Childhood and early career.

After completing primary and secondary education in Kragujevac he went to study in Belgrade in 1961. Initially he studied dental medicine and then literature. But he quickly left the academic world in order to dedicate himself completely to what he saw as the real literature. "I did not consider it as a profession but as a vocation, a skill that replaces religion, politics and real life."  After the publication of his first collection of stories ("The Scum of Death", Prosveta, 1969), Stevanović became a prominent figure on the Yugoslav literary scene. His writing also made him a subject of political persecution; he was brought into court for a trial which lasted six years. He was neither released nor condemned: the trial simply expired. During those six years the young writer lived in isolation from the public. He stopped working on the second book of his novel "Nišči". The gloomy atmosphere of that period is transposed in his novel "Konstantin Gorča" which ended the Kragujevac cycle. Vidosav turned to his family life, and started working on his Belgrade stories and collecting material for his novel "The Will". His first book of Belgrade stories appeared in 1978. It attracted considerable attention and provoked a few moderate attacks but could not be entered for any awards as he had been blacklisted. Upset by the premature death of his wife Gordana, Vidosav did not pay attention to such things. Fighting with depression, he worked industriously as an editor, gaining respect in his second job. During that period the assaults on him lessened. He became a member of the management of the Writers Society and played an important role in the process of liberation of the poet Gojko Đogo. At the beginning of 1982 he accepted the position of chief editor and then director of BIGZ, a publishing house which was about to collapse. Vidosav changed its programs, activated marketing, reanimated pocketbooks, introduced modern commerce conforming to the principle of the "new Japanese business philosophy": do not produce for storehouses! In the next five years BIGZ turned into the most active and most successful publishing house in Serbia and among the best in Yugoslavia. It published books and authors that others were unwilling to publish. It becomes the main publisher of dissidents.  While Yugoslav life was becoming generally more free in the 1980s, Slobodan Milošević attained power first in the Communist party and then in the whole of Serbia. Just before these events Vidosav Stevanović moved to the publishing house Prosveta, trying to save this ineffective company. But Mirjana Marković, Milošević s spouse, wanted Prosveta for herself. Refusing to work under her supervision, Stevanović submitted his resignation. All of a sudden, at the end of 1988, Vidosav, who had to sustain his family of five, was jobless and expelled. All the cultural institutions, artistic societies and colleagues keep silent. The persecution would end three years later in his exile.

Persecution and exile.

At the beginning of 1989, Stevanović accepted the position of an advisor in the Sarajevo publishing house Svjetlost, which published the second edition of his collected works. The two years he spent in the multiethnic city of Sarajevo were relatively peaceful. With a few like-minded people, Stevanović established the literary association Independent Yugoslav Writers. One of the constitutive documents proposed the foundation of the professional trade union Svjetlost, which still exists, while the other required that the political parties at the time reveal to the public the archives of the secret services; this initiative was supported only by reformists from Serbia. These archives remained undisclosed even at the beginning of the 21st century. Stevanović founded the Liberal Forum in Belgrade, together with a couple of independent intellectuals. It aimed to act as an intermediary between various political options, but with no success. At the first free elections held towards the end of the 1990s, he participated in the campaigns of the presidential candidate Ivan Djuric. "Except the primary liberal and pro-western orientation, we had in our political platform three important aims for Serbia: peace with itself, peace with its neighbors, peace with the world. Still, we couldn’t do much in the middle of the hellish media blitz of Milosevic and the other frenzied nationalists who were everywhere preparing for the war and rapine." (Vidosav Stevanović: Notes). In December of the same year he resigned from his position as advisor in Svjetlost and withdrew to his home village near Kragujevac.  In the first year of democracy, Stevanović, like other people holding the same attitudes as his, could not find publishers for his works. "It happened in the same year that I lost my job and couldn’t have my works published, so I was unable to support my family. Nobody noticed this in the city which was caught up in war fever and nationalistic fanaticism. We had to leave." After a physical assault in the street, he fled to Greece with his wife and sons, and going through the experiences described in his writing, started the trilogy "The Snow and the Dogs". His first book, "The Snow in Athens", was published in Greek, and later on, in Serbian. With help from PEN and his French friends he managed to get to France to promote his book and, following an invitation from the publisher, decided to stay in France. Stevanović gave a number of interviews, appeared in many TV programs, participated in public debates and visited French towns; in all places severely criticizing the regime of Slobodan Milosevic. He joined Ivan Djuric, also an asylum seeker, and his Movement of Democratic Forces. They tried to convince the European public and politicians of how necessary it was to stop the war in the former Yugoslavia. They also tried to help Sarajevo, the city being bombed at the time. After the Dayton Agreement, the two of them criticized the delayed halt of war, the division of Bosnia and the nationalism of the politicians leading the three constitutive nations.  Towards the end of 1995, Stevanović stayed in his house near Kragujevac. Appalled by the political atmosphere, he left again, this time heading first to Prague to write the screenplay for "The Balkan Island", and then to Paris. He publicly opposed the positions held by western governments claiming that Milosevic was a guarantee of stability in the Balkans. Over a span of just two years he lost two of his close friends: Dragisa Pavlovic died in Belgrade, and Ivan Djuric in Paris. For the sake of his sons he returned to Serbia during the big demonstrations of 1996–97, joining the opposition in Kragujevac which soon won the favor of the city radio-television, the first free one in Serbia. Six months later, Stevanović resigned from the position of director and left for Paris. In his diary from that period "Thieves of Their Own Freedom", published in French, there is a sentence saying: "The opposition is the final line of defense against the regime of Slobodan Milosevic." His wife and younger son joined him, and the three of them demanded and were granted political asylum as a clear case of the triple breach of the Geneva Convention. Stevanović prepared and finished his political biography of Milosevic, which was published before the subject was ousted from power. New democratic powers in Serbia did not invite Stevanović to come back. The next years were the most prolific in his life. He wrote with great intensity, publishing in various languages and enjoying the French cultural environment. He won two court cases against a big publisher and was given a French award and French citizenship. But he continued to frequently visit the former Yugoslav republics.  Stevanović eventually accepted the position of culture advisor in the Sarajevo city council and spent the next three years in his favorite city. He then retired, returning to his village near Kragujevac.

Works.

Stevanović published his first and only collection of poems, "Trublje" in 1967, in Belgrade. His second book was a collection of stories, "The Scum of Death", published in 1969. Two years later he brought out his first novel, "Nišći", followed two years later by "Konstantin Gorča". These were followed by two-story collections, "Suburban Dragons" (1978) and "The Cesarean Section" (1984), which was awarded the Andrić Prize. Perhaps his most popular work is the novel "The Will" for which in 1987 he received the Serbian Nin Literary Award.  Later works have included:  He has three as yet unpublished works, and two books of his published journals (1988–1993).  He also has written the following plays:  He wrote two screenplays: "My Lazar!" and "The Balkan Island", with Lordan Zafranović. He is also the author of fifteen radio dramas, numerous literary criticisms, essays and newspaper articles.  The fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of his literary career was accompanied by a book dedicated to his life and writings and an international conference at the University of Kragujevac in March 2011.

Vidosav Stevanović (; born 27 June 1942) is a novelist, story writer, poet, playwright and publicist. he has written over thirty literary works, a political biography of Slobodan Milošević, numerous essays and various other pieces of writing. Stevanović used to write for European newspapers such as Le Monde, Liberation, El País and Expressen.


Synopsis.

Goofy and his son Goofy Jr. are leaving for a camping trip. As they are packing Goofy tells his son all the things he is going to teach him. Goofy's son is very excited and suggests they might shoot a lion. Later as they are driving out to the mountains in their red woodie station wagon, Goofy tells his son about his past adventures. Each story is taken from previous "Goofy" short films. These include "Californy er Bust", "Tiger Trouble", and "African Diary" (all 1945). A common theme throughout the film is Goofy's exaggeration of his adventures.  After they arrive the scene cuts to Louie the Mountain Lion fleeing from the sound of gunfire. One bullet comes close enough to part his hair, but in the next scene it is discovered that Goofy was unaware of the lion and merely target practicing with an empty can.  Later Goofy and Goofy Jr. set up camp. Goofy ties their meat up on what seems to be a rope to keep it "safe from the little forest creatures." However it turns out to be the lion's tangling tail as he was resting on a tree branch. The lion quickly devours the meat, and when the dry bone is thrown to the ground, Goofy Jr. becomes suspicious that the lion might be present. Goofy Jr. asks if there are animals up in the tree, while the lion lowers his tail hoping for more goodies, but Goofy unknowingly beats the lion up while telling his son what he would do animals in the trees if there were.  Next Goofy teaches his son how to start a fire using a hand drill. The lion sneaks up behind him but Goofy Jr. shoots him with his pop-gun. The continuing gags in the film revolve around Goofy being unaware of the lion while his son is. Goofy Jr. isn't afraid of the lion however, because he thinks Goofy knows about the lion and also because he believes his father's stories about being a great explorer. Meanwhile, the lion makes a continued effort to eat Goofy, but is foiled either by the popgun's cork hitting his nose and making him sneeze or by unintentional, well-timed actions on Goofy's part.  Finally the lion slips into Goofy's sleeping bag, and when Goofy zips up the lions tail in the zipper the lion reacts in pain and roars. Finally a full on chase begins. At last they rid themselves of the lion long enough to break camp. As they are speeding away in the car, Goofy asks his son "Did I ever tell you about the time I was a race car driver?"

Father's Lion is an animated short film in the "Goofy" series, produced in Technicolor by Walt Disney Productions and released to theaters on January 4, 1952 by RKO Radio Pictures. The film tells the story of Goofy taking his son camping and teaching him how to hunt. The plotline of the short is a parody of the book, that loosely based on the novel "The Mountain Lion" by Robert William Murphy.


Club career.

Leicester City.

