Taxonomy.

French ornithologist Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot described the banded stilt in 1816, classifying it in the avocet genus "Recurvirostra" and giving it the name "Recurvirostra leucocephala", "L'avocette a tete blanche" ("white-headed avocet"). He only recorded the species as being found in "terres australes", the meaning of which is unclear. Amateur ornithologist Gregory Mathews interpreted this as Victoria, while Erwin Stresemann concluded this was Rottnest Island in Western Australia. The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek words "leukos" "white", and "kephale" "head". French naturalist Georges Cuvier described it as "Recurvirostra orientalis" the same year. Belgian ornithologist Bernard du Bus de Gisignies described it as a new genus and species, "Leptorhynchus pectoralis", to the Royal Academy of Belgium in 1835.  English zoologist George Robert Gray placed the banded stilt in its own genus "Cladorhynchus" in 1840, noting that the name "Leptorhynchus" had been previously used. The genus name is from the Ancient Greek "klados" "twig" and "rhynchos" "bill". Likewise, German naturalist Johannes Gistel proposed the name "Timeta" to replace "Leptorhynchus" in 1848. John Gould had described the banded stilt as "Himantopus palmatus" in 1837, but recorded it as "Cladorhynchus pectoralis" in his 1865 work "Handbook to the Birds of Australia". Gould also wrote that its distribution was unclear after it was first recorded at Rottnest Island though not elsewhere in Western Australia, and later in South Australia, until large numbers were seen by the British explorer Charles Sturt at Lepson's Lake north of Cooper Creek in what is now western Queensland. German naturalist Ludwig Reichenbach placed it in a new genus, naming it "Xiphidiorhynchus pectoralis" in 1845. Australian ornithologist Fred Lawson gave it the name "Cladorhynchus australis" in 1904. Gregory Mathews in his 1913 "List of the Birds of Australia" synonymised all subsequent genus and species names, using "Cladorhynchus australis". He listed his subspecies "rottnesti" from 1913, though this has not been recognised since. Both Joseph G. Strauch in a 1978 study and Philip C. Chu in a 1995 re-analysis of bone and muscle characters found that the banded stilt was sister taxon to the avocets, with the stilts of the genus "Himantopus" an earlier offshoot. A 2004 study combining genetics and morphology reinforced its position as sister to the avocet lineage.  English naturalist John Latham gave the bird the name "oriental avocet" in 1824, after Cuvier's description. "Banded stilt" has been designated the official name by the International Ornithological Committee (IOC). Other common names include "Rottnest snipe" and "bishop snipe". The Ngarrindjeri people of the Lower Murray River region in South Australia knew it as "nilkani".

Description.

The banded stilt is long and weighs, with a wingspan of. Adults in breeding plumage are predominantly white with black wings and a broad well-demarcated u-shaped chestnut band across the breast. The central part of the base of the upper tail is tinted a pale grey-brown. The slender bill is black, relatively straight, and twice as long as the head. The irises are dark brown and the legs and feet are a dark red-pink. The wings are long and slim and have eleven primary flight feathers, with the tenth being the longest. In flight, the wings are mostly black when seen from above, but have a white trailing edge from the tips of the inner primaries. From underneath, the wings are predominantly white with dark tips. White feathers on the head and neck have pale grey bases, which are normally hidden. Non-breeding plumage is similar, but the chest band is less distinct and often diluted to an ashy brown or mottled with white. The legs are a paler- or orange-pink. There is no difference in plumage between the sexes, nor has any geographic variation been recorded.  Juvenile birds resemble adults but have a greyish forehead and lores, duller black wings, and lack the characteristic breast band. Adult plumage is attained in the second year. Their legs and feet are grey, becoming more blotched with pink until adulthood. Nestling banded stilts are covered in white down.  A distinctive bird, the banded stilt is hard to confuse with any other species; the white-headed stilt lacks the breast band, and the red-necked avocet has a chestnut head and neck, and a distinctly upcurved bill.  Adults make a barking call that has been written as "cow" or "chowk", sometimes with two syllables as "chowk-uk" or "chuk-uk". Birds also chatter softly and tunefully while nesting.

Distribution and habitat.

The banded stilt is generally found in southern Australia. In Western Australia, it is found predominantly in the southwestern corner, though can be as far north as the saltworks in Port Hedland. Breeding took place at Lake Ballard in the Goldfields-Esperance after heavy rainfall from Cyclone Bobby in 1995, and then again after flooding in 2014. In 1933 a large colony had been recorded at Lake Grace, but had succumbed to attack presumably by foxes. The banded stilt has been recorded in southeastern South Australia, as well as the drainage of the Lake Eyre system, and in Victoria west of Port Phillip and the Wimmera. In July 2010 Lake Torrens filled with water, resulting in the influx of around 150,000 banded stilts. The Natimuk-Douglas Wetlands in western Victoria are an important nesting ground for the species, though lower numbers come here if there is flooding elsewhere in southeastern Australia. In New South Wales, it is most commonly found in the Riverina and western parts of the state, and has reached southern Queensland and the Northern Territory, where it has been found at the sewage ponds at Alice Springs and Erldunda. It has been recorded as a vagrant to Tasmania, with significant numbers recorded in 1981.  The preferred habitats are large, shallow saline or hypersaline lakes, either inland or near the coast, including ephemeral salt lakes, salt works, lagoons, salt- or claypans and intertidal flats. The species is occasionally found in brackish or fresh water, including farm dams and sewage ponds.  The banded stilt is highly nomadic, having adapted to the unpredictable climate of Australia's arid interior. Sudden rainfall results in the influx of water to and filling of dry inland salt lakes. The stilts respond by travelling to these areas and breeding, dispersing and returning to the coast once the lakes begin to dry up. How banded stilts on the coast become aware of inland rainfall is unknown. The distances travelled can be large; two birds have been tracked travelling from a drying Lake Eyre in South Australia to a newly filled lake system in Western Australia over away. One of these birds veered northwest over the Gibson Desert, travelling a minimum of in 55.9 hours.

Behaviour.

The banded stilt is gregarious; birds are almost always encountered in groups, from small troops of tens of birds, to huge flocks numbering in the tens of thousands.

Breeding.

The breeding habits of the banded stilt were unknown until 1930, when a colony was discovered at Lake Grace. Even then they remained poorly known until 2012, when researcher Reece Pedler and colleagues attached tracking devices to 21 birds to gain an insight into the species' movements. They discovered that the birds travel large distances inland and gather at the recently filled bodies of water.  The majority of observed breeding events have occurred at inland salt lakes in South Australia and Western Australia immediately following freshwater inflows. An exception to this exists where some breeding was attempted at The Coorong during a time in which salinity in the Lower Lakes was significantly elevated due to reduced environmental flows down the Murray River. Breeding events are initiated by the filling of shallow inland lakes after rainfall and resultant explosion in numbers of food animals such as "Parartemia" brine shrimp. This can happen at any time of year. Breeding sites are generally on low islands, of 1–1.5 m (3–5 ft) elevation, or spits on or alongside large lakes, on clay or gravel and generally with sparse or no vegetation. The nests themselves are scrapes in the soil, up to across and deep, with or without some dead vegetation as lining. Birds on stony soils generally gather vegetation instead of digging scrapes.  Egg clutches number three to four (or rarely five) oval eggs, which vary from fawn to white marked with brown to black splotches. They can be long and wide. Incubation takes 19 to 21 days, with both sexes sharing duties, although the male takes over as sole incubator as the eggs hatch and immediately afterwards. This is thought to allow the females to lay and incubate a second brood if the water and food in the lake persists. Parent birds incubate for one to six days before swapping with the other parent. These intervals are much longer than other waders, and thought to be due to the remoteness of food—either the prey are blown to remote corners of the lakes by the wind or the lakes themselves have receded as they have dried. Parents almost always changeover incubating at night, generally within two hours of nightfall, presumably to avoid predators. On hot days with temperatures over, incubating birds may leave briefly to wet their brood patches to presumably cool the eggs or young. Birds on nests always face into the wind.  The nestlings are born covered in white down—unlike any other waders—and mobile with open eyes (precocial) and leave the nest soon after hatching (nidifugous). Adults lead the young birds to the water by the time they are two days old. Once in the water, they begin to feed on tiny crustaceans.

Nest predators and hazards.

Banded stilt colonies suffer greatly from predation by silver gulls ("Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae"), while wedge-tailed eagles ("Aquila audax"), white-bellied sea eagles ("Haliaeetus leucogaster"), spot-bellied eagle-owls ("Bubo nipalensis") and black falcons ("Falco subniger") also take stilts and young. Premature drying of the lakes leads to parents abandoning their eggs or nestlings, resulting in the deaths of many thousands of young.

Feeding.

The banded stilt forages by walking or swimming in shallow water, pecking, probing or scything into the water or mud. The bulk of its diet is made up of tiny crustaceans, including branchiopods, ostracods (seed shrimp), anostraca (fairy shrimp) such as "Artemia salina" and members of the genus "Parartemia", both genera of notostraca (tadpole shrimp), and isopods such as the genera "Deto" and "Haloniscus". They also eat molluscs, including both gastropods such as the land snail "Salinator fragilis" and members of the genus "Coxiella", and bivalves of the genus "Sphaericum", insects (such as bugs, beetles, flies and flying ants, which they glean from the water surface), and plants such as "Ruppia". Small fish such as hardyheads ("Craterocephalus" spp.) have also been reportedly eaten.

Status and conservation.

