Medical uses.

While polypharmacy is typically regarded as undesirable, prescription of multiple medications can be appropriate and therapeutically beneficial in some circumstances. “Appropriate polypharmacy” is described as prescribing for complex or multiple conditions in such a way that necessary medicines are used according to best evidence to preserve safety and well-being. Polypharmacy is clinically indicated in some conditions, including diabetes mellitus, but should be discontinued when evidence of benefit from the prescribed drugs no longer outweighs potential for harm (described below in Contraindications).  Often certain medications can interact with others in a positive way specifically intended when prescribed together, to achieve a greater effect than any of the single agents alone. This is particularly prominent in the field of anesthesia and pain management – where atypical agents such as antiepileptics, antidepressants, muscle relaxants, NMDA antagonists, and other medications are combined with more typical analgesics such as opioids, prostaglandin inhibitors, NSAIDS and others. This practice of pain management drug synergy is known as an "analgesia sparing" effect.

Contraindications.

The use of polypharmacy is correlated to the use of potentially inappropriate medications. Potentially inappropriate medications are generally taken to mean those that have been agreed upon by expert consensus, such as by the Beers Criteria. These medications are generally inappropriate for older adults because the risks outweigh the benefits. Examples of these include urinary anticholinergics, which can prevent up to one episode of incontinence every 48 hours on average. However, they can also cause constipation, dry eyes, dry mouth, impaired cognition, and increase the risk of falls.  Polypharmacy is associated with an increased risk of falls elderly people. Certain medications are well known to be associated with the risk of falls, including cardiovascular and psychoactive medications. There is some evidence that the risk of falls increases cumulatively with the number of medications. Although often not practical to achieve, withdrawing all medicines associated with falls risk can halve an individual's risk of future falls.  Every medication has potential adverse side-effects. With every drug added, there is an additive risk of side-effects. Also, many medications have potential interactions with other substances. 15% of older adults are potentially at risk for a major drug-drug interaction. Older adults are at a higher risk for a drug-drug interaction due to the increased number of medications prescribed and metabolic changes that occur with aging. When a new drug is prescribed, the risk of interactions increases exponentially. Doctors and pharmacists aim to avoid prescribing medications that interact; often, adjustments in the dose of medications need to be made to avoid interactions. For example, warfarin interacts with many medications and supplements that can cause it to lose its effect.

Special populations.

Patients at greatest risk for negative polypharmacy consequences include the elderly, psychiatric patients, patients taking five or more drugs concurrently, those with multiple physicians and pharmacies, recently hospitalized patients, individuals with concurrent comorbidities, low educational level, and those with impaired vision or dexterity.  It is not uncommon for those dependent or addicted to substances to enter or remain in a state of polypharmacy misuse. Note, however, that the term "polypharmacy" and its variants generally refer to legal drug use as-prescribed, even when used in a negative or critical context.  Measures can be taken to limit polypharmacy to its truly legitimate and appropriate needs. This is an emerging area of research, frequently called deprescribing. This reduction in medications has been shown to reduce the number of medications and is safe as it does not significantly alter health outcomes. Clinical pharmacists can perform drug therapy reviews and teach physicians and their patients about drug safety and polypharmacy, as well as collaborating with physicians and patients to correct polypharmacy problems. Similar programs are likely to reduce the potentially deleterious consequences of polypharmacy. Such programs hinge upon patients and doctors informing pharmacists of other medications being prescribed, as well as herbal, over-the-counter substances and supplements that occasionally interfere with prescription-only medication.

Pill burden.

Pill burden is the number of pills (tablets or capsules, the most common dosage forms) that a patient takes on a regular basis, along with all associated efforts that increase with that number - like storing, organizing, consuming, and understanding the various medications in one's regimen. The use of individual medications is growing faster than pill burden.  High pill burden decreases compliance with drug therapy, resulting from the need to take a large quantity of pills or other forms of medication on a regular basis. It also increases the possibility of adverse medication reactions (side effects) and drug-drug interactions. High pill burden has also been associated with an increased risk of hospitalization, medication errors, and increased costs for both the pharmaceuticals themselves and for the treatment of adverse events. Finally, pill burden is a source of dissatisfaction for many patients.  High pill burden was once commonly associated with antiretroviral drug regimens to control HIV, but now is more often seen in other patient populations. For instance, adults with multiple common chronic conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, lymphedema, hypercholesterolemia, osteoporosis, constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, and clinical depression can often be prescribed more than a dozen different medications daily. The adverse reactions of these combinations of drugs are not reliably predictable. Obesity is implicated in many of the aforementioned conditions, and it is not uncommon for a clinically obese patient to receive pharmacologic treatment for all of these. Because chronic conditions tend to accumulate in the elderly, pill burden is a particular issue in geriatrics.  Reducing pill burden is recognized as a way to improve medication compliance. This is done through "deprescribing", where the risks and benefits are weighed when considering whether to continue a medication. This includes drugs such as bisphosphonates (for osteoporosis) where it is often used indefinitely although there is only evidence to use it for five to ten years. The use of memory tricks has also been seen to improve adherence and reduce pill burden in several countries. These include associating medications with mealtimes, recording the dosage on the box, storing the medication in a special place, leaving it in plain sight in the living room, or putting the prescription sheet on the refrigerator. The development of applications has also shown some benefit in this regard.  The selection of long-acting active ingredients over short-acting ones may also reduce pill burden. For instance, ACE inhibitors are used in the management of hypertension. Both captopril and lisinopril are examples of ACE inhibitors. However, lisinopril is dosed once a day, whereas captopril may be dosed 2-3 times a day. Assuming that there are no contraindications or potential for drug interactions, using lisinopril instead of captopril may be an appropriate way to limit pill burden.

Interventions.

The most common intervention in polypharmacy patients is deprescribing, which includes the identification and discontinuance of medications when the benefit no longer outweighs the harm. In elderly patients, this can commonly be done as a patient becomes more frail and treatment focus needs to shift from preventative to palliative. Deprescribing was also deemed feasible and effective in other settings such as residential care, communities and hospitals. This preventative measure should be considered for anyone who exhibits one of the following: (1) a new symptom or adverse event arises, (2) when the person develops an end-stage disease, (3) if the combination of drugs is risky, or (4) if stopping the drug does not alter the disease trajectory.  Several tools exist to help physicians decide when to deprescribe and what medications can be added to a pharmaceutical regimen. The Beers Criteria and the STOPP/START criteria help identify medications that have the highest risk of adverse drug events (ADE) and drug-drug interactions. The Medication appropriateness tool for comorbid health conditions during dementia (MATCH-D) is the only tool available specifically for people with dementia, and also cautions against polypharmacy and complex medication regimens.  Barriers faced by both physicians and patients have made it challenging to apply deprescribing strategies in practice. For physicians, these include fear of consequences of deprescribing, the prescriber's own confidence in their skills and knowledge to deprescribe, the feasibility of deprescribing, and the complexity of having multiple providers. For patients, attitudes or beliefs about the medications, fears and uncertainties surrounding deprescribing, and influence of physicians, family, and the media are also reported barriers to deprescribing.  A team approach is a relatively new method gaining popularity due to its effectiveness in managing patient care and obtaining the best outcomes. A team can include a primary provider, pharmacist, nurse, counselor, physical therapist, chaplain and others involved in patient care. Combining the ideas and points of view of the different providers allows a more holistic approach to the health of a patient. In 2013, the United States legislature mandated that every Medicare D patient receive an annual Medication Therapy Management (MTM) review by a team of healthcare professionals.  It is unclear if specific interventions to improve adequate polypharmacy in older adults have significant clinical results; they seem to reduce inappropriate prescribing and medication-related problems in early research, but more research is needed. High quality evidence is needed to make any conclusions about the effects of such interventions in care homes. Deprescribing rounds has been proposed as a potentially successful methodology in reducing polypharmacy.

Polypharmacy is the concurrent use of multiple medications by a patient. Polypharmacy is most common in the elderly, affecting about 40% of older adults living in their own homes. About 21% of adults with intellectual disability are also exposed to polypharmacy. Polypharmacy is not necessarily ill-advised, but in many instances can lead to negative outcomes or poor treatment effectiveness, often being more harmful than helpful or presenting too much risk for too little benefit. Therefore, health professionals consider it a situation that requires monitoring and review to validate whether all of the medications are still necessary. Concerns about polypharmacy include increased adverse drug reactions, drug interactions, prescribing cascade, and higher costs. Polypharmacy is often associated with a decreased quality of life, including decreased mobility and cognition.


Biography.