Wesolowski played for Australian side Northern Spirit before signing for Leicester City in 2002. After showing a lot of potential in the reserves, Wesolowski played for Leicester in a pre-season friendly against Celtic in 2005, but suffered a broken leg due to a challenge from Bobo Baldé. He underwent surgery on the leg but the injury sidelined him until the start of 2006. Wesolowski returned and impressed for the Leicester first team, making his debut at home to Cardiff City in January 2006. However, after only five appearances, he broke his same leg against Brighton in February. He recovered in time for the start of the 2006–07 season, although a thigh injury kept him out of the side for the first month.  The departure of Joey Guðjónsson gave Wesolowski the opportunity to become a first team regular, although he still faced stiff competition from then-teammates Stephen Hughes and Andy Johnson for the central midfield spot. He scored his first senior goal in a 4–3 FA Cup defeat to Fulham on 17 January 2007. Wesolowski played a total of 19 league games, helping Leicester survive relegation.  In July 2007, Wesolowski agreed to a contract extension with Leicester that would see him remain at the club until 2011. He scored his second goal of his career in a 1–0 League Cup win over Accrington Stanley on 14 August 2007, before being sidelined for six weeks with a hamstring injury on 18 September in a 3–2 League Cup win over Nottingham Forest. Wesolowski had more hamstring problems following recovery, and he was injured again on 8 December in a 2–1 defeat to West Brom, sidelining him until Christmas. Despite playing a total of 22 league games, Wesolowski could not prevent Leicester from being relegated at the end of the 2007–08 season.  Wesolowski lost his place in the first team the following season, playing just four cup matches. On 2 October 2008, he joined Cheltenham Town on a three-month loan deal, linking up with former Leicester manager Martin Allen and fellow loanee Barry Hayles, with the option of being recalled after the first month. His loan ended early after suffering a fractured ankle in a 2–0 away defeat to Tranmere Rovers in October. On 2 February 2009, Wesolowski joined Dundee United on loan for the remainder of the 2008–09 season, with the option of making the deal permanent. He made his debut in a 1–0 home defeat to Hearts, playing for 65 minutes before being substituted. After featuring in every match since arriving, Wesolowski suffered a hamstring injury in early May in a match against Hibernian, ending his season.  On 4 August 2009, Wesolowski joined SPL side Hamilton Academical on loan for an initial six-month period, which was extended till the end of the season after some impressive run of form.

Peterborough United.

On 1 June 2010, Wesolowski signed a two-year deal at Peterborough United for an undisclosed sum.

Oldham Athletic.

On 8 August 2011, Wesolowski signed a one-year deal with league one club Oldham Athletic. On 22 October 2011, Wesolowski scored his first goal for the Latics. He scored the opener in a 2–0 win against Wycombe Wanderers.  Wesolowski had his best season for the club yet in the 2013–14 season, he played nearly every game for the club & scored 5 goals, his best ever goal – scoring season. The vast improvement he had shown resulted in him scooping up 5 awards at the end of season awards, including Player of the Year.  On Wednesday 7 May, when the clubs retained list was announced, it was confirmed that a formal contract offer had been made to Wesolowski. With Wesolowski stating that he "would love to stay here" and that he would like to come to an arrangement with the club over a new contract.

Shrewsbury Town.

On 6 June 2014, despite a contract offer from Oldham, Wesolowski moved to Shrewsbury Town in League Two on a free transfer. He made his debut on the opening day of the season, coming on as a substitute in a 2–2 draw away at A.F.C. Wimbledon, and was a regular in the first team squad until suffering a season-ending injury in a home match against Hartlepool United on 17 January 2015 where he ruptured two knee ligaments. He scored his first and what turned out to be only goal for Shrewsbury in a 2–1 win over Portsmouth on 25 October 2014.  Wesolowski returned to the side following their promotion to League One, but suffered a further knee injury in September 2015 just three matches into his comeback, which was initially thought to rule him out for the rest of the season. After playing a full ninety minutes and scoring Shrewsbury's equalising goal in their Shropshire Senior Cup final win against local rivals AFC Telford United, he returned to the first team ahead of schedule in a home match against Sheffield United in April 2016. At the end of the season, Wesolowski was offered a new contract – reportedly on reduced terms – and was still training with the first-team during the following pre-season. He was later reported to be training with National League side Lincoln City, but was unable to agree to a contract.

Guiseley.

Wesolowski joined National League club Guiseley in October 2016.

Hereford FC.

He signed for Hereford FC, playing in the National League North, on 23 November 2018.

International career.

Wesolowski was born in Australia, and is of Polish descent through his grandfather. Wesolowski received international acclaim at the end of the 2004–05 season after competing for Australia in the FIFA World Youth Championship and was labelled "a star in the making" by the Australian Football Federation. Wesolowski was called up to the Australian national team on his 19th birthday for the 2007 Asian Cup qualifier against Kuwait, but was withdrawn from the squad days later after consultation with medical staff from both parties 'on precautionary grounds'. On 6 November 2007, he was called up to the national team for a friendly match against Nigeria on 17 November, but was an unused substitute as Australia won 1–0.

James Peter Wesolowski (born 25 August 1987) is an Australian footballer who plays as a midfielder but is without a club after leaving Hereford FC.


Publication history.

The character first appeared in "Daredevil" #3 (August 1964). He was a recurring foe of Daredevil during the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, he has made occasional appearances in various Marvel titles, against such superheroes as Spider-Man, and has faced Daredevil again.  Originally Bob Layton, writer of the first five issues of "X-Factor", had intended to use the Owl as the Alliance of Evil's mysterious master (mentioned in "X-Factor" #4 (May 1986). The final page of "X-Factor" #5 initially featured the Owl, but as Layton was removed from the book and replaced with Louise Simonson, the final page was changed to feature a new character named Apocalypse instead, as Simonson and editor Bob Harras wanted a new villain for the book.

Fictional character biography.

Leland Owlsley was once a successful financier and financial investor, nicknamed "The Owl of Wall Street" for his financial wisdom, until evidence of his tax evasion and crooked business deals were exposed by the IRS. Rather than fight the charges, he took up residence in a hideout across the Hudson River and pursued a new career as a crime lord. The Owl had already been pooling a percentage of his earnings into researching superpowered enhancements, and by this time these efforts had yielded a serum which gave him the ability to fly. He subsequently employed two enforcers and captured Daredevil in a chance encounter, planning to kill him at a meeting of underworld bosses in order to make himself the undisputed overlord of crime. However, Daredevil escaped and confronted the Owl in battle. Eventually determining that he could not defeat Daredevil unarmed and alone, he fled, escaping his foe in the river. When he came to shore, Owl was captured by police, convicted, and sentenced to prison by Judge Lewis.  Following an escape, the Owl established a new hideout on a volcanic isle and kidnapped Judge Lewis and Matt Murdock (Daredevil's alter ego), forcing them to participate in a sham trial with Lewis as the defendant. Murdock managed to change into Daredevil. The Owl's second confrontation with his nemesis ended in a draw, and both were forced to flee the erupting island. He was later freed from prison by Mr. Kline, who ordered him to capture Daredevil. The Owl lured Daredevil into combat and defeated him, sending him plummeting to his death. However, Daredevil was saved by the Black Widow, and the two of them worked together to capture the Owl when his gang broke into the San Francisco treasury. The Owl then moved to Chicago, and acquired the technology to drain human brains of knowledge, and battled the Cat. The Owl returned to San Francisco, and briefly captured Daredevil and the Black Widow. The Owl was later stricken with a debilitating ailment resulting in the paralysis of his legs. He returned to New York, and recruited the Man-Bull. The Owl attempted to kidnap a neurologist to cure his ailment, but was foiled by Daredevil.  The Owl was later rescued by his henchmen, and fitted with a neurological pacemaker to cure his ailment. He battled Daredevil and Spider-Man, and was incapacitated when his pacemaker short-circuited. The Owl was confined to a life-support module designed by the Maggia. He schemed to loot New York under cover of a citywide blackout, but was captured by Spider-Man, the Black Widow, and Simon Stroud. No longer confined to the module, the Owl later engaged in a gang war against Doctor Octopus in an attempt to usurp the Kingpin's position as the crime boss of New York's underworld. The Owl encountered Spider-Man and the Black Cat, and was beaten by Doctor Octopus. The Owl was later mystically summoned to Winnipeg, Canada, by Llan the Sorcerer. There, he battled Alpha Flight and Gamma Flight with Nekra, the Asp, and the Scorpion. The Owl was later among the criminals assembled by Doctor Doom to battle the Fantastic Four in Washington, D.C.  Over the years the Owl has become less and less human as a result of bizarre experiments he has subjected himself to in efforts to improve his natural ability to glide and repair damage to his spine that rendered him a paraplegic. The Owl once needed to use an exoskeleton to walk but has since recovered from this injury.  The Owl started to re-establish his presence in the criminal underworld with the absence of the Kingpin. When Spider-Man visits him regarding information about the kidnaping of May Parker, the Owl says that Electro and the Vulture kidnapped her. This turns out to be a ploy by the Owl, who is after the two villains (hiring the Black Cat to find them) for stealing from him. He began to enlarge his criminal empire by refining Mutant Growth Hormone from his own genetic material, though Daredevil was able to get him arrested.  He managed to manipulate behind the scenes and get the Kingpin arrested for a past murder when it looked like Fisk was going to make a deal with the FBI. The deal in question involved Matt Murdock being arrested for being Daredevil. When Foggy Nelson, representing Murdock in court, visited him in jail, he was apparently killed by the other prisoners. The Owl later taunted Murdock about this, and Murdock, who had become unhinged due to his friend's death, brutally beat the Owl. Unbeknownst to the two of them, Foggy was alive at the time and in witness protection.  Later, the Owl escaped prison and stole Deathlok from S.H.I.E.L.D., killing four agents in the process. He sets up an auction in hopes of selling him off to the highest bidder to other supervillains. However, he did not ask permission of the Hood (the self-established "Kingpin of Supervillains") and the Hood subsequently stole Deathlok from the Owl and shot the Owl.  The Owl has since then appeared in police custody. He was subsequently freed by the Kingpin, who sought to employ him as part of his plan to take revenge on The Hand. He took Dakota North captive and implied he would torture and sexually assault her in order to get information on Daredevil, who then appeared and cut every nerve in both his arms and legs using a sword the Owl had tried to attack him with.  Members of Owl's gang were shown fighting in a gang war with the Maggia at a scrapyard. Hammerhead shot the gang while Silvermane was fed to a metal crusher.  It was later revealed that Owl received his henchmen from Taskmaster who had trained them.  Owl was next seen purchasing a product called Ebony which came from the glands of Corruptor. He planned to synthesize it into a street drug only for Daredevil to arrive and steal it.  Owl attended a circus with Kingpin, Madame Masque, Tombstone, and Hammerhead when Hawkeye stole their money.  Owl's gang later ended up in a gunfight with a gang led by the third White Dragon. Both Owl and White Dragon were brutally beaten up by the Superior Spider-Man (Otto Octavius's mind in Spider-Man's body). The remainder of Owl's gang fled and were recruited by Goblin King to join the Goblin Nation.  The Sinister Six (consisting of Boomerang, Overdrive, Shocker, Speed Demon, and Beetle) assaulted Owl's base. Overdrive and Speed Demon were captured by Owl and interrogated. Beetle tried to blackmail the Owl into releasing them while covertly dialing for back-up. Unimpressed, the Owl got ready to execute her when reinforcements arrived in the form of Tombstone (who was revealed to be Beetle's father).  After a series of failures Boomerang teams up with the Owl and forms the Sinister Sixteen in order to retrieve the picture of Doctor Doom that the former had stolen a few days before, and that was now in the hands of the Chameleon. The line-up consisted of the dregs of the underworld that Boomerang used as cannon fodder so that he could retrieve the painting.  In a prelude to the "Hunted" storyline, Owl is among the animal-themed characters captured by Taskmaster and Black Ant for Kraven the Hunter's upcoming Great Hunt. He later watches the fight between Spider-Man and Scorpion until the Hunter-Bots arrive. He then joins Spider-Man and the other animal-themed characters in fleeing from the Hunter-Bots. Owl and the other animal-themed characters meet with Vulture where Spider-Man informs them about the loss of Gibbon and Mandrill while Toad mentions the loss of Man-Bull. When Kraven the Hunter has Arcade deactivate the forcefield, Owl is among the animal-themed characters that are freed.