In 2016, the banded stilt was rated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species. This was on the basis of its large range—greater than 20,000 km (7700 mi)—and fluctuating rather than declining population. However, it is listed as Vulnerable under the South Australian "National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972". The listing was made after breeding attempts observed at Lake Eyre revealed heavy predation from silver gulls. The Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources has developed a strategy for managing silver gull predation at chosen banded stilt breeding sites by applying site-specific culling measures. Breeding events observed at ephemeral lakes in Western Australia have proven to be more successful without the need for intervention due to their remoteness.

The banded stilt ("Cladorhynchus leucocephalus") is a nomadic wader of the stilt and avocet family, Recurvirostridae, native to Australia. It belongs to the monotypic genus Cladorhynchus. It gets its name from the red-brown breast band found on breeding adults, though this is mottled or entirely absent in non-breeding adults and juveniles. Its remaining plumage is pied and the eyes are dark brown. Nestling banded stilts have white down, unlike any other species of wader.


Systematics.

The vegetarian finch is one of Darwin's finches, a group of closely related birds which evolved on the Galápagos Islands. The group is related to the "Tiaris" grassquits, which are found in South America and the Caribbean. An ancestral relative of those grassquits arrived on the Galápagos Islands some 2–3 million years ago, and the vegetarian finch is an early evolutionary radiation from that ancestor.  When Darwin first collected the species in 1835, he assumed it was a finch. John Gould, who formally described the vegetarian finch in 1837, agreed and assigned it to the genus "Fringilla". By 1841, Gould had changed his mind, and moved the species to the genus "Camarhynchus", lumping it with the ground and cactus finches. Robert Ridgway separated it from the other species in 1896, assigning it to a new genus "Platyspiza". DNA research has now shown that all Darwin's "finches" are actually tanagers.  The vegetarian finch is the sole member of the genus "Platyspiza", which some taxonomists still subsume into the genus "Camarhynchus". The genus name "Platyspiza" comes from the Greek "platus", meaning "broad" and "spiza", meaning "finch". The specific name "crassirostris" comes from the Latin "crassus", meaning "heavy" or "thick" and "rostris", meaning "-billed" ("rostrum" = bill). The "vegetarian" of its common name refers to its primary diet.

Description.

The vegetarian finch is one of the largest Galápagos finches, measuring in length and ranging from in mass. Its upright stance is described as "parrot-like". Its beak is broad and stout, with a strongly curved culmen. The male's upperparts are olive-colored while his underparts are whitish, with smudgy streaking on the lower breast and flanks; some birds show rufous on the underparts. His lower flanks and undertail coverts are buffy. He has a black hood, throat, breast and upper flanks. His iris is dark, and his bill is black in the breeding season and horn-colored during the rest of the year. The female is principally brown above and off-white below, with a buffy rump and flanks. She is streaked with brown on the face, crown, upperparts, throat, breast and flanks, and shows two indistinct buffy wingbars on her brown wings. Her beak is two-toned; the upper mandible ranges in color from dusky brown to black, while the lower mandible is dull orange or dull pink. The immature male is intermediate between the adult male and the adult female. While he shows blackish on his face and throat, he is more streaked below than is the adult male.

Voice.

The song of the vegetarian finch is nasal and drawn out, with each note lasting about two seconds. Transcribed as "ph'wheeeuuuuu-íííúúú", it is accented towards the end. The bird's primary call is high-pitched and squealing, said to resemble the sound of a radio tuner. It also gives a whiny "pheep".

Range and habitat.

Endemic to the Galápagos, the vegetarian finch is found on eight islands: San Cristóbal, Santa Cruz, Floreana, Isabela, Marchena, Santiago, Pinta and Fernandina. Although it was previously found on Pinzón and Santa Fé, the species is now extinct on both islands. It is found from above sea level. Although it is most common in montane evergreen forest, particularly the transition zone, its range also extends up into the humid zone and down into the arid zone.

Behavior.

Breeding.

Little is known about the breeding ecology of this species. It breeds primarily in the wet season, building a grassy domed nest with a side entrance. Courtship feeding is known to occur throughout courtship and incubation, with some pairs passing food items back and forth several times.

Feeding.

As its name suggests, the vegetarian finch is largely a plant-eater. It feeds primarily on buds, leaves, flowers and fruit, and will strip the bark off twigs to get to the cambium and phloem which lies underneath. Although it forages mainly in trees, it will descend to the ground to search for fallen fruits and young plant shoots. It also occasionally eats caterpillars. It feeds primarily at mid-levels, in what has been described as a "rather leisurely" manner. Because its principal food items are soft, the vegetarian finch has a beak morphology unlike those of Darwin's finches which specialize on hard seeds. Described as "parrot-like", the beak is small and stout, with a steep profile and a strong curve in the upper mandible. Its primary function is food manipulation at the tip, rather than seed crushing at the base. The vegetarian finch has a disproportionately large gizzard, as well as a long intestine and a disproportionately small heart. These allow it to process the "relatively indigestible" leaves and buds that make up a large proportion of its diet.

Conservation and threats.

Although the vegetarian finch is uncommon, it is widespread across the Galápagos Islands. Its numbers appear to be stable, though they have not been quantified. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature lists it as a species of Least Concern, as neither its population size nor its range size approach thresholds for concern. However, like all endemic wildlife on the Galápagos Islands, it is impacted by some human activities. Fires, overgrazing by domestic and feral animals, and the introduction of exotic species are among the most serious threats it faces. It is found in seven of the Important Bird Areas established on the islands.

The vegetarian finch ("Platyspiza crassirostris") is a species of bird in the Darwin's finch group of the tanager family Thraupidae. It is monotypic within the genus Platyspiza. It is endemic to the Galápagos Islands. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests.


Breed characteristics.

The Nokota horse has an angular frame with prominent withers, a sloped croup, and a low set tail. Members of the breed are often blue roan, which is a color rare in other breeds, although black and gray are also common. Less common colors include red roan, bay, chestnut, dun, grullo and palomino. Pinto patterns such as overo and sabino occur occasionally.  There are two general types of the Nokota horse. The first is the traditional Nokota, known by the registry as the National Park Traditional. They tend to be smaller, more refined, and closer in type to the Colonial Spanish Horse, and generally stand between high. The second type is known as the ranch-type or National Park Ranch, more closely resemble early "foundation type" Quarter Horses, and generally stand from. Members of the breed often exhibit an ambling gait, once known as the "Indian shuffle." Nokota horses are described as versatile and intelligent. Members of the breed have been used in endurance racing and western riding, and a few have been used in events such as fox hunting, dressage, three-day eventing and show jumping. Sources vary on the etymology of the breed's name, with one source stating that the Nokota derives its name from the Nakota people who inhabited North and South Dakota, while another says that the name was a combination of North Dakota created by the Kuntz brothers.

History.

The Nokota horse developed in the southwestern corner of North Dakota, in the Little Missouri River Badlands. Feral horses were first encountered by ranchers in the 19th century, and horses from domestic herds mingled with the original feral herds. Ranchers often crossbred local Indian ponies, Spanish horses from the southwest, and various draft, harness, Thoroughbred and stock horses to make hardy, useful ranch horses. Theodore Roosevelt, who ranched in the Little Missouri area between 1883 and 1886, wrote: In a great many —indeed in most— localities there are wild horses to be found, which, although invariably of domestic descent, being either themselves runaways from some ranch or Indian outfit, or else claiming such for their sires and dams, yet are quite as wild as the antelope on whose domain they have intruded.  In 1884, the HT Ranch, located near Medora, North Dakota, bought 60 mares from a herd of 250 Native American-bred horses originally confiscated from the Lakota leader Sitting Bull and sold at Fort Buford, North Dakota in 1881. Some of these mares were bred to the Thoroughbred racing stallion Lexington, also owned by the HT Ranch.  By the early 20th century, the feral horse herds became the target of local ranchers looking to limit grazing competition for their livestock. Many horses were rounded up, and either used as ranch horses, sold for slaughter, or shot. From the 1930s through the 1950s, federal and state agencies worked with ranchers to remove horses from western North Dakota. However, when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was established in the 1940s, during construction, a few bands of horses were accidentally enclosed within the Park fence, and by 1960 these bands were the last remaining feral horses in North Dakota. Nonetheless, the park sought to eliminate these horses. The National Park Service was declared exempt from the Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971 that covered free-roaming horses and burros on other federal lands. This allowed them to view the herds as nuisances and deal with them as such, including sending many to slaughter.  In the late 1970s, growing public opposition to the removal of feral horses prompted management strategy changes, and today the herds within the Theodore Roosevelt National Park are managed for the purposes of historical demonstration. However, in 1986 the park added outside bloodlines with the aim of modifying the appearance of the Nokota. Park management felt that the horses created with the outside bloodlines would sell better at subsequent auctions. The dominant herd stallions were removed and replaced with two feral stallions from Bureau of Land Management Mustang herds, a crossbred Shire stallion, a Quarter Horse stallion and an Arabian stallion. At the same time that the stallion replacements took place, many horses from the park were rounded up and sold. At the 1986 auction, concerned about the welfare of the Nokota horse, Leo and Frank Kuntz purchased 54 horses, including the dominant stallion, a blue roan. This was in addition to smaller numbers of horses purchased in 1981, 1991 and 1997. After researching the history of the breed, the Kuntzs stated that they had found evidence that the horses in the park were probably related to the remaining horses from the band of 250 Sitting Bull horses, who had been range-bred by the Marquis de Mores, who founded the town of Medora. However, the short-lived Nokota Horse Association claimed that there was no evidence for this claim.

1990s to today.

