Digedags years.

The East German publisher Verlag Neues Leben, in East Berlin, had wanted to counter Western comics and magazines with a magazine of their own when Hannes Hegen approached them with his ideas for "Mosaik" and the Digedags. Reaching an agreement with Neues Leben, Hegen created the first issue of "Mosaik" for publishing in December 1955. "Mosaik" was published quarterly until July 1957, when it switched to a monthly schedule that has continued uninterrupted to this day. To support the schedule, the publisher hired additional artists, colorists and writers to support Hegen – a team which became known as the "Mosaik-Kollektiv" ("Mosaik Collective"). Only Hegen was credited on the cover, however.

Abrafaxe years.

In 1975, Hegen left the publisher over a disagreement and took the rights to the Digedags characters with him. The Mosaik-Kollektiv, not wanting to end publication of "Mosaik", together created new characters to replace the Digedags. The final versions of the Abrafaxe were created by writer Lothar Dräger and artist Lona Rietschel. During the half-year period of creating the new characters and stories, reprints of old Digedags stories were run in "Mosaik", until the new characters premiered in January 1976.

English-language editions.

The English editions of "Mosaik" have mostly appeared mostly under the name "Mosaic". Of Hannes Hegen's "Mosaik", issue 105, "Die Seeräuberburg", was issued in a limited run in 1965 in English as "The Pirates Castle". According to a former staff member at the publishing house, this was intended as a promotional issue for the United States market. An agreement had been reached to publish the comic books in the US; however, because of the US policy of economic embargo policy against Eastern European states in the Cold War, the contract could not be fulfilled.  Ten anthology volumes of Hegen's "Mosaik" were published in English for the international market under the name Mosaic Comic Books:  In the mid-1980s, 42 "Mosaic" books were published in English in the GDR for India. There is also a promotional flyer for these issues, which states that the "Mosaic" with the Abrafaxe is published in English and Arabic in addition to German, advertises for subscriptions, and includes an order form.

Other known foreign-language publications.

Reissues of "Mosaik" magazines and books have appeared in many different countries, almost always in the respective national language.

Sources.

Mosaik is a German comic book magazine. First published in December 1955, it is the longest-running German (and European) monthly comic book and the only one originating in East Germany that still exists. "Mosaik" also appeared in other countries and other languages. In its English-language edition it was published under the title "Mosaic".


Biography.

Meier attended high schools in Stettin, Rostock and Hamburg. In 1948, Meier passed his Abitur in Hamburg and then studied in Heidelberg history, classical philology and Roman law. In 1956 he received his doctorate under the supervision of Hans Schaefer. He completed in 1963 his habilitation in Frankfurt am Main. There he was a student of Matthias Gelzer. From 1964 he was a "Privatdozent" in Freiburg, followed by professorships for ancient history in Basel (1966), Cologne (1968), and Bochum (1976). In 1981 he was appointed professor of "Ancient History with special reference to social and economic history" in Munich, a position he held until his retirement in 1997. In the academic year 1984/1985 Meier was a Fellow at the "Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin".  Meier was from 1980 to 1988 chairman of the "Verbandes der Historiker Deutschlands" (Association of Historians in Germany), and from 1981 to 1995 curator of the "Historisches Kolleg" (Historical College) in Munich. Meier is also co-founder of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and was from 1996 to 2002 President of the "Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung" (German Academy for Language and Poetry) in Darmstadt. He is also a member of the Norwegian Academy of Sciences. Since 1989 he has been a full member of the Academia Europaea.

Research.

Meier is one of the best-known historians of his generation in Germany, especially since he also addressed the general public with some of his works. He became known far beyond the specialist circles through his two books about Caesar and Athens.  What was special about his approach was that he gave up the classicistic and identificationist perspective, which had been adopted without reflection since the Renaissance, and which had been proclaimed by his academic teacher Hans Schaefer and his school, and which had been based for centuries on the idea of a direct accessibility of ancient culture for the people of European modernity, based on kinship of essence and unbroken tradition. The Antiquity appeared to Meier rather as the "next stranger", whose understanding had to be worked out from scratch and could only be gained through a hermeneutic approach. The focal points of his research are classical Athens and the late Roman Republic, whose time of crisis and decline he described in his study "Res publica amissa" as a "crisis without alternative", meaning that the actors had no idea of a political order other than the existing one. The consequence, he said, was that they destroyed it without intending to do so and without working towards the establishment of a new political order. Rather, there was a consensus that the obvious crisis phenomena should be interpreted as a deterioration of the existing order, which should be countered with the aim of restoring it. In this respect, Meier does not consider it appropriate to apply the concept of revolution in the sense of a theory of revolution to the late republic. Consequently, Augustus could only present his new order, which amounted to the establishment of a monarchy, as a restoration of the old order ("res publica restituta").  As a historian he has claimed to write narrative history. Meier always looks beyond the boundaries of his subject. For example, he dealt with modern democracy and the politics of the Federal Republic of Germany, especially in the course of reunification.  In 1998 he was awarded the "Cicero-Rednerpreis" (Cicero Speaker Prize) for his own eloquence. On the subject of spelling reform, Meier, in his role as President of the German Academy for Language and Poetry, expressed himself in a committed and critical manner. in 2003, he was awarded the "Jacob-Grimm-Preis" for his commitment to the German language. In 2009 and 2015 the Universities of Salzburg and Bern awarded Meier a honorary doctorate.  In 2006, Meier was awarded with the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art by the Austrian Federal President Heinz Fischer. In 2009 he was awarded the Lichtenberg Medal, in 2014 the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art.  In 2015, Meier donated his private archive (manuscripts and correspondence) to the "Deutsches Literaturarchiv Marbach", including correspondence with Carl Schmitt and Richard von Weizsäcker.

Christian Meier (born 16 February 1929 in Stolp in Pommern) is a German historian and professor emeritus of ancient history at the University of Munich.


Description.

Powder-actuated tools are often used because of their speed of operation, compared to other processes such as drilling and then installing a threaded fastener. They can more easily be used in narrow or awkward locations, such as installing steel suspension clips into an overhead concrete ceiling.  Powder-actuated tools are powered by small explosive cartridges, which are triggered when a firing pin strikes a primer, a sensitive explosive charge in the base of the cartridge. The primer ignites the main charge of powder, which burns rapidly. The hot gases released by the burning of the propellant rapidly build pressure within the cartridge, which pushes either directly on the head of the fastener, or on a piston, accelerating the fastener out of the muzzle.  Powder-actuated tools come in high-velocity and low-velocity types. In high-velocity tools, the propellant charge acts directly on the fastener in a process similar to a firearm. Low-velocity tools introduce a piston into the chamber. The propellant acts on the piston, which then drives the fastener into the substrate. The piston is analogous to the bolt of a captive bolt pistol.  A tool is considered low velocity if the average test velocity of the fastener is not in excess of with no single test having a velocity of over. High-velocity tools may not be made or sold in the United States; however, some made decades ago are still in use in the shipbuilding and steel industries.  Powder-actuated fasteners are made of special heat-treated steel; common nails are unsafe for this application. There are many specialized fasteners designed for specific applications in the construction and manufacturing industries.  The main manufacturers of powder actuated tools are Ramset, Hilti, Powers/DeWalt, Tomarco, and Simpson Strong Tie.

History.

Powder-actuated technology was developed for commercial use during the Second World War, when high-velocity fastening systems were used to temporarily repair damage to ships. In the case of hull breaches, these tools fastened steel plates over damaged areas. These tools were developed by Mine Safety Appliances, for the United States Navy. Powder-actuated tools were investigated and used prior to this development; they were used in submarine hunting during the First World War and were the subject of a 1921 United States patent (US Patent No. 1365869).

Types of tools.

Powder actuated tools can be variously classified:

Energy sources.

Powder-actuated tools are powered by specially-designed blank firearm cartridges, also informally called "loads", "boosters", "rounds", or "charges".  In many cases, the charges are ordinary firearm cartridges with modified casings, and the bullets omitted. The.22 Short, developed by Smith & Wesson, is common. These charges may be hand-fed (single-shot), or manufactured and distributed on a plastic carrier strip.

Color coding.

The three single-shot strengths or colors typically sold to the general public are brown, green, and yellow in brass-colored casings.  Not all powder-actuated tools are rated for high-capacity charges — the strongest charge (nickel-purple at ), for example, is dangerous in a tool not rated for the high pressures it generates. The table above is for a slug from a test device.

Safety and regulation.

