Definition of rules of origin.

The most comprehensive definition for rules of origin is found in the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs procedures (Kyoto Convention), which entered into force in 1974 and was revised in 1999. According to Specific Annex K of this Convention: The definition makes it clear that rules of origin are basically the "criteria" to determine the origin of goods. Such criteria may be developed from principles in national legislation or international treaties, but the implementation of rules of origin (i.e., certification and verification) is always at the country level. It is also important to note that the purpose of rules of origin is to define the "country of origin", not a geographical area such as region or province (which is very important in the field of intellectual property rights). The country of origin is often found in the label or marking of a good, for instance "product of China", "made in Italy", etc.  Considering the modest number of Members of the World Customs Organization (WCO) acceding to Specific Annex K (accession to Specific Annexes is optional), the Kyoto Convention has a rather insignificant impact on the application of rules of origin in international trade. However, this Convention does provide many important definitions and standards, which serve as a harmonized basis for national laws and trade agreements to formulate origin. Apart from the definition for rules of origin, it also provides definitions for "country of origin", "substantial transformation", and a number of recommended practices.

Classification of rules of origin.

Rules of origin can be classified into non-preferential rules of origin and preferential rules of origin. Non-preferential rules of origin are those primarily designated in order to sustain the most-favored-treatment (MFN) within the World Trade Organization (WTO). Whereas, preferential rules of origin are those associated with "contractual or autonomous trade regimes leading to the granting of tariff preferences going beyond" the MFN application. This separation is stipulated in Article 1 of the WTO's Agreement on Rules of Origin.  It is important to understand the difference between these two categories of rules of origin. Non-preferential rules of origin are deemed "non-preferential" because they are applied in a "non-preferential" basis to determine the country of origin for certain purposes of application within the multilateral trading system. In contrast, rules of origin in FTAs and in the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP) is considered preferential because they help to determine the country of origin in order to grant "preferential and special" treatment to products originating in a contracting party or a beneficiary country.  In principle, FTAs as well as their rules of origin must be notified to the WTO as an obligation of Members. However, rules of origin in FTAs and autonomous trade regimes (e.g., GSP schemes) are not subject to any substantive requirement from the WTO. This is because the Agreement on Rules of Origin does not govern how rules of origin in an FTA or a GSP scheme should be formulated and implemented. There is only a brief "Common Declaration with Regard to Preferential Rules of Origin", which sets out some standards and recommendations for the formulation of preferential rules of origin. The fact that preferential rules of origin do not fall within the realm of the WTO adds more divergence to the "spaghetti bowl" of rules of origin: each FTA and each autonomous trade regime may formulate its own rules of origin. As a consequence of the rapid growth of regionalism, hundreds of rules of origin are currently applied in hundreds of FTAs. According to the WTO, as of 4 January 2019, 291 RTAs are in force - counting only those notified to its Secretariat. Whereas, according to the International Trade Centre (ITC), more than 440 FTAs are in force up to the end of March 2019.  Indeed, within the WTO, non-preferential rules of origin are not more harmonized than in FTAs. Despite tremendous effort, the work program to harmonize non-preferential rules of origin has not made significant progress to date, which means there is not yet a common set of rules of origin for non-preferential purposes within the WTO. During the so-called "transitional period", the formulation and implementation of non-preferential rules are literally at the discretion of Members. The only difference as compared to preferential rules of origin is that non-preferential rules of origin are subject to more binding requirements in WTO agreements, particularly the Agreement on Rules of Origin and the Agreement on Trade Facilitation.  So far, the most successful initiative to harmonize this area of rule-making at the multilateral level is the WTO's implementation of preferential rules of origin in favor of least developed countries (LDCs). The 2015 Nairobi Decision on Preferential Rules of Origin for LDCs, which is built upon the decision adopted earlier in 2013 at the Hong Kong Ministerial Conference, has for the first time laid out general guidelines and detailed instructions on specific issues to determine the status of products originating in an LDC country. Moreover, preference-granting Members are required to notify to the Secretariat of their prevalent origin criteria and other origin requirements. To enable transparency and comparability, such notifications must also follow a template adopted by the WTO's Committee on Rules of Origin.

The role of rules of origin in international trade.

Being the criteria to determine the economic nationality of goods, the role of rules of origin is inherently derived from the fact that a number of trade policy measures are applied based on the source of the imports. For instance, if country A wants to impose anti-dumping duties on steel products originating from country B, it is when rules of origin come into play. Without rules of origin, country As cannot apply this measure properly because it cannot determine whether or not the steel in a certain consignment is "made in country B". Beyond this fundamental issue, when steel products originating from country C only transit through country B, they should not be subject to this trade remedy measure; but when steel products of country B opt to transit through country C before being entering country A, it should be considered a circumvention of the anti-dumping duties. All these issues give rise to the need to formulate and implement rules of origin. Basically, rules of origin allow the application of trade measures to the right subject-matters whenever their nationality is taken into account. Likewise, rules of origin are crucial to trade statistics because a country may need to keep track of their trade balance with partners.  Rules of origin are particularly important in FTAs, which are established to provide preferences exclusively to products of preferential origin. In this context, rules of origin are indispensable to differentiate between goods originating in contracting parties and those originating in third countries. Such differentiation serves two purposes: (1) it allows the importing party to determine whether a product is eligible for preferential treatment under the FTA at hand; (2) it avoids the scenario where exports from third countries enter the FTA via the member with the lowest external tariff (i.e., trade deflection). This explains why in a customs union, there is no need to establish rules of origin among its contracting parties - members of a customs union are required to maintain a common external tariff imposed on imports from third countries.  Due to such role, rules of origin also help to create trade among members of a preferential trade arrangement. Such trade creation effect may happen through two channels. Firstly, because preferences are destined exclusively for goods originating in partner countries, it follows that one party tends to increase its imports from another party of an FTA. To illustrate, if country A signs an FTA with country B, due to lower duties, product X originating in country B now becomes cheaper than similar product X' originating in country C; therefore, country A has the incentive to import a higher volume of X. Secondly, inputs originating in a partner country are also preferred because they are normally considered as originating in the other party where it is incorporated in production. It means country A has the incentive to use inputs originating in country B because this will allow its products to qualify for the originating status under the FTA with country B more easily. Both channels may lead to an increased trade between country A and country B, but may also have an adverse effect on their trade with country C (i.e., trade diversion). Therefore, although rules of origin help to overcome trade deflection and encourage trade creation, it also causes trade diversion, which in many cases is not economically efficient.

Origin criteria.

Rules of origin attempt to reflect the practice of trade and production. It is apparent that a product may be obtained or produced by only one country, but it can also be a product manufactured with the contribution of several countries. Therefore, the criteria to determine the origin of goods - the most important element in any set of rules of origin - are designated to reflect these two circumstances.

Wholly obtained or produced products.

'Wholly obtained' refers mainly to natural products grown, harvested etc., in a Party (country or territory) and to products made entirely from them. Normally in FTAs and GSP schemes, these products are indicated either by means of a general definition or by means of an exhaustive list. The second method is more commonly found, and it is also considered to be more transparent.  Specific Annex K to the Revised Kyoto Convention provides a list of wholly obtained or produced products, which can be taken as a good example for the second method: Although the lists of wholly obtained products are more or less identical across agreements, there are yet several subtle differences. For instance, a few agreements consider animals "raised" in one country as wholly obtained in that country, while most agreements require them to be "born and raised" there. Besides, most agreements include in these list only products obtained in one single country, while some agreements also consider an article as wholly obtained if it is made entirely from inputs originating in one or more than one partner countries.

Not wholly obtained products.

In the ‘substantial transformation’ criterion, ‘origin is determined by regarding as the country of origin the country where the last substantial manufacturing or processing, deemed sufficient to give a commodity its essential character, has been carried out.’ In other words, once a product is made up of inputs from several countries, it obtains originating status in the country that hosts the substantial works giving it an essential character. There is a possibility that works carried out in different countries may give the product equally essential characters; in that case, the last one shall be credited. There are several methods of application to identify the fulfillment of the ‘substantial transformation’ criterion, which include rules that are based (i) on the change in tariff classification, (ii) the ad valorem percentage, or (iii) the list of specific manufacturing or processing operations. All of these interchangeable methods have certain positives and negatives, and they can be applied separately or in combination.

The 'value added' rule.

This method takes into account the degree of manufacturing or processing carried out in a country by calculating the value it adds to the products. If the value added meets a certain threshold, denoted as a percentage, the manufacturing or processing shall be considered substantial or sufficient, thereby allowing the goods to acquire originating status in the country where such manufacturing or processing takes place. A rule based on the value added requirement may be expressed in one of the following tests:  (i) Minimum percentage of the value added to final products (build-up or direct test): The manufacturing or processing operations carried out in the country of origin must reach a certain extent, i.e., the percentage of value they add to the final products must be equal to or exceed a given threshold, so that the latter can obtain origin there. This test requires a consideration between the value of regionally or locally created content and that of the final goods. As a result, the stringency of rules of origin would increase with the threshold for regional or domestic content. For instance, a rule requiring 40% regional value content will be more stringent than one requiring 35%.  (ii) Maximum percentage of non-originating inputs (build-down or indirect test): The use of non-originating materials or components in the processing or manufacturing in the country of origin is restricted to a maximum rate. This test relies on a comparison between the value of non-originating inputs and that of the final goods. Therefore, the stringency of rules of origin would be inversely proportional to the allowance of non-originating inputs. To illustrate, a rule authorizing 60% value of final products to come from non-originating materials is more stringent than one permitting 65%.