By 1993, the Kuntz brothers had a herd of 150 horses, including those purchased from the park over the course of several auctions and their descendants. They used the horses mainly for ranching and endurance races. In 1993, the Nokota was declared the Honorary State Equine of the state of North Dakota. In 1994, researchers conducted a study of the horses in the park and on the Kuntz's ranch, and discovered that none of the horses in the park, and only about 20 on the ranch, had characteristics consistent with the Colonial Spanish Horse. Since then, the horses on the Kuntz ranch have been bred to maintain and improve their Spanish characteristics. In 1999, the Kuntz brothers founded the Nokota Horse Conservancy to protect and conserve the Nokota horse. The Nokota Horse Conservancy tracks around 1,000 living and dead horses, and Nokota horses can be found throughout the United States. Theodore Roosevelt National Park has continued thinning the herd, with several roundups conducted throughout the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century. In 2000, the last horses to be considered of "traditional" Nokota type was removed from the wild, with some being purchased by supporters of the Nokota Horse Conservancy. The National Park Service currently maintains a herd of 70 to 110 horses. In 2006, the breed was chosen to be the beneficiary of Breyer Animal Creations' annual "Benefit Horse" Campaign for the following year; a Breyer model was created, manufactured, and marketed in 2007, with a portion of the proceeds going to the Nokota Horse Conservancy. As of 2006, the Kuntz family owned approximately 500 Nokota horses, with the Nokota Horse Conservancy owning an additional 40. At that point, there were less than 1,000 living Nokotas in the world.  The Nokota Horse Registry is the breed registry, organized by the Nokota Horse Conservancy. There was briefly a second registry: a Minnesota-based organization called the Nokota Horse Association. In October 2009, the two registries disputed which had the right to the Nokota breed name, with the Association claiming that they own the legal trademark to the name. The Registry sued, contending that they created the name and had a longer history with the breed. A US District Court ordered that the Association cease registering horses until the matter was settled, and the association disappeared from public view soon after. In the fall of 2009, another organization, the North Dakota Badlands Horse Registry, was created. This organization registers horses that have been removed from the park in recent years, stating that these horses are not accepted by the Nokota Horse Registry. As of March 2011, approximately 40 horses had been registered. These horses tend to be of a slightly different phenotype and genotype than the horses registered by the Nokota Horse Registry due to the additional blood from different breeds released into the park.

The Nokota horse is a feral and semi-feral horse breed located in the badlands of southwestern North Dakota in the United States. The breed developed in the 19th century from foundation bloodstock consisting of ranch-bred horses produced from the horses of local Native Americans mixed with Spanish horses, Thoroughbreds, harness horses and related breeds. The Nokota was almost wiped out during the early 20th century when ranchers, in cooperation with state and federal agencies, worked together to reduce competition for livestock grazing. However, when Theodore Roosevelt National Park was created in the 1940s, a few bands were inadvertently trapped inside, and thus were preserved.


716th Static Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)

Divisional history.

The 716.Infanterie-Divisionen was mobilized for occupation duties in the 15.Welle (Wave) Replacement Army on 02 May 1941, at WKr VI. Munster. After formation in Bielefeld, and transfer to Occupied France, it was assigned to AOK 15 in June 1941 and employed at Saint-Lo, and Soissons. It was transferred to AOK 7 in June 1942 and relocated to Normandy, with duties including coastal defence, air raid protection and defensive fortification construction. After short movements to Amiens and Brussels, when returned amongst the divisions in Normandy; few were as weak as the Inf-Div 716., it having no combat experience.  On D-Day, The Division was responsible for Küsten Verteidigung Abschnitt - Divisional Coastal Defensive Section: 7 KVA ‘H1’ - KVA Caen. Having the task of defeating landings it manned an extended line of defensible posts, along its assigned 47 km of Normandy Coast, and deployed all other unit resources then available above the Basse Normandie: Calvados-Baie de Seine Coastal Plain. Fighting with additionally allocated LXXXIV Korps resources, the tactical situation and the terrain saw the Division'split' across two Regimental Coastal Defensive Sections: Küsten Verteidigungs Gruppe Courseulles and Küsten Verteidigungs Gruppe Riva-Bella. To the west, K.V.-Gruppe Courseulles commanded all Divisional troops from Asnelles to Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer, seeing it attempt to defeat landings at Gold Beach and Juno Beach. In the east up to the AOK 7 / AOK 15 Boundary, K.V.-Gruppe Riva-Bella commanded the tactical situation from Langrune-sur-Mer to Le Home Varaville, becoming responsible to defeat landings at Sword Beach and by the British 6th Airborne Division; astride the River Orne.  During the fighting after D-Day, the division fought defensively around Caen and Villers-Bocage. According to the commanding officer, "Generalleutnant" Wilhelm Richter, ""My division had been defeated and badly beaten up in Normandy"". The division was removed from frontline duty on July 10, 1944, and was able to avoid the carnage of the Falaise Pocket. Redeployed to the southern France, the division took up coastal security positions in the region of Salses-Perpignan-Elne, close to the Spanish border. Thereafter, the division was ordered to withdraw on August 19, 1944, and retreated through Languedoc to the region around Lyon. After this movement the division was engaged by the French resistance before later arriving in the area of Sélestat in Alsace.  In October 1944, the 716th Infantry Division was in the region of Oberrhein (near Colmar) where it fought at Neunkirch-Obenhein and was nearly wiped out in heavy fighting in January 1945. The remains of the division was reconstituted as the 716th Volksgrenadier Division in April 1945 before surrendering to American troops at Kempten in May 1945.

Order of battle.

The 716th's complement when raised in 1941 was:  The 716th's complement during the June 1944 Normandy Campaign consisted of:

The 716th Static Infantry Division (German: "716. Infanterie-Division") was a World War II, German Army infantry division. It was raised on May 2, 1941, and sent to German-occupied France in June 1941. Many of the division's troops were elderly Germans and conscripts from other German occupied countries, especially Ukrainians. As a "bodenständig" (Static Unit) it was not equipped with the standard configuration of vehicles and heavy weapons. Much of the division's artillery and anti-tank guns were from captured armaments.


Plot.

In Scotland, 994 A.D., Castle Wyvern is under attack by Vikings, led by the ruthless Hakon (Clancy Brown). The resident warriors struggle to repel the attack until the sun sets, where at night, the seemingly lifeless stone gargoyle statues awaken, revealing themselves to be real living gargoyles. Led by Goliath (Keith David), the powerful gargoyle clan subsequently defends the castle and successfully forces the Vikings to retreat. The human captain of the guard sees them as heroes, but their heroism does nothing to earn appreciation from Princess Katherine (Kath Soucie), the court wizard Magus (Jeff Bennet), or the other human residents, most of whom still see them as monsters and treat them with prejudice. Goliath's lover (Marina Sirtis) and the Captain (Ed Gilbert) argue that the gargoyles deserve more praise and dignity, especially since the castle is built on top of the land that originally belonged to the gargoyles, but Goliath adamantly insists that they must endure being misunderstood and protect the castle and all of its residents. The Captain urges Goliath to take his clan away from the castle the following night, but Goliath remains determined to protect the castle.  Meanwhile, three youthful gargoyles (Thom Adcox-Hernandez, Jeff Bennet, and Bill Fagerbakke) and their dog-like gargoyle hound (Frank Welker) are unfairly harassed by a paranoid mother in the courtyard, and despite their efforts to appease, they are forced to frighten their harassers to defend themselves. Goliath subsequently reprimands them for threatening the humans and orders them to remain in their nesting caverns where the clan's eggs are resting. Goliath and his older gargoyle mentor (Edward Asner) then proceed to chase after the Vikings but realize they were led into a diversion. Unable to return to the castle in time, the sun rises, forcing them back into stone sleep.  The castle is once again attacked by Hakon and the Vikings. But the captain of the guard, disgusted by the scorn and prejudice of his people against the gargoyles, betrays the castle and Princess Katherine to the Vikings, and the battle is lost during the day. Although he wants to leave the castle to the gargoyles, he fails to convince Hakon that the Gargoyles won't chase after them. He watches as Hakon destroyed the gargoyles while they are helpless in their stone sleep, due to him failing to convince Goliath to leave the castle with his clan the previous night.  That night, Goliath and his mentor return home to find the castle in ruins, the inhabitants gone, and most of his gargoyle brothers and sisters in rubble. Only the three gargoyle youths and their hound have survived due to Goliath previously sending them into the caverns. Enraged at the murder of their siblings and Goliath's mate, the surviving Gargoyles pursue the Vikings.  Far from the castle, the Vikings set up camp with Princess Katherine, Magus, and the other townspeople as their captives. With nowhere else to go to, having betrayed his people, the Captain remains with the Vikings, and Hakon taunts Magus by passively burning pages from his magic book of spells, the Grimorum Arcanorum. When the surviving gargoyles arrive to free the people, Hakon and the Captain flee with Princess Katherine, leaving Magus behind. Goliath pursues them, while the other gargoyles defeat the Vikings. Although the townspeople are saved, Magus is enraged that the gargoyles' arrival may have caused Katherine's death at Hakon's hands, and so he casts a curse on them.  Goliath catches up with Hakon, the Captain, and Katherine, and confronts the Captain for his treachery. When Hakon blames the slaughter of Goliath's siblings on the Captain, the Captain angrily attacks him and they both fall off a cliff to their deaths, while Goliath manages to save and free Katherine. But when he returns, he finds the remaining members of his clan in stone sleep, unable to wake even at night. Realizing that Katherine is alive and well, Magus realizes his grave mistake, and because the pages from the Grimorum Arcanorum needed to break the spell were burned, the gargoyle clan will remain cursed in stone sleep until "the castle rises above the clouds". Grief-stricken and alone, Goliath leaves his clan's eggs in the care of the guilt-ridden Katherine and Magus, and requests Magus to cast his spell on him, so that he can remain with his clan and share their fate.  A thousand years later, in 1994, opportunistic billionaire David Xanatos (Johnathan Frakes) claims the long abandoned Castle Wyvern and has it reconstructed at the top of his skyscraper in New York City, along with the sleeping gargoyles. Goliath finally awakens and happily reunites with his clan, but they are shocked to awaken in a completely different world in the late-20th century. Xanatos explains that he recovered and translated the Grimorum Arcanorum, and followed its instructions to awaken the gargoyles, written by Magus, and approaches them as a friend. Not long after their awakening, the castle is suddenly attacked by a group of armed commandos from a helicopter. The gargoyles defend the castle against the attackers until they flee.  The fight results in falling debris and damages to the streets below, causing police detective Elisa Maza (Salli Richardson) to climb up to the castle to investigate the battle. She discovers Goliath and the gargoyles, but they manage to hesitantly befriend each other. The gargoyles decide to name themselves after various locations in New York and explore their new surroundings. The elder mentor names himself Hudson, while the young trio name themselves Brooklyn, Lexington, and Broadway, and their hound is named Bronx.  Meanwhile, Xanatos reunites Goliath with his mate, who reveals herself to have survived the massacre of their clan and survived until the modern time, and the two lovers happily reunite. Having earned their trust, Xanatos convinces the clan to help steal back important data discs that were supposedly stolen from him during the commando attack.  After they successfully return from their mission, Elisa goes to speak with Goliath in private about the theft. They are suddenly attacked by the same commandos from before but manage to survive the attack through the night, and Elisa defends the sleeping Goliath during the day. Elisa investigates the theft and reveals to Goliath that the commandos were employed by Xanatos, and that Xanatos has been manipulating Goliath.  No longer needing the gargoyles, Xanatos sets his clan of robotic steel gargoyles to destroy them, but the real gargoyles manage to fight back and destroy the unintelligent robots. Xanatos and Goliath's mate reveal their true colors to the gargoyles and attack them armed with powerful laser guns. Goliath's lover reveals that her name is Demona, and that she is conspiring with Xanatos. She also reveals that a thousand years ago, before their clan was massacred by the Vikings, she conspired with the Captain of the guard to betray Princess Katherine and the townspeople so that the gargoyles could have the castle all to themselves, as the castle was built on their land and was rightfully theirs to begin with. But after many betrayals and deaths of their kind, she now hates all of humanity and considers the human race as their enemies. Goliath and the rest of the clan reject her desire to fight against the human race, and so she decides that Goliath is also her enemy and decides to kill him. As Demona is about to shoot Goliath, Elisa arrives just in time to intervene and tackles Demona causing her to accidentally fire her laser weapon at the castle, destroying a portion of it. Demona and Elisa fall from the collapsing castle ledge, but Goliath catches and saves Elisa, while Demona continues to fall to her apparent death.  Enraged at this loss, Goliath attempts to kill Xanatos until Elisa convinces him not to, claiming that if he does he would be no morally better than Demona. Xanatos is arrested for possession of stolen property and the few surviving gargoyles now accept their new lives in their new home in New York, with Elisa now their friend and confidante.