As with their air-actuated cousins, powder-actuated guns have a muzzle safety interlock. If the muzzle is not pressed against a surface with sufficient force, the firing pin is blocked and cannot reach the load to fire it. This helps ensure that the gun does not discharge in an unsafe manner, causing the nail to become an unrestrained projectile.  Due to their potential for causing personal injury, OSHA regulations in the US require certification specific to the tool being used before any person is permitted to rent or use powder-actuated equipment. Most manufacturers of powder-actuated nail guns offer training and certification, some with free online testing. In addition, special instruction is necessary if the prospective user is unable to distinguish colors used in the color code system that identifies proper power levels. Most certifications are accepted for life; however, in California they must be renewed every three years.  The ownership and use of these tools is regulated in Australia. The owner has to register the tool, and an operator of one of these tools is required to have a license and to have undergone training in their use. These laws are in keeping with Australia's extremely strict firearm laws.

Powder-actuated fasteners.

The fasteners used in powder-actuated tools are not common nails. Instead, they are manufactured from special steel and are heat-treated to produce a very hard yet ductile fastener. These properties permit the fastener to penetrate concrete or steel without breaking.  Unlike some threaded fasteners, powder-actuated fastening results in a permanently-installed attachment. These types of fasteners generally cannot be removed without damage to the fastener and the surface where it is attached.  Every fastener must be equipped with some type of washer, eyelet, sleeve, or other guide member at its tip. This guide member aligns the fastener in the tool as it is being driven, and is commonly used to retain the fastener in the tool until it is installed.

Common fasteners.

There are two common powder-actuated fasteners:

Fasteners for special applications.

There are also other types of fastener assemblies designed for specific applications. Examples include:

A powder-actuated tool (PAT, often generically called a Hilti gun or a Ramset gun after their manufacturing companies) is a type of nail gun used in construction and manufacturing to join materials to hard substrates such as steel and concrete. Known as direct fastening, this technology is powered by a controlled explosion of a small chemical propellant charge, similar to the process that discharges a firearm.


Signs and symptoms.

The symptoms of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults are similar to those of other forms of diabetes: polydipsia (excessive thirst and drinking), polyuria (excessive urination), and often blurred vision. Compared to juvenile type 1 diabetes, the symptoms develop comparatively slowly, over a period of at least six months.

Diagnosis.

It is estimated that more than 50% of persons diagnosed as having non-obesity-related type 2 diabetes may actually have LADA. Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibody (GADA), islet cell autoantibody (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibody, and zinc transporter autoantibody (ZnT8) testing should be performed on all adults who are not obese who are diagnosed with diabetes. However, some overweight patients are misdiagnosed with type 2 due to their weight. Moreover, it is now becoming evident that autoimmune diabetes may be highly underdiagnosed in many individuals who have diabetes, and that the body mass index levels may have rather limited use in connections with latent autoimmune diabetes.  Persons with LADA typically have low, although sometimes moderate, levels of C-peptide as the disease progresses. Those with insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes are more likely to have high levels of C-peptide due to an over production of insulin.

Autoantibodies.

Glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GADA), islet cell autoantibodies (ICA), insulinoma-associated (IA-2) autoantibodies, and zinc transporter autoantibodies (ZnT8) are all associated with LADA; GADAs are commonly found in cases of diabetes mellitus type 1.  The presence of islet cell complement fixing autoantibodies also aids in a differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes. Persons with LADA often test positive for ICA, whereas type 2 diabetics only seldom do.  Persons with LADA usually test positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies, whereas in type 1 diabetes these antibodies are more commonly seen in adults rather than in children. In addition to being useful in making an early diagnosis for type 1 diabetes mellitus, GAD antibodies tests are used for differential diagnosis between LADA and type 2 diabetes and may also be used for differential diagnosis of gestational diabetes, risk prediction in immediate family members for type 1, as well as a tool to monitor prognosis of the clinical progression of type 1 diabetes.

Classification.

The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus does not recognize the term "latent autoimmune diabetes" (LADA); rather, it includes LADA in the definition of type 1 autoimmune diabetes: "Type 1 diabetes results from a cellular-mediated autoimmune destruction of the beta-cells of the pancreas. In type 1 diabetes, the rate of beta-cell destruction is quite variable, being rapid in some individuals (mainly infants and children) and slow in others (mainly adults).” The National Institutes of Health (NIDDK) defines LADA as "a condition in which Type 1 diabetes develops in adults."

Prevention.

There are no known ways of preventing LADA type 1 diabetes, though some researchers believe it could be stopped at a very early stage if a diagnosis is made prior to the body's destruction of its beta cells.

Management.

About 80% of all LADA patients initially misdiagnosed with type 2 (and who have GAD antibodies) will become insulin-dependent within 3 to 15 years (according to differing LADA sources).  The treatment for Type 1 diabetes/LADA is exogenous insulin to control glucose levels, prevent further destruction of residual beta cells, reduce the possibility of diabetic complications, and prevent death from diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Although LADA may appear to initially respond to similar treatment (lifestyle and medications) as type 2 diabetes, it will not halt or slow the progression of beta cell destruction, and people with LADA will eventually become insulin-dependent. People with LADA have insulin resistance similar to long-term type 1 diabetes; some studies showed that people with LADA have less insulin resistance, compared with those with type 2 diabetes; however, others have not found a difference.

Epidemiology.

It is estimated that between 6-50% of all persons, depending on population, diagnosed with type 2 diabetes might actually have LADA. This number accounts for an estimated 5–10% of the total diabetes population in the U.S. or, as many as 3.5 million persons with LADA. Estimates from 2015 are saying that there could be as many as 10–20% of people with diabetes having LADA. People with LADA typically have a normal BMI or may be underweight due to weight loss prior to diagnosis. But some people with LADA may be overweight to mildly obese.  Contrary to popular belief, some people having LADA do carry a family history of type 2 diabetes.

History.

Although type 1 diabetes has been identified as an autoimmune disease since the 1970s, the concept of latent autoimmune diabetes mellitus was not noted until 1993, when it was used to describe slow-onset type 1 autoimmune diabetes occurring in adults. This followed the concept that GAD autoantibodies were a feature of type 1 diabetes and not type 2 diabetes.

Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) is a form of diabetes mellitus type 1 that occurs in adulthood, often with a slower course of onset than type 1 diabetes diagnosed in juveniles. Adults with LADA may initially be diagnosed incorrectly as having type 2 diabetes based on their age, particularly if they have risk factors for type 2 diabetes such as a strong family history or obesity.


Architecture and history.

In 1960 there were the first thoughts to centralize the headquarters of Hypobank, which was located to twelve different locations at that time. In 1970, concrete planning for the construction of the hypo-house at the Arabella Park started in cooperation with the architectural firm Betz. The construction preparations began in September 1974 with the excavation. For the low-rise buildings and the pillars of the tower, construction work began in April 1975. In November 1978, the new offices were occupied in the low-rise buildings. The skyscraper was completed in 1981 and opened officially on November 16, 1981. Today it is part of the administrative center of HypoVereinsbank at the Arabella Park. The ensemble also includes two low-rise buildings (North and South) and the later built "Hypo-House East".The building is located at the Richard-Strauss-Straße, corner Denninger Straße, right on the arterial road "Mittlerer Ring" (district Bogenhausen, subway station Richard-Strauss-Straße on line U4). It is 113.7 meters (374 feet) high and was designed and planned by architect couple Walther and Bea Betz. The static calculations were very complicated due to the unusual architecture and included 100,000 pages. The builder-owner was "Hypo-Bank Verwaltungszentrum GmbH & Co. KG", Held & Francke Bauaktiengesellschaft were the general contractor. HVB Tower was the first building in Munich with a height of about 100 meters (328 feet).The complex consists of a tower with 27 floors above ground, four underground floors and two low-rise buildings associated with the tower. The net floor area (NFA) is 100,000 m2 (1,076,391 squarefeet) gross floor area of approximately 140,000 m2 (1,506,947 squarefeet). As an architectural feature five floors are hanging in the Tower (5th-9th floor), which are suspended from a central support frame. Since 2006, the HVB Tower is a listed building. Until the completion of Uptown Munich in 2004, the 27-storey HVB Tower was Munich's tallest office building.

Utilization.

HVB Tower is a central administrative building of the HypoVereinsbank with offices, conference area, trading floor, computer center and canteen (about 3,000 workplaces). As part of the renovation, a modern office space concept is introduced (Smart Working) at HVB Tower. In addition, the HVB Tower will be the company's headquarters and domicile of the management board Board of HypoVereinsbank in the future.