Change of tariff classification.

Among those three methods of application to express the ‘substantial transformation’ criterion, change in tariff classification is regarded by the Agreement on Rules of Origin as the primary method. In its Article 9 on the objectives and principles of harmonizing rules of origin, the Agreement on Rules of Origin divides ‘substantial transformation’ into two groups, in which ‘change in tariff classification’ stands apart, while the other methods are categorized as ‘supplementary’. This Article points out that to ensure the timely completion of the harmonization work program, it ‘shall be conducted on a product sector basis, as represented by various chapters or sections of the Harmonized System (HS) nomenclature.’ Only where the usage of the nomenclature does not enable a proper expression of ‘substantial transformation’ shall the Technical Committee on Rules of Origin consider elaborating on ‘the use, in a supplementary or exclusive manner, of other requirements, including ad valorem percentages and/or manufacturing or processing operations.’

Specific manufacturing or processing operations.

This method dictates specific production processes that may confer originating status to the goods. It requires non-originating materials to go through certain processing or manufacturing operations in a country in order for the good to be deemed originating in that country. Although the Revised Kyoto Convention has dropped this method, it is still commonly used in practice: the often cited ‘from yarn forward’ rule is a good example. As a matter of fact, this method is acknowledged by the Agreement on Rules of Origin. Article 2(a)(iii) of the agreement states that in cases where this method is used, the operations conferring origin on the goods in question need to be precisely specified.

General origin provisions.

Apart from the core origin criteria, rules of origin also comprise general provisions which cover other aspects in origin determination. They are referred to as general previsions because they are applied across the board, and not specific to any product. Although there is no harmony across trade agreements, the Comparative Study on Rules of Origin of the WCO has listed the most commonly found provisions of this category. Based on this study, the following glossary is provided by the International Trade Centre as a brief guideline for enterprises.

Origin certification and verification.

Certification and verification are procedural aspects of rules of origin, but they are of no less importance. Even if a product fulfills the substantive origin criteria, it will not be entitled to preferences unless it complies with the procedural requirements. The requirements regarding certification and verification are usually provided in an annexes called operational procedures, or sometimes in the chapters on customs procedures. Those annexes or chapters include a number of provisions such as retention of documents, refund of excess duties paid, minor errors, etc., which need to be taken into account if traders want to claim preferences for their goods.  Most essentially, to be eligible for preferential treatment, a consignment must be accompanied by a proof of origin. The most popular form of proof of origin required in most trade agreements is a certificate of origin. Besides, there are other forms of proof of origin, for instance, a declaration of origin or an origin statement. Many agreements provide value thresholds below which proofs of origin may be waived.  Regarding certification, a trader needs to know whether or not self-certification is permitted by the trade agreement under which he claims preferences. If it is permitted, the trader (either the producer, the exporter, or in some cases, the importer) only needs to fill out the information relating to the consignment on a prescribed form (if any), and declare that the goods listed therein fulfill origin criteria and other requirements. However, if self-certification is not allowed, a trader must apply for a proof of origin issued by a certifying authority, which is normally the chamber of commerce or an agency of the ministry of trade or commerce. To obtain such document, the exporter or the producer will submit various documents relating to the production or manufacturing of the goods. The competent authority will examine the documents, and pay visits to an applicant's premise to verify if necessary, and certify if the goods are compliant with the origin criteria set out in the trade agreement at hand.  Regarding verification, when the consignment arrives at the port of entry in the importing country, the proof of origin will be submitted to the customs authority. To facilitate trade, sometimes a physical submission is not required - the importer or its representative may simply submit the document number and/or an electronic copy thereof. The customs' acceptance of the proof of origin will decide whether or not the consignment is entitled to preferential treatment. In case there arise some doubts, the customs authority may resort to several measures, e.g. examining the original proof or origin or verifying the information on the document and the goods actually imported. The customs may require the trader to provide more information, or even contact the issuing authority in the exporting country for further clarification.

Institutions and Rules of Origin.

Domestic institutions.

Because rules of origin are implemented at the country level, it is domestic institutions which directly deal with the certification and verification procedures. The competent authorities differ from one country to another, and also vary across trade agreements.

Issuing authorities.

An issuing authority may be one of the following institutions:  To cite an example, in Vietnam, goods exported to an importing country under non-preferential regime may need a non-preferential certificate of origin certified by the Vietnamese Chamber of Commerce and Industry. The Chamber is also responsible for issuing preferential certificate of origin form A if the goods are exported to a GSP-granting country. However, if the goods are traded under an FTA, the issuing authority will be a local Office of Import and Export Administration, directly under the Ministry of Industry and Trade.

Verifying authorities.

Verifying authorities are in principle the customs authorities in importing countries unless otherwise specified. The reason is that the verification of origin in the importing country must be carried out when the goods arrive at the port of entry in order to determine the (preferential) duties applied to the consignment, which falls within the realm of its customs. Particularly, in many agreements, the customs are indicated as both the certifying and the verifying authorities.

International organizations.

It must be noted that international organizations are not the institutions dealing directly with traders. However, they have very important roles in forming, administering and facilitating the application of rules of origin.

World Trade Organization.

The WTO is administering the Agreement on Rules of Origin. It holds committees on Rules of Origin. Although most of the work at the WTO concern non-preferential rules of origin, the current initiative on rules of origin for LDCs is an important work that the WTO is carrying on. It requires the Members which commit under the Ministerial Declarations to submit notifications regarding their rules of origin in preferential treatment for LDCs. The WTO webpage on non-preferential rules of origin provides an archive of documents relating to non-preferential rules of origin in Members. It also provide a database on preferential rules of origin notified under the LDC initiative.  Besides, the WTO's new Trade Facilitation Agreement also provides new benchmarks for the customs-related aspects in implementing rules of origin. For instance, Article of this agreement provides that each member shall issue an advance ruling on the origin of goods "in a reasonable, time-bound manner to the applicant that has submitted a written request containing all necessary information".

World Customs Organization.

The WCO administers many important conventions that relate to rules of origin, for instance the Revised Kyoto Convention. It also administers the Harmonized System, which is the basis to construct tariff schedules and also the basis to determine the origin of goods when the "tariff jump" rule is applied. The WCO is jointly in charge of the Technical Committee on Rules of Origin. As provided for by Article 4.2 of the WTO Agreement on Rules of Origin, "the Technical Committee is a WTO body, but it has operated under the auspices of the WCO as provided for under Article 4.2 of the Origin Agreement. Therefore, the WCO Council exercises its supervision over the Technical Committee with regard to administrative matters only." The WCO also publishes a number of guidelines and studies on different aspects of rules of origin, which are very helpful for enterprises. For instance, the WCO Origin Compendium (2017) and the Comparative Study on Preferential Rules of Origin (version 2017).

International Trade Centre.

In a joint initiative with the WCO and WTO, the International Trade Centre introduces Rules of Origin Facilitator, which provides free and user-friendly access to ITC’s database of rules of origin and origin-related documentation in hundreds of trade agreements. The Facilitator is also combined with the huge tariff and trade agreements databases that have been constructed and continuously maintained by ITC’s Market Access Map since 2006, resulting in a unique market intelligence solution enabling companies, particularly ones from developing countries, to benefit from trade agreements worldwide. The Facilitator currently contains a data for more than 230 FTAs applied by more than 190 countries as well as non-preferential regimes of the EU, the USA and Switzerland. This database is gradually expanding with the ultimate goal to cover over 400 FTAs and preferential schemes that are currently active in the world.  The Rules of Origin Facilitator aims to help small and medium-sized enterprises to increase trade by taking advantage of global trade opportunities in the form of low duty rates under trade agreements. The tool can also be used by policymakers, trade negotiators, economists as well as any other users. Any user can simply look for information on origin criteria, other origin provisions, and trade documentation by entering the HS code of their product.

International Chamber of Commerce.

The ICC is not directly dealing with paperwork submitted by traders, but this the world's largest business organization, is contributing a lot to the works of chambers of commerce in countries - which means they are improving the work of issuing authorities.  Following the 1923 Geneva Convention, governments have been delegating the issuance of certificate of origin to chambers. Chambers are deemed to be competent organisations and regarded as an accountable and reliable third-party with neutrality and impartiality. The ICC's World Chambers Federation Council on International Certificate of Origin (ICO) was established to enhance and promote the unique position of chambers as the natural agent in the issuance of trade documents. The Federation has established a universal set of procedures for issuing and attesting certificates by chambers all over the world.

