History.

The history of Native Hawaiians, like the history of Hawaii, is commonly classified into four major periods:

Origins.

One theory is that the first Polynesians arrived in Hawaii in the 3rd century from the Marquesas by travelling in groups of waka, and were followed by Tahitians in AD 1300, who then conquered the original inhabitants. Another is that a single, extended period of settlement populated the islands. Evidence for a Tahitian conquest of the islands include the legends of Hawaiiloa and the navigator-priest Paao, who is said to have made a voyage between Hawaii and the island of "Kahiki" (Tahiti) and introduced many customs. Early historians, such as Fornander and Beckwith, subscribed to this Tahitian invasion theory, but later historians, such as Kirch, do not mention it. King Kalākaua claimed that Paao was from Samoa.  Some writers claim that other settlers in Hawaii were forced into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about the Menehune, little people who built heiau and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians; but similar stories exist throughout Polynesia.

Demographics.

At the time of Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, the population is estimated to have been between 250,000 and 800,000. Some Hawaiians left the islands during the period of the Kingdom of Hawaii like Harry Maitey, who became the first Hawaiian in Prussia. Over the span of the first century after first contact, the native Hawaiians were nearly wiped out by diseases introduced to the islands. Native Hawaiians had no resistance to influenza, smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, among others. The 1900 U.S. Census identified 37,656 residents of full or partial native Hawaiian ancestry. The 2000 U.S. Census identified 283,430 residents of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, showing a dramatic growth trend since annexation by the U.S. in 1898.

Hawaiian language.

The Hawaiian language (or ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi) was once the primary language of the native Hawaiian people; today, native Hawaiians predominantly speak the English language. A major factor for this change was an 1896 law that required that English "be the only medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools". This law prevented the Hawaiian language from being taught as a second language. In spite of this, some native Hawaiians (as well as non-native Hawaiians) have learned ʻŌlelo as a second language. As with others local to Hawaii, native Hawaiians often speak Hawaiian Creole English (referred to in Hawaiʻi as Pidgin), a creole which developed during Hawaiʻi's plantation era in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with the influence of the various ethnic groups living in Hawaii during that time.  Nowadays ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the official language of the State of Hawaii, alongside English. The Hawaiian language has been promoted for revival most recently by a state program of cultural preservation enacted in 1978. Programs included the opening of Hawaiian language immersion schools, and the establishment of a Hawaiian language department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. As a result, Hawaiian language learning has climbed among all races in Hawaiʻi.  In 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo established a masters program in the Hawaiian Language. In fall 2006, they established a doctoral (Ph.D) program in the Hawaiian Language. In addition to being the first doctoral program for the study of Hawaiian, it is the first doctoral program established for the study of any native language in the United States of America. Both the masters and doctoral programs are considered by global scholars as pioneering in the revival of native languages.  Hawaiian is still spoken as the primary language by the residents on the private island of Niʻihau.

Hawai'i Sign Language.

Alongside 'Ōlelo Hawai'i, some Maoli (Native Hawaiians) spoke Hawai'i Sign Language (or HSL). Little is known about the language by Western academics and efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the language.

Education.

Hawaiian children are publicly educated under the same terms as any other children in the United States. In Hawaii, native Hawaiians are publicly educated by the Hawaiʻi State Department of Education, an ethnically diverse school system that is the United States' largest and most centralized.  Under the administration of Governor Benjamin J. Cayetano from 1994 to 2002, the state's educational system established special Hawaiian language immersion schools. In these schools, all subject courses are taught in the Hawaiian language and use native Hawaiian subject matter in curricula. These schools were created in the spirit of cultural preservation and are not exclusive to native Hawaiian children.  Native Hawaiians are eligible for an education from the Kamehameha Schools, established through the last will and testament of Bernice Pauahi Bishop of the Kamehameha Dynasty. The largest and wealthiest private school in the United States, Kamehameha Schools was intended to benefit indigents and orphans, with preference given to native Hawaiians. The Kamehameha Schools provides a quality education to thousands of children of entire and part native Hawaiian ancestry at its campuses during the regular school year, and also has quality summer and off-campus programs that are not restricted by ancestry. Kamehameha Schools' practice of accepting primarily gifted students, in lieu of intellectually challenged children, has been a controversial topic amongst the native Hawaiian community. Many'rejected' families feel that the gifted students could excel at any learning institution, public or private. Thus, the Hawaiian community may be better served by educating children from high-risk, high-crime districts so that a greater proportion of disadvantaged youths may grow up to be responsible community contributors.  As with other children in Hawaiʻi, some native Hawaiians are educated by other prominent private academies in the Aloha State. They include: Punahou School, Saint Louis School, Mid-Pacific Institute, and ʻIolani School.

Native Hawaiian ways of learning.

Native Hawaiians exemplify patterns of observational learning, a model that captures seven interrelated descriptions, or facets, of learning found in Indigenous communities in the Americas. Native Hawaiian views on learning flow from three basic tenets that correspond directly to the observational learning model: “"I ka nānā no a ʻike": by observing, one learns. "I ka hoʻolohe no a hoʻomaopopo:" by listening, one commits to memory. "I ka hana no a ʻike": by practice one masters the skill.”  Learner collaboration and contribution  Similar to the indigenous communities of the Americas, Native Hawaiian children contribute alongside the adults, and the adults' presence is there to offer support. In most Native Hawaiian communities, household work tasks, such as ironing and cooking, etc., play a major role in contributing to the home life and children's participation enhances their importance within the family. Native Hawaiian children have shared aspirations to accomplish collaborative tasks, and they individually take initiative to work together. Children absorb very early the community-wide belief that "hana" (work) is respected and laziness is shameful. The phrase “"E hoʻohuli ka lima i lalo"” (The palms of the hands should be turned down) was used to communicate the idea that idleness (associated with upturned palms) was to be avoided.  Collaborative and flexible ensembles  Native Hawaiian children cooperate with flexible leadership to combine their skills, ideas, and abilities, like that found in observational learning in the indigenous communities of the Americas. Family organization is a “shared-function” system that includes flexible roles and fluid responsibility within the group. Basic family values include interdependence, responsibility for others, sharing of work and resources, obedience, and respect. Children assume important family responsibilities early and act as members of a sibling workforce that is held collectively responsible for completing tasks.  Children also take initiative to help others in the classroom. It has been observed that when children are working in a group with their peers and face difficulty, they will scan the room for an adult to assist or turn to their close fellows to either ask for help. Children also scan to provide help to others when necessary. In this way, children shift between the roles of assisted and assistant. Adults were present and available, but the children were more often found to take the initiative to learn from, and teach, one another how to perform tasks such as sweeping, homework, and caring for younger siblings.  Learning to transform participation  Among Native Hawaiians, the goal of learning is to transform participation to encompass conscientious accountability as active contributing members of the community, like that found in LOPI. For example, in some Native Hawaiian communities, parent(s) teach the older siblings the necessary skills of care taking. Sibling care-taking skills can relate to indigenous American ways of learning by the children becoming considerate of their parents and taking on the responsibility when needed in case of a tragic incident with the parents. Within the classroom and home settings, adults are present but are not always directly monitoring the children. Children ask for help when necessary, but adults appear to rarely interject. Children appeared to adapt to tasks and situations by observations and go off on their own to collectively work out how and what to do to complete the task.  Assuming and initiating care has been found across Polynesian cultures, and Native Hawaiian practices are in keeping with this trend. One study observed, interviewed, and evaluated families on the Polynesian Island Sikaiana and found that fostering children from other families within the community is a common shared endeavor that serves to construct relationships, support the community, and nurture compassion and sympathy ("aloha"). As children mature within the family, they go through a process of having their needs attended and learn to provide and care for the younger children alongside the adults. Adolescent girls who are active caretakers are referred to as parents, even if there is no biological connection.  Wide and keen attention for contribution  The Hawaiians’ ways of learning include wide keen attention from the children while adults are available for guidance, also found in the model of Learning by Observing and Pitching In. Children were found to learn from adults by participating in group activities where they had the chance to observe the performance of more experienced participants as well as having errors in their own performance corrected by more seasoned group members. Because the children learn through observation, and then are encouraged to practice among their peers, we can speculate the children have keen attention to events around them, which is an expectation of adults and community members who are there to assist when needed. It has been observed that Hawaiian children were successful at completing tasks which greatly depend on visual and memory process skills, which coincides with Hawaiian mother's frequent use of non-verbal communication.  Coordination through shared reference  In some Native Hawaiian communities, there is a constant use of “talk story” which plays an essential role in promoting solidarity in the community by not overpowering or making the members of the community feel inadequate for not understanding something. Talk story can consist of recalled events, folktales, and joking. Joking can be used to tease and guide the children about how to do a chore better or to avoid serious trouble. Talk story relates to an Indigenous way of learning by providing conversations such as narratives and dramatizations with verbal and nonverbal communication between the elder and children.  Another example of verbal communication in the Native Hawaiian culture is through the use of chanting, which can allow a child to understand the relationship of their present experiences to those of their ancestors, both alive and deceased. Chanting also allows children to understand the connections of their chants to mother earth. For instance, chanting can voice the need for rain to produce plants and induce ponds to grow fish for harvest.  A study comparing Midwestern and Hawaiian mother – Kindergartener pairs presented with a novel task, found Hawaiian mothers to be much lower than their Midwestern counterparts in the use of verbal-control techniques and much higher in non-verbal communication, a finding which implies coordination through non-verbal and verbal means. Aspects of togetherness, continuity, purpose, and significance are a part of learning and coincide with the Native Hawaiian's spiritual connection to earth and environment.  Feedback that appraises mastery and support for learning  There is verbal and nonverbal guidance from parents to children with chores and other activities. For example, a pat on the shoulder can communicate to the child that he/she is doing the activity at hand the correct way. This example relates to the LOPI model by there being an appraisal from the parent(s) in order to support their progress in learning and contributing better in the community. As the child gradually advances towards more complex tasks, the goal of mastery and feedback on the adequacy of their contributions become more pronounced.  In the context of producing objects e.g. baskets, mats, or quilts, there was a belief that a child must produce a perfect end-product before moving on to learn the skills of producing something else. Perfection in these products was judged by more experienced craftspeople and was attained by repeated attempts interspersed with feedback. The perfected final products were kept as a special reminder and never used. Their production was seen as a necessary first step in “clearing the way” for other products to come; an indication of mastery for that skill set. Throughout several research articles, it becomes clear that many of the Native Hawaiian ways of learning resemble the defining characteristics of LOPI, which is common in many Indigenous communities of the Americas.

