Origin.

According to the "Illuminated Chronicle", Wolfer and Héder belonged to the Counts of Hainburg. Mark of Kált's work incorrectly – accidentally or intentionally – refers to Grand Prince Géza (c. 972–997), father of Saint Stephen, the first King of Hungary, in fact, Wolfer and Héder arrived to Hungary during the first regnal years of the minor Géza II of Hungary (definitely before 1146). The brothers' place of origin is in dispute. Simon of Kéza's "Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum" writes that Wolfer and Héder came from ""Vildonia"" with forty armored soldiers, referring to Burgruine Wildon in Styria, however the castle itself was built only after 1157 thus that identification is incorrect. Johannes de Thurocz says in his work "Chronica Hungarorum" that the two knights originated from Hainburg of ""Alemannia"", therefore the Duchy of Swabia. Presumably Mark of Kált's version is closer to the truth, as there was a certain knight Wolfger von Erlach in the first half of the 12th century in Hainburg.  In 1157, Gervasius, Bishop of Győr contributed and permitted the foundation of the Benedictine Abbey of Küszén (later Németújvár, present-day Burg Güssing in Austria), to "comes" Wolfer, who donated several surrounding lands to the monastery. Gervasius subordinated the monastery to the Pannonhalma Abbey and dedicated the new monastery to Virgin Mary. Both Wolfer and Héder were considered strong confidants of Géza II. Héder was the ancestor of the prestigious Hédervári family, while the infamous Kőszegi family originated from Wolfer. As later the Héder genus was named after Héder and not after his elder brother, historian János Karácsonyi argued that Héder ""was more talented than Wolfer or lived a very long time" [after his brother's death]". Wolfer was buried in the Küszén Abbey.  Based on Alexander Köcski's seal, the Köcski family was presumably also related to the local powerful Kőszegi family and thus was a scion of the "gens" Héder too, at least from maternal side. Historian Pál Engel, however, considered that Alexander Köcski individually adopted his seal following his decisive victory over his ardent enemies, the Kőszegis, as a prominent general in Charles I of Hungary's unification war against the oligarchic domains.

Members and their landholdings.

Wolfer's branch.

The brothers were granted their coherent and extensive possession from a crown land after the cessation of the "gyepű" border system. Accordingly, the Héders' first lands were part of the so-called "gyepűelve", a mostly uninhabited or sparsely inhabited area beyond the Austrian border, comparable to the modern buffer zones. The clan's lands concentrated mainly in the catchment area of the rivers Rába (Raab) and Lapincs (Lafnitz) in the southwestern part of Vas County at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Most of the lands laid in the valley of stream Strém (or Strem) and centered around the hill of Küszén. According to historian Géza Érszegi, the Héders owned the whole territory between the streams Strém (and thus the parallel Királyút, lit. "King's Road") and Medves, i.e. southeast to Küszén. However, the Héders also owned contiguous lands towards the opposite direction and the mountain of Höheberg (or Hochberg) was considered the northwest border point of their territories.  Béla III of Hungary (r. 1172–1196) confiscated the Abbey of Küszén from the Benedictines and built a royal castle (called Németújvár, or simply Újvár, "New Castle", today Güssing in Austria) on top of the hill in the 1180s. He compensated its parton, "comes" Hencse I (Wolfer's son, also known as Henc or Aenz) with the patronage of the newly constructed abbey of Kapornak in Zala County. Furthermore, Wolfer's descendants remained the owners of the nearby Szentelek and Szentkút (present-day Stegersbach and Heiligenbrunn in Austria, respectively). A document from 1198 refers to the vineyards of Szentkút as the accessory of the newly built castle (Újvár, or "Novi Castri"). Wolfer's great-grandson, Virunt (or Werenherth), who served as a canon of the cathedral chapter of Győr, still owned Szentkút itself and the surrounding villages, Mérhart, Szombatfalva, Újfalva and Pinka in the middle of the 13th century. In his last will, Virunt bequeathed the villages to Béla IV of Hungary and the Royal Crown, who soon donated them to Herrand, a representative of the Héder clan's other branch. The offspring Hédervári family possessed the area thereafter until its extinction. Beyond the Strém valley, the kindred also owned some lordships, for instance Rábagyarmat and two unidentified estates, "Chegge" and "Podrag". According to a census of the Szentgotthárd Abbey from 1198, family members Simon and Lawrence I owned portions in Szentgotthárd and Battyán (once laid near Nagysimonyi), while Lawrence I, Denis I (from the Hédervári branch) and Hencse I also had interests in Almás. Battyán later was recalled Simonremetefölde (lit. "the land of hermit Simon"), which confirms that Simon became a friar in the last years of his life. Denis and Hencse also owned Pácsony until they donated it to the collegiate chapter of Vasvár sometime before 1217. The local wasteland is still called after Hencse.  Hencse's son, Henry I possessed lands along the river Lendva (Ledava) near the Western border with Austria. He appears in some documents in the period between 1208 and 1212. Henry I and his brother, Michael spent their childhood outside Hungary. They had inherited the right of patronage of the Kapornak Abbey, which was usurped by their some degree of relatives, Fabian and Benz during their absent. They unsuccessfully contested the right for themselves, but Andrew II of Hungary restored Henry and Michael as the rightful owners of the patronage upon their request in 1212. Henry I also owned an estate near Szentbenedek (present-day Kančevci in Slovenia). Michael died sometime after 1212; his widow married Michael Hahót later. Michael's sons, Hencse II and Virunt, and their cousin, Henry II were patrons of the Kapornak Abbey in 1237. Brothers John I and Wolfer II, whose parentage is uncertain, possessed portions in the northeast part of the lordship, near Prosznyákfalva (today a borough in Prosenjakovci, Slovenia). Summarizing, the sporadic data from the end of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th century clearly state that Wolfer's branch had possessions on the originally uninhabited borderlands, along the lines of defense, or ones close to royal households. The granted possession of Küszén was the part of a larger clan possession covering the whole valley of the stream Strém as far as the Rába, but they also had lands along the Rába near Szentgotthárd and the Mura (Mur) near the estate of the fortress of Felsőlendva (present-day Grad in Slovenia).  The most ambitious and powerful member of the branch was Henry II. He entered the service of Béla IV and had gradually distanced himself from his relatives. Receiving large-scale personal land donations for his military career and loyalty, he was the founder and first member of the Kőszegi family (formerly incorrectly also called Németújvári in historiographical works), which had dominated the northwestern part of Vas County and their lands were arranged around significant fortresses, for instance Borostyánkő, Léka (today Bernstein and Lockenhaus in Austria, respectively) and the eponymous Kőszeg. Henry Kőszegi established his lordship independently of his kinship and did not rely on the clan's formerly acquired landholdings in the opposite parts of Vas County. Henry Kőszegi and his sons had become the dominant power of whole Transdanubia within decades, spreading from their paterfamilias' first acquired lands in Vas County.

Héder's branch.