Powers and abilities.

The Owl has ingested a special serum which enabled him to naturally glide for short distances, though he has to leap from a height of at least off of the ground to do so. He is able to perform complex midair maneuvers while he glides which would be impossible for ordinary humans. The Owl's gliding ability is assisted by a weak psionic ability to levitate his body. Under the right conditions, such as favorable air currents, the Owl can glide for at least the length of a city block. He uses specially designed capes to allow him to do this.  His bones are hollow, and he possesses a greater proportionate muscle mass than normal humans. Though the Owl only exercises moderately, his strength, endurance, resistance/resiliency to injury and fatigue, and reflexes/reactions are enhanced as a result of his mutation (he is physically stronger and tougher than any Olympic weightlifter). His vision and hearing are superhumanly acute, his head can rotate 180 degrees, and his eyes can move independently of each other in their own sockets and have greater visual range than an ordinary human. His teeth and nails are essentially fangs and talons which can tear through human flesh with relative ease. Most of his adversaries assume that he is just a normal human as he almost never engages in physical struggles; he relegates this to his underlings, like the Vulture and Electro.  Over the years the Owl has taken a number of experimental drugs and subjected himself to experimental surgical procedures to increase his ability to glide. These experiments have met with mixed results and a by-product of them is that he has been mutagenically altered in a way that has negatively affected his sanity and made him more animal like. For instance, he enjoys eating live mice with his vintage six hundred dollar wine. It also paralyzed him down the waist for some time, making him unable to stand or walk without a special leg-brace exoskeleton.  The Owl wears a set of metal razor-sharp steel-tool talons attached to each forearm (closely resembling Wolverine's claws) and a specially designed cape designed to resemble an owl's outstretched wings to assist him in steering during flight, and often uses various other bird-themed weapons and pieces of equipment. This special equipment was designed for him by the Terrible Tinkerer. Although the Owl is somewhat deranged, he is an extremely skilled criminal organizer and money launderer.

Other versions.

Age of Apocalypse.

In the alternate timeline of the 1995–1996 "Age of Apocalypse" storyline, the Owl is a member of the Marauders, a terrorist group composed of humans who have betrayed humanity and joined Apocalypse. This incarnation of the Owl is killed by Gwen Stacy and Clint Barton, alongside fellow Marauders members Dirigible, Red and Arcade.

Age of Ultron.

During the 2013 "Age of Ultron" storyline, Owl and Hammerhead captured the Superior Spider-Man and hoped to trade him with Ultron. Hawkeye came to Superior Spider-Man's rescue as the Ultron Sentinels attacked.

Marvel Zombies.

In the alternate universe of Marvel Zombies, Owl and Hammerhead (who are lackeys to the Kingpin) are gunned down by the Punisher despite the zombie apocalypse raging right outside.

In other media.

Video games.

The Owl appeared as a mini-boss in the "Spider-Man: Animated Series" video game.

The Owl (Leland Owlsley) is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is depicted usually as an enemy of the superheroes Daredevil, Spider-Man and Black Cat. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Joe Orlando, the character first appeared in "Daredevil" #3 (August 1964).


Discovery and naming.

In the 1980s the German "Bayerische Staatssammlung für Paläontologie und historische Geologie" at Munich acquired a pterosaur skull from Brazilian fossil dealers that had probably been found in Ceará, in the geological group called the Santana Group, which is located in the Araripe Basin (Chapada do Araripe) of Brazil. In 1987, it was named and described as the type species "Tropeognathus mesembrinus" by Peter Wellnhofer. The generic name is derived from Greek τρόπις, "tropis", "keel", and γνάθος, "gnathos", "jaw". The specific name is derived from Koine "mesembrinos", "of the noontide", simplied as "southern", in reference to the provenance from the Southern hemisphere.  The holotype, BSP 1987 I 46, was discovered in a layer of the Romualdo Formation within the Santana Group, dating to the latest Aptian and earliest Albian stages. Along with the holotype, several other pterosaur specimens were found in the fossil site, these specimens however, were referred to genera such as "Anhanguera" and "Cearadactylus". The uncovered holotype consists of a skull with lower jaws. A second specimen was referred by André Jacques Veldmeijer in 2002: SMNS 56994, which consists of a partial mandible. In 2013, Brazilian paleontologist Alexander Kellner referred a third, larger, specimen: MN 6594-1, a skeleton with skull, with extensive elements of all body parts, except the tail and the lower hindlimbs.  After "Tropeognathus mesembrinus" was named by Peter Wellnhofer in 1987, other researchers tended to consider it part of several other genera, leading to an enormous taxonomic confusion. It was considered an "Anhanguera mesembrinus" by Alexander Kellner in 1989, a "Criorhynchus mesembrinus" by Veldmeijer in 1998 and a "Coloborhynchus mesembrinus" by Michael Fastnacht in 2001. Later the same year, David Unwin referred the "Tropeognathus" material to "Ornithocheirus simus", making "Tropeognathus mesembrinus" a junior synonym, though he had reinstated a "Ornithocheirus mesembrinus" in 2003. In 2006, Veldmeijer accepted that "Tropeognathus" and "Ornithocheirus" were cogeneric, but rejected "O. simus" as the type species of "Ornithocheirus" in favor of "O. compressirostris", which was named as "Lonchodectes" by Unwin due to an analysis by English paleontologist Reginald Walter Hooley in 1914. This made Veldmeijer use the names "Criorhynchus simus" and "Criorhynchus mesembrinus" instead. In 2013 however, Taissa Rodrigues and Alexander Kellner concluded "Tropeognathus" to be valid, and containing only "T. mesembrinus", the type species.  Back in 1987, Wellnhofer had named a second species called "Tropeognathus robustus", based on specimen BSP 1987 I 47, which is a more robust lower jaw. In 2013 however, "T. robustus" was considered as a species of "Anhanguera", resulting in an "Anhanguera robustus".

Description.

Size.

"Tropeognathus" is known to have reached wingspans of about, as can be inferred from the impressive size of the specimen MN 6594-1. The maximum wingspan estimate for "Tropeognathus" reaches, making it slightly larger than the average estimate, though much larger than other ornithocheirids such as "Ornithocheirus" and "Coloborhynchus", which are typically estimated to be between. A skull unearthed belonging to the related "Coloborhynchus" likely measured, which led to a wingspan estimate of, respectively larger than the average estimates for this genus, but still shorter than that of "Tropeognathus". This specimen however, was concluded to belong to the another genera, though in several studies, some paleontologists consider it under the species "Coloborhynchus capito", which was originally called "Ornithocheirus capito" by the British paleontologist Harry Govier Seeley back in 1870. Although some concluded analyses suggest that "Tropeognathus" had a wingspan of about, most paleontologists still consider it to have had an average wingspan of only, this is based on the conclusion of the largest specimen found. Another thing that indicates that "Tropeognathus" is larger than other relatives, is its well-developed and prominent "keeled" crests, these were thicker than those seen in other ornithocheirids such as "Ornithocheirus" or "Coloborhynchus".

Skull and crests.

The skull of "Tropeognathus" bore distinctive convex "keeled" crests on its snout and underside of the lower jaws, and this was prominent and well-developed in "Tropeognathus", specially in the males, and compared to other ornithocheirids such as "Ornithocheirus", they were relatively large and thick. The upper crests arosed from the snout tip and extended back to the "fenestra nasoantorbitalis", the large opening in the skull side. An additional, smaller crest projected down from the lower jaws at their symphysis ("chin" area). The similar anhanguerid "Anhanguera" possessed jaws that were tapered in width, but expanded into a broad, spoon-shaped rosette at the tip, which differed from "Tropeognathus" for having a narrower appearance. The jaws can be distinguished from its relatives by a few differences in the crest: unlike its close relatives "Coloborhynchus" and "Ornithocheirus", the crest on the upper jaw of "Tropeognathus" was more prominent and much larger, and therefore resulting in a broader skull.