Hawaiian cultural revival.

Native Hawaiian culture has seen a revival in recent years as an outgrowth of decisions made at the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention, held 200 years after the arrival of Captain Cook. At the convention, the Hawaiʻi state government committed itself to a progressive study and preservation of native Hawaiian culture, history, and language.  A comprehensive Hawaiian culture curriculum was introduced into the State of Hawaiʻi's public elementary schools teaching: ancient Hawaiian art, lifestyle, geography, hula, and Hawaiian language vocabulary. Intermediate and high schools were mandated to impose two sets of Hawaiian history curricula on every candidate for graduation.  Statutes and charter amendments were passed acknowledging a policy of preference for Hawaiian place and street names. For example, with the closure of Barbers Point Naval Air Station in the 1990s, the region formerly occupied by the base was renamed Kalaeloa.

Office of Hawaiian Affairs.

Another important outgrowth of the 1978 Hawaiʻi State Constitutional Convention was the establishment of the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, more popularly known as OHA. Delegates that included future Hawaiʻi political stars Benjamin J. Cayetano, John D. Waihee III, and Jeremy Harris enacted measures intended to address injustices toward native Hawaiians since the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi in 1893. OHA was established as a trust, administered with a mandate to better the conditions of both native Hawaiians and the Hawaiian community in general. OHA was given control over certain public lands, and continues to expand its land-holdings to this day (most recently with Waimea Valley, previously Waimea Falls Park).  Besides purchases since its inception, the lands initially given to OHA were originally crown lands of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi used to pay the expenses of the monarchy (later held by the Provisional Government following the fall of the monarchy in 1893). Upon the declaration of the Republic of Hawaiʻi, they were officially designated as public lands. They were ceded to federal control with the establishment of the Territory of Hawaiʻi in 1898, and finally returned to the State of Hawaiʻi as public lands in 1959.  OHA is a semi-autonomous government body administered by a nine-member board of trustees, elected by the people of the State of Hawaiʻi through popular suffrage. Originally, trustees and the people eligible to vote for trustees were restricted to native Hawaiians. Rice v. Cayetano—suing the state to allow non-Hawaiians to sit on the board of trustees, and for non-Hawaiians to be allowed to vote in trustee elections—reached the United States Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of Rice on February 23, 2000, forcing OHA to open its elections to all residents of the State of Hawaiʻi, regardless of ethnicity.

Federal developments.

Native American Programs Act.

In 1974, the Native American Programs Act was amended to include native Hawaiians. This paved the way for native Hawaiians to become eligible for some, but not all, federal assistance programs originally intended for Continental Native Americans. Today, Title 45 CFR Part 1336.62 defines a Native Hawaiian as "an individual any of whose ancestors were natives of the area which consists of the Hawaiian Islands prior to 1778".  There is some controversy as to whether or not native Hawaiians should be considered in the same light as Native Americans.

United States apology resolution.

On November 23, 1993, U.S. President Bill Clinton signed United States Public Law 103–150, also known as the Apology Resolution, which had previously passed Congress. This resolution "apologizes to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii".

Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009.

In the early 2000s, the Congressional delegation of the State of Hawaiʻi introduced the Native Hawaiian Federal Recognition Bill, beginning the process of recognizing and forming a Native Hawaiian government entity to negotiate with state and federal governments. The significance of the bill is that it would establish, for the first time in the history of the islands, a new political and legal relationship between a Native Hawaiian entity and the federal government. This Native Hawaiian entity would be a newly created one without any historical precedent in the islands, or direct institutional continuity with previous political entities (unlike many Native American Indian groups, for example).  This bill came under scrutiny by the Bush administration's Department of Justice, as well as the United States Senate Judiciary Committee. The political context surrounding the Akaka Bill is both controversial and complex. Proponents, who consider the legislation an acknowledgement and partial correction of past injustices, include Hawaiʻi's Congressional delegation, as well as the former Republican Governor, Linda Lingle. Opponents include the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, (who question the constitutionality of creating race-based governments), libertarian activists, (who challenge the historical accuracy of any claims of injustice), and other Native Hawaiian sovereignty activists, (who feel the legislation would thwart their hopes for complete independence from the United States).  A Ward Research poll commissioned in 2003 by the Office of Hawaiian Affairs reported that "Eighty-six percent of the 303 Hawaiian residents polled by Ward Research said 'yes.' Only 7 percent said 'no,' with 6 percent unsure... Of the 301 non-Hawaiians polled, almost eight in 10 (78 percent) supported federal recognition, 16 percent opposed it, with 6 percent unsure." A Zogby International poll commissioned in 2009 by the Grassroot Institute of Hawaii indicated that a plurality (39%) of Hawaiʻi residents opposed the Native Hawaiian Reorganization Act of 2009, and that 76% indicated that they were unwilling to pay higher taxes to cover any loss in tax revenues that might be incurred by the act.

In 2005, with the support of Senator Daniel Inouye, federal funding through the Native Hawaiian Education Act created the Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa's William S. Richardson School of Law. A few years later, the program became known as Ka Huli Ao: Center for Excellence in Native Hawaiian Law. The inaugural director of Ka Huli Ao is Honolulu attorney Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie. MacKenzie is also recognized as the chief editor of the Native Hawaiian Rights Handbook, which is a legal publication that describes Native Hawaiian law, a subset of laws of the State of Hawaiʻi. MacKenzie worked as a clerk to the school of lawʻs namesake, William S. Richardson, for four years, and also served as the Executive Director of the Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation for four years, then worked as a senior staff attorney for another six years.  Ka Huli Ao focuses on research, scholarship, and community outreach. Ka Huli Ao provides a monthly lunch-time discussion forum referred to as "Maoli Thursday", which is free and open to the public. Ka Huli Ao maintains its own blog, as well as a Twitter account and a Facebook group. Ka Huli Ao also provides law students with summer fellowships. Law school graduates are eligible to apply for post-J.D. fellowships that last for one year.

Notable Native Hawaiians.

In 1873 the first native Hawaiians were given permission from King Lunalilo (prior emigration of native Hawaiians was not allowed) to permanently emigrate to the United States (Salt Lake City, Utah) whose names were Kiha Kaʻawa, and Kahana Pukahi. Kiha was adopted by Mormon Missionary President George Nebeker immediately upon arrival making Kiha Kaʻawa (Nebeker) the first native Hawaiian to become a US citizen in 1873.

Culture and arts.

Several cultural preservation societies and organizations have been established over the course of the twentieth century. The largest of those institutions is the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, established in 1889 and designated as the Hawaiʻi State Museum of Natural and Cultural History. Bishop Museum houses the largest collection of native Hawaiian artifacts, documents, and other information available for educational use. Most objects are held for preservation alone. The museum has links with major colleges and universities throughout the world to facilitate research.  With the support of the Bishop Museum, the Polynesian Voyaging Society's double-hulled canoe, "Hōkūle‘a", has contributed to rediscovery of native Hawaiian culture, especially in the revival of non-instrument navigation, by which ancient Polynesians originally settled Hawaiʻi. One of the most commonly known arts of Hawaii is hula dancing. Now in days in 21st century many people recognize the hula dance in two different categories which are Hula Kahiko and Hula ʻAuana.  Hula Kahiko which is an “old” style of the hula dancing which is an interpretive dance, famous for its grace and romantic feel, that expresses stories and feeling from almost any phase of life & culture of Hawaiians. While dancing they also use percussion instruments and traditional chanting. Hawaiians make their own traditional instruments to use while the dancers are dancing which are: PAHU HULA, KILU or PUNIU, IPU, HANO or ‘OHE HANO IHU, KA, PU, OEOE, PAHUPAHU or KAʻEKEʻEKE, HOKIO, and WI. Dancers employ implements to create sounds. Some of the traditional hula implements are: ‘ULIʻULI, PUʻILI, ‘ILIʻILI, PAPAHEHI,and KALAʻAU.  Hula ʻAuana is a Hula that was changed by Western influences and performed with musical instruments that don't originate from the Hawaiian Islands. It was popularized and influenced by the influx of tourists to the Hawaiians Islands. The stories are told primarily with the movements of the body and hands. Music, ʻukuleles and guitars to accompany the dancers, and the entire performance which makes it more entertaining for those who are new to the culture. Traditionally, hula was a religious ritualistic dance that was more about honoring the gods and goddesses than about entertainment.  The Hawaiian people have various traditions and holidays they celebrate annually. One of the most important holidays among the locals is Prince Kuhio day. Celebrated every year (since 1949) on his birthday (March 26), Prince Kuhio day honors Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, a congressman who succeeded in helping Native Hawaiian families become public landowners. Celebrated mainly but not solely in Oahu with canoe races and luaus across the islands of Hawaii. The most popular and well known form of celebration in Hawaii are luaus. A luau is a traditional Hawaiian banquet, commonly featuring food such as poi, poke, lomi salmon, kalua pig, haupia, and classic Hawaiian entertainment like ukelele music and hula. Every June 11 Hawaiian natives gather for the biggest cultural event of the year, the celebration of the first King of Hawaiʻi, King Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha was the king who unified Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi under one flag and established the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. Also known as a fearless warrior, wise diplomat, and the most respected leader in the history of the Hawaiian monarchy. The holiday is celebrated with parades and lei draping ceremonies, where natives bring lei to the multiple King Kamehameha statues located across the islands and drape them from his cast bronze arms and neck to honor his contributions to the people of Hawaiʻi.

