Background.

"Biophilia "grew from Björk's interest in nature and concerns about the environment. In June 2008, she performed a concert with the Icelandic band Sigur Rós to raise awareness about the use of Iceland's natural resources in aluminium melting plants. She founded the Náttúra organisation to promote Icelandic nature and grassroots industries, and released a single, "Náttúra", on 20 October 2008. A week later, Björk wrote an article for "The Times" discussing the proposed sale of natural resources to ease the Icelandic financial crisis. In collaboration with Audur Capital, she set up a venture capital fund to support sustainable industries in Iceland. On 30 June 2010, Björk and Dirty Projectors released a joint EP, "Mount Wittenberg Orca," with proceeds going to marine protected areas.  In September 2010, the renewable power company Magma Energy acquired 98.5% of shares in the Icelandic geothermal

Composition.

"Biophilia" was partly composed on an Apple iPad.  "Crystalline", the first single released, is a mostly electronic song, featuring a continuous "gameleste" base and electronic beats and rhythm. After the bridge, the song features a gameleste solo, and ends with an uproarious breakcore section which uses the Amen break.  New musical instruments were specially developed for the album, and specially for the shows at the Manchester International Festival that took place in mid-2011 to introduce the album. The Tesla coil was used as a musical instrument on the song "Thunderbolt". A "gameleste", a mixture between a gamelan and a celesta which was programmed in order to be played remotely by a tablet computer, was also used in "Crystalline" and "Virus". A group of pendulums were put together, creating patterns with their moves, transmitting the movements of the Earth to the sound of a harp, making the song "Solstice".  For the music, Björk related the phenomenon the song describes to a musical structure or resource. For example; the song "Moon" has different musical cycles that repeat throughout the song; the song "Thunderbolt" contains arpeggios, inspired by the time between when

Release and artwork.

When the first details about "Biophilia" emerged, the album was expected to be released around the beginning of the residency at the Manchester International Festival in June. Eventually, the album was confirmed for a Fall 2011 release. The album was originally announced for a 27 September 2011 release in the United States.  Pre-order for the album started on 19 July 2011. Along with the standard edition album, which would be available in physical and digital formats, three additional editions were announced. The first, the deluxe edition, available in digipak format in its physical form, would contain three additional tracks. The second special edition, billed the Manual edition, was announced to include the standard edition of "Biophilia" and a bonus disc, both contained in a "48-page, full-color, hardbound, cloth-covered, and thread-sewn book, tipped on lenticular panel to the front cover, with foil-blocked spine and back cover". The last edition, called the Ultimate Art Edition, included the Manual Edition of "Biophilia" in a wooden box, which was filled with 10 chromed tuning forks, each one adjusted to the tone of a "Biophilia" track, covering a complete octave in a non-conventional scale. Differently from the standard and deluxe edition of the album, those two latter editions were available to pre-order until 12 August 2011. Moreover, the Ultimate Art edition was limited to only 200 copies and 75 artist's proofs (a.p.), each one numbered and made to order. She was criticized for the cost of this latter edition, which was £500. Björk unveiled the track listing for "Biophilia" on 19 August 2011. It was later confirmed that the second disc included in the Manual edition would include a live recording of the "Biophilia" show in Manchester.  On 10 May 2011, Björk relaunched her official website. Using a HTML5 constellation designed by M/M Paris, the website shifts

App.

The "Biophilia" app consists of a series of 10 separate apps, one for each song, all included in a "mother app" which contains a menu made up by a three-dimensional constellation which the user can shift, zoom and orbit by swiping their fingers to open the apps. The first time the app is opened, an introduction by David Attenborough describes the application and the project itself. This introduction was also used to open the Biophilia Tour residency concerts. On the up left corner, the "musical compass" icon serves as a home button to return to the menu. If the icon is touched when the user is already facing the menu, a list of the application, including two pages for "how to navigate" and "credits", would appear. Every app is named after the corresponding song and includes different options, along with a description of the song and application. This short description link to an essay written for each song by Nikki Debben. The first option in the apps is to play the app, the second is the score, in which the user can look at the composition of the song, use it as a karaoke machine as the score has no vocals in it, or turn off the music and use it as sheet music. The animation option links to an animation of the song created by Stephen Malinowski, in which different forms of different colors, linked to a specific instrument in the song, including Björk's voice, zoom in or out depending on their intensity. The fourth option shows the lyrics of the song, which are not available in the "Dark Matter" app as it is sung in gibberish and thus has no lyrics at all. The last option is to scroll the credits, which name the people who have worked in the app. The "mother app", "Cosmogony", is the constellation that includes all the other applications, and thus contains no particular game or instrument to play. Nevertheless, it contains two other options, which are the possibility to replay the intro narrated by Attenborough and to play the song in its entirety. When the user plays the song, whether they would click on the compass icon they would return to the main menu immediately. Tapping in an empty space of the constellation would also make the user return to the main screen. The apps are roughly divided into two kinds: the ones in which the user play a sort of games, and the other ones that work like a musical instrument.  Almost every song on the app is presented in early, work-in-progress versions. For example, tracks like "Thunderbolt", "Sacrifice" and "Hollow" are missing their percussion parts and beats as they were added to the songs shortly before the album's physical release when Björk decided these early versions were unsatisfactory for a traditional music album. While "Sacrifice" is missing beats and is performed at a slightly lower speed, the most interesting early version of a "Biophilia" track is "Solstice"; the album version was recorded live during her Manchester residency but the app originally contained a demo version performed in studio. In addition to these work-in-progress versions, several of the games feature the songs with sections of music missing, to be played and manipulated by the player ("Thunderbolt" for example has the player drag their fingers across the screen to play the Tesla coil baseline).

Promotion.

Appearances and interviews.

Björk promoted "Biophilia" extensively by giving different interviews on music criticism websites. Most notably, she explained the concept behind the project during interviews with Stereogum, Drowned in Sound, "Pitchfork" and "Rolling Stone". She was featured on the cover of the 200th issue of "Dazed & Confused", for which she also served as a guest editor. The volume featured behind the scenes and interviews with Björk's collaborators in the project, including the choir Graduale Nobili, 16bit, Scott Snibbe and Stephen Malinowski. She was also featured on the cover of the "Billboard" magazine. Björk also gave various radio interviews with BBC Radio 1, BBC Radio 6 Music, XFM, The Strand, CBC Radio and "Studio 360". She restrained from giving televised interviews but she filmed an interview for Associated Press which

Singles and videos.

"Crystalline" was released as the lead single from the album. The single release was preceded by two video teasers; the first, entitled "Road to Crystalline", featured Björk driving on her van through a road in Iceland while playing an excerpt of an en early version of the song, and was released on 27 May 2011. The second one, released on 13 June 2011, showed the gameleste, the celesta-gamelan hybrid created for the "Biophilia" project. The single version of the song, namely the Serban Ghenea mix, leaked onto the Internet on 25 June 2011. The single was officially released on 28 June 2011. The music video, directed by French director Michel Gondry, was released on YouTube on 26 July 2011. After "Crystalline", three songs on were released in iTunes as singles beside the expansion app.

Remix series.

Leading up to the album release, Björk issued a series of remixes of "Crystalline" and "Cosmogony", titled "The Crystalline Series". The remixes were released on digital download, LP and in a limited CD edition. The first part, which contained the two single versions of the songs by Serban Ghenea, was released on 19 July 2011, coinciding with the digital release of "Cosmogony". The second part included two remixes of "Crystalline" and "Thunderbolt" by Syrian musician Omar Souleyman, alongside an original song by the musician, called "Mawal", was released on 26 July. This release was anticipated by a video teaser, which showed Souleyman during the recording sessions for the remix of "Crystalline". The third and fourth parts, containing remixes of the two tracks by British electronic musician and producer Matthew Herbert, were released on 2 August 2011.  On 6 March 2012, One Little Indian announced the upcoming release of another eight-part series of remixes. Billed as the "Biophilia Remix Series", each part was announced to come out starting on 16 April 2012, each

Critical reception.

"Biophilia" received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 79, based on 37 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Critical acclaim came from BBC Music's Mike Diver, who described the album as "mesmerizing" and "an amazing, inventive and wholly unique eighth album from an artist without peer", praising both her voice as a "controlled presence" and her composition work: "Björk has crafted sounds which are entirely hers alone". Möhammad Choudhery of Consequence of Sound praised the "asteroid-bass volley" of "Mutual Core" and "apocalyptical breakbeat coda" of "Crystalline" and stated that "they blend archaic instrumentation with blistering electronica" and even if he labelled "Biophilia" as "hardly easy listening", he found that "it'll stand as one of the more rewarding albums of her storied career". "Biophilia" was named "CD of the week" by "The Daily Telegraph", whose writer Helen Brown described the album as "wilfully weird" yet "surprisingly accessible, hypnotic and beautiful if you give it time and concentration: the audio equivalent of looking through a microscope at crystals growing". According to "NME"s Luke Turner, "[looking] past the techno wizardry, the grand designs and the brainy philosophy", "Biophilia" is "intimate, playful and beautiful" and "a wonderful distillation of ideas, playful and serious, intimate yet the most fantastic journey. [...] A record so particular to Björk's own artistry that no-one could ever hope to replicate it." "Now" magazine's Kevin Ritchie praised the album as "one of Björk's best and most challenging records" and that "[i]ts accompanying iPad suite [...] isn't required to enjoy the album, which has a satisfyingly messy and unhinged quality, much like the natural wonders that inspired it". Similarly, Gareth James of "Clash" felt that the album "sounds beautifully warm and compellingly human", and stated that "while much of the fuss around the album has centred on its innovative and hugely interactive app release, this music really doesn't need any window dressing because it's as good a collection of songs as she has put her name to in ten years".  Kyle Andersen of "Entertainment Weekly" stated that "Biophilia" is "an ingenious marriage of faerie and machine. But [her] greatest strength remains the glistening natural resource flowing from her throat". For Heather Phares of AllMusic, ""Biophilia" is easily her most ambitious project as a whole", whose "boldest innovations are in its presentation rather than in the actual music" and "sometimes feels like a soundtrack", but further adds that "just because the music is only one part of the "Biophilia" experience doesn't mean it's unsatisfying". Phares eventually gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, also citing its "blend of education and emotion." Daniel Paton of musicOMH viewed "Biophilia" as a "synthesis of Björk's work thus far", yet "it sees her continue to pursue her own radical and individual path with unshakeable conviction." He also complimented her language, "English [...] always sounds so enticing and odd when delivered in her syntax." "Rolling Stone"s David Fricke compared the album to Nico's work, "[with its] organ, squishy electronics and the high sighs of a women's choir in stark fields of echo, ["Biophilia" is] like a haunted digital sister of Nico's 1969 album, "The Marble Index"". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" wrote that ""Biophilia" never feels like hard work, however much the accompanying bumf tries to convince you it is." Despite his skepticism over interactive music and apps, he stated the quality of the music is "far less questionable". PopMatters music editor Arnold Pan complimented Björk as being "innovative by nature and eager to take risks" and praised "Biophilia"s songs, despite claiming "there are some moments on "Biophilia" that are too atmospheric and subtle [...] especially the low profile 'Dark Matter' and the overly abstract 'Hollow', with its cold modern classical stylings". A more mixed review came from "Pitchfork"s Mark Pytlik, which felt that she "prioritized the superficial aspects of "Biophilia"s presentation over, well, the music", further adding that "she combats the lack of any real structure or melody by over-singing, or lapsing into one of her familiar and increasingly lazy-sounding house vocal runs." He also wrote that "[a]s an innovator, she's as vibrant as ever, but as a songwriter, she sounds tired". Andy Gill of "The Independent" gave the album a negative review, dubbing it as "hard to love" and added that "at times, it's hard not to conclude that the music and lyrics were devised totally separately, and then forced together in forms it's difficult to acknowledge as songs".  2011 Year-end list entries