Bodorová studied composition at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts (JAMU) in Brno and later as a post-graduate at the Music and Dance Faculty of the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague. She continued her studies in Gdańsk and the Accademia Musicale Chigiana in Siena (with Professor Franco Donatoni) and from 1987 she attended Professor Ton de Leeuw's composition courses in Amsterdam. She taught at JAMU in Brno and, in the 1990s, at the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, where she was visiting professor for the 1994–95 and 1995-96 academic years. In 1993 she had made her first visit to the United States for a week-long residency in the School of Fine Arts at Miami University, Ohio. The music library at the University of Cincinnati contains several of Bodorová's published scores, as well as copies of manuscript scores of her works.  Bodorová's works have been performed on every continent, including the Antarctic, where there was a performance of her ""Homage to Columbus"" for guitar in 1997. She has received several competition prizes (Mannheim, Czech Radio Prague) and several commissions from the Warwick Festival: "Megiddo - Piano Trio" - 2001, for the same festival -"Terezin Ghetto Requiem" - Škampa Quartet - 1998, "Ama me" for baritone and piano - 1999 and "Vertumnus - Brass Quintet" in 2005.  In 1999 she also wrote compositions for Buenos Aires – "Concierto de Estío" for Guitar and Orchestra – and for Bochum in Germany – "Saturnalia for Orchestra". After the success of "Terezín Ghetto Requiem", the Prague Spring International Music Festival commissioned the oratorio "Juda Maccabeus" for a performance in St. Vitus Cathedral (with Gabriela Beňačková,, Ivan Kusnjer and the Prague Philharmonic Choir) in May 2002 and then at the Litomyšl International Festival in June 2002. "Concerto dei fiori for Violin and Strings" was premiered at the Prague Spring Festival 1997, then performed in the United States in 1998 and the PONTES Festival in Prague.  "Terezin Ghetto Requiem" for Baritone and String Quartet was performed at the Warwick and Leamington Festival in July 1998, Wigmore Hall in London in October 1998, again in Warwick in July 1999, other festivals in UK, in Berlin (November 1999), in Halle (Saale), Terezín, at the Prague Spring Festival 2000, Coventry and Huddersfield (November 2000). In 2003 Bodorová finished a commission by the Tucson Winter Chamber Music Festival – a composition for Harp and Strings "Mysterium druidum". She composed "Rotationes for clarinet, violin, viola and cello" for the same festival in 2012.  She finished the commission for Camerata Bern (Bern Concerto, Silberwolke) – "Concerto for Violin, Viola and Strings", which was performed in Bern and Germany in August and September 2005. She wrote the piano concerto "Come d'accordo" for Prague Philharmonia and pianist, premiered in February 2006, the song cycle "Slovak Songs" for Štefan Margita and Gabriela Beňačková – the cycle was recorded in 2006 – and "Amor tenet omnia" – a cycle of choruses on the texts from Carmina Burana premiered in Luxembourg and France in August 2007.  The oratorio "Moses" was commissioned by the International Litomyšl Smetana Festival and premiered in 2008. In 2009 she wrote "Carmina lucemburgiana" for strings. It was commissioned by the Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg and its embassy in Prague. In May 2012 Bodorová finished Lingua angelorum – a song cycle for baritone and large symphony orchestra inspired by Rudolf II. The composition was commissioned by and was dedicated to Thomas Hampson. She wrote the orchestral version of Dvořák's "Gypsy Melodies", Op. 55, for Thomas Hampson and Wiener Virtuosen, which premiered at the Musikverein in Vienna in February 2013.  Bodorová was a member of "Quattro", a group of Czech composers formed in 1996, also featuring Otmar Mácha (1922–2006), Luboš Fišer (1935–1999) and Zdeněk Lukáš (1928–2007). She is also involved in the restoration of Gustav Mahler's birthplace in Kaliště near Humpolec in the Czech Republic. She has also composed and arranged many compositions for children. Her music often features references to Johann Sebastian Bach's music (such as a quotation of his choral "Schmücke dich o liebe Seele" at the end of Concerto dei fiori and transcriptions of Preludium C moll from Wohl Temperiertes Klavier, Toccata D minor), and to Roma and Eastern European rhythms (her ancestors are from Hungary).

List of compositions.

Chamber music.

"Strings:"  Solo:  Duets:  Trios:  Quartets and Quintets:  More than five performers:  "Winds:"  Solo:  Duets:  More performers:

Vocal and vocal-instrumental works.

"Choir works"  commissioned by Thomas Hampson with Wiener Virtuosi

Sylvie Bodorová (born 31 December 1954, České Budějovice) is a Czech composer. During a career spanning from the late 1970s to the present day she has composed a large number of works for various instruments, both solo and orchestral pieces, and produced commissions for cities, festivals and organisations around the world. She was a founder (and only surviving) member of the Czech classical group "Quattro", formed in 1996.


Design and development.

The DH.9A was planned as an improved version of the existing Airco DH.9. The DH.9 was a disappointment owing to its under-performing and unreliable engines, and the DH.9A was to use a more powerful engine to resolve this. As the Rolls-Royce Eagle engine used in the successful DH.4 was unavailable in sufficient quantities, the new 400 hp (298 kW) American Liberty engine was chosen instead.  As Airco was busy developing the Airco DH.10 twin-engined bomber, detailed design was carried out by Westland Aircraft. The DH.9 was fitted with new, longer-span wings and a strengthened fuselage structure.  The first prototype flew in March 1918, powered by a Rolls-Royce Eagle as no Liberty engines were yet available. The prototype proved successful, with the first Liberty-engined DH.9A flying on 19 April 1918, and deliveries to the Royal Air Force starting in June. By the end of the war, a total of 2,250 DH.9As had been ordered, with 885 being built by the end of the year. As it was decided that the DH.9A would be a standard type in the postwar RAF, the majority of outstanding orders were fulfilled, with 1,730 being built under the wartime contracts before production ceased in 1919.  While the existing aircraft were subject to a programme of refurbishment, a number of small contracts were placed for new production of DH.9As in 1925–26. These contracts resulted in a further 268 DH.9As being built. The new production and refurbished aircraft included batches of dual control trainers, as well as six aircraft powered by 465 hp Napier Lion engines, which were capable of a maximum speed of 144 mph.  The Soviet Union built large numbers of an unlicensed copy of the DH.9A, the R-1. After the production of 20 DH.4 copies, followed by about 200 copies of the DH.9 powered by the Mercedes D.IV engine (also designated R-1) and a further 130 powered by the Siddeley Puma (designated R-2), a copy of the DH.9A powered by the M-5 engine, a Soviet copy of the DH.9A's Liberty, entered production in 1924. The Polikarpov R-4 was a modification of the R-1, with the engine lowered and moved forward by to improve both the forward visibility and the C.G position. The nose shape was improved by fairing and by installing a retractable ventral radiator. Overall length was increased by. Landing legs were changed from wood to steel. Testing showed insufficient improvement over the R-1 to justify production but late R-1s incorporated some of the modifications.

US version and pressurised flights.

The United States also planned to adopt the DH.9A as a replacement for the DH.4. Development work on the Americanization of the aircraft commenced at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio. Modifications included a new fuel system with increased fuel capacity, revised wings and tail surfaces, and replacement of the Vickers machine gun on the port side of the British built aircraft with a Browning machine gun on the starboard side. Plans called for Curtiss to build 4,000 modified aircraft, designated USD-9A. This order was cancelled with the end of the war and only nine were built by McCook Field and Dayton-Wright. One McCook aircraft was additionally modified with an enclosed, pressurised cockpit. In 1921, test pilot Lt. Harold R. Harris made the world's first high-altitude flight in a pressurised aircraft in the USD-9A at McCook Field in Dayton, Ohio.

Operational history.

First World War.

The DH.9A entered service in July 1918 with No. 110 Squadron RAF, moving to France on 31 August 1918 to serve with the RAF's Independent Air Force on strategic bombing missions. Its first mission was against a German airfield on 14 September 1918. A further three squadrons commenced operations over the Western Front before the Armistice, with 99 Squadron (also serving with the Independent Air Force) replacing DH.9s, while 18 Squadron and 216 Squadron replaced DH.4s. Despite the superior performance of the DH.9A over the DH.9, the DH.9A squadrons suffered high losses during their long range bombing missions over Germany. Other squadrons flew coastal patrols from Great Yarmouth before the end of the year.  The United States Marine Corps Northern Bombing Group received at least 53 DH-9As, and commenced operations in September 1918.

Interwar RAF service.

While the squadrons in service at the end of the First World War quickly disbanded or re-equipped in the postwar dis-armament, the DH.9A continued in service as the RAF's standard light bomber, with 24 squadrons being equipped between 1920 and 1931, both at home and abroad.  The first post war operations were in southern Russia in 1919, in support of the "White Army" against the Bolsheviks in the Russian Civil War. In September 1919, the RAF personnel were ordered to return home, leaving their aircraft behind. A squadron of DH.9As was deployed to Turkey in response to the Chanak Crisis in 1922, but did not engage in combat.  The DH.9A was one of the key weapons used by Britain to manage the territories that were in its control following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following the Great War. Five squadrons of DH.9As served in the Middle East, occasionally carrying out bombing raids against rebellious tribesmen and villages. An additional radiator was fitted under the fuselage to cope with the high temperatures, while additional water containers and spares (including spare wheels lashed to the fuselage) were carried in case the aircraft were forced down in the desert, the DH.9A's struggling under ever heavier loads. Despite this the aircraft served successfully, with the Liberty engine being picked out for particular praise for its reliability ("as good as any Rolls Royce") in such harsh conditions. Some DH.9A aircraft were also transported to India to supplement the British Indian Army.  At home, the DH.9A continued on in regular RAF service until 1930, also forming the initial equipment of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force (RAuxAF).

Soviet service.

The R-1 and R-2 were heavily used by the Soviet Air Forces through the 1920s as its standard light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft. The Soviets deployed them in support of the Chinese Kuomintang forces in the Northern Expedition against warlords in 1926–27, and against Chinese forces for control of the Chinese Eastern Railway in Manchuria in 1929. R-1s and R-2s were also used in support of operations during the Basmachi Revolt in central Asia.

Surviving aircraft.

A single example, serial number "F1010", survives and is on display at the Royal Air Force Museum London. The aircraft was completed by Westland Aircraft in June 1918 and was one of 18 DH.9A's assigned to No. 110 Squadron RAF. It was the thirteenth aircraft, but was given the number "12A" because thirteen was thought unlucky. The squadron began flying bombing missions in September 1918, and on the 25th, the crew of "F1010" claimed the destruction of a German Fokker D.VII fighter. The aircraft's fourth and final combat mission was on 5 October when either flak damage or engine trouble forced a landing behind German lines. The aircraft was undamaged by the landing and the crew were taken prisoner.  The aircraft remained in German hands after the war and in 1936 it was put on display at the "Deutsche Luftfahrt Sammlung" (Berlin Air Museum), one of the museum's substantial collection of World War 1 aircraft. In 1943, it was one of the museum's exhibits that was moved to Czarnikau (now Czarnkow in Poland) to save them from the Allied bombing of Berlin. The area was captured by Polish forces in March 1945 and "F1010" eventually became part of the collection of the Polish Aviation Museum, although it was not put on display and remained in the museum's stores. In 1977, the Polish Aviation Museum exchanged "F1010" for a Supermarine Spitfire from the RAF Museum (difficulties caused by the Cold War meant nearly nine years were spent negotiating the swap). The RAF Museum completed restoration of the aircraft and put it on display in 1983.

References.

Notes  Bibliography

The Airco DH.9A was a British single-engined light bomber designed and first used shortly before the end of the First World War. It was a development of the unsuccessful Airco DH.9 bomber, featuring a strengthened structure and, crucially, replacing the under-powered and unreliable inline 6-cylinder Siddeley Puma engine of the DH.9 with the American V-12 Liberty engine.


Design and construction.