Native Hawaiians (, and ) are the Aboriginal Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands or their descendants. Native Hawaiians trace their ancestry back to the original Polynesian settlers of Hawaiʻi. In the most recent US census, 527,000 people identified as Native Hawaiian.


Examples of molybdate anions.

Examples of molybdate oxoanions are:  The naming of molybdates generally follows the convention of a prefix to show the number of Mo atoms present. For example, "dimolybdate" for 2 molybdenum atoms; "trimolybdate" for 3 molybdenum atoms, etc.. Sometimes the oxidation state is added as a suffix, such as in "pentamolybdate(VI)". The heptamolybdate ion,, is often called "paramolybdate".

Structure of molybdate anions.

The smaller anions, and feature tetrahedral centres. In the four oxygens are equivalent as in sulfate and chromate, with equal bond lengths and angles. can be considered to be two tetrahedra sharing a corner, i.e. with a single bridging O atom. In the larger anions molybdenum is generally, but not exclusively, 6 coordinate with edges or vertices of the MoO octahedra being shared. The octahedra are distorted, typical M-O bond lengths are: The anion contains both octahedral and tetrahedral molybdenum and can be isolated in 2 isomeric forms, alpha and beta.  The hexamolybdate image below shows the coordination polyhedra. The heptamolybdate image shows the close packed nature of the oxygen atoms in the structure. The oxide ion has an ionic radius of 1.40 Å, molybdenum(VI) is much smaller, 0.59 Å. There are strong similarities between the structures of the molybdates and the molybdenum oxides, (MoO, MoO and the "crystallographic shear" oxides, MoO and MoO) whose structures all contain close packed oxide ions.

Equilibria in aqueous solution.

When MoO, molybdenum trioxide is dissolved in alkali solution the simple anion is produced. As the pH is reduced the first species to be formed is the heptamolybdate rather than any of the smaller anions:  As the pH is decreased the octamolybdate is formed further anions with 8 and probably 16–18 Mo atoms are present:  A further decrease leads to anions with probably 16–18 Mo atoms. However careful manipulation of the pH and temperature coupled with very long precipitation times can cause compounds with ions that do not appear to be in solution to be precipitated.

Peroxomolybdates.

Many peroxomolybdates are known. They tend to form upon treatment of molybdate salts with hydrogen peroxide. Notable is the monomer–dimer equilibrium [MoO(O)(HO)] [MoO(O)(HO)]. Also known but unstable is [Mo(O)] (see potassium tetraperoxochromate(V)). Some related compounds find use as oxidants in organic synthesis.

Tetrathiomolybdate.

The red tetrathiomolybdate anion results when molybdate solutions are treated with hydrogen sulfide: Like molybdate itself, undergoes condensation in the presence of acids, but these condensations are accompanied by redox processes.

Industrial uses.

Catalysis.

Molybdates are widely used in catalysis. In terms of scale, the largest consumer of molybdate is as a precursor to catalysts for hydrodesulfurization, the process by which sulfur is removed from petroleum. Bismuth molybdates, nominally of the composition BiPMoO, catalyzes ammoxidation of propylene to acrylonitrile. Ferric molybdates are used industrially to catalyze the oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde.

Corrosion inhibitors.

Sodium molybdate has been used in industrial water treatment as a corrosion inhibitor. It was initially thought that it would be a good replacement for chromate, when chromate was banned for toxicity. However, molybdate requires high concentrations when used alone, therefore complementary corrosion inhibitors are generally added, and is mainly used in high temperature closed-loop cooling circuits.. According to an experimental study, Molybdate has been reported as an efficient biocide against microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC), where adding 1.5 mM of Molybdate/day resulted in a 50% decrease in the corrosion rate.

Supercapacitors.

Molybdates (especially FeMoO, Fe(MoO), NiMoO, CoMoO and MnMoO) have been used as anode or cathode materials in aqueous capacitors. Due to pseudocapacitive charge storage, specific capacitance up to 1500 F g has been observed.

Medicine.

Radioactive molybdenum-99 in the form of molybdate is used as the parent isotope in technetium-99m generators for nuclear medicine imaging.

Other.

Nitrogen fixation requires molybdoenzymes in legumes (e.g., soybeans, acacia, etc.). For this reason, fertilizers often contain small amounts of molybdate salts. Coverage is typically less than a kilogram per acre.  Molybdate chrome pigments are speciality but commercially available pigments. Molybdate (usually in the form of potassium molybdate) is also used in the analytical colorimetric testing for the concentration of silica in solution, called the molybdenum blue method. Additionally, it is used in the colorimetric determination of phosphate quantity in association with the dye malachite green.

In chemistry a molybdate is a compound containing an oxoanion with molybdenum in its highest oxidation state of 6. Molybdenum can form a very large range of such oxoanions which can be discrete structures or polymeric extended structures, although the latter are only found in the solid state.The larger oxoanions are members of group of compounds termed polyoxometalates, and because they contain only one type of metal atom are often called isopolymetalates. The discrete molybdenum oxoanions range in size from the simplest, found in potassium molybdate up to extremely large structures found in isopoly-molybdenum blues that contain for example 154 Mo atoms. The behaviour of molybdenum is different from the other elements in group 6. Chromium only forms the chromates,,, and ions which are all based on tetrahedral chromium. Tungsten is similar to molybdenum and forms many tungstates containing 6 coordinate tungsten.


Plot.

"Volkswagen Blues" is a road novel, in the tradition of Jack Kerouac, about a middle-aged, formerly successful writer who has adopted the pen-name Jack Waterman (a metonymy can play on Waterman pens) and, as the novel begins, is experiencing a bout of writer's block. Discovering an old postcard, the protagonist embarks on a quest in search of his long-lost, rambling brother, Théo. Early in the narrative, Jack picks up a hitchhiker, a young Métisse woman, nicknamed "La Grande Sauterelle" due her long, grasshopper-like legs, as a travel companion, as well as a cat named Chop Suey.  Together in Jack's Volkswagen Minibus, which through personification becomes a character in the story, they travel from Gaspé to San Francisco, passing through Toronto, Detroit, Chicago, St. Louis and the American West on their way, exploring the history of European contact with the native people of the Americas. While on the road, they discuss language, literature, American expansion, the Oregon Trail, etc., and their trip becomes an allegory for the history of the French exploration of North America. At the same time, La Grande Sauterelle, who is struggling with her own identity, presents another version of American history, as recounted by the natives, where "discovery" is viewed as "invasion." Throughout the episodic novel a number of interesting and entertaining characters appear, including journalists, museum directors, railroad hoboes and writers such as Saul Bellow and Lawrence Ferlinghetti, as well as the spirit of Ernest Hemingway, John Muir and the Beat Generation.  All in all, Jack's journey through an America that scholar Paul Socken describes as a "lost paradise" is one of disillusionment and self-discovery that allows him to break through the impasse he had met in his writing.

Volkswagen Blues is a French-language novel by French-Canadian writer Jacques Poulin, his sixth, which was originally published by Québec-Amérique in 1984 and was re-issued by Babel in 1998.


Origin of Barbadian fauna.

The island of Barbados was formed by tectonic uplift and is younger than surrounding lesser Antillean islands, which are primarily of volcanic origin. Avian colonization has therefore occurred recently relative to the geological age of the island, accounting in part for the paucity of endemic species relative to neighboring islands. Species capable of crossing the sea barrier by flight enjoyed a comparative advantage; helping explain why avian species are more numerous than other animal groups, such as mammals. In addition to natural colonization of the island by animals, humans have contributed to the faunal composition of the island, through species introductions (intentional and accidental).

Mammals.

Mammals are a poorly represented group on the island, composed almost entirely of introduced species. The Norway rat ("Rattus norvegicus"), house mouse ("Mus musculus"), European hare ("Lepus europaeus"), Indian mongoose ("Herpestes javanicus"), and green monkey ("Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus") are the most notable examples. Pigs were introduced by the Portuguese in 1563 as a future food source; the introduction was successful and a feral pig population persisted up until the point of British settlement of the island, after which they became extirpated.  The now extinct Barbados raccoon ("Procyon gloveralleni") is considered to have been endemic to the island; however even this species may have been introduced by Amerindians in pre-historic times. There is also some indication that the Barbados raccoon was in fact a subspecies of the common raccoon ("Procyon lotor"), rather than a distinct species.  The only remaining native mammals are a number of bat species; the most common of which is the velvety free-tailed bat ("Molossus molossus"), which emerges at dusk to feed on insects.  A breed of sheep known as the Barbados Blackbelly sheep originated in Barbados, it has been exported to various nations around the world including the United States where it is sometimes called affectionately "Barbado Sheep".  Marine mammals are not frequently seen in Barbadian waters; some species however, particularly bottlenose dolphins ("Tursiops truncatus") and humpback whales ("Megaptera novaeangliae"), are occasionally seen offshore.  Feral dogs and cats, introduced by humans, also occur on the island.

Birds.