Commercial performance.

"Biophilia" debuted at number twenty-seven on the US "Billboard" 200 on the issue dated 29 October 2011 with first-week sales of 15,000 copies. The album also opened at number one on the Dance/Electronic Albums, number two on the Tastemaker Albums, number five on the Alternative Albums, number eight on the Rock Albums and number nineteen on the Digital Albums. It debuted at number twenty-one on the UK Albums Chart, becoming Björk's first album not to break the top ten. In Japan, the album debuted

Legacy.

On 11 June 2014, the Museum of Modern Art located in New York announced that the "Biophilia" app became the first downloadable app in the museum permanent collection. The app inclusion was requested by Senior curator Paola Antonelli, that commented:  Björk has never ceased to experiment and surprise. The multidimensional nature of her art—in which sound and music

Personnel.

Credits adapted from "Biophilia" album liner notes and bjork.com.

Biophilia is the seventh studio album by Icelandic singer Björk. It was released on 5 October 2011, by One Little Indian Records and distributed by Nonesuch Records in North America and by Universal Music Group in the rest of the world. Björk composed it as a concept album during the 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis, exploring the links between nature, music and technology. Billed as the first "app album", "Biophilia" is a multimedia project released alongside a series of apps linking the album's themes to musicology concepts. It was followed by a series of educational workshops in four continents.


Biography.

Ragıp Zarakolu was born in 1948 on Büyükada close to Istanbul. At that time his father, Remzi Zarakolu, was the district governor on that island. Ragıp Zarakolu grew up with members of the Greek and Armenian minority in Turkey. In 1968 he began writing for "Ant" and "Yeni Ufuklar" magazines.  In 1971 a military junta assumed power in Turkey. Ragıp Zarakolu was tried on charges of secret relations to Amnesty International. He spent five months in prison, before the charges were dropped. In 1972 Ragıp Zarakolu was sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment for his article in the journal "Ant" (Pledge) on "Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnam War". He stayed in Selimiye Prison (Istanbul) and was released in 1974 following a general amnesty. On his release Zarakolu refused to abandon his campaign for freedom of thought, striving for an "attitude of respect for different thoughts and cultures to become widespread in Turkey".  The Belge Publishing House, established in Istanbul in 1977 by Zarakolu and his wife Ayşenur, has been a focus for Turkish censorship laws ever since. Charges brought against the couple resulted in imprisonment for both Ayşenur and Ragıp Zarakolu, the wholesale confiscation and destruction of books and the imposition of heavy fines.  In 1979 Ragıp Zarakolu was one of the founders of the daily newspaper "Demokrat" and took responsibility for the news desk on foreign affairs. The paper was banned with the military coup of 12 September 1980 and Ragıp Zarakolu was shortly imprisoned in 1982 in connection with this position in "Demokrat". He was banned from leaving the country between 1971 and 1991. In 1986 he became one of 98 founders of the Human Rights Association of Turkey (HRA or in Turkish IHD). For some time Ragıp Zarakolu chaired the Writers in Prison Committee of International PEN in Turkey. Currently (beginning of 2007) he chairs the Committee for Freedom of Publication in the Union of Publishers.  Until the military coup of 12 September 1980 "Belge" Publishing House mostly published academic and theoretical books. Afterwards "Belge" started to publish a series of books written by political prisoners. The series of 35 books consisted of poems, shorts stories, novels. The list of publications (see a list of selected publications below) include more than 10 books (translations) of Greek literature, 10 books on the Armenian Question and five books related to the Jews in Turkey. There are also a number of books dealing with the Kurds in Turkey.  He also has published several books on the Armenian Genocide, such as George Jerjian's "The Truth Will Set Us Free: Armenians and Turks Reconciled" and Professor Dora Sakayan's "An Armenian Doctor in Turkey: Garabed Hatcherian: My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922" — which brought new criminal charges in 2005. In November 2007 Zarakolu published David Gaunt's book "Massacres, resistance, protectors" about the Assyrian Genocide in Turkish ("Katliamlar, Direniş, Koruyucular").  In 1995 the Belge Publishing House offices were firebombed by a far right group, forcing it to be housed in a cellar. Since his wife's death in 2002, Zarakolu continued to face further prosecutions.  In May 2017 the Belge Publishing House was raided by police who said they had orders to seize all copies of the book "Stateless Kurds and Decisions Tougher than Death". Police also seized hundreds of books published in the 1980s and 1990s, despite having no orders to do so.

Trials.

Recent court cases against Ragıp Zarakolu and "Belge" Publishing House (until her death Ayşenur Zarakolu stood trial instead of him) include:

2002.

On 21 March Istanbul State Security Court (SSC) No. 1 heard the case of Ayşenur Zarakolu on charges of having disseminated separatist propaganda by publishing a book by Hüseyin Turhallı, former chairman of the Democracy Party (DEP) for Diyarbakır province, entitled "Songs of Freedom". During the hearing her husband Ragıp Zarakolu stated that this would have been the 34th court case against his wife, if she had been alive. On 4 June Istanbul SSC dropped the charges against her after establishing that Hüseyin Turhallı was living in France and Ayşenur Zarakolu had died in January.

2003.

On 3 December Istanbul SSC acquitted Ragıp Zarakolu from charges under Article 312 TPC. The trial had been opened for his translation of the book "The Regime of 12 September on Trial", written by Dr. Gazi Çağlar from Hannover University.

2004.

On 10 September, Istanbul Heavy Penal Court No. 14 (former Istanbul SSC No. 4) concluded the case launched against publisher Ragıp Zarakolu, owner of the newspaper "Ülkede Özgür Gündem" (Free Agenda in the Country), Ali Çelik Kasimogullari and editor-in-chief of the newspaper "Mehmet Çolak" in connection with an article titled "Sana Ne" (What’s that to you) that was published on 8 March 2003. The court sentenced Kasimogullari to a fine of TL 3.3 billion and Mehmet Çolak to 6 months’ imprisonment and a fine of TL 1.65 billion under Article 7/2 of the LFT (making propaganda for an illegal organization). Çolak’s sentence was commuted to a total fine of TL 3.73 billion. Zarakolu’s file was separated due to legal change made regarding Article 312 TPC. He was to be tried at a Penal Court.  Beyoglu Penal Court No. 2 heard the case on 2 March 2005 and adjourned the hearing to 12 May. Further hearings were held on 21 September and 11 October 2005. Result unknown.

2005-2007.

Ragıp Zarakolu was indicted for the Turkish translation of Professor Dora Sakayan's book entitled "An Armenian Doctor in Turkey. G. Hatcherian: My Smyrna Ordeal of 1922". According to the indictment, Zarakolu was to be sentenced following Article 301 new TPC (Article 159 of the former TPC). The first hearing was set for 21 September at Istanbul Penal Court No 2.  On 20 September Istanbul Penal Court No 2 continued to hear the case against Ragıp Zarakolu, owner of Belge Publishing House, in connection with the book about the Armenian genocide entitled "The Truth Will Set Us Free" written by the British writer George Jerjian. The hearing was adjourned to 22 November for investigation of the expert report. The charges related to Article 301 new TPC (of June 2005). The latest two cases were combined and further hearings were held on 21 November and 15 February, 19 April, 21 June and 14 December 2006. The next hearing was scheduled for 15 March 2007.

2008.

In June 2008, Zarakolu was found guilty of "insulting the institutions of the Turkish Republic" under Article 301 of the Turkish penal code for translating and publishing Jerjian's book. The judge sentenced him to five months in prison. However, the judge, citing Zarakolu's "good behavior", stated that the author may avoid imprisonment by paying a fine.

2011.

He was taken into custody on October 28, 2011 within the framework of the KCK (Kurdistan Communities Union) operation.

2012.

In February 2012 Zarakolu was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by members of the Swedish Parliament.

Awards for Ragıp and Ayşenur Zarakolu.

Ragıp Zarakolu was given the NOVIB/PEN Free Expression Award in 2003.  In October 1998 Ayşenur Zarakolu was honoured by the International Publishers Association with the International Freedom to Publish Award. She could not attend the ceremony at Frankfurt Book Fair since her passport had been confiscated.  In September 2008, the same organization awarded Ragıp Zarakolu the 2008 IPA Freedom to Publish Prize to "[send] a message to the Turkish authorities that domestic legislation must be further amended to meet international freedom of expression standards".  In March 2012 the Assyrian Culture Centre in Stockholm, Sweden, granted the Assyrian Cultural Award to Ragıp Zarakolu, then in prison, for being an advocate for human and minority rights in Turkey and Europe.

Ragıp Zarakolu (born 1948) is a Turkish human rights activist and publisher who has long faced legal harassment for publishing books on controversial subjects in Turkey, especially on minority and human rights in Turkey.


Haweswater aqueduct.