Energy renovation.

In March 2011, HypoVereinsbank (UniCredit Bank AG) announced that the HVB Tower will be redeveloped the coming years (until approx. 2015) and so should be converted to a "green building" according to LEED. Construction works began during the year 2013. Important components of the energy-efficient renovation is the renewal of the entire facade while maintaining the outer listed appearance. In addition, the building will be completely renovated, building fire protection will be adapted for today's standards, and use of geothermal energy and rainwater will be implemented.

Renewal of facade.

The existing two-pane insulating glass facade is replaced by a box-window facade with four layers of glass, which is state of the art. Glazed External hard disks (one layer of glass) with defined vents allow air exchange with the outside air by opening the internal three-pane casement windows. The coating of the glass allows optimal use of daylight while minimizing solar heat input. Thus cooling loads in summer and in winter the heating energy demand can be reduced. A computer-controlled sun protection in the box window is responsive to both the changing position of the sun as well as to the individual needs of users, it is integrated into the control of the technical equipment. Waste heat generated by solar radiation is dissipated in the box on the window vents to the outside and relieves the building cooling.

Building technology.

The from today's perspective outdated and energy-intensive technical building equipment and building technology will be replaced. New heating and cooling systems increase operational efficiency and improve comfort for building occupants. The new building technology is closely coordinated with the new facade as "Climate skin".

Updating fire safety concept.

The creation of a new fire protection plan provides an optimization of the escape ways and fire extinguishing. Among other things, a staircase-pressure ventilation, and a highly efficient smoke removal is realized in the Tower.

Rainwater usage.

By installing a rainwater tanks, water consumption can be reduced. The watering of the plants will be supplied from this reservoir.

Geothermal energy.

The installation of a fountain cooling enables the use of groundwater as a source of energy and can be realized through the heat exchange principle to reduce the energy consumption for cooling in summer and heating in winter.  The redevelopment of the northern low-rise building will be undertaken from 2016.

Other.

A big picture of this skyscraper can be seen at the inner sleeve of the Time album of the Electric Light Orchestra.

The listed HVB Tower or formerly Hypo-house (Hypo-Haus) or Hypo high-rise building (Hypo-Hochhaus) is an administrative building of the HypoVereinsbank in Munich.


Development.

Shane Lacy Hensley had the idea for a new game centering on cowboys and zombies as he was setting up Pinnacle Entertainment Group, when he saw the Brom painting of a Confederate vampire on the cover of White Wolf's then-unreleased "Necropolis: Atlanta"; he thus began writing what would eventually become "Deadlands". After completing a first draft, Hensley flew in two friends and game designers, Greg Gorden and Matt Forbeck; they both liked what they saw and asked to buy into Pinnacle.

Setting.

The game is set in the United States in the last quarter of the 19th century. The canonical year for the first edition of "Deadlands" is 1876. A later supplement, "Tales o' Terror", advances the game's backstory and metaplot ahead one year, to 1877. The second edition of "Deadlands" uses the updated backstory of 1877 as the canonical starting point. "" further updates the backstory and advances the canonical starting point to 1879.  The basic rules provide for characters and settings that could be expected to appear in the "Wild West" genre of movies and pulp fiction, and most of the in-game action is presumed to occur in the wild frontiers of the American West, or in barely tamed frontier towns like Tombstone, Arizona or Dodge City, Kansas. However, later supplements expanded the in-game adventuring area to include places such as the Deep South, the Mississippi River, Mexico, and the Northeastern United States. These supplements often provide for adventures set in urban areas such as New Orleans, New York City, or Boston.  The canonical, basic setting is referred to as the "Weird West" due to the juxtaposition of the Western setting with the horrific and fantastical elements of the game. The history of the Weird West is identical to real-world history, up until July 3, 1863. On this date in the game, a group of American Indians from various tribes, led by a Sioux shaman known as "Raven," performed a ritual in an effort to drive out the European settlers. This ritual created a conduit to a spiritual realm populated by powerful malicious entities known as the "Reckoners." The events surrounding and immediately subsequent to Raven's ritual is known as "The Reckoning."  The Reckoners feed on negative emotions, particularly fear. Sufficient levels of fear in the population of a given location allow the Reckoners to begin subtly altering the environment of that location: the sun shines a little less brightly, trees become stunted and "evil" looking, rock formations take on the appearance of corpses or monsters, and so on. The more powerful the fear, the greater the environmental changes.  The ultimate goal of the Reckoners is to turn the entire Earth into an evil, haunted wasteland — literally a Hell on Earth. However, the Reckoners cannot directly enter Earth's realm unless the overall fear level of the entire planet becomes sufficiently high. To this end, they use their powers to create monsters, madmen, zombies, and other creatures and villains that will sow fear and terror throughout the land.  The first instance of this occurred on July 4, 1863, at the site of the Battle of Gettysburg that had just ended; dead soldiers from both sides of the conflict rose from the battlefield and began indiscriminately attacking the surviving soldiers and civilians. Since then, undead gunslingers, hostile Indian spirits, strange cults, and deadly creatures have begun terrorizing the world. The American Civil War drags on thanks to the machinations of the Reckoners, and the country remains divided into U.S. and Confederate sections along with "disputed territories." Federal agents and Texas Rangers struggle to deal with the eldritch menaces while hiding the awful truth from the general public. Seismic upheavals have pushed much of California into the ocean, creating a badlands area known as "the Great Maze." In the Great Maze, miners discover "ghost rock," a mineral that burns hotter and longer than coal and is used as the basis for most Deadlands technology as well as alchemical potions and semi-magical materials.  The unleashing of the Reckoners has had a number of important side effects. Magic was revealed to be real, although it involves challenging otherworldly spirits, "manitous", in contests that are either viewed as a negotiation or a test of will. These same manitous can possess a recently deceased body and reanimate it, creating a "Harrowed". Harrowed beings are sometimes under the control of the spirit (which uses the opportunity to spread fear) and sometimes under the control of the deceased being. Scientific progress rapidly advances as the Reckoners support experimental designs that normally would not work. This progress drives the technological level of "Deadlands" from historical levels to a "steampunk" setting.  Players take on the role of various mundane or arcane character types, including Gunfighters, Lawmen (such as U.S. Marshals or local sheriffs), Hucksters (magic users), Shamans, Blessed (those of faith), and Mad Scientists in an attempt to learn about the Reckoning and the mysterious beings behind it.

System.

"Deadlands" features a unique way of creating playing characters for the game. Instead of spending character points, or randomly rolling dice, a character's abilities are determined by drawing cards from a standard 54-card poker deck (jokers included), which determine the character's Traits (their basic attributes). The game also uses polyhedral dice (d4, d6, d8, d10, d12, and d20) which are referred to as the "Bones", and a set of white, red, and blue poker chips called "Fate Chips".  In a "Deadlands" game, the Game Master is called The Marshal, and the players are called The Posse.  To perform an action a player rolls for successes with a handful of dice and hopes that at least one of the dice rolls the Target Number or higher. Rolling the highest possible number on any of the dice is known as "rolling an ace", and that die may be re-rolled, with the total being added to the initial roll value. In most cases only the highest single die's value (with "aces" added) is compared to a target number. For each five points over the target number the character is considered to have a "raise" which typically makes the character's action more effective. When attacking someone, raises give the attacker more control over where on the victim's body the blow or bullet strikes. When attempting to quickly reload a gun, each raise allows another round of ammunition to be loaded in a single action.

Spell Casting.

Players with huckster characters use a deck of playing cards in addition to dice to cast their spells (hexes). A successful skill check allows the player to draw five or more cards and makes the best possible poker hand with those cards. The strength of the hand determines not only whether the hex was successfully cast, but also the strength of its effects. In the game world, this mechanic is explained as the huckster literally gambling with a magical spirit in order to get it to do his or her bidding — a high ranking poker hand means the huckster has won, and the spirit casts the hex as desired; a low ranking poker hand results in failure. Both jokers are present and wild, increasing the chance of a good hand, but the black joker means that the spirit does something harmful to the huckster.  Blessed characters can use their faith to invoke miracles—they pray for their patron to grant their request. The miracles are usually protective or restorative in nature, although there are some for attack. The difficulty of a given miracle (the amount of faith required by the patron for their assistance) can vary. For example, a priest seeking to heal a gunshot to the stomach would require more faith than if he were trying to mend a broken arm. Although the basic miracle set is predominantly Christian in nature, one of the extension sourcebooks includes miracles from other religions, and some of those are not permitted to Christian player characters.  Native American shamans cast spells by making deals with spirits. This happens in three stages: the shaman asks for a favor, performs the ritual that tradition demands for that favor, and then his skill is tested by the spirit. If he succeeds all three, he earns "appeasement points" according to how well he succeeded. If he earned enough points for the favor, it is granted. If not, his work was in vain.