The younger brother, Héder I was granted lands in the island plain of Szigetköz in Győr County. The centre of his estates, Hédervár was named after him. It emerged into the most important settlement in Szigetköz and became the eponymous village of the influential and powerful Hédervári family. Héder's only known son was Denis I, whose person was first identified by historians Gábor Kiss and Balázs Zágorhidi Czigány (formerly Pál Engel also considered an intermediate generation between Héder and his grandchildren). During the determination of borders of the estate of Novák in 1210, Héder II (Hederic or Hedrich) was referred to as the owner of the neighboring estate, Hédervár (it is also the first mention of the village by contemporary records). Héder II served as "ispán" of Győr County in 1223. He had two sons, James I and Lawrence III, and a daughter, who married Pousa Bár-Kalán. In 1255, James and Lawrence successfully recovered their sister's dowry from the late Pousa's son, Nana. Lawrence had a son, Héder IV (fl. 1309) and a daughter Margaret, who married Solomon Dárói. After her husband's death, she strove to keep the estate of Déshida (today an area at Lake Deseda) in Somogy County for her daughter, Anne (wife of Stephen Gyovad) in 1309 and 1310. In the presence of her brother, Héder IV, Margaret pledged the land to the distant relative, Henry II Kőszegi, Ban of Slavonia on 23 October 1309. The powerful lord last appeared as a living person in that document. Henry died by 1 May 1310, when Margaret wanted to pay the loan and recover Déshida, according to a document issued by the Somogyvár Abbey four days later. As the envoy of Henry's sons did not bring the redemption certificate, Margaret refused to pay the pledge.  James married Nabut Monoszló, the daughter of Thomas Monoszló, Ban of Slavonia. He acquired the villages of Árpádsoka and Bős (today Gabčíkovo, Slovakia) in 1269. However, the original owner, Lothard Gutkeled, who lost it during the 1260s civil war, reclaimed the estates after the death of Béla IV. Queen Elizabeth the Cuman, the spouse of Stephen V of Hungary, supported his protege in this effort and officially returned the villages to the Gutkeleds. Amid such a political situation, James was willing to reach a peaceful agreement and sold Bős and Árpádsoka for 70 marks and also paid 7 marks as a compensation to Lothard in 1271. James claimed the village of Bokod (today a wasteland in Celldömölk) from himself through his wife, Nabut Monoszló in 1278. He gradually became a "familiaris" of his powerful relatives, the Kőszegi brothers and joined their rebellion in that year. As a result, Ladislaus IV of Hungary confiscated the village of Fonyó from him in August. James and Nabut had four sons, Lawrence IV, Egyed, Henry III and Stephen I, who also joined that rebellion, which invited the future Andrew III to the Hungarian throne. Among them, Henry III was further mentioned in February 1284, when his land of Bolda in Vas County was confiscated because of affiliation to the Kőszegi family. Of them, only Lawrence IV had descendants, the Bokodi family. He was still alive in 1311, when sold a portion of Bokod, called Nádszeg to Emeric Káldi from the "gens" (clan) Herény. His son was Stephen III and grandson was John III, who appeared in a contemporary record in 1336. Stephen's wife was Chuna Szőlősi, a sister of James Szőlősi from the "gens" (clan) Péc. In October 1336, Stephen and John provided the daughters' quarter from a portion of Bokod to Chuna. It is plausible that they were not related to that Bokodi family, which possessed lands in the region a century later.  Héder's another grandson, Denis II was known only by name, there is no further information about him. He had three sons, Héder III, Herrand and Denis III (also known as the "White-headed"). Héder III married an unidentified daughter of a certain Vekhard. She was the widow of Maurus II Győr. Her husband and their only son, Conrad II both died before 1252. In that year, Héder successfully filed a lawsuit for his wife's dowry against the Győr clan. He functioned as "ispán" of Hont County in 1269. He also acquired a portion from the village Árpádsoka in that year, but after Stephen V ascended the Hungarian throne in the next year, he had to give back to its original owner, Lothard Gutkeled. He last appeared in contemporary records in 1279, when he acted as an arbiter in a lawsuit over the ownership of Gesztence (today a borough in Jánossomorja) between Conrad Győr and a maternal relative, a certain James, son of Michael. Héder had a son, John II, who was a supporter of Stephen V. He fought against the Bohemians, who invaded the Western borderlands of Hungary in April 1273. Therefore, he was granted Dabrony in Veszprém County. Later, he also joined the allegiance of the Kőszegis. He died sometime around 1284; there were some complaints that he unlawfully held a portion of Novák after his lord and relative, Ivan Kőszegi seized it from Conrad Győr. Denis II's second son, Herrand was a long-time partisan of Béla IV. For his military service in the Duchy of Austria, he was granted the landholdings – Szentkút, Mérhart, Szombatfalva, Újfalva and Pinka – of his late relative, canon Virunt by Béla in 1255. Herrand served as Master of the horse from 1262 to 1270, while also held the ispánates of Trencsén, then Moson counties. He regained influence after the death of Stephen V, holding various positions in the queenly court. Today's Mesteri once was called "Hernádmesteri" after him. Herrand had three sons and a daughter. Dominic was mentioned in 1268 and 1269. James II handed his lands in Moson County – Rusovce, Szerdahely (present-day Rusovce and Dunajská Streda in Slovakia, respectively), Csütörtökhely and Rajka, over to King Andrew III in 1297, in exchange for Monyorókerék (today Eberau in Austria). His new seat laid near the lordship of Németújvár (Güssing). Herrand's third son, Nicholas I died in 1326; he donated Bekény (near Egyházashetye) to Peter Intai in his last will and testament. Herrand's only daughter, Elizabeth married to Gregory Rumi from the Tengerdi kinship.  Through his sons, Denis (III) the White-headed became forefather of the prestigious Hédervári family. Both the descendants of Desiderius and Nicholas II bore the Hédervári surname. Desiderius was first mentioned in 1285, when he was granted the land of Bodak in Csilizköz (Medzičiližie; today a southern region of Žitný ostrov in Slovakia). Abandoning the forced alliance with the Kőszegis, he became an ardent partisan of Charles I of Hungary, as a result lost several lands temporarily during the clashes against the Kőszegi family. He sacrificed his life to enable the king's escape during the disastrous Battle of Posada in November 1330. Nicholas II served as "ispán" of Győr County from 1324 to 1330. The Héderváris' main branch ascended from him, which survived the Middle Ages and flourished until the late 17th century.

Héder (also Heydrich or Hedrich) was the name of a "gens" (Latin for "clan"; "nemzetség" in Hungarian) in the Kingdom of Hungary, several prominent secular dignitaries came from this kindred. The ancestors of the kindred were two German knights from the Duchy of Swabia, brothers Wolfer and Héder. They were granted large-scale domains in Western Hungary. The powerful and influential Hédervári and Kőszegi noble families descended from them.


Summary.

The documentary opens showing how Ponijao comes into the world in a modest hut after her mother rubs some red pigment all over her pregnancy-swollen belly. Hattie, on the other hand, arrives in a Western birthing center surrounded by medical equipment and technicians. Another scene shows Bayar being born and tightly swaddled in a hospital, before heading off with his parents and a sibling on a motorcycle to the rural area where the family lives. Other highlights include Mari's tantrum when she is frustrated with a toy, Hattie getting bored during an organized play session, Bayar taking a bath while a goat comes to drink from the same water, and Ponijao fighting with a sibling when they are playing on the ground.  The documentary shows the contrasts of the four cultures without using any form of narration, leaving it to the viewers to interpret the film.

Reception.

"Babies" received generally positive reviews. 69% of ninety-one reviews on the site Rotten Tomatoes favored the film. The site's consensus is that ""Babies" is a joyous celebration of humankind that's loaded with adorable images, but it lacks insight and depth." The film received a score of sixty-three on Metacritic. Owen Gleiberman, a reviewer for "Entertainment Weekly", called "Babies" a crowd-pleaser and gave it a "B". Katey Rich of "Cinema Blend" called the film "brilliantly simple".

Box office.

The film had its widest US release in 543 theaters, grossing $7,320,323 at the box office. It grossed $2,175,039 at the foreign box office; a worldwide gross of $9,495,362.

Babies, also known as Baby(ies) and Bébé(s), is a 2010 French documentary film by Thomas Balmès that follows four newborns through their first year after birth. Two of the babies featured in the film are from rural areas: Ponijao from Opuwo, Namibia, and Bayar (jargal) from Bayanchandmani, Mongolia, and two are from urban areas: Mari from Tokyo, Japan, and Hattie from San Francisco, U.S. The film was released in the United States by Focus Features on 14 April 2010.


Plot.

The U.S. government grows worried for the nation's avocado supply after some confrontations with the "Piranha" tribe of cannibal women, who live in the mysterious "Avocado Jungle" (westernmost outpost: San Bernardino) and ritually sacrifice and eat men. The government recruits Margo Hunt (Tweed), a professor of feminist studies at a local university ("Spritzer College"), to travel into the Avocado Jungle and make contact with the women to attempt to convince them to move to a reservation/condo in Malibu. Along the way, she and her travelling companions — male chauvinist guide Jim (Maher) and ditzy undergraduate Bunny (Karen Mistal) — meet a tribe of subservient men called the "Donnahew" (a reference to talk-show host Phil Donahue) and face dangers in their path.  Eventually, the trio (Margo, Bunny and Jim) meets the Piranha women, who have recently taken Dr. Kurtz (played by Adrienne Barbeau) as their "empress." Kurtz is Dr. Hunt's former colleague in feminist studies (the internationally famous author of "Smart Women, Stupid Insensitive Men") and now her nemesis; she has joined the tribe of Piranha women with her own exploitative agenda. The two argue about the morality of sacrificing men and the exploitation of the Piranha women, and Bunny decides to join the tribe, her first sacrifice being Jim. Bunny cannot go through with the kill, however, and Dr. Hunt escapes, aided by the handsome, intelligent, and sensitive Jean-Pierre (Brett Stimely), who also was to be sacrificed.  Dr. Margo Hunt finds in the jungle a rival tribe of cannibal women, the Barracuda Women, who are at war with the Piranha women due to differences over which condiment (guacamole or clam dip) most appropriately accompanies a meal of sacrificed man. Hunt returns to the Piranha stronghold with this other tribe and rescues Bunny and Jim as well as Jean-Pierre.  Margo Hunt challenges Kurtz to a duel for supremacy, and they argue while fighting with various weapons; eventually, Margo impales Kurtz with a fencing sword. Kurtz explains her motives to Hunt in her last words: After ruling the Piranha tribe, she cannot return to civilization and the talk-show circuit. She then kills herself by plunging into a pit filled with water and piranha fish.  Having discovered the government plot to domesticate the Piranha women by providing aerobics classes and frequent exposure to "Cosmopolitan" magazine, Hunt refuses to bring the Piranha women with her, and instead persuades the warring cannibal tribes to reunite, maintaining the peace by means of consciousness raising groups.  The film ends happily for the trio of main characters: Bunny and Jim are to be married, and Jean-Pierre has enrolled at Dr. Hunt's university as a feminist studies major, becoming in the process the ideal companion for Hunt.

Allusions.

The film's plot loosely parallels that of novel "Heart of Darkness" by Joseph Conrad, as well as "Apocalypse Now", which was also partly based on "Heart of Darkness". Both "Heart of Darkness" and "Apocalypse Now" feature a character named Kurtz who has gone deep into the jungle to become the deranged leader of a group of "savages"; these peoples engage in barbaric rites as an alternative to the rigid and restrictive values of the outside world. The name of the character Ford Maddox, one of the men who recruits Margo to enter the jungle, refers to author Ford Madox Ford, who collaborated on three novels with Conrad (though not on "Heart of Darkness"). When Kurtz and Hunt battle with fencing swords, Kurtz is stabbed, and her dying words are: "You don't know what it's like, trying to face David Letterman with a book on male insensitivity... All right, I was exploiting the Piranha women. You don't know what it was like. David Letterman, God, the horror... the horror of that show... the horror." In "Heart of Darkness", Kurtz's dying words are: "The horror! The horror!"

Reception.

Reviews for the film run the gamut.  One reviewer described it as "a brilliantly absurd story" and "a hilariously tongue-in-cheek premise, wonderfully layered humor that runs from broad slapstick to clever satire, and a cast that's filled to the brim with beautiful women wearing very, very little."  The Digital Fix's reviewer wrote:  "TV Guide" granted the movie 2 out of 4 stars: "This film is not nearly as bad as it might have been, thanks largely to the leads. Moreover, CANNIBAL WOMEN does manage to be on target with its humor from time to time. But there are far more misses than hits as the movie also goes for the corny, the obvious, and the ancient."  Julian White of "Starburst" (a British science fiction magazine), rated the movie 6 out of 10 stars, calling it "a light-hearted romp" and saying, "It's all unashamedly joky and facetious, but also very likeable. The look of the film is rough and ready... Even the biggest fans of this film would have to admit that director J. F. Lawton is unlikely to go down in history as one of cinema's great visual stylists. That said, he's a very capable screenwriter (as he subsequently demonstrated by penning such perennial favourites as "Pretty Woman" and "Under Siege"), and there are some surprisingly sophisticated one-liners lurking among the slapstick. True, the constant ribbing at feminists now seems very dated, but it's never mean-spirited, and anyway the girls give as good as they get."