The aqueduct carrying water from Haweswater Reservoir to Heaton Park Reservoir in Manchester follows the line of Longsleddale underground on the east of the valley, and crosses Stockdale Beck by a pipe bridge. Construction of the aqueduct was started in the 1930s and finally completed in 1976. Survey columns can still be seen on Branstree, Tarn Crag, and Great Howe below Grey Crag. The tunnel is about 2m by 2m in section, and the water flow is by gravity. Between Haweswater and Manchester the tunnel only deviates from a straight line by less than.

Possible railway route.

When the directors of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway were choosing its route in the 1840s, one possibility considered was a route through Kendal and along Longsleddale, with a 2-mile tunnel under the Gatescarth Pass into Mardale and thence towards Bampton. This route had the support of the Kendal Committee of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway; other alternatives under consideration included a line over a barrage across Morecambe Bay and round the Cumbrian coast, routes bypassing Shap to the east and west, and the Shap summit route finally chosen.  After a lengthy Parliamentary inquiry the longer and steeper route over Shap Fell was chosen. Thomas Bouch was approached to be an adviser on the Longsleddale route and if this route had been chosen, in all probabilities Thos. Bouch would have been appointed as the civil and railway engineer. Bouch was the engineer for the Cockermouth, Keswick and Penrith Railway and rose to fame in later years, for it was his design of the Tay Railway Bridge that was destroyed in a severe storm.  The gradient of the Longsleddale route would have been somewhat less than the 1 in 70 gradient of the climb up and over Shap Fell, and the use of banking engines could have been reduced if not entirely eliminated.  It has been said that the Longsleddale route, "had it ever been built, would have been as dramatic and awe-inspiring as any in Britain".

Recreation and community.

In 1974, an Outdoor Pursuits Centre was founded by Jim McVeigh as an access point for young people, from in and around Manchester, to the great outdoors. Over the years, this has extended to young people from all around the country. Unlike many outdoors centre in the UK, this is staffed and operated solely by volunteers. The centre's Adventure Activities Licensing Authority licence allows staff to run outdoor activities including: rock climbing, caving, ghyll scrambling (canyoning), hillwalking and archery.  There are few community buildings in Longsleddale. There is one village hall that is known as the Community Hall and one church - St Mary's - which is near the centre of the valley and is open every day. Services are on the second and fourth Sunday of each month at 10.30am.  The village was the inspiration for the fictional village of Greendale in the BBC children's television series "Postman Pat".

Geology.

The Stockdale Shales is a geologic formation in the area near Longsleddale.

Longsleddale is a valley and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of the English county of Cumbria. It includes the hamlet of Sadgill. The parish has a population of 73. As the population taken at the 2011 Census was less than 100, details are maintained in the civil parish of Whitwell and Selside.


Description.

"Dracaena hanningtonii" bears its leaves in two opposite rows (distichous), forming a sparse fan-shape. It develops a short stem of maximum 18cm length (unlike stemless species such as "D. patens" or "D. pearsonii").  Mature leaves are rounded in cross-section, though with grooved channel on the inner side, dark green and usually range between 0.5 and 1.5 m in length and 2.45 and 8.0 cm in width.  The plant offsets by rhizomes, eventually forming tight, relatively dense clusters.

History.

The epithet "ehrenbergii" in the synonym "Sansevieria ehrenbergii" refers to Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, a naturalist who travelled through Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia and Arabia in the years 1820-25.  In 1911, the German entomologist Wilhelm Kattwinkel, while searching for butterflies, stumbled into a gorge. He asked the indigenous Maasai people what the gorge was called. They did not understand what he was saying and thought he was referring to the plants of "Dracaena hanningtonii", to which they responded "oldupaai". Kattwinkel misinterpreted and mispronounced what they were saying by referring to the gorge as "Olduvai Gorge".

Uses.

The Maasai have used "Dracaena hanningtonii" for antiseptics, natural bandages, rope, baskets, roofs and clothes. They were also useful for stitching and sewing as well as patching and repairing leatherwork. To make the rope, the leaves were cut, then taken and left to soak in water until the outer layer had split and rotted down which would allow it to be easily separated from the fibrous matter inside. They were then removed from the water and taken to a hard flat surface to be beaten with heavy clubs until the fibres were loosened. The fibrous material was then extracted, separated into strands and worked into cordage of various thicknesses. Fibres from the "D. hanningtonii" were short but very strong threads which were popular when making slingshots  During the 1970s, paleoanthropologist Bill Montagne was working in Olduvai Gorge and became injured. He received treatment in the form of a natural bandage made from "D. hanningtonii", after which he was so impressed, he began pharmaceutical research.  "Dracaena hanningtonii" was also traditionally used to treat circular weeping sores with the juice squeezed out from a snapped off leaf. In years of drought, this plant was also vital in sustaining cattle until the next rains.

Dracaena hanningtonii, synonym Sansevieria ehrenbergii, (blue sansevieria, sword sansevieria, oldupai, or East African wild sisal) is a flowering plant which grows in northeastern and eastern tropical Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Tanzania) and the Arabian Peninsula (Oman and Saudi Arabia). It occurs notably in proliferation along the Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania


Overview.

Diffusion current versus drift current.

The following table compares the two types of current:

Carrier actions.

No external electric field across the semiconductor is required for a diffusion current to take place. This is because diffusion takes place due to the change in concentration of the carrier particles and not the concentrations themselves. The carrier particles, namely the holes and electrons of a semiconductor, move from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration. Hence, due to the flow of holes and electrons there is a current. This current is called the diffusion current. The drift current and the diffusion current make up the total current in the conductor. The change in the concentration of the carrier particles develops a gradient. Due to this gradient, an electric field is produced in the semiconductor.

Derivation.

To derive the diffusion current in a semiconductor diode, the depletion layer must be large compared to the mean free path. One begins with the equation for the net current density "J" in a semiconductor diode,  where "D" is the diffusion coefficient for the electron in the considered medium, "n" is the number of electrons per unit volume (i.e. number density), "q" is the magnitude of charge of an electron, "μ" is electron mobility in the medium, and "E" = −"d"Φ/"dx" (Φ potential difference) is the electric field as the potential gradient of the electric potential. According to the Einstein relation on electrical mobility formula_1 and formula_2. Thus, substituting "E" for the potential gradient in the above equation () and multiplying both sides with exp(−Φ/V), () becomes:  Integrating equation () over the depletion region gives  which can be written as  where  The denominator in equation () can be solved by using the following equation:  Therefore, Φ* can be written as:  Since the "x" « "x" the term ("x" − "x"/2) ≈ "x", using this approximation equation () is solved as follows:  since (Φ − "V") > "V". One obtains the equation of current caused due to diffusion:  From equation (), one can observe that the current depends exponentially on the input voltage "V", also the barrier height Φ. From equation (), "V" can be written as the function of electric field intensity, which is as follows:  Substituting equation () in equation () gives:  From equation (), one can observe that when a zero voltage is applied to the semi-conductor diode, the drift current totally balances the diffusion current. Hence, the net current in a semiconductor diode at zero potential is always zero.

Example.

The equation above can be applied to model semiconductor devices. When the density of electrons is not in equilibrium, diffusion of electrons will occur. For example, when a bias is applied to two ends of a chunk of semiconductor, or a light is shining in one place (see right figure), electron will diffuse from high density regions (center) to low density regions (two ends), forming a gradient of electron density. This process generates diffusion current.

Diffusion current is a current in a semiconductor caused by the diffusion of charge carriers (holes and/or electrons). This is the current which is due to the transport of charges occurring because of non-uniform concentration of charged particles in a semiconductor. The drift current, by contrast, is due to the motion of charge carriers due to the force exerted on them by an electric field. Diffusion current can be in the same or opposite direction of a drift current. The diffusion current and drift current together are described by the drift–diffusion equation.


Early life.

Gaston was born in New Bern, North Carolina on September 19, 1778. He was the son of Dr. Alexander Gaston and Margaret Sharpe.  He entered Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., at the age of thirteen, becoming its first student. Due to illness shortly thereafter, he also became its first dropout. After Georgetown and some education in North Carolina, he graduated from Princeton University in 1796, where he studied law.

Career.

Gaston was admitted to the bar in 1798 and commenced practice in New Bern. He was a member of the North Carolina General Assembly in 1800, served in the State House of Commons (now known as the House of Representatives) from 1807 to 1809, and as its Speaker in 1808. He was again a member of the North Carolina State Senate in 1812, 1818, and 1819, and was elected as a Federalist to the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Congresses (March 4, 1813 – March 3, 1817). While in Congress, he obtained a federal charter for Georgetown University. In 1814, Gaston was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.  Gaston was not a candidate for to Congress in 1816. He again served in the House of Commons in 1824, 1827, 1828, 1829, and 1831. In 1832, Gaston delivered a graduation address at the University of North Carolina, which emphasized the duties of the graduates to themselves and their communities and urged them to take action against slavery.  Gaston was appointed judge of the North Carolina Supreme Court in 1833, holding the position until his death. As a justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court, Gaston wrote a decision that limited the control that slave-owners could exercise over enslaved humans. As a legislator, Gaston had introduced the bill that established the state Supreme Court as a distinct body in 1818. Gaston was offered but declined a nomination for election to the United States Senate in 1840, turned down an offer to be U.S. Attorney General for President William Henry Harrison.  Gaston won elective office on several occasions, even though the Constitution of North Carolina before 1835 seemed to prohibit it, because Gaston was a Roman Catholic. The young Rev. Andrew Byrne, later bishop of the Diocese of Little Rock, having contracted a serious illness during the course of his lengthy missionary labors, recuperated under the hospitable roof of judge Gaston. Gaston was largely responsible, as a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1835, for removing official discrimination against Catholics from North Carolina law.

Personal life.

Gaston was married three times. His first marriage was on September 4, 1803 to Susan Hay (d. 1804). He married for the second time on October 6, 1805 to Hannah McClure (d. 1813). Together, William and his second wife were the parents of one son and two daughters:  His third and final marriage was on September 3, 1816 to Eliza Ann Worthington (d. 1819). With his third wife, Gaston was the father of two additional daughters:  He died in his office in Raleigh, North Carolina, on January 23, 1844. He was interred in Cedar Grove Cemetery, New Bern, N.C. His home at New Bern, the Coor-Gaston House, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. Elmwood, his home at Raleigh, North Carolina, was listed in 1975.