The inspiration behind "Katahdin" was Rear Admiral Daniel Ammen, an advocate of a coastal defense navy. Ammen was impressed by the British torpedo ram HMS "Polyphemus". Unlike "Polyphemus", which was primarily a torpedo boat, with ramming a secondary function, the American design was for a pure ram, with no torpedoes carried.  "Katahdin"s design was a new departure in naval architecture, built to ride extremely low in the water with her bow awash while under way. Her hull embodied several new features later used in early submarines. A similar design was the whaleback freighters of the Great Lakes which went into production in 1887,  An order was placed for construction of a prototype armored ram in 1889. Her keel was laid down by the Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine in July 1891. She was launched on 4 February, 1893, sponsored by Miss Una Soley, daughter of James R. Soley, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 20 February 1897 with Commander Richard P. Leary in command.

Service history.

Although "Katahdin"s engines were more powerful than specified, "Katahdin" failed to reach the contracted speed of, requiring the passing of special legislation to allow her to be accepted by the Navy. Conditions aboard the ship were extremely uncomfortable, as it was cramped and had very poor ventilation, leading to almost intolerable temperatures being recorded.  "Katahdin" departed New York Harbor 4 March 1897, the day of President William McKinley's first inauguration, and sailed to Norfolk, Virginia, before decommissioning at Philadelphia Naval Yard on 17 April. A year later, with the Navy preparing for an impending war with Spain, she recommissioned there 10 March 1898. She was attached to the North Atlantic Squadron and operated along the Atlantic Coast from New England to Norfolk protecting the nation's seaboard cities from possible attack. After decisive American naval victories at Manila Bay and Santiago Harbor eliminated this threat, the ram decommissioned for the last time at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 8 October.  "Katahdin" was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 July 1909 and designated "Ballistic Experimental Target 'A'. "Katahdin" was sunk by gunfire at Rappahannock Spit, Virginia, that September.

USS "Katahdin", a harbor-defense ram of innovative design, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for Mount Katahdin, a mountain peak in Maine.


Early life and service.

Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick was born in Beith, Ayrshire, Scotland on 25 May 1896, the only son of Neil James Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick (later Sir Neil) and Eleonora Agnes Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick of Woodside and Ladyland. He had three sisters, all younger.  He attended Wellington College in Berkshire and Trinity College, Cambridge before training at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.

Flying service.

Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick qualified as a pilot in April 1915. He was so skilled a flier that he was assigned as chief test pilot to No. 1 Aeroplane Depot at Saint-Omer, France. He was officially seconded to the Royal Flying Corps from The Rifle Brigade on 11 June 1915.  On 17 March 1916, he was promoted from second lieutenant to lieutenant while staying seconded to the RFC. On 26 April, he achieved his first victory despite his test pilot status. He used Nieuport No. 5172 to attack an LVG C-type three times. The LVG crash-landed with a dead crew. He was awarded the Military Cross on 16 May 1916, for this capture of an enemy plane.  As a result of his victory and award, he was transferred to No. 70 Squadron to fly Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutters. He scored victories two and three on 14 and 15 September 1916, having his observer killed on both occasions. He was promoted to Captain and transferred to No. 23 Squadron in early 1917 to fly Spad VIIs. He shot a double on 22 April to become an ace. He won twice more in April, and again on 2 May. His next victory, on 11 May, would be his most notable; he set afire the Albatros D.III of "Jasta" 5's triple-ace "Offz. Stlvtr." Edmund Nathanael, its fuselage falling away from its wings and plunged in flames to earth.  It was also during this stretch that he was entrusted by Major General Hugh Trenchard to evaluate the new Spad XIII at La Bonne Maison Aerodrome. He turned in his report to Trenchard on 1 May 1917.  Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick claimed three more times in May, four times in June, and five in July. After his final victory, on 16 July 1917, he was promoted to acting Major on 22 July, and given command of No. 60 Squadron.  In lieu of a second award, he was awarded a Bar to his Military Cross on 14 August 1917. A month later, on 17 September he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order.  He was Mentioned in Despatches on 7 November 1917 by Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig. He was denoted as a lieutenant doing a job two grades his senior; he was a temporary major.  At the end of 1917 he was transferred back to England to the Training Directorate of the Air Board. From there, he returned to No. 1 AD in 1918.  His war time tally was 1 captured, 6 and 4 shared destroyed, 9 and 1 shared 'out of control'.

Postwar life.

He resigned his commission on 9 July 1919. He became a major in the General Reserve of Officers the same day.  He married Natalie Bertha Tanner of Larches, Rusherville, Kent on 20 July 1924. They had a single son two years later, Neil Aylmer Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick (later Neil Aylmer Hunter).  He went on to fly a lot of aerial survey work in the postwar years. He carried out surveys in South America, Burma, Iraq, and Africa. He established his own company, The Aircraft Operating Company of South Africa Pty Ltd. He had a contract for a air route survey in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia).  He was elected to membership of the Royal Aero Club on 10 December 1930.  Then, on 26 September 1933, he took off from Baragwanath Airport near Johannesburg, South Africa, flying a de Havilland DH.84 Dragon, registration ZS-AEF. He stalled out at after making a steep turn. The resulting crash killed him and his passenger, Sir Michael Oppenheimer, 2nd Baronet.

Honours and awards.

Military Cross (MC) Military Cross (MC) Bar  Distinguished Service Order (DSO)

Major William John Charles Kennedy-Cochran-Patrick DSO, MC & Bar (25 May 1896 – 26 September 1933) was a First World War flying ace, credited with 21 aerial victories. He was the leading ace flying the Spad VII fighter, and of No. 23 Squadron. He later flew aerial surveys on three continents.


Biography.

At the age of six he lost both his parents and grew up in Lemberg (then Poland) where his uncle played in the theatre orchestra. He simultaneously studied at the philosophy faculty of the University of Lemberg and at the Lemberg Conservatory (singing and composition with and ). In 1911 he made his professional opera debut at the Lviv Opera as Colline in Giacomo Puccini's "La bohème". In the season 1913-1914 he sang at the Great Theatre in Poznań. During the 1916-1919 he was the member of Studio Piotrowsky, Teatr Stołeczny and Teatr Wielki in Warsaw. In 1915 he made also his opera directing debut with an expressionistic performance of "The Tales of Hoffmann" by Jacques Offenbach.  In 1921 Munclinger left Poland to join the Slovak National Theatre in Bratislava where he was committed until 1924. At this theatre he staged numerous premieres, among them the famous Slovak premiere of "Káťa Kabanová" in 1923 in the presence of Leoš Janáček who appreciated Munclinger's performance as the best at that time. During his engagement in Bratislava Munclinger married the actress Lenka Honty.  After his Vienna tour in 1925 Josef František Munclinger was engaged as a soloist at the Vienna State Opera. He signed already the contract but shortly after signing he preferred the offer of cooperation by the new Opera chief at the National Theatre in Prague Otakar Ostrčil and became for more than 25 years (between 1925 and 1951) a significant opera stage director and singer of this prominent Czech stage. He sang the Magician in the world premiere of Jaromír Weinberger's "Schwanda the Bagpiper" on 27 April 1927 as well as the role of the second apprentice in the Czech premiere of Alban Berg's "Wozzeck" on 11 November 1926. In 1942 he starred in the world premiere of František Škroup's "Columbus" (composed in 1855). Among the other roles he performed Basilio in "The Barber of Seville", Beneš in "Dalibor", Chrudoš in "Libuše", Gian Francesci in "La Juive", the Grand Inquisitor in "Don Carlos", Herrmann in "Tannhäuser", Kecal in "The Bartered Bride", Malina in "The Secret", Marbuel in "The Devil and Kate", Mephistopheles in "Faust", Ramfis in "Aida", Scarpia in "Tosca", Tonio in "Pagliacci", Vodník in "Rusalka", and Volfram Olbramovič in "The Brandenburgers in Bohemia".  Since the 1920s Munclinger worked as a guest artist at the opera houses and concert stages in Budapest, Vienna, Berlin, Paris, Poznaň and Warsaw. After his retirement from the National Theatre in Prague in 1951 he was also active as a teacher at the Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts in Brno where he stimulated and helped to establish the first opera directing department. He tutored numerous Czech and Slovak opera directors.  Josef Munclinger also wrote books on dramatic art (e.g. "Hercova tvář a maska"), translated and wrote opera librettos, worked as scenic designer and upgraded the Czech stage directing with technical news like projected scene or sound amplifiers.  Having never retired from the stage, Munclinger died in Mariánské Lázně in 1954 at the age of 66. His son Milan Munclinger was an important conductor, flutist and musicologist and his brother-in-law Tibor Honty was a notable Czech photographer.

Josef František Munclinger, also Josef František Munclingr (13 September 1888 Nítkovice, Moravia, then Austria-Hungary – 31 October 1954 Mariánské Lázně, Czech Republic, then Czechoslovakia) was a Czech operatic bass and opera stage director who had an active international career from the 1910s through the 1950s. His voice is preserved on a number of recordings made for the Ultraphon and Supraphon labels.


Plot.

Arnold Rimmer (Chris Barrie) seeks to keep the ship "spick and span" and arranges for Dave Lister (Craig Charles) to be obedient by having his cigarettes confiscated; when Cat (Danny John-Jules) finds them, Rimmer offers him a deal to return them in exchange for getting all the fish he wants from the food dispensers. However, Lister refuses to let this get to him, instead wondering why he could not be with a hologram of his true love Kristine Kochanski (Clare Grogan). When he questions Holly (Norman Lovett) over his decision to revive Rimmer and not anyone else, particularly Kochanski or one of his drinking buddies, the computer explains that Rimmer was considered by him to be the best to keep Lister sane.  Regardless of Holly's answer, Lister demands Rimmer to let him have Kochanski as a hologram for a few hours. Rimmer refuses his request leading to an argument between the pair, which prompts Lister to declare his intention outrank him by passing his exams. Rimmer naturally assumes he plans to pass the Astronavigation Exam, which Lister and himself has failed before. He soon discovers that Lister seeks to pass the chef's exam, which is much easier and will still allow him to outrank Rimmer. Rimmer gets increasingly nervous when Lister appears to be doing well with his study prodding a cake and other foods quite well. Rimmer realise Lister may pass to prevent this, Rimmer corrupts his image to appear and sound like Kochanski and convince him that she wouldn't be interested in someone like Lister, but fails when he acts out of character. Once the exam results come in, Rimmer nervously asks how he did, to which Lister smugly implies that he passed, refusing to show off his results.

Production.

