List of Qualcomm Snapdragon systems-on-chip

Snapdragon S4 series.

Snapdragon S4 is offered in three models; S4 Play for budget and entry-level devices, S4 Plus for mid-range devices and S4 Pro for high-end devices. It was launched in 2012.  The Snapdragon S4 were succeeded by Snapdragon 200/400 series (S4 Play) and 600/800 series (S4 Plus and S4 Pro)

Snapdragon 200 series.

Qualcomm 205, Snapdragon 208, 210 and 212 (2014–17).

The Snapdragon 208 and Snapdragon 210 were announced on September 9, 2014. The Snapdragon 212 was announced on July 28, 2015. The Qualcomm 205 Mobile Platform formally falls under the Mobile Platform brand, but is practically a Snapdragon 208 with a X5 LTE modem. It was announced March 20, 2017.

Qualcomm 215 (2019).

The Qualcomm 215 was announced on July 9, 2019.. It is a toned-down variant of the Snapdragon 425 and primarily optimized for Android Go Edition devices.

Snapdragon 400 series.

The Snapdragon 400 Series is the entry-level SoC designed for budget devices. It is the successor of the Snapdragon S4 Play.

Snapdragon 410, 412 and 415 (2014/15).

The Snapdragon 410 was announced on December 9, 2013. It was Qualcomm's first 64-bit mobile system on a chip and first manufactured in China by SMIC. The Snapdragon 412 was announced on July 28, 2015. The Snapdragon 415 and the older Snapdragon 425 (later cancelled) were announced on February 18, 2015.

Snapdragon 425, 427, 430 and 435 (2015/16).

Snapdragon 425, 427, 430 and 435 are pin and software compatible; software compatible with Snapdragon 429, 439, 450, 625, 626 and 632. The Snapdragon 430 was announced on September 15, 2015. The new Snapdragon 425 and Snapdragon 435 were announced on February 11, 2016. The Snapdragon 427 was announced on October 18, 2016.

Snapdragon 429, 439 and 450 (2017/18).

The Snapdragon 450 was announced on June 28, 2017. Pin and software compatible with Snapdragon 625, 626 and 632; software compatible with Snapdragon 425, 427, 429, 430, 435 and 439. The Snapdragon 429 and 439 were announced on June 26, 2018. Snapdragon 429 and 439 pin and software compatibility; software compatible with Snapdragon 425, 427, 430, 435, 450, 625, 626 and 632.

Snapdragon 460 (2020).

The Snapdragon 460 was announced on January 20, 2020 with NavIC support. It is the first Snapdragon 400 model to incorporate the Kryo architecture.

Snapdragon 600 series.

Snapdragon 600 (2013).

The Snapdragon 600 was announced on January 8, 2013. Unlike the later models of the 600 series, Snapdragon 600 was considered a high-end SoC similar to the Snapdragon 800, and was the direct successor of both the Snapdragon S4 Plus and S4 Pro.

Snapdragon 610, 615 and 616 (2014/15).

The Snapdragon 610 and Snapdragon 615 were announced on February 24, 2014. The Snapdragon 615 was Qualcomm's first octa-core SoC. Starting with the Snapdragon 610, the 600 series is a mid-range SoC lineup, as opposed to the original Snapdragon 600, which was a high-end model. The Snapdragon 616 was announced on July 31, 2015.

Snapdragon 617, 625 and 626 (2015/16).

The Snapdragon 617 was announced on September 15, 2015. The Snapdragon 625 was announced on February 11, 2016. The Snapdragon 626 was announced on October 18, 2016. Snapdragon 625, 626, 632 and 450 are pin and software compatible; software compatible with Snapdragon 425, 427, 429, 430, 435 and 439.

Snapdragon 650 (618), 652 (620) and 653 (2015/16).

The Snapdragon 618 and Snapdragon 620 were announced on February 18, 2015. They have been since renamed as Snapdragon 650 and Snapdragon 652 respectively. The Snapdragon 653 was announced on October 18, 2016.

Snapdragon 630, 636 and 660 (2017).

Snapdragon 630, 636 and 660 are pin and software compatible. The Snapdragon 630 and Snapdragon 660 were announced on May 9, 2017. The Snapdragon 636 was announced on October 17, 2017.

Snapdragon 632, 662, 665, 670 and 675 (2018-20).

The Snapdragon 632 was announced on June 26, 2018. Pin and software compatible with Snapdragon 625, 626 and 450; software compatible with Snapdragon 425, 427, 429, 430, 435 and 439. The Snapdragon 670 was announced on August 8, 2018. Pin and software compatible with Snapdragon 710. The Snapdragon 675 was announced on October 22, 2018. The Snapdragon 665 was announced on April 9, 2019. The Snapdragon 662 was announced on January 20, 2020 with NavIC Support.

Snapdragon 690 (2020).

The Snapdragon 690 was announced on June 16, 2020.

Snapdragon 700 series.

February 27, 2018 Qualcomm Introduces New Snapdragon 700 Mobile Platform Series

Snapdragon 710 and 712 (2018/2019).

The Snapdragon 710 was announced on May 23, 2018. Pin and software compatible with Snapdragon 670. The Snapdragon 712 was announced on February 6, 2019.

Snapdragon 720G, 730/730G and 765/765G/768G (2019/20).

The Snapdragon 730 and 730G were announced on April 9, 2019. The Snapdragon 765 and 765G were announced on December 4, 2019. The Snapdragon 765/765G were Qualcomm's first SoCs with 5G integrated modem and first 700 series SoC supporting Updateable GPU Drivers via the Play Store. The Snapdragon 720G was announced on January 20, 2020. The Snapdragon 768G were announced on May 10, 2020 featuring 15% faster CPU and GPU.

Snapdragon 800 series.

A Snapdragon 802 chip, 8092, for use in Smart TVs, was formerly announced by Qualcomm. They later confirmed that it will not be released, as demand for processors in that market is "smaller than anticipated".

Snapdragon 800, 801 and 805 (2013/14).

The Snapdragon 800 was announced on January 8, 2013.  The Snapdragon 801 was announced on February 24, 2014. Notable features:  The Snapdragon 805 was announced on November 20, 2013.

Snapdragon 808 and 810 (2015).

The Snapdragon 808 and 810 were announced on April 7, 2014.  Snapdragon 808 notable features over its predecessor (805): Snapdragon 810 notable features over its lower end (808):

Snapdragon 820 and 821 (2016).

The Snapdragon 820 was announced at the Mobile World Congress in March 2015, with the first phones featuring the SoC released in early 2016. The Snapdragon 821 was announced in July 2016. The 821 provides a 10% improvement in performance over the 820 due to a faster clocked CPU, but otherwise has similar features, with Qualcomm stating that the 821 is designed to complement rather than replace the 820.  Notable features over its predecessor (Snapdragon 808 and 810):

Snapdragon 835 and 845 (2017/18).

The Snapdragon 835 was announced on November 17, 2016.  Notable features over its predecessor (821).  The Snapdragon 845 was announced on December 7, 2017.  Snapdragon 845's notable features:

Snapdragon 855 and 855+ (2019).

The Snapdragon 855 was announced on December 5, 2018. The Snapdragon 855 is Qualcomm's first 7 nm FinFET chipset.  Notable features over its predecessor (845):  The Snapdragon 855+ was announced on July 15, 2019.

Snapdragon 865 (2020).

The Snapdragon 865 was announced on December 4, 2019.  Notable features over its predecessor (855):

Snapdragon Compute Platforms for Windows 10 PCs.

Snapdragon 835, 850, 7c, 8c, 8cx and SQ1.

The Snapdragon 835 Mobile PC Platform for Windows 10 PCs was announced on December 5, 2017. The Snapdragon 850 Mobile Compute Platform for Windows 10 PCs, was announced on June 4, 2018. It is essentially an over-clocked version of the Snapdragon 845. The Snapdragon 8cx Compute Platform for Windows 10 PCs was announced on December 6, 2018.  Notable features over the 855:  The Microsoft SQ1 was announced on October 2, 2019. Co-developed with Microsoft, it was exclusively designed for Microsoft's Surface Pro X. Technically, it's a Snapdragon 8cx SoC with faster Adreno 685 GPU core providing performance of 2100 GFLOPs. The Snapdragon 7c Compute Platform and Snapdragon 8c Compute Platform for Windows 10 PCs were announced on December 5, 2019.

Hardware codec supported.

The different video codecs supported by the snapdragon SoCs.  D - decode; E - encode  FHD = FullHD = 1080p = 1920x1080px  HD = 720p which can be 1366x768px or 1280x720px

Snapdragon 200 series.

The different video codecs supported by the snapdragon 200 series.

Snapdragon 400 series.

The different video codecs supported by the snapdragon 400 series.

Snapdragon 600 series.

The different video codecs supported by the snapdragon 600 series.

Snapdragon 700 series.

The different video codecs supported by the snapdragon 700 series.

Snapdragon 800 series.

The different video codecs supported by the Snapdragon 800 series.

Wearable platforms.

Snapdragon Wear 1100, 1200, 2100, 2500 and 3100.

The Qualcomm Snapdragon Wear 2100 processor is designed for smartwatches. It is available in both connected (4G/LTE and 3G) and tethered (Bluetooth and Wi-Fi) versions. The LG Watch Style uses this processor. The Snapdragon Wear 2500 was announced on June 26, 2018. The Snapdragon Wear 3100 was announced on September 10, 2018.

Automotive platforms.

Snapdragon 602A and 820A.

The Snapdragon 602A, for application in the motor industry, was announced on January 6, 2014. The Snapdragon 820A was announced on January 6, 2016.

Embedded platforms.

Snapdragon 410E, 600E, 800, 810 and 820E.

The Snapdragon 410E Embedded and Snapdragon 600E Embedded were announced on September 28, 2016. The Snapdragon 800 for Embedded The Snapdragon 810 for Embedded The Snapdragon 820E Embedded was announced on February 21, 2018.

Vision Intelligence Platform.

The Qualcomm Vision Intelligence Platform was announced on April 11, 2018. The Qualcomm Vision Intelligence Platform is purpose built to bring powerful visual computing and edge computing for machine learning to a wide range of IoT devices.

