Tilyou's early ventures.

Steeplechase was created by George C. Tilyou (1862–1914). He had become familiar with Coney Island's economy from an early age: when he was three years old, his family started operating a popular Coney Island restaurant called the Surf House. Tilyou's first business venture was in 1876, at the age of fourteen, when he sold boxes of Coney Island sand and salt water to unwitting tourists for 25 cents each, earning $13.45 in the process. Tilyou later invested in stagecoaches and real estate before opening Tilyou's Surf Theater, Coney Island's first theater, with his father in 1882. The area outside the theater became known as "Bowery Street", after the Bowery, a notorious neighborhood in Manhattan. By 1887, Tilyou was dealing primarily in real estate; at the time, crime and corruption in Coney Island were prevalent. When Tilyou testified against John Y. McKane, one of the leaders of the corruption, he faced constant harassment until McKane was arrested in 1894.Tilyou married Mary O'Donnell in 1893 and they went to visit the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago for their honeymoon. Upon seeing the fair's Ferris wheel, which contained 36 cars each with a 60-passenger capacity, Tilyou wished to buy it. However, since the wheel had been sold already, Tilyou decided to build his own half-size version at Surf Avenue, on Coney Island. Tilyou's Ferris wheel, erroneously dubbed the "World's Largest Ferris Wheel", contained 12 cars each with a capacity of 18 passengers, and soon became Coney Island's biggest attraction.  After noting that the nearby Sheepshead Bay, Gravesend and Brighton Beach horse-racing tracks were very popular, Tilyou added other rides and attractions on the Coney Island peninsula. Tilyou came to own several rides including the Aerial Slide, the Bicycle Railroad, and the Double Dip Chutes, However, none of these rides were part of any single park, and Tilyou did not think to combine these rides into one park until the opening of Paul Boyton's Sea Lion Park nearby in 1895. The eventual creation of Steeplechase Park came after Tilyou bought and improved the Steeplechase Horses ride, an attraction by J.W. Cawdry that featured gravity-pulled mechanical horses racing along metal tracks.

Operation.

1897–1907: Creation and early years.

Steeplechase Park opened in 1897 with the completion of the Steeplechase Horses attraction. The park covered, an area of which Tilyou owned two-thirds outright; the other third was leased from the Huber family. It was located at the western end of Bowery Street. Steeplechase was approached by a grand stone archway on Surf Avenue to the north, the top of the archway decorated by four stone horses. The inclusion of a gateway, along with a new 25-cent admission charge, were intended to exclude the "seedier elements" and make the park a family destination. Drinking was prohibited, as was gambling and prostitution.  The park included over 50 attractions on its midway alone. Attractions included novelties such as the Human Niagara, a Venetian gondola-style ride, the Aerial Racing Slide, the Double-Dip Chutes, the Bicycle Railway, a "French Voyage" panorama, and a Wild West sideshow. Tilyou also operated a small steam railroad, a saltwater pool, a ballroom, and the Scenic Railroad coaster by LaMarcus Thompson. Completing the park were scale models of world landmarks such as the Eiffel Tower and The Palace of Westminster's clocktower, containing Big Ben. Steeplechase Pier, a pier jutting into the ocean, was built to the south of the park in 1904. Tilyou adopted a "Funny Face" mascot depicting a smiling man with several dozen teeth, nicknamed "the Tilly", as the icon for his park. The mascot, which became a symbol of Coney Island, represented the area's wholesomeness and neoclassical architecture combined with its veneer of hidden sexuality.  In 1901, Tilyou visited the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo, New York, to find additional rides for Steeplechase Park. He approached Frederic Thompson and Elmer "Skip" Dundy, the creators of the popular "A Trip To The Moon" ride, to ask if they would bring their ride to Steeplechase. The ride, an indoor dark ride that simulated a space flight, had been popular within the exposition, and Thompson and Dundy signed an agreement to relocate the attraction to Steeplechase for a year. However, a rainy 1902 season reduced the profits of amusement park operators at Coney Island that year, and forced the closure of the adjacent Sea Lion Park. Thompson and Dundy elected not to keep "A Trip To The Moon" at Steeplechase; instead, they spent $700,000 rebuilding Sea Lion and moved the attraction to the newly expanded park, now called Luna Park, in 1903.  Following Luna Park's success, another amusement park on Coney Island, Dreamland, opened in 1904. At Coney Island's peak in the middle of the 20th century's first decade, the three amusement parks competed with each other and with many independent amusements. This was attributed partially to the variety of transit options available: by 1904, there were five railroads to Coney Island. Both Luna Park and Dreamland had more expensive attractions than Steeplechase Park. Tilyou countered this by modifying and adding contraptions for his customers, most of which carried an exhibitionist and risque undertone but were nonetheless popular despite their vulgarity. The entrance contained the Barrel of Love, a revolving drum that threw visitors onto each other. Other contraptions included the Human Roulette Wheel, Earthquake Stairway, Dew Drop, Whichway, and Wedding Ring. All of these rides tossed riders around, often on top of each other, as they were designed under the assumption that men and women wanted any excuses to grab onto each other.  The success of Steeplechase and other parks in Coney Island inspired Tilyou to create additional amusement parks in the New York City area and elsewhere. In November 1904, Tilyou announced that he would sell Steeplechase Park to a syndicate of investors for $1.25 million, since he wanted to operate another amusement park in Rockaway, Queens. However, the sale of Steeplechase was annulled in February 1905 after $50,000 had been paid, since "defective titles" prevented the syndicate from purchasing some of the land under the park. From 1905 to 1907, Tilyou refined Steeplechase Park with attractions such as a miniature railroad, an orchestra stand, the Cave of the Winds, a Fads and Fantasy Building, the Limit Building, and a children's pony track. The Limit Building was short-lived, being replaced by the Monte Carlo Building in 1907.

1907 fire and rebuilding.

In the early morning of July 29, 1907, a fire started within the Cave of the Winds attraction. It spread quickly, destroying most of the wooden pavilions and hotels around Bowery Street; however, firefighters fought to save Tilyou's house at the corner of Steeplechase Park. The three-alarm fire was extinguished after two hours, but about of Coney Island was destroyed by the fire. Steeplechase bore much of the damage, which was estimated at $1.5 million, but several hotels were also ruined. Even though the fire destroyed nearly everything within Steeplechase Park, Tilyou reportedly remained calm throughout, even promising to host events that had been planned within the park before the fire. The morning after the fire, Tilyou posted a sign outside the park, which read:  "To enquiring friends: I have troubles today that I had not yesterday. I had troubles yesterday which I have not today. On this site will be built a bigger, better, Steeplechase Park. Admission to the burning ruins — Ten cents."  Tilyou stated that the park would be restored to a "grander than ever" condition, but in the meantime, would erect temporary tent shows. The remaining attractions opened one week after the fire. Ultimately, the park was rebuilt with fireproof steel-and-concrete structures, because after the fire, the municipality passed a law restricting the construction of combustible wooden structures. The reconstruction of the park was funded through a $2 million stock measure issued by the Steeplechase Park Company, a business established in 1908. At the start of the 1908 season, "The New York Times" described the construction as being "scarcely finished", but also reported that large crowds "flocked" to the attractions that had been rebuilt.  The reconstruction of Steeplechase Park was completed in 1909. Its main attraction was a "Pavilion of Fun", an indoor enclosure covered by steel and glass that measured, with a total area of. The Pavilion of Fun was designed with several indoor rides so patrons seldom had to go outdoors. It contained tawdry, exhibitionist attractions reminiscent of the previous iteration of Steeplechase Park, such as the Human Wheel, Human Niagara, the Mixer, and the Grinder. The Ferris wheel was salvaged from the original park and was placed outdoors. A new Steeplechase Horses attraction was built around the pavilion, but was designed such that riders had to exit through the Pavilion of Fun. Steeplechase also included two new entrances, a plaza overlooking a sunken garden, the Palace of Pleasure, a ballroom, and various sideshows. Other attractions included airships, Venetian gondolas, and an Automobile ride similar to that in the first Steeplechase Park. There were eight roller coasters inside the rebuilt park as well. Similar to before the fire, admission was 25 cents. A "Combo" admission ticket entitled the holder one experience on each of the 25 attractions at Steeplechase Park.

1910s and 1920s.

Tilyou continued to add attractions to Steeplechase in the late 1900s and early 1910s. He added the first of several carousels to the park in 1908, and the "World's Largest Swimming Pool" was completed the following year. Tilyou opened a hall with an indoor swimming pool to the west of the pavilion in 1911, at which point he declared that he wanted to add one new ride per week. Several additional attractions were opened in 1912, including the El Dorado Carousel and other structures salvaged from Dreamland after it was destroyed in a 1911 fire.  In 1914, Tilyou died, leaving the care of the park to his children; Thomas F. McGowan then became general manager of the park. Steeplechase would remain within the Tilyou family until it closed a half-century later. George's oldest son Edward, an 18-year-old at the time of his father's death, constructed a skating rink at Steeplechase in 1915. A Racing Derby Carousel by master carousel builder Marcus Illions was added in 1920, and it featured 16 rows of four horses cycling up-and-down on small tracks within the carousel. Shortly afterward, Edward Tilyou also added "Babyland", a children's play area near the southeast corner of the park. Other attractions built in the early 1920s included the Frolic spinning ride, bumper cars, the Witchway swing, and a Caterpillar flat ride. By the early 1920s, the crowds at Steeplechase and other Coney Island parks had become more mellow and orderly, though the beachfront in general was described as rundown. Steeplechase Park started hosting several beauty contests near its outdoor pool, providing more entertainment for park patrons. These included the "Modern Venus" Bathing Beauty Contest, first held in 1922, and Grandma's Beauty Contest, which started in 1932.  This period also saw the destruction of some structures, such as the Upside-Down House burning down in 1911. Additionally, Steeplechase lost its private beach during the early 1910s. Following a 1912 lawsuit by New York State against Tilyou and other amusement owners for taking private ownership of Coney Island's beach, a judge ruled in 1913 that the beach actually belonged to the state. An appellate court affirmed this decision in 1916, with an exception made for part of Steeplechase Park, a plot of land granted by the state prior to the creation of the park itself. All obstructions on the beachfront, including a concrete walk within Steeplechase, were demolished in accordance with the ruling.  The Riegelmann Boardwalk was opened on the waterfront in 1922. In conjunction with the boardwalk's opening, the city slightly relocated West 16th and West 19th Streets at Steeplechase Park's eastern and western borders, respectively, which resulted in a slight expansion to Steeplechase's area. The boardwalk's opening resulted in increases to real estate valuations at nearby areas, such as Steeplechase Park, though some lots were also taken from the park to make way for new streets leading to the boardwalk. As a result, a former Brooklyn engineer alleged that the Tilyous lost money from the relocation of West 16th and West 19th Streets. The boardwalk's completion and a subsequent widening of Surf Avenue in 1924 prompted Edward Tilyou to make additional improvements to Steeplechase Park. The mid-1920s were described as the "golden age" of roller coasters on Coney Island: two gravity rides called the Zip and the Limit were constructed in Steeplechase Park, and immediately to the east, independent ride operator George Moran built the Thunderbolt roller coaster. Also built were a water ride called the "Old Mill tunnel of love" and a Noah's Ark-style attraction. Thomas McGowan died unexpectedly in 1927 and was replaced by James J. Onorato. The following year, one of the pools was demolished and replaced with an attraction called Hey Day, while a gas-powered Custer Cars attraction was installed on the boardwalk.