Rules of origin are the rules to attribute a country of origin to a product in order to determine its "economic nationality". The need to establish rules of origin stems from the fact that the implementation of trade policy measures, such as tariffs, quotas, trade remedies, in various cases, depends on the country of origin of the product at hand.


Early life.

Nhlumba Bertha Mkhize was born on 6 June 1889 in Embo, near Umkomaas in the southern province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa to Mashobane Mkhize, an oxcart driver. Around the age of four, Mkhize's father died and the family relocated to Inanda, where she enrolled in the Inanda Seminary School. She was one of the first students of the all-girls school. After completion of her studies at the seminary, she went on to graduate from Ohlange High School.

Career.

In 1907, Mkhize began teaching at Inanda Seminary and remained there for the next four years. While she was teaching, she took tailoring classes to learn the skill. In 1909, she was legally emancipated. The process required her to appear before a magistrate with a signed document from her guardians granting her the right to conduct her affairs without her male family members' approval. This was an unusual procedure for Zulu women at the time and gave her the right to homestead or open her own business. In 1911, she left the teaching profession and moved to Durban where she went into tailoring with her brother. She continued with her interest in literacy, working in a children's center for twenty-five years. She also spoke out against oppressive measures used to undermine people's rights, like culling their cattle or forcing them and their owners to be plunged in pesticide under the guise of controlling typhus.  At its organization, Mkhize joined the African National Congress Women's League (ANCWL) and became involved in women's rights issues, participating in marches in 1931 and 1936 against requirements for women to have travel passes. She also joined the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union, campaigning against curfews, low wages, and other working restrictions. In the early 1950s a series of restrictive laws were passed by the Apartheid legislature which required women to vacate urban areas within 72 hours or live with a man who had a permanent permit of residence. As early as 1950, protests of the new laws which curtailed free movement were held in urban areas throughout the country. Mkhize led the demonstrations in Durban in March 1950. In 1952, she joined around 500 other women to march on the Durban City Council. Known as the Defiance Campaign, at issue was a law that required women to obtain permission to travel. Mkhize spoke in favor of retracting the restriction, and for her defiance spent several months in prison.  Because the women were successful in exerting pressure on the government, Mkhize and others recognized that further organization would further their cause. To that end, they created the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW). She was one of the women who attended the founding conference in 1954 and was selected as one of the national vice presidents along with Florence Matomela, Lillian Ngoyi, and Gladys Smith. They drafted Women's Charter, which called for universal enfranchisement regardless of race, and equal opportunity in the areas of civil liberties, domestic rights, employment and pay. Two years later, Mkhize had become President of ANCWL, which held a mass demonstration in August 1956 to show the strength of women's opposition to a new implementation of women's pass laws. Along with other leaders of the women's movement, Mkhize was arrested for treason in the middle of the night in December 1956. The women, which included other activists like Frances Baard, Helen Joseph, Lillian Ngoyi, and Annie Silinga were accused of plotting to overthrow the government. The trial lasted for four and a half years, resulting in not guilty verdicts for all 156 women arrested on that night raid.  In 1958, Mkhize was introduced to the Baháʼí Faith and joined the organization on 1 January 1959. The message of unity for all people was in line with her own convictions and she became active in the church. She had continued running her business in Durban, but in 1965 the Durban City Council forced the closure of all African businesses and removed their owners of the area. She worked actively in Natal and Zululand for five years on behalf of the Baháʼí Faith and then settled in Gezinsila in Eshowe as a pioneer. Along with other Baháʼí teachers, Mkhize was responsible for founding twenty-eight congregations in the area. In 1968, she was elected to serve as a delegate to the National Spiritual Assembly of South and West Africa and served for one year. She translated many texts of the faith into Zulu. After nine years, her health began to fail in 1975, but she remained in her post until 1978, when she bequeathed her home to the faith and returned to Inanda.

Death and legacy.

Mkhize died on 3 October 1981 in Inanda and is remembered for her pioneering role in women's rights. A street in Durban was renamed in her honor in 2010. A life-sized sculpture of Mkhize created by Cristina Salvoldi was installed at the National Heritage Monument in Tshwane near Johannesburg in 2017.

Bertha Mkhize (6 June 1889 – 3 October 1981) was a South African teacher, who gained legal emancipation as a "feme sole" operating a business in her own right. As the government began implementing Apartheid in the late 1940s and early 1950s, she joined labor unions and women's organizations, leading demonstrations against the policies of the government. She was arrested twice for these activities and charged in the second incident with treason, but found not guilty of the allegations. When she was forced to give up her business, she became a pioneer in the Baháʼí Faith, embracing its doctrine of equality for all people. She worked to establish twenty-eight Baháʼí communities in KwaZulu-Natal.


Early years and journeys.

Louis (sometimes styled Louie) Abernathy was born in Texas in 1899 and Temple Abernathy was born in 1904 in Tipton, Oklahoma. Their father was cowboy and U.S. Marshal Jack Abernathy.  In 1909 the boys rode by horseback from Frederick, Oklahoma, to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and back. Louis was nine, and Temple was five.  When the boys completed their Santa Fe journey, they began planning a cross-country horseback ride to New York City, again by themselves, to meet Theodore Roosevelt when he returned from his trip to Africa and Europe. They made that trip in 1910. They were greeted as celebrities, and rode their horses in a ticker-tape parade just behind the car carrying Roosevelt. While in New York, the boys purchased a small Brush Motor Car, which they drove, again by themselves, back to Oklahoma, shipping their horses home by train.  In 1911, they accepted a challenge to ride horseback from New York to San Francisco in 60 days or less. They agreed not to eat or sleep indoors at any point of the journey. They would collect a $10,000 prize if they succeeded.  After a long trip, they arrived in San Francisco in 62 days, thereby losing the prize but setting a record for the time elapsed for the trip.  In 1913, the boys purchased an Indian motorcycle, and with their stepbrother, Anton, journeyed by motorcycle from Oklahoma to New York City. This was their last documented adventure.

Later years and legacy.

Louis later graduated from the University of Oklahoma Law School and became a lawyer in Wichita Falls, Texas. Louis died in Austin, Texas in 1979.  Temple worked in the oil and gas business. Temple Abernathy died in Teague, Texas in 1986.  Although they were noted celebrities at the time of their travels, they have almost disappeared from history. Frederick, Oklahoma, celebrates their Santa Fe ride each year and has erected a statue of the boys and has dedicated part of the Chamber of Commerce website to promoting the boys' memory.

In media.

Mass media had extensive coverage of the boys at the time of their travels. They were the subjects of the 1910 film "Abernathy Kids to the Rescue". Temple Abernathy's widow, Alta Abernathy, wrote "Bud and Me," a book about their adventures.

Louis Van "Bud" Abernathy (December 17, 1899 – March 6, 1979) and Temple Reeves "Temp" Abernathy (March 25, 1904 – December 10, 1986) were children from Oklahoma who, without adult supervision, took several cross-country trips. On one trip they rode on horseback from Oklahoma to Manhattan in 1910 when they were 10 and 6 years old.


Plot.

Chapter One. Murders in Dikanka.

The year is 1829. Young Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol, a judicial clerk in the Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery in St. Petersburg, suffers seizures on the job, falling into a semi-conscious state in which he is pursued by strange visions and writes seemingly meaningless words. The timing of his seizures coincides with acts of murder committed elsewhere.  Suddenly Gogol meets with the famous investigator Yakov Petrovich Guro, who immediately notes something unusual about the young clerk: his rambling records are valuable clues to the investigation. The murderer is quickly revealed. That same evening, the insecure Gogol, brought to tears and impotent rage by the harsh criticism of his first work, "Hans Küchelgarten," buys up all the copies of the book and burns them. The next morning Gogol is visited by Guro, who warmly supports him and advises him not to lose heart after his first failed attempt at writing. Guro also expresses his gratitude for Gogol's cooperation, adding that he is going to investigate the mysterious murders of girls in the Poltava province near the small village of Dikanka. Gogol, who had a vision of this at night, asks Guro to take him along as assistant and a clerk, since he comes from that area. Guro, sympathetic and intrigued by the young man's seizures and visions, easily consents and they set out on their journey.  Arriving in Dikanka, Gogol and Guro begin an investigation. The murderer is described as the Dark Horseman, and the superstitious population, especially the local investigator Alexander Khristoforovich Binh, is extremely reluctant to help the investigation from St. Petersburg. Gogol meets the wife of landowner Danishevsky, Elisabeth, who admires his creativity and toward whom he begins to feel (as he tries to convince himself) platonic emotions. He also gets acquainted with the landowner Danishevsky himself, a strange and mysterious man who, along with Elisabeth, lives in isolation, despite being so close to the village of Dikanka. During one of Gogol's visions, Oksana (as it turns out later, a rusalka) appears. In exchange for Gogol's help identifying which of the rusalka is actually a witch, who drains her strength from drowned women, Oksana promises to help him in the investigation. Meanwhile, to Guro's surprise and fury, it turns out that similar murders took place 30 years ago and nothing was done to uncover them.  During the next vision, Gogol manages to identify one of the rusalka as the witch, who turns out to be Hannah from the local inn. The next morning Gogol and Guro find a hand at an abandoned mill: the rusalka had found the witch and tried to tear her apart, starting with the hand. Gogol and Guro assume that the rusalka found the Horseman and rush to the inn where they discover Hanna, who is missing a hand -- the same hand that was found at the mill. The enraged witch easily copes with Guro, then attacks Gogol, but Binh kills her. The case is solved, and it's time for Gogol and Guro to return to St. Petersburg. But the night before his departure, Gogol is visited by Oksana, who tells him that the real killer is at large, and Hannah was only an accomplice. At the same time, the Horseman and Guro are fighting to the death in a burning barn, which collapses on them both. Everyone believes that Guro and the Dark Horseman died in its wreckage. However, the remains of the Rider are not found. Gogol decides to stay and finish the investigation himself.  That night, the Horseman comes to a shed where Hanna's body lies in a coffin and resurrects her. The Witch begs the Horseman for forgiveness, blaming her failure on Gogol's strange abilities, but the Horseman is deaf to her pleas. The witch's screaming comes from inside the shed.