Home Hub and Smart Audio platforms.

Qualcomm 212, 624 and Smart Audio.

The Qualcomm Smart Audio Platform (APQ8009 and APQ8017) was announced on June 14, 2017. The Qualcomm 212 Home Hub (APQ8009) and Qualcomm 624 Home Hub (APQ8053) were announced on January 9, 2018.  The QCS400 Series was announced March 19, 2019.

eXtended Reality (XR) platforms.

Snapdragon XR1 and XR2.

In May 2018, Qualcomm announced the Snapdragon XR1 Platform, their first purpose-built SoC for Augmented reality, Virtual reality and mixed reality. Qualcomm also announced that HTC Vive, Pico, Meta, and Vuzix would be announcing consumer products featuring the XR1 by the end of 2018. The Snapdragon XR2 5G Platform was announced on December 5, 2019.

Bluetooth SoC platforms.

Following Qualcomm's acquisition of CSR in 2015, Qualcomm designs ultra-low-power Bluetooth SoCs under the CSR, QCA and QCC brands for wireless headphones and earbuds. Qualcomm has worked with both Amazon and Google on reference designs to help manufacturers develop headsets with support for Alexa, Google Assistant and Google Fast Pair. Qualcomm announced the QCC5100 Series at CES 2018.  On January 28 2020, the QCC304x and QCC514x SoCs were published as Bluetooth 5.2 certified by the Bluetooth SIG. On the previous day Qualcomm published a blog post on LE Audio, referring to the QCC5100 series. On March 25 2020, the BLE Audio QCC304x and QCC514x SoCs were officially announced.

This is a list of Qualcomm Snapdragon chips. Snapdragon is a family of mobile system on a chip (SoC) made by Qualcomm for use in smartphones, tablets, laptops, 2-in-1 PCs, smartwatches, and smartbooks devices.


Plot.

A small plane carrying Frank Munson and a handcuffed prisoner, Ed Stone, crashes in the California wilderness. Ed knocks out Frank, unlocks the cuffs and flees, coming upon a woman called Cally tending to sheep, seemingly by herself in a remote cabin.  Frank follows and identifies himself as a Utah lawman who after tracking Ed for nearly two years finally caught up with him. Cally is hesitant to trust either stranger. She is an educated woman whose father, a former college professor, is living with her but is currently away.  As a torrential rain falls, Ed attempts to escape, but the passage is flooded. Cally tries to warn him, but pulls a knife when Ed tries to kiss her. At the cabin, Frank has no weapon and searches for a rifle Cally has hidden. Ed returns and, while trapped there during the storm, explains to Cally that he shot Frank's brother in self-defense, whereupon Frank had himself deputized but intends to kill him rather than bring him to justice.  Cally's father returns and is startled to find two men there. He hears their stories and, aware that his daughter is falling in love with Ed, offers him a chance to turn himself in to other authorities. With a gun in his hand and a single bullet in the chamber, Ed proves his intent by refusing to shoot Frank when he has the chance. He sets off to surrender himself to the actual police.

Production.

The film was to be the first in three movies starring Jean Simmons produced by Howard Welsch. He took over the contract Simmons had with RKO. Filming started 3 December 1953.  Welsh later sold the remaining two-film-commitment with Simmons to 20th Century Fox.  In April 1954 Welsch signed a deal with Columbia to distribute the film.

A Bullet Is Waiting is a 1954 American film noir crime film directed by John Farrow and starring Jean Simmons, Rory Calhoun, Stephen McNally and Brian Aherne.


Constraint graphs.

In the simplest version of nondeterministic constraint logic, each edge of an undirected graph has weight either one or two. (The weights may also be represented graphically by drawing edges of weight one as red and edges of weight two as blue.) The graph is required to be a cubic graph: each vertex is incident to three edges, and additionally each vertex should be incident to an even number of red edges.  The edges are required to be oriented in such a way that at least two units of weight are oriented towards each vertex: there must be either at least one incoming blue edge, or at least two incoming red edges. An orientation can change by steps in which a single edge is reversed, respecting these constraints.  More general forms of nondeterministic constraint logic allow a greater variety of edge weights, more edges per vertex, and different thresholds for how much incoming weight each vertex must have. A graph with a system of edge weights and vertex thresholds is called a "constraint graph". The restricted case where the edge weights are all one or two, the vertices require two units of incoming weight, and the vertices all have three incident edges with an even number of red edges, are called "and/or constraint graphs".  The reason for the name "and/or constraint graphs" is that the two possible types of vertex in an and/or constraint graph behave in some ways like an AND gate and OR gate in Boolean logic. A vertex with two red edges and one blue edge behaves like an AND gate in that it requires both red edges to point inwards before the blue edge can be made to point outwards. A vertex with three blue edges behaves like an OR gate, with two of its edges designated as inputs and the third as an output, in that it requires at least one input edge to point inwards before the output edge can be made to point outwards.

Hard problems.

The following problems, on and/or constraint graphs and their orientations, are PSPACE-complete: The proof that these problems are hard involves a reduction from quantified Boolean formulas, based on the logical interpretation of and/or constraint graphs. It requires additional gadgets for simulating quantifiers and for converting signals carried on red edges into signals carried on blue edges (or vice versa), which can all be accomplished by combinations of and-vertices and or-vertices.  These problems remain PSPACE-complete even for and/or constraint graphs that form planar graphs. The proof of this involves the construction of crossover gadgets that allow two independent signals to cross each other. It is also possible to impose an additional restriction, while preserving the hardness of these problems: each vertex with three blue edges can be required to be part of a triangle with a red edge. Such a vertex is called a "protected or", and it has the property that (in any valid orientation of the whole graph) it is not possible for both of the blue edges in the triangle to be directed inwards. This restriction makes it easier to simulate these vertices in hardness reductions for other problems. Additionally, the constraint graphs can be required to have bounded bandwidth, and the problems on them will still remain PSPACE-complete.

Applications.

The original applications of nondeterministic constraint logic used it to prove the PSPACE-completeness of sliding block puzzles such as Rush Hour and Sokoban. To do so, one needs only to show how to simulate edges and edge orientations, and vertices, and protected or vertices in these puzzles.  Nondeterministic constraint logic has also been used to prove the hardness of reconfiguration versions of classical graph optimization problems including the independent set, vertex cover, and dominating set, on planar graphs of bounded bandwidth. In these problems, one must change one solution to the given problem into another, by moving one vertex at a time into or out of the solution set while maintaining the property that at all times the remaining vertices form a solution.

In theoretical computer science, nondeterministic constraint logic is a combinatorial system in which an orientation is given to the edges of a weighted undirected graph, subject to certain constraints. One can change this orientation by steps in which a single edge is reversed, subject to the same constraints. It is PSPACE-complete to determine whether there exists a sequence of moves that reverses a specified edge.


Service history.

"Glennon" was launched on 26 August 1942 by the Federal Shipbuilding & Dry Dock Company, of Kearny, New Jersey, sponsored by Miss Jeanne Lejeune Glennon (whose later surname was Hull), granddaughter of Admiral Glennon, and commissioned on 8 October 1942, with Lieutenant Commander Floyd C. Camp in command.

Convoy duty and operations in the Mediterranean.

After shakedown training along the New England coast, "Glennon" guarded troops and supply convoys for the Allied invasion of Sicily, Italy. She was in action during the Amphibious Battle of Gela, fought from 9 to 15 July 1943.  "Glennon" continued to operate in the Mediterranean Sea and returned to New York on 3 December 1943. The destroyer then made two round-trip convoy escort voyages to the British Isles and one to Gibraltar. She arrived in New York from Gibraltar on 22 April 1944, and stood out of that port on 5 May with a task group which arrived at Belfast, Northern Ireland, on the 14th.

Invasion of Normandy and sinking.

Assigned to Assault Force "U" of the Western Naval Task Force, she arrived in the Baie de la Seine, France, on 6 June. After patrolling around the bombardment group for submarines and fast German torpedo boats, she joined in gunfire support of troops ashore.  On 7 June, she hurled in 430 shells ashore in support of troops advancing north toward Quinéville. Under command of Commander Clifford A. Johnson, she was again approaching her gunfire support station at 08:30, 8 June, when her stern struck a mine. A whaleboat picked up survivors while minesweepers and arrived on the scene, one passing a towline while the other swept ahead of the damaged destroyer. The destroyer escort closed in the wake of the minesweepers to assist, then felt a heavy explosion as she slowly rounded "Glennon"s stern to clear the area. Minutes later a second explosion blew off a section of "Rich"s stern, followed by a third mine explosion under her forecastle. "Rich" sank within 15 minutes of the first explosion.  The minesweeper "Staff" found she could not budge "Glennon", whose stern seemed to be firmly anchored to the bottom by her starboard propeller. Most of her crew boarded "Staff", and those remaining on "Glennon" lightened her stern by pumping fuel forward and jettisoning depth charges and topside gear. On 9 June, salvage equipment was assembled, and some 60 officers and men of "Glennon" came back on board. The following morning, just as Cdr. Johnson was preparing to resume efforts to save his ship, a German shore battery near Quinéville found her range. A second salvo hit "Glennon" amidships and cut off all power. After a third hit, Cdr. Johnson ordered his crew to abandon ship and the men were taken off in a landing craft. "Glennon" floated until 21:45, 10 June 1944, then rolled over and sank (location: ). She suffered 25 lost and 38 wounded.  "Glennon" was awarded two battle stars for services in World War II.

USS "Glennon" (DD-620) was a, the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for Rear Admiral James H. Glennon, who was a recipient of the Navy Cross.


Professional career.

Pittsburgh Steelers.

In five seasons with the Steelers from 2002 to 2006, Haynes gained 660 yards on 159 carries (4.2 average per carry) and three touchdowns. He also recorded 39 receptions for 322 yards (8.3 average per reception) and two touchdowns, including one from wide receiver Antwaan Randle El. Haynes missed most of the 2006 season due to a knee injury.  On March 1, 2007, he was cut by the Steelers in order to save cap room. However, he re-signed with the team on June 4, 2007. On September 1, 2007, he was released again. He was re-signed on December 24 when starting running back Willie Parker was placed on injured reserve.