Cannibal Women in the Avocado Jungle of Death is a 1989 American comedy film directed by J. F. Lawton and starring Shannon Tweed and Bill Maher. The film sends up many pop culture motifs and societal trends, including feminism (and feminist movements' fragmentation around various issues), B movies (particularly "Cannibal Holocaust"), celebrities, major writers and political figures, centred around a spoof of "Heart of Darkness". It was the first feature directed (under the pseudonym J. D. Athens) by screenwriter J. F. Lawton, who also authored "Pretty Woman", "Under Siege" and, and television show "V.I.P."


Life.

His father, also named John (1812 – 1894) was a butcher and his mother, Mary, was a milliner. The eldest of four children, Farmer was recognised as child prodigy, playing violin, piano and harp. His uncle Henry Farmer (1819–1891) was also a conductor, composer, violinist and organist in Nottingham. He owned a successful music-warehouse and nurtured his nephew's musical talent.  Between 1849 and 1852, Farmer studied piano at the Leipzig Conservatory with Ignaz Moscheles, after which he studied for a year in Coburg under Andreas Spaeth, a composer, organist and clarinetist. Farmer returned to England to briefly work in his parents' millinery business, then travelled to Switzerland in 1853, marrying Mary Elizabeth Stahel (1840–1914) in 1859, the daughter of a Zurich schoolteacher, with whom he eventually had 7 children.  His daughter Mary was married to the Scottish classicist John Burnet.  Farmer suffered a stroke at Oxford in 1900 and died in July, 1901. He was buried at St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford.

Teacher at Harrow School, 1862-1885..

After teaching in Zurich for some years, John became music master and violin teacher at Harrow in 1862, reportedly appointed as a result of being noticed while giving piano demonstrations at the London International Exhibition. During his time at Harrow, he introduced 'house-singing' (still part of a new boy's 'initiation' into the school community) and composed many school songs and other larger vocal works for the education and enjoyment of students and staff. He encouraged the participation of the boys in massed singing for school events and the serious study of instrumental music. This was during a period when the inclusion of music within public school education in England was in its infancy and its acceptance was often resisted by school boards and principals. Affectionately known as "Sweaty John", Farmer also introduced the smoking concert, or "Tobacco Parliament", that was held on Founder's Day, where school songs and musical contributions were welcomed from staff, boys and friends, with Farmer's items particularly memorable - he was remembered as a "capital entertainer" according to John Ivimey. His songs continue to be published in modern editions of the "Harrow School Songs" book. The school song, “Forty Years On”, was written in 1872 with fellow teacher Edward Ernest Bowen as lyricist. He also composed cricketing ditties like "Willow the King," one of the most famous of all cricketing songs. His opera, "Cinderella" was performed at Harrow in 1883.  His pupils included Elsie Hall.

Organist at Balliol College, Oxford.

Farmer left Harrow in 1885 to take up the post of Organist at Balliol College, Oxford. During his tenure, he founded the Balliol College Musical Society. His proposed Sunday evening concerts in the College Hall were initially controversial when the performances on the Sabbath were strongly disapproved of by strict Sabbatarians. However, the Sunday evening concerts are still presented by the College Music Society today. While at Balliol he composed Warwick School's first school song, "Here's a Song For All", in 1892.  He championed the music of Bach, editing two volumes for school students, and his own oratorio "Christ and His Soldiers" was popular with smaller choirs. Most of Farmer's stage works were intended for amateurs, often youngsters.

Compositions.

Also some instrumental music, including a piano quintet and two septets for piano, flute and strings.

John Farmer (16 August 1835 – 17 July 1901) was an English composer, music teacher and organist born in Nottingham.


Architecture.

The façade, built abutting a pre-existing bell tower (1414), is based on the scheme of the ancient Arch of Trajan at Ancona. It is largely a brick structure with hardened stucco used for the surface. It is defined by a large central arch, flanked by Corinthian pilasters. There are smaller openings to the right and left of the arch. A novel aspect of the design was the integration of a lower order, comprising the fluted Corinthian columns, with a giant order, comprising the taller, unfluted pilasters. The whole is surmounted by a pediment and above that a vaulted structure, the purpose of which is not exactly known, but presumably to shade the window opening into the church behind it.  An important aspect of Alberti's design was the correspondence between the façade and the interior elevations, both elaborations of the triumphal arch motif, the arcades, like the facade, having alternating high arches and much lower square topped openings.  The nave is roofed by a barrel vault, one of the first times such a form was used in such a monumental scale since antiquity, and probably modeled on the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome. Alberti possibly planned for the vault to be coffered, much like the shorter barrel vault of the entrance, but lack of funds led to the vault being constructed as a simple barrel vault with the coffers then being painted on. Originally, the building was planned without a transept, and possibly even without a dome. This phase of construction more or less ended in 1494.  In 1597, the lateral arms were added and the crypt finished. The massive dome (1732–1782) was designed by Filippo Juvarra, and the final decorations on the interior added under Paolo Pozzo and others in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Relic of the Holy Blood.

The purpose of the new building was to receive the pilgrims who visited it during the feast of Ascension when a vial, that the faithful argue contains the Blood of Christ, is brought up from the crypt below through a hole in the floor directly under the dome. The relic, called "Preziosissimo Sangue di Cristo" ("Most Precious Blood of Christ"), is preserved in the Sacred Vessels, according to the tradition was brought to Mantua by the Roman centurion Longinus, who had scooped up the earth containing the blood.  The first discover was dated to the year 804 when the Roman emperor St Charlemagne asked and obtained by Pope Leo III the official authentication and license for veneration in all the Roman Catholic Church. According to many scholars, Mantua become a diocese and in the place of the discovery was edificated the first nucleus of the odiern Cathedral of St Andrew. The relic was "rediscovered" ("secunda inventio") ca. 1049, at the presence of Matilda of Tuscany. Pope Leo IX recognized this relic as authentic in 1053. It was highly venerated during the Renaissance. The shrines are displayed only on the Good Friday, to the faithful and then brought out along the streets of Mantua in a procession.  Some portions of the precious relic were translation by Charlemagne to the St Chapelle in Paris, and later to the Weingarten Abbey, to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran in Rome, and to the Church of the Holy Cross in the Guastalla (built on behalf of Beatrix of Canossa).

Other aspects.

Alberti broke with basilican tradition by having multiple chapels branch off the nave instead of lining it with aisles—because the colonnades would block the view of ceremonies in the classic model. One of the chapels is known as the Mantegna funerary chapel, since it houses the tomb of the early Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna, with a bronze figure of him by Gianmarco Cavalli and Mantegna's own "Holy Family". Other artworks in the chapels include frescoes of Giulio Romano's school (a work by Giulio is currently a copy) and Correggio. In the belltower there are five bells (A, C#, E, F#, A) cast in the 19th century.  <BR

The Basilica of Sant'Andrea is a Roman Catholic co-cathedral and minor basilica in Mantua, Lombardy (Italy). It is one of the major works of 15th-century Renaissance architecture in Northern Italy. Commissioned by Ludovico III Gonzaga, the church was begun in 1472 according to designs by Leon Battista Alberti on a site occupied by a Benedictine monastery, of which the bell tower (1414) remains. The building, however, was only finished 328 years later. Though later changes and expansions altered Alberti's design, the church is still considered to be one of Alberti's most complete works. It looms over the Piazza Mantegna.


Copa dos Campeões Estaduais 1920.

The tournament of 1920 was held in March in Rio de Janeiro in the format of a league ("round robin"). All matches took place in the Estádio das Laranjeiras of Fluminense FC. It was the first competition organised by the "Confederação Brasileira de Deportes", the precursor of today's CBF. Participants were the following winners of their state championships of 1919:  Paulistano had to play without their star Rubens Salles who had to stay back in São Paulo due to undeferrable commitments. Grêmio Brasil featured Ismael Alvariza, who became in December 1920 the first player from a club outside Rio and São Paulo to play in the national team.  25 March 1920  28 March 1920  3 April 1920

The matches.

Final table:

Copa dos Campeões Estaduais 1936 (Champions Cup 1937 (FBF)).

The 1936 tournament was organised by the Federação Brasileira de Futebol Januar 1937 and held in a league format ("round robin") with home and away legs. Participants were the five state champions of 1936 and a delegation of the sports club of the navy, which qualified through an internal process. Participating teams were:  Atlético Mineiro, Fluminense and Portuguesa were automatically qualified. The other participants played for one more place:  Qualification The Matches  Final table Winner was Atlético Mineiro with the following team: "Kafunga, Clóvis - Florindo, Quim - Zezé Procópio, Lola, Bala, Alcindo - Paulista, Abraz, Alfredo Bernardino, Bazzoni, Guará, Nicola, Resende, Elair" - Coach: "Floriano Peixoto." Atlético usually played in a 2-3-5 formation.

References.

Notes:

The Copa dos Campeões Estaduais, the "Cup of State Champions," was a competition for Brazilian association football clubs held in the years 1920 and 1936. In the absence of other notable national competitions, the winners considered themselves champions of Brazil. Participants were the champions of the states considered the then leading forces in Brazilian football.


Long Apprenticeship.

Rajadhiraja Chola was made co-regent very early in his reign (1018). From that day onward, father and son ruled together and shared the burdens of the empire. From the inscriptions of Rajadhiraja it is evident that Rajadhiraja ruled in full regal status in the lifetime of his father. Rajadhiraja was at the forefront of most of his father's military campaigns.

Military Campaigns.

Revolts in Lanka.