Chapter Two. The Red Scroll.

A few days later in Dikanka there is a new murder: Baba Khavronya dies right in the middle of a tryst with the priest, her lover. He raves about a pig's head and a red scroll, the symbol of conjugal infidelity, which, according to the folk lore, the devil throws on the threshold. The murder was arranged as if the Dark Horseman had done it, but during a seizure Gogol paints a linden leaf (in Russian, a "linden" is slang for a fake). After waking, he immediately notices that the sign of the Horseman is drawn with an error. When the murder weapon is found in the house, the husband takes the blame on himself.  In Dikanka, Dr. Leopold Leopoldovich Bomgart comes to Gogol's aid. A man with an exclusively scientific mindset, Bomgart denies the existence of evil spirits. An autopsy shows that Baba Khavronya died not from a wound, but from a rupture of the heart due to utmost terror. Her ghost begins to appear and threaten the stepdaughter Paraska, who will soon have a wedding. Gogol once again is tormented by visions about Oksana and Elizabeth: according to the former, in order to learn how to manage his gift, he must give up worldly attachments and, first and foremost, his feelings for Liza.  Gogol finds the solution with the help of the blacksmith Vakula and Dr. Bomgart: a candle Paraska had bought from some gypsies, a candle that was lit during Khavronya's tryst with the priest, contains hallucinogens. (Gogol breathes a bit of smoke from this candle and sees one of his greatest fears: Pushkin mocking his work.) Realizing that the murderer is Paraska, who staged the devil's attack so that her stepmother would not stop her from getting married, Gogol exposes her, but she escapes into the forest. With the help of sorcery the ghost of Khavronya catches Paraska and gives her to the Horseman as a new sacrifice. Gogol, Vakula, Vakula's servant Yakim, and Dr. Bomgart try to catch up, and upon hearing her cry they want to help, but the way is blocked by the witchcraft of the ghost Khavronya. Only thanks to the candle, lit by Dr. Bomgart, the heroes manage to stop the witchcraft. But an unexpected event occurs: the ghost of Khavronya, once faced with Gogol, suddenly becomes terrified and howls "No, do not come near me! Dark one... " and then disappears, leaving Gogol and his friends in perplexity. But they do not have time to contemplate: Paraska is found dead in a boat by the river bank, and on the ground gleams the terrible symbol of the Dark Horseman.  The next morning at the inn, Gogol gathers Dr. Bomgart, the blacksmith Vakula and his servant Yakim, the only people in all of Dikanka he can trust. All three agree to help him in the fight against the terrible enemy. Unbeknownst to everyone in the old mirror appears smiling Oksana. It turns out that among the things of Yakov Petrovich Guro there was a trunk, which he ordered to give to Gogol in case of unforeseen circumstances. Vakula easily opens the lock of the chest, to which no one could find the key. When touching the lock Gogol gets a new vision: the next victim of the Dark Horseman could be Liza. The smile disappears from Oksana's face, and she leaves.  The chapter and the first film ends with Yakov Petrovich Guro, who supposedly died in the barn fire, observing the village of Dikanka from the top of a cliff.

Production.

Filming took place in 2016 in the Pskov region and St. Petersburg, where the set of the village of Dikanka was created.  "Gogol. The Beginning" was produced by Alexander Tsekalo's Sreda Production Company, the general director of TV-3 Valery Fyodorovich, the general producer of TV-3 Yevgeny Nikishov (at that time Fedorovich and Nikishov were the producers of TNT) and Artur Janibekyan. The production of one series of "Gogol" cost about 29 000 000 rubles, while the fees of the first part of the film series amounted to 444,485,278 rubles.

Sequels.

The film "Gogol. Viy" was released on April 5, 2018, "Gogol. A Terrible Vengeance" was released on August 30, 2018. Then the three films will be divided into six episodes. The episodes in question, along with two filler episodes, will be shown on the Russian channel TV-3 in 2019.

Gogol. The Beginning () is a 2017 Russian fantasy-horror film directed by Yegor Baranov loosely based on works by Nikolai Gogol from the collection "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka". The title role is played by Alexander Petrov.


Biography.

Marie Mariterangi, also known as "Marie Mariteragi", "Marie Terangi" or simply "Marie", was born on in Hikueru in the Tuamotu islands in a family of Polynesian pop musicians who became famous between the 1950s and the 1990s. Her brother Teaitu (1928–2013), her sisters Célia and Mélia, her half-sister Emma (1938–2000), her mother Hiriata (1896–1986) and her cousin Turuma were all musicians, solo or choir singers in different orchestras of the time. Emma, the youngest of the siblings and the most famous with Marie, was known in the Polynesian music industry under the name "Emma Terangi".  Marie started her professional career in 1954 after meeting Eddie Lund. She took part in one of Eddie Lund's albums, "Rendezvous in Tahiti". Her first band was called "Les Troubadours des Îles", with whom she made her first recordings. She sang at the Quinn's, a legendary night club of Papeete with a sometimes infamous reputation. From 1955, Marie sang in the luxury hotels of Tahiti, such as the Royal Tahitien, the Royal Papeete or Les Tropiques, a famous hotel, which Paul Gauguin and Marlon Brando in their days would have hung out at. She then set up the first professional dance troop that performed during cruise ship stopovers.  She moved from French Polynesia to Honolulu in Hawaii in August 1959, and eventually moved to the mainland United States. She and her bands performed under different names, such as "The Marie Terangi Trio", "Marie Terangi Et Son Groupe" or "Mariterangi".  She died from cancer in Papeete in 1971. She is interred at cemetery in Papeete. In 2001, she features on a French Polynesian postage stamp.

Musical influences and collaborations.

Collaborations.

Marie Mariterangi wrote and composed a few songs but mostly sang traditional songs or pieces written and composed by others. For example, she sang many songs written by Eddie Lund.

Discography.

Marie Mariterangi performed more than a hundred songs as a solo, duo ou choir singer under different stage names that were mostly published on vinyl records in LP, EP and 45 format and in cassette format. In numerical format, her work is today only available in compilation albums. The list hereafter gathers the albums and the compilations comprising some tracks performed or co-performed by her.

Marie Mariterangi, Marie Mariteragi, Marie Terangi or Marie was a singer, songwriter of Polynesian pop music, guitarist and ukulele player. She was born on in Hikueru in French Polynesia and died on in Papeete in French Polynesia.


Biography.

Early life.

Rafael Riqueni was born in Sevilla on August 16, 1962, in Fabie St at Triana, Riqueni also spend part of his childhood at El Arenal, he lived in the same building there than Francisco Palacios El Pali. Riqueni was an early and gifted musician, he had a big creative capacity that started to cause sensation as a child. At age eleven, he started to play with Niño Ricardo records, then he discovered Paco de Lucía and that made him finally decide to pursue a career in music. His first teacher was Manolo Carmona, and then he became a student of Manolo Sanlúcar.

Career (1974-2019).

Early career.