Atlanta Falcons.

Haynes signed with the Atlanta Falcons on April 29, 2009.  On December 5, 2009, he was released by the Falcons and re-signed on December 8.

Personal.

Haynes continues to be an active pillar in the community serving as a Board of Directors member for TurningPoint in Alpharetta, GA. TurningPoint is a non-profit Women's Healthcare organization that was established in 2003 in response to the unmet survivorship needs of women with breast cancer. He gives back to his homeland of Trinidad and Tobago though various Philanthropic efforts and the forming of The Red Sail Watersports company. In addition, Haynes splits his time between appearances, running The Verron Haynes Foundation, football clinics and camps and commentating for ESPN International. In an effort to give back to the Youth and share his story, Verron Haynes is collaborating with a Fortune 500 company on a Philanthropic venture.

Verron Ulric Haynes ( ; born February 17, 1979) is a Trinidadian-born former American football running back. Verron Haynes was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the fifth round of the 2002 NFL Draft, following three successful college football seasons at The University of Georgia. With the Steelers, he won Super Bowl XL against the Seattle Seahawks.


Waddams Township, Stephenson County, Illinois

History.

On March 6, 1848 the Illinois State Constitution was adopted and went into effect on April 1, 1848. In the new constitution was an "Act" providing for a county, upon majority vote, to develop township governments. On November 5, 1849 Stephenson County voted on the "Act" and passed it with a vote of 973 to 99. In December three commissioners were appointed to divide the county from its six precinct form of government to sixteen townships. The commissioners were Levi Robey, Robert Forster and Erastus Torrey. On November 5, 1850 the supervisors for the township were elected.  Waddams was one of the original sixteen townships. Michael Lawver was its first supervisor. Some of the areas earliest settlers lived in the vicinity of the newly formed section. The first settlers in the township were Levi Robey and his wife Almira (Waite). He claimed about one half of a section of land in the northwest part of the township. He first arrived in the county with his parents and siblings at Brewster's Ferry in November 1834. After making his claim he proceeded to build a double log cabin on the west side of the river. He cut logs for the cabin on the east side of the river and then pulled them across the frozen river by horse. The family moved into their new home on Valentine's Day of 1835 and lived there for twenty years. The site of his first cabin is at the foot of a hill at the present Robert Kleckler Farm on North Stubbe Road. He later built a new house 1⁄2 mile southwest of the first. That house still stands at the northwest corner of Fisher and North Stubbe Roads. When he settled in the area in 1835 his only white neighbors were his family at Brewster's Ferry, William Waddams and John Dixon (living at the present site of Dixon, IL). Also a man named Kent who lived in the area that is now Rockford, Illinois, and a man named "Mack" who married an Indian woman and lived at the mouth of the Pecatonica River.  Many firsts are attributed to Levi Robey. He was the first Justice of the Peace for the county. He conducted the first marriage ceremony in Stephenson County which after its formation required a marriage license. The couple he married were Eunice Waddams, (daughter of William), and George Place, wed on July 4, 1837. Robey was also the first chairman of the Old Settlers Association and on the executive committee for the Soldiers Monument.  Hubbard Graves arrived in 1835 and was also a notable figure in the history of Waddams Township. His wife Cynthia, sister of Levi Robey, accompanied him. Graves was the county's first tax collector. His total tax collected was $96.00. He was also a county sheriff in 1838 and was in state legislation serving Stephenson and Carroll Counties from 1842 - 1844.  Pells Manny came to Waddams Township in 1836 and settled in the west-central portion. He is best noted for the invention of the "Manny Header" and "Manny Reaper". His factory was located at the mouth of Waddams Creek near the mill run by William Soladay and Benjamin Sheckler. The location is approximately one mile south of McConnell. A Post Office was moved to the location in 1840 from Waddams Grove for the convenience of its customers. Manny's son, John Henry Manny, started a plant in Rockford to manufacture the reaper. In 1856 Pells started a plant in Freeport. He later moved to Freeport. The Post Office closed on March 11, 1857. A lawsuit was filed by Cyrus McCormick against Manny's patent right for the reaper. Manny prevailed in the suit, with an opinion by Supreme Court Judge John McLean.

Geography.

Waddams is township 28 North, Ranges 6 (part) and 7 (part) East of the Fourth Principal Meridian.  According to the 2010 census, the township has a total area of, of which (or 99.94%) is land and (or 0.03%) is water.

Waddams Township is located in Stephenson County, Illinois. As of the 2010 census, its population was 807 and it contained 360 housing units. The unincorporated communities of McConnell and Damascus are located in the township, and once New Pennsylvania was located here also.


History.

In 2007, the region voted in a referendum 85% against forming a municipality. In the Georgia State Senate, Kasim Reed sponsored the legislation authorizing the referendum.  The 2016 Georgia General Assembly passed bill HB514 to incorporate South Fulton, which received the signature of Governor Nathan Deal on April 29, 2016. On November 8, 59% of the citizens of South Fulton voted to become a chartered city. In early 2017, South Fulton held elections on March 21, followed by runoff elections before incorporation took effect on May 1.  This referendum, like the one before it, was part of a "cityhood movement" in the Atlanta metropolitan area that began with the incorporation of Sandy Springs in 2005, on the opposite side of Atlanta, with several other communities in Fulton voting to incorporate in 2007. With the passage of the South Fulton referendum in 2016, Fulton County became the first county in Georgia with no unincorporated residential areas. As a result, in 2017 Fulton County also became the first county in Georgia to cease providing municipal services such as fire, police, zoning, and code enforcement. Many former Fulton County personnel and facilities were transferred to the City of South Fulton.  In November 2017, after a one-year waiting period mandated by state law, the city council selected Renaissance as the new name for the city, also having considered Campbellton (a historic town now partly within the city), Atlanta Heights, Wolf Creek and retaining South Fulton among a total of 20 names out of 250 suggested by the public. Following a three-week public notice period and two regular public meetings, which are required to amend the city charter, the city council approved the name change in December 2017. However, Mayor Edwards vetoed the name change on December 18, citing several reasons including contracts and some public opposition. Popular opinion has since shifted to two proposed names; Campbellton, which is the commonly accepted name for the area, and King City, in honor of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Demographics.

South Fulton's population as of 2019 is estimated to be 99,155. In 2010, prior to incorporation, the United States Census Bureau estimates that the area now within South Fulton's boundaries was home to 85,769 people.  More than 90% of South Fulton residents are African Americans.

South Fulton is a city in Fulton County, Georgia, United States. It includes all of the land that had remained unincorporated in southwest Fulton County with the exception of the Fulton Industrial Boulevard corridor. The communities of Red Oak, Cooks Crossing, Stonewall Tell, Fife, (part of) Campbellton, Ben Hill, Sandtown, Cliftondale, and Peters Woods (a few of which were towns founded before the American Civil War) are located in South Fulton. It has a population of 99,155 and an area of.


Background.

In 2002, Sony BMG decided to publish the singer's first best of, "Rien ne s'arrête", which achieved a good success. At the same time, Kaas started her acting career in Claude Lelouch's film "And Now... Ladies and Gentlemen", with Jeremy Irons. To accompany the film, the concept album "Piano Bar By Patricia Kaas" was released in 2002, which was explicitly not a soundtrack to the film (the real soundtrack has never been released). "Piano Bar" was the sixth album of the singer, but the first one published that was sung mainly in English, and is a tribute to the great French chanson artists of history.  The album contains cover versions of "Where Do I Begin", which was originally on the soundtrack to "Love Story", and an English version of Jacques Brel's "Ne me quitte pas" (Eng: "Don't leave me"), re-entitled "If You Go Away". There are also a cover version of Yves Montand's song "Les Feuilles mortes", and another of Gilbert Bécaud, "Et Maintenant", under the title "What Now My Love".

Critical reception.

About this album, "Allmusic" said : "The end result is a lovely, winning album, another fine recording by a fine vocalist".

Charts performance.

In France, the album had a moderate success, It started at #14 on April 14, 2002, then reached #10 in its second and sixth week, but was unable to climb higher. It remained for nine weeks in the top 20, 22 weeks in the top 50, 26 weeks in the top 100 and 30 weeks on the chart. Even if it was certified double gold, sales were less in comparison with the previous albums. By contrast, "Piano Bar" reached #12 in Germany, which was the second most successful album of the singer in this country.  In Belgium (Wallonia), the album reached #6 debuted at #35 on April 27, 2002, jumped to #9 and finally reached #6 for two consecutive weeks. It totaled six weeks in the top ten, stabilized in the top 20, then dropped quickly, and deseappered after its 21 weeks.  In Switzerland, the album peak at #6 too. It hit this position in its second week, on May 5, 2002, before dropping first slowly, then quickly, remaining for ten weeks in the top 50 and 24 weeks on the chart (top 100). It achieved Gold status.  The album hit only #38 in Austria, and for the first time in Kaas' career, one of her albums was charted in New Zealand, peaking at #35 in its second and last week, on April 20, 2003.

Piano Bar is the name of the sixth studio album recorded by the French artist Patricia Kaas. It was released in 2002. Although it was less successful in France, a country in which Kaas' albums are generally well-received, it had higher sales and chartings in other countries such as Germany, Russia, USA, UK and Finland.


History.

Michie is rooted in a 19th century community known as "Monterey." When the community applied for a post office, the name Monterey had already been taken by another town in Tennessee, so the community settled on the name "Michie" after a prominent local family. The town incorporated in 1961.

Geography.

Michie is located at (35.054533, -88.431452). The town is concentrated around the intersection of State Route 22 and State Route 224, just north of the Tennessee-Mississippi state line. State Route 57 traverses the northern part of Michie, connecting the town with Pickwick Lake to the east. Shiloh National Military Park, where the Battle of Shiloh took place during the Civil War, lies along TN 22 to the north.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

Newspaper.