Birds are fairly well represented on the island; most having adapted well to the presence of humans.  Icterids such as the Carib grackle ("Quiscalus lugubris") and the shiny cowbird ("Molothrus bonariensis"), which often parasitizes the nests of the former species, are quite common.  Seedeaters include the black-faced grassquit ("Tiaris bicolor") and the grassland yellow finch ("Sicalis luteola"), known locally as the "grass canary". Introduced from South America the grassland yellow finch is now faced with extirpation due to poaching for the pet trade. Until recently considered a non-sexually dimorphic subspecies of the Lesser Antillean bullfinch ("Loxigilla noctis"), the Barbados bullfinch ("Loxigilla barbadensis") has recently been elevated to species level.  There are two species of tyrant flycatcher found on the island, the grey kingbird ("Tyrannus dominicensis") which is quite common; often seen perched on power lines,and the Caribbean elaenia ("Elaenia martinica") which is more rare.  Representatives of the family Columbidae include the zenaida dove ("Zenaida aurita"), common ground dove ("Columbina passerina"), scaly-naped pigeon ("Patagioenas squamosa"), and the ubiquitous rock pigeon ("Columba livia"). Another species, the eared dove ("Zenaida auriculata"), which was previously reported as an occasional visitor to the island, has now established a breeding population.  Nectar consuming species include the Antillean crested hummingbird ("Orthorhyncus cristatus"), green-throated carib ("Eulampis holosericeus"), and the bananaquit ("Coereba flaveola").  Heron species include, the cattle egret ("Bubulcus ibis") and the fairly rare green heron ("Butorides virescens"). A recent addition to the island's avifauna is the little egret ("Egretta garzetta"), which has recently colonized the island from Africa. Early European visitors reported finding a species of parrot on the island, which subsequently became extinct. Currently parrots are represented by a few escaped or released individuals which have formed feral populations; most notably is a small population of the orange-winged parrot ("Amazona amazonica") which has become established among several "Roystonea" palms in the Belleville district of the capital Bridgetown. The brown-throated parakeet ("Aratinga pertinax"), introduced to the island, is rarely seen.  The scaly-breasted thrasher ("Allenia fusca") may have become extirpated from the Island. A resident race of the yellow warbler ("Dendroica petechia petechia") is also threatened, mostly due to loss of its mangrove swamp habitat; the last major refuge for this species is the Graeme Hall Swamp in the south of the Island, However some reports suggest the species is expanding its range on the island.  Species which may be encountered in wetland areas include the masked duck ("Nomonyx dominica"), American coot ("Fulica americana"), and the common moorhen ("Gallinula chloropus") The southern lapwing ("Vanellus chilensis"), a shorebird, has recently bred upon the island; having spread to Barbados from Trinidad and Tobago and northern South America.  Substantial numbers of migratory birds either over-wintering on the island, or en route from North America to South American wintering grounds are seen annually. Shorebirds are one such group of birds which stop off in Barbados during migration; tens of thousands however, lured to artificial wetlands, are shot annually for sport.

Reptiles.

The green iguana ("Iguana iguana") formerly resided on the island before being extirpated. An endemic species of anole lizard, ("Anolis extremus"), and the introduced tropical house gecko ("Hemidactylus mabouia") are both common species; while Underwood's spectacled tegu ("Gymnophthalmus underwoodi"), and a native species of "Kentropyx" lizard ("Kentropyx borckiana") are rarer on the island.  The red-footed tortoise ("Geochelone carbonaria") is widely kept in captivity; it was likely introduced to the island, as no reports of it were made by early European explorers to the island.  Populations of an endemic "Liophis" grass snake ("Liophis perfuscus") have been devastated as a result of predation by the introduced Indian mongoose; with no confirmed sightings of the species since 1961. Another snake species, "Mastigodryas bruesi" and the world's smallest snake, "Leptotyphlops carlae", have also been recorded from the island.  Currently there are two species of sea turtle which nest in Barbados, the hawksbill turtle ("Eretmochelys imbricata"), and the leatherback turtle ("Dermochelys coriacea"). Though not nesting on the island, the green sea turtle ("Chelonia mydas") does forage in nearshore seagrass beds. Coastal infrastructure, such as hotel properties, has encroached upon the nesting grounds of sea turtles, while coastal lights also detrimentally impact upon nesting females.

Amphibians.

The cane toad ("Bufo marinus") from South America and the Johnstone's whistling frog ("Eleutherodactylus johnstonei") encompass the islands amphibian community. The introduction of the cane toad was done as a biological control aimed at insect pests of sugarcane; as has been the case elsewhere, lack of predators to control the cane toad has led to uncontrolled populations in some areas.

Fish.

Freshwater fish.

The wild form of the guppy ("Poecilia reticulata") is native to Barbados as well as Trinidad and northern South America. Introductions of aquarium varieties of the guppy into the wild mean that it may be impossible to distinguish between original and fancy varieties.  Originally intended for aquaculture, tilapia species including, "Oreochromis mossambicus", and "Tilapia zilli" have become widely established in ponds and streams across the island.

Brackish water fish.

Brackish water species also occur, particularly in coastal wetlands such as the Graeme Hall Swamp; one such species is the mangrove rivulus ("Rivulus marmoratus"), notable for its unique ability of self fertilization. A resident and isolated population of Atlantic tarpon, ("Megalops atlanticus") has become established in the Graeme Hall Swamp.

Invertebrates.

Crustaceans.

Terrestrial crab species found on the island include "Cardisoma guanhumi" and "Gecarcinus lateralis".

The fauna of Barbados is less diverse than that of other Caribbean islands. The island's fauna has been greatly affected by anthropogenic activities; these range from habitat destruction to the introduction of non-native species. Species best able to adapt to the presence of humans have persisted, while those unable to adapt have generally fared poorly.


2007 bombing.

In the early hours of 19 February 2007, 70 people (mostly Pakistani civilians and a few Indian military guarding the train) were killed and scores more injured in a terrorist attack on the Delhi - Attari Express. The attack occurred at Diwana station near the Indian city of Panipat, Haryana. Officials found evidence of improvised explosive devices (IEDs), (RDX) containing Fragmentation (weaponry) and flammable material, including three unexploded IEDs. The National Investigation Agency doubted that the blasts were masterminded by Swami Aseemanand, which was dismissed later for lack of evidence.  On 1 July 2009, the US Department of Treasury designated Arif Qasmani of the Lashkar-e Tayyiba as a person involved in terrorism, citing among other things his involvement in the Samjhauta Express bombing.  On 30 December 2010, India's National Investigation Agency claimed that they had solid evidence that Swami Aseemanand was the mastermind behind the blasts. He had taken help from his friend Sandeep Dange, an engineering graduate and has done higher study in physics, and Ramji Kalsangra, an electrician, to build the improvised explosive devices used in the blasts. On 8 January 2011, Aseemanand allegedly confessed the bombing of Samjhauta express, a statement later found to be obtained under duress. Later the Hindu nationalist group RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) sent a legal notice to CBI (Central Bureau of Investigation) accusing it of deliberately leaking Swami Aseemanand's confession in the media. RSS spokesman Ram Madhav called the investigation maligning of organizations and individuals.  According to various local newspapers, NIA arrested Kamal Chauhan, who is deemed by the NIA as the main operative, in February 2012.

The Samjhauta Express (, Punjabi language: ਸਮਝੌਤਾ ਐਕਸਪ੍ਰੈਸ, ) commonly called the Friendship Express, was a bi-weekly train—Thursday and Monday—that runs between Delhi and Attari in India and Lahore in Pakistan. The word "Samjhauta" means "agreement", "accord" and "compromise" in both Hindi and Urdu.


Hall of prayer.

The prayer room is framed by courtyards on three sides to the east, north and west. Along the northern facade, a portico plays the role of gallery-narthex. Rectangular in plan, the room perpetuates the classical plan of the hypostyle hall; it consists of nine naves and seven bays. The arches rest on columns, of various origins, which carry capitals of Hafsid type, except some ancient examples. The covering of the prayer hall is in groin vault; a cupola on an octagonal base and horns in front of the mihrab. Near the latter is the masonry minbar covered with panels of polychrome marble; this is a novelty by contribution to mosques of Malikis whose minbar is executed in wood.

Minaret.

Its minaret is the first octagonal minaret to be built in Tunis and was made by the Hafsids. The octagonal tower rises above a square base. It ends with a balcony protected by a wooden awning, the whole is crowned by a lantern with pyramidal roof covered with green tiles.

Mausoleum.

The mosque also includes the mausoleum of Youssef Dey, inaugurating in Tunis the funeral mosque in which the tomb of the founder associates with the place of worship. Square plan, the mausoleum is covered with a pyramidal roof covered with green tiles. It has on each face a large central blind arcade, flanked by two levels of recesses in flat bottom. The facings of the white marble facades are accented with clavellus alternating black and white. A commemorative inscription on the central arch provides the date of construction of the mausoleum.

Youssef Dey Mosque, also known as Al B'chamqiya, is a 17th-century mosque in Tunis, Tunisia, located in Medina area of the city. The mosque is considered significant as it was the first Ottoman-Turkish mosque to be built in Tunis.


Early life.

Swinburne was born in Smethwick, Staffordshire, England, on the 26th December, 1934. His father was a school music teacher, who was himself the son of an off-license owner in Shoreditch. His mother was a secretary, the daughter of an optician. He is an only child. Swinburne attended a preparatory school and then Charterhouse.

Academic career.

Swinburne received an Open Scholarship to study classics at Exeter College, Oxford, but in fact graduated with a first class BA in philosophy, politics, and economics. Swinburne has held various professorships through his career in academia. From 1972 to 1985 he taught at Keele University. During part of this time, he gave the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen from 1982 to 1984, resulting in the book "The Evolution of the Soul". From 1985 until his retirement in 2002 he was Nolloth Professor of the Philosophy of the Christian Religion at the University of Oxford (his successor in this chair is Brian Leftow). He has continued to publish regularly since his retirement.  Swinburne has been an active author throughout his career, producing a major book every two to three years. He has played an important role in recent debate over the mind–body problem, defending a substance dualism that recalls the work of René Descartes in important respects (see "The Evolution of the Soul", 1997).  His books are primarily very technical works of academic philosophy, but he has written at the popular level as well. Of the non-technical works, his "Is There a God?" (1996), summarising for a non-specialist audience many of his arguments for the existence of God and plausibility in the belief of that existence, is probably the most popular, and is available in 22 languages.

Christian apologetics.