1930s: Great Depression through World War II.

The Great Depression resulted in significantly decreased attendance at Steeplechase Park. Before money ran out, a one-ring circus was constructed between the Limit coaster and an adjacent pool, while a children's wading pool was constructed. In addition, a carousel was constructed at West 16th Street in 1930, and the Whale and the Whip replaced Noah's Ark the following year. People still came to see the beauty contests at Steeplechase Park. In 1934, when finances slowly started to improve, a bobsled roller coaster model called Flying Turns was installed at Steeplechase.  Several accidents and fires continued to occur at Steeplechase. A fire in July 1932 caused $1.5 million in damage and injured six people, and left at least a thousand people homeless. However, Steeplechase Park and Luna Park were not as heavily damaged since the fire was mostly concentrated to the west. There were other incidents as well: in 1933, fifty-seven people were hurt in a balcony collapse caused by overcrowding, and three years later, a barge crashed into the Steeplechase Pier. In addition, patrons frequently received minor injuries such as friction burns, though some people were thrown or fell from rides, and one child died after falling off the Steeplechase Horses in 1935. A conflagration in September 1939 caused $200,000 in damage and injured 18 people. The concessions on the boardwalk were destroyed, as was the entrance to the park from the boardwalk, and several attractions within the park itself. The following year, a new brick concession structure was built on the site of the old concessions, and an Express Train ride was erected in front of the pavilion.  The 1939 New York World's Fair in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, several miles to the northeast of Coney Island, had created competition for Coney Island amusement parks, which saw sharply reduced attendance. Steeplechase's situation was exacerbated by the September 1939 fire, which had destroyed many of the larger attractions, including Flying Turns. After the World's Fair closed in 1940, the Tilyous purchased the fair's Parachute Jump, a parachute tower ride, and moved it to the former site of Flying Turns. The ride, inspired by a training device for paratroopers, opened in 1941 and contained 12 parachutes descending from a tower. Other rides were added at Steeplechase in 1941, including rocket cars, a Whip ride, and the Silver Streak. However, the draft during World War II resulted in a shortage of qualified staff, and in 1945, Onorato closed the Pavilion of Fun until the end of the war due to the staff shortage.

1940s and 1950s: downfall.

Despite the park's popularity with New Yorkers, many factors after the end of World War II would eventually lead to its decline, including frequent fires, low patronage, and white flight. Steeplechase's closest competitor, Luna Park, was heavily damaged by a pair of fires in 1944. Luna Park closed in 1946, leaving Steeplechase as the only major amusement park on Coney Island. Moreover, after Edward Tilyou died in 1944, control of the park was transferred to his siblings George Jr., Frank, Marie, and Eileen, who each owned a quarter share in the Steeplechase Corporation. The relationship between the siblings was fractious, and they often argued about Steeplechase's management.  In 1945, the Tilyou siblings leased out the boardwalk carousel to their cousin James J. McCullough. The next year, they rented out the pool, which then instituted a season pass scheme that effectively locked out African Americans from using the pool, despite the fact that an increasing proportion of Steeplechase visitors was African-American. The ballroom was also split in half to create a TV studio in 1947. The same year, the Tilyou siblings discontinued the combination ticket and started offering a pass where patrons could go on any 15 rides for one dollar. In practice, not many people bought the 15-ride pass, since various special-interest groups such as social, political, and religious organizations had designated days where they could visit Steeplechase Park for free. Steeplechase also saw its 20-millionth visitor that year. The Tilyous added extra rides for the 1948 season, including the Scrambler, the C-Cruise, and several children's rides.  Steeplechase Park continued its downward trajectory with the demolition of several rides and structures, and the neglect of others. In December 1951 the skating rink, now used only for the Tilyou's private functions, was demolished. The following year, several structures on West 19th Street were demolished, as was the little-used Old Mill boat ride that ran under one of these structures; the site was filled by a parking lot in 1954. Other impediments included a 1953 flood and fire, which destroyed machinery; the death of the Tilyou siblings' mother in 1954, which caused further acrimony among the siblings; and the underpayment of employees, which was one of the main reasons Steeplechases' employees were mostly elderly citizens who could afford to take such a low wage. However, the park started becoming profitable again when "Arthur Godfrey and His Friends" started broadcasting from Steeplechase in 1955. After Steeplechase Pier was destroyed by fire in 1957, a larger replacement opened the next year. George Tilyou Jr. died in 1958, and his sister Marie took over as Steeplechase Corporation president the next year, demoting James Onorato to general manager. Marie, who had long wanted to change Steeplechase's image against the wishes of her brothers, began adding rides for the 1959 and 1960 seasons, such as a Tilt-a-Whirl, a Round Up ride, and a Paratrooper ride.

Demise.

New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses was a longtime critic of Coney Island, likening the crowds that flocked there during the summer months to a coffin. As early as 1937, he had published a report about the possible redevelopment of Coney Island. Moses, who was also a New York City housing commissioner, rezoned the area for high-rise housing in the late 1940s. Subsequently, in 1953, Moses proposed that most of the peninsula be rezoned for various uses, claiming that it would be an "upgrade" over the various business and unrestricted zones that existed at the time. Steeplechase Park would be allowed to remain open, but much of the shorefront amusements and concessions would be replaced by residential developments.  At the time, Coney Island was seeing fewer visitors year-over-year. Crime increases, insufficient parking facilities, bad weather, and the post-World War II automotive boom were cited as contributing factors in the decrease of visitors to Coney Island. The start of the 1964 New York World's Fair, also in Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, was another factor. Ironically, prior to the World's Fair, Steeplechase Park was seeing record high patronage; the highest single-day visitor count, over 18,000 customers, was recorded in 1961. Nevertheless, it also faced problems of its own: a severe assault of an employee in 1961 forced the closure of the Insanitorium, while Marie Tilyou was opposed to her nephew Frank II's proposal to bring rides from the Century 21 Exposition to the park. Further, Steeplechase had been leasing one-third of its land from the Huber family, which decided to sell that land in 1962. More attractions were destroyed in a 1963 fire, which razed two blocks on Steeplechase's west side. High crime was also rampant; for instance, a mass shooting nearby in 1962 resulted in three people being killed, and visitors were generally afraid of being attacked by residents of nearby public housing projects. By 1964, the area had seen its lowest number of patrons in a quarter-century.  By the early 1960s, the children of George C. Tilyou began themselves to grow old; his last surviving son, Frank, died in 1964. The shares of Steeplechase Park were now held by four women—Marie, Eileen, and the respective widows of Frank and George Jr.—all of whom had differing visions for the park. Steeplechase Park closed for the season on September 20, 1964, for what would be the last time. Though no official closure announcement was made initially, rumors of a sale started circulating in February 1965. On July 2, 1965, the property was sold to developer Fred Trump and he subsequently announced his intention to build luxury apartments on the old Steeplechase property. Though the sale was opposed by the Coney Island Chamber of Commerce, it was consistent with the area's gradual conversion into a residential community.

Later use of the site.

Trump ownership and Kaufman operation.

On the site of Steeplechase Park, Fred Trump proposed building a enclosed dome with recreational facilities and a convention center, a plan which was supported by Brooklyn borough president Abe Stark. Trump demolished Steeplechase Park's Pavilion of Fun during a highly publicized ceremony in September 1966. At the demolition, he was said to have sold bricks to ceremony guests to smash the remaining glass windows on the Pavilion of Fun. Trump supposedly destroyed the pavilion to circumvent a landmark law being proposed by the city following the demolition of the old Pennsylvania Station in 1963.  In October 1966, the city announced its plans to acquire the of the former Steeplechase Park so that the land could be reserved for recreational use. Although residents supported the city's action, Trump called the city's proposal "wasteful". In January 1968, New York City parks commissioner August Heckscher II proposed that the New York state government build an "open-space" state park on the Steeplechase site, and that May, the New York City Board of Estimate voted in favor of funding to buy the land from Trump. Condemnation of the site started in 1969. The city ultimately purchased the proposed park's site for $4 million, with partial funding from the federal government. As a condition of the deal, the sale or lease of the future parkland required permission from the New York State Legislature, thus blocking Trump from developing the site as apartments.  Trump filed a series of court cases related to the proposed residential rezoning, and ultimately won a $1.3 million judgment. The Steeplechase Park site laid empty for several years. Trump started subleasing the property to Norman Kaufman, who ran a small collection of fairground amusements on a corner of the site, calling his amusement park "Steeplechase Park". The city also leased the boardwalk and parking lot sites at extremely low rates, which resulted in a $1 million loss of revenue over the following seven years. Since the city wanted to build the state park on the site of Kaufman's Steeplechase Park, it attempted to evict him by refusing to grant a lease extension.  The city continued to pursue litigation over the site occupied by Norman Kaufman. For over ten years, the city was unsuccessful in its efforts. It had no plan for the proposed state park, and in 1975 the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development nearly withdrew a proposed grant of $2 million to fund the proposed park. The city ultimately accepted the grant. However, in June 1977, the city's parks commissioner suggested that the city would redevelop the original Steeplechase Park's site as an amusement area instead of an open-space state park, and proposed that the city return the grant. This move was opposed by the chairman of the New York City Planning Commission, who wanted to use the grant to pay for pedestrian walkways at the Steeplechase site. In 1977 and 1978, Kaufman withheld rent payments to the city because of the ongoing litigation, and he sued the city for $1.7 million. By 1979, Kaufman had expanded his park and had plans to eventually rebuild the historic Steeplechase Park. He had also bought back the original Steeplechase horse ride with plans to install it the following season. Kaufman continued to operate the site until the end of summer 1980. In June 1981, the city paid Kaufman a million dollars for the rides, even though the amusements were estimated to be worth much less than that. However, the city had finally succeeded in evicting Kaufman from the property.