Michie's newspaper is the "McNairy County News", which has the largest following of any weekly newspaper on Facebook in the state of Tennessee. They are located at 252 Mulberry Ave. in Selmer. The other newspaper serving the community is the "Independent Appeal", which was founded in 1902. It is located at 111 N. 2nd St. in Selmer.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 647 people, 275 households, and 201 families residing in the town. The population density was 116.6 people per square mile (45.0/km2). There were 310 housing units at an average density of 55.9 per square mile (21.6/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 97.84% White, 1.08% African American, 0.46% from other races, and 0.62% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.70% of the population.  There were 275 households out of which 25.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.4% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.9% were non-families. 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.77.  In the town, the population was spread out with 21.6% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 26.6% from 25 to 44, 27.5% from 45 to 64, and 18.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $28,929, and the median income for a family was $34,688. Males had a median income of $30,119 versus $20,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,122. About 9.3% of families and 11.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and 11.8% of those age 65 or over.

Michie is a town in McNairy County, Tennessee. The population was 647 at the 2000 census and 591 at the 2010 census.


Early life and career.

After graduating from the University of Toulouse (France) in 1972 with a master's degree in chemical engineering, he received a Fulbright Scholarship to study economics and finance at New York University where he was awarded a PhD in 1977 and appointed to the faculty of NYU Stern School of Business as an Assistant Professor of Finance. In 1980 he moved to Baruch College of the City University of New York as an Associate Professor before joining INSEAD in 1982 as a Full Professor. At INSEAD he first chaired and built up the Finance Area (1985-1987) then directed the institution’s Euro-Asia Center (1988-1994) where he developed the school’s executive education activities in Asia. In 1998 he led INSEAD’s development campaign, launched in 1995, that raised over €100 million by early 2000. In August of that year he was appointed dean of INSEAD. During his tenure (2000-2006) he led the institute’s global expansion with the opening of campuses in Singapore and Abu Dhabi, launched the INSEAD Executive MBA Program, and led INSEAD’s second development campaign that raised €120 million. His publications are in the areas of risk estimation and valuation in financial markets, the theory of the firm under uncertainty, the process of business value creation, and the internationalization of higher education institutions.

Selected publications.

‘Finance for Executives: Managing for Value Creation’, sixth edition, Cengage (2019) 'The Internationalization of Higher Education and Business Schools: A Critical Review’, Springer (2016) ‘The Future of Business Schools’, Journal of Management Development (November 2005) ‘The Home Country in the Age of Globalization: How Much Does it Matter for Firm Performance?’, Journal of World Business (May 2004) ‘Is Performance Driven by Industry- or Firm-Specific Factors? A New Look at the Evidence’, Strategic Management Journal (January 2003) ‘Seasonality in the Risk-Return Relationship: Some International Evidence’, Journal of Finance (March 1987) ‘Friction in the Trading Process and the Estimation of Systematic Risk’, Journal of Financial Economics (August 1983) ‘A Mean-Standard Deviation Exposition of the Theory of the Firm Under Uncertainty’, American Economic Review (March 1978)

Academic board and advisory positions.

University of the People (Member of Board of Trustees), 2013present University of the People (Chairman Advancement Committee), 20132019 Carnegie Mellon University in Qatar (Joint Advisory Board), 2010present The American University in Cairo (Advisory Board – School of Business), 2006present MIT Corporation: Member of the Visiting Committee for the Sloan School of Management, 20102019 Unnivers (Expert-Advisor), 2013–2019 University of the People (Member Development Committee), 2020present Sasin Graduate Institute at Chulalongkorn University (Advisory Board), 20102015 The American University of Beirut (Board of Overseers – School of Business), 20062014 The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy (International Advisory Group), 20062012 Chairman of the EQUIS Accreditation Awarding Body (EFMD), 20042011 The European Foundation for Management Development (Board Member), 20042006 The Indian School of Business (Board Member), 20022006 The Athens Laboratory of Business Administration (Advisory Board), 20012006

Corporate board and advisory positions.

Momentum Invest (Advisor), 2017present International Board on Economic Regulations (Member), 2015present AlphaOne Partners LLP (Advisor), 20142017 S&B Industrial Minerals, S.A. (Non-Executive Director), 20112013 Rémy Cointreau (Non-Executive Director; Member of the Strategy Committee), 20062015 Vivendi (Non-Executive Director; Member of the Audit Committee), 20032010 Accenture (Member of the Energy Advisory Board), 20022006 Cerestar (Non-Executive Director), 20012003 Mastrad (Non-Executive Director), 19982003

Honors and awards.

The French Legion of Honor Doctorate Honoris Causa awarded by The University of Liège (Belgium) Doctorate Honoris Causa awarded by The Art Center College of Design (California) Doctorate Honoris Causa awarded by The American University in Cairo (Egypt) The Chief Executive Leadership Award presented by The Council for Advancement and Support of Education The Fulbright Award for Global Business Education Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award' Honorary Lifetime Member of the European Foundation for Management Development Baruch College Presidential Award for Distinguished Faculty Scholarship Helen Kardon Moss Anvil Award for Excellence in Teaching awarded to the best teacher of the year at The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania

Gabriel Hawawini (born August 29, 1947) is an Emeritus Professor of Finance at INSEAD business school where he held the Henry Grunfeld Chair in Investment Banking from 1996 to 2013 and served as dean from 2000 to 2006, spearheading the institution’s global expansion from its original campus in France into Asia (Singapore) and the Middle East (Abu Dhabi).


Geography.

Powells Crossroads is located at (35.183526, -85.482900). It is situated in the Sequatchie Valley around the intersection of State Route 283 and State Route 27. Whitwell lies just to the west, opposite the Sequatchie River. Walden Ridge, much of it protected by Prentice Cooper State Forest, rises prominently to the east.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,286 people, 485 households, and 392 families residing in the town. The population density was 294.0 people per square mile (113.6/km2). There were 509 housing units at an average density of 116.4 per square mile (45.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 99.22% White, 0.16% African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.08% Asian, 0.08% from other races, and 0.39% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.62% of the population.  There were 485 households out of which 36.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 66.6% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.0% were non-families. 17.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 2.98.  In the town, the population was spread out with 26.6% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 30.6% from 25 to 44, 24.7% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.0 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $36,650, and the median income for a family was $42,727. Males had a median income of $33,611 versus $22,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,536. About 5.8% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.2% of those under age 18 and 11.4% of those age 65 and over.

In popular culture.

Powells Crossroads was the filming location for parts of the 1984 movie "Starman". The lake on which Karen Allen's character lived is located in the Prentice Cooper State Forest and is called Crater Lake. The truck stop scene at "Bowdarks" was also filmed nearby, at the Martin Springs exit on I-24.

Powells Crossroads is a town in Marion County, Tennessee, United States. The population was 1,322 at the 2010 census, up from 1,286 in 2000. It is part of the Chattanooga, TN-GA Metropolitan Statistical Area.


Composition and recording.

Green wrote "Love and Happiness" with Teenie Hodges, with whom he also collaborated in writing "Take Me to the River", "Here I Am (Come and Take Me)", "Full of Fire", and other songs. It was produced by Willie Mitchell in the 1972 recording session for the album "I'm Still in Love with You". Of the recording process, Green said:  In his 2000 autobiography "Take Me to the River", Green said of the song:

Chart performance.

On April 27, 1973, London Records released "Love and Happiness" as a U.K. single, backed with "So You're Leaving" (catalog number 10419). Hi Records, however, did not release the song as a single at the time that the album "I'm Still in Love with You" was on the charts, instead releasing the title track, "Look What You Done for Me", and "For the Good Times". The song nonetheless gained popularity in the U.S. from radio airplay, and his performance of the song on "Soul Train" on March 3, 1973.  In an attempt to boost Green's flagging record sales, an edited version of the song was finally released as a U.S. single in the summer of 1977, backed with "Glory Glory" (catalog number 45-2324). The single peaked at #104 on the pop chart and #82 on the R&B chart.  The song was also featured as the lead-off track on "Al Green's Greatest Hits, Volume II" (1977) and appeared on reissues of his first greatest hits compilation.

"Love and Happiness" is a 1972 song by Al Green from his album "I'm Still in Love with You". Green co-wrote the song with Teenie Hodges. It was released as a single in the United Kingdom on London Records in 1973 and in the United States on Hi Records in 1977. It has been covered by Etta James, Al Jarreau, and many other performers.


Hank Williams version.

According to Colin Escott's 2004 book "Hank Williams: A Biography", Williams was inspired to write the song when he found it on a schedule of upcoming MGM releases. The song was recorded on August 30, 1949, at Herzog Studio in Cincinnati, Ohio. Williams is backed by members of the Pleasant Valley BoysZeke Turner (lead guitar), Jerry Byrd (steel guitar), and Louis Innis (rhythm guitar)as well as Tommy Jackson (fiddle) and Ernie Newton (bass). As Escott observed, the plaintive despair in Williams's voice on the recording is echoed by the backing of the musicians:  The song was released as the B-side to the blues "My Bucket's Got a Hole in It" because up-tempo numbers were deemed more appropriate for the jukebox trade than melancholy ballads. The single reached No. 4 on the country chart in 1949.  "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" has become closely identified with Williams's musical legacy and has been widely praised. In the 2003 documentary "The Road to Nashville", singer k.d. lang stated, "I think 'I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry' is one of the most classic American songs ever written, truly. Beautiful song." In his autobiography, Bob Dylan recalled, "Even at a young age, I identified with him. I didn't have to experience anything that Hank did to know what he was singing about. I'd never heard a robin weep, but could imagine it and it made me sad." In its online biography of Williams, "Rolling Stone" notes, "In tracks like 'I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry', Williams expressed intense, personal emotions with country's traditional plainspoken directness, a then-revolutionary approach that has come to define the genre through the works of subsequent artists from George Jones and Willie Nelson to Gram Parsons and Dwight Yoakam." "Rolling Stone" ranked it No. 111 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, the oldest song on the list, and No. 3 on its 100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time.

Authorship.

Music journalist Chet Flippo and Kentucky historian W. Lynn Nickell have each claimed how 19-year-old Kentuckian Paul Gilley wrote the lyrics, then sold the song to Williams along with the rights, allowing Williams to take credit for it. They stated that Gilley also wrote the lyrics to "Cold, Cold Heart" and other songs before drowning at the age of 27. However, Williams said he wrote the song originally intending that the words be spoken, rather than sung, as he had done on several of his Luke the Drifter recordings.