Reception.

"TV Guide" rated the film 2/4 stars. The reviewer called the art "acceptable" but said the style owes a debt to "".

Gargoyles the Movie: The Heroes Awaken is a direct-to-video animated film from The Walt Disney Company. The film is actually the five-episode pilot ("Awakening") of the animated television series "Gargoyles" edited into one long feature film, approximately 100 minutes in length. As a result, numerous scenes from the original broadcast episodes were cut due to time constraints. In addition, a number of scenes were also moved around and some dialogue was changed. The episodes were produced and aired in 1994, and the film was released to laserdisc and VHS in February 1995 and featured an interactive VHS/LD board game. The pilot episodes have been released to DVD as part of "Gargoyles": Season 1.


Macedonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007

Before Eurovision.

Skopje Fest 2007.

In late 2006, MRT announced that Skopje Fest would return as the selection method for the 2007 Contest.

Competing entries.

A submission period was opened for composers to submit their entries. MRT received 150 submissions during the submission period, with MRT selecting the performer for each selected entry. The twelve competing artists and songs were announced on 6 January 2007. On 24 January 2007, MRT announced an additional three wildcard finalists, as well as changes to the initial list of participants.

Final.

The final took place on 24 February 2007 at the Universal Hall in Skopje, hosted by Milanka Rašić, Živkica Gjurčinovska and Igor Džambazov. Fifteen songs competed with the winner being selected by a regional televote from 12 districts across Macedonia. At the conclusion of the voting, Karolina Gočeva and the song "Mojot svet" was selected as the winner, receiving top marks (12 points) from all twelve voting districts.  In addition to the performances of the competing entries, the show also featured guest performances by the "Rebis" Ballet, 2006 Macedonian entrant Elena Risteska, 2005 Croatian entrant Boris Novković and 2007 Belarusian entrant Dmitry Koldun.

At Eurovision.

Prior to the contest, Gočeva embarked on a promo tour to Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia. In addition to visiting the Balkan region, Karolina held a pre-contest concert at the Metropolis Arena in Skopje. "Mojot svet" underwent language changes for the contest with the majority of the song being performed in its original Macedonian language version and the final chorus of the song being performed in English.  Because Macedonia placed 12th at the 2006 contest,Karolina was forced to compete in the semi-final. Macedonia competed in the semi-final of the 2007 Contest on 10 May 2007 performing 18th, following Portugal and preceding the Norway. Macedonia qualified to the final, placing 9th in the semi-final and scoring 97 points. In the final, Macedonia performed 6th, following Finland and preceding the Slovenia. Macedonia placed 14th in the final, scoring 73 points.

Points awarded by Macedonia.

Semi-final.

Points awarded in semi-final:

Final.

Points awarded in the final:

See also.

Macedonia participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland. The Macedonian entry was selected through a national selection, "Skopje Fest 2007", organised by the Macedonian broadcaster Macedonian Radio-Television (MRT). Karolina Gočeva represented Macedonia with the song "Mojot svet", which qualified from the competition's semi-final and placed 14th in the final, scoring 73 points. Gočeva previously represented Macedonia at the Eurovision Song Contest 2002.


Career.

Born in Meerssen, Limburg, Meijer started his career at Fortuna Sittard (1987–89). He broke through in the early 1990s at Dutch Eredivisie club MVV Maastricht and was transferred to PSV Eindhoven in 1994, where he did not play much due to competition by team mates Ronaldo, Luc Nilis and Wim Kieft.  He then moved to German Bundesliga struggler KFC Uerdingen 05 in 1995, where he was one of the few bright spots in a hapless squad, and was picked up by Bayer 04 Leverkusen. There, he was paired up with Ulf Kirsten and formed one of the most intimidating striker duos of the Bundesliga.  After successful years, Meijer moved to Liverpool F.C. in 1999, where he failed to make an impression next to Michael Owen and Robbie Fowler. He was therefore loaned out to Preston North End for one season. He returned to the Bundesliga and joined Hamburger SV in December 2000. Meijer scored two goals in his time at Anfield, both coming in a League Cup tie against Hull City. He joined Liverpool fans in Dortmund prior to the 2000–01 UEFA Cup, where he drank and sang with Reds fans. Despite playing a limited number of games for Liverpool, Meijer was voted 99th in the fan-based poll, 100 Players Who Shook The Kop.  But it was only after moving to 2. Bundesliga club Alemannia Aachen, in 2003, where he finally regained success. In the autumn of his career, his strong play and dressing room presence propelled Aachen into the DFB-Pokal finals in 2003–04, losing to Werder Bremen, but earning a ticket into the UEFA Cup (as Bremen were German champions) and rejuvenating Alemannia financially. He was also named captain for the first time in his career. Meijer also was essential for Aachen's promotion into the Bundesliga after 36 years, in 2005–06.  Meijer ended his career that summer, stating he wanted to finish in style after this last big success.

International career.

Meijer earned his sole cap for the Netherlands during a 6–0 win against San Marino in 1993.

Coaching career.

He took on a post in the management of Alemannia Aachen. But after a very short time he was appointed assistant coach of the newly arrived Bundesliga team, working with Michael Frontzeck, who succeeded Dieter Hecking in September 2006. On 14 December 2009 was named as the new director of sport by his former club Alemannia Aachen and signed a contract between 30 June 2011. He is a patron of A.F.C. Liverpool, a club run by the fans of Liverpool F.C..

Erik Meijer (born 2 August 1969) is a retired Dutch footballer. Standing at, he was known as a header specialist.


Characterization.

Despite living in Newport and marrying a "Newpsie", it becomes apparent that Sandy does not consider himself to be "one of them". His blue-collar, single-parent-upbringing in The Bronx contrasts with that of his wife Kirsten. Like long-time next door neighbor Julie Cooper, he was not raised in the affluent Newport lifestyle but unlike Julie, he generally disassociates himself from his counterparts. He usually does not fail to make known his distaste for the shallow, materialistic and pampered ways of his contemporaries who were born and bred in that lifestyle, even going so far as to describe Harbor School teachers as "preppy little savages" and calling the housewives' social gatherings "Newpsie Conventions".  As the more easy-going parent, Sandy's "hippie parenting" sometimes clashed with Kirsten's more strict and firm style. He prefers to let his children learn the error of their ways by experiencing the consequences themselves.

Character arc.

Season 1.