A member of the Orthodox Church, he is noted as one of the foremost Christian apologists, arguing in his many articles and books that faith in Christianity is rational and coherent in a rigorous philosophical sense. William Hasker writes that his "tetralogy on Christian doctrine, together with his earlier trilogy on the philosophy of theism, is one of the most important apologetic projects of recent times." While Swinburne presents many arguments to advance the belief that God exists, he argues that God is a being whose existence is not logically necessary (see modal logic), but metaphysically necessary in a way he defines in his "The Christian God". Other subjects on which Swinburne writes include personal identity (in which he espouses a view based on the concept of a soul), and epistemic justification. He has written in defence of Cartesian dualism and libertarian free will.  Although he is best known for his vigorous rational defence of Christian intellectual commitments, he also has a theory of the nature of passionate faith which is developed in his book "Faith and Reason".  According to an interview Swinburne did with "Foma" magazine, he converted from Anglicanism (Church of England) to Eastern Orthodoxy around 1996: I don't think I changed my beliefs in any significant way. I always believed in the Apostolic succession: that the Church has to have its authority dating back to the Apostles, and the general teaching of the Orthodox Church on the saints and the prayers for the departed and so on, these things I have always believed.  Swinburne's philosophical method reflects the influence of Thomas Aquinas. He admits that he draws from Aquinas a systematic approach to philosophical theology. Swinburne, like Aquinas, moves from basic philosophical issues (for example, the question of the possibility that God may exist in Swinburne's "The Coherence of Theism"), to more specific Christian beliefs (for example, the claim in Swinburne's "Revelation" that God has communicated to human beings propositionally in Jesus Christ).  Swinburne moves in his writing program from the philosophical to the theological, building his case rigorously, and relying on his previous arguments as he defends particular Christian beliefs. He has attempted to reassert classical Christian beliefs with an apologetic method that he believes is compatible with contemporary science. That method relies heavily on inductive logic, seeking to show that his Christian beliefs fit best with the evidence.  National Life Stories conducted an oral history interview (C1672/15) with Richard Swinburne in 2015 for its Science and Religion collection held by the British Library.

Richard Granville Swinburne (; born 26 December 1934) is a British philosopher. He is an Emeritus Professor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford. Over the last 50 years Swinburne has been an influential proponent of philosophical arguments for the existence of God. His philosophical contributions are primarily in the philosophy of religion and philosophy of science. He aroused much discussion with his early work in the philosophy of religion, a trilogy of books consisting of "The Coherence of Theism", "The Existence of God", and "Faith and Reason".


Biography.

Eric Besson was born in Morocco, on 2 April 1958. His mother is of Lebanese origin. His father, an officer in the French Air Force, was killed in a flight accident three months before Éric Besson's birth.  After graduating high school in Casablanca, he moved to France to attend the Montpellier Business School. He then studied at the Institut d'études politiques de Paris (SciencesPo), before unsuccessfully applying to the École Nationale d’Administration (ENA).  Besson subsequently joined the French car company Renault, then was editor-in-chief of business magazine, before joining the Vivendi foundation.

Political career.

Beginnings (1993-2007).

Besson was a member of the Socialist Party from 1993 to 2007. He has been mayor of Donzère since 1995 and was the "député" for the Drôme between 1997 and 2007, when he did not stand for re-election. During his time as a Member of Parliament, Besson was a member of the National Commission for Defense and the Armed Forces from 1997 to 1998, the Financial and Economic Planning Commission from 1998 to 2002, the Commission of Inquiry on the Activity and Functioning of Commercial Courts, and the Commission of Inquiry on Superphénix and fast neutron reactors (both in 1998).  Following his re-election in 2002, he became a full member of the Supervisory Board of the Social Debt Amortizement Fund and the Supervisory Board of the Agency for Industrial Innovation.  Besson was appointed the PS National Secretary for the Economy, Employment and Business in 2003, and National Secretary for the Economy and Taxation in 2005.

State Secretary for Prospectives and Evaluation of Public Policies (2007-2009).

Besson began the 2007 French presidential election as a member of Ségolène Royal's campaign team. However, he resigned as the PS finance secretary on 14 February 2007 over frustration about Royal's presidential campaign, which he saw as "badly organised". He then quit the Socialist Party on 21 February and supported Nicolas Sarkozy's presidential bid for which he was harshly criticized.  In May 2007, he was appointed as State Secretary for Prospectives and Evaluation of Public Policies under the government of Francois Fillon.  That year, he also launched a new political party, The Progressives, affiliated with the Union for a Popular Movement, Nicolas Sarkozy's party, through the Liaison Committee for the Presidential Majority.  In March 2008, he was re-elected as mayor of Donzère after the first round with 69.92% of the votes.  On 18 March 2008, following a ministerial reshuffle, the position of Secretary of State for the Digital Economy was created and subsequently given to Besson. The creation of the post was a response to the Attali report that stressed the importance of digital development for France's economic future. In this capacity, Besson conducted a strategic analysis of 10 challenges facing France until 2025.  In October 2008, the "2012 Digital France" plan was released. The plan sought to reduce "the gap between France and its international competitors" in this sector. The strategy to achieve this was based around three major objectives: ensuring far-reaching access to broadband Internet, ensuring production and supply of digital content, and reducing the digital divide. The purpose was to increase economic growth and modernize the country.

Minister for Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development (2009-2010).

In January 2009, he was appointed Minister for Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development in the second government of Prime Minister François Fillon.  His tenure was characterized by a stronger fight against illegal immigration and human trafficking. While a guest on a French TV show, Besson described the immigration policy as based on "firmness and humanity". An immigration bill was presented in 2010 that prolonged the detention period of illegal immigrants, penalized employment of illegal immigrants, and called on immigrants wishing to acquire French citizenship to adhere "to the essential principles and values of the republic". Furthermore, Sarkozy gave the immigration ministry a target of 30,000 repatriations per year.  At the same time, the state budget for the reception and integration of those entering France legally was increased by more than 20% in order to discourage illegal immigration and, in turn, promote lawful ways of entering and settling in France. Entry formalities for foreigners were simplified, a long-term visa system was established, and 1,000 additional places in reception centers were opened to raise their capacity to absorb asylum seekers.  As part of an EU-wide resettlement system to distribute refugees in highly exposed countries such as Greece, Malta and Italy more evenly across the EU, Besson agreed to the resettlement of refugees from Malta to France, making France the first country to act on the scheme. Besson subsequently supported the creation of a common European asylum system and advocated for Malta to host the newly established European Asylum Support Office.  In September 2009, an area known as "the Jungle" near Calais, where many illegal immigrants had settled in order to cross the British channel to the UK, was cleared. According to Besson, the operation was targeting the "logistical infrastructure and mafia-style networks of people traffickers who sell the trip to England at a very high price".  Later in 2009, President Sarkozy initiated a public debate on French national identity. Besson was in charge of organizing the debate and argued that discussions about identity had been left to right-wing extremists such as Jean-Marie Le Pen for too long. The debate was concluded when Fillon announced the creation of an "experts committee" of politicians and historians in February 2010. The debate damaged Besson's political standing, with one weekly magazine calling him "the most hated man" in the Republic.

Minister for Industry, Energy and the Digital Economy (2010-2012).

Éric Besson was appointed Minister for Industry, Energy and the Digital Economy on 14 November 2010.  In December that year, Besson sent a letter to the French state agency governing internet use in order to stop French web hosting company OVH from hosting the WikiLeaks website. The French government had previously deemed WikiLeaks a "criminal" website for violating the "confidentiality of diplomatic relations" and endangering people "protected by diplomatic secrecy", making it illegal for French companies to host WikiLeaks.  Besson also reiterated his support for the Union for the Mediterranean on a visit to the organization's secretariat in May 2011.  During his tenure, he oversaw the extension of France's push for greater digitalization. In his capacity as Minister, he organized a "digital G8 seminar" for young professionals in May 2011, followed by the G20 Young Entrepreneurs Alliance Summit in November.  Also in November, the "Digital France 2012-2020: assessment and prospects" report was published, a follow-up to the "2012 Digital France" plan. The report set new targets for 2020 for the expansion of digitalization and the enhancement of the digital economy.  In April 2011, the Union for a Popular Movement selected him as its candidate in the newly created Fifth constituency for French residents overseas (covering French citizens resident in Andorra, Monaco, Portugal and Spain) for the June 2012 legislative elections.  Besson expressed continued support for the use of nuclear energy and the export of French nuclear technology. On a visit to Japan's Fukushima Daiichi plant in 2012, the first by an overseas minister, Besson is reported to have said that nuclear energy was too important as an energy source to be abandoned. A study he commissioned on the future of France's energy mix by 2025 nevertheless listed various scenarios for ending reliance on nuclear energy among possible options.

Retreat from national politics.

Besson announced his retirement from national politics on 12 May 2012 and returned to the private sector. He retained his position of mayor of Donzère. Although he initially did not seek re-election as mayor, he once again ran for the position during the municipal elections in 2014 after the candidate he supported withdrew his candidacy for health reasons. Besson was re-elected in the first round with 61.49% of the votes.

Post-political career.

Eric Besson Consulting was founded in 2012, advising energy and industrial production companies.  He is also a shareholder and member of the supervisory board of PayTop, a fintech start-up.  In 2016, he was elected to the board of Geocorail, an off-shore engineering company.  In July 2017, he became the president of the Blanc-Mesnil football club playing in the 5th French division. According to media reports, he plans to bring the club up to the professional level in 5 to 10 years and plans opening a sports academy by September 2018.

Personal life.

Besson was married from 1983–2009 to Sylvie Brunel, a geographer and writer and former president of Action Against Hunger, with whom he has three children. Their eldest child, Alexandra (born 1989), is a novelist.  Besson married Yasmine Tordjman in September 2010, an art student from Tunisia. She is the granddaughter of former Tunisian president Habib Bourguiba. In December 2012, the couple announced their intention to divorce and separated in 2015.  He married Azeroual Jamila in August 2015.

Éric Besson, born 2 April 1958 in Marrakech, Morocco) is a French politician and businessman. From 2009 to 2010, he was the Minister of Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Co-Development in the government of François Fillon.


Biography.