Action Decks.

Instead of rolling for Initiative as in most other RPGs, the players make a "speed" roll on the bones — the exact number and type being rolled determined by each character's stats — and then draw a number of cards from a community playing card deck based on the results of that roll. The Marshal then calls out card values, starting from Aces and going all the way down to Deuces. The card's suit (in reverse alphabetical order) indicates who goes first if the same value of card is drawn.

Fate Chips.

Along with Bones and Cards, characters get Fate Chips which are typically poker chips, although colored stones or coins can also be used. These are drawn from a hat or some other container that the player blindly chooses at the beginning of play. Each player draws a certain number of Fate Chips at the beginning of the game from the Fate Pot, modified according to player actions and Marshal preference. Fate chips can be spent for in-game bonuses such as bonus dice to use during certain rolls, or the prevention of physical damage. The Marshal can draw chips as well for enemies to use.

Bounties.

At the end of a gaming session, players can cash in unused Fate Chips for Bounty Points. These are like Experience Points in other systems and are used to improve Traits and Aptitudes. The Marshal may also award additional Bounty Points at the end of the session for completing the mission objectives and any exceptional role-playing by players.

Instant rewards for roleplaying.

Marshals are also encouraged to reward players with instantaneous rewards for good role-playing. During character creation players can choose "Hindrances" (disadvantages) such as Big Britches, Bloodthirsty, or Big Mouth. When a player role-plays this Hindrance well, the Marshal can reward them instantly with a Fate Chip. This has the effect of promoting and encouraging role-playing.

Spinoff games.

The "Weird West" mark is used to distinguish the primary game setting from the various other settings:  Doomtown:Reloaded — The classic CCG is back in a non-collectible boxed set. Released at GenCon in August 2014 by Alderac Entertainment Group, the game (in September 2014) was already in its THIRD printing. Doomtown: Reloaded is basically the same game as the older version, (now referred to as Classic) with a number of rule revisions that have streamlined and simplified the game. The basics are the same, with minor differences. The four factions released initially were the Law Dogs, The Sloan Gang (similar to the Blackjacks), The Fourth Ring (a circus that is similar to The Whatleys) and the Morgan Cattle Company (which appears to be similar to a Sweetrock\Collegium blend)..

"Deadlands: Reloaded".

In May 2006, Great White Games published a new edition of "Deadlands" under the company's Pinnacle Entertainment Group label. This new edition, written by Shane Lacy Hensley and B.D. Flory and entitled "Deadlands: Reloaded", used Great White Games' "Savage Worlds" generic role-playing system. The 256-page setting book updates the canonical setting to 1879 and includes information on the events of the past year, as well as new rules. Among the most drastic changes to the basic "Savage Worlds" rules was "The Way of the Brave" rule, which revamped the way combat works in the system, making it more dangerous and deadly for characters and increasing the effectiveness of melee combat. This book also updated Fate Chips to work with the "Savage Worlds" system. This book marked a first for Great White Games in that it is the first setting book published without a scripted or plot point campaign.  The publisher has hinted that four complete plot point campaign books will be released for "Deadlands: Reloaded", each focusing on certain regions and events in the metaplot of the game. In 2009 the first of these campaigns, "The Flood", was released. In 2012, the second of these campaigns, "The Last Sons," was released. Matthew Cutter of Pinnacle has also stated that updated "Hell on Earth" and "Lost Colony" books will be published for the "Savage Worlds" system. The "Hell on Earth" update was released in 2012. Additionally, an equipment guide "The Smith & Robards Catalog", was published in 2011. A successfully funded Kickstarter for a new spin-off setting, "Deadlands Noir", was conducted from May to June 2012, with the product's release expected in 2013. Reaper miniatures has, as of August 2012, solicited two white-metal miniatures for the Deadlands Noire setting to distributors: "Stone" and "Femme Fatal"

Reception.

In the December 1996 edition of "Dragon" (Issue 236), Rick Swan liked the energy of the Western/horror mash-up, calling it "a revolutionary mix of fantasy and cyberpunk." However, Swan criticized the lack of setting details: "What we’re given is little more than an overview... there are no interesting personalities to speak of. There’s next to nothing about geography, politics, or culture. Cities, villages, places to explore — practically none. And there’s not a single ready-to-play adventure." He concluded by giving the game an average rating of 4 out of 6, saying, ""Deadlands" is by no means bad. It’s beautifully written and bursting with nifty ideas. It strikes a masterful balance between high camp and high adventure. It has a great cover. But it’s incomplete; with a setting this skeletal and the absence of adventures, how’s a newcomer supposed to cobble together a campaign?"

Awards.

"Deadlands", its supplements and spin-offs have won nine Origins Awards:

Television series.

In 2014, Microsoft announced that it was developing an original television series for the Xbox based on "Deadlands".

Deadlands is a genre-mixing alternate history role-playing game which combines the Western and horror genres, with some steampunk elements. The original game was written by Shane Lacy Hensley and published by Pinnacle Entertainment Group in 1996.


Name.

The ointment is known by a wide variety of names, including witches' flying ointment, green ointment, magic salve, or lycanthropic ointment. In German it was ) or (). Latin names included ),, () or ().

Composition.

Francis Bacon (attributed as "Lord Verulam") listed the ingredients of the witches ointment as "the fat of children digged out of their graves, of juices of smallage, wolfe-bane, and cinque foil, mingled with the meal of fine wheat."  Typical poisonous ingredients included belladonna, henbane bell, jimson weed, black henbane, mandrake, hemlock, and/or wolfsbane, most of which contain atropine, hyoscyamine, and/or scopolamine. Scopolamine can cause psychotropic effects when absorbed transdermally. These tropane alkaloids are also officially classified as deliriants in regards to their psychoactive effects.

Extreme toxicity of active ingredients.

With the exception of "Potentilla reptans", the plants most frequently recorded as ingredients in Early Modern recipes for flying ointments are extremely toxic and have caused numerous fatalities when eaten, whether by confusion with edible species or in cases of criminal poisoning or suicide. The effects of transdermal absorption of complex mixtures of the active constituents of such potentially lethal plants have not been adequately studied.  Some investigators in modern times who have sought to recreate for their own use the 'flying ointment' of times past have lost their lives in the attempt. With historian, occultist and theosophist Carl Kiesewetter of Meiningen, author of "Geschichte des Neueren Occultismus" 1892 and "Die Geheimwissenschaften, eine Kulturgeschichte der Esoterik" 1895 being one such casualty.

Bodily flight versus flight in spirit.

It has been a subject of discussion between clergymen as to whether witches were able physically to fly to the Sabbath on their brooms with help of the ointment, or whether such 'flight' was explicable in other ways: a delusion created by the Devil in the minds of the witches; the souls of the witches leaving their bodies to fly in spirit to the Sabbath; or a hallucinatory 'trip' facilitated by the entheogenic effects of potent drugs absorbed through the skin. An early proponent of the last explanation was Renaissance scholar and scientist Giambattista della Porta, who not only interviewed users of the flying ointment, but witnessed its effects upon such users at first hand, comparing the deathlike trances he observed in his subjects with their subsequent accounts of the bacchanalian revelry they had 'enjoyed'.

Body in coma and riding on beasts.