Vertebrae.

The first five dorsal vertebrae of "Tropeognathus" are fused into a notarium, with five sacral vertebrae fused into a synsacrum, and the third and fourth sacral vertebrae are keeled within. The front blade of the ilium is strongly directed upwards, resulting in a narrow structure.

Classification.

In 1987, Wellnhofer assigned "Tropeognathus" to a Tropeognathidae. This concept was not adopted by other workers; Brazilian researchers place "Tropeognathus mesembrinus" in the Anhangueridae, along with "Anhanguera". The most recent cladistic analyses however, place "Tropeognathus" within the Ornithocheiridae as a basal memeber, meaning that it was closer related to "Ornithocheirus" than "Anhanguera". This concept is mostly used by the European colleagues, who prefer to use the Ornithocheiridae as the most inclusive group rather than the Anhangueridae. A topology made by Andres and Myers in 2013 placed "Tropeognathus" within the family Ornithocheiridae in a more basal position than "Ornithocheirus", and the family itself is placed within the more inclusive clade Ornithocheirae. In 2019, the description of the new ornithocheirid "Ferrodraco" by Pentland "et al." had made paleontologists reclassify the family Ornithocheiridae. In the analysis, a topology placed "Tropeognathus" as a basal member of Ornithocheiridae, while assigning the other genera within the subfamily Ornithocheirinae.  Topology 1: Andres & Myers (2013). Topology 2: Pentland "et al." (2019).

In popular culture.

"Tropeognathus mesembrinus" was the subject of an entire episode of the award-winning BBC television program "Walking with Dinosaurs" (which used the first name of its cousin "Ornithocheirus" but was incorrectly named as a species of it, as "Ornithocheirus mesembrinus"). In "Walking with Dinosaurs: A Natural History", a companion book to the series, it was claimed that several large bone fragments from the Santana Group (known as Santana Formation in the book) of Brazil had indicated that "O. mesembrinus" may have had a wingspan reaching almost and a weight of, making it one of the largest known pterosaurs. However, the largest definite "Ornithocheirus mesembrinus" specimens described at the time measured in wingspan. The specimens which the producers of the program used to justify such a large size estimate were described in 2012, and were under study by Dave Martill and David Unwin at the time of "Walking With Dinosaurs"' production. The final description of the remains found a maximum estimated wingspan of for this large specimen. Unwin stated that he did not believe the higher estimate used by the BBC was likely, and that the producers likely chose the highest possible estimate because it was more "spectacular." Nevertheless, specimen MN 6594-V in 2013 was, at its degree of completeness, the largest known pterosaur individual.

Tropeognathus is a genus of large pterosaurs from the late Early Cretaceous of South America. This genus is considered to be a member of the Ornithocheiridae, a diverse group of pterosaurs known for their keel-tipped snouts and large size. "Tropeognathus" is regarded as the largest pterosaur found in the Southern Hemisphere, only rivaled by the huge azhdarchids. The type and only species is "Tropeognathus mesembrinus". Fossil remains of "Tropeognathus" have been recovered from the Romualdo Formation, which is a Lagerstätte located in the Santana Group of the Araripe Basin in northeastern Brazil.


Novels.

The trilogy traces the story of Mara of the Acoma's rise to power from a convent novitiate to the most powerful woman in Kelewan. These three books are contemporary to Feist's original Riftwar Saga and feature some crossover characters, mainly from "Magician" (1982) (Pug, the protagonist of "Magician", appears twice in "Servant of the Empire" (1990) and once in "Mistress of the Empire" (1992)). Mara struggles to rule her family after her father and brother are killed in a trap set by the Minwanabi, one of the most powerful families in the Empire and longtime enemies of the Acoma. Mara quickly learns how to play the Game of the Council with skill and challenges the binding traditions of her world.  The feudal Empire of Tsuranuanni as depicted in the series, features social and political institutions which show a clear influence both of feudal Japan and Imperial China, while some of the characters have Nahuatl-influenced names.  Both Feist and Wurts have ruled out any further novels featuring these characters.

"Daughter of the Empire" (1987).

In the world of Kelewan, Mara of the Acoma must lead her followers through terror and peril while surviving the ruthless Game of the Council. Mara must plot, bend tradition, avoid assassination attempts, and trade her heart for power in order to save the Acoma from destruction.

"Servant of the Empire" (1990).

Mara of the Acoma has now become an expert player in the Game of the Council through bloody political maneuvering. After buying a group of Midkemian prisoners-of-war, she discovers one of them, Kevin of Zun, is a noble who reveals himself a great asset in regards to the Game of the Council.

"Mistress of the Empire" (1992).

After rising to power, Mara of the Acoma must face the power of the brotherhood of assassins, the spies of rival houses, and the might of the Assembly—who see her as a threat to their power.

The "Empire" Trilogy is a collaborative trilogy of political fantasy novels by American writers Raymond E. Feist and Janny Wurts, set in the fictional world of Kelewan.


Background.

At the beginning of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang—Emperor Gaozu of Han—created princely titles for many of his relatives in certain territories that accounted for between approximately one-third to one-half of the empire. This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the commandery () system.  During the reign of Emperor Wen, these princes were still setting their own laws, but in addition they were minting their own coins (albeit with Emperor Wen's approval) and collecting their own taxes. Many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial government's authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing became emperor in 157 BC, the rich principality of Wu was especially domineering.

Prelude.

Emperor Jing already had an inimical relationship with his cousin-once-removed Liu Pi, Prince of Wu, the nephew of his grandfather, Han founder Emperor Gaozu. The principality of Wu enjoyed, among other natural resources, abundant copper and salt supplies.  When Emperor Jing was still Crown Prince Qi, Liu Pi's heir apparent Liu Xian () had been on an official visit to the capital Chang'an and they competed in a "liubo" board game. During arguments over the game, Liu Xian offended Crown Prince Qi, who threw the "liubo" board at him, resulting in his death. Liu Pi hated Emperor Jing for causing the death of Liu Xian.  Emperor Jing's key advisor Chao Cuo suggested using as excuses offenses that the princes had committed which had generally been ignored by Emperor Wen, that he cut down the sizes of the principalities to make them less threatening. Chao explicitly contemplated the possibility that Wu and other principalities might rebel, but justified the action by asserting that if they were going to rebel, it would be better to let them rebel earlier than later when they might be more prepared.  Emperor Jing, in 154 BC, thus ordered the following punishments:

Rebellion.

In response to these actions, Liu Pi organized a rebellion. The seven actively participating princes were:  Two other principalities—Qi (modern central Shandong) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong)--agreed to join but neither actually did. Liu Jianglü (劉將閭), Prince of Qi, changed his mind at the final moment and chose to resist the rebel forces, and Liu Zhi (劉志), Prince of Jibei, was put under house arrest by the commander of his guards and prevented from joining the rebellion.  Three other princes were asked to join but either refused or merely did not join:  The seven princes also requested help from the southern independent kingdoms of Donghai (modern Zhejiang) and Minyue (modern Fujian), and the powerful Northern Xiongnu. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but the Northern Xiongnu, after initially promising to do so, did not.  The seven princes claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities and that they would be satisfied if Chao were executed.

Rebel campaigns and strategies.

The four principalities on the periphery of Qi aimed to conquer Qi and divide it. Zhao forces headed west but stayed within the borders to wait for Wu and Chu forces, which were considered the main force in the rebellion.  Liu Pi, the Prince of Wu, had several strategies suggested to him that he considered:-  Liu Pi accepted the final suggestion, concerned that if he gave Tian a large force he might rebel, and that Huan's plan was too dangerous. Wu and Chu forces therefore concentrated against Liang, against Emperor Jing's younger brother Liu Wu, the prince of Liang, whose forces initially suffered devastating defeats, forcing Liu Wu to withdraw to his capital of Suiyang (present-day Shangqiu in Henan), which the Wu and Chu forces then proceeded to besiege.

Emperor Jing's responses.

In accordance with instructions left by Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing commissioned Zhou Yafu as the commander of his armed forces to face the main rebel force—the joint forces of Wu and Chu. He commissioned Li Ji (酈寄), the Marquess of Quzhou, to attack Zhao, and Gen. Luan Bu (欒布) to try to relieve the siege of Qi. Dou Ying (竇嬰) was put in command of Li and Luan's forces, to coordinate them at his headquarters set at Yingyang (滎陽, in modern Zhengzhou, Henan).

Main campaign.

Wu and Chu forces continued to attack Liang's capital Suiyang fiercely. Zhou Yafu suggested to Emperor Jing that the proper strategy was not to engage Wu and Chu forces head on because, in particular, Chu forces were known for their ferocity and excellent mobility. Rather, his plan was to let Liang take the brunt of the attack, bypass Liang, and cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines to starve the rebel forces. Emperor Jing agreed, and Zhou set out from the capital Chang'an to join his main forces, already gathered at Yingyang. Wu and Chu prepared assassins on the way between Chang'an and Yingyang to assassinate Zhou, but Zhou, having been warned by the soldier Zhao She (趙涉), went by a circuitous route and avoided the assassins.  After taking command of his forces, Zhou headed toward Changyi (昌邑, in modern Jining, Shandong) to prepare to cut off the Wu and Chu supply routes. At this time Liang appeared to be in great danger, and Prince Liu Wu sent messenger after messenger to seek immediate assistance from Zhou, which Zhou ignored. Emperor Jing, concerned for his brother, ordered Zhou to head to Liang immediately to save it. Zhou refused, and instead sent a cavalry force to cut off the Wu and Chu supply lines. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly due to the strong defence put up by the prince's Gen. Han Anguo (韓安國) and Gen. Zhang Yu (張羽), headed northeast to attack Zhou. Zhou refused to engage in a direct battle with Wu and Chu forces, but rather concentrated on defending his camp. After being unable to get a decisive victory over Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces began to suffer from starvation and collapsed. Liu Pi fled to Donghai; Donghai killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the prince of Chu, committed suicide.