Development as stadium.

In the mid-1980s, restaurant mogul Horace Bullard proposed rebuilding Steeplechase Park. He had already bought several acres of property just east of the Steeplechase Park site, including the site of the defunct Thunderbolt coaster and the lots west of the Abe Stark rink, and planned to spend $20 million just on cleaning up the neighborhood. His plans called for using the property, bounded by West 15th and 19th Streets between Surf Avenue and the Boardwalk, to build a $55 million theme park based on the original. The city agreed, and the project was approved in 1985. Bullard planned to open the park by mid-1986 to coincide with the Statue of Liberty's centennial celebration. However, the project was delayed while the New York City Planning Commission compiled an environmental impact report. By early 1987, the cost of the amusement park nearly doubled, to $100 million.  Concurrently, in December 1986, the New York State Urban Development Corporation formally proposed the construction of a $58 million, 17,000-seat minor-league baseball stadium near the site. State senator Thomas Bartosiewics attempted to block Bullard from building on the Steeplechase site, as he was part of an organization that had promised another developer, Sportsplex, the right to build an amateur sports arena on the site. Construction was held up for another four years as Bullard and Sportsplex fought over the site.  After Rudy Giuliani took office as mayor of New York in 1994, he negated the Bullard deal by approving the construction of a minor-league baseball stadium on the site allotted for Steeplechase Park. In 1998, Giuliani had canceled Sportsplex and the entertainment complex, and instead unveiled another plan where only the parking lot would be built. The minor league team was called the Brooklyn Cyclones. Bullard, now no longer rebuilding Steeplechase Park, had wanted to restore the Thunderbolt as part of a scaled-down amusement park. Giuliani had the coaster demolished on the grounds that the Thunderbolt was about to collapse, though the coaster's destruction took weeks. In 2000, the city approved the $31 million project to construct Keyspan Park (now MCU Park) using the funds from the canceled Sportsplex, and the minor-league baseball stadium opened the following year.

Current status.

Much of the former Steeplechase Park site is occupied by MCU Park. The New York City Department of Parks and Recreation owns the land under MCU Park and maintains it as "Steeplechase Park". A public plaza on the boardwalk is located to the south of MCU Park and operated by NYC Parks.  In 2011, the city announced that the historic B&B Carousell, which had been stored at the Brooklyn Army Terminal since 2005, would be relocated to Steeplechase Plaza within Luna Park. It opened in 2013 at the Steeplechase Plaza section of Luna Park, near the former site of Steeplechase Park. The carousel was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016. The plaza is adjacent to Thunderbolt, a steel coaster that opened in 2014 on the site of the original wooden Thunderbolt.  The only structure still standing that was once part of Steeplechase is the tall tower of the Parachute Jump. It had been proposed for demolition in the mid-20th century. However, due to the expense involved in destruction, the ride outlived the remainder of the park, operating until 1964. Still too expensive to tear down, the tower was made a New York City designated landmark in 1977. Three months later the New York City Board of Estimate overturned the landmark designation, citing doubts about the tower's structural integrity. In 1980, the Parachute Jump was placed on the National Register of Historic Places, and in 1989, the Parachute Jump was once again recognized as a city landmark.

Steeplechase Park was an amusement park in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York. Steeplechase Park was created by entrepreneur George C. Tilyou in 1897 and operated until 1964. It was the first of the three original iconic large parks built on Coney Island, the other two being Luna Park (1903) and Dreamland (1904). Of the three parks, Steeplechase was the longest-lasting, running for 67 years.


Personal history.

Fell was born at Nelson, New Zealand, on 17 January 1878, the son of Nelson mayor and painter, Charles Fell. He was educated at Nelson College (1887–1896), a school his grandfather, Alfred Fell, helped found in 1856. British politician, Sir Arthur Fell was his uncle.  He married Marion White in 1908 and had four sons and one daughter. One of his sons, Lieutenant David Walton Fell, Royal Army Medical Corps, died of wounds in North Africa on 13 November 1942.  Fell was also a keen yachtsman, a passion developed in his youth at Nelson. Fell died at his home at Church Street North, Colchester, on 19 April 1953, aged 75.

Rugby union career.

Fell was a noted sportsperson, playing in his college's 1st XI and 1st XV (1894–1896). He was a champion'miler' of the Scottish Universities (1901–1902) and Edinburgh University from 1901 to 1903. Fell was a player (1898–1905), secretary (1900–1901), and captain (1901–1903) of the Edinburgh University Rugby Football Club, which he is credited with building up to one of the best sides in the history of the game. As captain, his team's first season record read 15 wins, one draw, 425 points for and 6 against.  He had previously played in New Zealand for Otago University (1896–1897), and represented Nelson in 1896 and Otago in 1897.  Fell played for Edinburgh District against Glasgow District in 1899; and for Cities against the rest of Scotland 1900.  In 1901 he was selected for the Scottish national team as a wing three-quarters. Although picked to play, injuries in 1904 and 1905 prevented him playing in the tournament of those years.  Fell was also selected to play against New Zealand in 1905, but declined as this was his home country. Commentators from the time noted that he was a fast runner and good on attack, but lacked defensive ability.  His interest in rugby continued after he retired as a player, being one of the founders and first President of the Colchester Football Rugby Club from 1925 to 1939 and again from 1946 to 1949. The club was in recess over the war years.

Medical career.

Fell followed his uncle, Walter Fell, into medicine. He studied at the University of Otago and then the University of Edinburgh where he graduated MB and ChB in 1902, proceeding to the MD in 1906. He won the Muir Cup in 1900 and was a double blue that same year.  In 1905 he became a member of the Royal College of Physicians and held house appointments at the Royal Infirmary, the City Fever Hospital and the Corstorphine Convalescent Hospital in Edinburgh. He relinquished this position in 1907 and settled in general practice at Colchester in 1907. He became president of the Colchester Medical Society and was a member of the Essex Panel Committee and British Medical Association. He was honorary secretary of the North-east Essex Division from 1915 to 1917 and again from 1920–21; honorary secretary of the Essex Branch from 1921 to 1924; chairman of the North-east Essex Division from 1927 to 1928, and president of the Essex Branch from 1930 to 1931.

Military service.

From 1918 to 1919 he served as a temporary captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps and was based in Salonika, Macedonia; Bulgaria; Serbia; and the Caucasus.

Alfred Nolan Fell (17 January 1878 – 20 April 1953) was a New Zealand-born international rugby union player for Scotland as a member of Edinburgh University RFC.


Club career.

El Hadary was born in Kafr al-Battikh, Damietta. His father was a craftsman who owned his own workshop making furniture. El Hadary took up playing football without his parent's knowledge, washing his muddy clothes in a local river after playing in order to avoid them knowing. He was spotted by his local football team before being signed by Second Division club Damietta at age 17. In his first training session, he was offered goalkeeping gloves, having previously never worn a pair, but refused to wear them and would run the to training everyday. He made his first team debut for Damietta in 1993 at the age of 20, and after two seasons signed a pre-contract with Egyptian champions Al Ahly. In 12 years at the Cairo club he won eight Egyptian Premier League titles, four Egypt Cups, four Egyptian Super Cups, four CAF Champions League titles, three CAF Super Cups, one Arab Club Champions Cup, and two Arab Super Cups.  Swiss club FC Sion announced that they had signed El Hadary on a four-year contract in February 2008, despite objections from his club, Al Ahly, due to the fact that he was still under contract with them. El Hadary was fined and suspended by Al Ahly, before world governing body FIFA gave permission for Sion to complete the deal.  In 2009, FIFA suspended El Hadary and penalized Sion, even though he had already decided to return to Egypt. In July, while his suspension was stayed by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), El Hadary moved to Egyptian Premier League side Ismaily. In 2010, his four month suspension was upheld by the CAS, and in January a Swiss civil court upheld the ban and fines and additionally ordered him to pay FIFA's court costs.  In December 2010, after a brief stint with Zamalek SC, El Hadary moved to Sudanese club Al-Merreikh. After boycotting practices due to a pay dispute, he was loaned to Al-Ittihad Alexandria, but after a stadium riot in Port Said led to the suspension of the 2011–12 Egyptian Premier League season he returned to Sudan again. After his contract there expired, he returned to Egypt, playing for Wadi Degla in 2014, moving back to Ismaily in 2014, and returning again to Wadi Degla in 2015. Throughout this period, he continued to be acclaimed one of the best footballers ever to play for Egypt or anywhere in Africa; in 2013 he was included in Bleacher Report's "50 Greatest African Players of All Time" list, ranked number 6. In 2017, an argument with a teammate lead to El Hadary being thrown off the Wadi Degla team briefly; in June, he signed for Al-Taawoun to become the first foreign goalkeeper to play in Saudi Arabia.  On 2 July 2018, it was confirmed that El Hadary had joined Ismaily for the third time in his career. On 28 January 2019, El Hadary signed with Nogoom; however, he left the club following their relegation at the end of the season.

International career.