Dominican churchman Bartolommeo Spina (1465? / 1475? -1546) of Pisa gives two accounts of the power of the flying ointment in his "Tractatus de strigibus sive maleficis" ('Treatise on witches or evildoers') of 1525. The first concerns an incident in the life of his acquaintance Augustus de Turre of Bergamo, a physician. While studying medicine in Pavia as a young man, Augustus returned late one night to his lodgings (without a key) to find no one awake to let him in. Climbing up to a balcony, he was able to enter through a window, and at once sought out the maidservant, who should have been awake to admit him. On checking her room, however, he found her lying unconscious - beyond rousing - on the floor. The following morning he tried to question her on the matter, but she would only reply that she had been 'on a journey'.  Bartolommeo's second account is more suggestive and points toward another element in the witches' 'flights'. It concerns a certain notary of Lugano who, unable to find his wife one morning, searched for her all over their estate and finally discovered her lying deeply unconscious, naked and filthy with her vagina exposed, in a corner of the pigsty. The notary 'immediately understood that she was a witch' (!) and at first wanted to kill her on the spot, but, thinking better of such rashness, waited until she recovered from her stupor, in order to question her. Terrified by his wrath, the poor woman fell to her knees and confessed that during the night she had 'been on a journey'.  Light is cast on the tale of the notary's wife by two accounts widely separated in time but revealing a persistent theme in European Witchcraft. The first is that of Regino of Prüm whose "De synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis libri duo" (circa 906 C.E.) speaks of women who'seduced...by demons...insist that they ride at night "on certain beasts" [italics not original] together with Diana, goddess of the pagans, and a great multitude of women; that they cover great distances in the silence of the deepest night...' (See also Canon Episcopi).  The second account dates from some 800 years later, coming from Norway in the early 18th century and is the testimony, at the age of thirteen, of one Siri Jørgensdatter. Siri claimed that when she was seven her grandmother had taken her to the witches' sabbath on the mountain meadow Blockula ('blue-hill') : her grandmother led her to a pigsty, where she smeared a sow with some ointment which she took from a horn, whereupon grandmother and granddaughter mounted the animal and, after a short ride through the air, arrived at a building on the Sabbath mountain.

Alleged sexual element in application.

Some sources have claimed that such an ointment would best be absorbed through mucous membranes, and that the traditional image of a female witch astride a broomstick implies the application of flying ointment to the vulva. The passage from the trial for witchcraft in Ireland of Hiberno-Norman noblewoman Alice Kyteler in 1324 quoted above is, while not explicit, certainly open to interpretations both drug-related and sexual. It is also a very early account of such practices, pre-dating by some centuries witch trials in the early modern period. The testimony of Dame Kyteler's maidservant, Petronilla de Meath, while somewhat compromised by having been extracted under torture, contains references not only to her mistress's abilities in the preparation of'magical' medicines, but also her sexual behaviour, including at least one instance of (alleged) intercourse with a demon. According to the inquisition ('in which were five knights and numerous nobles') set in motion by Richard de Ledrede, Bishop of Ossory, there was in the city of Kilkenny a band of heretical sorcerers, at the head of whom was Dame Alice Kyteler and against whom no fewer than seven charges relating to witchcraft were laid. The fifth charge is of particular interest in the context of the 'greased staffe' mentioned above :  Deducting from the above ingredients of purely symbolic significance relating to death and heresy, one is left with the cooking, in a fatty mixture, of 'unspecified herbs' and 'horrible worms' to produce, among other preparations, 'unguents' and 'ointments' - one of which was the'staffe-greasing' ointment later found in the 'pipe' discovered in Dame Alice's closet. It is unfortunate that the identities of the herbs and 'worms' involved went unrecorded. Those of the 'unspecified herbs' may well be guessed at in the light of information regarding later flying ointment recipes, but the 'horrible worms' remain more cryptic : it is unclear whether actual worms or insect larvae are intended. If the latter, such larvae might themselves have been poisonous and intoxicating, from having fed on alkaloidal plants.  Comparison of Alice Kyteler's'staffe' and Siri Jørgensdatter's sow - both greased with a mysterious ointment, suggest the innate conservatism of European Witchcraft and the persistence of a body of women's knowledge related to sexuality and the use of a potent and complex drug.

Possible opiate component.

One possible key to how individuals dealt with the toxicity of the nightshades usually said to be part of flying ointments is through the supposed antidotal reaction some of the solanaceous alkaloids have with the alkaloids of "Papaver somniferum" (opium poppy). This is discussed by Alexander Kuklin in his brief book, "How Do Witches Fly?" (DNA Press, 1999). This antagonism was claimed to exist by the movement of Eclectic medicine. For instance, King's American Dispensatory states in the entry on belladonna: "Belladonna and opium appear to exert antagonistic influences, especially as regards their action on the brain, the spinal cord, and heart; they have consequently been recommended and employed as antidotes to each other in cases of poisoning" going on to make the extravagant claim that "this matter is now positively and satisfactorily settled; hence in all cases of poisoning by belladonna the great remedy is morphine, and its use may be guided by the degree of pupillary contraction it occasions." The use of opiates in the treatment of belladonna poisoning is, however, strongly contraindicated in modern medical practice [see below].  The synergy between belladonna and poppy alkaloids was made use of in the so-called "twilight sleep" that was provided for women during childbirth beginning in the Edwardian era. Twilight sleep was a mixture of scopolamine, a belladonna alkaloid, and morphine, a "Papaver" alkaloid, that was injected and which furnished a combination of painkilling and amnesia for a woman in labor. A version is still manufactured for use as the injectable compound "Omnopon".  There is no definite indication of the proportions of solanaceous herbs vs. poppy used in flying ointments, and most historical recipes for flying ointment do not include poppy. Furthermore, a reputable publication by the former UK Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (now DEFRA) states specifically that, in cases of poisoning by "Atropa belladonna" - far from being antidotes - 'Preparations containing morphine or opiates should be "avoided" as they have a synergic action with atropine'; an appropriate antidote being, by contrast, the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine salicylate.

Sources citing ointments.

The use by witches of flying ointments was first described, according to known sources, by Johannes Hartlieb in 1456. It was also described by the Spanish theologian Alfonso Tostado (d. 1455) in "Super Genesis Commentaria" (printed in Venice, 1507), whose commentary tended to accredit the thesis of the reality of the Witches' Sabbath. In 1477 Antone Rose confessed that the devil gave her a stick 18 inches in length on which she would rub an ointment and with the words "go, in the name of the Devil, go" would fly to the "synagogue" (an alternative name for Sabbath in early witchcraft).

In popular culture.

Drama.

There is, in the work of the playwright Francisco de Rojas Zorilla (1607-1648) of Toledo, an exchange concerning the flying ointment, the (following) passage occurring in the play "Lo que quería el Marqués de Villena" ('What the Marquis of Villena wanted').

Flying ointment is a hallucinogenic ointment said to have been used by witches in the practice of European witchcraft from at least as far back as the Early Modern period, when detailed recipes for such preparations were first recorded.


Research.

The Institute carries out basic research in organic and organometallic chemistry, in homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis as well as in theoretical chemistry. The principal aim is to develop new methods for the selective and environmentally benign preparation of new compounds and materials.  The MPI KoFo has been at the forefront of research in chemistry since its formation. One of these is the development of the Fischer–Tropsch process through the efforts of Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1925 when the institute was still organized as the "Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung". Nobel Prize laureate Karl Ziegler also worked at the institute alongside Hans-Georg Gellert, one of his former students, to discover aufbau reaction ("Aufbaureaktion") or growth reaction among aluminum alkyl compounds.

Departments.

Organic Synthesis.

Research in the Organic Synthesis Department, led by Tobias Ritter, focuses on the development of novel reaction chemistry. It seeks to discover molecular structure and reactivity that can contribute to interdisciplinary solutions for challenges in science.

Homogeneous Catalysis.

The Homogeneous Catalysis Department, led by, focuses on the development of new catalysis concepts within the areas of organocatalysis, transition metal catalysis, and, to some extent, biocatalysis. Since 1999, the group concentrates on enantioselective organocatalysis as a fundamental approach complementing biocatalysis and transition metal catalysis. They have a profound interest in developing “new reactions”, designing and identifying new principles for the development of organocatalysts, expanding the scope of already developed catalysts such as proline, using organocatalysis in the synthesis of natural products and pharmaceuticals, and also investigating the mechanism by which organocatalysts activate their substrates. Furthermore, in 2005 the department has first conceptualized another approach to asymmetric catalysis, namely Asymmetric Counteranion-Directed Catalysis (ACDC). This idea has not only progressed within the department but also at other institutions around the globe into a general strategy for asymmetric synthesis applied in organocatalysis as well as in transition metal catalysis and Lewis acid catalysis.

Heterogeneous Catalysis.

The Heterogeneous Catalysis Department, led by Ferdi Schüth, is concentrated on the synthesis and characterization of inorganic materials with an application focus in heterogeneous catalysis. Especially important are high surface area materials with controlled porosity and nanostructured catalysts. Reactions studied include model reactions, such as carbon monoxide oxidation, and energy relevant conversions, i.e. methane activation, biomass conversion, ammonia decomposition and catalyzed hydrogen storage. This research is supported by studies into the fundamental processes governing solids formation.

Organometallic Chemistry.