The story was written as pure sitcom at the request from the BBC who didn't want the show to be too heavy on science fiction elements. Lister's disco music, "Fakin'", was by Motor City Diva and Danny John-Jules.  Returning "Red Dwarf" crew members, and Lister's drinking buddies, included Paul Bradley as Chen, David Gillespie as Selby and Mark Williams as Peterson. Clare Grogan also returned as Kochanski.

Reception.

"Balance of Power" was originally broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 28 February 1988 in the 9:00pm evening time slot. Although the pilot episode "The End" drew in over five million viewers, this figure was now tailing off slightly as the series progressed. The episode was considered by "Red Dwarf Smegazine" readers to be one of the weakest from the first series, coming last in a readers poll with 0.1% of the votes.

Remastering.

The remastering of Series I to III was carried out during the late 1990s. Changes throughout the series included replacement of the opening credits, giving the picture a colour grade and filmising, computer generated special effects of "Red Dwarf" and many more visual and audio enhancements. Changes specific to "Balance of Power" include a new shot of Lister riding his bike down the ship's corridor, new re-shot scenes with new dialogue from Holly, pieces of dialogue removed entailing the 'black card' situation lines. A music cue has been added to scenes of Rimmer, when using Kochanksi's hologramatic body, trying to distract Lister during his chef's exam. Also, certain shots and some inconsistent dialogue have been removed from the same scene.

"Balance of Power" is the third episode of science fiction comedy "Red Dwarf" series one. It was first broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 29 February 1988. Written by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor, and directed by Ed Bye. The story revolves around Lister's desire to bring his one true love, Kristine Kochanski, back as a hologram.


Club career.

Halenár, a native of Trnava, moved to Bratislava at the age of 18, when he joined Slovakia's reigning champions, Inter Bratislava. He impressed in the 2004-05 campaign, in which he scored 12 goals for the club in the Corgoň Liga. Following the first game of the new season, in which he bagged two goals against Ružomberok, Halenár transferred to Artmedia for an undisclosed fee, reported to be in the region of 20 million Slovak crowns. In only his second game for Artmedia on 27 July 2005, he scored a hat-trick against Celtic Glasgow in the 2005 UEFA Champions League second qualifying round tie.  In summer 2008, Halenár was sold to Slovan Bratislava. The striker scored two goals on his debut for Slovan in a 4–1 victory against Tatran Prešov. He became the top all time scorer in the Slovak top flight on 10 August 2014, when he scored a brace against Košice, surpassing Róbert Semeník's record of 120 goals. In January 2015, Halenár left the Slovak league and signed for Hungarian team Nyíregyháza Spartacus, where he stayed until the end of the season. Afterwards, he joined Sigma Olomouc on 9 July 2015. In December 2015, he left the club due to family reasons.

International career.

Halenár played at two youth tournaments for his country, the UEFA European Under-19 Championship in 2002 and the Under-20 FIFA World Youth Championship in 2003. On 13 November 2007, he made his debut for Slovakia's senior team in a qualifying game for the 2008 European Championship against the Czech Republic. Halenár also played in next two matches of the national team, when he came on as a substitute against San Marino and Hungary.

Death.

On 30 June 2018, just two days after his 35th birthday, Halenár was found dead in the woods of Vrakuňa outside the Slovak capital of Bratislava. The first reports state that he committed suicide.

Juraj Halenár (28 June 1983 – 30 June 2018) was a Slovak football forward who was most famous for playing for Slovan Bratislava.


Design and development.

The Ka-60 has an estimated local military market of 200 units (Army aviation units, Border Police and the Ministry of Internal Affairs). The Ka-60 is to be used for aerial reconnaissance, for transporting air-assault forces, radio-electronic jamming, for special-operations missions and for various light-transport missions. Variations for foreign sale are expected. Manufacture is to take place at Ulan-Ude.  The development of the helicopter was long. The program started in 1984, but the first prototype Ka-60-01 flew in December 1998, and the second in 2007.  A civil version, the Ka-62, was initially proposed when the Ka-60 programme was launched, but no production followed owing to development problems with the Ka-60's Saturn RD-600V 1500 hp engines. Instead, an agreement was signed in April 2011 to use the Turbomeca Ardiden 3G turboshaft for a revised Ka-62. A five-bladed main rotor will be driven via a new transmission, while the helicopter will have a revised cabin with larger windows and new avionics. First flight of the Ka-62 was planned for May 2013, with certification in 2014. Four prototypes and an initial batch of 16 Ka-62s for the Russian Ministry of Defence were planned, with another 12 ordered by South American civilian customers. It has a fantail, a 30-minute run-dry gearbox by Zoerkler, and can operate on one engine up to 9,500 ft (2,900m). Development of the Ka-62, with its western systems and powerplant, has been slow, and the helicopter made several turns over the tarmac on 28 April 2016. On 25 May 2017 it made its maiden flight proper, a 15-minute flight at a speed of up to 110 km/h. Russian certification was expected in 2018, with European EASA certification following in 2020.

The Kamov Ka-60 "Kasatka" (, "Barn swallow") is a Russian medium twin-turbine military transport helicopter under development by Kamov. It performed its first flight on 24 December 1998.


Biography.

Jelínek was born at Tisa u Žlutic.  He studied painting and illustration as a pupil of František Tichý, but also showed early promise as a talented and skilful trumpeter. At first he worked as a professional painter and illustrator, and played in various amateur jazz ensembles, but in 1945 he began a part-time professional career as a trumpeter with the "Karel Vlach Orchestra" and the "Gustav Brom Orchestra" and began to use the distinctive, hoarse singing voice which later became one of his most notable characteristics. Jelínek left the "Karel Vlach Orchestra" and joined the "Taneční orchestr Československého rozhlasu" (Dance Orchestra of the Czechoslovak Radio), still dividing his time between his two part-time professional careers. In 1963 joined the "Semafor Theatre" as a replacement for Waldemar Matuška of the successful Semafor duo Matuška/Pilarová. In the event, both Matuška and Pilarová left to work with the Rokoko Theatre, and the Semafor's founders, Jiří Suchý and Jiří Šlitr, brought in Jana Malknechtová to partner Jelínek. Suchý and Šlitr composed ""Motýl"" (The Butterfly) for the duo. It became one of the best-selling recordings of its time. Jelínek sang other Semafor hits, including ""Zčervená"", ""Bolí mě hlava"" and "Chlupatý kaktus". He also took an acting role in the 1964 film "Kdyby tisíc klarinetů". Jelínek admired (and convincingly imitated) the famous jazz trumpeter and singer Louis Armstrong, whom he met during Armstrong's first visit to Prague and to whom he dedicated the song ""Hello Satchmo"". In 1963 he left the Semafor Theatre to perform with his own sextet. In 1968 he was one of the few members of the "Karel Duba Orchestra" to survive a tragic bus accident during their tour of Mongolia. The incident left a permanent mark on Jelínek's state of mind. He gradually retired from music, devoted himself to painting and worked for Czech Railways in Prague's Main railway station until his death in 1984 in Prague.

Jiří Jelínek (6 July 1922 – 16 October 1984) was a Czech painter, illustrator, jazz trumpeter, and popular singer, one of the music legends of the Semafor Theatre in 1960s. His hoarse singing voice – similar to Louis Armstrong's – earned him the nickname ""The Czech Satchmo"".


History.

Several thousand Czechoslovak soldiers served in the Battle of France. 206 Czechoslovak Army volunteers were in Beirut, Lebanon, waiting to be posted to join the Czechoslovak 1st Infantry Division in France when France capitulated to Nazi Germany. Vichy France could have interned the men and surrendered them to the German military authorities, had not the Czechoslovak Consul-General in Jerusalem secured visas for them to move to Mandatory Palestine.  The Czechoslovaks were housed in a camp at Al-Sumayriyya north of Acre. Further arrivals increased the group to 280 and it was formed into the 4th Infantry Regiment as part of the Czechoslovak 1st Infantry Division. The regiment was then transferred south to a camp at Gedera near Tel Aviv to be armed and trained. On 1 October 1940 at Gedera the regiment was reconstituted as the 11th Infantry Battalion. Lt-Col Karel Klapálek was appointed commanding officer.  In December 1940 the battalion received acclimatization training and then was posted to Egypt, where it was assigned guard duty at camps first at Sidi Bishr and then at Agami. On 30 May it was put under the command of the British 23rd Infantry Brigade and posted to Sidi Haneish near Mersa Matruh.  In June and July 1941 the 23rd Infantry Brigade, including the Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion, fought in the Allied invasion of Syria and Lebanon. In August the battalion was stationed on Syria's border with Turkey. In August 1941 the Czechoslovak government-in-exile asked for the 11th Battalion to be moved to Britain to be united with Czechoslovak forces there. The British military authorities refused, and instead on 6 October 1941 transferred the battalion from the 23rd Infantry Brigade to the Polish Independent Carpathian Rifle Brigade, which was besieged in Tobruk in Libya. The battalion served at Tobruk for 158 days, including 51 in combat.  At the end of December 1941 the battalion was withdrawn to the rear and transferred to the 38th Indian Infantry Brigade. In April 1942 the battalion was returned to Palestine and in May it was reorganised as the 200th Czechoslovak Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, with Karel Klapálek continuing as its commander.

In popular culture.

The 2008 Czech film "Tobruk" portrays a Czechoslovak battalion in the Siege of Tobruk in 1941. The film won a Czech Lion Award.

The Czechoslovak 11th Infantry Battalion – East () was a Czechoslovak infantry battalion in the Second World War. It served under the British Middle East Command in the Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre.


History.

The first written mention of Rýnovice is from 1559, but the village may be older. Until the end of World War II the village was inhabited mainly by ethnic Germans. The town was known for suffering through frequent fires that may have been related to the large amount of foreign troop movements that it saw during the Thirty Years War, the Napoleonic wars and the Austro-Prussian War.  The dominant Reinowitz Holy Ghost church dates from 1697-8 and was renovated in 1882 and 1995. Roads joining Reinowitz with the towns of Wemschen, Luxdorf and Reichenberg were built in 1852. The cemetery was dominated by the Priebsch family tomb from 1862–4. In 1900, the village was connected to the tram network of Gablonz an der Neiße. In 1910, Reinowitz was home to nearly 1150 people.  The Munich Agreement permitted Nazi Germany's Adolf Hitler to annex the area, in 1938, into what he called the Sudetenland. There were several small glass works and brickworks. Just before the war began a complex of factories were built, which today is an industrial zone in the town of Jablonec nad Nisou. During World War II, Reinowitz was the location of a subcamp of the Gross-Rosen concentration camp providing forced labour for the German firm "Feinapparatenbau GmbH". Its prisoners were mostly Poles, but also Czechs, Russians and Germans. Following World War II, in 1945, the town returned to Czechoslovakia and the German inhabitants were expelled under the terms of the Potsdam Agreement and Beneš decrees.