El Hadary has represented Egypt over 150 times since his international debut in 1996, winning the African Cup of Nations four times with his country. He was chosen as the best goalkeeper in the 2006 African Cup of Nations, held in homeland Egypt, in the 2008 African Cup of Nations, held in Ghana and for the 2010 African Cup of Nations, held in Angola.  In January 2013 his agent tweeted that El Hadary had retired from international football after being benched for a run of games, being the 23rd most capped international player in history and also the player with most African Cup of Nations titles. He returned to the national team in a match against Bosnia Herzegovina on 5 March 2014, winning 2–0. On 4 June 2016, El Hadary played the full 90 minutes in a 2–0 win against Tanzania which secured Egypt's qualification for 2017 Africa Cup of Nations. On 17 January 2017, two days after his 44th birthday, he became the oldest player to ever appear in an Africa Cup of Nations match after replacing Ahmed El-Shenawy in Egypt's first match of the tournament. On 1 February 2017, El Hadary saved two penalties as Egypt defeated Burkina Faso 4–3 in a penalty shoot-out to advance to the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations Final.  In June 2018, at the age of 45, he was named in Egypt's 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He was the oldest of all players selected for the tournament, beating the record set by Colombian goalkeeper Faryd Mondragón in the previous edition of the tournament. On 25 June, El Hadary was handed a start in Egypt's final group match against Saudi Arabia to become the oldest player ever to play in and debut at a World Cup at the age of 45 years and 161 days, once again breaking Mondragón's record of 43 years and three days. El Hadary stopped a penalty kick in the first half of the match, but subsequently conceded from a second penalty just before half time; his team eventually lost the game 1–2 after conceding a late goal in stoppage time.  On 7 August 2018, El Hadary announced his international retirement at the age of 45, having made 159 international appearances for Egypt. In November 2019, the FIFA World Football Museum exhibited El Hadary's gloves of his World Cup match for being the tournament's oldest player and first African goalkeeper ever to save a penalty.

Essam Kamal Tawfiq El Hadary (; born 15 January 1973) is a retired Egyptian footballer who played as a goalkeeper. Nicknamed the "High Dam", he has spent the largest portion of his club career with Al Ahly, with whom he won eight Egyptian Premier League titles, four Egypt Cups, four Egyptian Super Cups, four CAF Champions League titles, three CAF Super Cups, one Arab Club Champions Cup, and two Arab Super Cups.


Character history.

"Sex and the City".

Samantha Jones is one of four single friends portrayed in the series, a public relations worker who is a proud, confident, highly sexual woman. Most of her story lines revolve around the frequent sex and brief affairs she has. She is outspoken and a self-proclaimed "try-sexual" (meaning she'll try anything at least once). She is portrayed as brash, straightforward, highly protective of her friends and unafraid of confrontation. She also displays nonchalance toward dating and monogamy and becomes uncomfortable whenever her sexual relationships take an emotional turn.  Not much is known about Samantha's younger years. It is known that she came from a working class background, and she spent most of her teenage years selling Dilly bars at Dairy Queen to earn pocket money. Season 3 implies that she has at least two siblings, when she mentions that at her age, her mother "was saddled with three kids and a drunk husband". She later mentions partying at Studio 54 during its heyday, implying she moved sometime in the mid- to late-1970s from wherever she grew up to New York City. She has mentioned having had at least two abortions, one of which occurred while she was in college.  Samantha is the eldest of the four friends (in the final scene of the "Sex and the City" film, her 50th birthday is celebrated), though it is implied during the early seasons that the other three are not aware of how much older Samantha is than they are. She has her own public-relations company. In the book's prequel series, it is revealed that Carrie met Samantha first.  In the early part of the series, she lives on the Upper East Side, but ends up moving to an expensive apartment in the Meatpacking District. The move is provoked after one of her late-night visitors lets in a mugger who attacks one of her older female neighbors and Samantha incurs the wrath of a tribelike commune of her elderly neighbors.  One of Samantha's best qualities is her loyalty to her friends. When Carrie confesses to her that she's having an affair with her married ex-boyfriend "Mr. Big," and is cheating on her boyfriend, Aidan, Samantha tells her that judging is not her style and offers her support. Although she fights with Charlotte a few times, they always manage to get past their differ ences and make up. Despite having trouble adjusting to Miranda having a child, she willingly gives up a coveted hair appointment with a distinguished hairdresser and sends Miranda in her place, staying behind to babysit and give her friend a much-needed break. Although Miranda is usually considered Carrie's best friend, Samantha is shown to be closer with Carrie on several occasions; such as when Carrie hates an engagement ring that Miranda picks out for Aidan to give to Carrie, but loves the replacement ring selected with Samantha's help.  In the show's last season, Samantha is diagnosed with breast cancer. She faces the challenge head-on, playing with her look by wearing outrageous wigs, hats, and headscarves after she loses her hair to chemotherapy. In one of the final episodes, she gives a speech for a cancer benefit dinner, and receives a standing ovation for removing her wig onstage and admitting that she was suffering with hot flashes. The audience appreciated her candor and honesty, and many of the women in the audience stood up and removed their own wigs.

"Sex and the City: The Movie".

Four years later, Samantha has moved to Los Angeles with Smith to further his acting career; he's now playing a doctor on a popular daytime drama. Samantha, who visits New York City as much as possible, finds herself attracted to a hunky exhibitionist neighbor, Dante, whom she regularly sees nude when he takes a shower or has sex with various women. Dante's escapades reminds Samantha of her sexually free past and he could be considered the male version of Samantha. While she remains faithful to Smith, she finds herself questioning whether or not her strained relationship with him should be continued as she simultaneously uses food as an outlet for her sexual desires for Dante, flagrantly gaining weight in the later stages of the movie. Samantha claims 'I eat, so I won't cheat'. Samantha, realizing her true unhappiness, breaks up with Smith. Samantha seemingly returns to reside New York City. Our last view of Samantha is her celebrating her 50th birthday in Manhattan and toasting to the next fifty with Carrie, Miranda and Charlotte.

"Sex and the City 2".

Samantha is approached by an Arab sheikh to devise a PR campaign for his business, and he flies her and her friends on an all-expenses-paid luxury vacation to Abu Dhabi. When the girls are picnicking they meet an architect named Rikard Spirt (Max Ryan). Meeting him later that evening out with the girls addressing him as "Dick Spurt" and graciously declines his offer for a drink because of her devotion to her friends' "girls night out" but agrees to meet the next evening. While on that date Samantha is detained for having sex on the beach. With the Sheik's intervention Samantha is released, leaving her with a permanent police record. The PR meeting is cancelled, and their luxurious perks are no longer paid for. They quickly pack their bags and attempt to leave but have to retrieve Carrie's passport that she unknowingly left at the souk. Due to a mix-up the men there believe Samantha has stolen a bag. They confront her and Samantha's real bag rips open in the middle of a bustling souk and the contents, including strips of condoms falls out. Disgusted Muslim men crowd around and Samantha brashly responds that what they were viewing were indeed condoms and that she 'has sex'. Samantha has to be pulled away by her fearful friends. They are helped by impressed Muslim women in traditional wear, who let them into their home and reveal that they're wearing Louis Vuitton collection underneath. The Muslim women aid the girls in escaping the souk by giving them full-body niqabs to cover their identity. They leave Abu Dhabi and return to the New York City in the USA. At the end of the movie Samantha has sex with Rikhard in "the land of the free and home of the hormones", at an East Hampton sand dune.

"The Carrie Diaries".

In the second season of the prequel series, Samantha is introduced as Carrie's enemy Donna Ladonna's cousin and is portrayed by Lindsey Gort. In the second episode of the second season, she said that she came from the Everglades, and that she used to have alligator overturned by car for breakfast.

Relationships.

Samantha's main love is men—many of them. Over the course of the series, she sleeps with plenty of interesting characters, including a man who will only "swing" with her if she takes an HIV test, a college student from the Midwest with the same name (Sam Jones) who is eager to lose his virginity, a guy with "funky spunk", and a trainer from her gym who brands her by shaving her pubic hair into a lightning bolt. She never lets the men stay for long, usually requiring them to leave "an hour after [she] climaxes". One of her sexual antics includes making a sex-tape to disprove tabloids' claims that she is a fag hag. She once said that she frequently loses underwear because she leaves them at the guys' places and never returns. She even slept with her good friend Charlotte's brother, prompting an angry Charlotte to call Samantha's vagina "the hottest spot in town: it's always open".  Samantha rarely dates men more than once or twice. She does have a few "serious" relationships throughout the run of the series.

James.

Samantha meets a man named James (James Goodwin) in a jazz bar at the end of season one. Unusually for Samantha, she doesn't have sex with him immediately, taking a leaf instead from Charlotte's book, because she felt he was a man she would marry. After declaring that she was in love with him, the two finally have sex, only for Samantha to discover that James was seriously under-endowed, to the point where she could not enjoy sex. In the last episode of season one, ("Oh Come All Ye Faithful") she tells Carrie, Charlotte, and Miranda that he is only three inches long when hard, and that she doesn't even receive any pleasure out of giving him a blowjob because his penis is so small. Though she tries to work through it, she eventually ends things with him when they attend a couples' counseling session. She confesses she is unable to feel someone as small as a baby carrot, to which he replies angrily by saying that maybe her vagina is too big.  In a funny counterpoint to her predicament with James, in the second-season episode "Ex and the City," Samantha meets Mr. Too Big, who warns her of his huge endowment as he undresses. Samantha squeals with delight as the story segues to another character. Later in the episode, when Samantha reappears, she is slowly guiding Mr. Too Big between her legs. After much hesitation, she seems to finally relax while drawing him in (she thinks), only to be asked if he can start. A shocked and fearful Samantha pushes him away with her foot on his chest and begs off the encounter. At the end of this episode she unexpectedly yells "I miss James!" while her friends goofishly sing "The Way We Were" in a crowded restaurant - the exclamation is tearful, suggesting that her feelings for James may have been legitimate.

Maria.