The Buddhist text "Mahavamsa" shows that the years following the defeat and deportation of the Sinhalese king Mahinda V by Rajendra in 1017 CE were filled with revolt and anarchy due uprisings by the Sinhalese subjects against the reign of the Chola invaders. Mahinda was captured and transported to the Chola country as prisoner where he died 12 years later. Mahinda’s son Kassapa had formed the resistance against the Chola occupiers and the revolts were centred on Kassapa.  Kassapa managed to face off the almost 95,000 strong Chola army for over six months and push them northwards from the Rohana area in southern Sri Lanka he then crowned himself Vikramabahu in 1029 C.E. Cholas never intended to subjugate the entire island of Sri Lanka and only occupied the whole island for a period of about 10 years. Sinhalese resistance was assisted by various Pandyan princes against their common enemy. Pandyas had a very close political as well as marital relationship with the Sinhalese.  During Rajadhiraja’s reign this became very acute as Vikramabahu launched an all out attack on the Tamil armies to expel them from the island. He was assisted by a Pandya prince Vikarama Pandya and Jagatpala, a prince from the distant Kanauj in North India. Rajadhiraja’s forces battled and killed these princes.  The version of the "Mahavamsa" has to be taken in the right perspective in that it states itself to be a Buddhist chronicle and its point of view is only supposed to favour Buddhist subjects. We cannot expect it to speak in very complimentary terms about non-Buddhist kings. In any case, at least in war, the Cholas were known to be very uncompromising with their enemies and believed in eliminating them rather than setting them free. whether it was the "Chalukyas", "Pandyas" or the "Ilangai kings"... their treatment was the same, which the "Mahavamsa" chroniclers found inhuman.What is valourous and uncompromising warfare on the part of the Cholas was described as brutal conduct when it came to describing defeats of the rulers of Eelam (Sri Lanka). The same Mahavamsa records however, prefer not to throw any light on the looting and killing of traders and businessmen from South India visiting the Island of Ilangai or even other prosperous Tamils coming to see their relations in the Island. Either the traders or ordinary citizens from Tamil country were being regularly waylaid or looted merely because the Sinhalese could not tolerate their presence in the island. The Chola kings particularly from the time of Rajendra Chola I, on coming to know of the ill-treatment meted out to the visitors from Tamil country in Ilangai, took prompt measures to punish the wrong-doers among the local Sinhalese in Ilangai, which information is available in scores of Tamil records[**].  The Chola provinces in Lanka were a separate administrative division of the empire. The deep southern half was however a Sinhalese stronghold in perpetual conflict with the Cholas. Prince Kitti, son of Vikramabahu became Vijayabahu in 1058 CE and took over the leadership of the resistance. The victorious generals of Cholas executed the captured lankan generals along with their family members, mainly in return for their disrupting traders activities from South India in the Lankan mainland by looting and killing them for their riches.

Continuing Chalukya Wars.

Rajadhiraja, eager to subdue the rising power of the Western Chalukyas and to restore Chola influence with the Eastern Chalukyas in Vengi, personally led an expedition into the Telugu country in 1046 CE. He defeated the Western Chalukya forces in a battle at Dannada on the river Krishna and set fire to their fort. This expedition was followed by number of raids into the Chalukya country by the Chola army in which they captured several generals and feudatories of Chalukya, demolished the Chalukya palace at Kampali. The victorious Chola forces crossed the Krishna river and erected a victory pillar at a place called Yetagiri. After more fighting, Kalyani, the capital of Chalukya, which is identified as Kalyan or Basavakalyan in Bidar was sacked. Cholas also placed a victory pillar in Kolhapur or Kollapuram in Maharashtra.The victorious Rajadhiraja entered the capital of the vanquished Chalukyas and his coronation was performed at 'Kalyanapura', subsequent to which he assumed the title "Vijayarajendra". Someshvara I was banished to places like Rodda, Kadambalige and Kogali 1000 territories in the Nolambavadi areas[**].  In 1050 CE Chalukya king Someshvara reneged on his payment of tribute to his Chola overlords and usurped the Chalukya throne from the Chola viceroy in Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). He also sent an expedition to Vengi in order to re-inforce Western Chalukyan hegemony over the Eastern Chalukyas, whom they always regarded as their dominions. It is also speculated that Someshvara I'may' have captured Kanchi and Kalinga. However, according to Nilakanta Sastri and Majumdar, these are baseless claims because Someshvara I had as his feudatories the Uchangi Pandyas and the Nolamba Pallavas who had provided shelter to his predecessors Jayasimha-II and Satyashraya. The Nolamba Pallavas pompously held the birudas 'Lord of Kanchi', which may lead one to believe that the feudatories of the Chalukyas were ruling from Kanchi or occupying Kanchipuram, both of which presumptions are false. Also, the Cholas were controlling Kalinga through the Vengi Kings like Vimaladitya and Raja Raja Narendra who were related to the Chola Kings. While Someshvara-I did destabilise Vengi by temporarily displacing Rajaraja Narendra, this act also initially disturbed Chola connections with Kalinga. This however, was short-lived for immediately Rajadhiraja-I set off for war against Someshvara-I and that too not at Vengi or Kalinga but by the Chalukya capital itself. But that was after thoroughly preparing himself for war before which he undertook in 1052, the task of anointing his younger brother Rajendra Chola II as co-regent in preference to his own sons. The latter seems to have ascended the throne in 12th for he has the title Rajakesari from then on. When these tasks were completed, in 1054 Rajadhiraja invaded the Chalukyan territory[**].  Rajadhiraja invaded Rattamandalam (southern Karnataka) and immediately seized many of the southern parts of Chalukyan territory like Uchangi, Nulambavadi, Kadambalige, Kogali etc. These developments shook Someshvara-I, who had given himself the title of Trailokyamalla after installing his puppet in Vengi and he had to rush back to save his own kingdom and he had no option but to march against the marauding Chola armies. The two armies met at a place called Koppam on the banks of the Krishna River[**].

Inscriptions.

Rajadhiraja's inscriptions begin with the introduction "tingaler-taru". The following is an inscription from the Svetaranyesvara temple in Tiruvenkadu, a few miles from Vaitheeswaran temple. It mentions the king's father,  Another inscription of the king from a temple in Chingleput district is as follows,  From an inscription from the 29th year of his reign from the Rajagopala Perumal temple we understand that he defeated several warriors of the Chalukyan army, the most notable being Vikki (Vikramaditya), "Vijayadityan" and Sangamayan. In addition, it also shows the various kingdoms that acknowledged his supremacy. Here is an excerpt:  Here is an excerpt of an inscription from the Chikballapur district of Karnataka. It gives a brief overview of some of the king's exploits while he was still a co-regent of his predecessor (original in Tamil and Grantha alphabet):  Here is the inscription from Kolar in Karnataka:  Sometime after he ascended the throne, he placed Rajendra Chola II as a co-regent. Rajendra Chola II would reign alongside Rajadhiraja until the latter's death after which he ascended the throne.

Death on the Battlefield.

He was one of the greatest and bravest warriors in the Chola dynasty and sadly perished alone in a northern battlefield (Battle of Koppam). From the manner of his death, Rajadhiraja came to be known as Yanai-mel-thunjina Devar (the king who died on the back of an elephant). From the time he was chosen heir-apparent by his father to the day when he laid down his life on the field of battle, Rajadhiraja led the life of a warrior king and led many campaigns in person. Rajadhiraja was first and foremost a soldier and possibly his great military talent formed the reason for his being preferred for succession against an elder brother of his.

Personal life.

Rajadhiraja employed his father’s brother, his own brothers, elder and younger, in important offices of state and constituted them into subordinate rulers of regions of his empire. We know of the title (Trilokyam Udaiyar) rather than the actual name of a queen. His queens do not figure prominently in his records. Apart from "Vijaya Rajendra", he took the titles of "Virarajendra Varman", "Ahavamally Kulantaka" and "Kalyanapurangondachola". His children seem to have been overlooked in the succession to the Chola throne for a brief time.

Officials.

Vira-Vichchadira(Vidyadhara)-Muvendavelan was a prominent military officer of this king. He has made several generous donations to the various temples in Kalavara nadu, a sub-division of Nigarili-Chola-mandalam (part of present-day Karnataka) where he was deployed. Vettan Panachanadi-Vānan alias Madurāntaka-tTamil-pperaiyan of Tandāngurai in Vilānādu belonging to the Pandikulasani valanadu of Sola-mandalam was the overseer of the dandanayakas. Santi Kuttan Tiruvalan Tirumud Kunran alias Vijaya Rajendra Acharyan, an actor was in charge of the troupe that were responsible for enacting the Rajarajeswara Natakam (a musical), in the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur. Velala Madurantakam alias Dandanayakan Rajadhiraja Ilangovelan was another officer from Nadar, a village of Tiraimur-nadu which was a sub-division of Uyyakondan-valanadu in Sola-mandalam. He has donated 90 sheep to a temple in Tiruvorriyur during the 3rd year of the reign of Rajendra Chola II when the latter was still a co-regent of the king.

Religion.

The Shaiva Siddhanta school of thought was prevalent and the Bhakti poetry of the Nayanars were encouraged and sang in the temples. We have a record dated in the twenty eighth year of the king's reign from the Adhipurisvara temple in Tiruvorriyur which mentions the Tiruttondatogai of Sundarar and the names of the sixty three Nayanars.

Kōpparakēsarivarman Rājādhiraja Chōla I was an emperor of the Indian Chola empire and the successor of his father, Emperor Rajendra Chola I. During his long reign, he helped his father conquer many territories and maintained the Chola authority over most of Lanka, Vengi, Kalinga, etc. and the relations with overseas domains despite a series of revolts in the territory. Rajadhiraja Chola’s record shows that he was a born fighter who was very capable of maintaining a vast and expansive empire with territories even outside the shores of India. He was a great warrior who always led his soldiers from the front. His life is a testimony to a great king who fought his own wars, standing shoulder to shoulder with his men on front lines. He earned the title "Jayamkonda Chola" (The Victorious Cholan) after numerous victories. Towards the end of his reign, he sacked the Western Chalukyan capital Kalyanapuram and assumed the title "Kalyanapuramgonda Chola" and performed a Virabhisheka (anointment of heroes) under the name "Vijaya Rajendra Cholan" (the victorious Rajendra Cholan).


