogene PRAD1, which has been identified as a translocation event in case of mantle cell lymphoma). In parathyroid adenoma, cyclin D hyper-production is caused by chromosomal translocation, which would place expression of cyclin D (more specifically, cyclin D1) under an inappropriate promoter, leading to overexpression. In this case, cyclin D gene has been translocated to the parathyroid hormone gene, and this event caused abnormal levels of cyclin D. The same mechanisms of overexpression of cyclin D is observed in some tumors of the antibody-producing B cells. Likewise, overexpression of cyclin D protein due to gene translocation is observed in human breast cancer.  Additionally, the development of cancer is also enhanced by the fact that retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (Rb), one of the key substrates of cyclin D-Cdk 4/6 complex, is quite frequently mutated in human tumors. In its active form, Rb prevents crossing of the G1 checkpoint by blocking transcription of genes responsible for advances in cell cycle. Cyclin D/Cdk4 complex phosphorylates Rb, which inactivates it and allows for the cell to go through the checkpoint. In the event of abnormal inactivation of Rb, in cancer cells, an important regulator of cell cycle progression is lost. When Rb is mutated, levels of cyclin D and p16INK4 are normal.  Another regulator of passage through G1 restriction point is Cdk inhibitor p16, which is encoded by INK4 gene. P16 functions in inactivating cyclin D/Cdk 4 complex. Thus, blocking transcription of INK4 gene would increase cyclin D/Cdk4 activity, which would in turn result in abnormal inactivation of Rb. On the other hand, in case of cyclin D in cancer cells (or loss of p16INK4) wild-type Rb is retained. Due to the importance of p16INK/cyclin D/Cdk4 or 6/Rb pathway in growth factor signaling, mutations in any of the players involved can give rise to cancer.

Mutant phenotype.

Studies with mutants suggest that cyclins are positive regulators of cell cycle entry. In yeast, expression of any of the three G1 cyclins triggers cell cycle entry. Since cell cycle progression is related to cell size, mutations in Cyclin D and its homologues show a delay in cell cycle entry and thus, cells with variants in cyclin D have bigger than normal cell size at cell division.  p27/ knockout phenotype show an overproduction of cells because cyclin D is not inhibited anymore, while p27/ and cyclin D/ knockouts develop normally.

Cyclin D is a member of the cyclin protein family that is involved in regulating cell cycle progression. The synthesis of cyclin D is initiated during G1 and drives the G1/S phase transition. Cyclin D protein is anywhere from 155 (in zebra mussel) to 477 (in "Drosophila") amino acids in length.


Background.

The Spanish–American War began on April 25, 1898, due to a series of escalating disputes between the two nations, and ended on December 10, 1898, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. It resulted in Spain's loss of its control over the remains of its overseas empire. After much of mainland Latin America had achieved independence, Cuba tried its hand at revolution in 1868–1878, and again in the 1890s, led by José Martí, or "El Apóstol." Martí returned to Cuba and participated at first in the struggles against the Spanish government, but was killed on May 19, 1895. The Philippines at this time also became resistant to Spanish colonial rule. August 26, 1896 presented the first call to revolt, led by Andrés Bonifacio, succeeded by Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy, who had his predecessor arrested. Bonifacio was executed on May 10, 1897. Aguinaldo then negotiated the Pact of Biak-na-Bato with the Spaniards and was exiled to Hong Kong along with the other revolutionary leaders.  The Spanish–American War that followed had overwhelming U.S. public support due to the popular fervor towards supporting Cuban freedom as well as furthering U.S. economic interests overseas. The U.S. was particularly attracted to the developing sugar industry in Cuba. The U.S. military even resorted to falsifying reports in the Philippines in order to maintain public support for U.S. involvement abroad. The U.S. appealed to the principles of Manifest Destiny and expansionism to justify its participation in the war, proclaiming that it was America's fate and its duty to take charge in these overseas nations.  On September 16, U.S. President William McKinley issued secret written instructions to his emissaries as the Spanish–American War drew to a close:

Negotiations.