In season four, Samantha flirts with lesbianism, entering into a brief but serious relationship with an artist named Maria (Sônia Braga). The girls are completely shocked by this, more so that she is in a relationship than the fact that it's with a woman. Charlotte proclaims, "She's not a lesbian, she probably just ran out of men!". Samantha feels she is not a relationship person, and she initially only wants to be friends with Maria. Maria tells Samantha she cannot continue being just friends with her, and Samantha decides to take a chance and kisses Maria. Samantha seems intrigued about learning the act of pleasing another woman, thus learning more about her own sexuality. Once the sex begins to dwindle and they spend a lot of time talking, Samantha begins to tire of their relationship. Maria also becomes upset when Samantha's sexual past catches up with them. Samantha ultimately misses men too much and, although Maria decides to try strap-on dildos, the two break up due to Maria's belief that Samantha has "intimacy issues".

Richard Wright.

Later in season four, Samantha meets and falls in love with hotel magnate Richard Wright (James Remar). Though the two seemed well-matched, as they are both confident, highly successful, and like sleeping around and are uninterested in relationships, Samantha finds herself becoming increasingly attached to Richard. The two eventually commit to a monogamous relationship. However, Samantha is heart broken when she catches him cheating on her. Despite giving Richard a second chance, she decides to end the relationship when she realizes she doesn't trust him. In the last season, she runs into Richard while out at a party with her new boyfriend, Smith, and Samantha and Richard go upstairs to have sex. During intercourse, Samantha is seen looking uninterested and pained at being with Richard. Smith waits for her downstairs, knowing what she has done, and she breaks down in his arms, apologizing to him.

Jerry Jerrod/Smith Jerrod.

Samantha sees a 28-year-old waiter/aspiring actor (Jason Lewis) while dining with the girls at a new, hip restaurant called "Raw". She later returns to the restaurant alone, with the sole mission of taking him home; she succeeds, outlasting numerous other women who are there for the same purpose. At first it seems he is to be just another notch on her bedpost, and she doesn't even know his name, referring to him as "Smith" to her Jones in elaborate sexual scenarios they enact. They have adventurous, "out-of-the-box" sex, which Samantha finds exciting and refreshing. She is turned off by learning anything personal about him, such as that he is a recovering alcoholic. But she finds she is enjoying her time with him so much that she keeps seeing him.  Seeing that he is broke and struggling, Samantha uses her PR skills to jump-start Jerry's modeling and acting career, and, once she learns his birth name (Jerry Jerrod), changes it to Smith Jerrod. Samantha likes that he is not intimidated by her success (in contrast to Carrie's ex-boyfriend, Jack Berger), and with her assistance, he quickly becomes a celebrity. He first gains attention when he models naked in an Absolut Vodka ad in Times Square, in which he appears as the "Absolut Hunk". This publicity leads to a role in a Gus Van Sant film.  Reluctant at first to admit she cares about him, Samantha misses him while he is on location. Smith returns from his film and shows her true affection, which Samantha finds unsettling. (As she explains to Carrie, he tried to do something purely perverse to her in public: "He tried to hold my hand.") Samantha struggles with Smith's status as a teen icon and their age difference. She ends up deliberately humiliating him by hooking up with her ex-flame Richard at a party she went to with Smith. After a quick bout of clearly meaningless sex with Richard, during which he talks about himself, Samantha seeks out Smith, who has been waiting for her to realize she made a mistake and come back. She tearfully confesses that she hates what she just did to him. Eventually, she begins referring to Smith as her boyfriend. It appears that the two live together, since Smith refers to her place as "home," and he has keys to the apartment.  Smith supports Samantha through her brush with cancer, even shaving his hair when her hair began falling out, and then shaving hers. Samantha has no sexual libido during chemotherapy and encourages Smith to have sex with anyone he wants while he is in Canada filming his next movie. Smith refuses, comparing her situation to winter: "just because the trees are bare doesn't mean they're dead." While he is away, he sends her unbloomed flowers with a message on the card reading "Looking forward to spring." She calls him to tell him she changed her mind about Smith having sex with other women, and Smith happily complies. Smith returns to New York in the middle of the night, flying back after their phone call to say that he loves her. Samantha replies that he "means more to [her] than any man [she's] ever known," which, for Samantha, is a huge statement. Their last scene together in the TV series shows the two having sex and Samantha enjoying herself; the previously unbloomed flowers have now begun to open.  Four years later, the pair are still together, with Samantha giving up her job and home to live in Los Angeles with him and be his publicist supporting his booming acting career. But Samantha has become restless with monogamy and resents that Smith's career has taken over her life. After a struggle with her weight and self-control, Samantha eventually decides to end their relationship. She explains that she loves being single more than any relationship. As seen in the "Sex and the City 2" movie, the two remain friends, with Smith even inviting her to be his date to the premiere of his summer blockbuster, and introduces him to the film's Arab financier, who invites Samantha to visit his resort in Abu Dhabi so she can plan an advertising campaign for him.

Samantha Jones is a fictional character on the HBO-produced television series "Sex and the City" and its CW-produced prequel series "The Carrie Diaries". She is portrayed by actresses Kim Cattrall and Lindsey Gort. Cattrall received a Screen Actors Guild Award and a Golden Globe Award for her portrayal.


Origin.

The word "regeneración" entered the Spanish language in the early 19th century as a medical term, the antomym of "corrupción" (corruption); over time it became a metaphor for the opposite of political corruption. It became a new expression of the longstanding patriotic concern with the decline of Spain, a concern first expressed by the "Arbitristas" in the 16th and 17th centuries, then by Enlightenment thinkers and Bourbon reformers in the 18th century, sometimes satirized in the form of so-called "Proyectismo" ("Project-ism") attacked by José Cadalso in his "Cartas marruecas" ("Moroccan Letters"). But late 19th century Regenerationism was specifically a reaction against the political system founded by Cánovas under the Bourbon restoration. Under Cánovas system, alternation between conservative and liberal parties was guaranteed by rigged elections. This made the late 19th century, after the last of the Carlist Wars, a period of an illusory stability sustained on the basis of massive political corruption. This false stability hid, for a time, the misery of the common people, the poor economic distribution of Spain's belated industrial revolution, caciquism, and the triumph of an economic and political oligarchy. Only Catalonia and the Basque Country had seen the sustained rise of an industrial capitalist bourgeoisie (early industrialization in Andalusia having largely failed). With the end of feudalism and, in particular, the fraud-ridden expropriation of ecclesiastical properties ("see, for example, Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal"), and the failure of land reform efforts, practically all of Spain's potentially productive farmland was under unproductive use in latifundia (large estates). Wages were low and many Spaniards were day laborers living on the edge of hunger.  Regenerationism was strongly influenced by Krausism, the philosophy of Karl Christian Friedrich Krause, which proclaimed freedom of conscience. Introduced into Spain by Julian Sanz del Rio, Krausism was very influential among liberal reformers in that country throughout the 19th century (combining with positivism in the latter portion of the century). Today, Regenerationism survives mostly as a component of Aragonese nationalism, for which it has long provided an ideological foundation.

Magazines.

The Regenerationist intellectuals wished to form a new, authentic idea of Spain, to which end they attempted to expose the deceptions of official Spain by disseminating studies in widely circulated magazines. Many of these predated those publications associated with the Generation of '98. The first was the "Revista Contemporánea" (1875–1907), founded by José del Perojo. Among its initial collaborators were numerous scholars associated with the Krausist Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institute of Instruction), an independent institution of higher education founded in Madrid in 1876. Among these were Rafael Altamira, Julián Sanz del Río, Rafael María de Labra, and Urbano González Serrano, who imported contemporary European aesthetic and philosophical currents and propagated them within Spain breaking links with Spanish cultural tradition. Another prestigious publication was "La España Moderna" (1889–1914). Founded by José Lázaro Galdiano, it sought to be Spain's "Revue des deux mondes". Like "Revista Contemporánea", it sought to be cosmopolitan, European, and contemporary. Among its collaborators were Ramiro de Maeztu and Miguel de Unamuno. Another Regenerationist magazine was "Nuevo Teatro Crítico" ("New Critical Theater"), written almost entirely by literary theorist Emilia Pardo Bazán, who was Europeanist as well as sincerely feminist.

Regenerationist writers.

The Regenerationist writers published studies and essays that denounced the corrupt Canovist system. This was given particular evidence and impetus by the defeat of Spain's technically obsolete military in the Spanish–American War of 1898, when Spain lost virtually all that remained of its colonial empire (losing Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and several smaller island possessions). The way had been somewhat prepared by Lucas Mallada's "Los males de la patria y la futura revolución española" ("The ills of the country and the future Spanish revolution", 1890) and Ricardo Macías Picavea's "El problema nacional" ("The national problem"), as well as Krausist attacks on illiteracy and official state pedagogy, most notably as led by the Institución Libre de Enseñanza directed by Francisco Giner de los Ríos.  The most important author (and political figure) of this movement was Joaquín Costa.  Later, a constellation of authors would follow Costa's road. Rafael Altamira (1866–1951), from Alicante, wrote "Psicología del pueblo español" ("Psychology of the Spanish people", 1902), where he conceived patriotism as a spiritual concept innate in peoples. Other Regenerationists were Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, Francisco de Quevedo, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo, and others.  Lucas Mallada, Aragonese like Costa, strongly criticized the "Idearium español" proposed by Ángel Ganivet and addressed French Hispanophobia as a grave evil, countered somewhat by German Hispanophilia. He defended Spanish activity in the Americas and believed that its reputation had improved, despite inadequate attention to its own affairs. He rejected the pessimism of Ricardo Macías Picavea (1847–1899) in the latter's "El problema nacional". Rejecting Macías Picavea's call for a dictatorship, he sympathized instead with the 18th century satirist Juan Pablo Forner and with Joaquín Costa, who sought to reform Spain's democracy. He separated national life from the mere poor example set by its leaders, and summarized the national failings as:  Similar views can be found in the work of the Castilian-Leonese writer José María Salaverría (1873–1940), author of "Vieja España" ("Old Spain", 1907).  The ideals and proposals of the Regenerationists were seized upon by conservative politicians such as Francisco Silvela, whose famous article "Sin pulso" ("Without a pulse") was published in "El Tiempo" 16 August 1898, and Antonio Maura, who saw Regenerationism as a sufficient vehicle for his political aspirations. At the same time, Regenerationsim was equally taken up by liberal politicians such as Santiago Alba, José Canalejas and Manuel Azaña. Benito Pérez Galdós assimilated Regenerationism to his initial Krausism in the final works of his "Episodios nacionales" and even the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera appropriated some of Costa's discourse, particularly his call for an "iron surgeon" to accomplish urgently needed national reforms. He brought to fruition at least one of Costa's dreams: a national hydrological plan. But the figures who most prominently prolonged the current of Regenerationism until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 were such writers as Juan Pío Membrado Ejerique, Julio Senador Gómez, Constancio Bernaldo de Quirós, Luis Morote, Ramiro de Maeztu, Auronplay, Ismael Prego, Guillermo Díaz, Samuel de Luque, Pedro Corominas, Adolfo Posada, and José Ortega y Gasset.