The Organometallic Chemistry Department, led by Alois Fürstner, is focused on the development and understanding of organometallic reagents and catalysts, as well as on their application to the synthesis of structurally complex targets of biological significance. Particular attention is paid to the development and validation of catalytic methods for Carbon–carbon bond formation. Long term projects of current interest concern alkene and alkyne metathesis, the development and use of pi-acids (platinum, gold etc.), iron catalysis and cross coupling in general. Moreover, the group is engaged in the development of novel donor ligands, including carbenes and compounds containing formally "zerovalent" carbon atoms. All methods are scrutinized by applications to the total synthesis and "diverted total synthesis" of natural products and pharmaceutically active compounds.

Theoretical Chemistry.

The Department of Molecular Theory and Spectroscopy, led by Frank Neese, focuses on theoretical developments that extend the scope of computational methodology, especially for large molecules, and applies theoretical methods to study specific chemical problems, mostly in close cooperation with experimental partners. The activities of the group cover a broad methodological spectrum such as ab initio methods, density functional theory, semiempirical methods and combined quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical methods.

The Max Planck Institute for Coal Research () is an institute located in Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany specializing in chemical research on catalysis. It is one of the 86 institutes in the Max Planck Society ("Max-Planck-Gesellschaft"). Founded in 1912 as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Coal Research ("Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung") in Mülheim an der Ruhr to study the chemistry and uses of coal, it became an independent Max Planck Institute in 1949.


History.

The earliest known mention of Radziejów is found in a document from 1142, which states that it was given by the High Duchess consort of Poland Salomea of Berg to the monastery in Mogilno. Later it passed to the Diocese of Płock. In the second half of the 13th century it grew into a significant center of local administration. It was granted town rights in 1252 by Duke Casimir I of Kuyavia, confirmed in 1298 by future Polish King Władysław I Łokietek, who granted it Magdeburg Law. Kings Władysław I Łokietek and Władysław II Jagiełło vested it with new trade privileges and Sigismund I the Old established a weekly fair. Władysław I Łokietek founded the Franciscan monastery with the Gothic Church of the Feast of the Cross, one of the landmarks of the town.  It was a royal town, located in the Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship in the Greater Poland Province of the Polish Crown. The sejmiks for entire Kuyavia were held in Radziejów. The local royal castle was demolished by the Swedes in 1702, during the Great Northern War. In 1720 the first Piarist college of Poland was founded in Radziejów. It was moved to Włocławek in 1819.  In 1793 the town found itself in Prussia following the Second Partition of Poland. In 1807 it passed to the short lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw, and then in 1815 it became a part of the Congress Poland in the Russian Empire. In the course of the 19th century the town declined. As part of Russian reprisals after the failed Polish January Uprising, the Franciscan monastery was closed down in 1864, and in 1867 Radziejów lost its city charter. In 1918 it became a part of reconstituted, independent Poland, was again granted city rights in 1919 and developed again afterwards. It enjoyed In 1931 it had 4,025 inhabitants.  The town had a Jewish community since the 18th century, with 15 Jews (5% of the population) recorded in 1793. Restrictions on Jewish settlement were in force from 1822 to 1862. According to the 1921 census the town had a Jewish community consisting of 599 people, or 19.0 percent of its total population.  In 1933 Radziejów obtained a railway connection as the newly built Polish Coal Trunk-Line passed just 3 km west of the town. Though no dedicated Radziejów station was built, the inhabitants of the town could board trains in nearby Chełmce.  During World War II, the German army entered the town on September 9, 1939. During the German occupation, the town was part of Reichsgau Wartheland, a portion of Poland directly annexed by Germany. In 1943 the Germans renamed the town to "Rädichau".  In the course of the Holocaust, the town's Jewish population was confined in a ghetto which existed from 1941 until 1942, with about 800 inmates. The ghetto was liquidated in 1942 when its population was transported to Chelmno extermination camp in April, 1942 where they were killed in gas vans by carbon monoxide exhaust. The town was liberated from the Nazis by the Soviet army on January 20, 1945.  After the war, some Jewish survivors returned to Radziejów in the summer of 1945, where they found their houses and businesses taken over by Poles. After the murder on the night of 29/30 September 1945 of two Jews in nearby village Osięciny, Radziejów's Jews fled the town, but returned a few weeks later. In 1946 they organized a local branch of the Central Committee of Polish Jews (Centralny Komitet Żydów Polskich), which functioned until 1948 by which time most of its members left Radziejów. After 1949 no organised Jewish community existed and only a few individual Jews remained in the town during the subsequent decades.  In 1979 a new hospital opened in Radziejów designed to accommodate 272 patient beds (today functioning as "Samodzielny Publiczny Zakład Opieki Zdrowotnej w Radziejowie").  In 2018, "The Nazi, the Princess, and the Shoemaker" was published, describing the relationship of Poles and Jews in Radziejow prior to World War II as well as the Nazi occupation of the town and what happened to its Jewish population.

Radziejów () is a town in Poland, in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship, about 45 km south of Toruń. It is the capital of Radziejów County. Its population is 5,804 (2004).


Construction, use and history.

In May 1883 the population of Chemnitz exceeded 100,000 and it became the 15th city in Germany. The supply of drinking water to the city had been provided by a waterworks built in 1872–1874, that could no longer cope with the increasing water consumption of the growing city. An increase in its capacity was no longer possible due to the limitations of terrain and rising pollution of the Zwönitz, which meant that the source of water supply had to be switched from ground to surface water. The local council of Einsiedel, which lay below the proposed dam, had unsuccessfully objected against the dam site in Stadtguttal in light of the breach of the South Fork Dam in 1889 that had caused approximately 2,200 deaths. Between 7 November 1890 (laying of the foundation stone) and 14 June 1894 (dam opening) the oldest drinking water-retaining dam in Saxony emerged which, after the Eschbach Dam and Panzer Dam, is also the third oldest in Germany. It cost 1.3 million marks and an average of 142 workers were employed in its construction. A water works was built below the dam that led the treated water through a 3.3 km long tunnel into Chemnitz's water supply network. At the time of commissioning the Einsiedel Dam was considered a technical masterpiece. It was assessed as excellent at the World Exhibitions in Paris (1900) and St. Louis. The Einsiedel barrage is a curved gravity dam made of quarrystone, based partly on the Intze principle, but without the Intze wedge, retaining wall drainage and water-side protective layer (facing). It is a "large dam" by ICOLD criteria and impounds the waters of the "Stadtguttalbach", it also receives water channeled from the Neunzehnhain I Reservoir. The reservoir is used for drinking water, which is why swimming, fishing and recreational sports, etc., are not permitted in the reservoir. The dam is also used to a limited extent for flood control.

Einsiedel Dam () is located in the German Free State of Saxony. Its reservoir supplies drinking water to Chemnitz and, in conjunction with the Central Ore Mountains reservoir system, that includes the reservoirs of Neunzehnhain I, II and Saidenbach also supplies water to the entire region covered by the South Saxony Long Distance Water Association ("Zweckverband Fernwasser Südsachsen").


Baker percentages.

A yeast-dough formula could call for the following list of ingredients, presented as a series of baker's percentages:

Conversions.

There are several common conversions that are used with baker's percentages. Converting baker's percentages to ingredient weights is one. Converting known ingredient weights to baker percentages is another. Conversion to true percentages, or based on total weight, is helpful to calculate unknown ingredient weights from a desired total or formula weight.

Using baker percentages.

To derive the ingredient weights when any weight of flour "W" is chosen:  In the example below, 2 lb and 10 kg of flour weights have been calculated. Depending on the desired weight unit, only one of the following four weight columns is used:

Creating baker's percentages.

The baker has determined how much a recipe's ingredients weigh, and uses uniform decimal weight units. All ingredient weights are divided by the flour weight to obtain a ratio, then the ratio is multiplied by 100% to yield the baker's percentage for that ingredient:  Due to the canceling of uniform weight units, the baker may employ any desired system of measurement (metric or avoirdupois, etc.) when using a baker's percentage to determine an ingredient's weight. Generally, the baker finds it easiest to use the system of measurement that is present on the available tools.

Formula percentage and total mass.

The total or sum of the baker's percentages is called the formula percentage. The sum of the ingredient masses is called the formula mass (or formula "weight"). Here are some interesting calculations:

Weights and densities.