Origins.

This type of finely knit, down-hair lace shawl originated in the Orenburg area about 250 years ago, in the 18th century. The Orenburg region of Russia is famous for its shawls, known as Orenburg shawls/scarves/ "Orenburgskyi Platok" in Russian. In the English-speaking world, they are often called "wedding ring shawls" because, although the shawls are quite large, a shawl knit in the traditional fashion is so fine that it can be pulled through a wedding ring.

Composition.

The shawls are made from a blend of silk and indigenous goat fiber, similar to cashmere or mohair. Harsh climate and the specific features of the area created perfect conditions for successful breeding of the Guberlinskoy breed that has a light, warm, soft, silky and long-fiber fluff. This particular type of wool is exclusively peculiar to this breed. The goats are brushed each spring to collect the fiber. Each goat gives off about a pound of fiber. The fiber is then handspun using a supported spindle. It is then plied against a commercial silk thread. The silk helps hold the shape of the lace, preventing it from needing to be blocked as often as it would without the silk. Originally the shawls were made entirely of goat fiber, but this changed. By plying with one silk single and one goat, the price of the shawls decreased, because the labor required to produce a shawl decreased. The silk also increased the strength of the shawl.

The shawl.

After the yarn has been spun and plied, the shawl is then knitted before washing the yarn. The yarn and fiber is not washed until the shawl has been knitted and is ready for blocking and sale. The shawls are knitted into a variety of geometric designs. The shawls are made in many shapes; rectangular, square and triangular. The size varies from a 5 ft by 5 ft square shawls to a headscarf-sized ones. Color varies depending on the coloring of the goats. Some shawls contain more than one color.

Qualities.

The down hair of Orenburg goats is the thinnest in the world – 16-18 micrometers, and that of Angora goats (mohair) is 22-24 micrometers. Products made of Orenburg down hair are therefore especially soft and fine. The thinness of hair is partly due to the severe snowy winters of the Ural mountain steppes, along with particular qualities of feed and living conditions. The Orenburg goat breed can only be reared in the Orenburg Region. Despite being so fine, the fiber is very durable, more so than wool. The efforts of the French in the 19th century to import Orenburg goats were unsuccessful, as the warm climate of France was not suitable for the development of the fine down hair. Accordingly, Orenburg goats in France degenerated into ordinary goats with rough thick down hair. In the 18th – 19th centuries France imported tens of thousands of poods (пуд) (an old Russian measure of weight equal to about 36 pounds) of Orenburg goat down hair, which was valued higher than cashmere. The Orenburg shawl became popular in Europe after an enterprise “Imitation a la Orenburg” organized by an English firm “Lipner”.

20th century.

In the 20th century, the wars and the Iron Curtain of the Soviet Era cut short the epoch of the worldwide fame of Orenburg’s handicraft. However, it did not mean the end of down-knitting handicraft in the region. One of the innovations introduced at that time was the combined use of down wool of both Orenburg and Volgograd goats. The local knitters realised the down of Volgograd goats was very good for knitting white shawls. Another achievement was the foundation of the Orenburg Downy Shawls Plant. Again, as in the 19th century, Orenburg shawls attracted attention, this time within the limits of the USSR. It was considered inappropriate to return from Orenburg without a downy shawl. Western Europe is still buying large quantities of Orenburg goat down hair.

Variations.

The “web” like structure of the shawl endows the fabric with a special grace. Even though the shawl is large in size and weights 250-300 grams, it can be passed through a wedding ring and easily fits into a shell of a goose egg. There are several kinds of Orenburg shawls. The first is the grey (seldom white) thick down hair shawls. These shawls started the tradition of Orenburg down-hair knitting. The second is the quite dense kerchiefs and "pautinkas". They are used for everyday wear and they give a similar warmth to shawls. Such pautinkas are knitted in the Orsk region. The third kind of Orenburg shawls are very thin (compared with “spider web” pautinkas and tippets). As a rule thin pautinkas have fancy patterns and are used as decoration on special occasions. The best thin pautinkas are knitted in the settlements of Zholtoje and Shushma of Sarakhtash District. Such pautinkas are considered a fine decoration for any style of evening dress.  As a warp for pautinkas knitters use rayon silk thread and for shawls they use cotton thread. Each knitter spins threads of different thickness. In pautinkas there are usually two-thirds of down hair and one-third of rayon silk thread. Beside shawls and kerchiefs, there are also other products that are knitted today from Orenburg down hair: sleeveless jackets, ponchos, downy and very warm sweaters.

Special features.

A quality shawl is knitted from hand-spun yarn: the knitter will spin a strong down hair yarn and then ply it with commercially spun silk thread. Such a shawl or kerchief will not look downy when first made. They start to develop a halo when they are worn, and will last for many years. A good knitter can knit two kerchiefs – pautinkas (“spider lines”) of medium size or three tippets a month. It will take a month or more to knit a large shawl or a kerchief with a pattern or inscription. Because of the high cost of down hair and yarn, an original hand-made Orenburg shawl or kerchief is an expensive luxury item.  Each shawl or kerchief pautinka is an original piece of art, produced through much work and patience of down-hair knitters. Each knitter has her own secrets and patterns. At the heart of a traditional Orenburg shawl pattern, there are ancient magic signs. Each shawl presents a picture of the Universe the way the knitter imagines it.

The Orenburg Shawl is a Russian knitted lace textile using goat down and stands as one of the classic symbols of Russian handicraft, along with Tula Samovar, the Matrioshka doll, Khokhloma painting, Gzhel ceramics, the Palekh miniature, Vologda lace, Dymkovo toys, Rostov finift (enamel), and Ural malachite.


Location.

The partially ruined church, on the edge of Weston-super-Mare, sits on a cliff top the southern slope of which and the quarry at its western end form the Uphill Cliff Site of Special Scientific Interest, notable for its species-rich calcareous grassland. It consists of grassland and rock-face situated on Carboniferous Limestone. Steeper banks and knolls in the grassland have a flora which includes orchids, Somerset Hair Grass ("Koeleria vallesiana"), and Honewort, ("Trinia glauca") and the Goldilocks Aster ("Galatella linosyris") along with several species of butterfly and Weevil ("Curculionoidea").  The church overlooks Weston Bay, Brean Down and the mouth of the River Axe which was used as a port in Roman times, probably for the export of lead from the Mendip Hills. The nearby tower on the hill is the remains of an 18th-century windmill.

History and architecture.

The cliff beneath the church contained caves which contained evidence of occupation since the Stone Age. The caves have since been quarried away and the artefacts removed to museums. During the Roman period a Romano-British temple was erected on the site. Some remains of this have been found beneath the floor of the open nave. There is evidence of a wooden church on the site around 700 AD during the Anglo-Saxon era, and the port at Uphill may have been a centre for pilgrims travelling to Glastonbury Abbey. The church became the responsibility of the abbot of the monastery dedicated to St Michael, which was on Steep Holm island in the Bristol Channel.  The current Norman stone building has a central three-stage tower, chancel and unroofed nave.  The building was remodelled in the late Middle Ages and restored in 1846 by Thomas Knytton of Uphill Castle. The porch was rebuilt in 1904, although the church had been partly in ruins since the building of a new parish church in 1844. The nave no longer has a roof.  There are three carved sundials, one on the east side of a plain tympanum set over a blocked door in the south wall and one to the west of the tympanum. The third sundial, on the window head on the south face of the tower, predates the Norman Conquest and may be Saxo-Norman.

Current use.

It is now in the care of the Churches Conservation Trust. Occasional services are held in the still-roofed chancel of the church. Bell ringing can also sometimes be observed in this tiny church.

The Old Church of St Nicholas at Uphill, Somerset, England, dates from around 1080, and was built on the site of previous places of worship. It stands on a cliff top overlooking Brean Down and the mouth of the River Axe.


History.

Being one of the largest princely states of India, the Nizam of the Hyderabad State wanted to build a railway line to connect Hyderabad with the rest of the British India (now India). The proposal was for an initial railway line from Secunderabad Railway Station in Hyderabad to Wadi Junction, whose construction expenses the Nizam agreed to underwrite. Subsequent branches were financed through a variety of means. Construction commenced in 1870, and the Secunderabad-Wadi Line was completed in four years. Later from 1874 to 1889, this line was extended to Kazipet and then Vijayawada.  In 1879, the Nizam of Hyderabad Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI took direct control of the company, integrating it into the state bureaucracy as the state-owned Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway. But this partial nationalization was reversed in 1883, when a management company was formed to gradually take over these lines, under the provision of a guarantee from the Government of HEH the Nizam of Hyderabad State. In 1899, the broad gauge connection between Bezwada (Vijayawada) and Madras (Chennai Central) opened making rail travel between Hyderabad and Chennai possible. The State thus contained 467 miles on the broad gauge, all built before 1891, and 391 miles on the metre gauge, opened between 1899 and 1901.  The total capital expenditure on the Nizam's State Railway to the end of 1904 was 4.3 crores, and in that year the net earnings were nearly 28 lakhs, or about 6 per cent on the outlay.  In 1916, another railway terminus, Kachiguda Railway Station, was built to serve as the railway's headquarters.  The Nizam's railway was divided into various, directly-owned subcorporations. Each had a head official appointed the Nizam's Railway. The profits of these rail lines were enjoyed by it. These were the constituent lines within the Nizam's Railway:  The Nizam's railway also consolidated with a separate railroad, the Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railway.

Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railways.