Article V of the peace protocol between United States and Spain on August 12, 1898 read as follows:  The composition of the American commission was somewhat unusual in that three of its members were senators, which meant, as many newspapers pointed out, that they would later vote on the ratification of their own negotiations. These were American delegation's members:  The Spanish commission included the Spanish diplomats Eugenio Montero Ríos, Buenaventura de Abarzuza, José de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramírez de Villa-Urrutia, Rafael Cerero, and the French diplomat Jules Cambon.  The American delegation, headed by former Secretary of State William R. Day, who had vacated his position as US Secretary of State to head the commission, arrived in Paris on September 26, 1898. The negotiations were conducted in a suite of rooms at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the first session, on October 1, the Spanish demanded that before the talks got underway, the return of the city of Manila, which had been captured by the Americans a few hours after the signing of the peace protocol in Washington, to Spanish authority. The Americans refused to consider the idea and, for the moment, it was pursued no further.  Felipe Agoncillo, a Filipino lawyer who represented the First Philippine Republic, was denied participation in the negotiation.  For almost a month, negotiations revolved around Cuba. The Teller Amendment to the US declaration of war made it impractical for the US to annex the island, unlike Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. At first, Spain refused to accept the Cuban national debt of four hundred million dollars, but ultimately, it had no choice. Eventually, it was agreed that Cuba was to be granted independence and for the Cuban debt to be assumed by Spain. It was also agreed that Spain would cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States.  The negotiators then turned to the question of the Philippines. Spanish negotiators were determined to hang onto all they could and hoped to cede only Mindanao and perhaps the Sulu Islands. On the American side, Chairman Day had once recommended the acquisition of only the naval base in Manila, as a "hitching post." Others had recommended retaining only the island of Luzon. However, in discussions with its advisers, the commission concluded that Spain, if it retained part of the Philippines, would be likely to sell it to another European power, which would likely be troublesome for America. On November 25, the American Commission cabled McKinley for explicit instructions. Their cable crossed one from McKinley saying that duty left him no choice but to demand the entire archipelago. The next morning, another cable from McKinley arrived:  On November 4, the Spanish delegation formally accepted the American demand, and Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta backed the commission. With the growing risk of the negotiations collapsing, there were mutters about resuming the war. The US elections on November 8, however, cut McKinley's Republican majority in the US Congress less than had been anticipated. The American delegation, therefore, took heart, and Frye unveiled a plan of offering Spain ten or twenty million dollars for the islands.  After some discussion, the American delegation offered twenty million dollars on November 21, one tenth of a valuation that had been estimated in internal discussions in October, and requested an answer within two days. Montero Ríos said angrily that he could reply at once, but the American delegation had already departed from the conference table. When the two sides met again, Queen-Regent Maria Christina had cabled her acceptance. Montero Ríos then recited his formal reply:  Work on the final draft of the treaty began on November 30. It was signed on December 10, 1898. The next step was ratification. In Madrid, the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislature, rejected it, but Maria Christina signed it as she was empowered to do by a clause in the Spanish constitution.

US ratification.

In the US Senate, there were four main schools of thought on US imperialism that influenced the debate on the treaty's ratification. Republicans generally supported the treaty, but those opposed either aimed to defeat the treaty or exclude the provision that stipulated the acquisition of the Philippines. Most Democrats favored expansion as well, particularly in the South. A minority of Democrats also favored the treaty on the basis of ending the war and granting independence to Cuba and the Philippines. During the Senate debate on ratification, Senators George Frisbie Hoar and George Graham Vest were outspoken opponents. Hoar stated:  Some anti-expansionists stated that the treaty committed the US to a course of empire and violated the most basic tenets of the US Constitution. They argued that neither the Congress nor the President had the right to pass laws that governed colonial peoples who were not represented by lawmakers.  Some Senate expansionists supported the treaty and reinforced such views by arguing:  Expansionists said that the Constitution applied only to US citizens, an idea that was later supported by the US Supreme Court in the Insular Cases.  As the Senate debate continued, Andrew Carnegie and former President Grover Cleveland petitioned the Senate to reject the treaty. Both men adamantly opposed such imperialist policies and participated in the American Anti-Imperialist League, along with other such prominent members as Mark Twain and Samuel Gompers.  The treaty was eventually approved on February 6, 1899, by a vote of 57 to 27, just over the two-thirds majority required. Only two Republicans voted against ratification: George Frisbie Hoar of Massachusetts and Eugene Pryor Hale of Maine. Senator Nelson W. Aldrich had opposed entry into the Spanish–American War but supported McKinley after it began. He played a central role in winning the treaty's two-thirds majority ratification.

Provisions.

The Treaty of Paris provided for the independence of Cuba from Spain, but the US Congress ensured indirect US control by the Platt Amendment and the Teller Amendment. Spain relinquished all claims of sovereignty over and title to Cuba. Upon Spain's departure, Cuba was to be occupied by the US, which would assume and discharge any obligations of international law by its occupation.  The treaty also specified that Spain would cede Puerto Rico and the other islands under Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies as well as the island of Guam in the Mariana Islands to the US.  The treaty also specified that Spain would cede the Philippine Islands, including the islands within a specified line, to the US, and that the United States would pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars.  Specifics of the cession of the Philippines were later clarified by the 1900 Treaty of Washington. The boundary between the Philippines and North Borneo was further clarified by the Convention Between the United States and Great Britain (1930).