Other theaters.

The only other theater that Wu forces engaged in was a small one. Liu Pi's guest Zhou Qiu (周丘) was looked down on by Liu Pi, but he, with Liu Pi's approval, had some successes with a surprising plan he hatched. He headed to his home town Xiapei (下邳, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) and, under the guise of being an imperial messenger, had the county magistrate killed and took over the county's militia. He then persuaded the people of the county to join the rebellion, and they headed north and had victories over the forces of the Principality of Chengyang (modern southeastern Shandong). However, after hearing that Liu Pi had been defeated, Zhou was so taken by anxiety that he died.  Meanwhile, four principalities were besieging the Qi capital Linzi (臨淄, in modern Zibo, Shandong). Liu Jianglü, the Prince of Qi, considered surrendering, but his resolve to resist was strengthened when his messenger Lu (路), who had been captured by the four princes, told him from under the walls of the capital to resist (even though he was under threat from the four princes to persuade Prince Jianglü to surrender). Eventually, Luan Bu and Cao Qi (曹奇), the Marquess of Pingyang, arrived and defeated the four principalities, but at the same time also discovered that Qi had initially been part of the conspiracy. Unable to explain himself, Prince Jianglü committed suicide, but Emperor Jing, having compassion on him, permitted his son Liu Shou (劉壽) to inherit the principality.  Not so fortunate were the princes of the four rebelling principalities. Han Tuidang (韓頹當), the Marquess of Gonggao, wrote a letter to Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, threatening him with utter destruction if he did not surrender. Prince Ang did so and was allowed to commit suicide. The other three princes were captured and executed. The four principalities were seized by the central government.  The final principality to be destroyed was Zhao. While Li Ji was initially unable to prevail in besieging the Zhao capital of Handan (modern Handan, Hebei), Zhao's hopes were virtually lost when Xiongnu forces, realizing Zhao was about to be defeated, chose not to join in the battle. When Luan returned from Qi he attacked Handan with Li and was able to capture it by breaking a levee to flood the walls of Handan. Liu Sui, the Prince of Zhao, committed suicide.  Liu Zhi, the Prince of Jibei, who initially wished to join the rebellion, did not share their fate. His official Gongsun Huo (公孫獲) was able to persuade Liu Wu, the prince of Liang, that Liu Zhi had only pretended to join the rebellion and had in fact contributed to the rebellion's defeat. With Liu Wu's intercession, Prince Zhi was spared and he was instead given the Principality of Zaichuan.  In all, the initially ferocious rebellion lasted only three months before being defeated.

Impact.

Emperor Gaozu had initially created imperial princes with independent military powers with an eye to having them protect the dynasty from outside. By the time of Emperor Jing, however, they were already creating problems by their refusal to follow the imperial government's laws and orders. Had the seven princes prevailed in this conflict, in all likelihood the Han Dynasty would have collapsed into a loose confederation of states. In the aftermath of the rebellion, while the principality system was maintained, the powers of the princes were gradually reduced and the sizes of the principalities reduced as well, under Emperor Jing and his son Emperor Wu. With the longevity of the Han Dynasty, the Chinese mindset of it being normal to have a unified empire rather than divided states started to settle in.

The Rebellion of the Seven States or Revolt of the Seven Kingdoms () took place in 154 BC against China's Han dynasty by its regional semi-autonomous kings, to resist the emperor's attempt to centralize the government further.


Nuclear triad.

A nuclear triad refers to a strategic nuclear arsenal which consists of three components, traditionally strategic bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). The purpose of having a three-branched nuclear capability is to significantly reduce the possibility that an enemy could destroy all of a nation's nuclear forces in a first-strike attack; this, in turn, ensures a credible threat of a second strike, and thus increases a nation's nuclear deterrence.

Main delivery mechanisms.

Gravity bomb.

Historically, the first method of delivery, and the method used in the only two nuclear weapons actually used in warfare, was a gravity bomb dropped by a plane. In the years leading up to the development and deployment of nuclear-armed missiles, nuclear bombs represented the most practical means of nuclear weapons delivery; even today, and especially with the decommissioning of nuclear missiles, aerial bombing remains the primary means of offensive nuclear weapons delivery, and the majority of US nuclear warheads are represented in bombs, although some are in the form of missiles.  Gravity bombs are designed to be dropped from planes, which requires that the weapon be able to withstand vibrations and changes in air temperature and pressure during the course of a flight. Early weapons often had a removable core for safety, known as in flight insertion (IFI) cores, being inserted or assembled by the air crew during flight. They had to meet safety conditions, to prevent accidental detonation or dropping. A variety of types also had to have a fuse to initiate detonation. US nuclear weapons that met these criteria are designated by the letter "B" followed, without a hyphen, by the sequential number of the "physics package" it contains. The "B61", for example, was the primary bomb in the US arsenal for decades.  Various air-dropping techniques exist, including toss bombing, parachute-retarded delivery, and laydown modes, intended to give the dropping aircraft time to escape the ensuing blast.  The earliest gravity nuclear bombs (Little Boy and Fat Man) of the United States could only be carried, during the era of their creation, by the special "Silverplate" limited production (65 airframes by 1947) version of the B-29 Superfortress. The next generation of weapons were still so big and heavy that they could only be carried by bombers such as the six/ten-engined, seventy-meter wingspan B-36 Peacemaker, the eight jet-engined B-52 Stratofortress, and jet-powered British RAF V bombers, but by the mid-1950s smaller weapons had been developed that could be carried and deployed by fighter-bombers.

Ballistic missile.

Missiles using a ballistic trajectory usually deliver a warhead over the horizon, at distances of thousands of kilometers, as in the case of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs). Most ballistic missiles exit the Earth's atmosphere and re-enter it in their sub-orbital spaceflight.  Placement of nuclear missiles on the low Earth orbit has been banned by the Outer Space Treaty as early as 1967. Also, the eventual Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) that served a similar purpose—it was just deliberately designed to deorbit before completing a full circle—was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the SALT II treaty.  An ICBM is more than 20 times as fast as a bomber and more than 10 times as fast as a fighter plane, and also flying at a much higher altitude, and therefore more difficult to defend against. ICBMs can also be fired quickly in the event of a surprise attack.  Early ballistic missiles carried a single warhead, often of megaton-range yield. Because of the limited accuracy of the missiles, this kind of high yield was considered necessary in order to ensure a particular target's destruction. Since the 1970s modern ballistic weapons have seen the development of far more accurate targeting technologies, particularly due to improvements in inertial guidance systems. This set the stage for smaller warheads in the hundreds-of-kilotons-range yield, and consequently for ICBMs having multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRV). Advances in technology have enabled a single missile to launch a payload containing several warheads. The number of independent warheads capable of deployment from ballistic missiles depends on the weapons platform the missile is launched from. For example, one D5 Trident missile carried by an is capable of launching eight independent warheads, while a has missiles capable of deploying 10 warheads at a time. MIRV has a number of advantages over a missile with a single warhead. With small additional costs, it allows a single missile to strike multiple targets, or to inflict maximum damage on a single target by attacking it with multiple warheads. It makes anti-ballistic missile defense even more difficult, and even less economically viable, than before.  Missile warheads in the American arsenal are indicated by the letter "W"; for example, the W61 missile warhead would have the same physics package as the B61 gravity bomb described above, but it would have different environmental requirements, and different safety requirements since it would not be crew-tended after launch and remain atop a missile for a great length of time.

Cruise missile.

A cruise missile is a jet engine or rocket-propelled missile that flies at low altitude using an automated guidance system (usually inertial navigation, sometimes supplemented by either GPS or mid-course updates from friendly forces) to make them harder to detect or intercept. Cruise missiles can carry a nuclear warhead. They have a shorter range and smaller payloads than ballistic missiles, so their warheads are smaller and less powerful.  The AGM-86 ALCM is the US Air Force's current nuclear-armed air-launched cruise missile. The ALCM is only carried on the B-52 Stratofortress which can carry 20 missiles. Thus the cruise missiles themselves can be compared with MIRV warheads. The BGM/UGM-109 Tomahawk submarine-launched cruise missile is capable of carrying nuclear warheads, but all nuclear warheads were removed.  Cruise missiles may also be launched from mobile launchers on the ground, and from naval ships.  There is no letter change in the US arsenal to distinguish the warheads of cruise missiles from those for ballistic missiles.  Cruise missiles, even with their lower payload, have a number of advantages over ballistic missiles for the purposes of delivering nuclear strikes:  U.S. and Soviet intermediate-range, ground-launched cruise missiles were eliminated under the Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty from 1987 to 2019, following U.S. withdrawal.

Other delivery systems.

Other delivery methods included artillery shells, mines such as the Medium Atomic Demolition Munition and the novel Blue Peacock, nuclear depth charges, and nuclear torpedoes. An 'Atomic Bazooka' was also fielded, designed to be used against large formations of tanks.  In the 1950s the US developed small nuclear warheads for air defense use, such as the Nike Hercules. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the United States and Canada fielded a low-yield nuclear-tipped air-to-air rocket, the AIR-2 Genie. Further developments of this concept, some with much larger warheads, led to the early anti-ballistic missiles. The United States have largely taken nuclear air-defense weapons out of service with the fall of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s. Russia updated its nuclear tipped Soviet era anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system, known as the A-135 anti-ballistic missile system in 1995. It is believed that the, in development (2013) successor to the nuclear A-135, the A-235 Samolet-M will dispense with nuclear interception warheads and instead rely on a conventional "hit-to-kill" capability to destroy its target.  Small, two-man portable tactical weapons (erroneously referred to as suitcase bombs), such as the Special Atomic Demolition Munition, have been developed, although the difficulty to combine sufficient yield with portability limits their military utility.  Hypersonic Glide Vehicles are a new potential method of nuclear delivery. They can be potentially combined with ICBM MIRVs such as RS-28 Sarmat.