Rafael Riqueni gave his first concerts at age twelve, at the Educación y Descanso Festivals. At age thirteen, he stood out during a solo concert at a flamenco festival in Teatro Lope de Vega. One year later, in 1977, Riqueni won the Ramón Montoya concert guitar prize at VIII Concurso de Arte Flamenco de Córdoba, causing a big impression with his performance, y del VI Certamen Nacional de Guitarra de Jerez de la Frontera, considerados los dos principales premios nacionales de guitarra. La consecución de los mismos fue el comienzo de su carrera profesional, una de sus principales cualidades era la búsqueda de un estilo personal y alejado de las escuelas dominantes en la guitarra flamenca.  In 1979, he toured with Isabel Pantoja's company. In 1981, he again won first prize in the X Jerez National guitar contest. In 1982, he was on tour with Rocío Jurado.  In 1984, he took part in the III Bienal de Flamenco de Sevilla opening concert, where he played “Sevilla “ from Albéniz along four compositions of his own. In that same Bienal de Flamenco edition, he was one of the finalist contenders for the Giraldillo del Toque guitar contest, along with Tomatito, Pedro Bacán, Jose Antonio Rodríguez, Paco del Gastor and Manolo Franco, who won the contest.  As part of the V Cordoba International guitar festival, in 1985, Riqueni offered a concert together with Manolo Franco and Enrique de Melchor under the name of "Jovenes Figuras de" "la Guitarra Flamenca". That same year, Riqueni participated in the II Madrid Cumbre Flamenca Festival with the show "Luces de Chacón", together with Enrique Morente, Carmen Linares and Manolo Sanlúcar among other artists. During the III Cumbre Flamenca Festival, he gave a concert together with José Antonio Rodriguez y Gerardo Núñez, under the name of Empujando. Also in 1986, Riqueni played a solo concert in the Los Veranos de la Villa Festival in Madrid, and offered two solo concerts in the Fráncfort Opera Theater.

Juego de Niños (1986).

Riqueni published his first record in 1986, "Juego de Niños", with producer Ricardo Pachón, who was well known for his previous work with Camarón de la Isla among other important flamenco artists. The flamenco guitar specialist Norberto Torres stated in his book that "Juego de Niños" is suggesting a new and different musical order for flamenco”, this album also settled the basis for Rafael Riqueni's style. One of most prominent pieces is ”Al Niño Miguel”, a tribute to the late guitar player from Huelva, Norberto Torres said ” The intro part of this piece is a total new concept for Fandango (flamenco style), Riqueni was using minor key harmonies before going for the cadencia andaluza".

Flamenco (1987).

In 1987, and as a foreign policies ministry endorsement, Riqueni was representing Spain for a series of International music festivals, he also toured in Germany. During this German tour, he was offered there to record an album with the same music he was playing in concert, and "Flamenco" became his second album, a solo guitar record. The famous flamenco producer José Manuel Gamboa said in his book that: Flamenco is a real lesson on flamenco playing and composition. The Minera (flamenco style) included in the album, is probably the best Minera in history”, and Norberto Torres in Historia de la Guitarra Flamenca said that “Riqueni made a real solo guitar record, without overdubs, he showed to aficionados and specially to guitar players, all his virtuous qualities as a composer and concert player. This album contains true gems for flamenco concert guitar, with the Minera he achieves a perfect balance between his flamenco and classical background, at the same time that his melodic characteristic style gets here to the highest level”.  In 1989, Riqueni composed the soundtrack for La Reina Andaluza, the first play offered by the Andalusian Theater institute. The premiere was held at the Teatro Imperial in Sevilla.

Mi Tiempo (1990).

"Mi Tiempo", was published in 1990, and became of the most celebrated and influential albums in Riqueni's discography. A record in where he brought classical and jazz influences to his music, including string arrangements that were composed by Riqueni as well. One of the most prominent pieces of the album is “Y Enamorarse”, an Alegría flamenco Style in e minor, in where Riqueni uses novelty harmonies for flamenco, and covers every cadencia andaluza derivate music mode that guitar players have been using along the whole flamenco guitar history.  Mi Tiempo premiere concert was held in Seville at the VI Bienal de Flamenco.

Suite Sevilla (1992).

"Suite Sevilla" was published in 1992, and is again one of the most important records in Rafael Riqueni ́ discography, it was one of the very few encounters between flamenco and classical. Suite Sevilla was inspired by flamenco roots but it was created under a classical concept in the tradition of Nacionalismo musical, a genre related to musical romanticism from the XIX century. Mainly Falla, Turina, Granados and Albéniz made this style popular in Spain. "Suite Sevilla" is a Riqueni composition for two guitars, and the album was recorded by Riqueni and classical guitarist José Maria Gallardo del Rey, they both toured the album. The premiere of Suite Sevilla was held at the Houston International Festival in 1993, later in October, the Spanish premiere was held in Reales Alcazares, Seville.  In July of that same year, Rafael Riqueni staged a concert for guitar and orchestra during the XIII Córdoba International Guitar Festival, with Leo Brouwer as a director; Gipsy Concert was the unreleased last work by Sabicas with F. Cofiner orchestra arrangements.  In 1994, Riqueni performed at Los Tarantos Hall in Barcelona, he continued touring with José Maria Gallardo and Suite Sevilla. In March he went on a South American tour that took him to Chile, Perú, Brasil and Argentina. That same year he played in a series of Festivals including VIII Andres Segovia International Festival in Madrid,

Maestros (1994).

At the end of 1994, Riqueni released a new album, "Maestros," produced by Enrique Morente, who was creating a new label,“Discos Probeticos”, and "Maestros" was his first release. With this Album Rafael Riqueni pays tribute to three historic guitar players, he recorded different covers from Niño Ricardo, Sabicas and Esteban de Sanlúcar. Riqueni closed the album with a song with Enrique Morente, “Estrella Amargura”, based on the previous “Amarguras” cover performed at Bienal de Flamenco.  In 1995, Rafael Riqueni and María Pages performed together at The Point Theater in Dublin, during six nights in a row, as part of "Riverdance," a popular musical play. Riqueni also offered a solo concert in Dublin promoted by the Spanish embassy. That same year he performed together with Pedro Iturralde at the Flamenco Jazz Festival in Teatro Albéniz, Madrid. Again in 1995, He played for three nights in a row at Teatro Alfil in Madrid, and participated in the film, Flamenco, by Carlos Saura,  Later in December, he received the Andalucía de Cultura award by Junta de Andalucía president Manuel Chaves.

Alcázar de Cristal (1996).

On February 29, 1996, Riqueni started in Sevilla the tour of his new album, "Alcázar de Cristal," This first show had Maria Pagés as special guest. One of the most famous pieces of the album was "Calle Fabié", a piece that included string arrangements by Rafael Riqueni, and was dedicated to his father memory.  In July, he performed with "Alcázar de Cristal" at the 45 International Granada Music and dance Festival. and the XVI Cordoba International guitar Festival. In September, he performed in IX Bienal de Flamenco.  In 1997, he performed at the IX Mont de Martsan Flamenco Festival in France. Also in 1997, Riqueni was part of the Día de Andalucía commemorative concert in Teatro de la Zarzuela, Madrid, with José Mercé, Esperanza Fernández, Tomatito, Moraito Chico and J.M. Evora. He also played in Havana, Cuba in a Festival with Lebrijano, Familia Fernandez and Manolo Soler.

Comeback (2014).

In 1997, Riqueni went practically on retirement due to health problems, from that point he only offered some shows in very specific occasions. In 2002, a fund raising festival for medical treatment was held in Madrid, with the performances of Enrique Morente, Carmen Linares, José Mercé and Enrique de Melchor among other artists.  In 2006, Rafael Riqueni performed with Enrique Morente at the 30th Vitoria Jazz Festival and VII Flamenco Pa To's Festival in Madrid. In 2011, Riqueni played in one leg of the Pablo de Málaga tour, an album by Enrique Morente.  In 2011, press announced that Rafael Riqueni is working on a new album, his first since 1996. And Paco Bech is shooting a documentary movie about Riqueni with the participation of Tomatito, Enrique de Melchor, Estrella Morente, Juan Manuel Cañizares and Serranito among other artists. This new album will be called Parque de María Luisa and is a conceptual work about the author memories of youth in this monument park in Sevilla.  Riqueni announced his comeback for the XVIII Bienal de Flamenco, in 2014, where he performed at Lope de Vega Theater with "Y Sevilla...", a show together with Antonio Canales, Segundo Falcón, Manolo Franco y Paco Jarana. Rafael Riqueni was one of the most celebrated performers of this Bienal de Flamenco edition and achieved the “Giraldillo a la Maestria” Bienal's award.  In July 2015, Riqueni went to prison, due to a misdemeanor committed in 2010 and directly related to his health problems back then, he was successfully recovered from these health issues since 2013. Riqueni was released on parole in October 2015. Rafael Riqueni obtuvo el tercer grado en octubre de 2015. In November 2015, he premiered in concert Parque de María Luisa at Teatro de la Maestranza in Seville, with the artistic direction of Paco Bech. The press unanimously acclaimed the concert. ABC stated that the concert was the biggest musical hit in Seville in decades.

Parque de María Luisa (2017).