The use of customary U.S. units can sometimes be awkward and the metric system makes these conversions simpler. In the metric system, there are only a small number of basic measures of relevance to cooking: the gram (g) for weight, the liter (L) for volume, the meter (m) for length, and degrees Celsius (°C) for temperature; multiples and sub-multiples are indicated by prefixes, two commonly used metric cooking prefixes are milli- (m-) and kilo- (k-). Intra-metric conversions involve moving the decimal point.  Common avoirdupois and metric weight equivalences:  In four different English-language countries of recipe and measuring-utensil markets, approximate cup volumes range from 236.59 to 284.1 milliliters (mL). Adaptation of volumetric recipes can be made with density approximations:  Due to volume and density ambiguities, a different approach involves volumetrically measuring the ingredients, then using "scales" or "balances" of appropriate accuracy and error ranges to weigh them, and recording the results. With this method, occasionally an error or outlier of some kind occurs.

Drawbacks.

Baker's percentages do not accurately reflect the impact of the amount of gluten-forming proteins in the flour on the final product and therefore may need to be adjusted from country to country, or even miller to miller, depending on definitions of terms like "bread flour" and actual protein content. Manipulation of known flour-protein levels can be calculated with a Pearson square.  In home baking, the amounts of ingredients such as salt or yeast expressed by mass may be too small to measure accurately on the scales used by most home cooks. For these ingredients, it may be easier to express quantities by volume, based on standard densities. For this reason, many breadmaking books that are targeted to home bakers provide both percentages and volumes for common batch sizes.  Besides the need for appropriate readability scales, a kitchen calculator is helpful when working directly from baker's percentages.

Advantages.

Baker's percentages enable the user to:

Common Formulations.

Common formulations for bread include 100% flour, 60% water/liquid, 1% yeast, 2% salt and 1% oil, lard or butter.

Dough hydration.

In a recipe, the baker's percentage for water is referred to as the "hydration"; it is indicative of the stickiness of the dough and the "crumb" of the bread. Lower hydration rates (e.g., 50–57%) are typical for bagels and pretzels, and medium hydration levels (58–65%) are typical for breads and rolls. Higher hydration levels are used to produce more and larger holes, as is common in artisan breads such as baguettes or ciabatta. Doughs are also often classified by the terms stiff, firm, soft, and slack. Batters are more liquid doughs. Muffins are a type of drop batter while pancakes are a type of pour batter.

Baker's percentage is a notation method indicating the proportion of an ingredient relative to the flour used in a recipe when making breads, cakes, muffins, and other baked goods. It is also referred to as baker's math, and may be indicated by a phrase such as based on flour weight. It is sometimes called "formula percentage", a phrase that refers to the sum of a set of bakers' percentages. Baker's percentage expresses a ratio in percentages of each ingredient's weight to the total flour weight:


Ceramic clay.

Ceramic clays are water-based substances made from clay minerals and other raw materials. They are baked at high temperatures in a process known as firing to create ceramics, such as terra cotta, earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Paper clay produced by pottery clay manufacturers is a clay body to which a small percentage of processed cellulose fiber has been added. When kiln-fired, the paper burns out, leaving the clay body. Consequently, the firing temperatures and glazes selection should be the same on those used with the clay body.

Oil-based clay.

Oil-based clays are made from various combinations of oils, waxes, and clay minerals.  Because the oils do not evaporate like water, oil-based clays remain malleable even when left in dry environments for long periods. Articles made from oil-based clays cannot be fired, and thus are not ceramics. Because rising temperature decreases oil viscosity, the malleability is influenced by heating or cooling the clay. Oil-based clay is not water-soluble. As it can be re-used, it is a popular material for animation artists who need to bend and move their models. It is available in a multitude of colors and is non-toxic. Readily worked in fine detail, oil-based clays are also suitable for the creation of detailed sculptures from which molds can be made. Castings and reproductions can then be produced from much more durable materials. Cars and airplanes may be created using industrial design-grade modelling clay.  Oil-based clays are referred to by a number of genericized trademarks.

Polymer clay.

Polymer clay is a modelling material that cures when heated from for 15 minutes per of thickness, and does not significantly shrink or change shape during the process. Despite being called "clay", it generally contains no clay minerals. Polymer clay is sold in craft, hobby, and art stores, and is used by artists, hobbyists, and children. Polymer clay is also popular in animation, since it allows static forms to be manipulated frame after frame. Leading brands of polymer clay include Fimo, Kato Polyclay, Sculpey, Modello and Crafty Argentina.

Paper clay.

Paper clay is handmade or commercially available clay to which a small percentage of processed cellulose fiber is added. The fiber increases the tensile strength of the dry clay and enables dry-to-dry and wet-to-dry joins. Commercial paper clays air-dry to a firm, lightweight sculpture, with minimal shrinking during the drying process.  Paper clay can be used as an unfired body in craft and doll-making. It is used in ceramic art studios as sculptural and functional studio pottery.

Modelling clay is any of a group of malleable substances used in building and sculpting. The material compositions and production processes vary considerably.


Characteristics.

The areas such as those between drawing and poetry, or between painting and theatre could be described as "intermedia". With repeated occurrences, these new genres between genres could develop their own names (e.g. visual poetry, performance art); historically, an example is haiga, which combined brush painting and haiku into one composition.  Higgins described the tendency of what he thought was the most interesting and best in the new art to cross boundaries of recognized media or even to fuse the boundaries of art with media that had not previously been considered for art forms, including computers.  With characteristic modesty, he often noted that Samuel Taylor Coleridge had first used the term.  Gene Youngblood also described intermedia, beginning in his "Intermedia" column for the Los Angeles Free Press beginning in 1967 as a part of a global network of multiple media that was "expanding consciousness"—the intermedia network—that would turn all people into artists by proxy. He gathered and expanded ideas from this series of columns in his 1970 book Expanded Cinema, with an introduction by Buckminster Fuller.

Academia.

In 1968, Hans Breder founded the first university program in the United States to offer an M.F.A. in intermedia. The Intermedia Area at The University of Iowa graduated artists such as Ana Mendieta and Charles Ray. In addition, the program developed a substantial visiting artist tradition, bringing artists such as Dick Higgins, Vito Acconci, Allan Kaprow, Karen Finley, Robert Wilson and others to work directly with Intermedia students.  Over the years, especially on the Iowa campus, "intermedia" has been used interchangeably with "multi-media". However, recently the latter term has become identified with electronic media in pop-culture. While Intermedia values both disciplines, the term "Intermedia" has become the preferred term for interdisciplinary practice.  Two other prominent University programs that focus on intermedia are the Intermedia program at Arizona State University and the Intermedia M.F.A. at the University of Maine, founded and directed by Fluxus scholar and author Owen Smith. Additionally, the Roski School of Fine Arts at the University of Southern California features Intermedia as an area of emphasis in their B.A. and B.F.A. programs. The University of Maryland Baltimore County [UMBC] offers an M.F.A. in Intermedia and Digital Art. Concordia University in Montreal, QC offers a B.F.A. in Intermedia/Cyberarts. Herron School of Art and Design, Indiana University, Purdue University, Indianapolis, has a M.F.A. Program Photography and Intermedia degree. The University of Oregon offers a Master of Music degree in Intermedia Music Technology. The Pacific Northwest College of Art offers a B.F.A. in Intermedia.  In the UK, Edinburgh College of Art [within University of Edinburgh] introduced a BA (Hons) Degree in Intermedia Arts, and intermedia can be a focus of study in Masters programmes. The Academy of Fine Arts [AVU] in Prague offers a Masters in Intermedia Studies founded by Milan Knizack and The Hungarian University of Fine Arts has an Intermedia Program.

Intermedia was a term used in the mid-1960s by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins to describe various inter-disciplinary art activities that occurred between genres in the 1960s.


Biography.

Ellis was a member of the Catholic Worker Movement in 1974-1975. He wrote an autobiographical book (1997) "Unholy alliance: religion and atrocity in our time". He earned B.A. and M.A. degrees in Religion and American Studies at Florida State University, where he studied under Richard Rubenstein and William Miller. In 1980 he received his doctorate in contemporary American Social and Religious Thought from Marquette University. He then became a faculty member at the Maryknoll School of Theology in Maryknoll, New York, and director of the M.A. program at the Maryknoll Institute for Justice and Peace. He was made full professor in 1988, and remained at Maryknoll until 1995. He was a Senior Fellow and then visiting scholar at Harvard Divinity School's Center for the Study of World Religions and Harvard University's Center for Middle Eastern Studies, as well as a visiting professor at Florida State University. In 1998 he was appointed Professor of American and Jewish Studies at Baylor University, where the next year he was named University Professor of American and Jewish Studies. In 1999 he founded Baylor University's Center for American and Jewish Studies. In 2006, the Center was renamed The Center for Jewish Studies.  His current writings deal with contemporary Judaism, Jewish liberation theology, Jewish-Arab relations, justice, and peace. Ellis retired from Baylor University in 2012 and is currently visiting professor of international universities such as the United Nations mandated University for Peace in Costa Rica and the University of Innsbruck, Austria.  Among those who have commented positively on the work of Ellis are George McGovern, Noam Chomsky, Edward Said, Professor Susannah Heschel, Elliot Dorff and Desmund Tutu.  Ellis's departure from Baylor was controversial as he and his supporters, including Cornel West, Rosemary Ruether, and Desmond Tutu, stated that a concerted effort was made to remove him due to his views on Israeli-Palestinian relations. Baylor President Ken Starr and the university administration denied that Ellis was being targeted for his views but that the investigation had to do with privacy rules. Ellis responded that the privacy rules he was charged with violating were selectively enforced.