Chart performance.

Hank Williams version.

Williams' version ranked No. 29 in "CMT's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music" in 2003.

"I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" is a song recorded by American country music singer-songwriter Hank Williams in 1949. The song has been covered by a wide range of musicians. During his "Aloha from Hawaii" TV-special, Elvis Presley introduced it by saying, "I'd like to sing a song that's... probably the saddest song I've ever heard."


About.

The church is one of the "35-odd rock-hewn churches, the largest concentration anywhere in Ethiopia." It is situated in the erstwhile Gar'alta woreda. The entrance is reached by a steep and hazardous ascent with hand and footholds in the rock. Visitors have to cross a natural stone bridge with a sheer drop of approximately 250m on either side, and thereafter a final narrow wooden footbridge. A strenuous ascent is followed by a climb up a vertical rock wall depending entirely on hand grips and foot holds (without additional support) crowned with a walk over a 50 cm wide ledge facing a cliff of sheer drop. The standing pillars are made up of Enticho and Adigrat Sandstones, which are the last erosional remnants of a sandstone formation that once covered the Precambrian basement.

History.

According to local legend, the church was hewn in the sixth century and dedicated to Abuna Yemata (also referred to as Abba Yem'ata), one of the Nine Saints. The Nine Saints are traditionally believed to have originated from Rome, Constantinople and Syria between the end of the fifth and beginning of the sixth centuries.

Paintings in the church.

The paintings on the walls and domes of the church are preserved in a reasonable state. Extensive study was undertaken to understand the reason behind this phenomenon. The design of the traceries in the church replicates those found in nearby churches of Gher'alta, such as Debre Tsion church. There are more paintings depicting figures from the Old Testament than from the New Testament. The dry air and lack of humidity have preserved these frescoes in their original perfection. The paintings date back to initial traces of Christianity in Ethiopia and are themed around the nine saints and twelve apostles. The oldest icons are in the form of diptychs and triptychs dating back to the fifteenth century.

Abuna Yemata Guh is a monolithic church located in the Hawzen woreda of the Tigray Region, Ethiopia. It is situated at a height of and has to be climbed on foot to reach. It is notable for its dome and wall paintings dating back to the 5th century and its architecture.


Devadatta.

Devadatta is noted for attempting to kill the Sakyamuni Buddha on several occasions including:  According to Sutta Pitaka, after trying to kill Sakyamuni Buddha a number of times, Devadatta set up his own Buddhist monastic order by splitting the (sangha). During his efforts to become the leader of his own Sangha, he proposed five extra-strict rules for monks, which he knew Buddha would not allow. Devadatta's reasoning was that after he had proposed those rules and Buddha had not allowed them, Devadatta could claim that "he" did follow and practice these five rules, making him a better and more pure monk. One of these five extra rules required monks to be vegetarian. In the Contemplation Sutra, Devadatta is said to have convinced Prince Ajatasattu to murder his father King Bimbisara and ascend the throne. Ajatasattu follows the advice, and this action prevents him from attaining enlightenment at a later time, when listening to a teaching of the Buddha. Devadatta is the only individual from the early Buddhist tradition to have committed three anantarika-karmas.

King Suppabuddha.

King Suppabuddha was the father of Devadatta and Yasodharā and the father-in-law of Prince Siddhattha. One day Suppabuddha blocked the Buddha's path, refused to make way, and sent a message saying, "I cannot give way to the Buddha, who is so much younger than I". Finding the road blocked, the Buddha and the bhikkhus turned back. As the Buddha turned back, he said to Ananda, "Because the king has refused to give way to a Buddha, he has committed a bad kamma and before long he will have to face the consequences". It is said that the king died on the seventh day after that event had taken place. He fell down the stairs, collapsed and died and was born in a suffering state, being unable to escape the effects of his evil kamma (according to Buddhist belief). According to the Buddha's prediction the earth swallowed him. It is said, "So the king went down the stairs and as soon as he stepped on the earth, it opened and swallowed him up and dragged him right down to Avici Niraya."

Karma.

Anyone who commits an anantarika-karma will go to hell. The five different actions which each constitute an anantarika-karma are the only actions which can produce a definite result.  Accounts claim that toward the end of Devadatta's life, he was struck by a severe remorse caused by his past misdeeds and did indeed manage to approach the Buddha and retook refuge in the Triple Gem, dying shortly afterwards. Because of the gravity of his actions, he was condemned to suffer for several hundred millennia in Avici. However, it was also said that he would eventually be admitted into the heavens as a Pratyekabuddha due to his past merits prior to his corruption.  In the Samaññaphala Sutta, Gautama Buddha said that if Ajatasattu hadn't killed his father, he would have attained sotapannahood, a degree of enlightenment. But because he had killed his father he could not attain it.

Ānantarika-karma or ānantarika-kamma is a heinous crime that through karmic process brings immediate disaster. They are called 'anantarika' because they are 'an' (without) 'antara' (interval), in other words the results immediately come to fruition in the next life, i.e. the participant goes straight to hell. These are considered so heinous that even non-Buddhists must avoid them. According to Buddhism, committing such a crime would prevent the perpetrator from attaining the stages of sotāpanna, sakadagami, anāgāmi or arhat in that lifetime. The five crimes are:


History and setting up.

Magyar Bulls RLFC, Hungary's National Rugby league team was founded in Budapest in May 2011 by members of the Budapest Exiles RFC, keen to try rugby league and with an open invitation to other teams in Hungary to send players - all with the objective of honouring an invitation to play in the CEE European Bowl competition vs. the Czech Republic.  From small beginnings on a Monday evening, on Margit Island, in the middle of the Danube, the squad has grown to be able to select a nucleus of 20 players to play against the Czech Republic on 23 July. The pull of playing international RL has seen enquiries to train and play from a number of other clubs in Hungary as well as players of Hungarian origin who have travelled back to play from Italy and the UK.  In June 2013, Hungary was granted Observer status by the RLEF. They subsequently played their first fully sanctioned international against a Greece team featuring professional players Michael Korkidas and Braith Anasta. In 2014, Tour in Paris again and Hungary competed in the inaugural Balkans Cup tournament in Serbia. This was Hungary's first International tournament. Hungary finished the overall tournament in fourth place. They also made history in the tournament, as they recorded their first ever international try in their match with Bosnia. In 2015 Tour in Belgrade on Euro 9' Tournament.

Current Squad.

Squad selected for the 2018 Emerging Nations World Championship;

Hungarian National Rugby League in Australia.

In 2016, Hungary began searching for players in Australia of Hungarian heritage to play for Hungary. This was met with resounding response, with many quality players putting their name down. Several training sessions were held in Sydney by coach John Wilson and manager Stephen Németh.  On Saturday the 4th of February 2017, Hungary played their first test match outside of Europe against Uruguay who were making their International debut, in front of 500 spectators. Hungary ran away with the game 50-4 in a dominant display. The team consisted of only Australian players with Hungarian heritage. This was also Hungary's first test match victory across any continent. The four Farkas brothers were outstanding, scoring 30 of the 50 points between themselves alone, with Aaron Farkas accumulating 16 himself in a spectacular performance at hooker. Alexander Fricska scored a try on debut.  On Wednesday the 8th of February 2017, just 4 days after the first test played outside of the Europe, Hungary played their second against a stronger Thailand side, featuring ex NRL and Super league coach Brian Smith, in front of 100 spectators. Hungary opened up the scoring with 2 quick tries, before scoring 2 more before the half. Thailand came out strong in the second half scoring first points, however Hungary were too strong and ran out 44-10 winners becoming just their second test match victory since the teams origin 6 years prior. The game was almost called off as the night before, a storm washed out the majority of Sydney's Rugby League fields. Just hours before kickoff, the game was rescheduled at Endeavor Sports High School, instead of the original venue, Erskineville Oval.

Results.

A † denotes that the match did not contribute to the RLIF World Rankings.

Cap Number and playing record.

As of 8 February 2017.

The Hungary national rugby league team, known as the Magyar Bulls, represents Hungary in the sport of rugby league football. Making their debut against the Czech Republic in July 2011, they played their first ranked international against Greece in October 2013.


Context.

A large body of evidence has established that a defining characteristic of cognitive biases is that they manifest automatically and unconsciously over a wide range of human reasoning, so even those aware of the existence of the phenomenon are unable to detect, let alone mitigate, their manifestation via awareness only.

Real-world effects of cognitive bias.

There are few studies explicitly linking cognitive biases to real-world incidents with highly negative outcomes. Examples:  There are numerous investigations of incidents determining that human error was central to highly negative potential or actual real-world outcomes, in which manifestation of cognitive biases is a plausible component. Examples:  Each of the approximately 100 cognitive biases known to date can also produce negative outcomes in our everyday lives, though rarely as serious as in the examples above. An illustrative selection, recounted in multiple studies:

To date.

An increasing number of academic and professional disciplines are identifying means of cognitive bias mitigation. What follows is a characterization of the assumptions, theories, methods and results, in disciplines concerned with the efficacy of human reasoning, that plausibly bear on a theory and/or practice of cognitive bias mitigation. In most cases this is based on explicit reference to cognitive biases or their mitigation, in others on unstated but self-evident applicability. This characterization is organized along lines reflecting historical segmentation of disciplines, though in practice there is a significant amount of overlap.

Decision theory.