In June 2017, "Parque de María Luisa" was published with Universal Music, the album was produced by Paco Bech and Joselito Acedo. It's the seventh album in Rafael Riqueni's discography and it was published twenty one years after his previous record, "Alcázar de Cristal" (1996). Parque de María Luisa got excellent reviews after release. Dario de Sevilla said it was a masterpiece. The album premiere was held at Suma Flamenca Festival in Madrid, with the artistic direction of Paco Bech, the concert was a big success and achieved excellent reviews. Parque de Maria Luisa entered the top ten of best albums in Spain during 2017 for ABC newspaper. For El País, Parque de María Luisa was the best Flamenco record in 2017. The album was number tree for the Notodo.com best albums list in Spain during 2017, notodo.com said: This is the latest flamenco guitar masterpiece, and we doubt if there will be ever another one at this level.  In 2019, Universal Music released a double vinyl edition of "Parque the María Luisa" with seven previously unreleased tracks. On march 9th, Rafael Riqueni offered a "Parque de María Luisa" concert with special guests: Arcángel, Ana Guerra, Diana Navarro, Dorantes, Antonio Canales y Rocío Molina. The concert was held at Cartuja Center Sevilla.

Musical aspects.

Rafael Riqueni's music takes flamenco as a basis, plus classical music influences among other contemporary styles, a process easy to identify with his first album, and definitely stated in Mi Tiempo. In flamenco guitar specialist Norberto Torres words: “Riqueni ́s music is close to romanticism aesthetics with factors like: contrast to previous musical forms and modes, difficult and expanded processes, sentimentalism, and a new concept for harmonies, rhythm, melody and design. Ramón Rodo Sellés, talks about innate musicality and unique playing style  One of Riqueni ́s main characteristic is his capacity as a solo concert player, without the need of a backing group. Riqueni is also considered to have developed a personal style away from the dominant Paco de Lucia spectrum in flamenco contemporary guitar.  Rafael Riqueni has done an extensive use of musical notation in his work.

Rafael Riqueni del Canto (Sevilla, August 16, 1962), is a Spanish guitar player and composer. He is considered as one of the biggest names or “Maestros” in flamenco guitar history. At age fourteen, he won the two main national awards for flamenco guitar in Spain. As an adult, he has won the most prestigious flamenco music awards in Spain, including: Premio Andalucía de Cultura, Premio Nacional de la Crítica, Giraldillo a la Maestría de la XVIII Bienal de Flamenco y el Premio AIE. In 2017, he was awarded with XXXI Compás del Cante, this award is always referred to by the Spanish media as the "Flamenco Nobel prize".


Life.

Maria Barbella was born in Ferrandina, Basilicata, Italy. Her family immigrated to Mulberry Bend, New York, in 1892. After living in the United States for nearly a year, Maria Barbella met Domenico Cataldo, who was from the same region of Italy. She worked in a factory and every day she would pass by Cataldo’s shoeshine booth. They spent lots of time together but these meetings were kept a secret from Michele Barbella, Maria's overprotective father. Michele found out about Domenico and he forbade Maria from ever seeing or speaking to him again. Domenico continued to pursue Maria until she finally gave in and agreed to meet with him again.  One day Cataldo took her to a boarding house, where he allegedly drugged her with the drink he bought her, and raped her. Because of her very strong morals about intimacy and marriage, Maria became upset afterwards and demanded that he marry her. Cataldo showed her a savings book with a $400 deposit and promised to marry her. She continued to meet with him at the boarding house in the hopes that he would consent to marrying her. However, he continued to put the marriage off for several months. In fact he was already married to a woman in Italy, with whom he had children.  Barbella was devastated when Cataldo told her that he was returning to Italy and was ending the relationship. Barbella then told her mother about the situation. Her mother confronted Cataldo and insisted he marry Barbella but he said the only way he would do that was if they paid him $200. In New York City on April 26, 1895, at approximately 9:30am, Domenico Cataldo was playing cards in a saloon on East 13th Street, and had planned to board a ship leaving for Italy that afternoon. Barbella entered the bar and there was a brief exchange. "Only a pig can marry you!" were his last words. Barbella produced a straight razor and slashed his neck so swiftly Cataldo had no chance to scream. He staggered out the door, clutching his throat with both hands, knocking Barbella over, spraying blood everywhere. Finally, as he reached Avenue A, he lurched off the curb and fell twitching into the gutter, where he died.

Trial.

Barbella was arrested and put in The New York Halls of Justice and House of Detention (otherwise known as "The Tombs") for 2.5 months. Her appointed attorneys were Amos Evans and Henry Sedgwick. The trial began on July 11. This case stirred up controversy because Italians felt that the verdict was unjust since there were no Italians in the jury. At the time of the trial, Barbella was unable to speak or understand English. She admitted everything: how she slit his throat and how he ran after her, but couldn’t reach her and had dropped dead. The jury was shown to have felt sympathy for her case; however, according to Recorder Goff, "The verdict was in accordance with the facts, and no other verdict could, in view of the evidence, have been considered." The jury declared Barbella guilty and she was sent to Sing Sing prison where she was sentenced to death by electric chair occurring on August 19, 1895. She was the second woman sentenced to be executed by electric chair (after serial killer Lizzie Halliday's commuted 1894 conviction).

Second trial and release.

Many complained to Governor Levi Morton about how the situation was handled, but it seemed nothing could be done. She was granted an appeal on the basis of the judge's jury instructions, which explicitly argued in favor of conviction. On November 16, 1896, she was given a second trial. This time, counsel presented a much more sympathetic case: that she was a rape victim whose experience exacerbated her preexisting epilepsy. She allegedly suffered a seizure and lost her reason. She was found not guilty. After her release from prison, she again made headlines for rescuing a neighbor who had accidentally set herself on fire. Barbella grabbed a blanket and beat the fire out with her hands. Barbella married an Italian immigrant named Francesco Bruno on November 4, 1897. In 1899, she had a son named Frederick. In 1902, she was living with her parents, and her husband had returned to Italy and remarried. Nothing is known of her life after this time.

In popular culture.

"" - episode about Maria Barbella's life from the documentary "Deadly Women", originally aired on Discovery Channel in 2017.  The November 1st, 2019 episode of the podcast "The Memory Palace" tells her story.

Maria Barbella (born October 24, 1868 – after 1902) was an Italian-born American woman. Erroneously known as Maria Barberi at the time, she was the second woman sentenced to die in the electric chair. She was convicted of killing her lover in 1895; however, the ruling was overturned in 1896 and she was freed. Her trial became a cause célèbre in the late 19th century.


Career.

Mikhail Nikolayevich Zadornov had a long career path with different challenges. Zadornov's work was printed and first seen in 1976. In 1984 Zadornov appeared for the first time on TV. In 1984-1985 he worked as a leader of a group of satire and humor in the magazine called Humor. Stories called “An Open Letter to the General Secretary” and “The Ninth Wagon” were written by Zadornov for the show "Around the Laughter" and also in the magazine called The Art of Cinema. Those pieces spread across the USSR quickly gained him popularity. During that period, a person saying, in public, anything negative or insultive to the government, was in high risk of being arrested and jailed – surprisingly Zadornov was not. New York Times had made a conclusion that “reconstruction has really started in USSR” (“что в СССР действительно началась перестройка”). In 1998 Zadornov published four volumes of his incomplete works. Many plays were performed, written, and played based on those volumes. In parallel with writing pieces Zadornov started performing and making his own shows where he would compare life in Russia and other countries of the world, tell stories about his experience in other countries. His jokes in the end of 20th century concentrated more on satirizing USSR and its inhabitants, and later shifted to mockery and criticizing of the West. His most common stories are comparing Russians to Americans. In later concerts he praised the Soviet education system.

Style.

A recurring theme in Zadornov's humour is national stereotype and national mentality. He often satirically compared Russian traditions and lifestyle with that of other nations, especially Americans and former Soviet countries. Zadornov mocked westernization in both Russia and abroad. In 2002, Zadornov rescinded his visa to the United States as a protest to the American athletes' flag-waving behavior at the Salt Lake City 2002 Winter Olympics. As Mikhail sometimes targeted Russia's top power figures, some of his sketches were rejected or edited by state TV stations on political grounds.  He supported the revisionist fringe theory that the Russian language descends from the Vedas and Etruria, put forward by philosopher Valeriy Chudinov. Since 2006, Zadornov had incorporated Chudinov-style wordplay into his sketches, based on folk etymology. Zadornov ran an internet site and quotes stories and jokes found on the Internet or e-mailed to him by fans.  In March 2014 he signed a letter in support of the position of the President of Russia Vladimir Putin on accession of Crimea to Russia.

Education.

Zadornov attended a public school in Riga and showed a lot of interest in play acting and performing. After Zadornov graduated, he went to Riga's Institute of Civil Aviation Engineers, as his parents wanted. Later on, he transferred to Moscow Aviation Institute, where he finished his studies in engines. After graduating from the institute, he remained in a dance club that performed plays and stories to entertain people. The club gained popularity and was known across Moscow. Zadornov also formed a student theater called "Agitteatr" (Агиттеатр), and they presented plays on certain topics. They would sing songs and tell stories that described life and did not insult the government. The group traveled to most of the parts of the USSR and gained popularity. Zadornov received a prestigious Lenin Komsomol Prize and was awarded the title of National Artist, a title given to a performer who reaches substantial popularity among the people.