Regenerationism () was an intellectual and political movement in late 19th century and early 20th century Spain. It sought to make objective and scientific study of the causes of Spain's decline as a nation and to propose remedies. It is largely seen as distinct from another movement of the same time and place, the Generation of '98. While both movements shared a similar negative judgment of the course of Spain as a nation in recent times, the regenerationists sought to be objective, documentary, and scientific, while the Generation of '98 inclined more to the literary, subjective and artistic.


Life.

Matt Costa, who is of Portuguese descent, states that his father works in the airline business. In early 2003, Matt's homemade demo reached No Doubt guitarist Tom Dumont, who offered to record more demos for Costa in his home studio. Those first recordings led to two EPs (Matt Costa EP, Elasmosaurus EP) that Costa and Dumont distributed themselves. These were later combined and mixed by Phil Ek in order to form Costa's first full-length CD entitled "Songs We Sing".  Costa spent the summer of 2005 opening on Jack Johnson's summer tour. He has since toured with Modest Mouse, Oasis, Ryan Adams & The Cardinals, G. Love & Special Sauce, and Death Cab for Cutie. Costa joined Jack Johnson for his 2006 European tour. He has also contributed to the Jack Johnson and Friends Curious George soundtrack; his track is entitled "Lullaby". This song was taken from his "The Elasmosaurus EP." Costa has also toured extensively in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Asia and South America.  The video for Costa's first single "Cold December" was released February 2, 2006. On July 31, 2007, he released a song titled "If You Took To Me" as part of the environmentally minded polar bear documentary "Arctic Tale" and its soundtrack.  On October 7, 2007, Matt released the first single, "Mr. Pitiful," from his record "Unfamiliar Faces." The song "Mr. Pitiful" was used during a scene with Paul Rudd in the movie "I Love You, Man", the redband trailer for the film "Youth in Revolt" starring Michael Cera, and the movie "Marmaduke". The song is featured during the opening credits of "The Answer Man (film)". Apple also used an instrumental cut of this song for the worldwide iPhone 3GS ads.  On December 23, 2008, Costa married.  "Mobile Chateau", Matt's third album, was released on September 21, 2010 via Brushfire Records. The record was recorded at Pheasant Studios in Santa Ana, California as Costa's first solo production.  In 2012, he released an EP titled "Sacred Hills EP."  His fourth album, which he decided to self title, was released in 2013. It contained some songs from his previously released EP such as ""Loving You"" and ""Good Times"".  Shortly after the release of the Self-Titled album, along came a Deluxe and commentary version of the album.  His song "Good Times" was featured at the end of an episode of the third season of HBO's "Girls" in 2014.  In 2015, Costa released a string of self recorded EPs. First of the storm came "Eucalyptus EP", with its acoustic style. Mid year brought "Cat Mosta EP. T"he end of the year carried the EP titled "Neon Brain EP." Before the year ended, he released a Christmas song titled "Many Memories Ago".  Costa began 2016 with another EP called "Anchor and The Albatross" "EP". Later, he released an album for a documentary titled "Orange Sunshine". The documentary revolved around "The Brotherhood of Eternal Love." The album held a psychedelic rock style. Ending 2016, Matt released a small bunch of songs recorded live when he had gone on a trip to London.  In 2017, the single "Where Have All my Heroes Gone" was released.  Costa's first album in five years, "Santa Rosa Fangs", was released on May 18, 2018, on his new record label Dangerbird Records. Later, Matt released "Santa Rosa Fangs (Novella Edition)" in which he storytells the meaning behind the album and connects his real life with the fictional one he had created in the album. Two songs, "Lovely Saturday" and "Evening Star" were included in the edition.

Matthew Albert Costa (born June 16, 1982) is an American singer-songwriter from Huntington Beach, California, United States. He has 13 independent releases: 7 self-recorded EPs, 6 complete LPs, 4 of which are released via Brushfire Records. His first album in five years, "Santa Rosa Fangs", was released on May 18, 2018, on Dangerbird Records.


Gameplay.

There are two ways to play "Imperialism": in a fictional, randomly generated world, or in a historical scenario. In the first case, the player selects one of seven "great powers" and starts ruling in 1815, a year considered by many historians the beginning of the 19th-century era in the real world. The goal is to be voted world ruler by a two-thirds majority in the "Council of Governors", in which all provincial governors of the world convene once in a decade. Governors in "minor nations" tend to vote for great powers that have favored their country in trade and diplomacy, whereas governors in great powers vote for strong military powers. If no two-thirds majority is ever reached, the game continues until the year 1915, when the power with the largest number of governors behind it wins the game. Although victory is determined by the Council of Governors, the game score is determined by how much a player has built, including the size of a Great Power's military, workforce, transportation network, merchant marine, diplomatic standing and number of provinces controlled.  Empire building can be achieved either through diplomacy or through conquest. In either case, the empire must have a solid economic grounding, which is established by the exploitation of the country's resources (wood, ore, etc.), by industry (for example, turning raw materials iron and coal into steel) and by trade.  In the historical scenarios, the player chooses a European power - available are Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, Russia, and, depending on the period chosen, Prussia and Sardinia, or respectively Germany and Italy. The game starts not in 1815 but either in 1820 (apparently so that France isn't too weak at the start of the game), in 1848, the year of revolutions, or in 1882, at the start of the arms race that eventually led to World War I. The end of the game is still the same, except that in the third scenario (1882) the Council of Governors does not convene until 1915.  "Imperialism" is entirely turn-based. Each turn, players make their decisions in five screens: the map screen, where "specialists" (prospectors, engineers, etc.) are put to work, and military orders are given; the transport screen, where transport capacity is allocated; the industry screen, where production is determined and workers are trained in various ways; the trade screen, where offers and bids for the next trade session are determined; and the diplomacy screen, where diplomatic decisions are made.  As the game progresses the players will also be given the option to buy Research. Research can allow increased production of some raw materials, or allow for military upgrades, or in some cases render parts of the navy fleet obsolete.  When all the players click the "End turn" button, the orders are processed. Turn-based trade sessions, diplomacy sessions (the acceptance/declining of treaties) and battles follow. Battles too are turn-based, and they can be either fought by the player or left to the game AI. Naval battles are always handled by the AI.  In multiplayer mode, at most 7 players can play together over a network. Games can be played over a LAN or the Internet. "Imperialism" offers a tutorial mode and five levels of game difficulty. Game editors and mods have also been published to create new scenarios, such as a world map.

Economy.

In "Imperialism"'s economic model, states control production and engage in trade. To produce anything, raw materials are needed. These can be bought on the world market, or gained by exploitation of resources in the player's country. For instance, timber can be obtained by exploiting forests. It can subsequently be transformed into lumber in a lumber mill. Lumber can be used to expand internal transport, to increase factory output, or for producing merchant ships and warships. It can also be processed further into furniture, which is used to recruit new workers, but more commonly is sold on the market to produce revenue. Timber can also be processed into paper, which is used to train workers for higher levels of productivity, and then educate them so that they can serve in more advanced military units. Paper is also necessary to train expert workers as specialists (i.e. prospectors, engineers, miners, ranchers, farmers, foresters and oil drillers).  Often a Great Power will buy raw materials (such as timber) from a Minor Nation and sell the refined goods (furniture) back to the same or another minor nation, generating revenue as well as improving diplomatic relations. From the start of the game, Great Powers compete to be the favored trade partner of resource-rich minor nations, using trade subsidies and various forms of diplomacy.

Diplomacy.

In the "Imperialism" diplomacy screen, various treaties can be proposed to other countries, and war can be declared on them. Also, trade subsidies may be offered. These increase the prices paid for a country's export goods and decrease the price the other country pays for the player's exports, making trade more profitable for the other country and thus more likely.  The treaties which may be proposed are:  Before a Great Power can reach a trade agreement with a Minor Power, the Great Power must build a Trade Consulate in the Minor Power. Before the Great Power can sign a treaty with a Minor Power, the Great Power must build an Embassy in the Minor Power. The money required to build Trade Consulates and Embassies is significant, especially early in the game, when the player's revenue is limited. All Great Powers automatically possess Embassies with each other at the beginning of the game.  Great Powers can encourage closer relationships with Minor Powers and each other with subsidies and grants of cash.  Building Diplomatic power can be key to winning the game. When a Great Power is in an alliance with another Great Power or has signed a non-aggression pact with a Minor Power, the Great Power is expected to go to war if the other Power is attacked. In the case of two Great Powers that share an alliance, if one Great Power starts a war, the other Great Power is also expected to go to war. If a player decides not to honor an alliance or non-aggression pact, the player's Great Power loses diplomatic standing and may find it harder to negotiate alliances in the future. Negotiating a separate peace instead of waging total war will also break an alliance, with the same effect on a Great Power's diplomatic standing as if the Great Power had refused to go to war in the first place.

Compatibility.

Although the program was written for Windows 95, it can be run under other versions of Windows using the Windows Compatibility Wizard and a change of screen resolution to 640 x 480 for complete stability. The GOG.com edition runs under Windows XP, Vista, 7 and 8.  Strategic Simulations Inc. also published a Macintosh version of the game, which runs on System 7 and MacOS 8.  The game also runs on Wine with occasional crashes.

Development.