Costs.

According to an audit by the Brookings Institution, between 1940 and 1996, the US spent $ in present-day terms on nuclear weapons programs. 57 percent of which was spent on building delivery mechanisms for nuclear weapons. 6.3 percent of the total, $ in present-day terms, was spent on weapon nuclear waste management, for example, cleaning up the Hanford site with environmental remediation, and 7 percent of the total, $ was spent on the manufacturing of nuclear weapons themselves.

Technology spin-offs.

Strictly speaking however not all this 57 percent was spent solely on "weapons programs" delivery systems.

Launch vehicles.

For example, two such delivery mechanisms, the Atlas ICBM and Titan II, were re-purposed as human launch vehicles for human spaceflight, both were used in the civilian Project Mercury and Project Gemini programs respectively, which are regarded as stepping stones in the evolution of US human spaceflight. The Atlas vehicle sent John Glenn, the first American into orbit. Similarly in the Soviet Union it was the R-7 ICBM/launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, on 4 October 1957, and the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of the R-7, the Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. A modernized version of the R-7 is still in use as the launch vehicle for the Russian Federation, in the form of the Soyuz spacecraft.

Weather satellites.

The first true weather satellite, the TIROS-1 was launched on the Thor-Able launch vehicle in April 1960. The PGM-17 Thor was the first operational IRBM (intermediate ballistic missile) deployed by the US Air Force (USAF). The Soviet Union's first fully operational weather satellite, the Meteor 1 was launched on 26 March 1969 on the Vostok rocket, a derivative of the R-7 ICBM.

Lubricants.

WD-40 was first used by Convair to protect the outer skin, and more importantly, the paper thin "balloon tanks" of the Atlas missile from rust and corrosion. These stainless steel fuel tanks were so thin that, when empty, they had to be kept inflated with nitrogen gas to prevent their collapse.

Thermal isolation.

In 1953, Dr. S. Donald Stookey of the Corning Research and Development Division invented Pyroceram, a white glass-ceramic material capable of withstanding a thermal shock (sudden temperature change) of up to 450 °C (840 °F). It evolved from materials originally developed for a US ballistic missile program, and Stookey's research involved heat-resistant material for nose cones.

Satellite assisted positioning.

Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs, this spurred development of triangulation methods that ultimately culminated in GPS. The motivation for having accurate launch position fixes, and missile velocities, is twofold. It results in a tighter target impact circular error probable and therefore by extension, reduces the need for the earlier generation of heavy multi-megaton nuclear warheads, such as the W53 to ensure the target is destroyed. With increased target accuracy, a greater number of lighter, multi-kiloton range warheads can be packed on a given missile, giving a higher number of separate targets that can be hit per missile.

Global positioning system.

During a Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a "Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS)". It was at this meeting that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the DNSS program was named "Navstar", or Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging.  During the development of the submarine-launched Polaris missile, a requirement to accurately know the submarine's location was needed to ensure a high circular error probable warhead target accuracy. This led the US to develop the Transit system. In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in Transit.  The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the US Navy developed the Timation satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology required by the latter Global Positioning System. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.  While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy's submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear-deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.  Precise navigation would enable United States submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The USAF, with two-thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (such as Russian SS-24 and SS-25) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.  In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study, Project 57, was worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born". That same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in GPS" and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The Navy Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock into orbit.  Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. The SECOR system included three ground-based transmitters from known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground-based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969. Decades later, during the early years of GPS, civilian surveying became one of the first fields to make use of the new technology, because surveyors could reap benefits of signals from the less-than-complete GPS constellation years before it was declared operational. GPS can be thought of as an evolution of the SECOR system where the ground-based transmitters have been migrated into orbit.

Nuclear weapons delivery is the technology and systems used to place a nuclear weapon at the position of detonation, on or near its target. Several methods have been developed to carry out this task.


History.

Beginnings and "Get Even" EP (2004-2005).

Brothers Tommy Sanders and Jonny Sanders grew up playing music together at home in their early teens. Jonny later played in a band with Guitarist David Thorpe while attending Maiden Erlegh School in Reading. It was not until they all left school that they met with Bassist Peter Cattermoul and Guitarist Peter Hefferan, who had also played music together in their late teens, that the band was formed. Initially, the lineup did not include Tommy Sanders and was fronted by Peter Hefferan.  After playing just a few shows around Reading, the band were invited on a short tour with all-girl punk band Wetdog, who took them to play at The Spitz in Spitalfield Market. It was here that the band was picked up by a new indie label Stolen Recordings and where they would begin to build their reputation as an exciting live act. Just a few months later, the bands was in a studio in Hornsey making their first EP.  The band's first release, the "Get Even" EP, was limited to 500 numbered CDs, all with handmade covers.  "Rough Trade" wrote of the EP "The six tracks have folk bits, byrdsy harmony bits, kraut-rock frug-outs, punk blasts of power and superb pop moments all segued and strewn together carelessly but precisely. It's oddball and charming and would sit perfectly next to the englishness of the Mystery Jets or Wire, although they sound like neither."

"Wait, Stop, Begin" EP (2006-2007).

After the release of their first EP, the band came to the notice of Jason Lamont of CMO Management. The band continued to play more shows around London and the UK and Tommy Sanders joined the group in 2006. Sometime after this the band were approached by Lamont for management and also by William Morris Endeavor for live bookings. Songs from "Wait, Stop Begin" would appear later on the debut album "Little Death".  On 25 August 2007 the band played in the Carling Tent at Reading Festival. They also played guerilla gigs in the campsite later that day, which came to the attention of the NME who featured an article in their magazine.

"Little Death" (2008-2010).

In June 2007 they released their debut single "Come On Feet" on Stolen Recordings and were championed by Steve Lamacq on his In New Music We Trust radio show on BBC Radio 1. It also featured in EA Sports game, "UEFA Euro 2008".  Their first full-length album "Little Death", produced by Gareth Parton and the band, was released on 17 February 2008. It was described by "NME" as "perfect pop without the pretence". Pitchfork gave "Little Death" 8 out of 10 saying "Even if you'd be to admit it to your friends, "Dry Wings", with lines like, "Time for bed / Find a girl and go to bed / Close your eyes / Stars are falling from the sky," is mighty affecting—a winking galaxy of jangled wist, sweet, staggered harmonies and a gawky, yearning sense of wonder." "The Guardian" gave the album 3 out of 5 stars saying, "this eclecticism does make Little Death feel like the work of several different bands. No matter. There is imagination to spare here, as well as the occasional winning lyric." Conversely, in a review by "Vice Magazine", "Little Death" was given 0 out of 10 and winner of the "worst album of the month" category. In this review, written by Stewy Matterson, the album was described as "jangly guitar music that doesn’t actually sound like it wants to be heard by anybody apart from [the band's] mothers".  The band played several support dates with Maxïmo Park, Vampire Weekend, Pigeon Detectives and Gossip and were the headline act at Club NME at London's KOKO in September 2008. Pete and the Pirates also performed BBC 6 Music sessions on shows with Stephen Merchant (co-creator of "The Office"), George Lamb and more frequently Marc Riley.  Mr Understanding was the band's biggest track to date and featured on many TV shows including "The Inbetweeners" and also in the trailer for the film "Hamlet 2" starring Steve Coogan.

"One Thousand Pictures" (2011-2012).

The band's second album, "One Thousand Pictures", produced by Brendan Lynch, was released in the UK on 23 May 2011 to much critical acclaim - the Sunday Express and Artrocker both gave the Album 5 star reviews and Mark Beaumont from NME gave the Album an 8/10 score, describing the music as "Pop in a tar-pit – black and sticky but wonderfully pure at heart". It was also reviewed in The Guardian, Q and many other magazines and broadsheets. The band had become known for their straight-up accented vocal delivery, as noted by Johnny Dee for The Guardian, "you can practically smell the Thames on every word".  The first single from the album, "Come to the Bar", was released on 14 March 2011. The promo video was directed by Rohan Thomas and Tylie Cox and was shot at The Lexington in Angel, London. The video features an interpretive dance performance from Daniela Neugebauer and colour grading from Reuben Sutherland. The song later appeared during the end credits of the Channel 4 show "Sirens".  To promote the record the band toured the UK in April and May 2011 with a sold out show at Heaven, London on 26 May. "The Fly" reviewed "Celebrating the release of new album 'One Thousand Pictures', the band have refined their audience, marking out a clear divide between their work and that of countless indistinguishable landfill indie bands". They also played an instore show at Rough Trade East on 2 June 2011.  The second single "United" was released on 16 May 2011. The band requested footage of cats from fans through their website and mailing list to include in the video for the song. The video also features the band hanging around with various cats.  Marc Riley of BBC 6 Music has been one of the band's most prominent enthusiasts, inviting them to perform on his show on numerous occasions. The band have achieved playlists on BBC 6 Music and XFM as well as spot plays on BBC Radio 1, where Zane Lowe gave "Come to the Bar" his "Hottest Record in the World" for the song's first radio play.  "Blood Gets Thin" was used in an episode of "The Protector" and of "American Horror Story", and in a trailer for the fourth season of "Breaking Bad".  A large number of CD and vinyl copies of the album were scorched in a fire at Sony's distribution warehouse during the 2011 England riots.  The band toured the UK and Europe from September to November 2011, with a headline show at the Scala in London on 4 October and a 9,000 capacity show with Kaiser Chiefs at Kirkstall Abbey on 10 September. However, their activity was minimal during 2012, and in late October 2012, Marc Riley, on his BBC 6 Music radio show, confirmed the rumours that the band had split up. No official statement has been released.  Tommy, Jonny and Peter Cattermoul have reformed under the name Teleman.  Peter Hefferan now fronts a band called 'The 3.1419 Wonders', and recently toured with Dan le Sac, as well as singing on a track on his latest album "Space Between the Words".