Aftermath.

Victory in the Spanish–American War turned the US into a world power because the attainment of the territories of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines expanded its economic dominance in the Pacific. Its growth continued to have effects on US foreign and economic policy well into the next century. Furthermore, McKinley's significant role in advancing the ratification of the treaty transformed the presidential office from a weaker position to a prototype of the stronger presidency that is more seen today.  The US military occupation also continued to have further impacts abroad. In the Philippines, revolts against US involvement, initiated on February 4, 1899, quickly surpassing the fighting that had just ended against the Spanish. As one Filipino writer noted in 1899:  Now here is a unique spectacle – the Filipinos fighting for liberty, the American people fighting to give them liberty.  According to the US National Park Service, "The Spanish–American War and its aftermath delayed Philippine independence until after World War II, but established a relationship that fostered a substantial Filipino population within U.S. borders."  Furthermore, the Platt Amendment allowed the US to continue its occupation of Cuba without annexing it despite promises that had been made during the war and negotiations over Cuban freedom. To maintain control in Cuba, the US government espoused the idea that the Cuban people were unprepared for self-governance. As US Senator Stephen Elkins noted:  When Cuba shall become a part of the American Union and the isthmian canal shall be completed, which is now assured, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii and the Philippines will be outposts of the great Republic, standing guard over American interests in the track of the world's commerce in its triumphant march around the globe. Our people will soon see and feel that these island possessions belonging to the United States are natural and logical, and in the great part we are to play in the affairs of the world we would not only give them up but wonder how the working of our natural destiny we could get on without them. The splendid chain of island possessions, reaching half-way around the world, would not be complete without Cuba, the gem of the Antilles.  Overall, those occupations greatly contributed to the era's growing economic role of the US.

The Treaty of Paris of 1898 (Filipino: "Kasunduan sa Paris ng 1898;" Spanish: "Tratado de París de 1898") was a treaty signed by Spain and the United States on December 10, 1898, that ended the Spanish–American War. Under it, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over and title to Cuba and also ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States. The cession of the Philippines involved a compensation of $20 million from the United States to Spain.


Origins.

Although corporations are now typically associated with private business, historically corporations began as means to serve defined and limited public purposes. Corporation history has roots primarily in government subdivisions and religious institutions, where the institution itself is identifiable independently of its membership's mortality. For example, if the Pope dies, the Catholic Church continues to exist, just as it continues to exist as generations pass on and get replaced by new members.  Public-benefit corporations likely have their direct roots in mercantile capitalism. In the early days of European exploration and colonization, a government or monarch would sometimes grant a charter to an entity defining a legal body ("corporation") and make potentially risky investments. While certainly not public-benefit corporations by today's standards, entities such as the Massachusetts Bay Company, Hudson's Bay Company, and the Dutch East India Company arguably are prototypical examples of publicly chartered (in this case, crown-chartered) corporations successfully undertaking defined activities with the support of privately contributed investments.

History.

The modern era of delegation of government authority to a chartered corporation is marked by the United Kingdom Port of London Authority, established 1908. According to the Port of London Acts The Authority is a public trust established to "administer, preserve and improve the Port of London." The goal was to create an entity that would be run self-sufficiently like a private company yet remain under the control of the government. The name "Authority" is derived from the founding act of Parliament which repeatedly stated that ""Authority is hereby given..."" The special status of this entity and the fact that it remained subject to administrative law was established by the UK courts in "" [1919] 1 KB 176.

Incorporation and powers.

Public-benefit corporations are generally governed by boards of directors, which are appointed, rather than elected, and, internally, reflect bureaucratic forms. The corporation is government-owned and performs a specific, narrow function for the public good.  Public-benefit corporations are most often created by statute. In many Commonwealth countries, public-benefit corporations continue to receive charters from the British monarchy. In the United States, they receive their charters usually from states, but possibly from the federal government.  Public authorities are usually created with a specific mandate, such as the construction of bridges, mass transit, etc. Unlike departments or ministries of the state, these corporations usually are enabled by statute to raise revenues through bond issues.  For more information, read below about individual jurisdictions.

By location.

United Kingdom.