"Imperialism" underwent several name changes during development, such as "Sphere of Influence", "Age of Industry" and "Sid Meier's Industrialization". Since 2004 Ubisoft holds the copyright.

Reception.

According to former members of Frog City Software at Sidecar Studios, "Imperialism"s commercial performance was unexpectedly strong. In December 1998, Barry Brenesal of CNET Gamecenter called it a "sleeper hit" and "extremely successful for a turn-based strategy title". At the time, he noted that it was "still selling and has even topped the 100,000 mark." Sidecar's staff noted that "Imperialism" outsold the "original sales goal more than seven-fold", and reached sales surpassing 300,000 copies by 2007.  "Macworld"s Michael Gowan wrote, "While it lacks tactical realism, this sim provides strategy buffs some compelling management challenges."

Imperialism is a turn-based strategy game for Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh computers, developed by Frog City Software and published by Strategic Simulations in 1997. In "Imperialism", the player is the ruler of a 19th-century country and aims to become ruler of the world by conquest or by vote. "Imperialism" was followed by "".


Club career.

Carvallo began his career with Universitario when he joined the club's youth ranks at 12 years of age. In 2003, at 17 years of age, Carvallo debuted in a first division match against Atlético Universidad. With la "U", Carvallo defended the club's goal in international competitions. In 2006, he participated in four Copa Libertadores matches and in 2007 saw action in two Copa Sudamericana matches. Carvallo participated in 94 first division matches during his five year stay with Universitario.  Carvallo joined D.C. United on loan in early 2008. He currently holds a US Green card which helped speed his transfer to D.C. United. He made his debut on 12 April 2008, against Real Salt Lake, conceding four goals in a 4-0 loss. He was released on 17 July 2008.  In July 2008, José Carvallo was loaned out to Sporting Cristal for the 2nd half of 2008. After his loaned ended in December, he signed a two year contract with Sporting Cristal.  Carvallo signed with FBC Melgar in January 2011.

International career.

Carvallo has represented Peru internationally at the Under-15, Under-17 and Under-20 level. He made his full national team debut for Peru in September 2007, when he entered the match as a second-half substitute in a 2-0 victory over Bolivia in Lima.  In May 2018 he was named in Peru’s provisional 24 man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia.

Honours.

Club.

Universitario de Deportes

José Aurelio Carvallo Alonso (born 1 March 1986) is a Peruvian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Peruvian Liga 1 club Universitario de Deportes.


Early development.

Prior to World War II, SS Cars (which changed its name to "Jaguar" in 1945) used three engines produced by the Standard Motor Company: a 1.5-litre 4-cylinder and 6-cylinder engines of 2.5 and 3.5 litres. Sir William Lyons and his engine designers; William Heynes (Chief Engineer), Walter Hassan and Claude Baily, are widely reported to have discussed a new range of replacements whilst fire-watching on the roof of the SS factory in Swallow Road, Coventry, during German World War II bombing raids. Rather than developing prototype engines immediately after the war, it is claimed that Jaguar's wartime engine developments went far beyond mere discussion and design, extending to the construction and testing of several prototype engines as early as 1943.  The initial aim was to produce a series of engines of higher than normal output that would be able to stay ahead of the competition without revision for many years and which Sir William insisted also had to "look good". In 1942-43, a range of configurations was considered and it was concluded that, for good breathing and high bmep, the new engines would need vee-opposed valves operating in hemispherical combustion chambers. Two configurations of this type were selected for comparison in 1943 and the prototypes named "XG" and "XF". The XG 4-cylinder of 1,776 cc, first tested in October 1943, was based on the 1.5-litre Standard block and used its single cam-in-block to operate the opposed valves via a complicated crossover pushrod arrangement, similar to that of the pre-war BMW 328. The XF 4-cylinder of 1,732 cc used the now familiar dual overhead cam (DOHC) configuration and was first tested in November 1944. The XG was found to suffer from excessive pushrod and rocker noise and gas flow figures through its vertical valve ports did not equal those of the horizontal ports on the XF. Therefore, from these two options, the DOHC XF layout was selected.  4-cyl engine development progressed as follows:  By September 1947 a 3.2-litre 6-cylinder version had been produced, called the "XJ 6-cylinder", which was intended to replace both Standard-based 6-cylinder units. Testing showed the need for higher torque at low speeds than this engine could produce and hence it was'stroked' to 3,442 cc to form the "XK 6-cylinder", which saw its debut in an open two-seat XK120 sports car at the 1948 London Motor Show. Following this the XK6 powered the Jaguar Mark VII and a number of other models in subsequent years.  The XG prototype soldiered on as a component testbed until 1948. There also existed an "XK 4-cylinder" of 1,790 cc, also first tested in October 1945 and remaining under development alongside the XK 6-cylinder units. At the time of William Heynes' paper presented to the IMechE in February 1953, the XK 4-cylinder was still referred to as being under development. It was only finally dropped as a possible production engine later in 1953, by which time it had been realised that Jaguar's image in the market had moved beyond the need for a replacement for the old 1.5-litre Standard 4-cylinder unit.  Because the 6-cylinder XK prototypes were found to be so much more refined than the 4-cylinder versions, in 1951 a 1,986 cc 6-cylinder version of the XK 6-cylinder was built to see if it would suffice as a smaller scale engine. By 1954 this had grown to 2,483 cc and it was this short-block version of the XK 6-cylinder that was fitted to the new compact Jaguar 2.4-litre (retrospectively known as the Mark 1) released in that year. None of the 4-cylinder prototypes ever advanced to production but Lt. Col. Goldie Gardner's speed record team did fit a 1970 cc version to the MG streamliner EX-135 in 1948 to take the 2,000 cc class record at, on the Jabbeke motorway in Belgium.  There are some misleading claims of an intervening "XJ" 4-cyl prototype but it seems the only person who referred to them as such was William Heynes in a paper presented to the IMechE in 1953. Heynes stated there were many 4-cyl variants following the XF but it was he alone who loosely grouped them as XJ. The last mention of XF was in July 1945 and the first mention of XK (XK1) was in October of the same year. This doesn't give much room for a series of XJ engines.There are no mentions of XJ in the archive (other than in Heynes’ paper). If there is a XJ, the first one is likely to have been referred to as XK1 internally. There were three others of nominally 1790 cc capacity called XK2, XK3 & XK4. It is likely these are what Heynes referred to as "XJ". The first "true" XK was called "XK Number 1" (distinct from "XK1") and was of 1970 cc nominal capacity with an 83mm/91mm bore/stroke.  Thus were developed the two block sizes that formed the basis of all subsequent XK 6-cylinder engines; the shorter block being used for the 2.4 and 2.8-litre engines and the full sized block for both versions of the 3.4, the 3.8 and the 4.2-litre engines.

Description.

Valve train.

The most recognisable feature of the XK engine is the dual cam covers atop the engine, which were a polished alloy until a change to ribbed black and alloy finish in early 1968, four years or so after the introduction of the 4.2-litre versions in 1964. The unusual depth of the engine's cylinder head was dictated by the desire to make room for two generously-sized valves, whilst not excessively restricting the flow of gases into and out of the hemispherical combustion chambers. To satisfy these two conditions, a relatively wide angle between the valves was initially chosen, with quite long valve stems. To efficiently operate valves whose tops were such a long way apart, the dual overhead cam arrangement was found to be the most effective.  The cam lobes act directly on bucket type tappets, which are adjusted by means of shims between the underside of the bucket and the top of the valves. Two duplex chains drive the camshafts, one from the crankshaft to a sprocket at the level of the combustion chambers, and one from the sprocket to each camshaft. The original sprung slipper design of the lower cam chain tensioner proved to be too weak and after a couple of years was changed to an improved hydraulic design, using engine oil pressure.

Cylinder head.

The cylinder heads were made of RR50 aluminium alloy due to that material's high rate of heat conduction and light weight, the latter estimated by William Heynes to give a weight saving of some compared with a similar head made of cast iron. Special attention was paid to the gas flow, with Harry Weslake and Heynes designing a curved inlet port to impart swirl to the air-fuel mixture for improved combustion. The same basic cylinder head layout was preserved throughout the production life of the engine but with many detail changes. Valve and port sizes and angles, camshaft lift, compression ratio and carburetion were frequently amended from model to model, depending upon whether power or torque was being emphasised. Very early XK engines fitted to the XK 120 sports car and Mark VII saloon lacked fixing studs at the front part of the cam covers, where they covered the timing chains, which leaked oil as a result. From 1951 onwards, all XK engines had studs around the full perimeter of the cam covers.  The earliest cylinder heads are known as "Standard" or "A type" heads and are identifiable by their differing valve angles of 30 degrees inlet and 45 degrees exhaust, as well as by their unpainted aluminium finish. Around 1954, the "B type" head appeared, with equal valve angles of 35 degrees on inlet and exhaust. The "B type" heads are painted light "duck egg" blue (early cars) to light green (later cars) in the 2.4 and 3.4-litre models and metallic dark blue in 3.8-litre models. A very few XK 120s and XK 140s were supplied to customers with the "C type" cylinder head, which was painted red and carried a plaque on each cam cover stating "Jaguar Type C".  A supposedly more efficient "straight port" cylinder head, again with equal 35 degree angles on the inlet and exhaust was introduced later in the 1950s and this was painted pumpkin orange on the XK-150S. The cylinder heads in the Series 1 E-type and Mark X were painted gold whether the engine was a 3.8-litre or 4.2-litre. Around the time of the later series 1 E-Types and 420G in 1968, about the same time as the arrival of the ribbed cam covers, the practice of painting the cylinder heads ceased. Many sources still describe the subsequent unpainted aluminium finish as "silver".  Jaguar's colour-coding of its cylinder heads of the late 1950s and early 1960s can be determined from Heiner Stertkamp's list below. The only real anomaly is that the earliest 3.8-litre E-Types had an orange painted head (because they had 3 carburettors) but later changed to gold (because they had straight-port heads). Gold paint signified a straight port triple-carburettor setup from then until the demise of the Mark X.  Cars with the straight-port head and only two carburettors did not have painted heads. See the complete table of XK cylinder head types as they relate to Jaguar and Daimler models at the end of this article.