The Hyderabad-Godavari Valley railway was chartered to build a metre-gauge line between its namesake regions. In 1896, it appointed John Wallace Pringle as the superintending engineer for survey and construction, fresh from surveying routes for the Uganda railway. Four years later, the railway began service on the from Hyderabad city to Manmad Junction.  The Hyderabad-Godavari Valley Railways has cost 2.6 crores, and earned 7.7 lakhs net in the same year, or nearly 3 percent; but in 1901 and 1902 the earnings had been about 3 per cent.

The cotton industry and the railways.

In the early twentieth century, cotton being the largest export of Hyderabad State, the cotton industry held an important place in the eyes of Nizam's Hyderabad Government. In 1889 a cotton spinning and weaving mill was erected in Aurangabad city, which employed 700 people. With the opening of the Hyderabad–Godavari Valley Railways in the year 1900 several ginning factories were started. In the Jalna alone there were 9 cotton ginning factories and five cotton presses, besides two ginning factories at Aurangabad and Kannad, and one oil press at Aurangabad. The total number of people employed in the cotton presses and ginning factories in the year 1901 was 1,016.  The area of cultivated land under cotton in 1914 was three million acres (12,000 km2), and most of the cotton was grown in the Marathwara districts, where the soil was peculiarly well suited to it.  The opening of the Hyderabad–Godavari Railway, in October 1900, gave a great impetus to the growth of cotton in the Nizamabad, Nander, Parbhani and Aurangabad Districts, where many ginning and pressing factories came into existence as soon as heavy machinery could be brought there by rail. Bombay buyers then began to arrive in considerable numbers during the cotton season, which lasted from October to December, and as they paid cash for the cotton and would even send coolies to cut it and bring it to the cotton marts, more and more land began to be put down in cotton by the farmers. Hand gins gave place to ginning machines, and the farmers ceased to weed their fields carefully, and to cultivate only the best cotton. Grain and pulses then became more expensive, so much of the best land being laid down in cotton, and Marathwada entered upon a critical period of its existence.  Says the census report of the period: " The evolution from the agricultural to the manufacturing stage has already begun in Marathwara When a country begins to produce the raw materials of manufacture in place of food crops, it has started on the road to industrialisation." There were three large spinning and weaving mills and about 90 small ginning and pressing factories in the State. The population supported by cotton spinning, sizing, and weaving in 1914 was 69,943 persons and by cotton ginning, cleaning, and pressing was 517,750 persons. The wages paid to the employees in these places were good, but the cost of living in Marathwara was very high, owing to the many holdings that are put down in cotton, and the uncertainty of the rainfall and availability of credit form money lenders.

Under the "Rail and Road Transport Department".

Beginning in 1932 scheduled bus services – under the auspices of the railway administration – began over 450 km with 27 vehicles. Within a decade, at a total expense of 71⁄2 million HRs. This was extended to nearly 500 vehicles, servicing 7200 km. To coordinate transport policies, the Nizam's State developed a unified Rail and Road Transport Department. According to historian M.A. Nayeem, The functioning of the railways, roadways and airways under a single department was unique in the world." As a result, post-1948, Hyderabad State (later which became Andhra Pradesh) had a significantly superior bus network compared to the rest of India. Other Indian states such as Madhya Pradesh even bought used buses of Andhra Pradesh without hesitation. A four-lane highway which has now replaced the Nizam-era road from Hyderabad to North India.

Modern legacy.

In 1950, the NGSR was nationalised and in 1951 became part of Central Railway, a zone of Indian Railways.  The metre-gauge lines were converted to broad gauge from 1992 to 2004.

Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway (NGSR) was a Railway Company in India between 1879 and 1950, and was owned by the Nizams of Kingdom of Hyderabad. The full style of the system was "His Exalted Highness, The Nizam's Guaranteed State Railway " which had its beginnings in a line built privately by the HEH the Nizam, much to the dismay of the British authorities. It was owned and worked by a company under a guarantee from the Hyderabad State, capital for which was raised by the issue of redeemable mortgage debentures. In 1951 the NGSR was nationalised and merged into Indian Railways.


Early life and career.

Fisch studied at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (as MIT National Scholar 1968 to 1972), where he received his bachelor's and master's degree in 1972 and 1975 respectively, and received his doctorate in computer science and electrical engineering in 1978. From 1978, he was a scientist in the plasma physics laboratory at Princeton University, where he has been a professor in the Faculty of Astrophysics since 1991 (also associated with the Faculty of Mechanics and Flight Engineering since 2000) and heads the University's Plasma Physics Program. In 1986, he was a visiting scientist at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center. From 1981 to 1986, he was a consultant at Exxon Research.

Honors and awards.

Fisch was awarded the Guggenheim Fellowship in 1985. He was then elected a fellow of the American Physical Society in 1987, and was subsequently awarded the Award of Excellence in Plasma Physics in 1992 for fundamental theoretical work on non-inductive power generation in toroidally enclosed plasmas.  In 2004, he received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award.  In 2005, he received the James Clerk Maxwell Prize for Plasma Physics for ""theoretical development of efficient radio frequency (RF)-driven current in plasmas and for greatly expanding our ability to understand, to analyze, and to utilize wave-plasma interactions"".  In 2015, he was awarded the Hannes Alfvén Prize from the European Physical Society for “"his contributions to the understanding of plasma wave‐particle interactions and their applications to efficiently driving currents with radio‐frequency waves"”.

Nathaniel Joseph Fisch (born before 1972) is an American plasma physicist known for pioneering the excitation of electrical currents in plasmas using electromagnetic waves, which was then used in tokamak experiments. This contributed to an increased understanding of plasma wave-particle interactions in the field for which he was awarded the James Clerk Maxwell Prize for Plasma Physics in 2005 and the Hannes Alfvén Prize in 2015.


History.

Gabriel Dessauer (born 1955) was cantor of St. Bonifatius, Wiesbaden, since 1981. In 1985 he called singers together to form a choir in order to perform a single work, the "Hebbel-Requiem" of Max Reger in the organ version of the Munich organist and composer Max Beckschäfer. The concert on 16 October 1985 was part of the "Internationale Orgelkonzerte Wiesbaden", with concerts of Roger Fisher, Judit Hajdók and Maurice Clerc, among others, on the Walcker organ of the Marktkirche in Wiesbaden, which Max Reger had played himself when he had lived there starting in 1891. Gabriel Dessauer conducted the choir, Beckschäfer was the organist. He also played his arrangement for organ of Reger's "Die Toteninsel", part of "Vier Tondichtungen nach A. Böcklin". The concert is considered the foundation of the Reger-Chor.  The name was chosen in 1988, when the next project was dedicated to the German premiere of Joseph Jongen's "Missa" op. 111. Later projects included one of the first performances in Germany of Rutter's Requiem, recorded on the first CD of the Reger-Chor in 1990.  In 2001 an international collaboration began with the organist Ignace Michiels, bringing together an almost equal number of singers from Flanders and the Rhein-Main Region to perform an annual concert both in Germany and Belgium.

Projects.

1988  The choir sang the German premiere of Joseph Jongen's Mass for choir, brass ensemble and organ, Op. 130, which was not yet in print then, both in the Stiftskirche of Aschaffenburg and in St. Bonifatius.  1989  On 15 January the choir performed Henry Purcell's anthems "Remember not, Lord, our offences" and "Hear my prayer, O Lord", Magnificat for St Paul's by Herbert Howells, Benjamin Britten's "Te Deum in C" and Herbert Sumsion's "In Exile", with organist Petra Morath. On 14 July 1989 the choir sang Bach's Missa in G minor in St. Bonifatius with the Kammerorchester Marburg.  1990 On 1 November 1990 the choir sang in St. Bonifatius Reger's motets "Der Mensch lebt und bestehet" and "Nachtlied" from "Acht geistliche Gesänge", op. 138, and Rutter's Requiem in the version for chamber ensemble. The concert was recorded on CD, the choir positioned "mixed", no two singers of a voice part next to each other, to improve homogeneity.  1992  On 16 June 1992, commemorating the 80th birthday of Maurice Duruflé, the choir sang in St. Bonifatius his Requiem in the organ version, with alto Laetitia Henke-Cropp and organist Petra Morath. Gabriel Dessauer played Duruflé's "Suite" op. 5.  1998  On 11 January 1998 the choir sang secular choral music in the hall of St. Bonifatius, accompanied by Petra Kristen, piano: Edward Elgar's "From the Bavarian Highlands" op. 27, the first of "Two Songs to be sung of a summer night on the water" by Frederick Delius, Rutter's "Five Childhood Lyrics", and the "Zigeunerlieder", op. 103, by Brahms. The songs of Rutter were performed also on 24 January at a workshop for choral conductors which the composer conducted in Limburg, introducing his Magnificat. He first listened and then conducted the music himself.  2001 The first concerts of the Regerchor-International were performed in St. Salvator and in St. Bonifatius. the choral part of the program was William Lloyd Webber's "Missa Sanctae Mariae Magdalenae", Jules Van Nuffel's psalm "Dominus regnavit", and again Reger's "Requiem". The concert in Wiesbaden was recorded.  2002  The choir sang concerts in St. Salvator and St. Bonifatius, the choral part of the program was Joseph Ryelandt's "Missa quatuor vocibus mixtis cum organo" op. 84 and Kodaly's "Laudes organi". Bruges was European Capital of Culture that year, therefore music was performed of a composer who had been affiliated with the city for life.  2003  The choir premiered in concerts in St. Bonifatius and St. Salvator the organ version of Reger's "Der 100. Psalm" of François Callebout.  2004  The choir sang in St. Salvator and St. Bonifatius sacred works for choir and organ of Van Nuffel, including "", and Reger's "Nachtlied".  2006  The choir performed both in St. Leonhard, Frankfurt, and in St. Bonifatius choral music from England, Magnificat and Nunc dimittis for Gloucester Cathedral by Herbert Howells, Herbert Sumsions "They That Go Down to the Sea in Ships" and "In Exile", and three movements from Andrew Carter's "Benedicite".  On 2 December 2006 Ignace Michiels conducted the choir in Bach's "Christmas Oratorio", performed in the Concertgebouw.  2007  As part of the "Boni-Musikwochen 2007" in St. Bonifatius, celebrating "Das Jahr des Historizismus", the choir sang on 15 Juli 2007 Ryelandt's "Missa six vocibus" op. 111 and Kurt Hessenberg's "O Herr, mache mich zum Werkzeug deines Friedens" op. 37/1, after the Prayer of Saint Francis. The program was repeated at in Oostkamp on 2 August 2007.  2008 As part of the "Boni-Musikwochen 2008" in St. Bonifatius, celebrating the 175th birthday of Brahms, the choir sang three motets op. 110, "Geistliches Lied" op. 30, and "Fest- und Gedenksprüche" op. 109. The program was repeated at the Heilig Hart Kerk in Knokke.  2009  As part of the "Boni-Musikwochen 2009" in St. Bonifatius the choir performed choral music from North America, Rupert Lang's "Earth teach me" on words of the Ute people, Morten Lauridsen's "O magnum mysterium", Eric Whitacre's "Lux Aurumque", and Moses Hogan's "Elijah Rock" and "Joshua Fit the Battle of Jericho".  2010  Celebrating 25 years, the choir performed as part of the "Boni-Musikwochen 2010" in St. Bonifatius the last movement of Bach's congratulatory cantata BWV 134a, Van Nuffel's "In convertendo Dominus", the Gloria from Ryelandt's Missa op. 84 and Reger's "Hebbel-Requiem". The program was performed on 4 September 2010 in St. Salvator as the final concert of the Kathedraalconcerten 2010.  2011 On 5 November, the choir performed "Ein deutsches Requiem" by Johannes Brahms in an organ version at St. Salvator. Ignace Michiels began the concert with an organ version of Mendelssohn's "Variations sérieuses" and an arrangement of Liszt's "St. François de Paule marchant sur les flots" from "Deux légendes" (1862). The same program was performed in Wiesbaden on 12 November.  2012  The project of 2012 was Gabriel Fauré's Requiem. combined with Bach's Der Geist hilft unser Schwachheit auf, BWV 226.  2015  For the 30th anniversary, Bach's Missa of 1733 was chosen, performed with soloists and members of the Hessisches Staatsorchester.  2016  The choir remembered Reger's centenary of death by another performance of "Der 100. Psalm". A concert on 27 August 2016 at the Bruges Cathedral combined Bach's Concerto in A major, BWV 1055, played in an organ version by Leonie Dessauer on an oboe d'amore and Ignace Michiels, who also performed Reger's organ works "Scherzo", from "Zwölf Stücke", Op. 65/2, and "Perpetuum mobile", from "Zwölf Stücke", Op. 80/2. The choir also sang two works by Belgian composers, Van Nuffels psalm setting "Laetatus sum" and Joseph Ryelandt's "Panem de coelo." It was the closing concert of the Kathedraalfestival Brugge 2016.  2017  In the Martin Luther Year, the choir performed again "Der 100. Psalm", in the church St. Stefanus in Ghent, a sister city of Wiesbaden. Michiels performed in the concert on 5 November on the organ also works by Guilmant, Dupré, Dubois and Widor. The encore was Reger's "Die Nacht ist kommen" from "Acht geistliche Gesänge", Op. 138.