Present.

Rynovice has become part of the major industrial town of Jablonec nad Nisou. The site of the former LIAZ truck factory, a division of Škoda Auto open from 1952 to 2002, now houses several industrial companies such as TI Automotive and Tedom. The neighbourhood has welcomed a new factory from the company Raymond. Today nearly 2200 people live in Rýnovice. A reconstructed frame house was today houses the "House of Czech-German understanding". In Rýnovice, a prison houses around 500 prisoners.

Rýnovice () is part of the town of Jablonec nad Nisou in the district of Jablonec nad Nisou, in the Liberec region, in the Czech Republic. Today nearly 2200 people live in Rýnovice.


Plot introduction.

This novel is an imaginative reconstruction of the life of a band of Neanderthals. It is written in such a way that the reader might assume the group to be modern "Homo sapiens" as they gesture and speak simply among themselves, and bury their dead with heartfelt, solemn rituals. They also have powerful sense impressions and feelings, and appear sometimes to share thoughts in a near-telepathic way. As the novel progresses it becomes more and more apparent that they live very simply, using their considerable mental abilities to connect to one another without extensive vocabulary or the kinds of memories that create culture. They have wide knowledge of food sources, mostly roots and vegetables. They chase hyenas from a larger beast's kill and eat meat, but they don't kill mammals themselves. They have a spiritual system centring on a female principle of bringing forth, but their lives are lived so much in the present that the reader realizes they are very different from us, living in something like an eternal present, or at most a present broken and shaped by seasons.  One of the band, Lok, is a point of view character. He is the one we follow as one by one the adults of the band die or are killed, then the young are stolen by the "new people," a group of early modern humans. Lok and Fa, the remaining adults, are fascinated and repelled by the new people. They observe their actions and rituals with amazement, only slowly understanding that harm is meant by the sticks of the new people.  The humans are portrayed as strange, godlike beings as the neanderthals witness their mastery of fire, Upper Palaeolithic weaponry and sailing.  All save the last chapters of the novel are written from the Neanderthals' stark, simple stylistic perspective. Their observations of early human behaviour serve as a filter for Golding's exercise in paleoanthropology, in which modern readers will recognize precursors of later human societal constructs, e.g., religion, culture, sacrifice and war.  The penultimate chapter employs an omniscient viewpoint, observing Lok. For the first time, the novel describes the people the reader has been inhabiting through the first-person perspective. Lok, totally alone, gives up in despair. In the final chapter, we move to the point of view of the new race, more or less modern humans fleeing in their boats, revealing that they are terribly afraid of the Neanderthals (whom they believe to be devils of the forest) and of pretty much everything around. This last chapter, the only one written from the humans' point of view, reinforces the inheritance of the world by the new species.  The fleeing humans carry with them an infant Neanderthal, of whom they are simultaneously afraid and enamoured, hinting at the later hypothesis of inter-breeding between Neanderthals and modern humans.  The book, particularly the last chapter, was the inspiration for the song "A Trick of the Tail" by British rock band Genesis.

The Inheritors is a work of prehistoric fiction and the second novel, published in 1955, by the British author William Golding, best known for "Lord of the Flies". It concerns the extinction of one of the last remaining tribes of Neanderthals at the hands of the more sophisticated "Homo sapiens".


Description.

The wood of "D. zibethinus" is reddish brown.

Ecology.

"D. zibethinus" flowers are visited by bats which eat the pollen and pollinate the flowers. The flowers open in the afternoon and shed pollen in the evening. By the following morning, the calyx, petals, and stamens have fallen off to leave only the gynoecium of the flower.

Food uses.

Over the centuries, numerous durian cultivars, propagated by vegetative clones, have arisen in southeast Asia. They used to be grown with mixed results from seeds of trees bearing superior quality fruit, but now are propagated by layering, marcotting, or more commonly, by grafting, including bud, veneer, wedge, whip or U-grafting onto seedlings of randomly selected rootstocks. Different cultivars may be distinguished to some extent by variations in the fruit shape, such as the shape of the spines. Durian consumers express preferences for specific cultivars, which fetch higher prices in the market.  Most cultivars have a common name and a code number starting with "D". For example, some popular clones are Kop (D99 ), Chanee (D123, ), Berserah or Green Durian or Tuan Mek Hijau (D145 ), Kan Yao (D158, ), Mon Thong (D159, ), Kradum Thong ( ), and with no common name, D24 and D169. Each cultivar has a distinct taste and odour. More than 200 cultivars of "D. zibethinus" exist in Thailand.  Mon thong is the most commercially sought after for its thick, full-bodied creamy and mild sweet tasting flesh with relatively moderate smell emitted and smaller seeds, while Chanee is the best in terms of its resistance to infection by "Phytophthora palmivora". Kan Yao is somewhat less common, but prized for its longer window of time when it is both sweet and odorless at the same time. Among all the cultivars in Thailand, five are currently in large-scale commercial cultivation: Chanee, Mon Thong, Kan Yao, Ruang, and Kradum. There have been more than 100 registered cultivars since the 1920s in Malaysia and up to 193 cultivars by 1992. Many superior cultivars have been identified through competitions held at the annual Malaysian Agriculture, Horticulture, and Agrotourism Show. In Vietnam, the same process has been achieved through competitions held by the Southern Fruit Research Institute. A recently popular variety is Musang King.  By 2007, Thai government scientist Songpol Somsri had crossbred more than ninety varieties of durian to create Chantaburi No. 1, a cultivar without the characteristic odour. Another hybrid, Chantaburi No. 3, develops the odour about three days after the fruit is picked, which enables an odourless transport yet satisfies consumers who prefer the pungent odour. On 22 May 2012, two other cultivars from Thailand that also lack the usual odour, Long Laplae and Lin Laplae, were presented to the public by Yothin Samutkhiri, governor of Uttaradit Province, from where these cultivars were developed locally, and announced the dates for the yearly durian fair of Laplae District, and the names given to both cultivars.  In addition to the pulp being edible, the seeds can be eaten after being roasted.

Durio zibethinus is the most common tree species in the genus "Durio" that are known as durian and have edible fruit also known as durian.


Definition.

The full version of the chant, as heard prior to a free outdoor concert at the time of the Sydney 2000 Olympics and quoted by Luba Vangelova of CNNSI, is as follows:  The chant was widely used during the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, being heard at many public entertainment venues and also on public transport. The chant came to be commonly heard at international sporting events where an Australian team was competing.

Origins and explanation.

A chant of similar form, "Oggy Oggy Oggy", has been used for decades by football crowds in Britain.  Members of the British Royal Navy claim to have used the Oggy Oggy Oggy chant, or a version of it, since the Second World War.  Englishman Ron Knox claims to have used the "Oggy" chant while playing for the Box Hill Rugby Club in Melbourne in the late 1960s. Various conflicting stories of how it was introduced from Britain to Australia can be found.  According to Stephen Alomes, a professor of Australian studies at Deakin University, the chant represents "enthusiasm for the tribe" and a "celebration of 'us' ", but at the extreme may act as a symbol of aggressive nationalism and xenophobia.  In 2012, after Foxtel offered a $10,000 prize in a competition for coming up with a new phrase to cheer on athletes, Germaine Greer argued:  "The cry is catchy. Any crowd can pick it up and it cuts through the surrounding white noise like a military tattoo. It is as jingoistic to reject it because it was originally British as it would be to prize it for the same reason... There will be no silencing Australian fans at the Olympics and they won't be bullied by Foxtel, either."

Commercial and publicity uses.

At the closing ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Olympics, the IOC President, Juan Antonio Samaranch reflected the spirit of the whole affair when, during his formal speech, he said, "What can I say? Maybe, with my Spanish accent, Aussie! Aussie! Aussie!". The response to these words came from all around the stadium, "Oi! Oi! Oi!".  In 2004, a Melbourne couple, inspired by a Dick Smith campaign supporting Australian-made products, and following publicity surrounding the ownership of the trademark for the Australian-developed Ugg boots being owned by a United States company, registered the phrase as an official trademark in an effort to protect it from overseas exploitation.  At the conclusion of winning the main event of the 2005 World Series of Poker, Australian supporters of winner Joe Hachem chanted this victoriously during the primetime viewing of the poker event on ESPN.  At the conclusion of the Prize giving ceremony for the 2008 Super 14 final at AMI Stadium in Christchurch, New Zealand, the winning team, the Crusaders, chanted "Robbie Robbie Robbie Oi Oi Oi" to farewell their Coach Robbie Deans, who was leaving to coach the Australian national team, the Wallabies.  In a promotional video for the American professional wrestling company WWE, Australian wrestler Emma chanted the song in support of the Australia national soccer team during the 2014 FIFA World Cup.  It is also a popular chant during Australian Cricket Team's matches.  The chant is also a fixture at men's basketball games at Saint Mary's College of California, a school that has regularly featured Australian players in the 21st century.  It is chanted by the Australian band Chase Atlantic on backstage before their concerts.

"Aussie Aussie Aussie, Oi Oi Oi" is a cheer or chant often performed at Australian sport events. It is a variation of the Oggy Oggy Oggy chant used by both association football and rugby union fans in Great Britain from the 1960s onwards. It is usually performed by a crowd uniting to support a sports team or athlete. The alternate is for an individual to chant the line "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!" and the crowd to respond with "Oi! Oi! Oi!". A variation of this is for an individual to chant, "Aussie!", with the crowd responding, "Oi!", along the lines of, "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!", "Oi, Oi, Oi!"' "Aussie!", "Oi!", "Aussie", Oi!", "Aussie, Aussie, Aussie!", "Oi, Oi, Oi!".


Appearance and physical characteristics.