The first reference to public-benefit corporations in United Kingdom law is in the Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003, which established NHS Foundation Trusts as public-benefit corporations. Schedule 1 of the Act sets out the requirements for a public-benefit corporation which include a membership made up of individuals living in a specific area, employees of the corporation and service users, and a board of governors some of whom are elected by the members based on "constituencies" such as staff, users or public. British authorities have used other terms with similar functions to public-benefit corporations such as statutory authority, QUANGO and crown corporation.  Public-benefit corporations are distinguishable from public authorities in that the latter do not have a membership.  Examples of other bodies which have a similar role to, whilst not being formally called, public-benefit corporations include the BBC, which is incorporated by royal charter. Many universities have charters going back centuries, and so are also chartered corporations.

Canada.

Via Rail in Canada is an independent crown corporation offering intercity passenger rail services in Canada. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation is another example.  The Province of Ontario shares two international public-benefit corporations with the U.S. state of New York:

Russia.

In Russia the law "On Noncommercial Organizations" describes the status state corporations. It is a special form of noncommercial partnership founded by the state to fulfill socially significant tasks. The activities of each corporation are described in a special federal law. Assets transferred to a state corporation are not state property from the legal point of view. Under the law "On Noncommercial Organizations", property transferred to as the investment in a partnership is the property of the partnership. The partnership itself is no one's property. It manages its assets as described in its charter. The rights of the founder are considerable in the partnership, but they are still not ownership rights. There is only one founder in a state corporation, and it is the Russian Federation. That is why the state corporation is independent. It is a set of assets that are managed for purposes established in its charter by managers appointed by the founder. State corporations, as a rule, are subordinate not to the government, but to the Russian president, and act to accomplish some important goal. The state corporations can manage those assets as demanded by the sketchily described goals and tasks of the charters and as allowed by the supervisory council, on which there is no one the president does not trust.

United States.

The U.S. Constitution is silent about the federal government's creation of corporations; the power to define and create corporations (other than as agencies of the U.S. government) is mostly reserved to the individual states. The interstate commerce clause of the constitution gives implicit authority to create private federally-chartered commercial corporations; the most numerous of these are federally chartered banks and similar financial institutions. The federal government has established certain corporations by act of Congress, mostly non-profit organizations serving the public interest, such as the Civil Air Patrol, as well as various charitable, fraternal, and veterans' organizations. In addition, certain parastatals, which are for-profit, but may exercise unique powers, such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, have federal charters.  Private corporations were not common in the early United States, and were created by act in early state legislatures. This was typically done for a public purpose, such as for the building and maintenance of a toll bridge or toll road, or a water utility. Today private corporations may be created by simply filing appropriate documents with the appropriate department one of the states.  Public benefit corporations of the federal government are often Independent agencies of the United States government as a form of government-owned corporation. Examples of federal public-benefit corporations created, owned and operated by the U.S. government include Amtrak, the United States Postal Service and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Many public authorities in the United States are interstate compacts or local and regional entities spanning multiple municipalities on the county or state level.

California.

California corporation law designates three types of non-profit corporations – religious corporations, such as religious orders; mutual benefit corporations, such as a condominium associations; and public benefit corporations, including entities such as hospitals or colleges. The assets of a public benefit corporations are irrevocably dedicated to its public or charitable purpose.  Under California law a public benefit corporation may be created by a public entity – as the two examples above suggest, but the definition in the California Codes is very specific.

Colorado.

The Colorado General Assembly in House Bill 13-1138 allows for public benefit corporations. Section 7-101-503(2), C.R.S., defines public benefit as "one or more positive effects or reduction of negative effects on one or more categories of persons, entities, communities, or interests other than shareholders in their capacities as shareholders, including effects of an artistic, charitable, cultural, economic, educational, environmental, literary, medical, religious, scientific, or technological nature."  The Fourth Estate is an example of a Colorado Public Benefit Cooperative chartered under the state's public benefit corporation statutes.

Delaware.

In July 2013, Governor Markell signed into law a new type of public benefit corporation.  The Delaware General Corporation Law (Title 8, Chapter 1 of the Delaware Code) was recently amended by Senate Bill No. 47, effective August 1, 2013, adding a new subchapter XV, which authorizes the creation of public benefits corporations. As defined in the GCL, a PBC is a for-profit corporation intended to produce a public benefit and operate in a responsible and sustainable manner. The PBC is to be managed in a manner that balances stockholders' pecuniary interests, the best interests of those materially affected by the corporation's conduct, and the public benefit for which the PBC is formed.  In June 2015, Senate Bill No. 75 amended Delaware PBC rules to make it easier to form, operate or convert into a PBC, by facilitating the naming of PBCs, simplifying the issuance of stock options in PBCs and reducing the voting threshold for conversion from 90 percent to two-thirds of stockholders.  Kickstarter is also a public benefit corporation chartered in Delaware.