Sandy has a mainly stable relationship with Kirsten and Seth, albeit with the occasional problem surfacing. Unresolved issues of trust and jealousy rise to the surface with regards to Kirsten's former childhood sweetheart, Jimmy Cooper, who is also their next-door neighbor in Season 1.  He leaves the Public Defender's Office to go into private practice at Patridge, Savage and Khan, along with his former colleague from the District Attorney's office, Rachel Hoffman. She causes tension between Sandy and Kirsten when Kirsten finds Sandy enjoying a drink with Rachel one night while he was supposed to be at a meeting. Later on, Sandy and Rachel get involved in a case against Caleb's company, the Newport Group. Both were accused by Caleb of having an affair because they had been spending a lot of time together and working very late. Not long afterwards, when Rachel and Sandy were working late in her apartment, she indeed makes a play for him, but he rejects her advances. He and Kirsten then attempt to set her up with the newly divorced Jimmy, to no avail.

Season 2.

Rebecca Bloom, an old flame of Sandy's, came back into their lives, causing difficulties between him and Kirsten. This contributed towards her growing alcohol problem, and the distance between her and Sandy caused her to almost have an affair with a magazine editor, Carter Buckley, although he left before anything happened. This came to a head when Kirsten's father, Caleb Nichol, died which caused Kirsten's drinking problem to run out of control, forcing the entire Cohen family (including Ryan) and Kirsten's sister Hailey to stage an intervention and put her in rehab.

Season 3.

He has had many new problems with the underhanded nature of business in the real estate world in his new job as CEO of the Newport Group. This once again has caused a strain on his home life, although the season three finale saw him making the decision to return to being a public defender after revisiting his old office and seeing what it was like.

Season 4.

In the fourth season, Sandy helps Ryan sort things out with Kevin Volchok, who was responsible for the death of Marissa and he was also the one who talks Ryan into helping Taylor, who was in the middle of a divorce from her French husband, Henri-Michel.  Later in the season, Sandy bumps into a man at the New Year's Eve party and investigates further. The man is revealed to be Ryan's father, Frank Atwood, whom Sandy meets. Frank wants to see Ryan, so Sandy tells Ryan who refuses. Frank tells Sandy that he has cancer so Kirsten invites him to dinner but Sandy is suspicious. It is later revealed Frank lied in a last-ditch attempt to see Ryan, prompting Sandy to punch him in front of everyone.  Sandy helps in the preparation for Kirsten's fortieth birthday. He finds a mail truck, exactly the same model as the one that both of them lived in Berkeley, while his real present to her was two first-class tickets around the world. When he tells a stunned Kirsten, she announces that she is having a baby. After an earthquake hits Newport Beach, Sandy finds Kirsten on the ground, and tries to help her up, but had difficulties because of the falling objects around them. At the hospital, Sandy and Kirsten discover that they are going to have a daughter.

Series finale.

Six months later, he and Kirsten move to Berkeley; back to the house where they had Seth. It is in this house that Seth and Ryan's sister, Sophie Rose, starts her life. In the flashforward set five years later, Sandy is now a law professor at UC Berkeley.

Creation and characterization.

The character is based on the show's creator Josh Schwartz who told: "The dynamic between Sandy and Seth is very much based on me and my dad. He said about Sandy: "He is never a man who can refuse to help someone."

Reception.

In 2004, "TV Guide" ranked Sandy number 25 on its 50 Greatest TV Dads of All Time list. BuddyTV ranked him number 7 on its of the "15 Hottest TV Dads". AOL TV placed him in its Top 20 TV Dads.

Sanford "Sandy" Cohen is a fictional character and the main protagonist on the FOX series "The O.C.", portrayed by Peter Gallagher.


Club career.

Benítez was born in Santísima Trinidad (Asunción). After playing for modest clubs in his country he arrived in Spain at the age of 23, purchased by Atlético Madrid, but appeared very rarely for the "Colchoneros", being often demoted to its reserves and also being loaned twice, notably to CP Mérida which he helped promote from the second division by scoring a team-best ten goals in only five months.  Released by Atlético in the 1995 summer, Benítez signed with fellow La Liga side RCD Espanyol, going on to experience his best years: alternating between the starting XI and the bench, he amassed 166 competitive appearances for the Catalans, helping them to the 2000 conquest of the Copa del Rey.  Already in his 30s and dealing with some injuries, Benítez left Espanyol in January 2002, returning to his country and signing with Asunción's Club Olimpia. In his first year with Olimpia he helped the team to win Copa Libertadores, and the following season he won Recopa Sudamericana. In the years until his retirement he appeared for several clubs, and also returned to Spain, playing with UD Almería in the second level.  Benítez started his coaching career in 2008, taking charge of lowly Club Silvio Pettirossi as it was experiencing its first season in the Primera División – short-lived, as the side dropped down two tiers in as many years.

International career.

Courtesy of his solid Espanyol performances, Benítez gained all of his 30 caps for the Paraguayan national team. He was selected for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, playing in all four matches as the country reached the round-of-16 and netting in the 3–1 group stage win over Nigeria.  Benítez was also selected for the 1999 Copa América, played on home soil, scoring three times: this included one in Paraguay's 1–1 quarter-final clash against Uruguay, where he also missed the decisive penalty shootout attempt.

Miguel Ángel Benítez Pavón (born 19 May 1970), also known as Peque Benítez, is a Paraguayan retired footballer who played as a forward.


Hungary.

The Kígyós (Hungarian: snake) originates in Hungary from two streams.  One stream, the "Bokodi-Kígyós-csatorna", itself originates from two smaller streams west of the city of Baja. One stream springs out at the village of Rém, other one at Borota. The streams meet at Felsőszentiván and continue to the south, next to the villages of Bácsbokod and Bácsborsód.  Another stream, the "Mátételkei-Kígyós-csatorna" originates north of the village of Tataháza, and it flows to the south next to the village of Mátételke. The river comes close to the Serbian border but turns west, flowing next to the village of Katymár.  East of Katymár, right before it crosses the Serbian border, two rivers join and from that point the river is generally known as the Plazović.

Serbia.

In Serbia, the river turns west, flowing only within the area of Sombor municipality of the province of Vojvodina. Passes next to the village of Riđica and spills over into a series of bogs ("Sekeš", "Trska", "Šupljina") between the villages of Bácsszentgyörgy (in Hungary) and Rastina (in Serbia). East of Bezdan, the river turns south before it empties into the Great Bačka Canal, near the village of Bački Monoštor. Between the villages of Bački Breg and Kolut, the Plazović flows next to the Bački Breg fishpond.

Characteristics.

The Plazović belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin.  The river is known to cause floods, especially in 1970 and 2004, but in the past it was also known for drying out completely, like in 1952. High water level is helped by the very abundant vegetation in the river's bed, which also makes the water look dark brown. During cold winters, the river freezes.  The river is neither channeled nor navigable.

The Plazović (Serbian Cyrillic: Плазовић) or Kiđoš (; Serbian Cyrillic: Киђош), is a river in southern Hungary and northern Serbia. It flows entirely within the Bačka region, and during its 129 km long course, on a section of only 15 km, it crosses the Hungarian-Serbian border eight times (92 km in Hungary, 37 km in Serbia).


History.

Tree-ring dating indicates that construction and refurbishing of Cliff Palace was continuous approximately from 1190 CE through 1260 CE, although the major portion of the building was done within a 20-year time span. The Ancestral Puebloans who constructed this cliff dwelling and the others like it at Mesa Verde were driven to these defensible positions by "increasing competition amidst changing climatic conditions". Cliff Palace was abandoned by 1300, and while debate remains as to the causes of this, some believe that a series of megadroughts interrupting food production systems is the main cause. Cliff Palace was rediscovered in 1888 by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason while out looking for stray cattle.

Description.

Cliff Palace was constructed primarily out of sandstone, mortar and wooden beams. The sandstone was shaped using harder stones, and a mortar of soil, water and ash was used to hold everything together. "Chinking" stones were placed within the mortar to fill gaps and provide stability. Many of the walls were decorated with colored earthen plasters, which were the first to erode over time. Many visitors wonder about the relatively small size of the doorways at Cliff Palace; the explanation being that at the time the average man was under, while the average woman was closer to Cliff Palace contains 23 kivas (round sunken rooms of ceremonial importance) and 150 rooms and had a population of approximately 100 people. One kiva, in the center of the ruin, is at a point where the entire structure is partitioned by a series of walls with no doorways or other access portals. The walls of this kiva were plastered with one color on one side and a different color on the opposing side. "It is thought that Cliff Palace was a social, administrative site with high ceremonial usage." Archaeologists believe that Cliff Palace contained more clans than the surrounding Mesa Verde communities. This belief stems from the higher ratio of rooms to kivas. Cliff Palace has a room-to-kiva ratio of 9 to 1. The average room-to-kiva ratio for a Mesa Verde community is 12 to 1. This ratio of kivas to rooms may suggest that Cliff Palace might have been the center of a large polity that included surrounding small communities.  A large square tower is to the right and almost reaches the cave "roof". It was in ruins by the 1800s. The National Park Service carefully restored it to its approximate height and stature, making it one of the most memorable buildings in Cliff Palace. It is the tallest structure at Mesa Verde standing at tall, with four levels. Slightly differently colored materials were used to show that it was a restoration.

Cliff Palace is the largest cliff dwelling in North America. The structure built by the Ancestral Puebloans is located in Mesa Verde National Park in their former homeland region. The cliff dwelling and park are in the southwestern corner of Colorado, in the Southwestern United States.


Life cycle.