Personal life.

Zadornov was married in 1971 to Velta Kalnbērziņa (Велта Яновна Калнберзина); she is the daughter of Soviet Latvian politician Jānis Kalnbērziņš and a professor of English in the Philological Faculty of the Moscow State University. Mikhail and Velta went to the same school in Riga as children. They also studied together in the Moscow Aviation Institute. At the same time, Zadornov’s popularity was growing quickly. Also, at that moment, Zadornov started dating his administrator Elena Bombina (Елена Бомбина). Zadornov divorced Velta in 2009. Mikhail and Elena had a common-law marriage, and had one daughter named Elena Zadornova (Елена Задорнова); she studied at the Russian Academy of Theater Arts and became an actress.

Religion.

Zadornov embraced Rodnovery (Slavic Native Faith) in 2007; he expressed his favour towards the social ideal of the Ringing Cedars' Anastasian movement, that is to say the "kinship homestead".  Shortly before his death, he was baptised into the Russian Orthodox Church at the request of his relatives.

Death.

Zadornov died of brain cancer on November 10, 2017 at 9:15 A.M.

Mikhail Nikolayevich Zadornov (, "Mihaíl Nikolájevič Zadórnov"; July 21, 1948 in Jūrmala, Latvian SSR, USSR – November 10, 2017 in Moscow, Russia) was a Soviet and Russian stand-up comedian and writer. Zadornov was born into an artistic family, his father Nikolai Zadornov being a notable writer from Riga. Zadornov’s mother, Elena Matusevich (1909-1992), came from an old noble family, which can trace its roots to the Polish king Stephen Bathory.


History.

The Grays Harbor Lighthouse is the tallest lighthouse in Washington and the third tallest on the West Coast. It marks the entrance to Grays Harbor, which is one of Washington's few outer-coast harbors, and was first lit in 1898. Construction began in 1897, using plans drawn up by architect Carl Leick, at a site facing the Pacific Ocean about from water's edge. Massive amounts of accretion, due in large part to the jetty system at the entrance to Grays Harbor, have since built up, and the lighthouse now stands approximately from high tide.  The base of the lighthouse rests on a foundation of sandstone. The lighthouse walls, which are four feet thick at the base, are made of brick with a coating of cement on the exterior. Originally windows lit the interior of the tower, but to cut down on maintenance they were cemented over when electricity was added to the station. One hundred thirty-five (135) metal stairs bolted to the wall lead to the lantern room.  The light's initial signature was a five-second white flash, darkness, then a five-second red flash. After electricity reached the lighthouse, the signature became white flashes followed by 15 seconds of darkness, then red flashes followed by 15 seconds of darkness. In August 1992, the original third order Fresnel lens was turned off. A smaller light (FA-251), manufactured in New Zealand, was mounted to the balcony. The new light operates on a 35 watt bulb and can be seen with the white sector, 17 on the red sector. The original lens still occupies the lantern room.  In late 1960s, the Coast Guard automated the light. In 1977, the lighthouse achieved listing on the National Register of Historic Places. In 2004, under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act of 2000, ownership was transferred to the Westport-South Beach Historical Society, which conducts regular tours. The light station is adjacent to Westport Light State Park.

The Grays Harbor Lighthouse (Westport Light) is a lighthouse located on Point Chehalis on the southern side of the entrance to Grays Harbor, Westport, Grays Harbor County, Washington, in the United States.


Origins.

The festival focuses on genre films such as horror, science fiction, fantasy, action, Asian, and cult. The festival takes place in September at the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar, filling eight screens for eight days and hosting many writers, directors, and actors, either well-established or unknown. A notable feature of this festival is the inclusion of "secret screenings". For these screenings, the audience often does not know what the film will be until seated, moments before it begins. It also features many themed parties, outings, film-themed "feasts", and other events that are hallmarks of the original Alamo Drafthouse Cinema. In 2007, "Variety" publisher Charles Koones included Fantastic Fest as one of "ten festivals we love". In 2008, "Moviemaker" named Fantastic Fest "one of the 25 film festivals worth the entry fee". In 2017, "Moviemaker" listed Fantastic Fest in "The 25 Coolest Film Festivals in the World."

Festivals by year.

2005.

The 2005 festival was only three days long, October 6–9. Screened films included "Feast", "Wolf Creek", and "Zathura". The official sponsors of the 2005 festival were Milkshake Media, KOOP Radio, "The Austin Chronicle", Jackson Walker LLP, and Independence Brewery.  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

The theme of the 2005 retrospective series was "Post Apocalyptic Cinema".

Special events.

The special effects team from "" installed a display of costumes, creatures and props from the Narnia film. Legendary makeup and effects supervisor Howard Berger presided over a special effects Q&A.

2006.

The 2006 festival was expanded to 8 days and held September 21–28.  World premiere  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

There were three retrospective series. The first paid homage to cult midnight films and included:  The second was presented by cult author Jack Stevenson and included: And the third was a retrospective of the action/crime films of director Ram Gopal Varma, featuring:  There was also "Meltdown Memoirs", a documentary about the making of "Street Trash", which also played.

Award winners.

Horror Jury Awards, for excellence in the horror genre  Serving on the horror jury were Jay Slater of "FilmThreat.com", Edwin Neal of "The Texas Chain Saw Massacre", Peter Martin of Twitch.com, and Chris Cargill of AintItCoolNews.com.  Short Film Jury Awards  Serving on the Short Film Jury were Brian Satterwhite, Jay Knowles and Chris Cargill, all of AintItcoolNews.com.  Fantastic Fest Jury Awards, for excellence in films outside the horror genre  Serving on the Fantastic Fest Jury Awards were Christian Hallman of the Lund International Fantastic Film Festival, Wiley Wiggins of "Dazed and Confused" and "Waking Life," and Scott Weinberg of Fearnet and Cinematical.com.  Audience Awards

2007.

The 2007 festival was held September 20–27. In 2007, Fantastic Fest became a supporting member of the Melies European Federation of Fantastic Film Festivals and helped to found the North American Fantastic Festival Alliance, along with Fantasia International Film Festival in Montreal and Dead Channels in San Francisco. The official sponsors of the 2007 Fantastic Fest were AMD, Stella Artois, AT&T, Twitch.com, B-Side, Rue Morgue, "Fangoria", and Mondo Macabro.  World premieres  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

The Nikkatsu action series featured films mainly never before shown theatrically in the U.S.:

Award winners.

AMD Next Wave Award, for excellence by an up-and-coming filmmaker  Horror Jury Award, for excellence in the horror genre  Fantastic Fest Jury Award, for excellence outside of the horror genre  Horror Shorts Award  Animated Shorts Award  Fantastic Shorts Award  Audience Award

2008.

Fantastic Fest 2008 was held September 18–25.  World premieres  US premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

There was an Ozploitation retrospective featuring Australian exploitation films from the '70s and '80s:  And the documentary "" about Ozploitation in the golden age.  There was also a sampling of Japanese "pinku" titles, including

Award winners.

AMD Next Wave Award for excellence by an up-and-coming filmmaker  AMD Fantastic Fest Online  Horror Features, for excellence in the horror genre  Fantastic Features, for excellence outside of the horror genre  Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Animated Shorts

2009.

The 2009 festival was held September 24 – October 1. It was the first year of the Fantastic Fest Lifetime Achievement Award, which was given to director Jess Franco. The official sponsors of the 2009 Fantastic Fest were Real D, G4, Dark Sky Films, Best Buy, Stella Artois, Jeremiah Weed, Ain't It Cool News, and Alamo Drafthouse Cinema.  World premieres  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

A retrospective of the films of Jess Franco in support of his lifetime achievement award:

Award winners.

2010.

The 2010 festival was held September 23–30. It was the first year of the Fantastic Arcade, a showcase of independent video games. The presenting sponsors of the 2010 Fantastic Fest were Dell, AMD, RealD, Ambhar Tequila, FearNet.com, Sony PlayStation, and Qriocity.

World premieres.

International premieres  US premieres  Texas premieres

Retrospective screenings.

Live Performances

Award Winners.

The Dell/AMD Next Wave Award, for excellence by an up-and-coming filmmaker  Horror Jury Award, for excellence in the horror genre  Fantastic Fest Jury Award, for excellence outside of the horror genre  Horror Shorts Award  Fantastic Shorts Award  Animated Shorts Award  Audience Award

2011.

The 2011 Fantastic Fest film festival was held September 22–29.

World premieres.

Award winners.

Audience Award  AMD & Dell "Next Wave" Spotlight Competition  Horror Features  Fantastic Features  Gutbuster Comedy Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Drawn and Quartered: Animated Shorts

2012.

The 2012 Fantastic Fest Film Festival took place September 20–27. This was the last year Fantastic Fest was held at the Highball and South Lamar theater before it was all remodeled.

World premieres.

International premieres  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres  Austin premieres

Award winners.