Engine block.

The block was made of cast iron (with the exception of some made of aluminium alloy for racing engines), with the crankcase split on the centreline of the seven-bearing crankshaft. The crankshaft was made of EN16 steel, heat treated prior to machining. An innovation was the fitting of a proprietary Metalastik vibration damper on the nose of the crankshaft to eliminate damaging crankshaft resonances. The design and materials of the bottom end of the engine hardly changed throughout its life, apart from the changes dictated by the respaced cylinders of the 4.2-litre version (also used by the 'new 3.4' litre version). The oil pump was changed after a couple of years from a relatively inefficient gear-type pump to a Hobourn-Eaton eccentric-lobe unit.

Fuel system.

The pre-injection cars had either two or three SU, Weber, Zenith or Zenith-Stromberg carburettors of various sizes depending upon the model and market. Some D-Type sports racing cars received fuel injection, but it did not become available on the road cars until 1978, beginning on certain US market models in order to comply with government fuel-efficiency standards. It was eventually extended across the range and to all markets.

Power rating.

During the 1950s and 1960s Jaguar released SAE gross horsepower figures, using the measurement system preferred by US manufacturers, as otherwise its cars would have appeared under-powered in comparison with US cars. This practice was superseded by reliance on the more realistic SAE net horsepower system around 1972, although Jaguar power ratings of that era may also be expressed using the very similar DIN net rating system. Since the conditions upon which the SAE gross figures were determined were not recorded, an objective comparison of the power outputs of the various models of XK6 powered Jaguar over time is impossible.  The 1965 4.2 XK fitted to the carburetted E-Type had a listed output of SAE gross; the 1986 fuel injected 4.2 XK fitted to the series 3 XJ6 was listed at DIN net. Variables such as compression ratio, cam lifts and durations, and fuel consumption rate for each engine during testing would, at a minimum, be additionally required to develop any estimated comparisons.

Individual displacements.

3.4-litre.

The first production use of the XK straight-6 was in the 1948 Jaguar XK120, which used the version with a bore x stroke of. It had an iron block without cylinder liners and aluminium cylinder head. It had a wider gap between cylinders 3 and 4 than between the other cylinders. The 3.4 was first rated at SAE gross at a compression ratio of 8:1, rising to SAE gross with the C-type cylinder head (confusingly not the head from the C-Type as raced at Le Mans) all the way to SAE gross with the "straight port" head at a compression ratio of 9:1 as fitted to the XK150SE.  Almost as soon as the new compact Jaguar 2.4-litre was released, there was pressure on Jaguar to fit the 3.4-litre engine to it. This was duly done in February 1957, the car being known as the Jaguar 3.4-litre. The designation "Mark 1" for these cars was applied retrospectively, after the release of the Mark 2 in 1959.  The original 3.4-litre XK6 was used in the following road cars:

2.4-litre.

In the mid-1950s, Jaguar lacked a compact saloon of the type represented until 1949 by the Standard-engined 11⁄2 litre. In choosing a power unit for its all new compact saloon, Jaguar could choose between the 1,995 cc four-cylinder XK prototype and a downsized version of the 3.4-litre six-cylinder XK. The 4-cylinder was considered too low powered and unrefined. The 3.4 was already well "undersquare", which means that its bore was much less than its stroke, so a smaller bore version of the 3.4 was not seen as a realistic proposition. Jaguar was therefore obliged to create a short-stroke version of the 6-cylinder XK with a shorter cylinder block, reducing it in height from to.  Introduced in the Jaguar 2.4-litre in 1955, the engine had a stroke of while retaining the bore of to give a capacity of. Despite having a displacement of almost 2.5 litres, the new car was called the "Jaguar 2.4" to create an obvious separation from the old Standard 21⁄2 litre and link it to the now familiar 3.4-litre XK engine. The 2.4s produced were rated at 112 bhp (nett) by the factory, using twin Solex downdraft carburettors.  In 1959 the engine was carried over into the new Mark 2, in which it produced SAE gross, still with Solex carburettors. The Jaguar 240 was fitted with an uprated version of the engine, incorporating the straight-port cylinder head and twin SU carburettors delivering 133 bhp SAE gross.  The 2.4-litre XK6 was used in the following cars:

3.8-litre.

The 3.8-litre version was released in 1958, initially for the last of the XK150s and the Mark IX saloon. It retained the 3.4’s bore centres and stroke but was bored out to for a total displacement of (3,781 cc / 230.7 cu-in). The distance between the cylinder bores was sufficiently small that it was decided to fit dry liners to the bores. The 3.8 had a number of detail differences from the 3.4, particularly in its valve gear and carburetion. The standard 3.8 produced SAE gross and up to SAE gross in the XK150SE with the straight port head.  The 3.8-litre XK6 was used in the following road cars:

3.0-litre.

3-litre versions of the XK engine were built from 1959 onwards for FIA sports car racing. It was also popular with small race car manufacturers such as Lister Cars who could not afford to produce their own engines. As well as endurance racing, the engine was also used in Formula Libre racing.  A 3.0-litre XK6 was used in the following road cars:

4.2-litre.

The 4.2-litre version of the XK was officially released in 1964, although racers had been boring the 3.8 out to 4.2 litres for years. The factory 4.2-litre block was a new siamesed sleeve design which used respaced cylinders set evenly along the length of the block with new main bearing spacings and a new crankshaft. The middle two cylinders were moved closer together and the outer two moved further apart but the overall length of the block remained unchanged. This enabled the cylinder bores to be taken out to whilst retaining the familiar long stroke of for a total displacement of.  Despite the re-spacing of the cylinder bores, the cylinder head castings remained unchanged. As a result, the centrelines of the combustion chambers in the head no longer aligned precisely with the centrelines of the cylinders but this did not matter greatly as the combustion chamber diameters in the head were smaller than the cylinder diameters. The 3.8 and 4.2-litre cylinder heads and cams are therefore interchangeable. The 4.2-litre engine from the factory had unsmoothed steps between the inlet manifold and head, and the manifold gaskets were not a good match for the inlet ports. These engines therefore make excellent bases for some modification, achieving approx. SAE net and increased torque merely by "flowing" the head.  Published horsepower ratings of the various versions of the 4.2-litre are complicated by the switch from gross to net horsepower systems during its lifetime. For example, in 1965 the 4.2-litre with triple SU HD8 carburetors fitted to the US-specification E-Type was rated at @ 5400 rpm SAE gross and a maximum torque of @ 4000 rpm whereas by 1969, now with twin Zenith-Stromberg carburetors, this had fallen to SAE gross. The difference indicates the effect of the revised carburetion and other changes made to reduce exhaust emissions from US specification engines. Jeff Daniels' reference states that the similar twin Zenith-Stromberg version fitted to a US specification XJ6 was rated by Jaguar at using the DIN net horsepower system, the difference being largely due to the effect of the gross versus net horsepower rating systems.  The 1987 Jaguar XJ6 was the last Jaguar car fitted with the XK6 engine. In 1992 the last Daimler DS420 Limousine was produced. Like all other DS420 limousines, it was equipped with a 4.2-litre XK6 engine. The 4.2 variant was also used in some military vehicles with relatively few modifications. The XK engine has the rare accolade of having been in production and service in cars spanning six consecutive decades.  All of the 4.2-litre XK engines used the straight port head. After the arrival of the ribbed cam covers in 1967 the heads normally remained unpainted, which some sources describe as "silver".  The 4.2-litre XK6 was used in the following cars:  It was also used in the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked) - CVR(T) - family of military vehicles: e.g.,  and the corresponding Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Wheeled) - CVR(W) - family: e.g., Fox armoured reconnaissance vehicle plus the Dennis D600 fire engine.

2.8-litre.

A 2.8-litre version of the XK was introduced for the entry-level XJ6 models in 1968. It returned to the old short block of the 2.4, retaining the bore of but lengthening the stroke by to to give a displacement of 2,792 cc / 170.4 cu-in. The power output of the 2.8 was listed as DIN net, which cannot be directly compared with the 133 bhp SAE gross of the last of the 2.4s in the 240 Mark 2.  The 2.8 gained a bad reputation early in its career due to a tendency for excessive carbon deposits to accumulate on the piston crowns during low-speed running, which would burn through the crowns when run at higher revs. This was later cured by a switch to stronger pistons but the engine was also a mediocre performer offering no real economy benefit and it was dropped in 1973, to be replaced by the ‘new’ 3.4.  All of the 2.8-litre XK engines used the straight port head unpainted, which some sources may describe as "silver", and had ribbed cam covers.  The 2.8-litre XK6 was used in the following cars:

"New" 3.4-litre.

Introduced in 1975 to replace the 2.8 in the entry level XJ6, the new 3.4 was not a simple revival of the original XK. Whilst it shared the old 3.4’s bore and stroke of and respectively, it carried over some features of the newer 4.2 litre engine - the main bearing spacings and bearing sizes, and stiffer bottom end but dispensing with the cylinder liners used by the 3.8 and 4.2. However the cylinder spacing remained as the original 1948 design. With 83mm bore, the cylinders needed to line up with the combustion chambers in the cylinder head (whose centres remained as the original 1948 design right up to the end of XK-engine production. It used a straight port head and delivered DIN net and far superior torque to the 2.8.  The "new 3.4" used the straight port head, had ribbed cam covers and the heads were unpainted.  The "New 3.4" litre XK6 was used in the following cars:

Cylinder head types.

The following table relates XK cylinder head type to Jaguar/Daimler model and includes the paint colours applied to certain versions of the cylinder head in the 1950s and 60s. Unpainted heads are sometimes referred to as "silver" but this is merely the natural colour of the aluminium alloy.

The Jaguar XK is an inline 6-cylinder dual overhead camshaft (DOHC) engine designed by Jaguar Cars' chief engineer William Heynes and produced by the company between 1949 and 1992. Introduced as a 3.4-litre, it earned fame on both the road and track, being produced in five displacements between 2.4 and 4.2-litres for Jaguar passenger cars, with other sizes being made by Jaguar and privateers for racing. A de-rated version was also used in certain military vehicles built by Alvis and Daimler.