Female eucharitids oviposit rows of eggs into plant tissue, such as leaves and stems, away from ant colonies. The eggs are a translucent white and are about 0.19 mm long and 0.08 mm wide. They are elliptical and flat on one side. As the eggs mature, they turn a brown color and ten days after oviposition, they hatch. The larvae are solely responsible for their entry into the ant colony and the parasitism of their host. They are 0.13 mm long and are able to travel several inches on the leaf but do not leave the egg cluster. After six to seven days, they attach themselves to foraging ants heading back to their brood; however, sometimes they will attach themselves to other insects, using them as intermediate hosts. Once in the brood, the larvae will attach to their host larva. Some Eucharitidae are external parasites while others are internal parasites; however, all eucharitid species finish their development as ectoparasites.  Limited feeding on the host occurs until the host pupates, after which, most of it is consumed by the wasp. Usually, only one parasite per host is found, but in some cases, superparasitism occurs, and two to four wasps will attach to, and emerge from one host. Once the wasps emerge, the ant colony grooms and feeds them as if they were part of the ants’ brood. In some instances, worker ants have been observed assisting the wasps to emerge from their host. The wasps gain acceptance in these ways, and the ants show no signs of aggression because the wasps acquire their host's odor upon entry into the colony. By mimicking the odor of their host, eucharitid wasps are able to keep themselves safe until the scent wears off, at which point they begin to leave the ant colony and begin mating.  Adult wasps emerge from the ant nest in the morning; the males emerge before the females. In most cases, the males swarm one to two feet above the nest, and as soon as the females emerge, mating occurs. However, the males of certain species, such as "Kapala terminalis", calmly wait on foliage surrounding the nest until the females emerge. Many times, the males will begin mating with the females before they have a chance to take flight, and in some instances, mating will occur while the wasps are still inside the ants' nest. After mating, the females lay all their eggs in one day. The egg capacity of each female is 1000 to 10000.

Anatomy.

Most eucharitids are between 2.0 and 5.4 mm long and vary from metallic colors to black. They have 13 or fewer segments on their antennae, but some have up to 26.  The main anatomical characteristics of eucharitid wasps are:

Subfamilies.

The number of subfamilies of Eucharitidae has changed over the years, but the three most widely accepted are Oraseminae, Eucharitinae, and Gollumiellinae.

Oraseminae.

Oraseminae are parasitic on the ant genus "Pheidole" (Myrmicinae), as well as the fire ant in southern South America and the little red fire ant in the Caribbean. They are distributed worldwide in tropical regions, such as Costa Rica, Ecuador, Brazil, and Argentina. They are also native to Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Delaware, and Colorado.  The Oraseminae female punctures the plant tissue on which she will oviposit, and places an egg inside of each incision. The eggs are deposited on the edges of the underside of leaves, and are sometimes found in the buds and stems of the plant. They have been known to oviposite on blueberry leaves, tea leaves (Das), oak leaves, olive leaves, mango leaves, flower heads, and banana fingers. Species of Eucharitidae are consistent in their choice of leaf for oviposition.  Because Oraseminae eggs are laid on plants that are not always visited by foraging ants, the larvae will most often attach to intermediate hosts, or “insect prey” that will eventually be devoured by ants. Sometimes, however, foraging ants are present and there is no need for an intermediate host. Upon arriving at the ants’ brood, the larva burrows into the host's thorax and feeds there. The wasp feeds until the host larva pupates; after the host pupates, the wasp will resume feeding until it emerges from its host. The average time of development from planidia to adult is 29.5 days; the average pupal stage is 8.2 days.  Because Oraseminae larvae, pupae, and adults are easily distinguished from their host, the wasps disguise themselves by passively obtaining the odor of the fire ants. After a few days in the nest, the odor wears off and the ants begin to notice the wasps are not a part of their brood. At this point, the wasps leave the nest to mate and lay eggs. Though Oraseminae have a high fertility rate, only a small percentage of eggs survive to adulthood.

Eucharitinae.

Eucharitinae are parasites of poneromorph ants, Ectatommatinae, Ponerinae, and Formicinae, although one genus from Australia is parasitic on the bulldog ant.  Female Eucharitinae bear up to 4500 eggs and begin oviposition soon after emerging from the nest. They deposit their eggs in groups of eight to 15 on plant buds, on the undersides of leaves or on fruit skin. Eucharitinae attach themselves to foraging ants and do not use an intermediate host. Some species of Eucharitinae, such as "Kapala terminalis" and other "Kapala" sp., have been known for their jumping capabilities. They stand erect on the plant on which they hatched, and without any distinguishable preparation, jump about 10 mm from the leaf onto a foraging ant. The larvae are external parasites of their hosts, and are not noticed due to their acquisition of the host’s odor. After the wasps are fully developed, they emerge in large numbers. The males swarm around the nest in wait of the females. Mating takes place immediately, and oviposition occurs soon after. A fossil genus, "Palaeocharis" is known from Eocene Baltic amber.

Gollumiellinae.

Gollumiellinae are unique in that they hook their eggs onto the plants and connect a ropey secretion to them, which stand erect. This acts as an attraction mechanism for "Paratrechina" ants. Gollumiellinae larvae burrow into the hosts' thoraces and feed there. The rest of its life cycle is similar to the aforementioned life cycle of eucharitids.

Biological control.

Eucharitids are candidates for biological control because each subfamily targets a specific ant genus. On the other hand, some eucharitids, including the genus "Kapala", are classified as pests for several different reasons. First, a few days after oviposition occurs, the leaves dry up where each egg was located. Second, tea leaves with such marks reportedly do not have as strong of a flavor as tea leaves without these marks. Third, not all eucharitids have a significant effect on the size of their hosts' colony.  "Orasema" species are sometimes used as means of biological control for many ants, including the fire ant and little fire ant, because pesticides can cause damage to the environment, and they do not always work on fire ants. In addition, at least two eucharitid species groups are specialized parasites of these ants. Heraty stated, “Leaving aside the philosophical problems associated with introducing any organism for biological control, I believe that species of "Orasema" do have potential as biological control agents and deserve more study.”

The Eucharitidae are a family of parasitic wasps. Eucharitid wasps are members of the superfamily Chalcidoidea and consist of three subfamilies: Oraseminae, Eucharitinae, and Gollumiellinae. Most of the 55 genera and 417 species of Eucharitidae are members of the subfamilies Oraseminae and Eucharitinae, and are found in tropical regions of the world.


History.

The massive stone structure was built by up to 20,000 workers between 1805 and 1820 as part of a system of fortifications designed to keep the newly independent nation of Haiti safe from French incursions. The Citadel was built several kilometres inland, and atop the Bonnet a L’Eveque mountain, to deter attacks and to provide a lookout into the nearby valleys. Cap-Haïtien and the adjoining Atlantic Ocean are visible from the roof of the fortress.  The Haitians outfitted the fortress with 365 cannons of varying size. These were obtained from various nations, and still bear the crests of 18th Century monarchs. Enormous stockpiles of cannonballs still sit in pyramidal stacks at the base of the fortress walls. Since its construction, the fortress has withstood numerous earthquakes, though a French attack never came and it was eventually abandoned.  Henri Christophe initially commissioned the fortress in 1805. At the time, Christophe was a general in the Haitian army and chief administrator of the country's northern regions. In 1806, Alexandre Pétion launched a coup against Haiti's emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Though General Christophe was aware of this through his system of spies, he did not warn Dessalines, viewing his assassination as a necessary evil that would permit him to achieve his goals. Dessalines's death led to a power struggle between Christophe and Pétion, which ended with Haiti divided into northern and southern states, with the north under Christophe's presidency by 1807. He declared himself king in 1811.  The Citadel was part of a system of fortifications that included Fort Jacques and Fort Alexandre, built on the mountains overlooking Cap Haitien. Dessalines ordered those forts built in 1805 to protect the new nation against French attacks. In the event of an invasion, Christophe planned to have his military burn the valuable crops and food stocks along the coast, then retreat to the fortress, setting ambushes along the sole mountain path leading to the Citadel.  Christophe suffered a stroke in 1820, and some of his troops mutinied. Shortly afterwards, he committed suicide—according to legend, by shooting himself with a silver bullet. Loyal followers covered his body in quicklime and entombed it in one of the Citadel's interior courtyards to prevent others from mutilating the corpse.

Description.

The colossal physical dimensions of the fortress have made it a Haitian national symbol, featured on currency, stamps, and tourist ministry posters. The fortress walls rise from the mountaintop and the entire complex, including cannonball stocks but excluding the surrounding grounds, covers an area of. Workers laid the large foundation stones of the fortress directly into the stone of the mountaintop, using a mortar mixture that included quicklime, molasses, and the blood of local cows and goats—and cows hooves that they cooked to a glue and added to the mix to give the mortar added strength and bonding power.  Large cisterns and storehouses in the fortress's interior were designed to store enough food and water for 5,000 defenders for up to one year. The fortress included palace quarters for the king and his family, in the event that they needed to take refuge within its walls. Other facilities included dungeons, bathing quarters, and bakery ovens. Also visible is the tomb of Christophe's brother-in-law, killed when the gunpowder room he was in exploded.  The Citadel's appearance from the trail leading up to its base has been likened to the prow of a great stone ship, jutting out from the mountainside. The structure is angular and assumes different geometric forms based on the viewer's orientation. Some of the angles on the Citadelle were intentionally put there by Christophe to deviate cannonballs if attacked and the Epaulette is a great example of using angles to deviate and deflect shots. Though most of the fortress has no roof as such (the interior top is a latticework of stone walkways), some slanted portions are adorned with bright red tiles. The fortress has been repaired and refurnished several times since its construction, including in the 1980s with help from UNESCO and the World Monuments Fund, though little of it has been replaced and its design remains the same.

Tourism.