William J. Gaston (September 19, 1778 – January 23, 1844) was a jurist and United States Representative from North Carolina. Gaston is the author of the official state song of North Carolina, "The Old North State". Gaston County, North Carolina is named after him, as are Lake Gaston, the city of Gastonia, North Carolina, and Gaston Hall within Healy Hall at Georgetown University.


Early life.

Pargo attended Chicago's Paul Robeson High School.

College career.

He played college basketball for Gonzaga University's Gonzaga Bulldogs. He was voted the 2008 WCC Player of the Year in his junior season. The following year, he was featured on the cover of "Sports Illustrated" magazine for the 2009 March Madness issue.

Professional career.

2009–10 season.

After going undrafted in the 2009 NBA draft, Pargo participated in the 2009 Las Vegas NBA Summer League, as a member of the Detroit Pistons' summer league squad, alongside former Gonzaga teammate Austin Daye. He also played in the Orlando Pro Summer League for the Orlando Magic's summer league squad. He did not secure a contract, however.  In his first professional year, Pargo played for Hapoel Gilboa Galil Elyon of the Israeli Basketball Super League, averaging 14.1 points, 2.9 rebounds, 4.5 assists, and 2.7 turnovers per game. He was a home crowd favorite because of his electrifying dunks over bigger defenders. He won the 2009-10 Israeli Super League championship.

2010–11 season.

In 2010, Pargo participated in the Orlando Pro Summer League for the Charlotte Bobcats, and then later in the Las Vegas NBA Summer League, as a member of the Minnesota Timberwolves. On August 26, 2010, Pargo replaced Mikhail Torrance, who was suffering from a heart condition, signing a one-year contract with EuroLeague giants Maccabi Tel Aviv. After a promising start, he emerged as one of the team's main players, especially after Doron Perkins's season-ending injury. He helped Maccabi to reach the EuroLeague Final, earning an All-EuroLeague Second Team selection in the process. His team lost in the EuroLeague Finals to Panathinaikos, by a score of 78–70.

2011–12 season.

On May 24, 2011, Pargo signed a new two-year contract extension with Maccabi. However, he broke the contract, and on December 10, 2011, he signed a two-year contract with the NBA's Memphis Grizzlies, with his successful EuroLeague season not having gone unnoticed.

2012–13 season.

On July 25, 2012, he was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers, along with a 2014 second round draft pick, in exchange for D. J. Kennedy.  On January 22, 2013, Pargo was waived by the Cavaliers.  On February 7, 2013, Pargo was signed to a ten-day contract by the Philadelphia 76ers. On February 18, 2013, Pargo was signed by the 76ers for the rest of the 2012–13 season. He was waived on April 1, 2013, when the team signed Justin Holiday.

2013–14 season.

In June 2013, he signed a two-year contract worth $5.2 million net income (€4 million) with the Russian club CSKA Moscow.

2014–15 season.

On July 24, 2014, Pargo and CSKA Moscow reached an agreement to part ways. Later that day, Pargo signed a two-year deal with his former club Maccabi Tel Aviv.

2015–16 season.

On July 4, 2015, he parted ways with Maccabi, signing with the Chinese club Zhejiang Lions for the 2015–16 CBA season. On April 27, 2016, Pargo joined the Italian club Reyer Venezia, for the remainder of the 2015–16 season.

2016–17 season.

In July 2016, Pargo signed with the Chinese club Shenzhen Leopards.

2017–18 season.

On December 12, 2017, Pargo signed with the Chinese club Nanjing Monkey King.  On February 26, 2018, Pargo joined the Santa Cruz Warriors of the NBA G League. One month later, Pargo signed with the Lebanese team Champville SC.  On April 25, 2018, Pargo returned for a third stint in Maccabi Tel Aviv, signing for the rest of the season. On May 17, 2018, Pargo recorded 26 points, scoring 20 points in the fourth quarter, along with four rebounds and four assists, leading Maccabi to a 98–95 win over Ironi Nes Ziona. He was subsequently named Israeli League Round 32 MVP. On June 8, 2018, Pargo was named 2018 Israeli League Quarterfinals MVP. Pargo made a key contribution to Maccabi's 2018 Israeli League Championship title.

2018–19 season.

On July 11, 2018, Pargo signed a one-year contract extension with Maccabi Tel Aviv. Pargo won the 2019 Israeli League Championship with Maccabi, winning the Israeli League title for two consecutive years.

2019–20 season.

On November 7, 2019, Pargo joined the Santa Cruz Warriors of the NBA G League for a second stint. He scored 37 points against the South Bay Lakers on December 10.  On February 8, 2020, Pargo signed a 10-day contract with the Golden State Warriors. In his debut the same day against the Lakers, Pargo appeared in an NBA game for the first time in six years, 316 days — the sixth-longest gap between game appearances in NBA history. Pargo posted 15 points in a 112-106 loss to the Phoenix Suns.

2020–21 season.

On June 3, 2020, Pargo signed with Hapoel Jerusalem.

The Basketball Tournament.

In the summer of 2017, Pargo played in The Basketball Tournament (TBT)—a single-elimination winner-take-all tournament—for team Few Good Men (Gonzaga alumni). He averaged 13.3 points per game (PPG) and helped take the team to the Super 16 round of TBT 2017, where they lost to Team Challenge ALS, 77–60. In TBT 2018, Pargo played for Overseas Elite, the three-time defending champion. In six games, he averaged 7.7 PPG, 3.3 assists per game and 2.3 rebounds per game. Overseas Elite reached the championship game and defeated Eberlein Drive, 70–58, for their fourth consecutive TBT title. In TBT 2019, Pargo and Overseas Elite advanced to the semifinals where they suffered their first-ever defeat, losing to Carmen's Crew, 71–66.

Jeremy Raymon Pargo (born March 17, 1986) is an American professional basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem of the Israeli Premier League. Standing at, he plays at the point guard position. In 2011 he reached the EuroLeague Final with Maccabi Tel Aviv, earning an All-EuroLeague Second Team selection in the process. He is the brother of Jannero Pargo, who also played in the NBA.


Early life.

Born on October 25, 1832, at Apple Creek in Perry County, Missouri, Kimmel was the second child of Joseph Singleton Husband Kimmel and Caroline Monica (née Manning) Kimmel. His father was a prosperous merchant and a member of the St. Louis City Council between 1840 and 1850, and his mother died during Kimmel's birth. Joseph Kimmel remarried four years later to Sarah Gorgas, and had three stepchildren.  He attended Princeton University, but was dismissed in his junior year, according to family legend, for organizing a protest meeting against a faculty warning against students using a local billiard-saloon. Kimmel then obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy, entering on July 1, 1853, and graduating with the Class of 1857 on July 1 of that year. He was ranked 22nd out of 38 cadets in his class.

Military service.

Frontier campaigns.

Kimmel was brevetted to Second Lieutenant after his graduation and sent to the Cavalry School of Practice at Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Receiving the full rank of Second Lieutenant on August 18, 1858, he was assigned to the 2nd Cavalry (later redesignated the 5th Cavalry Regiment), stationed in Texas. Kimmel served with the regiment in frontier operations against the Comanche tribe and Mexican outlaws for the next two years, and was promoted to First Lieutenant on April 1, 1861.  He was stationed at Camp Radziminski from 1858 to 1859 and in 1859 at Camp Cooper, serving in Earl Van Dorn's Wichita Expedition against the Comanches. On February 10, 1859, he became acting commander of G Company, 2nd Cavalry after its commander was put on trial for shooting and killing a soldier who disobeyed orders and its first lieutenant went on recruiting duty. On May 13, 1859, he fought in an action that became known as the Battle of Crooked Creek at the camp of Comanche leader Buffalo Hump, erroneously identified as the Nescutunga Valley. During the battle, Kimmel led a detachment of dismounted skirmishers from G Company.  From 1859 to 1860, Kimmel was stationed at Fort Inge, and in 1860 he participated in the regiment's march to Brownsville, from which they operated against Mexican guerrillas led by Juan Cortina in the Cortina Troubles until the outbreak of the Civil War. Kimmel and future Union cavalry commander George Stoneman led two companies from the regiment alongside Rip Ford's Texas Rangers in April 1860 when Ford made an incursion into Mexico at Reynosa, which was suspected of giving aid to Cortina.

Civil War.

At the beginning of the Civil War, the regiment was sent east to defend the capital via Indianola, Texas, and Carlisle, and fought in the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21, during which Kimmel was commended for gallant conduct. The 2nd Cavalry retreated to the Washington defenses, after which Kimmel resigned his commission on August 14, at the Galt House in Louisville, Kentucky, and joined the Confederate Army with the rank of Major. This made him one of the four West Point graduates to serve on both sides in the war, along with William T. Magruder, Donald C. Stith, and Richard K. Meade. Kimmel became adjutant-general on the staff of Brigadier-General Benjamin McCulloch, until the latter was killed on March 7, 1862 in the Battle of Pea Ridge. Kimmel then became the assistant adjutant-general on the staff of Major General Earl Van Dorn, McCulloch's superior. After Van Dorn was shot by an angry husband on May 7, 1863, Kimmel briefly was the Confederate adjutant-general of Missouri, and later became acting assistant and inspector-general on Major General John B. Magruder's staff, in which capacity he ended the war.

Later life.

After the end of the war, fearing reprisals like many Confederate veterans, Kimmel fled Houston on horseback to Mexico City and became a civil engineer there, working on the construction of the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz Railroad, before coming back to Cape Girardeau, Missouri in 1866. While in Mexico, he served as a mercenary for Maximilian I, according to contemporary letters Kimmel wrote to his close friend and fellow 2nd Cavalry officer Fitzhugh Lee. He married Sibbella Lambert on December 28, 1868, and moved to Henderson, Kentucky, in 1872, where he worked as a civil engineer and superintendent for the Saint Bernard Mining Company at St. Charles. Kimmel had seven children, including Husband E. Kimmel (born 1882), who went on to command the United States Pacific Fleet during the Pearl Harbor attack. He worked as a civil engineer until 1884, when he resigned from the company, and was a coal dealer and real estate agent from 1885. Kimmel lived in Henderson for the rest of his life, serving on its school board and city council. Kimmel died of a cerebral hemorrhage at his home on February 27, 1916, at age 83, and was buried in the city's Fernwood Cemetery. A state historical marker was later placed at his home in Henderson, at 512 North Green Street.