The meeting of the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg at the 1867 World Fair in Paris decided his vocation. He conceived the project of going to Alaska to study the native languages in order to prove the Siberian origin of the Amerindians; At the time, this idea had few supporters. He may also have been interested in archeology by the discovery in 1864 in Équihen, by workers of the family business, human skeletons and antique objects2. Another likely influence is anthropologist Ernest Hamy, a 10-year-old fellow, with whom he will remain linked. The latter, first curator of the Ethnographic Museum of Trocadero and director of scientific missions from 1880 will later appeal to him. First stays in Alaska  At 19, he realizes his project of travel at his expense; he resided from spring 1871 to spring 1872 in Alaska, a region that has just been acquired by the United States after nearly a century of Russian occupation, and made a visit to the Aleutian Islands. He returns to France sixty masks from the Kodiak archipelago and eight others discovered in a burial cave Akhanh on the island of Unga (Aleutian Islands). According to S. Chauvet3, his youth and energy allow him to perform sports such as the solitary kayak trip from Unalaska to Kodiak, which facilitates the search for objects and impresses the locals.  Between 1873 and 1874, he traveled to Russia, St. Petersburg and Moscow, but also to Copenhagen, Helsinki, and Tartu to copy additional documentation on the peoples of the Bering Strait, partly for himself, in commissioned part of the American historian George Bancroft (1832-1918). He is one of the many assistants Bancroft relies on for writing his History of America. Pinart will collect a collection of documents and manuscripts and bequeath to him personal documents4.  Shortly after his return to France, he left for America. In 1875 and 1876 he visited Maine, Nova Scotia, Oregon, British Columbia, Washington State and Arizona.  In the meantime, he acquired in 1875 from the antique dealer Eugene Boban a large collection of Mesoamerican coins. He knows his first financial problems because, besides the expenses of the expedition of 1871-1872, he bought a good part of the library of Brasseur de Bourbourg. In 1879, Eugene Boban complains of not having received all of his due and the funds are missing to continue his explorations. Alphonse Pinart then negotiated with the Ministry of Education the financing of his expedition (granted April 2, 1878) jointly with Leon de Cessac, against the donation of his collection to the Museum of Ethnography Trocadero.  He received in 1874 for his trip to Alaska and the Strait of Bering the Gold Medal for study tour, missions and reconnaissance works of the Geographical Society, and in 1875, a medal of the International Geographical Union at of the Paris Congress. He will receive another in 1877 from the Acclimatization Society.  In 1877 he went to Antill

Alphonse Louis Pinart (February 26, 1852, Bouquinghem, Marquise (Pas-de-Calais) - February 13, 1911, Boulogne-Billancourt) was a French scholar, linguist, ethnologist and collector, specialist on the American continent. He studied the civilizations of the New World in the manner of the pioneers of the time, mixing the empirical observation of anthropological, ethnological and linguistic elements.


History.

The area that is now the borough of Åsane was historically called "Aasene" and it was a parish in the large municipality of Hamre from 1838 until 1 January 1904, when it was separated from Hamre to become a separate municipality. The new municipality of Åsane existed from then until 1 January 1972 when it was merged with the city of Bergen (along with the other neighboring municipalities of Arna, Fana, and Laksevåg). The Åsane area a primarily agricultural area until the 1960s-1970s when it was built up into a suburb of the city of Bergen. Centrally located in Åsane are the Gullgruven and Åsane Storsenter shopping centres, including a large IKEA store. Bergen Trotting track and Eikås Motorsport Centre are located at Haukås. The Bergen Jail is located at Hylkje in Åsane.

Geography.

Åsane lies on a peninsula surrounded by the Byfjorden, Salhusfjorden, and Sørfjorden. The tall mountain Veten is located in the central part of the peninsula.

Villages and neighborhoods.

The borough is somewhat rural in nature with several large developed villages and neighborhoods separated by forested mountains. Some of the larger village areas include Eidsvåg, Tertnes, Flaktveit, Hordvik and Hylkje.

Culture and sport.

Åsane has produced two well-known bands, Salhuskvintetten and Vinskvetten, formerly known as "Salhusvinskvetten". Kurt Nilsen's former band Breed is also from Åsane.  Åsane Fotball (soccer) is Norway's largest sports club. Its senior team plays in the second division.  Tertnes (part of Åsane) handball team, are one of the best handball teams in Norway, and are currently playing in the elite division.

Åsane is a borough of the city of Bergen in Vestland county, Norway. The borough makes up the northern part of the city, north of the city centre.


Life.

Fiore dei Liberi was born in Cividale del Friuli, a town in the Patriarchal State of Aquileia in the Friuli region of modern-day Italy, the son of Benedetto and scion of a Liberi house of Premariacco. The term "Liberi", while potentially merely a surname, probably indicates that his family had imperial immediacy, either as part of the Edelfrei ("nobili liberi", "free nobles"), the Germanic unindentured knightly class which formed the lower tier of nobility in the Middle Ages, or possibly of the rising class of Imperial Free Knights. It has been suggested by various historians that Fiore and Benedetto were descended from Cristallo dei Liberi of Premariacco, who was granted immediacy in 1110 by Emperor Henry V, but this has yet to be confirmed.  Fiore wrote that he had a natural inclination to the martial arts and began training at a young age, ultimately studying with "countless" masters from both the Italian and German parts of the Holy Roman Empire.  He also writes of meeting many "false" or unworthy masters who lacked even the limited skill he'd expect in a good student, and mentions that on five separate occasions he was forced to fight duels for his honor against certain of these masters whom he described as envious because he refused to teach them his art; the duels were all fought with sharp longswords, unarmored except for gambesons and chamois gloves, and he stated that he won each without injury.  He further offers an extensive list of the famous "condottieri" that he trained, including Piero Paolo del Verde (Peter von Grünen), Niccolo Unricilino (Nikolo von Urslingen), Galeazzo Cattaneo dei Grumelli (Galeazzo Gonzaga da Mantova), Lancillotto Beccaria di Pavia, Giovannino da Baggio di Milano, and Azzone di Castelbarco, and also highlights some of their martial exploits.  Based on Fiore's autobiographical account, he can tentatively be placed in Perosa (Perugia) in 1381 when Piero del Verde likely fought a duel with Pietro della Corona (Peter Kornwald). That same year, the Aquileian War of Succession erupted as a coalition of secular nobles from Udine and surrounding cities sought to remove the newly appointed Patriarch, Philippe II d'Alençon. Fiore seems to have sided with the secular nobility against the Cardinal as in 1383 there is record of him being tasked by the grand council with inspection and maintenance on the artillery pieces defending Udine (including large crossbows and catapults). There are also records of him working variously as a magistrate, peace officer, and agent of the grand council during the course of 1384, but after that the historical record is silent. The war continued until a new Patriarch was appointed in 1389 and a peace settlement was reached, but it's unclear if Fiore remained involved for the duration. Given that he appears in council records five times in 1384, it would be quite odd for him to be completely unmentioned over the subsequent five years, and since his absence after May 1384 coincides with a proclamation in July of that year demanding that Udine cease hostilities or face harsh repercussions, it seems more likely that he moved on.  After the war, Fiore seems to have traveled a good deal in northern Italy, teaching fencing and training men for duels. In 1395, Fiore can be placed in Padua training the mercenary captain Galeazzo Gonzaga of Mantua for a duel with the French Marshal Jean II Le Maingre (who used the war name "Boucicaut"). Galeazzo made the challenge when Boucicaut called into question the valor of Italians at the royal court of France, and the duel was ultimately set for Padua on 15 August. Both Francesco Novello da Carrara, Lord of Padua, and Francesco I Gonzaga, Lord of Mantua, were in attendance. The duel was to begin with spears on horseback, but Boucicaut became impatient and dismounted, attacking his opponent before he could mount his own horse. Cattaneo landed a solid blow on the Frenchman's helmet, but was subsequently disarmed. At this point, Boucicaut reached for his poleaxe but the lords intervened to end the duel.  Fiore surfaces again in Pavia in 1399, this time training Giovannino da Baggio for a duel with a German squire named Sirano. It was fought on 24 June and attended by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan, as well as the duchess and other nobles. The duel was to consist of three bouts of mounted lance followed by three bouts each of dismounted poleaxe, estoc, and dagger. They ultimately rode two additional passes and on the fifth, Baggio impaled Sirano's horse through the chest, slaying the horse but losing his lance in the process. They fought the other nine bouts as scheduled, and due to the strength of their armor (and the fact that all of the weapons were blunted), both combatants reportedly emerged from these exchanges unharmed.  Fiore was likely involved in at least one other duel that year, between his final named student Azzone di Castelbarco and Giovanni degli Ordelaffi, as the latter is known to have died in 1399. After Castelbarco's duels, Fiore's activities are unclear. Based on the allegiances of the nobles that he trained in the 1390s, he seems to have been associated with the ducal court of Milan in the latter part of his career. Some time in the first years of the 15th century, Fiore composed a fencing treatise in Italian and Latin called "The Flower of Battle" (rendered variously as "Fior di Battaglia", "Florius de Arte Luctandi", and "Flos Duellatorum"). The briefest version of the text is dated to 1409 and indicates that it was a labor of six months and great personal effort; as evidence suggests that two longer versions were composed some time before this, we may assume that he devoted a considerable amount of time to writing during this decade.  Beyond this, nothing certain is known of Fiore's activities in the 15th century. Francesco Novati and D. Luigi Zanutto both assume that some time before 1409 he accepted an appointment as court fencing master to Niccolò III d'Este, Marquis of Ferrara, Modena, and Parma; presumably he would have made this change when Milan fell into disarray in 1402, though Zanutto went so far as to speculate that he trained Niccolò for his 1399 passage at arms. However, while two surviving copies of "the Flower of Battle" are dedicated to the marquis, it seems more likely that the manuscripts were written as a diplomatic gift to Ferrara from Milan when they made peace in 1404.  C. A. Blengini di Torricella stated that late in life he made his way to Paris, France, where he could be placed teaching fencing in 1418 and creating a copy of a fencing manual located there in 1420. Though he attributes these facts to Novati, no publication verifying them has yet been located. The time and place of Fiore's death remain unknown.  Despite the depth and complexity of his writings, Fiore dei Liberi does not seem to have been a very influential master in the development of Italian fencing. That field was instead dominated by the tradition of his near-contemporary the Bolognese master Filippo di Bartolomeo Dardi. Even so, there are a number of later treatises which bear strong resemblance to his work, including the writings of Philippo di Vadi and Ludwig VI von Eyb of Hartenstein. This may be due to the direct influence of Fiore or his writings, or it may instead indicate that the older tradition of Johane and Nicholai survived and spread outside of his direct line.