Decision theory, a discipline with its roots grounded in neo-classical economics, is explicitly focused on human reasoning, judgment, choice and decision making, primarily in 'one-shot games' between two agents with or without perfect information. The theoretical underpinning of decision theory assumes that all decision makers are rational agents trying to maximize the economic expected value/utility of their choices, and that to accomplish this they utilize formal analytical methods such as mathematics, probability, statistics, and logic under cognitive resource constraints.  Normative, or prescriptive, decision theory concerns itself with what people "should" do, given the goal of maximizing expected value/utility; in this approach there is no explicit representation in practitioners' models of unconscious factors such as cognitive biases, i.e. all factors are considered conscious choice parameters for all agents. Practitioners tend to treat deviations from what a rational agent would do as 'errors of irrationality', with the implication that cognitive bias mitigation can only be achieved by decision makers becoming more like rational agents, though no explicit measures for achieving this are proffered.  Positive, or descriptive, decision theory concerns itself with what people "actually" do; practitioners tend to acknowledge the persistent existence of 'irrational' behavior, and while some mention human motivation and biases as possible contributors to such behavior, these factors are not made explicit in their models. Practitioners tend to treat deviations from what a rational agent would do as evidence of important, but as yet not understood, decision-making variables, and have as yet no explicit or implicit contributions to make to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.

Game theory.

Game theory, a discipline with roots in economics and system dynamics, is a method of studying strategic decision making in situations involving multi-step interactions with multiple agents with or without perfect information. As with decision theory, the theoretical underpinning of game theory assumes that all decision makers are rational agents trying to maximize the economic expected value/utility of their choices, and that to accomplish this they utilize formal analytical methods such as mathematics, probability, statistics, and logic under cognitive resource constraints.  One major difference between decision theory and game theory is the notion of 'equilibrium', a situation in which all agents agree on a strategy because any deviation from this strategy punishes the deviating agent. Despite analytical proofs of the existence of at least one equilibrium in a wide range of scenarios, game theory predictions, like those in decision theory, often do not match actual human choices. As with decision theory, practitioners tend to view such deviations as 'irrational', and rather than attempt to model such behavior, by implication hold that cognitive bias mitigation can only be achieved by decision makers becoming more like rational agents.  In the full range of game theory models there are many that do not guarantee the existence of equilibria, i.e. there are conflict situations where there is no set of agents' strategies that all agents agree are in their best interests. However, even when theoretical equilibria exist, i.e. when optimal decision strategies are available for all agents, real-life decision-makers often do not find them; indeed they sometimes apparently do not even try to find them, suggesting that some agents are not consistently 'rational'. game theory does not appear to accommodate any kind of agent other than the rational agent.

Behavioral economics.

Unlike neo-classical economics and decision theory, behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance, explicitly consider the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on individuals' economic decisions. These disciplines combine insights from psychology and neo-classical economics to achieve this.  Prospect theory was an early inspiration for this discipline, and has been further developed by its practitioners. It is one of the earliest economic theories that explicitly acknowledge the notion of cognitive bias, though the model itself accounts for only a few, including loss aversion, anchoring and adjustment bias, endowment effect, and perhaps others. No mention is made in formal prospect theory of cognitive bias mitigation, and there is no evidence of peer-reviewed work on cognitive bias mitigation in other areas of this discipline.  However, Daniel Kahneman and others have authored recent articles in business and trade magazines addressing the notion of cognitive bias mitigation in a limited form. These contributions assert that cognitive bias mitigation is necessary and offer general suggestions for how to achieve it, though the guidance is limited to only a few cognitive biases and is not self-evidently generalizable to others.

Neuroeconomics.

Neuroeconomics is a discipline made possible by advances in brain activity imaging technologies. This discipline merges some of the ideas in experimental economics, behavioral economics, cognitive science and social science in an attempt to better understand the neural basis for human decision making.  fMRI experiments suggest that the limbic system is consistently involved in resolving economic decision situations that have emotional valence, the inference being that this part of the human brain is implicated in creating the deviations from rational agent choices noted in emotionally valent economic decision making. Practitioners in this discipline have demonstrated correlations between brain activity in this part of the brain and prospection activity, and neuronal activation has been shown to have measurable, consistent effects on decision making. These results must be considered speculative and preliminary, but are nonetheless suggestive of the possibility of real-time identification of brain states associated with cognitive bias manifestation, and the possibility of purposeful interventions at the neuronal level to achieve cognitive bias mitigation.

Cognitive psychology.

Several streams of investigation in this discipline are noteworthy for their possible relevance to a theory of cognitive bias mitigation.  One approach to mitigation originally suggested by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, expanded upon by others, and applied in real-life situations, is reference class forecasting. This approach involves three steps: with a specific project in mind, identify a number of past projects that share a large number of elements with the project under scrutiny; for this group of projects, establish a probability distribution of the parameter that is being forecast; and, compare the specific project with the group of similar projects, in order to establish the most likely value of the selected parameter for the specific project. This simply stated method masks potential complexity regarding application to real-life projects: few projects are characterizable by a single parameter; multiple parameters exponentially complicates the process; gathering sufficient data on which to build robust probability distributions is problematic; and, project outcomes are rarely unambiguous and their reportage is often skewed by stakeholders' interests. Nonetheless, this approach has merit as part of a cognitive bias mitigation protocol when the process is applied with a maximum of diligence, in situations where good data is available and all stakeholders can be expected to cooperate.  A concept rooted in considerations of the actual machinery of human reasoning, bounded rationality is one that may inform significant advances in cognitive bias mitigation. Originally conceived of by Herbert A. Simon in the 1960s and leading to the concept of satisficing as opposed to optimizing, this idea found experimental expression in the work of Gerd Gigerenzer and others. One line of Gigerenzer's work led to the "Fast and Frugal" framing of the human reasoning mechanism, which focused on the primacy of'recognition' in decision making, backed up by tie-resolving heuristics operating in a low cognitive resource environment. In a series of objective tests, models based on this approach outperformed models based on rational agents maximizing their utility using formal analytical methods. One contribution to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation from this approach is that it addresses mitigation without explicitly targeting individual cognitive biases and focuses on the reasoning mechanism itself to avoid cognitive biases manifestation.  Intensive situational training is capable of providing individuals with what appears to be cognitive bias mitigation in decision making, but amounts to a fixed strategy of selecting the single best response to recognized situations regardless of the 'noise' in the environment. Studies and anecdotes reported in popular-audience media of firefighter captains, military platoon leaders and others making correct, snap judgments under extreme duress suggest that these responses are likely not generalizable and may contribute to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation only the general idea of domain-specific intensive training.  Similarly, expert-level training in such foundational disciplines as mathematics, statistics, probability, logic, etc. can be useful for cognitive bias mitigation when the expected standard of performance reflects such formal analytical methods. However, a study of software engineering professionals suggests that for the task of estimating software projects, despite the strong analytical aspect of this task, standards of performance focusing on workplace social context were much more dominant than formal analytical methods. This finding, if generalizable to other tasks and disciplines, would discount the potential of expert-level training as a cognitive bias mitigation approach, and could contribute a narrow but important idea to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.  Laboratory experiments in which cognitive bias mitigation is an explicit goal are rare. One 1980 study explored the notion of reducing the optimism bias by showing subjects other subjects' outputs from a reasoning task, with the result that their subsequent decision-making was somewhat debiased.  A recent research effort by Morewedge and colleagues (2015) found evidence for domain-general forms of debiasing. In two longitudinal experiments, debiasing training techniques featuring interactive games that elicited six cognitive biases (anchoring, bias blind spot, confirmation bias, fundamental attribution error, projection bias, and representativeness), provided participants with individualized feedback, mitigating strategies, and practice, resulted in an immediate reduction of more than 30% in commission of the biases and a long term (2 to 3-month delay) reduction of more than 20%. The instructional videos were also effective, but were less effective than the games.

Evolutionary psychology.

This discipline explicitly challenges the prevalent view that humans are rational agents maximizing expected value/utility, using formal analytical methods to do so. Practitioners such as Cosmides, Tooby, Haselton, Confer and others posit that cognitive biases are more properly referred to as cognitive heuristics, and should be viewed as a toolkit of cognitive shortcuts selected for by evolutionary pressure and thus are features rather than flaws, as assumed in the prevalent view. Theoretical models and analyses supporting this view are plentiful. This view suggests that negative reasoning outcomes arise primarily because the reasoning challenges faced by modern humans, and the social and political context within which these are presented, make demands on our ancient 'heuristic toolkit' that at best create confusion as to which heuristics to apply in a given situation, and at worst generate what adherents of the prevalent view call'reasoning errors'.  In a similar vein, Mercier and Sperber describe a theory for confirmation bias, and possibly other cognitive biases, which is a radical departure from the prevalent view, which holds that human reasoning is intended to assist individual economic decisions. Their view suggests that it evolved as a social phenomenon and that the goal was argumentation, i.e. to convince others and to be careful when others try to convince us. It is too early to tell whether this idea applies more generally to other cognitive biases, but the point of view supporting the theory may be useful in the construction of a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.  There is an emerging convergence between evolutionary psychology and the concept of our reasoning mechanism being segregated (approximately) into 'System 1' and 'System 2'. In this view, System 1 is the 'first line' of cognitive processing of all perceptions, including internally generated 'pseudo-perceptions', which automatically, subconsciously and near-instantaneously produces emotionally valenced judgments of their probable effect on the individual's well-being. By contrast, System 2 is responsible for 'executive control', taking System 1's judgments as advisories, making future predictions, via prospection, of their actualization and then choosing which advisories, if any, to act on. In this view, System 2 is slow, simple-minded and lazy, usually defaulting to System 1 advisories and overriding them only when intensively trained to do so or when cognitive dissonance would result. In this view, our 'heuristic toolkit' resides largely in System 1, conforming to the view of cognitive biases being unconscious, automatic and very difficult to detect and override. Evolutionary psychology practitioners emphasize that our heuristic toolkit, despite the apparent abundance of'reasoning errors' attributed to it, actually performs exceptionally well, given the rate at which it must operate, the range of judgments it produces, and the stakes involved. The System 1/2 view of the human reasoning mechanism appears to have empirical plausibility (see Neuroscience, next, and for empirical and theoretical arguments against, see ) and thus may contribute to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.

Neuroscience.

Neuroscience offers empirical support for the concept of segregating the human reasoning mechanism into System 1 and System 2, as described above, based on brain activity imaging experiments using fMRI technology. While this notion must remain speculative until further work is done, it appears to be a productive basis for conceiving options for constructing a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.

Anthropology.