"Paramecium caudatum" is 170–330 micrometres long (usually 200–300 micrometres). The cell body is spindle-shaped, rounded at the front, tapering at the posterior to a blunt point. Early microscopists likened its shape to that of a slipper, and commonly referred to it as the "slipper animalcule." The pellicle is uniformly covered with cilia, and has a long oral groove, leading to deeply embedded oral cavity, lined with cilia (short, hair-like protoplasmic processes that serve as organs of locomotion and food capture). "P. caudatum" has two contractile vacuoles, which serve to excrete excess water taken up from the outside, regulating the water contents of the body. Radially distributed "collecting canals" give the contractile vacuoles a distinctive star-like shape. The cell is enclosed by a cellular envelope (cortex) densely studded with spindle-shaped extrusomes called trichocysts.  "P. caudatum" feed on bacteria and small eukaryotic cells, such as yeast and flagellate algae. the accumulated food particles, at the posterior end of the cytopharynx, are directed by the long cilia into the rounded, ball-like mass in the endoplasm called food vacuole. The food vacuoles are circulated by the streaming movement of the endoplasm which is called cyclosis. In hypotonic conditions (freshwater), the cell absorbs water by osmosis. It regulates osmotic pressure with the help of bladder-like contractile vacuoles, gathering internal water through its star-shaped radial canals and expelling the excess through the plasma membrane. When moving through the water, they follow a spiral path while rotating on the long axis.  "Paramecium" have two nuclei (a large macronucleus and a single compact micronucleus). They cannot survive without the macronucleus and cannot reproduce without the micronucleus. Like all ciliates, "Paramecia" reproduce asexually, by binary fission. During reproduction, the macronucleus splits by a type of amitosis, and the micronuclei undergo mitosis. The cell then divides transversally, and each new cell obtains a copy of the micronucleus and the macronucleus.  Fission may occur as part of the normal vegetative cell cycle. Under certain conditions, it may be preceded by self-fertilization (autogamy), or it may follow conjugation, a sexual phenomenon in which "Paramecia" of compatible mating types fuse temporarily and exchange genetic material. During conjugation, the micronuclei of each conjugant divide by meiosis and the haploid gametes pass from one cell to the other. The gametes of each organism then fuse to form diploid micronuclei. The old macronuclei are destroyed, and new ones are developed from the new micronuclei.  Without the rejuvenating effects of autogamy or conjugation a "Paramecium" ages and dies. Only opposite mating types, or genetically compatible organisms, can unite in conjugation.

Paramecium caudatum is a species of unicellular organisms belonging to the genus "Paramecium" of the phylum Ciliophora. They can reach 0.33 mm in length and are covered with minute hair-like organelles called cilia. The cilia are used in locomotion and feeding. The species is very common, and widespread in marine, brackish and freshwater environments.


Etymology.

The vernacular name "hartebeest" could have originated from the obsolete Afrikaans word "hertebeest", literally "deer beast". The name was given by the Boers, based on the resemblance of the antelope to deer. The first use of the word "hartebeest" in South African literature was in Dutch colonial administrator Jan van Riebeeck's journal "Daghregister" in 1660. He wrote: ""Meester Pieter ein hart-beest geschooten hadde" (Master Pieter [van Meerhoff] had shot one hartebeest)". Another name for the hartebeest is "kongoni", a Swahili word. "Kongoni" is often used to refer in particular to one of its subspecies—Coke's hartebeest.

Taxonomy.

The scientific name of the hartebeest is "Alcelaphus buselaphus". First described by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in 1766, it is classified in the genus "Alcelaphus" and placed in the family Bovidae. In 1979, palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba supported "Sigmoceros" as a separate genus for Lichtenstein's hartebeest, a kind of hartebeest, as she assumed it was related to "Connochaetes" (wildebeest). She had analysed the skull characters of living and extinct species of antelope to make a cladogram, and argued that a wide skull linked Lichtenstein's hartebeest with "Connochaetes". However, this finding was not replicated by Alan W. Gentry of the Natural History Museum, who classified it as an independent species of "Alcelaphus". Zoologists such as Jonathan Kingdon and Theodor Haltenorth considered it to be a subspecies of "A. buselaphus". Vrba dissolved the new genus in 1997 after reconsideration. An MtDNA analysis could find no evidence to support a separate genus for Lichtenstein's hartebeest. It also showed the tribe Alcelaphini to be monophyletic, and discovered close affinity between the "Alcelaphus" and the sassabies (genus "Damaliscus")—both genetically and morphologically.

Subspecies.

Eight subspecies are identified, of which two – "A. b. caama" and "A. b. lichtensteinii" – have been considered to be independent species. However, a 1999 genetic study by P. Arctander of the University of Copenhagen and colleagues, which sampled the control region of the mitochondrial DNA, found that these two formed a clade within "A. buselaphus", and that recognising these as species would render "A. buselaphus" paraphyletic (an unnatural grouping). The same study found "A. b. major" to be the most divergent, having branched off before the lineage split to give a combined "caama/lichtensteinii" lineage and another that gave rise to the remaining extant subspecies. Conversely a 2001 phylogenetic study, based on D–loop and cytochrome b analysis by Øystein Flagstad (of the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim) and colleagues, found that the southern lineage of "A. b. caama" and "A. lichtensteinii" diverged earliest. Analysis of skull structure supports partition into three major divisions: "A. b. buselaphus" division (nominate, also including "A. b. major" division), "A. b. tora" division (also including "A. b. cokii" and "A. b. swaynei") and "A. b. lelwel" division. Another analysis of cytochrome b and D-loop sequence data shows a notable affinity between the "A. b. lelwel" and "A. b. tora " divisions.  The eight subspecies, including the two controversial ones, are:

Genetics and hybrids.

In 2000, a study scrutinised two major populations of the Swayne's hartebeest, from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary and the Nechisar National Park, for mitochondrial (D-loop) and nuclear (microsatellite) variability in an attempt to estimate the levels of genetic variation between the populations and within the subspecies. The results showed a remarkable differentiation between the two populations; that from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary showed more genetic diversity than the one from the Nechisar National Park. Another revelation was that the translocation of the individuals from the Senkele Wildlife Sanctuary in 1974 had not made a significant contribution to the gene pool of the Nechisar National Park. Additionally, the Swayne hartebeest populations were compared with a large red hartebeest population, and both subspecies were found to have a high degree of genetic variation. The study advocated in situ conservation of the Swayne's hartebeest and a renewed attempt at its translocation in order to conserve genetic diversity and increase its population in both the protected areas.  The diploid number of chromosomes in the hartebeest is 40. Hybrids are usually reported from areas where ranges of two subspecies overlap. Hybrids between the Lelwel and Tora hartebeest have been reported in eastern Sudan and western Ethiopia, in a stretch southward from the Blue Nile to about 9° N latitude. A study proved a male hybrid of the red hartebeest and the blesbok ("Damaliscus pygargus") to be sterile. Sterility of the hybrid was attributed to difficulties in segregation during meiosis, indicated by azoospermia and a low number of germ cells in its seminiferous tubules.  There are three common cross-breeds between the subspecies:

Evolution.

The genus "Alcelaphus" emerged about 4.4 million years ago in a clade whose other members were "Damalops", "Numidocapra", "Rabaticeras", "Megalotragus", "Oreonagor", and "Connochaetes". An analysis using phylogeographic patterns within hartebeest populations suggested a possible origin of "Alcelaphus" in eastern Africa. "Alcelaphus" quickly radiated across the African savannas, replacing several previous forms (such as a relative of the hirola). Flagstad and colleagues showed an early split in the hartebeest populations into two distinct lineages around 0.5 million years ago – one to the north and the other to the south of the equator. The northern lineage further diverged into eastern and western lineages, nearly 0.4 million years ago, most probably as a result of the expanding central African rainforest belt and subsequent contraction of savannah habitats during a period of global warming. The eastern lineage gave rise to the Coke's, Swayne's, Tora and Lelwel hartebeest; and from the western lineage evolved the Bubal and western hartebeest. The southern lineage gave rise to Lichtenstein's and red hartebeest. These two taxa are phylogenetically close, having diverged only 0.2 million years ago. The study concluded that these major events throughout the hartebeest's evolution are strongly related to climatic factors, and that there had been successive bursts of radiation from a more permanent population—a refugium—in eastern Africa; this could be vital to understanding the evolutionary history of not only the hartebeest but also other mammals of the African savanna.  The earliest fossil record dates back to nearly 0.7 million years ago. Fossils of the red hartebeest have been found in Elandsfontein, Cornelia (Free State) and Florisbad in South Africa, as well as in Kabwe in Zambia. In Israel, hartebeest remains have been found in northern Negev, Shephelah, Sharon Plain and Tel Lachish. This population of the hartebeest was originally limited to the open country of the southernmost regions of the southern Levant. It was probably hunted in Egypt, which affected the numbers in the Levant, and disconnected it from its main population in Africa.

Description.

A large antelope with a particularly elongated forehead and oddly shaped horns, the hartebeest stands just over at the shoulder, and has a typical head-and-body length of. The weight ranges from. The tail, long, ends in a black tuft. The other distinctive features of the hartebeest are its long legs (often with black markings), short neck, and pointed ears. A study correlated the size of hartebeest species to habitat productivity and rainfall. The western hartebeest is the largest subspecies, and has a characteristic white line between the eyes. The red hartebeest is also large, with a black forehead and a contrasting light band between the eyes. The large Lelwel hartebeest has dark stripes on the front of its legs. Coke's hartebeest is moderately large, with a shorter forehead and longer tail in comparison to the other subspecies. Lichtenstein's hartebeest is smaller, with dark stripes on the front of the legs, as in the Lelwel hartebeest. The Swayne's hartebeest is smaller than the Tora hartebeest, but both have a shorter forehead and similar appearance.  Generally short and shiny, the coat varies in colour according to subspecies. The western hartebeest is a pale sandy-brown, but the front of the legs are darker. The red hartebeest is a reddish-brown, with a dark face. Black markings can be observed on the chin, the back of the neck, shoulders, hips and legs; these are in sharp contrast with the broad white patches that mark its flanks and lower rump. The Lelwel hartebeest is a reddish tan. Coke's hartebeest is reddish to tawny in the upper parts, but has relatively lighter legs and rump. Lichtenstein's hartebeest is reddish brown, though the flanks are a lighter tan and the rump whitish. The Tora hartebeest is a dark reddish brown in the upper part of the body, the face, the forelegs and the rump, but the hindlegs and the underbelly are a yellowish white. The Swayne's hartebeest is a rich chocolate brown with fine spots of white that are actually the white tips of its hairs. Its face is black save for the chocolate band below the eyes. The shoulders and upper part of the legs are black. Fine textured, the body hair of the hartebeest is about long. The hartebeest has preorbital glands (glands near the eyes) with a central duct, that secrete a dark sticky fluid in Coke's and Lichtenstein's hartebeest, and a colourless fluid in the Lelwel hartebeest.  Both sexes of all subspecies have horns, with those of females being more slender. Horns can reach lengths of ; the maximum horn length is, recorded from a Namibian red hartebeest. The horns of the western hartebeest are thick and appear U-shaped from the front and Z-shaped from the sides, growing backward at first and then forward, ending with a sharp backward turn. The horns of the red and the Lelwel hartebeest are similar to those of the western hartebeest, but appear V-shaped when viewed from the front. The Lichtenstein's hartebeest has thick parallel ringed horns, with a flat base. Its horns are shorter than those of other subspecies, curving upward then sharply forward, followed by an inward turn at an angle of about 45° and a final backward turn. The horns of Swayne's hartebeest are thin and shaped like parentheses, curving upward and then backward. The horns of the Tora hartebeest are particularly thin and spread out sideways, diverging more than in any other subspecies.  Apart from its long face, the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes. The hartebeest shares several physical traits with the sassabies (genus "Damaliscus"), such as an elongated and narrow face, the shape of the horns, the pelage texture and colour, and the terminal tuft of the tail. The wildebeest have more specialised skull and horn features than the hartebeest. The hartebeest exhibits sexual dimorphism, but only slightly, as both sexes bear horns and have similar body masses. The degree of sexual dimorphism varies by subspecies. Males are 8% heavier than females in Swayne's and Lichtenstein's hartebeest, and 23% heavier in the red hartebeest. In one study, the highest dimorphism was found in skull weight. Another study concluded that the length of the breeding season is a good predictor of dimorphism in pedicle (the bony structures from which the horns grow) height and skull weight, and the best predictor of the horn circumference.