Solo projects.

Some members of the band have worked on solo projects including Tommy Sanders' Tap Tap.

Pete and the Pirates were an English indie rock band from Reading, England. The band consisted of Thomas Sanders (vocals), Peter Hefferan (vocals and guitar), David Thorpe (guitar), Peter Cattermoul (bass) and Jonny Sanders (drums).


Design and construction.

Designed by John Trumpy and built by the famed John H. Mathis & Company Shipbuilders in Camden, New Jersey, "Sequoia" was completed at a cost of approximately $200,000 and launched October 27, 1925. Originally named the "Sequoia II," she was the second of four successively larger yachts built between 1924 and 1931 for Mr. and Mrs. Richard McCall Cadwalader of Philadelphia. The Cadwalader’s third and fourth yachts were named "Savarona" and "Savarona II", respectively.  At 104 feet in length, "Sequoia IIs" hull was originally constructed of long-leaf yellow pine on white oak frames and her deckhouse of mahogany and teak. She is capable of comfortably sleeping eight guests in her three double and two single staterooms, has ample crew quarters and can seat 22 for formal dinners.

Richard M. Cadwalader and Emily Roebling Cadwalader.

Richard Cadwalader was a prominent Philadelphia banker and his wife, Emily Roebling Cadwalader, was an heiress to the Roebling fortune. Emily was the granddaughter of John Augustus Roebling, chief engineer and original designer of the Brooklyn Bridge, and was named after her paternal aunt, Emily Warren Roebling.  Emily Roebling Cadwalader became the driving force behind the four exceptional yachts constructed for the Cadwaladers, culminating in 1931 with the 446-foot "Savarona II".

"Sequoia II"s christening and early use.

Local newspapers recount that on October 26, 1925 after arriving with her party in two Rolls-Royce automobiles, Mrs. Cadwalader broke a bottle of champagne against the bow of the "Sequoia II" commemorating its service to her family. Oddly, these accounts of "Sequoia II"s christening make no mention of prohibition when discussing the champagne. The Cadwaladers sailed "Sequoia II" on various high-profile trips to the coasts of Florida during 1925 and 1926, including to West Palm Beach and Miami.  Three years after being built for the Cadwaladers, "Sequoia II" was sold to William Dunning, a Houston-based oil executive who used the vessel for various gambling trips to Cuba and business-related travel along the Mexican coastline. Dunning was forced to sell "Sequoia II" during the Great Depression.

U.S. Government service.

On March 24, 1931, the U.S. Bureau of Navigation within the Department of Commerce purchased "Sequoia II" from Dunning for approximately $40,000. "Sequoia II" initially was used to patrol the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays as a decoy vessel to attract would-be bootleggers. In hope of selling illegal liquor, bootleggers would come alongside what was seen as a wealthy family's yacht only to be arrested.

Presidential service.

Hoover Administration.

Herbert Hoover was known to have an affection for Mathis-Trumpy houseboats, such as "Sequoia", and had spent time both between his election victory and inauguration and during the early part of his administration cruising and fishing in Florida aboard the yacht "Saunterer", a 98-foot Mathis-Trumpy house boat owned by his friend, Jeremiah Milbank.  Having decommissioned the former presidential yacht "The Mayflower" in 1929, Herbert Hoover initiated "Sequoia II"s presidential service by using her on various occasions during the final years of his Administration. This included four documented voyages from 1931 to 1933 for official presidential business as well as for pleasure cruises. Various news outlets reported on the status of Hoover’s fishing trips aboard "Sequoia". During 1932, President and Mrs. Hoover spent both Christmas and New Year’s Eve aboard the "Sequoia II" as part of a ten-day fishing trip along the Georgia and Florida coastlines. Hoover used a photo of the indulgent yacht on his 1932 White House Christmas Card, when many Americans were suffering through the Depression and struggling for basic necessities.

Roosevelt Administration.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the yacht more frequently, with over fifty recorded outings between 1933 and 1935. On March 25, 1933, what was now known simply as "Sequoia" and no longer "Sequoia II," became the official presidential yacht after it was transferred from the Department of Commerce to the Naval Department. An elevator was installed to enable access for the polio-stricken President, who, like Hoover before him, enjoyed fishing aboard Sequoia and also used the vessel for important meetings and summits.  On April 23, 1933, President Roosevelt hosted British Prime Minister James Ramsay MacDonald as his first guest on the Sequoia. During a cruise to Mount Vernon they discussed the Great Depression, demilitarization, Adolf Hitler's rise and strategies for averting the threat of a potential new war with Germany. As it became clear these efforts were failing and war approached, the wooden "Sequoia" was deemed unsafe for the President, and on December 9, 1935, "Sequoia" was officially reassigned to the Secretary of the Navy and the steel-hulled was designated as the presidential yacht. For the next three decades, "Sequoia" served at the pleasure of the United States Secretary of Navy until its recommissioning in 1969 as a presidential yacht.

Truman Administration.

While serving as the yacht for the Secretary of the Navy, U.S. presidents and members of the Cabinet continued to use the Sequoia, often providing the backdrop for critical moments in American history.  President Harry S. Truman who used the as his official yacht, nevertheless called upon "Sequoia" to host the first atomic arms control talks. Just three months after the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, it was aboard the "Sequoia" during a November 1945 cruise down the Potomac past Mount Vernon that Truman first discussed the promise of atomic power and the need to control atomic weapons with the United States' closest allied leaders, Prime Ministers Clement Attlee of Great Britain and Mackenzie King of Canada. On September 16, 1946, then General Dwight David Eisenhower's calendar shows he met aboard the "Sequoia" with U.S. Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz and British Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery. This meeting, under the guise of a cruise to Mount Vernon, initiated a series of highly classified political and military discussions from which emerged the Western European Union, which formed in 1948, followed by NATO a year later. General Eisenhower later served from 1951 to 1952 as the first Supreme Commander of NATO.

Eisenhower Administration.

On election to the presidency, Eisenhower ordered his Joint Chiefs of Staff (including Admiral Arthur W. Radford, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs) to meet on the "Sequoia" to further formulate and develop a plan for implementing Eisenhower's “New Look” defensive policy. On August 6 1953, Admiral Radford and his fellow Chiefs set sail in the Chesapeake Bay aboard the "Sequoia." The military leaders understood the President wanted a consensus and it was not until late on August 8, once the Chiefs had all signed what would be known as the "Sequoia Report", that the "Sequoia" returned to Washington. The Sequoia Report helped introduce a defensive strategy to reduce the overall size and cost of the military and rely heavily on nuclear deterrence, a doctrine that would serve as a defining turning point in U.S. strategy during the Cold War.

Kennedy Administration.

President Kennedy's use of "Sequoia" is not as well documented as that of other presidents. Government photographers did not accompany him on to the yacht, and immediately after his assassination, an order was given to destroy all personal logs associated with "Sequoia"s use during Kennedy's Administration. At the time, Paul “Red” Fay, one of President Kennedy's closest friends and confidants, served as Acting Secretary of the Navy.  During October 1962, President Kennedy held strategy meetings on "Sequoia" to discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis. On May 29, 1963, President Kennedy and the First Lady hosted a cruise to celebrate his 46th and last birthday. At 8 pm, the couple boarded "Sequoia" to the music of two orchestras. With 25 friends and family, the President and his guests danced after a meal of roast filet and Dom Perignon. In the words of Clement Norton, a close Kennedy family friend who was aboard that night, “You never can imagine anything happier or more normal or nice.” The iconic photographs documenting the President's last birthday were not taken by an official White House photographer, but by the navy officer in charge of "Sequoia" using his own Kodak Instamatic. Mary Pinchot Meyer's presence at the intimate celebration and her murder the following year have been topics of much speculation.  At the time President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas on November 22, he and the First Lady were scheduled to host friends for a Sunday cruise aboard "Sequoia", two days later, on November 24, 1963. This cruise did not take place until April 1964 when the widowed Mrs. Kennedy spent an evening aboard "Sequoia" with a group of President Kennedy's closest friends. Frank Gannon, the piano player aboard that day, recounts a poignantly sad story of Mrs. Kennedy requesting him to play “Me and My Shadow” a song about being alone. On May 27, 1964, two days before what would have been President Kennedy's 47th birthday, his closest family and friends once again gathered aboard "Sequoia" for a dinner cruise documented by Kennedy speechwriter and presidential historian, Arthur Schlesinger Jr.

Johnson Administration.

In an interview after her husband had left office, former first Lady, Lady Bird Johnson, remembered the Johnson's “love affair with the "Sequoia" goes back indeed to 1949.”Having become friends with then Secretary of the Navy and soon to be Secretary of Defense, James Forrestal, the future president and First Lady had been invited guests aboard the ship on numerous occasions during the Roosevelt and Truman Administrations.  As Kennedy's vice president, Johnson made eight recorded trips aboard "Sequoia". As president, Johnson's use of "Sequoia" would increase, with more than 35 recorded trips during his 5 years in office. During 1964, President Johnson ordered FDR's elevator removed and a bar installed in its place. Johnson used "Sequoia" to lobby members of congress on critical legislative matters including civil rights and to strategize with his advisors regarding important decisions including escalation of the Vietnam war. "Sequoia" was used for hosting foreign ambassadors, as well as the leaders of Turkey and Greece who discussed the ongoing issue of Cyrpus. President Johnson frequently used "Sequoia" as a place to unwind and watch a film.

Nixon Administration.