Manning Marius Kimmel (also known as Marius Manning Kimmel, October 25, 1832 February 27, 1916) was a military officer who served on both sides of the American Civil War. He entered the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1853 and graduated in 1857. After initially fighting for the Union, he switched sides to the Confederacy, one of four West Point graduates to fight on both sides during the war. In the Confederate Army, he served as adjutant general and assistant adjutant general on the staff of generals Benjamin McCulloch and Earl Van Dorn, and as inspector general on John Magruder's staff. He was the father of Admiral Husband E. Kimmel, who commanded the United States Pacific Fleet during the Attack on Pearl Harbor.


Background.

The song was written by Brown and Amber Streeter (of American R&B girl group RichGirl). The latter duo receive production credits on the track. In December 2010, Brown tweeted that he would be collaborating with Bieber. The song first appeared online on March 8, 2011. The song was one of three collaborations between Bieber and Brown in 2011, the others being a remix of "Up" from Bieber's "My World 2.0" album, which was included as a track on his "Never Say Never – The Remixes" set, and the single "Don't Check on Me" from Brown's 2019 album "Indigo". In an interview with MTV News, Brown revealed that the duo recorded the "Up" remix first, and Brown wanted Bieber on his album after their first collaboration.

Composition.

"Next to You" is a R&B and pop song. The song has lyrics about a relationship, but Eliot Glazer of MTV Buzzworthy said that the song also contained inspirational lyrics. It features "digitized" violins. According to the sheet music at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing, the song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 116 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of E major with Bieber and Brown's vocal ranges spanning from the low-note of G to the high-note of C. The song features the chord progression of E–B–Cm–A. Nadia Noir of WNOW-FM said the song was a hybrid of a "dance-jam" and "love-song." Furthermore, AOL Music's Charley Rogulewski called the song a "dreamy pop love song." The song sees Brown and Bieber trading verses and the chorus in lyrics like "I'll be there when you're insecure/ Let you know that you're always lovely/ Girl, because you are the only thing that I got right now."

Music video.

The music video for "Next to You" was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed at the Universal Studios in Los Angeles, and upper Manhattan. On May 10, 2011, Bieber's manager confirmed plans for a music video via Twitter. In an interview with MTV News, Tilley spoke briefly about the video, saying "Tomorrow, I'm shooting New Boyz and Chris Brown... then Justin Bieber and Chris Brown, together... I can't tell you anything about that yet, but it's going to happen. It's gonna be big. It's gonna be big. I can't say anything else." On May 21, 2011, Brown posted two photos from the shoot via Twitter, showing him and Bieber standing among overturned cars in a path of destruction. However, the unfinished version of the music video leaked onto the internet on June 6, and the final cut was premiered on June 17, 2011. The video begins with Brown and Bieber interacting with their girlfriends while the song "All Back" by Chris Brown is playing. Bieber's love interest is removed by her father, who reprimands, "You will never see him again. You understand that?" Brown is thinking of his girlfriend (played by Shannon Elizabeth) before the apocalypse occurs, which is characterized by land fissures, buildings toppling down and fiery scenery. Brown searches for his love interest who is then hit by the car that Bieber's girlfriend is in. Brown saves her by leaping over the fissure. Near the end of the video, Bieber's girlfriend finds him on top of the roof of a building and it ends with them reuniting and kissing. Interspersed are scenes of Brown and Bieber dancing amongst the destruction. Jamie Peck of MTV wrote of the video, "The whole thing is delightfully ridiculous in its cinematic drama". The video was nominated for International Artist Video of the Year at the 2012 MuchMusic Video Awards.

Critical reception.

Brad Wete of "Entertainment Weekly" coined the song as "thumping" and said that "Brown and guest Justin Bieber trade verses assuring their ladies of their dedication." Joanne Dorken of MTV News UK said "It seems that everything Justin Bieber touches turns to gold at the moment and this cutesy ballad is no exception." Dorken complimented how well the song showed the blending of the pair's voices, and she commented, as "the most 'pop' song on the LP, we are hoping Chris decides to make this a single... a sure fire hit." Nadia Noir of WNOW-FM wrote, "What do you get when you combine two of pop's best-looking/greatest dancers, the sexy rasp of Justin Bieber, and a dance-jam/love-song? A combination of all the best elements of music!" Nick Levine of BBC Music said the track was part of Brown's identity crisis on the album, as "Next to You" was just two tracks after the "grisly sex jam" of "Wet the Bed" featuring Ludacris. Levine called the collaboration a "wholesome-as-homemade-chutney hook-up." While complementing that the album had "something for everyone", Jody Rosen of "Rolling Stone" called "Next to You" a "puppy-love declaration." Bri LaPelusa called the song a "dreamy ballad" and said it melted Brown and Bieber's "angelic" voices. She went on to add that "Next to You" "might be affirmation that Chris Brown is once again an accepted celebrity."  Concerning the lyrics, Eliot Glazer of MTV Buzzworthy said "It ain't new, but it's still cute." Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine said Brown was unable to capture the "majesty of 'Forever'" with the song, noting it was "rendered limp by the undercurrent of sincerity." Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" wrote that the song does not compliment Brown's already weak voice, and called it "geniunely awful." Caramanica also commented that Bieber was "apparently not worried about the stain this collaboration might leave."

Chart performance.

Due to digital sales after the release of "F.A.M.E.", "Next to You" debuted on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 charts of the week ending April 9, 2011. The song debuted at number ten on the Hot Digital Songs chart in the US, and at number 26 on the Hot 100. The following week, the song fell to number ninety before falling off the chart the next week. On the Canadian Hot 100, it debuted at number 36, and spent one week on the chart.  In the United Kingdom, after the release of "F.A.M.E.", "Next to You" appeared at number forty-nine. It spent one week on the chart. After being released as a single, it appeared on the chart again and eventually peaked at number fourteen. The single was eventually certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of over 200,000 copies in the UK.  Source

"Next to You" is a song by American recording artist Chris Brown, included as a track on his fourth studio album, "F.A.M.E.", released on June 21, 2011. The song features Canadian singer Justin Bieber. Brown co-wrote the song with Sevyn Streeter of American girl group RichGirl. Brown first revealed plans to collaborate with Bieber in December 2010, and the track is one of three tracks they worked together on, the others being a remix of Bieber's "Up" (2011) and "Don't Check on Me" from Brown's 2019 album "Indigo".


Design.

The Datsun 14 was externally very similar to the preceding Datsun Type 13. The only notable difference was the addition of a leaping rabbit emblem. The brand Datsun is derived from the DAT car of 1914. The car's name was an acronym of the surnames of the following partners of, the company that produced it: Fortuitously, also means to "dash off like a startled rabbit or hare". Nissan decided to use this association to incorporate a rabbit into the design of the Datsun 14 and therefore Ryuichi Tomiya designed the leaping rabbit radiator mascot which became a defining characteristic of the type.  Mechanically, the old DAT engine of the Datsun 13 was replaced with the new Datsun Type 7 engine, a side valve 4 cylinder engine with a displacement of. The new engine was smaller, but more powerful, at. The engine drove the rear wheels through a three speed gearbox to give the car a top speed of.

Production.

The Datsun 14 was the first car that Nissan produced at their new plant in Yokohama. The factory utilised many tools and techniques imported from the United States and enabled the company to assemble both bodies and chassis in the same factory for the first time. The first vehicle rolled off the production line on 12 April 1935.

Production numbers.

A total of 3,800 Datsun 14 were produced between April 1935 and April 1936, of which 53 were exported. The car was similar in styling to the Austin 7, which greatly helped exports, initially to Australia and, in 1936, to New Zealand.

Datsun 14T.

Nissan produced the Datsun 14T commercial vehicle based on the Datsun 14 at the same factory during the same period. The truck had a front section identical to the 14, including the rabbit radiator mascot and chrome plated grille.

The Datsun Type 14 was a small car produced in Japan in the 1930s. It had a side valve engine and was offered in several body styles. According to Britain's National Motor Museum at Beaulieu, the Type 14 "marked the birth of the Japanese car industry."


Biographical information.

Education and academic career.

Michael Colacurcio studied at Xavier University (B.A., 1958; M.A., 1959) and the University of Illinois (Ph.D., 1963). He taught English literature at Cornell University from 1963 to 1976 (during the 1968-1969 academic year he taught at the Ohio State University). Since 1980, Colacurcio has taught in California, first at the University of California at Irvine, then at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he currently teaches in the Department of English.

Scholarship.

Colacurcio's main interest is American literature of the colonial and Romantic periods. While he has written extensively on such subjects as Puritanism, Herman Melville, and Ralph Waldo Emerson, he is perhaps best known for his scholarship on the work of Nathaniel Hawthorne.  In "The Province of Piety", Colacurcio argues against symbolist or psychologizing interpretations and maintains that Hawthorne's fiction ought to be understood primarily as historical literature, that is, as it reflects on the moral history of his native New England.  Hawthorne "possessed the mind of a modern intellectual historian," according to Colacurcio, who compares his subject to the American historian Perry Miller: "For like Miller, it may be suggested, Hawthorne carried on a life-long dialectic with the historical 'thesis' of American Puritanism; it was his 'flood subject,' exercising a tyranny that bent the mind and baffled choice." And as a writer of fiction, "Hawthorne had a nearly flawless sense of the way some "text" always comes between the observer and the origins he would observe, making the historian's own tale twice-told at its very most original."  Historian David Levin says, "Mr. Colacurcio's massive study, more powerfully than any other single work I know, advances our understanding of Hawthorne's development and practice as a historical writer," adding: "Whether or not we can read Hawthorne intelligently or profitably without knowing the history of colonial New England, Mr. Colacurcio proves that we will read Hawthorne more intelligently if we take the trouble to see the range and depth of his historical judgment." Literary critic Merton Sealts, Jr. notes that ""The Province of Piety" has significant interdisciplinary implications," and that, "future critics of Hawthorne cannot ignore the impressive argument of this book."  Colacurcio's "Doctrine and Difference" is a collection of writings that demonstrate the lasting influence of Puritan orthodoxy in the New England literary tradition, with essays on Jonathan Edwards, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emily Dickinson, and others.  His more recent book, "Godly Letters", a study of the Puritan tradition in American literature, is described by a reviewer in The New England Quarterly as "an illuminating and deeply searching compendium that embodies the culmination of a lifelong career in research and teaching."  In 2015, a Festschrift titled A Passion for Getting It Right: Essays and Appreciations in Honor of Michael J. Colacurcio’s 50 Years of Teaching was published in Colacurcio's honor. It includes contributions from former students and colleagues such as Andrew Delbanco and Eric J. Sundquist.