Anthropologists have provided generally accepted scenarios of how our progenitors lived and what was important in their lives. These scenarios of social, political, and economic organization are not uniform throughout history or geography, but there is a degree of stability throughout the Paleolithic era, and the Holocene in particular. This, along with the findings in Evolutionary psychology and Neuroscience above, suggests that our cognitive heuristics are at their best when operating in a social, political and economic environment most like that of the Paleolithic/Holocene. If this is true, then one possible means to achieve at least some cognitive bias mitigation is to mimic, as much as possible, Paleolithic/Holocene social, political and economic scenarios when one is performing a reasoning task that could attract negative cognitive bias effects.

Human reliability engineering.

A number of paradigms, methods and tools for improving human performance reliability have been developed within the discipline of human reliability engineering. Although there is some attention paid to the human reasoning mechanism itself, the dominant approach is to anticipate problematic situations, constrain human operations through process mandates, and guide human decisions through fixed response protocols specific to the domain involved. While this approach can produce effective responses to critical situations under stress, the protocols involved must be viewed as having limited generalizability beyond the domain for which they were developed, with the implication that solutions in this discipline may provide only generic frameworks to a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.

Machine learning.

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, has been used to investigate human learning and decision making.  One technique particularly applicable to cognitive bias mitigation is neural network learning and choice selection, an approach inspired by the imagined structure and function of actual biological neural networks in the human brain. The multilayer, cross-connected signal collection and propagation structure typical of neural network models, where weights govern the contribution of signals to each connection, allow very small models to perform rather complex decision-making tasks at high fidelity.  In principle, such models are capable of modeling decision making that takes account of human needs and motivations within social contexts, and suggest their consideration in a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation. Challenges to realizing this potential: accumulating the considerable amount of appropriate real world 'training sets' for the neural network portion of such models; characterizing real-life decision-making situations and outcomes so as to drive models effectively; and the lack of direct mapping from a neural network's internal structure to components of the human reasoning mechanism.

Software engineering.

This discipline, though not focused on improving human reasoning outcomes as an end goal, is one in which the need for such improvement has been explicitly recognized, though the term "cognitive bias mitigation" is not universally used.  One study identifies specific steps to counter the effects of confirmation bias in certain phases of the software engineering lifecycle.  Another study takes a step back from focussing on cognitive biases and describes a framework for identifying "Performance Norms", criteria by which reasoning outcomes are judged correct or incorrect, so as to determine when cognitive bias mitigation is required, to guide identification of the biases that may be 'in play' in a real-world situation, and subsequently to prescribe their mitigations. This study refers to a broad research program with the goal of moving toward a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation.

Other.

Other initiatives aimed directly at a theory and practice of cognitive bias mitigation may exist within other disciplines under different labels than employed here.

Cognitive bias mitigation is the prevention and reduction of the negative effects of cognitive biases – unconscious, automatic influences on human judgment and decision making that reliably produce reasoning errors.


Background.

On 5 October 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) took control of the city of Derna. An uprising in June 2015 by the Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna, however, resulted in their expulsion from large parts of the city. Though clashes continued, ISIL had withdrawn by April 2016. In August 2016, the Libyan National Army began a siege of the city, which was tightened in 2017 following the Shura Council's execution of an air colonel whose plane was shot down near the town. While being ruled by the Shura Council, Derna served as center for al-Qaeda militants, most notably Hesham Ashmawy's Al-Mourabitoun network which regularly launched attacks against Egypt from Libya.

Battle.

On 7 May 2018, Field Marshall Khalifa Haftar declared that the peace efforts in Derna had reached a dead end, announcing a "Zero Hour" for the "liberation of Derna". In a speech delivered at a military parade in Benghazi, Haftar declared that his army was targeting enemy hideouts. Subsequently, the LNA entered Derna and clashed in the Al-Fatayeh district, losing 7 troops and several military vehicles. The military warned local residents of the need to observe security measures, and in particular, called on the civilian population not to approach the places of concentration of militants. The next day, Mansour Al-Hasadi, member of the High Council of State, called for international protection of civilians in the city of Derna, pointing towards the large number of families who had to flee their homes in the district of Fatayeh in search of another safe place in the city. The same day, the LNA captured east of Derna, as well as a major high ground.  On 9 May, the High Council of State renewed its call to end the Battle of Derna, calling for the Presidential Council, the parliament and the United Nations Support Mission in Libya to intervene.  On 11 May, The Leader of the Shura Council, Ateyah Al-Shaari, Dissolved the Shura Council of Mujihadeen in Derna and replaced it with the Derna Protection Force.  On 15 May, Human Rights Watch reported that civilians were endangered by the attack on Derna.  On 16 May, The Derna Protection Force claimed to repel LNA assaults on the Fatayeh and Dahr Homer fronts, south of the city, And claimed to seize six military vehicles in addition to arms and ammunition.  On 18 May, the LNA was working on dismantling the external defense lines of the terrorists inside the city – putting heavy pressure on the militants, who did not have a choice but to leave their hideouts and become an easy target for the army.  On 22 May, The LNA announcer that Brigadier Abdul Hamid Werrfali, Commander of the 36th Brigade, had died in clashes southwest of Derna. The next day, Haftar announced that the LNA will intensify its offensive on the far eastern port city of Derna until it has full control of the area.  On 24 May, Haftar announced that the LNA was "near victory". The same day, 2 LNA troops were killed by a car bombing, which was claimed by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.  On 26 May, Egypt bombed DPF positions, joining the battle in support of the LNA.  On 28 May, the LNA seized two suburbs in south-western Derna.  On 29 May, the LNA took control of the western entrance to Derna. The same day, the Derna Protection Force withdrew from the Al-Fatayeh district to the east of the city.  On 30 May, a water desalination plant in Derna stopped working as a result of the war.  On 3 June, The LNA clashed in the Sahel Sahrqi neighborhood. The next day, the LNA captured the Shiha and Bab Tobruk districts.  By 5 June, the LNA was advancing with four battalions into Derna, with 2 from each side, and was bolstered by the Al-Saiqa brigade. At this time, the LNA had seized 75% of Derna.  On 9 June and 10 June, the LNA said it had advanced in the district of Sheiha after hitting it with multiple air strikes, to the edge of Al Maghar in central Derna. LNA spokesman Ahmed al-Mismari also stated that the combat zone was now "less than just 10 km squared."  On 11 June, it was reported that several districts in Derna had been seized by the LNA, with only a few pockets of resistance remaining in the eastern part of the city. Many news outlets then reported that the battle was nearing its end. On 12 June, the LNA was attacked by 2 suicide bombers, the second of whom killed 2 fighters and wounded 3 others. On 13 June, "The Libya Observer" released a video of 2 unarmed men in civilian clothes being tortured and executed by the LNA.  On 14 June, Saleh Faraj, an officer patrolling areas under LNA control, stated that only "50 or 60 remnant" fighters of the DPF were still in Derna, and that they were now holed up in the central district of the city. He also stated that the DPF had planted explosives and deployed snipers. On 18 June, Abu Sufian bin Qumu, Osama Bin Laden's former driver, was captured by the LNA. On 20 June, a suicide bomber killed 4 Libyan security force members, After heading towards them with a white flag. On 24 June, Looting, robberies and assaults on properties by the LNA forced tens of families to flee from the Bab Tobruk and Sahel areas.  On 26 June, while the LNA was fighting for the "last remaining meters" of Derna, LNA spokesman Ahmed al-Mismari stated that most of the terrorist commanders had been killed or captured within the last few days. Although he was unable to confirm the death of Ateyah Al-Shaari, The leader of the Derna Protection Forces, He was able to confirm the "neutralization" of a different commander, Muftah al-Ghweil.  On 27 June, UNICEF sent a thousand hygiene kits to Derna, which should benefit about five thousand people, including children.  On 28 June, al-Qaeda's media organizer Abu Safana Ben Kama was detained by the LNA. Later on the same day, the LNA also managed to take control of the Al-Maghar district, capturing the entire city of Derna. By the end of the day, the LNA had declared victory.  After the LNA declared victory, celebrations erupted in Derna. Some began chanting, while others while honked their car horns in celebration and flashed the victory sign as army forces were seen keeping order on the streets. Khalifa Haftar was quoted as saying "After a bitter struggle and enormous sacrifices, today our date is renewed with victory while it marks the date of defeat for the terrorists". Between 7 and 31 May, The Libyan National Army suffered 20 killed and 35 wounded, while the Shura council suffered 100 killed and 100 captured. Approximately 19,270 civilians were displaced.  However, fighting in the old city continued for the following several months. In July and September, the Derna Protection Force clashed with the LNA. On 11 February 2019, the LNA declared the end of military operations in Derna, after they had retaken the entire city. On 12 February, the 46 remaining fighters of the Derna Protection Force (DPF) surrendered themselves to the LNA, marking the dissolution of the group.

The Battle of Derna was a military campaign by the Libyan National Army to recapture the city of Derna from the Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna, which lasted from 7 May 2018 until 12 February 2019. The majority of military operations concluded by 28 June 2018, with the Libyan National Army declaring control of the entire city on that day, despite continued clashes in the old city. During the early stages of the battle, the Shura Council was dissolved and replaced with the Derna Protection Force, which continued operations after the LNA declared victory in June 2018, before surrendering themselves at the end of the battle.


Battle.

Price's Confederate cavalry force was in full retreat following its expedition into Missouri. On October 28, 1864, it stopped to rest about two miles (3 km) south of Newtonia, Missouri. About 3:00 p.m., Maj. Gen. James G. Blunt's Union cavalrymen spotted the rear of Price's supply train entering the woods south of town on the Cassville road. McLain's Colorado Light Artillery, supported by the 15th Kansas Cavalry, opened on the rebels.  Blunt formed the 16th Kansas Cavalry and 2nd Colorado Cavalry in two lines and personally led a charge behind a screen of skirmishers toward the fleeing supply train. Most of the rebel skirmishers were in no condition (physically or mentally) to resist, and they were soon tumbling backwards. Brig. Gen. Joseph O. (Jo) Shelby's mounted infantry division, including his "Iron Brigade", rode to the front, dismounted, and engaged the Union force. Shelby's men overlapped the flanks of the smaller Union force and forced it back into a large cornfield near the Matthew H. Ritchey estate. There, fighting raged until Federal cannon fire and reinforcements under Brig. Gen. John B. Sanborn finally caused the Confederates to retreat at nightfall. However, Shelby had accomplished his mission in holding up the Union pursuers. By morning, Price had retreated across the desolate prairie towards the Indian Territory.  Despite the duration and ferocity of the firefight, casualties were rather light (400 for the Federals versus 250 for the Confederates).  Today, most of the battlefield is in private hands. Twenty acres (81,000 m2), plus the Ritchey mansion, are owned by the Newtonia Battlefield Preservation Society.