The Citadel is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Haiti. Directions to and history of the fortress are provided by self-appointed guides from the town of Milot. Near the entrance to Sans-Souci Palace, which is at the start of the trail to the Citadel, visitors may be asked to pay a small fee. Visitors are also encouraged to rent a horse for the uphill trek. The first portion of the 11 kilometre (7 mi) trail is navigable by 4WD vehicle, although infrequent landslides and construction projects sometimes make this unreliable. Numerous people live along the trail and sell souvenirs or drinks, such as fresh coconut juice, to travelers. Drinks are a necessity in the tropical heat. The trail is paved stone, generally smooth and in good condition.  About three-quarters of the way up from the parking lot, visitors must complete the final portion on horseback or on foot. The entire 11-kilometre (7 mi) trail, starting in Milot, is almost completely uphill, but can be walked by experienced hikers who carry plenty of water. Most of the interior of the Citadel fortress itself is accessible to visitors, who may also climb the numerous staircases to the fortress's roof, which is free of guardrails. On a clear day, the city of Cap-Haïtien and the Atlantic Ocean can be seen to the north. Because of its elevation the top of the Citadel is used by United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) for a Radio repeater, with an antenna on the highest point.  Though the turbulent political situation in Haiti (principally in the central region) has deterred visitors in recent years, the regions of the north and south of the country remain largely peaceful, making travel to the Citadel less challenging or hazardous than travel within the Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince.

Conservation and safety concerns.

After visiting the Citadel in July 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly heavily criticized the Haitian National Institute for Historic Preservation (ISPAN) — the organization tasked with preserving Haiti's cultural heritage sites — describing the site as in a state of disrepair and calling ISPAN's efforts "unacceptable". His visit was intended to assess the state of the Citadel for conservation, but he refused to visit its upper levels, deeming them unsafe for visitors.  Despite Haiti's shortcomings in preserving its own cultural artifacts, international organizations have stepped in to assist, such as the Global Heritage Fund, a California-based non-profit organization, which has investigated the Citadel for monument conservation, community development, training and cultural heritage revitalization. The project would focus on both the Citadel and nearby Sans-Souci Palace, with hopes of preserving the structures as safe tourism sites to promote sustainable local economic growth.

The Citadelle Laferrière or, Citadelle Henri Christophe, or simply the Citadelle (), is a large mountaintop fortress in Nord, Haiti, located on top of the mountain Bonnet a L’Eveque, approximately south of the city of Cap-Haïtien, southwest of the Three Bays Protected Area, and uphill from the town of Milot. It is one of the largest fortresses in the Americas and was designated by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a World Heritage Site in 1982—along with the nearby Sans-Souci Palace. The mountaintop fortress has itself become an icon of Haiti. The Citadel was built by Henri Christophe, a key leader during the Haitian slave rebellion (1791–1804), after Haiti gained independence from France at the beginning of the 19th century.


Early years.

François Barthélemy Arlès was born on 3 June 1797 in Sète, Hérault. His father joined the army as a private soldier and had risen to the rank of battalion commander by the time of the Napoleonic Wars. François received little schooling as a child, but after his father retired gained some education at the Lycée Impérial à Paris. His father died in 1811 and two years later his mother, who was illiterate, was forced to withdraw François Arlès from school due to lack of money. At the age of 16 he became a factory boy at a shawl factory, then a worker and then a foreman. He said later, "I treated my workmen firmly, but with the respect that man owes to man. I placed myself between the servant and the master, not to frustrate the master, but to be useful to both." He added, "I was hungry and I remember it. " He was an enthusiastic supporter of Napoleon, and in 1815 after the emperor returned from exile in Elba, the 18-year-old Arlès volunteered for the army. He arrived too late to fight in the Battle of Waterloo. His employer gave him back his job, and from this time on he became a pacifist.

Silk merchant.

In 1816 Arlès made several long sales trips in Germany with a sample of fabrics and shawls. In 1817 he met Prosper Enfantin in Frankfurt, the future leader of Saint-Simonianism. Also that year he visited the silk trading house in Leipzig of Dufour frères, a family that had emigrated from France after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. François Arlès tried to teach himself better French, and also learned German and English and studied the new discipline of political economy. In Munich he met Gustave d’Eichtal, who would become banker of the Saint-Simonian movement. He read the works of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. He became a firm supporter of the sovereignty of the people, and the 1819 Carlsbad Decrees confirmed him in his hostility to kings and priests. In 1820 he talked with Jean-Baptiste Say at the Conservatoire des arts et métiers in Paris. In 1821 Dufour frères offered him employment with their firm. In 1824 Arlès married Pauline Dufour, only daughter of one of the Dufour brothers. At the time of his marriage he joined his name to that of his wife to become "Arlès-Dufour". In 1825 he was placed in charge of the important Dufour freres branch in Lyon. This was the start of his prosperous career as a silk merchant. He visited England in 1826 and every year after. There he succeeded in business and also made valuable friendships. John Bowring, a follower of Jeremy Bentham, introduced utilitarianism to him. He became a friend of George Villiers, the future Lord Clarendon, and met George Richardson Porter, in charge of statistics at the Board of Trade. Porter gave him facts that supported his belief in free trade. Bowring visited Lyon in 1832. Arlès-Dufour also established cordial relations with British political and business leaders such as John Bright and Richard Cobden.  During the American recession that followed the Panic of 1837 Arlès-Dufour was almost ruined by customers in America defaulting on their debts to him. He left Lyon for London en route to New York. In London he received financial support from his friend and correspondent William Leaf and did not have to continue his journey. In partial recovery of his debt he received two properties at Kingston and Wilbur in New York State. He liquidated his company honorably. with the help of his international correspondents and Lyon notables, and in 1839 created his own company, Arlès-Dufour. The company opened branches in Zürich, Saint-Étienne, Paris, Basel, Krefeld, Marseille, London and New York City.  The new company had its headquarter in Milan. In 1851 the building holding its offices and warehouse in Milan was destroyed by fire. Arlès-Dufour was trapped in the rubble of the building for a while, but managed to escape with his wallet and account books. However, since some of the silks were not insured he suffered a second financial collapse, but was again able to rebuild his company with credit from his friends. In 1855 Arlès-Dufour hired Natalis Rondot to manage his Paris branch. Rondot helped him make contact with the Scottish firm Jardine Matheson of Hong Kong, a leader in the Far East silk trade. He agreed not to open any silk exchange in the Far East, but to buy from Jardine, Matheson, who would transport it. Arlès-Dufour would then sell through his network in Europe. This verbal contract would be respected for a century. He was concerned by the financial downturn that followed the Panic of 1857, and retired from business in 1859. The company was passed to his two edest sons and his son in law. He retained a fortune of 2.8 million francs.

Free trade and Saint-Simonianism.

As early as 1822 Arlès wrote, "The greatest and most conclusive step, and that which our state of civilization imperiously requires, is the abolition of customs and obstacles, which make communication and exchange between people difficult or impossible." In 1828 he wrote, "Let us abolish these barriers... multiply our relationships, live as brothers." He believed that freedom of trade must lead to universal peace. In 1828 he published an article in the Lyon paper "Le Précurseur" in which he spoke in favour of the free export of French silks in return for the free entry of foreign silks, which drew protests from those who felt the Lyon silk industry could not survive without protection. In articles in 1832 and 1833 in "L’Écho de la Fabrique" Arlès-Dufour wrote on subjects such as industry in Lyon, tariffs, cooperation with England and a progressive income tax.  Arlès-Dufour was sympathetic to the workers, having been one himself, and looked for ways to make their life easier. He soon decided that free competition was the answer. He became a convert to Saint-Simonianism in 1829 and remained faithful to these ideals for the rest of his life. The goal was to hasten social change during the transition to an industrial society following the principle that "All social institutions must aim at improving the moral, intellectual and physical fortunes of the most numerous and poorest classes". Arlès-Dufour was a friend of the Pereires and the Talbots, business leaders who were also Saint-Simonians. He wrote, "Everywhere, the class that has nothing in common but misery is at war with the one that has everything. And who could be surprised at that? Society, that is to say, the men who have, take care of this class only to contain it." However, he was opposed to the demands of workers in Lyon for minimum payments for their work, saying that a manufacturer could not operate at a loss. When the "canuts" (Lyon silk workers) revolted in November 1831 many observers blamed the Saint-Simonians for the uprising.  Arlès-Dufour believed in free competition, productive work, huge manufacturing enterprises and a strong sense of social solidarity. He contributed to the worker's newspaper "L'Echo de la Fabrique", where Enfantin says he "threw in as much Saint-simonianism as possible". In the early days of the French Second Republic in April 1848 he launched an appeal to the workers of La Croix-Rousse saying, "It is almost twenty years since... I called for an age of association of everyone, rich and the poor, manufacturer and the worker, by organization of labour, classification by vocation and the compensation according to work." In his property at Oullins he planted a lime tree, the "tree of liberty." However, he refused to run for political office.

Other enterprises.