Honors.

Michael Colacurcio is the recipient of several distinguished teaching awards from both Cornell University and UCLA.  In 2007, Colacurcio was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in recognition of his contributions to his field.

Michael Joseph Colacurcio (born July 2, 1939) is a Distinguished Professor of English at UCLA. He specializes in American literature and literary history.


Form.

The rhyme scheme for the octave is typically ABBAABBA. The rhyme scheme means the last word of the line should rhyme with the pattern of ABBAABBA or other variants. The sestet is more flexible. Petrarch typically used CDECDE or CDCDCD for the sestet. Some other possibilities for the sestet include CDDCDD, CDDECE, or CDDCCD (as in Wordsworth's "Nuns Fret Not at Their Convent's Narrow Room" [a sonnet about sonnets]). This form was used in the earliest English sonnets by Wyatt and others. For background on the pre-English sonnet, see Robert Canary's web page, "The Continental Origins of the Sonnet". In a strict Petrarchan sonnet, the sestet does not end with a couplet (since this would tend to divide the sestet into a quatrain and a couplet). However, in Italian sonnets in English, this rule is not always observed, and CDDCEE and CDCDEE are also used. Additionally, the Crybin variant uses the rhyme scheme ABBA CDDC EFG EFG.  The octave and sestet have special functions in a Petrarchan sonnet. The octave's purpose is to introduce a problem, express a desire, reflect on reality, or otherwise present a situation that causes doubt or a conflict within the speaker's soul and inside an animal and object in the story. It usually does this by introducing the problem within its first quatrain (unified four-line section) and developing it in the second. The beginning of the sestet is known as the volta, and it introduces a pronounced change in tone in the sonnet; the change in rhyme scheme marks the turn. The sestet's purpose as a whole is to make a comment on the problem or to apply a solution to it. The pair are separate but usually used to reinforce a unified argument — they are often compared to two strands of thought organically converging into one argument, rather than a mechanical deduction. Moreover, Petrarch's own sonnets almost never had a rhyming couplet at the end as this would suggest logical deduction instead of the intended rational correlation of the form.  Poets adopting the Petrarchan sonnet form often adapt the form to their own ends to create various effects. These poets do not necessarily restrict themselves to the metrical or rhyme schemes of the traditional Petrarchan form; some use iambic hexameter, while others do not observe the octave-sestet division created by the traditional rhyme scheme. Whatever the changes made by poets exercising artistic license, no "proper" Italian sonnet has more than five different rhymes in it.  Sir Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey are both known for their translations of Petrarch's sonnets from Italian into English. While Surrey tended to use the English sonnet form in his own work, reserving the Petrarchan form for his translations of Petrarch, Wyatt made extensive use of the Italian sonnet form in the poems of his that were not translation and adaptation work. As a result, he is often credited for integrating the Petrarchan sonnet into English vernacular tradition.  The form also gave rise to an "anti-Petrarchan" convention which may have revealed the mistress to be ugly and unworthy. The convention was also mocked, or adopted for alternative persuasive means by many of the Inns of Court writers during the Renaissance.

Structure.

The sonnet is split in two groups: the "octave" or "octet" (of 8 lines) and the "sestet" (of 6 lines), for a total of 14 lines.  The octave (the first 8 lines) typically introduces the theme or problem using a rhyme scheme of ABBAABBA. The sestet (the last 6 lines) provides resolution for the poem and rhymes variously, but usually follows the schemes of CDECDE or CDCCDC.

Example of a Petrarchan sonnet: William Wordsworth's "London, 1802".

Octave - introduces the theme or problem  Sestet - solves the problem

The Petrarchan sonnet is a sonnet form not developed by Petrarch himself, but rather by a string of Renaissance poets. Because of the structure of Italian, the rhyme scheme of the Petrarchan sonnet is more easily fulfilled in that language than in English. The original Italian sonnet form divides the poem's fourteen lines into two parts, the first part being an octave and the second being a sestet.


Education.

Irvine was born in Inverness, Scotland, and educated at the fee-paying private school, Hutcheson's Grammar School in Glasgow.  Later Irvine read Scots law at the University of Glasgow and became involved in debating with the Glasgow University Dialectic Society and at the Glasgow University Union, where he befriended contemporary Labourites Donald Dewar and John Smith. After reading English law at Christ's College, Cambridge, he taught law briefly at the London School of Economics and was called to the Bar in 1967. In the late 1960s, Dewar's wife, Alison, left Dewar for Irvine. Irvine later stated that the two men had remained on speaking terms, contrary to reports of a rift. They later served in the same Cabinet. His first marriage ended in divorce, with his ex-wife subsequently moving to Canada.

Career.

Irvine joined chambers headed by Morris Finer QC (later as a judge, Sir Morris Finer). In 1970 he contested the Hendon North constituency as a Labour Party candidate. He became a QC in 1978 and head of chambers in 1981, on founding 11 King's Bench Walk Chambers. Among his pupil barristers were Tony Blair and Cherie Booth; at their wedding he dubbed himself "Cupid QC" for having introduced them. In the 1980s he became a Recorder, and then a Deputy High Court Judge.  He was a legal adviser to the Labour Party through the 1980s, and he was given a life peerage as Baron Irvine of Lairg, of Lairg in the District of Sutherland, on 25 March 1987. He was appointed as Lord Chancellor after Blair's election victory in 1997 after serving for five years as Shadow Lord Chancellor. Blair's predecessor as Labour leader, John Smith, had chosen Irvine as Shadow Lord Chancellor.  A highlight of Irvine's period in office was the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights into United Kingdom law. Irvine devised a measure to maintain the supremacy of Parliament while allowing judges to declare Acts of Parliament not to be in compliance with the Convention. He caused controversy by ditching part of the Lord Chancellor's traditional attire.  In addition to his traditional role of supervising the legal system, in 2001 he gained responsibility for a wide range of constitutional issues, including human rights and freedom of information.

Reputation.

Irvine regularly faced controversy as Lord Chancellor. Soon after his appointment in 1998, the Lord Chancellor's official residence in the Palace of Westminster was redecorated at a cost to the taxpayer of £650,000. Hand-printed wallpaper alone accounted for £59,000. Much of the criticism devolved on Irvine, despite responsibility for the renovations lying with the House of Lords authorities rather than Irvine himself. Contractors working on the renovations were forced to sign the Official Secrets Act to avoid revelations of the expenditure leaking out to the public. Irvine came under further criticism after saying that the expenditure was worth it because the redecorations wouldn't "collapse after a year" like products from B&Q, a well-known British D-I-Y store.  Early in 2003 he was awarded a pay rise of £22,691 as a result of a formula designed to keep his salary ahead of that of the Lord Chief Justice. After an outcry he accepted a more modest increase. Irvine became an object of ridicule after he provided a copy of a speech - initially given at a private event - in which he compared himself to Cardinal Wolsey, to a reporter from "The Times" newspaper. He was frequently thereafter drawn by political cartoonists wearing a Cardinal's hat and robes.

Removal.

After Blair dismissed him in June 2003, Lord Falconer of Thoroton was named his successor. At the same time, it was announced that the post of Lord Chancellor would be abolished. The plan to abolish the office was later abandoned, though it was partially reformed in the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, and is now used as a secondary title to the Secretary of State for Justice.

Alexander Andrew Mackay Irvine, Baron Irvine of Lairg (born 23 June 1940), known as Derry Irvine, is a Scottish lawyer, judge, and political figure who served as Lord Chancellor under his former pupil barrister, Tony Blair.


History.

The name "Braamfontein" dates from as early as 1853, when a farm with this name to the north-west of Randjeslaagte belonged to Gert Bezuidenhout. In that year he applied to the government to have his farm surveyed. In 1858, Gert sold his farm to F.J. Bezuidenhout.  Like many farms on the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein was subdivided early on, indicating a fairly dense population in the area. Two other Bezuidenhouts, Gerhardus Petrus and Cornelis Willem, each purchased one third of the farm in 1862, and a third part went to Frans Johannes van Dijk. Between 1862 and 1886 different portions were further subdivided.  Three other well-known owners were Johannes Jacobus Lindeque, who in 1884, bought a section where the Country Club was later established in 1906, and Frans Eduard and Louwrens Geldenhuys.  The first suburb established on the farm Braamfontein in 1888-1889 was unofficially named after the farm, as an official extension of the city of Johannesburg. This area is still called Braamfontein. There was, however, an earlier but unsuccessful effort to create a suburb prior to this.  On February 19, 1896, a freight train containing 56 tonnes of dynamite exploded in Braamfontein, killing 78 people.  During the apartheid era, large-scale commercial development in the area was encouraged. Until the middle of the 1980s an electric trolley-bus line traversed some of the area's roads. After the abolition of apartheid, the area began to deteriorate. However, intervention by both the city of Johannesburg and large corporate business, acting as the "Braamfontein Management District", initiated a process of urban renewal in this district. Urban renewal efforts and the establishment of the Braamfontein Management District by the Johannesburg Development Agency and property owners have prevented the district from decaying to the same extent as the Johannesburg CBD; however, considerable work remains to be done in order to restore the area's economic infrastructure to developed-country standards, eliminate dangerous and unsanitary buildings owned by the private sector, eliminate violent crime, reduce petty crime to tolerable levels, and prevent infringements of road traffic laws.  As of February 2018, the Hollard Group has commenced with refurbishing the area's iconic Rennie House building, named after the South African shipping magnate Thomas Rennie.

Braamfontein (English: "blackberry fountain"; also known as Braam) is a central suburb of Johannesburg, in South Africa, seat of the Constitutional Court of South Africa and some of South Africa's major corporations such as Liberty Holdings Limited, JD Group (part of Steinhoff Africa), Sappi, Bidvest (formerly Rennies) Bank and Hollard. Situated due north of the city centre, Braamfontein is the fourth-largest office node in the city of Johannesburg containing many multi-storied buildings representing various architectural styles including Art Deco and Brutalist. Numerous office buildings have and are in the process of being converted to residential apartments. The offices of the Johannesburg City Council and the University of the Witwatersrand are situated in Braamfontein. The Nelson Mandela Bridge is a landmark that connects Braamfontein to the city centre, traversing South Africa's most extensive passenger train marshalling yard. Jan Smuts Avenue and Empire Road are two major road thoroughfares that run through the suburb.