Georgia.

As of February 2016, the Georgia legislature is considering House Bill 1052, which would add benefit corporations to Georgia's existing for-profit corporate code.

Illinois.

The Bi-State Development Agency is a bi-state agency managing public transportation between southern Illinois and Missouri. It serves the St. Louis metropolitan area.  The Regional Transportation Authority (RTA) oversees funding and operation of public transit in the Illinois portion of the Chicago metropolitan area.  Another public benefit corporation is the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority.

Massachusetts.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Massachusetts are as follows:  Effective December 1, 2012, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts allows for the charter of public benefit corporations that may make profits, but which may put social goals on par with profits, unlike traditional for-profit corporations. Public benefit corporations are incorporated under Chapter 156A or 156D and may choose to prioritize environmental and social aims over profit.

Minnesota.

The state of Minnesota has enacted a Public Benefit Corporation Act, effective January 2015. A Minnesota public benefit corporation is defined as an entity created under the state's business corporation statute, which "elects in its articles to pursue general public benefit..." "General public benefit," in turn, is defined as "a net material positive impact from the business and operations...on society, the environment, and the well-being of present and future generations."

Missouri.

An example of a public benefit corporation which Missouri authorized is the Bi-State Development Agency.

New Jersey.

The New Jersey Turnpike Authority (NJTA) is a public-benefit corporation in New Jersey, created by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority Act of 1948.  The Delaware River and Bay Authority controls the Delaware Memorial Bridge between Delaware and New Jersey, and is a bi-state agency. The Delaware River Port Authority is a bi-state agency of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey is a bi-state agency shared with New York.  NJ Transit, formed in 1979 operates bus, light rail and passenger rail service in New Jersey and in neighboring states as well as funding and planning of bus and rail services and programs.  Although "Public Benefit Corporation" is not a statutorily defined term under State laws (New Jersey Statutes or the New Jersey Administrative Code), such corporations are among those included within the statutorily defined term "State Agency".

New Hampshire.

An example of a public benefit corporation in New Hampshire is as follows:

New York.

The widespread use of public authorities in the United States was pioneered in New York state by Robert Moses. New York likely has the most extensive number of public-benefit corporations in the country. The approval of the New York State Public Authorities Control Board is required in some cases when creating an authority. An authority may at times levy taxes and tolls; this means that they are not part of the usual state budgetary process, and gives them a certain independence.  In particular, public benefit corporations, or authorities are able to circumvent strict public debt limits in the New York State Constitution, effectively bypassing the constitution. Furthermore, they may make contracts; because of public authorities' corporate status, there is generally no remedy against the chartering State for the breach of such contracts. On the other hand, as agents of the state, public authorities are not subject to many laws governing private corporations, and are not subject to municipal regulation. Employees of public authorities usually are not state employees, but are employees of the authority. Public authorities can also often condemn property.  Among the major public-benefit corporations in New York state are the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, a bistate authority; and the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which manages most of the public transportation in and around New York City.

North Carolina.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in North Carolina are as follows:

Oregon.

Articles of incorporation may be filed listing the new entity as a Public Benefit company. Existing companies may be converted to Public Benefit. A checklist of requirements can be found at the Oregon Secretary of State, Public Benefit Corporation Page.

Tennessee.

Tennessee is arguably the banner state for the Tennessee Valley Authority's (TVA's) operations, which span a region extending into seven states (most of Tennessee and parts of six others), but the TVA is actually a federally owned public authority. The TVA has been key in aiding the region's economic development, most notably in the 1930s during the Great Depression.

Texas.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Texas are as follows:

Vermont.

Like Maine, the state of Vermont defines public-benefit corporations broadly. They include public-benefit corporations founded by the state and by private entities. The Vermont Economic Development Authority is an example of a state-owned public-benefit corporation.

Washington.

Some examples of public benefit corporations in Washington are as follows:

Other meanings.

More broadly, a public-benefit corporation could be any corporation that exists for a charitable purpose, though these are generally called non-profit corporations if they are not founded by a government. Some jurisdictions (the U.S. State of Maine, for instance) might define a public-benefit corporation broadly. In California, public-benefit corporations are one of several types of non-profit corporations.

Public-benefit corporations (PBC) are a specific type of corporation that allow for public benefit to be a charter purpose in addition to the traditional corporate goal of maximizing profit for shareholders. Depending on the country they may also be known as crown corporations, statutory corporations, or government owned corporations having monopoly over a specific service or market..