Ecology and behaviour.

Active mainly during daytime, the hartebeest grazes in the early morning and late afternoon, and rests in shade around noon. Gregarious, the species forms herds of up to 300 individuals. Larger numbers gather in places with abundant grass. In 1963, a congregation of 10,000 animals was recorded on the plains near Sekoma Pan in Botswana. However, moving herds are not so cohesive, and tend to disperse frequently. The members of a herd can be divided into four groups: territorial adult males, non-territorial adult males, young males, and the females with their young. The females form groups of five to 12 animals, with four generations of young in the group. Females fight for dominance over the herd. Sparring between males and females is common. At three or four years of age, the males can attempt to take over a territory and its female members. A resident male defends his territory and will fight if provoked. The male marks the border of his territory through defecation.  Hartebeest are remarkably alert and cautious animals with highly developed brains. Generally calm in nature, hartebeest can be ferocious when provoked. While feeding, one individual stays on the lookout for danger, often standing on a termite mound to see farther. At times of danger, the whole herd flees in a single file after an individual suddenly starts off. Adult hartebeest are preyed upon by lions, leopards, hyenas and wild dogs; cheetahs and jackals target juveniles. Crocodiles may also prey on hartebeest.  The thin long legs of the hartebeest provide for a quick escape in an open habitat; if attacked, the formidable horns are used to ward off the predator. The elevated position of the eyes enables the hartebeest to inspect its surroundings continuously even as it is grazing. The muzzle has evolved so as to derive maximum nutrition from even a frugal diet. The horns are also used during fights among males for dominance in the breeding season; the clash of the horns is loud enough that it can be heard from hundreds of metres away. The beginning of a fight is marked with a series of head movements and stances, as well as depositing droppings on dung piles. The opponents drop onto their knees and, after giving a hammer-like blow, begin wrestling, their horns interlocking. One attempts to fling the head of the other to one side to stab the neck and shoulders with his horns. Fights are rarely serious, but can be fatal if they are.  Like the sassabies, hartebeest produce quiet quacking and grunting sounds. Juveniles tend to be more vocal than adults, and produce a quacking call when alarmed or pursued. The hartebeest uses defecation as an olfactory and visual display. Herds are generally sedentary, and tend to migrate only under adverse conditions such as natural calamities. The hartebeest is the least migratory in the tribe Alcelaphini (which also includes wildebeest and sassabies), and also consumes the least amount of water and has the lowest metabolic rate among the members of the tribe.

Parasites and diseases.

Several parasites have been isolated from the hartebeest. These parasites regularly alternate between hartebeest and gazelles or wildebeest. Hartebeest can be infected with theileriosis due to "Rhipicephalus evertsi" and "Theileria" species. South of the Sahara, common parasites include "Loewioestrus variolosus", "Gedoelstia cristata" and "G. hassleri". The latter two species can cause serious diseases such as encephalitis. However, parasites are not always harmful – 252 larvae were found in the head of one Zambian individual without any pathogenicity. Nematodes, cestodes, paramphistomes; and the roundworm "Setaria labiatopapillosa" have also been isolated from the hartebeest. In 1931, a red hartebeest in Gobabis (southwestern Africa) was infected with long, thin worms. These were named "Longistrongylus meyeri" after their collector, T. Meyer.

Diet.

Hartebeest are primarily grazers, and their diets consist mostly of grasses. A study in the Nazinga Game Ranch in Burkina Faso found that the hartebeest's skull structure eased the acquisition and chewing of highly fibrous foods. The hartebeest has much lower food intake than the other members of Alcelaphini. The long thin muzzle of the hartebeest assists in feeding on leaf blades of short grasses and nibbling off leaf sheaths from grass stems. In addition to this, it can derive nutritious food even from tall senile grasses. These adaptations of the hartebeest enable the animal to feed well even in the dry season, which is usually a difficult period for grazers. For instance, in comparison with the roan antelope, the hartebeest is better at procuring and chewing the scarce regrowth of perennial grasses at times when forage is least available. These unique abilities could have allowed the hartebeest to prevail over other animals millions of years ago, leading to its successful radiation in Africa.  Grasses generally comprise at least 80 percent of the hartebeest's diet, but they account for over 95 percent of their food in the wet season, October to May. "Jasminum kerstingii" is part of the hartebeest's diet at the start of the rainy season. Between seasons, they mainly feed on the culms of grasses. A study found that the hartebeest is able to digest a higher proportion of food than the topi and the wildebeest. In areas with scarce water, it can survive on melons, roots, and tubers.  In a study of grass selectivity among the wildebeest, zebra, and the Coke's hartebeest, the hartebeest showed the highest selectivity. All animals preferred "Themeda triandra" over "Pennisetum mezianum" and "Digitaria macroblephara". More grass species were eaten in the dry season than in the wet season.

Reproduction.

Mating in hartebeest takes place throughout the year, with one or two peaks that can be influenced by the availability of food. Both males and females reach sexual maturity at one to two years of age. Reproduction varies by the subspecies and local factors. Mating takes place in the territories defended by a single male, mostly in open areas. The males may fight fiercely for dominance, following which the dominant male smells the female's genitalia, and follows her if she is in oestrus. Sometimes a female in oestrus holds out her tail slightly to signal her receptivity, and the male tries to block the female's way. She may eventually stand still and allow the male to mount her. Copulation is brief and is often repeated, sometimes twice or more in a minute. Any intruder at this time is chased away. In large herds, females often mate with several males.  Gestation is eight to nine months long, after which a single calf weighing about is born. Births usually peak in the dry season, and take place in thickets – unlike the wildebeest, which give birth in groups on the plains. Though calves can move about on their own shortly after birth, they usually lie in the open in close proximity of their mothers. The calf is weaned at four months, but young males stay with their mothers for two and a half years, longer than in other Alcelaphini. Often the mortality rate of male juveniles is high, as they have to face the aggression of territorial adult males and are also deprived of good forage by them. The lifespan is 12 to 15 years.

Habitat.

Hartebeest inhabit dry savannas, open plains and wooded grasslands, often moving into more arid places after rainfall. They are more tolerant of wooded areas than other Alcelaphini, and are often found on the edge of woodlands. They have been reported from altitudes on Mount Kenya up to. The red hartebeest is known to move across large areas, and females roam home ranges of over, with male territories in size. Females in the Nairobi National Park (Kenya) have individual home ranges stretching over, which are not particularly associated with any one female group. Average female home ranges are large enough to include 20 to 30 male territories.

Status and conservation.

Each hartebeest subspecies is listed under a different conservation status by the IUCN. The species as a whole is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. The hartebeest is extinct in Algeria, Egypt, Lesotho, Libya, Morocco, Somalia, and Tunisia.

Relationship with humans.

Hartebeest are popular game and trophy animals as they are prominently visible and hence easy to hunt. Pictorial as well as epigraphic evidence from Egypt suggests that in the Upper Palaeolithic age, Egyptians hunted hartebeest and domesticated them. The hartebeest was a prominent source of meat, but its economic significance was lower than that of gazelles and other desert species. However, from the beginning of the Neolithic age, hunting became less common and consequently the remains of the hartebeest from this period in Egypt, where it is now extinct, are rare.  In a study on the effect of place and sex on carcass characteristics, the average carcass weight of the male red hartebeest was and that of females was. The meat of the animals from Qua-Qua region had the highest lipid content— per of meat. Negligible differences were found in the concentrations of individual fatty acids, amino acids, and minerals. The study considered hartebeest meat to be healthy, as the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids was 0.78, slightly more than the recommended 0.7.

The hartebeest (; "Alcelaphus buselaphus"), also known as kongoni, is an African antelope. Eight subspecies have been described, including two sometimes considered to be independent species. A large antelope, the hartebeest stands just over at the shoulder, and has a typical head-and-body length of. The weight ranges from. It has a particularly elongated forehead and oddly shaped horns, short neck, and pointed ears. Its legs, which often have black markings, are unusually long. The coat is generally short and shiny. Coat colour varies by the subspecies, from the sandy brown of the western hartebeest to the chocolate brown of the Swayne's hartebeest. Both sexes of all subspecies have horns, with those of females being more slender. Horns can reach lengths of. Apart from its long face, the large chest and the sharply sloping back differentiate the hartebeest from other antelopes.


Education and career.