The Reger-Chor is a German-Belgian choir. It was founded in Wiesbaden in 1985 and has been conducted by Gabriel Dessauer in Wiesbaden. Since 2001 it has grown to Regerchor-International in a collaboration with the organist Ignace Michiels of the St. Salvator's Cathedral of Bruges. The choir performs an annual concert both in Germany and Belgium of mostly sacred choral music for choir and organ. Concerts have taken place regularly in St. Bonifatius, Wiesbaden, and in the cathedral of Bruges in its series "Kathedraalconcerten". The choir performed additional concerts at other churches of the two countries and in the Concertgebouw of Bruges.


Plot.

The film tells the story of Simon Calmat (Vincent Lindon), a French swimming coach who is divorcing his wife Marion (Audrey Dana). Simon tries to help a young Iraqi-Kurd immigrant, Bilal Kayani (Firat Ayverdi), whose dream is to cross the English Channel from Calais in France to the United Kingdom by any means possible to be reunited with his girlfriend Mina (Derya Ayverdi). Meanwhile, Mina's father strongly opposes Bilal's plans as he wants to marry his daughter to her cousin who owns a restaurant. After being caught with other immigrants and returned to France, Simon gives him temporary refuge at his home after the young Bilal, nicknamed "Bazda" (runner, for his athletic abilities and love of football and Manchester United in particular) registers for swimming lessons, intending to train to be able to swim across the Channel. After police search Simon's apartment, Bilal goes on a final attempt and drowns 800 meters from the English coast while hiding from the coastguard. Simon then travels to inform Mina.

Reception.

The film became popular with audiences in France alone reaching 780,000 in just 3 weeks on screen. The debate about immigration intensified after French Immigration Minister Éric Besson and film director Philippe Lioret debated the issue during the popular French television discussion show "Ce soir (ou jamais!)". Lioret took the opportunity to ask for an amendment to French law depenalising those who help refugees. "If such a thing passes on [amending] this article, it will be a victory", he declared.  The French member of parliament Daniel Goldberg introduced a proposition to decriminalize the aiding of unauthorised immigration ("l'immigration clandestine"). The proposition was hotly debated. The amendment was discussed but did not become law. Goldberg said he intended to introduce further measures to amend the law. Another proposition was tabled by a group of Communist senators, but never discussed.

Accolades.

On 25 November 2009, the film won the Lux Prize from the European Parliament.  Other awards:

Welcome is a 2009 French film directed by Philippe Lioret. It stars Vincent Lindon and features Firat Ayverdi and Derya Ayverdi in their inaugural roles. The film was released on 11 March 2009 in France. The director wanted to highlight the plight of immigrants living in Calais, France, and their plans to reach the United Kingdom.


History.

ÖSS was first applied in the late 1960s. Before then each university selected their students via their own criteria. However, with the increasing number of youth and the overloaded applications, the universities gathered and founded "Yüksekögretim Kurulu", the Higher Education Council, and a subdivision named ÖSYM, "Student Selection and Placement Center", which began to operate the central ÖSS, Student Selection Examination.

ÖSS and ÖYS between 1980–1999.

In 1980 the number of the exams were increased to two, namely the ÖSS and ÖYS. If a student did not achieve the specified grade in ÖSS, they did not have the right to enter ÖYS, and thus, lost their chance to be accepted to a university. ÖSS consisted of questions about the ninth grade curriculum, and ÖYS was a test on the tenth and eleventh grade curriculum. ÖSS eliminated the students on the basis of the grade they had received in the exam, and ÖYS placed the students to the universities they wanted. This system continued until 1999 when ÖYS was dropped and the system reverted to the single ÖSS exam, with the same format and same questions.

ÖSS between 1999–2005.

The ÖSS exam was a 180-minute exam with 180 questions testing students' analytical thinking and problem-solving abilities, as well as knowledge of the high school curriculum. Each student was expected to answer the entirety of questions, which spanned the following subject areas: mathematics, geometry, physics, chemistry, biology, Turkish language, history, geography and philosophy.  A foreign language exam, the YDS, was conducted a week after the ÖSS. It was composed of foreign language questions in English, French, and German. As in ÖSS, each student solved the questions of the foreign language department they had chosen at high school.  The maximum score that a student could attain on the ÖSS was 380,300 being the student's achievement on the test score, and 80 being a student's high school score based on their GPA, graduation rank, and school's past success on the ÖSS exam.  If a student selected a university department related to their studies at high school (namely applied sciences, social sciences, or foreign languages), their score was multiplied by 0.8. If a student preferred to study at a different department from their high school concentration, their score was multiplied by 0.3.

ÖSS between 2006–2009.

Students who took ÖSS in 2006 saw some major changes. The exam now lasted 195 minutes, and had two parts: ÖSS 1 and ÖSS 2. ÖSS 1 has 120 questions on the ninth and tenth grade curriculum. There are 30 Turkish, 30 Math 1, 30 Science 1, 30 Social Sciences 1 questions. Each student has to answer every question regardless of his/her department.  ÖSS 2 is composed of 120 questions out of which students have to answer 60. Students at the social sciences department have to answer the social sciences-2 and literature-social test questions. Students at the applied sciences departments have to answer the applied sciences-2 and mathematics-2 questions. The students at the foreign languages departments have to answer the whole ÖSS 1 and foreign language questions; which are tested separately in another exam named YDS-foreign language exam. The Turkish-Math students must answer the literature-social and mathematics-2 questions.

YGS-LYS (2010–2018).

Beginning in 2010, the exam is now similar to the ÖSS-ÖYS system in terms of topics. Students take the Transition to Higher Education Examination (YGS) in March. Those who pass the YGS are then entitled to take the Undergraduate Placement Examination (LYS), the second-round exam in the new system taking place in June. Students who only take the YGS, in which students have to answer 160 questions (Turkish language (40), maths (40), philosophy (8), geography (12), history (15), religion culture and morality knowledge (5), biology (13), physics (14) and chemistry (13)) in 160 minutes, are able to apply for associate degree programs. There are five LYS sessions whereas the previous university entrance system, the ÖSS, was held once in a year throughout the country.

TYT - AYT (2018-present).