Second Battle of Newtonia Site.

The Second Battle of Newtonia Site is a historic battlefield site listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. The site consist of the battlefield site as a whole plus what has been designated as the cornfield site, the artillery ridge site and the Granby Road site. The Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the Newtonia battlefield.

The Second Battle of Newtonia was fought on October 28, 1864, in Newton County, Missouri, as part of Major General Sterling Price's Missouri Expedition of the American Civil War.


Biography.

Early life.

She came from a land-owning nobility family. She was the daughter of Henryk Rodziewicz, coat of arms Łuk and Amelia née Kurzeniecki. for help given to the January insurgents (storage of weapons) Maria's parents were sentenced to family estate of Pieniaha in Vawkavysk confiscation and to deportation to Siberia. Amelia, who was pregnant with Maria at that time, was allowed to give birth and later was deported by a carriage that she paid for a few months later. During the parents' stay in exile, the Rodziewicz's children were put under the care of various relatives. Initially, Maria's grandparents took care of the Kurzeniecki family in the Zamosze estate near Janów, and after their short death a friend and distant relative of her mother took care of her - Maria Skirmuntt (in Korzeniów in the Pinsk region).  In 1871, as a result of amnesty, Maria's parents returned from exile. At that time, they could only settle outside the lands called by the Russians 'taken away', i.e. not in the Grodno region, where the Rodziewicz family had relatives. They settled in Warsaw, where they were in a very difficult financial situation (father worked as a tenant of the tenement house, mother for some time in a cigarette factory). The family situation improved slightly when a distant relative of Ksawery Pusłowski made Maria's father the administrator of his property. However, real improvement occurred in 1875, when Henryk Rodziewicz inherited the property of Hruszów in Polesie (1533 ha) from his childless brother Teodor. It was not a family property for a long time (the great-grandfather of Rodziewiczówna bought it from Alexander Suvorov).  Already during her stay in Warsaw Rodziewiczówna began to attend the finishing school of Mrs. Kuczyńska. At the end of 1876, due to the improvement of the financial situation of the family, she was placed in a finishing school in Yazlovets ran by the Congregation of the Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, whose superior was Marcelina Darowska (beatified by John Paul II). There she stayed until the summer of 1879, when due to her father's illness and lack of money for further education she had to return to her family (she finished the fifth or sixth grade). Staying in a school in Jazłowiec, where girls in a religious but patriotic atmosphere were prepared primarily for the future role of wife and mother, had a great impact on Rodziewiczówna. Her first works were also to be created here, most likely "Kwiat lotosu" (lotus flower).

Reign over Hruszowa.

In 1881 Rodziewiczówna's father died. After his death, she gradually began to take control of his estate until 1887, when she took it over formally (with the burden of the debts of her father and uncle, as well as the need to repay her siblings). She cut her hair short (with her mother's permission) and in the short skirt and "masculine" coat she took care of Hruszowa, which, however, did not bring much income (despite a large acreage arable land was at most a third of it).  In 1882 Maria Rodziewiczówna debuted under the pen name Mario in 3 and 4 issue of „Dziennik Anonsowy” with two novelettes – "Gama uczuć" i "Z dzienniczka reportera". She used the same pen name in 1884 in Świt, redacted by Maria Konopnicka, with a story "Jazon Bobrowski", and a humoresque published in 1885, "Farsa panny Heni". Her novel debut was "Straszny dziadunio", which won in a 1886 competition held by „Świt”, which publiushed the novel in episodic format.  The relationships of the estate with local Belarussian peasants were varied. In 1890 the writer could face up to two weeks of arrest for „active abuse” (beating) of an Antopol shepherd (the case was solved amicably by paying the shepherd 5 rubles). In December 1900 there was an arson, burning a barn, threshers and cowshed with fifty cattle. The estate dedicated itself to spreading the culture, and local peasants could find medical aid there. In 1937, for anniversary of 50 years of governing Hruszowa (and 50 years of literary work) the villagers gave Rodziewiczówna a dedicared album, bought bells to her chapel and delivered bricks to the construction place of a Catholic church in Antopol for free (the church was co-founded by her).  After the death of her grandmother, mother and sister in the mid-90s, the writer lived in Hruszowa for some time alone. It is difficult to say when Helena Weychert (met in the Stowarzyszenie Ziemianek - Association of Landowners) moved to the estate as Rodziewiczówna's life partner.. Weychert introduced changes in the maintenance of the farm (such as the introduction of crop rotation or the launch of a distillery), which improved revenues. After a few years, she moved to Warsaw, buying, together with Rodziewiczówna, a flat on Bracka Street and a property near Falenica.  In 1919 her place was taken in Hruszowa by a new (introduced as a distant relative) partner of the writer - Jadwiga Skirmuntt. Jadwiga dealt with "womanly household and farmkeeping", while Maria "left business and masculine farmkeeping to herself". This relation was described by Skirmuntt in her memoirs with the German word "Wahlverwandtschaft", meaning "spiritual affinity" / "affinity by choice".  The writer spent time until World War I in her estate in the company of Jadwiga Skirmuntt or Helena Weychert. Only in winter did she go to Warsaw for 2-3 months. She also made several trips abroad: to Rome (for 500 rubles obtained as a reward for "Dewajtis"), 2-3 times to southern France, at least once to Munich, Sweden and Norway.  In 1905 she began organizing social activities (social tensions and the image of workers' misery made a huge impression on her). In 1906, she founded the secret women's association Unia. She also contributed to the establishment of a grocery store and a store selling folk products in Warsaw, as well as a common room in the Kobryń poviat.

World War I.

The outbreak of World War I found Rodziewiczówna in Warsaw. She took part in the organization of a military hospital, she also helped organize cheap kitchens for intelligentsia and academic assistance. In 1915 she returned to Hruszowa for some time, taking care of the refugees she had tried to keep there. In the years 1919–1920 she initiated a number of social activities in the area of Hruszowa, establishing an agricultural circle, building a steam room, and rebuilding the cheder in Antopol. During the Polish-Bolshevik war, she was in Warsaw, where she was the secretary of the Main Committee of the Polish Red Cross and was appointed the commandant of the Female Volunteer Committee for the Relief of Lviv to the city of Warsaw. For her activity in this field, she was awarded the "Orlęta" Medal of Honor, which was accompanied by a diploma signed by general Tadeusz Rozwadowski. After the end of war, she returned to Hruszowa. Years later, Rodziewiczówna considered this diploma the most important souvenir of her activity.

Interwar period.

In the interwar period, she tried to continue her educational and social activities (among others, she organized the Polish House in Antopol, she also financed the construction of a floor at the Kobryn School of her own name). However, government policy in Kresy aroused her disapproval. She ideologically associated the maintenance of "Polishness" in these lands with the role of landowners and the Church. Meanwhile, the authorities demanded that her part of the estate (150 ha) be handed over for the needs of settlement, which were also personally disputed with the starosta from Kobryn. She became a protector and co-founder of the Union of Homeland Nobility.  Rodziewiczówna had a critical attitude towards Jews created from her own experience and observations of the environment, whom she considered exploiters (usury), who would significantly contribute to the poverty of the Polesie village and the financial problems of the borderland landowners. This has often been reflected in her works, where there is the figure of an evil Jew, but in some of them she gives examples of positive and kind people who help Poles in troubles (e.g. "Jaskółczym szlakiem").  In 1937 she was invited to the authorities of Oboz Zjednoczenia Narodowego. She accepted the invitation but in 1938, in protest against the deeds of OZN authorities, she left the organization.

World War II.

The outbreak of World War II found her in Hruszowa. She was displaced from it in October 1939 (the property, after the area was taken over by the Red Army, was taken over by a committee of local people). Based on false documents, she crossed the border of the German occupation and, together with Skirmuntt, got to the transit camp in Łódź at ul. Łąkowa 4, from where they were removed in March 1940 by the Mazaraki family, owners of the property near Tuszyn.  Shortly afterwards she went to Warsaw, i.e. to the General Government, where, assisted by friends, she spent the last years of her life in very difficult material conditions. During the Warsaw Uprising, the ancient writer was already passing by or being moved to several different homes, looked after by friends, the Polish Red Cross and the insurgents.  She left Warsaw after the surrender, spending a few weeks in Milanówek, and then heading to Żelazna - the property of Aleksander Mazaraki jr. near Skierniewice. Placed in a nearby forester's cabin in Leonów. She died of pneumonia in November 1944.  Initially, she was buried in Żelazna, but on November 11, 194 she was buried in the "Avenue of the Distinguished" at the Powązki Cemetery in Warsaw.

Private life.

As a teenager Maria declared that she would never marry. She spent her life with Helena Weychert and Jadwiga Skirmuntt, and their arrangement was that Maria would spend few winter months in Warsaw with Helena, and the rest of the year in Hruszowa with Jadwiga. During her life only Irena Krzywicka would publicly imply that she was a lesbian, in a 1936 article in "Wiadomości Literackie". Maria's behavior and attire were very masculine and noted by her contemporaries for that. Krzysztof Tomasik called her "the first butch of Polish literature".

Maria Rodziewiczówna (February 2, 1863 – November 16, 1944, near Żelazna) was a Polish writer, among the most famous of the interwar years. Her works often addressed patriotism, idealized rural life, and praised the countryside and peasantry. Rodziewiczówna is also noted for advocating for women's' rights. Her writings include "Wrzos" ("Heather"), "Dewajtis", "Lato leśnych ludzi" ("Summer of the Forest People"), "Straszny dziadunio" ("Eerie Grandpa").