"Sequoia"s most frequent presidential passenger was Johnson's successor, Richard Nixon. President Nixon recorded more than 80 trips aboard the yacht while in office.  On June 19, 1973, when a party of U.S. and Soviet diplomats accompanied the President and General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev on a working dinner aboard the yacht. Throughout their cruise, the leaders discussed an agreement between the U.S. and U.S.S.R regarding the prevention of nuclear war, which was signed by President Nixon and General Secretary Brezhnev two days later on June 22, 1973 during the Washington Summit. It was aboard the Sequoia that President Nixon decided to resign and informed his family. In a 1983 interview conducted by Frank Gannon of the Nixon Foundation titled, "The Smoking Gun and the Sequoia" former president Nixon describes the August 5, 1974 cruise aboard the "Sequoia" during which he learned a Court had ordered him to release - the transcript of a tape recording that showed he approved the cover-up of the Watergate break-in.

Ford Administration.

Following President Nixon's resignation on August 9, 1974, Gerald Ford assumed the presidency. Ford used "Sequoia" less than Nixon. In May 1975, Ford was the first known president to host a Cabinet meeting aboard the vessel. Lasting four hours, the President and his cabinet discussed wide-ranging issues facing the United States, including a discussion regarding Congressional relations, confronting the issue of Vietnamese refugees, and the status of the U.S. Energy program in light of the 1973 oil crisis.  Later that summer, Mrs. Nelson Rockefeller, wife of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, entertained Mrs. Takeo Miki (wife of the Prime Minister of Japan) on a cruise along the Potomac during a state visit. Similarly, in October, 1975, the yacht would cruise along the Potomac to entertain Emperor Hirohito and the accompanying delegation from Japan. Another notable visitor aboard the Sequoia during the Ford years was the prime minister of Canada, Pierre Trudeau, who in 1976, had a working dinner with the President aboard "Sequoia".  President Ford celebrated his 62nd birthday on the Sequoia shortly after a surprise party given by White House staff. In 1975, Susan Ford hosted a pre-prom party aboard the yacht with a group of friends, and then celebrated her 19th birthday aboard Sequoia the following year. First Lady Betty Ford hosted a June 9, 1976 Sequoia cruise in celebration of Happy Rockefeller's 50th birthday.

Carter Administration.

After 46 years of government service, citing cost concerns — the "Sequoia" cost taxpayers an estimated $800,000 annually — President Carter ordered the "Sequoia" be sold at auction. Carter would later recall selling the yacht as a mistake. In a conversation with broadcaster Ray Suarez, Carter said: “People thought I was not being reverent enough to the office I was holding, that I was too much of a peanut farmer, not enough of an aristocrat, or something like that. So I think that shows that the American people want something of, an element of, image of monarchy in the White House.” In his 2015 autobiography ""A Full Life: Reflections at 90"" Presidential Carter wrote of selling "Sequoia, ""I was determined to be strict on expenditures for the nation, and to set an example in my personal life. I decided to sell the presidential yacht "Sequoia", and to minimize the playing of “Ruffles and Flourishes” when I arrived at public meetings. I was surprised when some of these changes proved to be quite unpopular, and to learn how much the public cherished the pomp and ceremony of the presidency."

Winston Churchill and the "Sequoia".

"Sequoia" served as refuge for presidents to relax with friends and conduct business outside of the public spotlight. As a result, no official documentary evidence exists for many events which took place aboard the yacht, and certain lore has developed, particularly regarding British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's activities aboard "Sequoia". This includes, but is not limited to, Churchill and Roosevelt planning D-day together on the large table in "Sequoia"s main salon, Churchill gifting deck chairs from the "Queen Mary" for "Sequoia"s upper deck and Churchill being the impetus behind Roosevelt decommissioning the USS "Sequoia" so that the two leaders could drink on board – alcoholic beverages were prohibited aboard commissioned naval vessels. Despite these persistent legends, Churchill was never documented as being aboard the yacht.

Private ownership.

"Sequoia" has had 7 owners since being sold by the U.S. government in 1977. Certain of the past owners sought to offset the costs of maintaining and operating the vessel by offering "Sequoia" for private charter, and others were non-profit groups seeking to maintain her for historical reasons and/or return her to Presidential service.  Thomas Malloy purchased "Sequoia" from the U.S government in May 1977 for $286,000. Three months later, Malloy resold "Sequoia" to a partnership led by Norman Pulliam for $355,000. Mr. Pulliam maintained "Sequoia" in Myrtal Beach SC and then sold her to The Ocean Learning Institute of Palm Beach, FL during March 1980 for $750,000. The institute used "Sequoia" to entertain potential donors.  The Presidential Yacht Trust, a non-profit organization, acquired "Sequoia" from the Institute for approximately $1.1 million in 1980 and brought "Sequoia" back to D.C for use by the President and his cabinet. President and Mrs. Reagan let it be known <nowiki>"</nowiki>There is some feeling in the White House that [the President] should not be on a million-dollar yacht when he has to cut programs such as food stamps and such.<nowiki>"</nowiki> Although, Reagan preferred to appear on horseback, he authorized his Cabinet's use of "Sequoia". During an August 1982 luncheon aboard "Sequoia", E.P.A. administrator Anne Gorsuch Burford (mother of future Supreme Court Justice Neil Gorsuch) announced to eight Reagan Administration officials, she was holding back Federal funds to clean up a toxic waste site near Los Angeles to avoid helping the Senate campaign of former California Gov. Brown, a Democrat. When Congress charged the EPA had mishandled such toxic waste Superfund sites and demanded records, Gorsuch refused and became the first agency director in U.S. history to be cited for contempt of Congress. During 1984 "Sequoia" received a heroes welcome as she was taken on an eight-month, 6,000-mile tour of the country.  A Congressional Resolution written to assist the Trust in bringing "Sequoia" back into government service, passed in December 1985. "Sequoia" underwent a $2 million restoration in 1986 before participating in the flotilla of vessels celebrating the centennial of the Statue of Liberty on July 4, 1986. Vice President George H.W. Bush used "Sequoia" in May 1987 to host a day of meetings with Yang Shangkun who subsequently served as President of the People's Republic of China from 1988 to 1993. "Sequoia" was designated as a National Historic Landmark in March of 1988. Political considerations dictated that if the Sequoia were to be returned to the government for use by the President, the cost should not be born by the U.S. government. The Trust was surprised by the Navy's requirement that the Trust not only pay for the yacht and its operations but also the security which would be required by the President. Unable to pay a $2 million repair bill, title to the yacht was transferred to the Virginia shipyard and Sequoia spent 6 years in storage.  Upon taking office, the Clinton White House worked closely with the Trust during 1993 and 1994 to have Kuwait purchase "Sequoia" from the Virginia yard where she was being stored and transfer title to the Trust as gift to the American people and a gesture of gratitude to the US for leading a coalition of 34 counties in liberating Kuwait after Saddam Hussein’s 1990 Iraqi invasion. A Japanese buyer was about to purchase "Sequoia" and move her to Tokyo, when The Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group LLC purchased "Sequoia" from the Virginia shipyard in September 2000 for approximately $2.0 million and made her available in Washington, D.C. for private charters until 2014.  President Clinton attended one such event aboard "Sequoia" on October 17, 2000 -- making him the 10th person who served as U.S. President to walk upon "Sequoia's" decks -- the full list includes: Herbert C. Hoover, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon, Gerald R. Ford, George H. W. Bush (while Vice President) and William J. Clinton.  During 2005, The Mystic Seaport Museum (located in Mystic, CT) entered into an exclusive 6-month option agreement to purchase Sequoia from the Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group but was unable to raise the $20 million needed to buy, restore and maintain the vessel. Upon the expiration of its option, the Museum's President told the New York Times, "[He] was disappointed because the Sequoia, a national historic landmark, is probably the most desirable vessel in private hands."  "Sequoia" is currently owned by FE Partners, a portfolio company of the Washington D.C. based Equator Capital Group which purchased "Sequoia" in October 2016 for $7.8 million. Equator Capital is controlled by L. Michael Cantor and is in the process of restoring the "Sequoia" at a repair yard in Belfast Maine. When asked about future plans by MegaYacht News, Cantor stated, “Once restored, our intention is to bring "Sequoia" back to Washington where she will serve as a venue to teach American presidential history and promote ocean conservation causes”  FE Partners purchased "Sequoia" after a protracted litigation with The Sequoia Presidential Yacht Group, the former owner who believed "Sequoia" to be worth significantly more than the $7.8 million purchase price and filed a January 2013 lawsuit against FE Partners to block the sale. As part of a loan agreement, the former owner had provided FE Partners with an option to purchase Sequoia for $13 million or in the event of a default under the loan agreement for $7.8 million. On August 29, 2013, a Delaware Court entered a Default Judgment against the former owner and confirmed FE Partner’s contractual right to purchase "Sequoia" for $7.8 million. On November 14, 2017, the same Delaware Court found the aggregate amount of funds which had been loaned by FE Partners to the former owner, legal fees, "Sequoia’s" 3rd part debts and the cost to repair "Sequoia" exceeded the $7.8 million purchase price. As a consequence, the Court also ruled FE Partners was not required to pay any additional funds to the former owner.  Upon purchasing "Sequoia" in October 2016, FE Partners filed a lawsuit against Chesapeake Boat Works of Deltaville, Virginia which had damaged "Sequoia" while hauling her out of the water on a marine railway during December 2014. FE Partners won a $700,000 settlement award against the Virgina shipyard on February 22, 2019, and then began the process of removing "Sequoia" from the railway, placing her on a barge and transporting the barge from Virginia to Maine. In September 2019, the "Sequoia" was first moved by barge from Deltaville, VA, to Cambridge, MD. and then during October, from Cambridge MD to Belfast ME where "Sequoia" arrived on October 22, 2019 to begin its restoration by French & Webb Inc for an undisclosed price.

Restoration.

According to MegaYacht News, the "Sequoia" restoration will require 9 to 10 months of careful planning before the refurbishment itself can start. French and his team are sourcing woods to supplement and/or replace her long-leaf yellow pine, mahogany, and teak.

USS "Sequoia" is the former presidential yacht used during the administrations of Herbert Hoover through Gerald Ford and then sold by Jimmy Carter.