Audience Award  AMD "Next Wave" Spotlight Competition  Fantastic Features  Horror Features  Gutbuster Comedy Features  Documentary Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Drawn and Quartered: Animated Shorts

2013.

The 2013 festival was hosted for the first time at the brand new Alamo Drafthouse Lakeline location from September 19–26.

World premieres.

North American premieres  U.S. premieres  Texas premieres  Austin premieres

Award Winners.

Audience Award  "Next Wave" Spotlight  Fantastic Features  Horror Features  Gutbuster Comedy Features  Documentary Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Drawn and Quartered: Animated Shorts  Fantastic Arcade

2014.

The 2014 festival returned to the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar location from September 18–25 for the 10-year anniversary.

World premieres.

Award winners.

Audience Award  "Next Wave" Spotlight  Fantastic Features  Horror Features  Gutbuster Comedy Features  Documentary Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts'  Fantastic Shorts  Drawn and Quartered: Animated Shorts  Fantastic Arcade  ‘"Mercado Fantastico"’

2015.

The 2015 festival returned to the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar location from Sept. 24–Oct. 1.

World premieres.

Award winners.

Audience Award  "Next Wave" Spotlight  Fantastic Features  Horror Features  Comedy Features  Documentary Features  Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Fantastic Arcade  Mercado Fantastico  FANTASTIC BUMPER COMPETITION – Presented by SourceFed Nerd

2016.

The 2016 festival took place at the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar from Sept. 22–29.

World premieres.

International Premieres  North American Premieres  U.S. Premieres  Texas Premieres  Regional Premieres  Austin Premieres  Repertory Screenings  Special Screenings

Award Winners.

Audience Award "Next Wave" Features Fantastic Features Horror Features Comedy Features Action Features Documentary Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts Fantastic Shorts Shorts With Legs Fantastic Arcade Fantastic Bumper Competition

2017.

The 2017 festival took place at the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar from Sept. 21–28. The event attracted attention due to the disclosure that Tim League had re-hired Devin Faraci as a writer even though Faraci resigned from "Birth.Movies.Death" in 2016 after he was accused of sexual assault. Faraci's re-hiring prompted the resignation of Todd Brown, Fantastic Fest's director of international programming. Alamo Drafthouse/Fantastic Fest severed ties with Harry Knowles after sexual harassment/assault allegations pertaining to him also surfaced.

World Premieres.

International Premieres North American Premieres  U.S. Premieres  Texas Premieres  Repertory Screenings Special Screenings

Award Winners.

Audience Award Winner  "Next Wave" Features  Fantastic Features  Horror Features Comedy Features Thriller Features  Documentary Features  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts Fantastic Shorts Shorts With Legs Fantastic Bumper Competition

2018.

The 2018 festival took place at the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar from Sept. 20–27.

World Premieres.

International Premieres  North American Premieres  U.S. Premieres  Regional Premieres  Texas Premieres  Austin Premieres

Award Winners.

"Main Competition" Features  "Next Wave" Features  "Horror" Features  "Audience Award" Winner  Short With Legs  Short Fuse: Horror Shorts  Fantastic Shorts  Fantastic Bumper Competition

2019.

The 2019 festival took place at the Alamo Drafthouse South Lamar from Sept. 19–26.

World Premieres.

International Premieres  North American Premieres  U.S. Premieres  Texas Premieres  Austin Premieres

Fantastic Fest is an annual film festival in Austin, Texas. It was founded in 2005 by Tim League of Alamo Drafthouse, Harry Knowles of Ain't It Cool News, Paul Alvarado-Dykstra, and Tim McCanlies, writer of "The Iron Giant" and "Secondhand Lions".


Chart performances.

Following on from the success of previous non-album single, "Don't You (Forget About Me)", "Alive and Kicking" was released as a single, reaching number 3 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on the Top Rock Tracks chart (now called the Mainstream Rock chart). The song reached number 2 on the "Radio & Records" CHR/Pop Airplay chart. The song also reached number 4 in Canada. In Europe, the song topped the charts in Italy for one week, reached number 2 in Belgium, Ireland, and the Netherlands, and peaked at number 7 on the UK Singles Chart. In 1992, when re-released as a double A-side with "Love Song" to promote the band's compilation album "Glittering Prize 81/92", it managed to reach a new peak of number 6. Elsewhere, "Alive and Kicking" reached number 5 in New Zealand, number 16 in South Africa, and just missed the top 20 in Australia, peaking at number 21.

Music video.

The music video for "Alive and Kicking" was filmed near the town of Hunter, at North–South Lake in the Catskill Mountains of New York State. A portion of the video was filmed on the overlook at the site of the old Catskill Mountain House (previously demolished). It was directed by Zbigniew Rybczyński, who directed the video for "All the Things She Said", the third single from the same album.

Track listing.

7" single  12" single  Second 12" single

Charts and certifications.

Weekly charts.

"Alive and Kicking" "Love Song" / "Alive and Kicking"

Appearances in media.

In 1992, "Alive & Kicking" provided the soundtrack for a famous promo, entitled "A whole new ball game" for BSkyB's launch of FA Premier League football.

East Side Beat version.

In 1992, Italian dance music group East Side Beat covered "Alive and Kicking" in a style typical of early 1990s dance music. There are five remixes in total. Two versions are found on the 7" single and an additional three are on the CD single.

"Alive and Kicking" is a song by the Scottish rock band Simple Minds. Released in 1985 as the first single from the band's most successful album, "Once Upon a Time", it reached number 3 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, The song reached number 2 on the "Radio & Records" CHR/Pop Airplay chart, number 4 in Canada, and peaked within the top 5 of several European countries including Italy, where the song reached number one.


Background and release.

"Galaxy Supernova" was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan, Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan, Kamikaoru, and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard, whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya. It is an electropop song that features "pulsing" synthesizers in its composition. It was released as the second single from Girls' Generation's third Japanese album "Love & Peace" on September 18, 2013. The album was subsequently released in December 2013.  It was released as a CD single in Japan by Nayutawave Records, and includes the B-side track "Do the Catwalk". Meanwhile, the digital single was released in several Asian countries including Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan by Universal Music Group. A limited CD + DVD edition of the single, which included a bonus music video for "Galaxy Supernova", was released in Japan by Nayutawave Records. "Galaxy Supernova" was used in an advertisement campaign for Samantha Thavasa Jeans, the first jeans line from Japanese fashion company Samantha Thavasa, in conjunction with the group's endorsement deal with the brand.

Reception.

"Galaxy Supernova" received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Jeff Benjamin from "Billboard" praised the song's catchy "earworm hooks" and compared it to the group's previous Japanese singles "Mr. Taxi" and "Paparazzi" for the same electropop production. Patrick St. Michael, writing for "The Japan Times", picked "Galaxy Supernova" as one of the outstanding songs that "play to [the group]'s strengths" on its parent album "Love & Peace" and labelled it a successor to "Mr. Taxi".  "Galaxy Supernova" was a commercial success in Japan. The single took the number four spot on its first day of release on Oricon Daily Singles Chart. The following day, it rose to the number one spot on the Daily Chart, selling 14,565 physical copies. It peaked at number three on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart, and became the eighth best-selling physical single of September in Japan, selling 62,371 copies. As of December 2016, the single has sold 69,533 copies.  "Galaxy Supernova" debuted at number 39 on the Japan Hot 100—a chart operated by "Billboard" magazine—on September 23, 2013. The following week, it rose to number four on the chart, which later became its peak. It dropped to number nine on the chart the following week. On the Japan Adult Contemporary Airplay chart, the single debuted at number 75 on September 23, 2013, and later peaked at number six on September 30, 2013. "Galaxy Supernova" also peaked at number 22 on the Hot Top Airplay, and number two on the Hot Singles Sales. The song's music video was the sixth most-viewed K-pop music video on YouTube in 2013.

Music video and promotion.

The accompanying music video for "Galaxy Supernova", directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki, was released on September 5, 2013. The video features the members wearing multicolored jeans and outfits, dancing in a "flashy virtual reality world", as described by Benjamin. A behind-the-scenes video was released on September 20, 2013, featuring scenes from the photo shoot for the Samantha Thavasa Jeans collection as well as the group practicing their choreography.  To promote the song in Japan, the group gave a "Secret Live" performance of "Galaxy Supernova" and "Gee" to 200 fans in Tokyo on the release day of the single and held a "Premium Talk" event on September 19 in Osaka. On November 4, 2013, the group held a live event in Tokyo for 500 people who bought the single. The group performed the song and the Japanese version of "Genie" on the Japanese television music show "Live Monster" on January 12, 2014.

Credits and personnel.

Credits are adapted from the single's liner notes.

"Galaxy Supernova" is the eighth Japanese single by South Korean girl group Girls' Generation. It was included on the group's third Japanese studio album "Love & Peace" and was released as the second single from the album on September 18, 2013. The song was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan, Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan, Kamikaoru, and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard, whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya. Musically, "Galaxy Supernova" is an electropop song.