The Flower of Battle.

Four illuminated manuscript copies of this treatise survive, and there are records of at least two others whose current locations are unknown. The Ms. Ludwig XV 13 and the Pisani Dossi Ms. are both dedicated to Niccolò III d'Este and state that they were written at his request and according to his design. The Ms. M.383, on the other hand, lacks a dedication and claims to have been laid out according to his own intelligence while the Mss. Latin 11269 lost any dedication it might have had along with its prologue. Each of the extant copies of "the Flower of Battle" follows a distinct order, though both of these pairs contain strong similarities to each other in order of presentation.  The major sections of the work include: "abrazare", unarmed plays (usually translated as "wrestling" but more literally "grappling"); "daga", including both unarmed defenses against the dagger and plays of dagger against dagger; "spada a un mano", the use of the sword in one hand (also called "the sword without the buckler"); "spada a dui mani", the use of the sword in two hands; "spada en arme", the use of the sword in armor (primarily techniques from the halfsword); "azza", plays of the poleaxe in armor; "lancia", spear and staff plays; and mounted combat (including the spear, the sword, and grappling). Brief bridging sections serve to connect each of these, covering such topics as "bastoncello", or plays of a small stick or baton against unarmed and dagger-wielding opponents; plays of longsword vs. dagger; plays of staff and dagger and of two clubs and a dagger; and the use of the chiavarina against a man on horseback.  The format of instruction is largely consistent across all copies of the treatise. Each section begins with a group of Masters (or Teachers), figures in golden crowns who each demonstrate a particular guard for use with their weapon. These are followed by a master called "Remedio" (remedy) who demonstrates a defensive technique against some basic attack (usually how to use one of the listed guards to defend), and then by his various Scholars (or Students), figures wearing golden garters on their legs who demonstrate iterations and variations of this remedy. After the scholars there is typically a master called "Contrario" (counter), wearing both crown and garter, who demonstrates how to counter the master's remedy (and those of his scholars), who is likewise sometimes followed by his own scholars in garters. In rare cases, a fourth type of master appears called "Contra-Contrario" (counter-counter), who likewise wears the crown and garter and demonstrates how to defeat the master's counter. Some sections feature multiple master remedies or master counters, while some have only one. There are also many cases in which an image in one manuscript will only feature a scholar's garter where the corresponding image in another also includes a master's crown. Depending on the instance, this may either be intentional or merely an error in the art.

"Fior di Battaglia" (Ms. M.383).

The Ms. M.383, titled "Fior di Battaglia", is in the holdings of the Morgan Library & Museum in New York City, NY. Novati described it as a small, thin, vellum folio, pen and ink with gold highlights, and illustrations of sword and lance combat on foot and horseback. Unlike the other surviving manuscripts, the swords and other weapons were enameled in silver, though it has since tarnished to a glossy black. This is the briefest copy of Fiore's work currently known, with only 19 folios; it has a prologue in Italian and four illustrated figures per page in the main body. The figures are accompanied by text that is often identical to that of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 (excepting differences in spelling), but at times includes additional explanation. The Ms. M.383 is almost certainly longer when it was first written; its text makes reference to sections on poleaxe, dagger, and grappling which are not present in the book's current state. It also refers to a certain play of the sword in one hand which is likewise missing from that section. This manuscript is typically referred to as the 'Pierpont Morgan version' or simply the 'Morgan'.  The known provenance of the Ms. M.383 is:  The contents of the Ms. M.383 are as follows:

"Fior di Battaglia" (Ms. Ludwig XV 13).

The Ms. Ludwig XV 13, also titled "Fior di Battaglia", is currently in the holdings of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, CA. Its prologue, format, illustrations, and text are all very similar to the Ms. M.383, though it's largely free of silver enamel. The text takes the form of descriptive paragraphs set in poor Italian verse, which are nevertheless fairly clear and informative. Despite its shared characteristics with the Ms. M.383, there are important differences, not the least of which is the vastly different order of the information. This is the longest and most comprehensive of the four manuscripts of "Fior di Battaglia". This manuscript is typically referred to as the 'Getty version'.  The known provenance of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 is:  The contents of the Ms. Ludwig XV 13 are as follows:

"Flos Duellatorum" (Pisani Dossi Ms.).

The Pisani Dossi Ms., titled "Flos Duellatorum", was believed to have been lost in World War II and only resurfaced in a private collection in Italy in 2005. Novati described this manuscript as an unbound collection of leaves, covered with a cardboard folder with a marbled paper cover. The Pisani Dossi Ms. is the only manuscript in the series that includes a date, claiming to be completed on 10 February 1409 after six months of effort. It consists of 36 folia and possesses two different prologues, one in Renaissance Latin and one in Italian. The body of the text consists of four to six illustrations per page, each with only a brief couplet or quatrain to explain it. This manuscript is typically referred to as either the 'Novati' or 'Pisani Dossi version'.  The Pisani Dossi Ms. was published in facsimile by Francesco Novati in 1902, including the only reproductions of a copy of "the Flower of Battle" that are clearly in the public domain. However, it is unclear how accurate this facsimile is as evidence suggests that Novati may have hired an artist to create a tracing of the original manuscript rather than reproducing it directly. This would have provided ample opportunity for errors to creep into the images, and might also account for the significant divergences from the artistic style of the Getty and the Morgan.  The known provenance of the Pisani Dossi Ms. is:  The contents of the Pisani Dossi Ms. are as follows:

"Florius de Arte Luctandi" (Mss. Latin 11269).

The Mss. Latin 11269, titled "Florius de Arte Luctandi" in a 17th-century script, is currently in the holdings of the Bibliothèque nationale de France. Any preface it once possessed is missing from the current form of the manuscript; it consists of 44 folios with two pairings per page, and is the only copy of Fiore's treatise whose illustrations are fully painted. Unlike Fiore's other works, this manuscript is written entirely in Latin; its descriptions are cast in couplets and quatrains similar to the Pisani Dossi Ms. This manuscript is generally referred to as either the Florius or the Paris.  The known provenance of the Mss. Latin 11269 is:  The contents of the Mss. Latin 11269 are as follows:

Codices LXXXIV and CX.

The Codex LXXXIV (or Ms. 84) is mentioned in the 1436 and 1508 catalogs of the Biblioteca Estense in Ferrara, but disappeared some time in the 16th century. It consisted of 58 folios bound in leather with a clasp, with a white eagle and two helmets on the first page. The Codex CX (or Ms. 110) is also mentioned in the 1436 and 1508 catalogs of the Biblioteca Estense, but not in later inventories. It consisted of 15 small-format folios on unbound parchment, and was written in two columns.  The contents and current whereabouts of these copies of the Flower of Battle are unknown. It is possible that these listings refer to manuscripts listed above, though none currently possess the correct number of folios or match the physical descriptions.

Fiore Furlano de Cividale d'Austria, delli Liberi da Premariacco (Fiore dei Liberi, Fiore Furlano, Fiore de Cividale d'Austria; born ca. 1350; died after 1409, was a late 14th century knight, diplomat, and itinerant fencing master.


Plot summary.

Teacher John Corntel asks his former Eton schoolmate Lynley for help when the 13 year old schoolboy Matthew Whateley has disappeared. Initially Lynley refuses, until Deborah St James finds the naked body of the boy in a churchyard in Stoke Poges. Lynley and Havers start their investigation at Matthew's school Bredgar Chambers, an elite boarding school in West Sussex.  They find a letter from Matthew to Jeannie Bonnamy, a daughter of Colonel Bonnamy. Matthew has visited them three days before his death to dine and play chess with the colonel. When Jeannie brought Matthew back to school, they saw 6th form student Chas Quilter in a school minibus, returning from a visit to Cecilia Feld, a girl in Stoke Poges. Chas didn't want anyone to find out about his relationship with Cecilia, and the fact that he was the father of Cecilia's child, which has Apert syndrome. Cecilia herself was transferred from Bredgar Chambers to another school when she was pregnant.  Chemistry teacher Emilia Bond tried to burn child pornography photos that belonged to John Corntel; she was in love with Corntel, but found out he was collecting those photos. This explains why Corntel didn't patrol in spite of being duty master. That same evening 6th grader Clive Pritchard nabbed Matthew Whateley to torture him, because Matthew had made a tape recording of Clive bullying schoolboy Harry Morant. When Clive found Matthew dead he felt responsible, unaware that the cause of death was carbon monoxide poisoning.  During the investigation there's an attempt to kill Jeannie Bonnamy with a rake. Chas Quilter hangs himself.  The investigators find out that Matthew's biological parents were Mrs Pamela Byrne and Edward Hsu, a Chinese former pupil at Bredgar Hall who killed himself after this scandal. Giles Byrne felt financially responsible for the child of his late wife. As a board member he obtained a scholarship for Matthew at Bredgar Chambers. Giles' 18-year-old son Brian turns out to be the culprit. He killed his half-brother in the fume cupboard in the chemistry lab. He then transported the body to Stoke Poges in the school minibus Chas Quilter was driving. His motive was to win Chas Quilter's lifetime loyalty. Brian also tried to kill Jeannie Bonnamy for the same reason. Brian Byrne and Clive Pritchard are arrested.  In a subplot Barbara Havers visits her demented mother, and finds her father dead. Another theme is Lynley's aristocratic descent (he is sometimes referred to as "Lord Asherton")—shown through his working relationship with his working class colleague Barbara Havers from Acton and his unrequited love for Lady Helen Clyde.