Bromley received his B.A. in sociology (1963) from Colby College. He then obtained his M.A. (1966) and Ph.D. (1971) from Duke University.  He began his professional teaching career at the University of Virginia, where he taught from 1968 to 1974. He then taught at the University of Texas at Austin (1976–1980), and University of Hartford (1980–1983). Since 1983 he has held his professorial post at the University of Virginia and also at Virginia Commonwealth University.  His primary area of teaching and research is sociology of religion, with a specialization in religious movements especially new religious movements. He was also director of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Hartford and chairman of Department of Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Virginia.  From 1992-1995, Bromley was the editor of the "Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion", published by the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, and was between 1991 and 2003 one of the editors of Religion and the Social Order, an annual serial published by the Association for the Sociology of Religion.  Regarding the definition of new religious movements, Bromley distinguishes them from other religious groups based on the concept of "alignment" with both dominant social institutions and dominant cultural patterns in a given society. While dominant religious groups are aligned with both, sectarian religious groups reject the dominant social institutions but at the same time accept at least some of the dominant cultural patterns. New religious movements reject both dominant social institutions and cultural patterns, and are in turn rejected by mainline institutions and cultural agencies as cults. For instance, according to Bromley the Amish are a sectarian religious group rather than a new religious movement because they operate outside the dominant institutions of modern society, yet accept key elements of the dominant Christian cultural pattern.  Bromley has written about the rise of an anti-cult movement in the 1970s and 1980s, and the accompanying controversies involving allegations of brainwashing and deprogramming. He defined the anti-cult movement in 1981 as the amalgam of groups who embrace the brainwashing theory.  Bromley has also written about apostasy, cults and religions. His theory of apostasy is based on the notion of allegiance. In its dealings with the larger society, Bromley argues, religious groups can be either allegiant, contestant, or subversive of mainline values and institutions. Those who leave allegiant groups are "defectors", and the allegiant groups, protected by their popularity, may dismiss them as "problem individuals". Groups perceived by the society as "subversive" have "apostates", who claim that the movements they have left are dangerous or criminal, and are taken seriously by mainline institutions and media. Somewhere in the middle are "whistleblowers", who expose negative features not previously well-known of contestant (and sometimes also of allegiant) religious groups.  Within the academic study of new religious movements, Bromley has been described as somewhat sympathetic of groups labeled as cults, such as by Canadian sociologist Stephen A. Kent, who objected to Bromley's definition of ex-members of cults as "apostates" as leading to disregarding the value of the information they can supply. According to Kent ex-members sometimes provide better information about these movements than the NRM Studies scholars.  Bromley has expressed opposition to the claims of brainwashing and the practice of deprogramming. Bromley compared these social conflicts to witch-hunts of the late Middle Ages, and has claimed that civil liberties guaranteeing religious freedom were threatened. He has criticized the tactics of anti-cultists and their claims over brainwashing in several books and articles coauthored with Anson Shupe, such as "Strange Gods", "Moonies in America", and "The New Vigilantes".

Faculty positions.

"Source"  World Religions and Spirituality Project, a database of new religious movements operated by Dr. Bromley with contributions from other experts in the field.

David G. Bromley (born 1941) is a professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA and the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA. He has written extensively about cults, new religious movements, apostasy, and the anti-cult movement.


Foundation.

Josiah Spode is known to have worked for Thomas Whieldon from the age of 16 until he was 21. He then worked in a number of partnerships until he went into business for himself, renting a small potworks in the town of Stoke-on-Trent in 1767; in 1776 he completed the purchase of what became the Spode factory until 2008. His early products comprised earthenwares such as creamware (a fine cream-coloured earthenware) and pearlware (a fine earthenware with a bluish glaze) as well as a range of stonewares including black basalt, caneware, and jasper which had been popularised by Josiah Wedgwood. The history and products of the Spode factory have inspired generations of historians and collectors, and a useful interactive online exhibition was launched in October 2010.

Underglaze blue transfer printing.

Josiah Spode I is credited with the introduction of underglaze blue transfer printing on earthenware in 1783–84. The Worcester and Caughley factories had commenced transfer printing underglaze and over glaze on porcelain in the early 1750s, and from 1756 overglaze printing was also applied to earthenware and stoneware. The processes for underglaze and overglaze decoration were very different. Overglaze "bat printing" on earthenware was a fairly straightforward process, and designs in a range of colours including black, red and lilac were produced. Underglaze "hot-press" printing was limited to the colours that would withstand the subsequent glaze firing, and a rich blue was the predominant colour.  To adapt the process from the production of small porcelain teawares to larger earthenware dinnerwares required the creation of more flexible paper to transmit the designs from the engraved copper plate to the biscuit earthenware body, and the development of a glaze recipe that brought the color of the black-blue cobalt print to a brilliant perfection. When Spode employed the skilled engraver Thomas Lucas and printer James Richard, both of the Caughley factory, in 1783 he was able to introduce high quality blue printed earthenware to the market. Thomas Minton, another Caughley-trained engraver, also supplied copper plates to Spode until he opened his own factory in Stoke-on-Trent in 1796. This method involved the engraving of a design on a copper plate, which was then printed onto gummed tissue. The colour paste was worked into the cut areas of the copper plate and wiped from the uncut surfaces, and then printed by passing through rollers. These designs, including edge-patterns which had to be manipulated in sections, were cut out using scissors and applied to the biscuit-fired ware (using a white fabric), itself prepared with a gum solution. The tissue was then floated off in water, leaving the pattern adhering to the plate. This was then dipped in the glaze and returned to the kiln for the glost firing. Blue underglaze transfer became a standard feature of Staffordshire pottery. Spode also used on-glaze transfers for other wares. The well-known Spode blue-and-white dinner services with engraved sporting scenes and Italian views were developed under Josiah Spode the younger, but continued to be reproduced into much later times.

The bone china formula.

During the 18th century, many English potters were striving and competing to discover the industrial secret of the production of fine translucent porcelain. The Plymouth and Bristol factories, and (from 1782 to 1810) the New Hall (Staffordshire) factory under Richard Champion's patent, were producing hard paste similar to Oriental porcelain. The technique was developed by adding calcined bone to this glassy frit, for example in the productions of Bow porcelain and Chelsea porcelain, and this was carried on from at least the 1750s onwards. Soapstone porcelains further added steatite, known as French chalk, for instance at Worcester and Caughley factories.  The bone porcelains, especially those of Spode, Minton, Davenport and Coalport, eventually established the standards for soft-paste porcelain which were later (after 1800) maintained widely. Although the Bow porcelain factory, Chelsea porcelain factory, Royal Worcester and Royal Crown Derby factories had, before Spode, established a proportion of about 40–45 per cent calcined bone in the formula as standard, it was Spode who first abandoned the practice of calcining or fritting the bone with some of the other ingredients, and used the simple mixture of bone ash, china stone and kaolin, which since his time set the basic recipe of bone china. The traditional bone china recipe was 6 parts bone-ash, 4 parts china stone and 3.5 parts kaolin, all finely ground together.  Josiah Spode I effectively finalised the formula, and appears to have been doing so between 1789 and 1793. It remained an industrial secret for some time. The importance of his innovations has been disputed, being played down by Professor Sir Arthur Church in his "English Porcelain", estimated practically by William Burton, and being very highly esteemed by Spode's contemporary Alexandre Brongniart, director of the Sèvres manufactory, in his "Traité des Arts Céramiques", and by M. L. Solon hailed as a revolutionary improvement.  Many fine examples of the elder Spode's productions were destroyed in a fire at Alexandra Palace, London in 1873, where they were included in an exhibition of nearly five thousand specimens of English pottery and porcelain. As the understanding of the work of the early potters depends in part on the study of actual specimens, the loss was both aesthetic and scientific.  The business was carried on through his sons at Stoke until April 1833. Spode's London retail shop in Portugal Street went by the name of Spode, Son, and Copeland.  Among the many surviving Spode documents are two shape books dated to about 1820 which contain thumbnail sketches of bone china objects with instructions to throwers and turners about size requirements. One copy is in the Joseph Downes collection at Winterthur Museum, Gardens, and Library, Delaware, USA.

Spode "Stone-China".

After some early trials Spode perfected a stoneware that came closer to porcelain than any previously, and introduced his "Stone-China" in 1813. It was light in body, greyish-white and gritty where it was not glazed and approached translucence in the early wares; later Stone-Ware became opaque. Spode pattern books, which record about 75000 patterns, survive from about 1800.  In Spode's similar "Felspar porcelain", introduced on the market in 1821, felspar was an ingredient, substituted for the Cornish stone in his standard bone china body, giving rise to his slightly misleading name "Felspar porcelain," to what is in fact an extremely refined stoneware comparable to the rival "Mason's ironstone", produced by Josiah II's nephew, Charles James Mason, and patented in 1813 Spode's "Felspar porcelain" continued into the Copeland & Garrett phase of the company (1833–1847). Armorial services were provided for the Honourable East India Company, 1823, and the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, "c"1824. Some of the ware employed underglaze blue and iron red with touches of gilding in imitation of "Imari porcelain" that had been introduced on Spode's bone china in the first decade of the century: the most familiar "Tobacco-leaf pattern" (2061) continued to be made by Spode's successors, William Taylor Copeland, and then "W.T. Copeland & Sons, late Spode".

Later forms of the business.

Messrs Spode were succeeded in the same business in c. 1833 by Copeland and Garrett, who often used the name Spode in their marks. In particular these are called 'Late Spode' and include productions of the so-called 'Felspar porcelain'. They also produced other kinds of bone china, earthenware, parian, etc. The partnership continued in this form until 1847. After 1847 the business continued until 1970 as W.T. Copeland and sons, and again the term 'Spode' or 'Late Spode' continued in use alongside the name of Copeland. Under the name 'Spode Ltd' the same factories and business was continued after 1970.  In 2006, the business merged with Royal Worcester. The merged company entered administration on 6 November 2008. The brand names and intellectual property were acquired by Portmeirion Group on 23 April 2009.  On 23 April 2009, Portmeirion Pottery purchased their rival Royal Worcester and Spode brands, together with some of the stock, after they had been placed into administration the previous November. The purchase did not include Royal Worcester or Spode manufacturing facilities. Many items in Spode's Blue Italian and Woodland ranges are now made at Portmeirion Group's factory in Stoke-on-Trent.  In 2012 the Spode Museum Trust opened the Spode Works Visitor Centre in part of the historic Spode factory.

Spode is an English brand of pottery and homewares produced by the company of the same name, which is based in Stoke-on-Trent, England. Spode was founded by Josiah Spode (1733–1797) in 1770, and was responsible for perfecting two extremely important techniques that were crucial to the worldwide success of the English pottery industry in the century to follow.