Arlès-Dufour appears to have been the force behind the creation of the Banque de Lyon in 1835–36. He was a promoter of the Compagnie du chemin de fer de Paris à Lyon (Paris-Lyon Railway) and the Compagnie du chemin de fer de Lyon à Avignon (Lyon-Avignon Railway) and was a director of both of these companies. He helped merge them to form the Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée (PLM: Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean Railway), and seems to have been a director of the PLM.  In 1833 Enfantin led a party of 20 French technicians to Egypt to undertake new surveys and put new life into the Suez Canal and Nile Barrage projects. He met Ferdinand de Lesseps, at the time Vice-Consul for France in Egypt, and was presented to the Khedive Muhammad Ali, who approved the barrage but not the canal. Enfantin stayed in Egypt until 1837 working on the barrage, then returned to France. In his 1834 "Un mot sur les fabriques étrangères" Arlès-Dufour applauded the Suez Canal project, which would soon bring Paris as close to Calcutta as to Saint Petersburg. In 1844 Enfantin founded the journal "L'Algérie", with some funding from Charles Ignace Plichon. Enfantin, with support from Arlès-Dufour, was dreaming of creating a great railway network in France. He planned to also establish maritime commercial links with the Indies through a Suez canal.  In 1846 Enfantin and Arlès-Dufour created the Société d'Études du Canal de Suez, with French, English and German sections. The other French member were Jules, Léon and Paulin Talabot. The English members were Robert Stephenson and Edward Starbuck. The other members were Alois Negrelli of Vienna and Féronce and Sellier of Liepzig, who representedGerman firms. The company had initial capital of 150,000 francs, with its headquarters in Enfantin's house. In effect it was a semi-official enterprise, with strong support from the Muhammed Ali, who paid most of the cost. The plan was set back in 1849 when Muhammed Ali Pasha died and was succeeded by the pro-English Abbas Pasha.  The Suez project was revived in 1854 when Sa'id Pasha came to power in Egypt and heard and approved de Lesseps' proposal in November 1854. Lesseps wrote warm and enthusiastic letters to Arlès-Dufour when his project began to prosper at the end of 1854 and the start of 1855. He also asked him to make contact with the main banking houses in France and Europe and the "great capitalists of England". As a founder, Arlès-Dufour would be rewarded with a share of the profits. Later Lesseps would take full credit for the canal project.  In 1853 Arlès-Dufour and Enfantin founded the Compagnie générale des Eaux in Lyon, and in 1854 founded the Lyon Société des Omnibus. In 1856 he participated in the capital of the Deutsche Credit Anstalt founded by his friends in Leipzig. Arlès-Dufour participated in foundation of the Crédit Industriel et Commercial in 1859. He was the true founder of the Crédit Lyonnais in 1863, with his employee Henri Germain. The Crédit Lyonnais was launched by Germain on 6 July 1863 with an innovative model based on accepting small deposits on which it paid interest, and using the deposits to finance short-term loans. The first shareholders included Arlès-Dufour and other Saint-Simonians such as Paulin Talabot, Enfantin and Michel Chevalier, a close advisor to Napoleon III. There were 140 initial depositors, growing to 10,000 by its second year. The bank made an agreement with the new HSBC bank founded by a nephew of Jardine. When Enfantin died in 1864 he left all his property to Arlès-Dufour.

Public activities.

Arlès-Dufour was hostile to the monarchy of the Bourbon Restoration, and during the July Revolution of 1830 served in the National Guard and was temporarily deputy mayor. He was a municipal councilor of La Guillotière, a district of Lyon, in 1855, and general councilor of the Rhône department. Arlès-Dufour was elected to the Lyon Chamber of Commerce in 1832, and remained a member for almost 36 years. He exerted a strong liberal influence, and gained a considerable reputation for his frank statements about the policies of successive governments. He supported Bowring in his efforts to reduce tariffs in 1834, but they faced strong opposition from the winegrowers and the Lyon Chamber of Commerce refused to give support.  As a member of the Lyon Chamber of Commerce, Arlès-Dufour organized an exhibition of foreign silk factories in Lyon in 1834 so local producers could compare their goods to those of their main foreign competitors. Arlès-Dufour was a member of the jury at the Exposition des produits de l'industrie française in Paris in 1844 and 1849. He attended The Great Exhibition in 1851 in London as a member of the jury. He was secretary-general of the imperial commission for the 1855 Paris Exposition Universelle. He was again a member of the international jury at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and the 1867 Exposition Universelle in Paris.  During the 1851 exposition Arlès-Dufour discussed establishment of a free trade agreement with his friend Cobden, and this led to cooperation between Cobden's party and the French Association for Free Trade. However, there remained strong opposition to free trade in France, and it was not until 1860 that the Emperor imposed a treaty of commerce with England by a "customs coup". Arlès-Dufour's struggle for free trade was finally vindicated with the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier Treaty for free trade between Britain and France. Richard Cobden, who signed the treaty on behalf of Britain, wrote a personal note to him thanking him for the role he had played in the conclusion of the agreement. In August 1860 Napoleon III visited Lyon, where he made Arlès a Commander of the Legion of Honour. Arlès-Dufour gave his support to Julie-Victoire Daubié in her efforts to become the first woman to obtain a Bachelor's degree in France. He was one of the adjudicators in 1859 for a prize that Daubié won for her essay "La Femme pauvre au XIX siècle" (Women and Poverty in the Nineteenth Century). He and Daubié founded the Association pour l’émancipation progressive de la femme. He persuaded the Empress Eugénie to award the Legion of Honour to the painter Rosa Bonheur.  Arlès-Dufour was involved in various charitable organizations including the Comité auxiliaire de bienfaisance (from 1829), the Caisse de prêts des chefs d'atelier de soierie and the Société de Secours mutuels des ouvriers en soie. He was a strong believer in the right of poor people to education. He founded the Société d’Instruction primaire du Rhône in 1828, and was this society's secretary general until his death. Arlès-Dufour and Désiré Girardon, professor at the Martinière college, founded the École Centrale lyonnaise pour l'Industrie et le Commerce in 1857. The purpose was to train the best students of the Martinière School in chemistry, industrial mechanics, civil construction and industrial design. The school, today the École centrale de Lyon, opened on 3 November 1857 with 14 students. In 1864 Arlès-Dufour founded the Société d'enseignement professionnel du Rhône. He also founded a public library, a free primary school and a free secondary school in the Lyon suburb of Oullins. On 30 November 1867 Arlès-Dufour. Émile de Girardin and Frédéric Passy founded the International and Permanent League for Peace. In 1868 he created a homeopathic dispensary in Lyon.

Death and legacy.

François Barthélemy Arlès-Dufour died on 21 January 1872, in Vallauris, Alpes-Maritimes. In his obituary the "Journal de Lyon" wrote, "He made his life into two parts, one was industry and the other was humanity". Michel Chevalier said of him that few French people were so well known abroad. He had received decorations from Austria, Bavaria, Denmark, Prussia, Sardinia, Saxony, Sweden and Tuscany. He was a Commander of the Legion of Honour and a member of the L’Académie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Lyon. His firm lasted until 2013, called in turn Chabrières-Morel from 1885, then Morel-Journel & Cie from 1930.

Publications.

Publications included:

François Barthélemy Arlès-Dufour (3 June 1797 – 21 January 1872) was a French silk merchant and leading exponent of Saint-Simonianism. He was born to a poor family, had little formal education and began work in a shawl factory at the age of 16. Later he joined a silk company based in Liepzig, Germany, married into the owners' family and was placed in charge of its Lyon operations. Working first for his in-laws and then independently, he made a fortune in silk. Arlès-Dufour also became involved in banking, railways and the Suez canal project. He played an important role in the Lyon Chamber of Commerce, and as a member of the jury in various international expositions. He believed in free trade and in social institutions that would help the most disadvantaged social classes.


Taxonomy.

The Sydney rock oyster and New Zealand rock oyster have previously been classified as two separate species: "Saccostrea commercialis" and "S. glomerata", respectively. They have also been grouped with the hooded oyster into a single species, "S. cucullata".  When proposing the name "Ostrea commercialis" in 1933, Iredale & Roughley noted that the New South Wales oyster had been variously referred to species "O. cucullata" Born (Ascension Island), "O. mordax" Gould (Fiji), "O. glomerata" Gould (New Zealand), "O. circumsuta" Gould (Fiji); and even to "O. trigonata" Sowerby and "O. mytiloides" Lamarck.

Distribution.

In Australia it is found in bays, inlets and sheltered estuaries from Wingan Inlet in eastern Victoria, along the east coast of New South Wales, and north to Hervey Bay, Queensland, around northern Australia and south along the west coast to Shark Bay in Western Australia. The spat for these oysters travels down the east coast of Australia on the East Australia Current. Also, a small population exists on the islands in the Furneaux archipelago in Bass Strait, and in Albany on the south west coast of Western Australia, where they are farmed.

Breeding.

Sydney rock oysters are "broadcast spawners", that is, eggs and sperm are released into open water where fertilisation occurs. Within hours of fertilisation, the eggs develop into free-swimming planktonic larvae. The larvae swim in estuarine and coastal waters for up to three weeks, during which they develop transparent shells and retractable feet. The larvae then settle on clean substrates using their feet to find suitable sites. The larval foot is resorbed once the larva is attached. The shell darkens and the small animal takes on the appearance of an adult oyster.  Growth rates vary with local conditions, but they generally reach in three years. Sydney rock oysters may change sex during life. Many start out as males and later change to females. About 60% of prime eating oysters are female. Selective breeding has reduced the time to market size from three to two years. Great success in selection for disease resistance to two protozoan diseases of oysters, namely, QX disease "Marteilia sydneyi" and winter mortality "Bonamia roughleyi", has been achieved.  Oysters are filter feeders, straining planktonic algae from the water. Birds, fish, stingrays, mud crabs, and starfish all eat Sydney rock oysters, with the Australian pied oystercatcher being particularly fond of them.

Commercial industry.

A substantial commercial oyster farming industry is found in New South Wales and southern Queensland, with a small, emerging industry in Albany, Western Australia. The industry produces a gourmet product and provides employment in isolated coastal communities. In Australia, oysters in peak flesh condition (i.e. spawning condition) are preferred for the half-shell trade.

Consumption.

Sydney rock oysters are best consumed when freshly shucked, but do have a good shelf life when kept whole, of up to 14 days providing they are kept at the correct temperature and handled safely.

Saccostrea glomerata, is an oyster species endemic to Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, it is known as the Sydney rock oyster and is commercially farmed. In New Zealand, where the species is not farmed, it is known as the New Zealand rock oyster or Auckland oyster. The species is closely related to "Saccostrea cucullata", the hooded oyster, which is common on Indo-Pacific rocky shores.