Quote.

We live by codes, he [Lynley] thought. We call them our morals, our standards, our values, our ethics, as if they were part of our genetic make up. But they are only behaviours that we have learned from our society, and there are times to act in defiance of them, to fly in the face of their conventions because it is right to do so.

Literary significance and reception.

"The Baltimore Sun" wrote: "Ms. George has crafted a fine and powerful novel sure to delight readers in the mood for a thought-provoking, hard-hitting mystery."  "People" wrote: "Like P. D. James, George knows the import of the smallest human gesture; "Well-Schooled in Murder" puts the younger author clearly in the running with the genre's master."  "Chicago Tribune": "George is a master [...] An outstanding of the modern English mystery."
  "Los Angeles Times": "A spectacular new voice in mystery writing."
  "Daily News (New York)": "A compelling whodunnit[...] A reader's delight."
  "Well-Schooled in Murder" was awarded the MIMI, a German prize for suspense fiction.

TV adaption.

"Well Schooled in Murder" was adapted and broadcast by the BBC in April 2002 as the first episode of season one in "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries", following a 2001 pilot based on the inaugural Lynley novel "A Great Deliverance". Several changes were made to the plot. Matthew's biological mother is Patsy Whateley instead of Pamela Byrne. Corntel is gay but doesn't actually collect child porn. Deborah and Simon St James are omitted. So is Cecilia Feld, and there's no mention of Chas Quilter having a child. Lorry driver Barry Summers is a new suspect.

Well-Schooled in Murder is a crime novel by Elizabeth George, published by Bantam in 1990. It was the third book in her Inspector Lynley series, which originated in 1988 with "A Great Deliverance". In 2002 its screen adaptation was broadcast as the first episode of season one in "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries", a BBC TV series. Set in the late 1980s at an elite public school in the South of England founded in 1489, the book, which is a mystery novel in the tradition of the whodunnit, revolves around the strict yet unwritten code of behaviour prevalent at independent schools which says that under no circumstances must pupils ever tell on their schoolmates, no matter what they have done. Accordingly, when a 13-year-old boy goes missing one Friday afternoon and two days later is found dead in a churchyard an hour's drive away, Detective Inspector Thomas Lynley and his partner, Detective Sergeant Barbara Havers, both of the Criminal Investigation Department of New Scotland Yard, are up against a wall of silence as none of the 600 pupils of Bredgar Chambers School seems to be willing to co-operate with the police and communicate what they know.


History.

The town was founded in 1823 by Felipe Ruiz. This town derives its name from the large amount of streams flowing through it. The name literally means "small streams".

Geography.

Quebradillas is home to one of the 20 designated forest preserves in Puerto Rico, the Guajataca Forest. The forest serves as a great example of an unusual topography known as "karst country". Karst is characterized by dissolved limestone formations such as sinkholes and haystack-shaped hills known as "mogotes". It is also home to the beautiful man-made reservoir, Guajataca Lake ( long), where you can fish for largemouth bass, peacock bass, tilapia and bluegill (in Spanish known as "chopa"). You can also go hiking or camping. The Puerto Rico Council of the Boy Scouts of America maintains a campground on the lake known as Camp Guajataka. The name Guajataca comes from the name of a Taíno Indian chief who lived in this area. This Indian chief also gives his name to Guajataca Beach to the north where Río Guajataca flowing from Guajataca Lake meets the Atlantic Ocean. Guajataca Beach is popular with surfers and is known for its white sands and wild waters. This beach is ideal for sunning and collecting seashells.

Barrios.

Like all municipalities of Puerto Rico, Quebradillas is subdivided into barrios. The municipal buildings, central square and large Catholic church are located in a barrio referred to as.

Climate.

The general climate of the town is subtropical.

Demographics.

The United States took control of Puerto Rico from Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish-American War under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of 1898 and conducted its first census of Puerto Rico, finding that the population of Quebradillas was 7,432.

Tourism.

Landmarks and places of interest.

There are 6 beaches in Quebradillas. The main attractions of Quebradillas are:

Economy.

Business.

A small shopping center called Quebradillas Plaza is located in this municipality along with some manufacturing industries.  An event which negatively affected the region in the decade of the 1990s was the disappearance of tax exemptions to the private corporations [section 936 of the code of the US Internal Revenue Service ], which at the time was the ideal excuse for the closing of one of the greater manufacturers of textiles in the northwest area of the island. This decline of the industry of the needle occurred similarly in the bordering cities like Isabela and Camuy, generating a regional economic decline as the locals greatly depended on these jobs. In nearby towns like Hatillo, Mayagüez and Aguadilla, the arrival of mega stores and new shopping centers attracted the jobs that used to be in Quebradillas, helping to create the general vision of the town as "ghostly" because there is little movement in the city.  At the same time, since the Island lacks mass public transportation, people must resort to private cars (known as "carro publico", public car in English) used as a bus as a mode of transportation. This, coupled with the fact that the only road to access the important cities, the Puerto Rico Highway 2, is congested most of the day, makes it difficult for people in the area to find work and thus contributes to the general economic decline.  Ironically, the town possesses one tunnel that at the beginning of the 20th century was utilized by steam driven trains that traveled throughout the Island. The disappearance of the same is considered as one of the most ironic facts of the modern history of Puerto Rico, since these railways were very extensive, built through earthly bluffs and were of great utility. Today, their absence only aggravates the problem of mass transit and the dependence on privately owned vehicles as the only method of transportation.  The economy, entering into the 21st century, is based on retail sales. Many small businesses are located along the two main thoroughfares that cross Quebradillas. These consist mainly of light hardware, bakeries, pharmacies, seafood restaurants, American fast food chains and automobile car repair shops.  The town has bank branches for Banco Popular and local savings and credit Unions. These credit unions are most noted for their involvement in common and cultural activities, sponsoring and participating in festivals of typical music [Festival of the Gourd in December], sports and educational activities.

Special Communities Program.

Spearheaded by then governor Sila María Calderón, Law 1-2001 was passed in 2001, to identify Puerto Rico's marginalized communities. In 2017, then governor Ricardo Rosselló created a new government agency to work with the Special Communities of Puerto Rico Program. Of the 742 places on the list of, the following barrios, communities, sectors, or neighborhoods were in Quebradillas: Guajataca, Montadero, Parcelas Italas in Terranova, San Antonio, and Sector Las Piedras Barrio Cocos.

Culture.

Sports.

The town's official basketball team is "<nowiki>Los Piratas'</nowiki>"" "who have won a dramatic number of tournaments in the past. Presently the team has made a "comeback" and has won the championship of the island (2013).

Government.

The town's government is a small unit with few powers it can execute. Small elections are hosted in specific schools every four years to choose a town mayor.

Transportation.

There are 4 bridges in Quebradillas.

Symbols.

Flag.

It has two red quarters. The red stands for struggle, effort and sacrifice. The other two quarters have each five green and white stripes, similar to those that appear in the shield.

Coat of arms.

The three waved stripes represent the quebradillas, over the green background of the vegetation. The fish and the walking stick (distinctive of the traveler), are insignias of San Rafael Arcángel, by allusion from the episodes narrated in the book of Tobías in the Old Testament.

Education.

The town features many public and private schools. There is also a public electronic library near Los Chorritos Pirata water park.  New schools have been created thanks to a government initiative to have "21st century" schools.

Quebradillas () is a municipality of the island of Puerto Rico located in the north-western shore bordering the Atlantic Ocean, north of San Sebastián; east of Isabela; and west of Camuy. Quebradillas is spread over seven wards and Quebradillas Pueblo (the downtown area and the administrative center of the city). It is part of the San Juan-Caguas-Guaynabo Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Eclipse Season.

This is the first eclipse this season.  Second eclipse this season: 19 March 2007 Partial Solar Eclipse

Lunar eclipses.

The previous lunar eclipse on September 7, 2006 was partial.  This eclipse is the first of two lunar eclipses to occur in 2007, the second being on 28 August 2007. The tables below contain detailed predictions and additional information on the Total Lunar Eclipse of 3 March 2007.  Penumbral Magnitude = 2.31882  Umbral Magnitude = 1.23280  Gamma = 0.31749  Greatest Eclipse = 03 Mar 2007 23:20:53.5 UTC (23:21:58.7 TD)  Sun right ascension = 22 hours, 57 minutes, 19.2 seconds  Sun declination = 6 degrees, 40 minutes, 46.3 seconds south of Celestial Equator  Sun diameter = 1936.0 arcseconds  Moon right ascension = 10 hours, 57 minutes, 52.2 seconds  Moon declination = 6 degrees, 56 minutes, 0.7 seconds north of Celestial Equator  Moon diameter = 1782.6 arcseconds  Earth's shadow right ascension = 10 hours, 57 minutes, 19.2 seconds  Earth's shadow declination = 6 degrees, 40 minutes, 46.3 seconds north of Celestial Equator  Totality duration = 1 hour, 13 minutes, 21.3 seconds  Umbral duration = 3 hours, 41 minutes, 5.6 seconds  Total duration = 6 hours, 5 minutes, 31.3 seconds

Viewing.

The whole event was visible from Europe, Africa, parts of South America, and some areas of North America, Asia, and Western Australia. In North America, part of the event was visible at moonrise.

Relation to other lunar eclipses.

Saros series.

It last occurred on February 20, 1989 and will next occur on March 14, 2025.

Half-Saros cycle.

A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two total solar eclipses of Solar Saros 130.

A total lunar eclipse took place on March 3, 2007, the first of two eclipses in 2007. The moon entered the penumbral shadow at 20:18 UTC, and the umbral shadow at 21:30 UTC. The total phase lasted between 22:44 UTC and 23:58 UTC with a distinctive brick-red shade (L=3 to L=4 on the Danjon scale). The moon left the umbra shadow at 01:11 UTC and left the penumbra shadow at 02:24 UTC 2007-03-04. The second lunar eclipse of 2007 occurred on August 28.