Plot.

Nick Gardenia (Chevy Chase), an out-of-luck writer, has the use of a friend's oceanside cabin in Big Sur, California. He is interrupted by a pair of bank robbers who use him to rob a bank in Carmel. Their M.O. is to take an innocent person, force them at gunpoint to rob a bank, and then take the money and toss their captive out of their car. Unfortunately for Nick (in one of Chase's signature pratfalls), he trips in the bank, is helped up and looks directly into a security camera.  The bank's picture of Nick comes to the attention of Los Angeles district attorney Ira Parks (Charles Grodin) when his assistant, Fred (Robert Guillaume), recognizes it to be Parks' wife's ex-husband. Because of his desire to become the state's attorney general, Ira is frustrated and upset, thinking this could harm his campaign.  Ira's wife, Glenda (Goldie Hawn), is a lawyer herself. A public defender, Glenda often tries to rehabilitate her clients by giving them odd jobs around their house, as with her chauffeur/butler Chester (T. K. Carter). After a long day in court, Glenda comes home to mixed news—joy for Ira's run for Attorney General and surprise when Ira gives her the news about Nick. She wants to defend Nick because of her disbelief that he would ever do such a thing.  The robbers ditch Nick and he desperately begins to make his way to Glenda and Ira's Brentwood home, inadvertently holding up a gas station attendant for candy bars along the way. During a party, Glenda, while searching for one of her dogs, finds Nick hiding in her garage. He begs for help and she tries to get him some food, despite most of the leaders of law enforcement being in her house. Nick explains what happened, but Glenda refuses to help unless he turns himself in. Glenda finally agrees to let him sleep in a guest room over the garage.  The next day Nick decides he wants to go after the guys who did this to him. After some comically close run-ins with the police, Ira, and her feisty maid, Aurora De La Hoya (Yvonne Wilder), Glenda manages to keep anyone from knowing Nick was there. He later robs Glenda of her car but then reappears over her garage, and another confrontation ensues between Ira and Glenda.  Ira soon discovers Nick was telling the truth about the two men who forced him to rob the bank. About to have the governor of California coming to the house for dinner, Glenda must deal with court cases, her maid having foot surgery (which could ruin the party without the governor's favorite dish), and Chester getting drunk in the kitchen. The party takes a hilarious turn when Nick, coming back to turn himself in, ends up serving dinner to the governor, Ira, Glenda, and Fred. The dinner ultimately ends in a fistfight between a jealous Ira and Nick, during which Fred is knocked out.  Nick, Glenda, Ira, Aurora, the dogs and the robbers ultimately end up in the courtroom of Glenda's favorite Judge John Channing (Harold Gould). While the judge is overwhelmed by the happenings in the Parks household, the police bring in the bank robbers. They admit Nick's innocence in exchange for a reduced sentence after getting caught by Aurora and the dogs when they attempted to force her to rob a bank, just like they had done with Nick.  After all is said and done, Nick is free, but he and Glenda still have unresolved feelings. She decides to stay with Ira and kisses Nick good-bye. Some time later, Ira and Glenda decide to take a car trip to forget the recent events. They end up in an accident trying to avoid a cow on the road. Ira breaks his leg, so Glenda has to go for help. She ends up at the only place around: a cabin with all the lights on. Glenda pounds on the door begging for help. The door opens and she discovers the cabin is Nick's.

Reception.

Roger Ebert, in a December 24, 1980 review, gave the film two stars out of four and wrote that although it made him "laugh out loud", the movie never "edged over the line of success". He said, "the good parts were good enough to hold out the promise for more. The movie is Neil Simon's attempt at one of those 1940s-style screwball comedies with lots of surprise entrances and hasty exits and people hiding under the bed. It would be hard to improve on the casting (Goldie Hawn, Chevy Chase and Charles Grodin). And there are a couple of really funny, sustained sequences." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" also awarded two stars out of four and called it a "limp comedy" with "only gag lines and no characters." Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" described the film as "Neil Simon in very funny form" and the cast as "extremely appealing," adding, "The material here is slick and entertaining, and Mr. Sandrich settles for comic simplicity without reaching for anything more. He coaxes the film along at a cheerfully breakneck rhythm."  Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that "if it gets a zero for innovation, it gets somewhere around 93 for the skill with which it delivers an old-fashioned slapstick farce. Like a Henny Youngman routine, it is funny partly because it tries so hard, in a stop-at-nothing-you-take-my-wife-please way, to be funny." "Variety" wrote that Sandrich "has relied basically upon Neil Simon's script, often funny but thin on development, to carry things. The result is a picture that is amusing on the surface but very typical in terms of its setups... Of course, none of the pic's drawbacks much matter thanks to the extremely engaging rapport between Chase and Hawn." Jack Kroll of "Newsweek" wrote that Simon's working on the models of old screwball comedies gave the movie "a breeziness most of his film writing has lacked. On the laugh meter this movie does well. Sandrich has a nice light touch, and his cast is excellent. Especially, of course, Goldie Hawn, the delightful comedienne who provides more pure pleasure than any other movie actress today."  The film was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor for Charles Grodin.

Inspiration.

According to Turner Classic Movies, Neil Simon was inspired by "The Talk of the Town". This 1942 comedy starred Cary Grant as a wrongfully accused man hiding out at the home of a beautiful woman, played by Jean Arthur, with Ronald Colman as the third member of the romantic triangle.

Seems Like Old Times is a 1980 American comedy film starring Chevy Chase, Goldie Hawn, and Charles Grodin, directed by Jay Sandrich and written by Neil Simon. It is the only film directed by Sandrich.


Early life, education, and pre-congressional career.

Born in Huntington Park, California on March 7, 1944, Gallegly attended California State University, Los Angeles but did not graduate. He worked as a real estate broker before entering politics. Gallegly is a former member of the Simi Valley, California City Council. He became Simi Valley's first elected mayor in 1982.

U.S. House of Representatives.

Elections.

In 1986, incumbent Republican U.S. Congresswoman Bobbi Fiedler decided to retire to run for the U.S. Senate. Gallegy won the primary with 50% of the vote. In the general election, he won with 68% of the vote. He won re-election in 1988 with 69% and in 1990 with 58%. In 1992, he defeated Democrat Anita Perez Ferguson 54%–41%. Since then, he won re-election with at least 58% of the vote, except in 2000. That year, he defeated Democrat Michael Case 54%–41%.  On March 10, 2006, Gallegly announced his intent to retire from the House of Representatives after the 2006 mid-term elections, citing health concerns. He had already filed nomination papers to seek another term, however, and attempted to have his name removed from the Republican primary ballot. California election law, though, makes it clear that a candidate's name can only be withdrawn in the case of their death and, as a result, that Gallegly's name would have to remain on the ballot. The following week, after learning that he could not have his name removed from the ballot and that no new challengers would be allowed to enter the race, Gallegly changed his mind and decided to seek what he said would be his final term. He won re-election with 62% of the vote.  Gallegly won re-election with 58% of the vote.  Gallegly won re-election with 60% of the vote.  The top 5 groups or industries that have contributed cash to Representative Gallegly's 2009/2010 campaign are: (1) Retirees: $39,484 (2) Real Estate: $35,578 (3) Lawyers/Law Firms: $29,374 (4) Pharmaceuticals: $22,500, and (5) Crop Production/Processing $20,179.

Tenure.

Gallegly's activism has focused on the issue of animal rights. Gallegly himself wrote a bill, enacted in 1999, which made it a federal crime to sell videos of dogfights and other depictions of animal violence, which enabled people to profit from animal cruelty. However, on April 20, 2010, the Supreme Court of the United States, in an 8-1 ruling written by Chief Justice John Roberts, overturned Gallegly's law on the ground that the law violated the First Amendment right to freedom of speech, and created a "criminal prohibition of alarming breadth."  In his defense, Gallegly argued that the bill he wrote contained "exceptions for religious, political, scientific, educational, journalistic, and artistic expression [that] may have provided too many loopholes within the legislation. Bob Stevens was convicted of committing animal cruelty as defined by the law, but claimed that his rights to free speech and artistic expression protected him against prosecution." Representative Gallegly objected to Stevens’ defense, claiming that the videos "promote violence and, as such, are not protected by the Constitution.".  In 2011, Gallegly voted for the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012.  Gallegly was a supporter of gifted and talented education, having introduced the Gifted and Talented Students Act of 1998 to provide funding for gifted education.

Personal life.

Gallegly is married to the former Janice Shrader and has four children. Gallegly is of partial Swiss descent.  A gallery has been named for him at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library. The Elton and Janice Gallegly Center for Public Service and Civic Engagement at California Lutheran University is a non-partisan center named in honor of Congressman Gallegly.

Countrywide financial loan.

In January 2012, it was reported that Gallegly received so-called "VIP" or "Friends of Angelo" loans from troubled mortgage lender Countrywide Financial, in which loans were granted at lower rates than were available to the public. Gallegly and names of other legislators were forwarded to the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, which begun an investigation into the issue. Gallegly denied knowing that he was part of Countrywide Financial's special loan program.

Elton William Gallegly (born March 7, 1944) is a former U.S. Representative, last serving, and previously the 23rd and 21st, serving in Congress from 1987 to 2013. He is a member of the Republican Party. He did not seek re-election in 2012.


Personal life.

His family was full of educators and many of them are Michigan graduates. One of his family members is former President James B. Angell (grandfather) and Professor Charles Horton Cooley (uncle). These men served a huge role in the upbringing of Robert and gave him role models to look up too. Professor Angell is prominently known for his career in the academic field and helping out many committees and Associations but he was extremely proud of his family. In December 1922 he married Esther Kennedy and shortly after had two children. Much of his free time consisted of hours at the tennis or squash courts and during the summer, he and his family would go spend time sailing on Barton Pond. A major turning point in Professor Angell’s life was when he made the decision to retire in 1969 but continued to teach and was a huge part in the introductory course at the University of Michigan. He was involved in many Associations, including the American Sociological Association, which he helped create materials for secondary schools in the Sociology Department

Early life.