The Higher Education Institutions Examination (YKS) is conducted by the Measurement, Selection and Placement Center ÖSYM in order to enable the students to be placed in higher education programs and to be placed according to their preferences.  Higher Education Institutions Exam (YKS):  YKS is a 3-session exam. All applicants applying to YKS are required to attend the Basic Proficiency Test (TYT). Other sessions are optional.  The first session is the Basic Proficiency Test (TYT). The test is carried out in the following fields.  -Turkish language (40 questions)  -Liberal arts (25 questions)  -Mathematics (40 questions)  -Science (20 questions)  In the 2nd Field Qualification Tests (AYT), the candidates are asked the following four areas:  -Turkish Language and Literature and Social Sciences I Test (Turkish Language and Literature, History I and Geography I)  -Social Sciences II Test (History II, Geography II, Philosophy Group)  -Mathematical Test  -Fen Science Test  The third session is the Foreign Language Test (English) (YDT).  Candidates with a score of 150 or higher in the TYT will be able to choose higher education programs that take students with TYT points. Candidates who scored 150 or more in TYT, say, SAY, ORAL, EA, DIL scores of 180 and above, with these point types and students with undergraduate degree programs with TYT score will be able to choose the undergraduate programs.  Candidates who have a score of 180 or more in TYT have the right to choose only associate degree programs. These candidates do not have the right to choose undergraduate, undergraduate and graduate programs with SAY (Maths and Science), VERBAL ( Turkish, Social Sciences (history II, geography II and religion/philosophy II), EA (Maths, Turkish and History I and Geography I) and LANGUAGE (English, French, German, Russian and Arabic) score.  In order to apply for higher education programs that take students with a special aptitude test, TYT score should be min. 180 and above (for disabled students 100 and above) Results are announced in the second half of June and students have to make their university preferences by the last week of July. They are placed in courses according to their scores and this is announced at the end of August. In Turkish educational system, schools follow a curriculum completely decided by the state, which makes it easier to hold nationwide exams

Criticism of ÖSYS.

"Life = 180 minutes?" is a slogan used by TED (Turkish Education Association) in 2005 in order to criticize the ÖSS system for attempting to encompass all the work of a student throughout his or her 12 years of academic life in a 3-hour multiple choice exam. This is arguably unfair; however, the president of the ÖSYM exam board states that "ÖSS is the only available university entrance system until the number of people who apply to universities is lowered."  The most significant reason why ÖSS is being conducted instead of personal interviews is the fact that the total capacity of universities is 450,000 while the number of candidates wanting to study at a college is 1.6 million and is increasing every year.  For a student, the education they receive at school is seen as not enough to succeed in ÖSS. Therefore, there is a huge sector in Turkey of private evening and weekend cram schools ("dershane") all around the country. These institutions prepare students solely for exams, including university entrance. All "dershane"s compete with each other in order to create the "champion", the one to score the highest mark in Turkey. The dershane sector is bolstered every year by huge media interest as the results of the exam are disclosed and the students who rank in the top few appear on TV and in the newspapers. In 2011 ÖSYM is taking steps to limit this interest by charging newspapers 150,000 TL for the past exam questions, while forbidding television channels other than the state-owned TRT from broadcasting the questions.

Student Selection and Placement System (, ÖSYS) or Higher Education Foundations Examination (, YKS), formerly Higher Education Examination Undergraduate Placement Examination, (, YGS-LYS), is a standardized test for the admission to higher education in Turkey administered by ÖSYM. Within the Turkish education system, the only way to enter a university is through this exam. 1,692,000 high school graduates took the exam in 2011 and 2,255,386 in 2016. It is a multiple choice exam (5 options). It has two parts as Core Proficiency Test-Advanced Proficiency Test (, TYT-AYT).


Biography.

Early life and education.

Newbigin was born in 1909 in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. He was educated at Leighton Park School, the Quaker boarding school in Reading, Berkshire. He went to Queens' College, Cambridge in 1928, during which time he converted to Christianity. Having graduated, he moved to Glasgow to work with the Student Christian Movement (SCM) in 1931. He returned to Cambridge in 1933 to train for the ministry at Westminster College, and in July 1936 he was ordained by the Presbytery of Edinburgh to work as a Church of Scotland missionary at the Madras Mission.  A month later he married Helen Henderson, and in September 1936 they both set off for India where they had one son and three daughters. He also had a sister, Frances, who was a regular worshipper at Jesmond URC (formerly Presbyterian), Newcastle upon Tyne, in the late 1970s and into the 1980s.

Career as Bishop.

In 1947, the fledgling Church of South India, an ecumenical church formed from several Protestant churches, appointed Newbigin as one of their first bishops in the Diocese of Madurai Ramnad – a surprising career path for a Presbyterian minister. In 1959 he became the General Secretary of the International Missionary Council and oversaw its integration with the World Council of Churches, of which he became Associate General Secretary. He remained in Geneva until 1965, when he returned to India as Bishop of Madras, where he stayed until he retired in 1974. He was a pacifist.

Career as lecturer and writer.

Newbigin and his wife Helen left India in 1974 and made their way overland back to the UK using local buses, carrying two suitcases and a rucksack. They then settled in Birmingham, where Newbigin became a Lecturer in Mission at the Selly Oak Colleges for five years. Of the British denominations linked with the Church of South India, he chose to join the United Reformed Church (URC). In retirement he took on the pastorate of Winson Green URC, located opposite the gates of HM Prison Birmingham and supporting people visiting prisoners. He was Moderator of the General Assembly of the URC for the year 1978-9. During this time, he preached at Balmoral and continued the prolific writing career that established him as one of the most respected and significant theologians of the twentieth century.  He is especially remembered for the time after he returned to England from his long missionary service and travel, when he tried to communicate the serious need for the church to once again take the Gospel to post-Christian Western culture, which he viewed not as a secular society without gods but as a pagan society with false gods. From Newbigin's perspective, western cultures, particularly modern scientific cultures, had uncritically come to believe in objective knowledge that was unaffected by faith-based axiomatic presuppositions. Newbigin challenged these ideas of neutrality and also the closely related discussion concerning the distinction between facts and values, both of which emerged from the Enlightenment. It was during this time that he wrote two of his most important works, "Foolishness to the Greeks" and "The Gospel in a Pluralist Society" in which the strong influence of thinkers such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Michael Polanyi is apparent. He returned to these themes in his small volume "Proper Confidence: Faith, Doubt and Certainty in Christian Discipleship", published in 1995, in the closing years of his life. Besides MacIntyre and Polanyi, the influence of Martin Buber and Hans Wilhelm Frei is also noticeable in Newbigin's work.  Milestone  In his mission time he influenced that first 'MERCY PETITION' for the people who wait for death punishment in independent India, Tamilnadu.

Final years.

After he retired, Newbigin regularly had theology students come over from King's College London to read chapters of theological texts to him since his eye vision had diminished. Despite his fading eyesight, he continued preaching; he told parishioners at St Paul's Church in nearby Herne Hill that when he preached, he would prepare his entire homily in his head long before he was scheduled to give it, and preach from memory. Sydney Carter was a regular attender of the services when he preached. He died in West Dulwich, London, England on 30 January 1998 and was cremated at West Norwood Cemetery. At Newbigin's funeral service on 7 February 1998 his close friend Dr. Dan Beeby said, "Not too long ago, some children in Selly Oak were helped to see the world upside down when the aged bishop stood on his head! Not a single one of his many doctorates or his CBE fell out of his pockets. His episcopacy was intact."

Legacy.

Theologian and Lesslie Newbigin historian Geoffrey Wainwright commented that when the history of the 20th century church is written, Lesslie Newbigin should be considered one of the top ten or twelve most influential persons.  In 2008, Western Theological Seminary in Holland, Michigan opened the Newbigin House of Studies with City Church San Francisco, focused specifically on leadership development of laity.

James Edward Lesslie Newbigin (8 December 1909 – 30 January 1998) was a British theologian, missiologist, missionary and author. Though originally ordained within the Church of Scotland, Newbigin spent much of his career serving as a missionary in India and became affiliated with the Church of South India and the United Reformed Church, becoming one of the Church of South India's first bishops. A prolific author who wrote on a wide range of theological topics, Newbigin is best known for his contributions to missiology and ecclesiology. He is also known for his involvement in both the dialogue regarding ecumenism and the Gospel and Our Culture movement. Many scholars also believe his work laid the foundations for the contemporary missional church movement, and it is said his stature and range is comparable to the "Fathers of the Church.".


Description.

Mi Zong Luo Han is an external style, with distinct internal influences. It draws on many aspects of the external Northern Shaolin long-fist style, and the internal styles T'ai chi ch'uan and Baguazhang, which are often taught alongside it in modern times. It is characterized by deceptive hand movements, intricate footwork, varied kicks, and high leaps. The style changes very quickly when executed.  The emphasis on flexibility in Northern Shaolin Kung Fu styles is the guiding principle of Mi Zong, and this is evident in the versatility of its attacks and the extent to which it integrates core concepts of multiple internal styles. An increased emphasis on mobility often comes at the cost of power, but Mi Zong kungfu compensates for this by providing a way for a dynamic generation of power. Mi Zong's unique Fa Jing, discharging explosive power like lightning strikes, comes from the combination of the internal corkscrew power of Hsing I, Chen-style Tai Chi and the external snapping power of Shaolin Long Fist. The result is an efficient production of power through a dynamic motion of multiple elements of the body, the mastery of which gives a Mi Zong's practitioner the capability of generating quick and flexible force from any distance. In short, F=ma and a= the acceleration of Mizong's fists and kicks is high at the moment of impact which gives rise to strong force and hence high power.  Mizong Luohan's system was presided over by Grandmaster Ye Yu Ting in the twentieth century until his death in 1962, at the age of 70. A number of his students such as Masters Chi-Hung Marr, Raymond K. Wong, and Johnny Lee emigrated to North America in the 1960s and have continued to teach this system in various locations around the United States of America, from Los Angeles, Dallas Texas, Coppell Texas, to Hawai`i, and Canada.  Mizong Chuan has also been continued to be taught as a foundation art to Hsing I/Xing Yi within the Yue Jia Ba Shao/Geng Jishan tradition in London, England. Within this tradition, Mizong was primarily taught to children as, from a learning perspective, the technical, internal aspects of the art are less sophisticated (i.e., more external) than in Hsing I.

Mízōngyì (), or simply Mízōng, is a style of Chinese martial art based on deception and mobility. Mizong is also known as Mízōngquán ( or sometimes "Labyrinthine Boxing" stressing the deceptive nature of the art) and Yànqīngquán (). There are many sub-branches of this style.