Robert Cooley Angell attended high school at Detroit Central High and graduated in 1917. Tennis was one of professor Angell’s favorite things to do and he was extremely active in the athletic world. As an undergraduate, Angell was a member of the varsity tennis team for two years and served as a sports editor of the Daily. While he was an editor for the Daily, he attending many sporting events that only caused his love for sports to strengthen. One of his hobbies that Angell picked up later in life was the game of squash. He became quite good at the game and played many times in the winter, while in the warmer months stuck to tennis. Angell served in the Athletic Board where he helped make many key decisions for the expansion of the sports programs. Robert Cooley Angell received many years of education and is considered to be an extremely smart and influential person of his time. He started off his education at the University of Michigan where he got his undergraduate degree but was not sure of the path that he wanted to take. After he graduated in 1921, Angell went to Harvard Law School in hopes of getting a law degree from one of the most prestigious Universities in the World. After a semester at Harvard, Angell wanted to focus his activities and studies on one thing and found his love for Sociology. He then returned to Michigan in search for his master's degree and received it in 1922. His education was not done there and a couple more years were required to earn his Ph.D. He stayed at the University of Michigan and spent a couple years earning his Ph.D, which came in 1924.

Work.

Some of the academic history that Cooley had is the instructor in Sociology from 1922–1926, assistant professor of Sociology from 1926–1930, associate professor from 1930–1935, professor, 1935 chairman of the department of Sociology from 1940–1952, acting director social science department from 1949–1950, co-director of the center for research on conflict resolution from 1961–1965, and the director of the college honors program from 1957-1961 all at the University of Michigan. The courses that he taught at the University of Michigan included “Structure of American Society”, “Proseminar in Sociological Research”, “Seminar in Social Integration”, “Concepts of Sociology”. During Angell’s years while working on his Ph.D, he became a faculty member at the University of Michigan. He was an instructor in Sociology in 1922 and also at that time, worked as Assistant to the Dean of Students. He learned many great tools and knowledge of leadership in that role and helped him become more important in the University for the future. During this time, Angell was a member of the Faculty due to earning the rank of Assistant Professor in 1926. So after a couple years of hard work with his Ph.D and working at the University he became a full-time faculty member. In 1930 he was awarded the position of Associate Professor and by 1935, Angell became a Professor at the University of Michigan and taught many students Sociology throughout his time. During these long years as working his way to being a Professor, Angell served as a member of multiple University committees. Some of these committees included the Publications Board and the Athletic Board. These positions earned his experience and knowledge that helped him throughout his years as a professor. His love for sports was used while being a part of the Athletic Board where he made many decisions that have helped the Athletic programs  During the times between Associate Professor and Professor, Angell conducted research in family law at Columbia but took most of his leaves of absence to go international and observe foreign systems in operation. This took place in the years of 1928-1929 and due to the abundance of travel that was taken place in Angell’s life; people respected his knowledge for not just national work but all around the world. One of his major trips was to Germany where he spent three months doing research and observing during anti-Semitic riots and after the Munich Pact. This experience helped Angell return home to the U.S. determined to prevent anything like what happened in Germany to the United States. One of the major roles that Angell had at his time at the University of Michigan was the President of the Ann Arbor co-operative Society. He had a huge belief is finding solutions for many of the ills of modern society. His passion for this allowed him to learn so much about so many different ills and help many people out with their troubles.

Military service.

During the time of the World War, Professor Angell was in the middle of his academic career at the University of Michigan. In 1918, Angell entered the U.S. Army Air Service and received commission as 2nd Lieutenant in May 1919. That year, after serving in the Army, he returned to the University and graduated in 1921. Although being a part of the Army frightened Angell, being able to come back and get his degree was extremely important to him. Robert Cooley Angell earned a Bronze Star Medal in 1944 for serving his country.

Robert Cooley Angell (April 29, 1899 – May 12, 1984) was an American sociologist that is prominently known for his studies of individuals interacting in groups of people in a social environment. The groups included government units, families, the church, various businesses, and other associations.


Family life.

Anthony Jenkinson's father, William Jenkinson, was a man of great property and wealth. Anthony Jenkinson was thus trained in his earlier years for a mercantile career. By the year 1568, Jenkinson had become a pivotal researcher for the Muscovy Company. On 26 January 1568 Jenkinson married his wife Judith Marshe, daughter of John Marshe and his wife Alice. Marshe had extensive business ties, including being one of the founding members of the Company. Jenkinson thus benefited greatly through these financial ties. Jenkinson and his wife had six daughters and five sons, of whom only four daughters and a son survived. There exists speculation that Jenkinson had an illegitimate daughter, Anne Beck or Whateley, who may at one point have been engaged to be married to William Shakespeare. However, these claims are widely disregarded as mere speculation on the part of their originator, William Ross. By 1606 Jenkinson was living in a manor house in Ashton. His wife died before him from a bad case of palsy. Jenkinson was buried on 16 February 1611 at Holy Trinity Church in Teigh, Rutland.  Anthony's son Sir Robert was the father of the first of the Jenkinson Baronets of Hawkesbury, Gloucestershire.

Travels to Muscovy.

Jenkinson traveled to Muscovy several times during his life on behalf of the Muscovy Company.

First Expedition, 1558.

Jenkinson was in Moscow in the year 1558. He began his journey by traveling south down the Oka and Volga Rivers, passing through the Khanate of Kazan (conquered by Russia in 1552), and arrived at the town of Astrakhan, (conquered 1556). His party continued their journey south-east after traveling across the Caspian Sea to Serachik (Serakhs), where they joined a merchant caravan and traveled for several months across the Tatar lands of the Nogai Horde. They reached Bokhara after fighting off bandits in the desert, but found that though the routes to China and India were well known, they were impassable due to wars and banditry along the way. The hostility of the local authorities made their stay precarious, and ultimately they were forced to retrace their steps, leaving Bokhara only shortly before the army of Samarkand arrived to besiege it. After many more hardships, including having to completely re-rig the boat they had left on the Caspian (making their own sails, ropes and cables), they arrived back in Moscow in 1559, but could not travel back to England until the spring of 1560 opened the sea passages again. On this journey, however, Jenkinson did manage to make a map of some of the Russian and Tatar territories, though he fell into the common mistake of assuming the Aral Sea was a gulf of the Caspian. His map was incorporated into Ortelius' atlas "Theatrum orbis terrarum".

Second Expedition, 1561.

Upon his arrival back from his first expedition into Russia, Jenkinson immediately began to prepare for a second expedition there. His intent was to travel to Russia and continue through to Persia. He arrived in Moscow in August 1561, with the intent to talk trade terms with Ivan the Terrible. However, he was not capable of having an audience with him until March 1562. From there, Jenkinson traveled across Russia, down the Caspian and into Persia, where he reached the court of Shah Tahmasp, then at Qazvin, and managed to obtain preferential trading deals on behalf of the Muscovy Company. However, he found that the wider objective of breaking into the Indian Ocean trade was blocked by the Portuguese outpost at Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and the sale of English goods was limited by competition from the Venetians operating via the much shorter route from the Mediterranean through Syria. Also during this expedition, he made a great impression on Ivan the Terrible who granted a large extension of trading rights to the Muscovy Company. In his travels into Central Asia and Persia, Jenkinson had a relationship of mutual advantage with the Tsar, buying commodities on the Tsar's behalf, but also benefiting from Ivan's letters of credence, which had considerable weight with local powers in the aftermath of Russia's triumphs at Kazan and Astrakhan. In July 1564 Jenkinson returned to London.

Service off the coast of Scotland, 1565.

Jenkinson was sent in the "Ayde" to Scotland during the political crisis of the Chaseabout Raid. He sailed into the Firth of Forth on 25 September 1565. Jenkinson's mission was to blockade Leith to prevent Lord Seton landing munitions for Mary, Queen of Scots sent from France. An adverse wind brought him within range of the cannon of the fortress isle of Inchkeith. In the previous month, Lord Darnley had personally inspected the garrison and guns of the island.  Jenkinson had been ordered not to declare that he had been sent by the English government, and told the Scottish authorities that he was looking for pirates. Queen Mary sent aboard a present of a bow and arrows and a "box of conserve" for Queen Elizabeth and a gold chain and gilt cup for the captain, and he sailed back to Berwick-on-Tweed. Jenkinson's failure to blockade the Forth resulted in a dispute with the Earl of Bedford who was England's leading diplomat in Scottish affairs.

Third Expedition, 1566.

Jenkinson was sent to Russia for a third time in order to settle a dispute regarding the trade deals that England had made with Russia during Jenkinson's last voyage there in 1564. Upon his arrival, in a letter sent back to his friend, Jenkinson mentioned the cruelty that had swept over the Russian territories due to Ivan. In order to successfully negotiate the trade terms, Jenkinson was sent back to England. He was ordered to bring war experts to Russia to help Ivan with his wars. Due to this voyage, Jenkinson successfully negotiated new trade terms with the Russian monarch in September 1567.

Fourth Expedition, 1571.

In July 1571, Jenkinson was sent to Russia on his fourth and final expedition there. In 1568, Ivan had revoked the trading privileges that Jenkinson had successfully obtained in 1566. On behalf of Queen Elizabeth I, Jenkinson was sent to reinstate the trade agreement. After being held up at Kholmogory for six months due to plague, Jenkinson was finally able to arrive in Moscow by May 1572. During his voyage Jenkinson remarked on the devastation that the Crimean Tatars had committed upon parts of the country. By 23 July, Jenkinson had successfully reinstated all trading privileges with Ivan and Russia.

Writings.

Jenkinson's maps of Russia were incorporated into Ortelius' famous atlas "Theatrum orbis terrarum". Also, historians have mined many of Jenkinson's surviving personal letters, in which he describes Russia. Particularly, he makes mention of Ivan's terrible and atrocious form of rule. Also, Jenkinson's travel accounts were used in Richard Hakluyt's compendium of geographic, trade and exploration material "The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation".

Anthony Jenkinson (1529 – 1610/1611) was born at Market Harborough, Leicestershire. He was one of the first Englishmen to explore Muscovy and present-day Russia. Jenkinson was a traveller and explorer on behalf of the Muscovy Company and the English crown. He also met Ivan the Terrible several times during his trips to Moscow and Russia. He detailed the accounts of his travel through several written works over his life.