Marc H. Ellis (born 1952) is an American author, liberation theologian, and a retired University Professor of Jewish Studies, Professor of History and Director of the Center for Jewish Studies at Baylor University. He is currently visiting professor of several international universities, including the University of Innsbruck, Austria and the United Nations University for Peace, Costa Rica.


Life.

Gmelin was a son of the physician, botanist and chemist Johann Friedrich Gmelin and his wife Rosine Schott. Due to his family he early came in contact with medicine and the natural sciences, in 1804 he attended the chemical lectures of his father. In the same year Gmelin moved to Tübingen to work in the family pharmacy, he also studied at the University of Tübingen among other relatives like Ferdinand Gottlieb Gmelin ( a cousin ) and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer ( husband of a cousin ). Supported by Kielmeyer, Gmelin moved to the University of Göttingen in 1805 and later he worked as assistant in the laboratory of Friedrich Stromeyer, by whom he successfully passed his exams in 1809.  Leopold Gmelin returned to Tübingen and again heard the lectures of Ferdinand Gottlieb Gmelin and Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer. In February 1811 Gmelin clashed with the medical student Gutike, according to an insult he challenged him to a duel, without serious injuries. Because duels were forbidden among students the incident was kept a secret at first, he nevertheless came to light. On March 10 Gmelin fled and went to Joseph Franz von Jacquin at the University of Vienna. Focus of his research was the "Black pigment of oxen and calves eyes", outcome of this work was also the subject of Gmelins dissertation. In 1812 he received his doctorate in Göttingen in absentia. Until 1813 Gmelin went on an extensive study trip through Italy. After his return, he began to work as a Privatdozent at the Heidelberg University since the winter semester of 1813/14, at first he worked on his Habilitation in Göttingen. On 26 September of the following year he was appointed associate professor in Heidelberg.  In the fall of 1814, he went on another educational trip to Paris to study at the Sorbonne, he remained there until the spring of 1815. Together with his cousin, Christian Gottlob Gmelin he made the acquaintance of René Just Haüy, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, Louis Jacques Thénard and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin.  1816 Gmelin married Louise in Heidelberg-Kirchheim, a daughter of the Kirchheimer pastor Johann Conrad Maurer, the lawyer Georg Ludwig von Maurer became his brother-in-law. Together they had three daughters and one son, including Auguste, the future wife of the physician Theodor von Dusch.  When the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth died in Berlin in 1817, Gmelin should have succeeded him. However, he refused and became full Professor of Chemistry at the Heidelberg University. There, a close cooperation with Friedrich Tiedemann evolved with time. The two published "The digestion after tests" in 1826 and established the basis of the physiological chemistry. In the field of digestive chemistry Gmelin later discovered more components of bile and introduced Gmelin's test. When Friedrich Wöhler worked on complex cyanogen compounds in 1822, Gmelin assisted him and discovered the "Red prussiate".  From 1833 to 1838 Gmelin owned a paper mill in the north of Heidelberg situated Schriesheim, he had taken it over in the hope of profit. However, the work in the mill showed to be very time- and money-consuming and at the expense of his academic activity.  In 1817 the first volume of Gmelins Handbook of Chemistry was published. Till 1843 it was grown in the fourth edition up to 9 volumes. In this edition Gmelin included the Atomtheory and devoted much more space to the increasingly important organic chemistry. The terms Ester and Ketone were introduced by Gmelin. Until his death Gmelin worked on the fifth edition of the handbook, which he has made himself worthy of the chemical information and documentation. He also established the basis for the Gmelin system, which later was named after him, for unambiguous classification of inorganic substances.  At the age of 60 Gmelin suffered a first stroke, another in August 1850. In both strokes the right half of his body was hit, he was able to recover from the paralysis, but remained debilitated. In the spring of 1851 Gmelin applied for his retirement, which was granted him a few months later. In the two following years he suffered increasingly from the effects of a brain illness, at nearly 65 years Leopold Gmelin died on 13 April 1853 in Heidelberg and was buried at the Mountain Cemetery in Heidelberg. The grave complex is located in the department E. There also rests his wife Luise Gmelin and more family members.

Work.

In his works Leopold Gmelin dealt with physiology, mineralogy and chemistry. His experimental work was marked by his very thorough and comprehensive way of working; also some writing talent is attributed to him.  Gmelin's first physiological work was his dissertation on the black pigment of oxen's and calves' eyes, whose "coloring principle" he tried to fathom. Despite the simplest chemical means he could describe the properties of the pigment and recognized the carbon rightly as the cause of staining. Gmelin's most important physiological work was the 1826 released "digestion by experiments", which he made together with Friedrich Tiedemann. The work, which also described many new working techniques, contained groundbreaking insights into the gastric juice, in which they found hydrochloric acid, and bile, in which Gmelin and Tiedemann among others discovered cholesterol and taurine. Introduced by Gmelin, Gmelin's test enabled the detection of bile constituents in the urine of people suffering from jaundice. Furthermore, Gmelin and Tiedemann delivered a new, more refined view of the absorption of nutrients through the gastrointestinal tract; they were the founders of modern physiology.  The mineralogical works of Gmelin were analyses of various minerals, such as the Hauyne with which he made his habilitation in Göttingen, or the Laumontite and the Cordierite. In addition, Gmelin also analysed mineral waters and in 1825 published the work "try of a new chemical mineral system", since he knew that the time's usual division on outer or physical characteristics was inadequate. Leopold Gmelin's mineral system was taken largely critical among experts, but the basic idea of an order based on the chemical composition proved to be useful.  Gmelin released the "Handbook of theoretical chemistry", which was continued as the "Gmelin Handbook of Inorganic Chemistry" until 1997 in about 800 volumes by the Gmelin Institute, and it is continued by the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker as a database. The manual, even during his lifetime his most important work, was initially intended to be a textbook, which should unite the whole chemical knowledge at that time. Due to the enormous increase in knowledge and the associated development of the handbook into a reference book, Gmelin published a compact textbook of chemistry in 1844. His chemical achievements include the discovery of the Croconic acid; he thus had synthesised the first cyclic organic compound, and the previously mentioned discovery of the red prussiate.  Leopold Gmelin besides also developed a forerunner of the Periodic table and improved chemical equipment.

Leopold Gmelin (2 August 1788 – 13 April 1853) was a German chemist. Gmelin was professor at the University of Heidelberg among other things, he worked on the red prussiate and created Gmelin's test.


Prehistory and antiquity.

After the glaciers of the Vistula Glacial Stage retreated from Pomerania during the Allerød oscillation, a warming period that falls within the Early Stone Age, they left a tundra. First humans appeared, hunting reindeer in the summer. A climate change in 8000 BC allowed hunters and foragers of the Maglemosian culture, and from 6000 BC of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture, to continuously inhabit the area. These people became influenced by farmers of the Linear Pottery culture who settled in southern Pomerania. The hunters of the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture became farmers of the Funnelbeaker culture in 3000 BC. The Havelland culture dominated in the Uckermark from 2500 to 2000 BC. In 2400 BC, the Corded Ware culture reached Pomerania and introduced the domestic horse. Both Linear Pottery and Corded Ware culture have been associated with Indo-Europeans. Except for Western Pomerania, the Funnelbeaker culture was replaced by the Globular Amphora culture a thousand years later.  During the Bronze Age, Western Pomerania was part of the Nordic Bronze Age cultures, while east of the Oder the Lusatian culture dominated. Throughout the Iron Age, the people of the western Pomeranian areas belonged to the Jastorf culture, while the Lusatian culture of the East was succeeded by the Pomeranian culture, then in 150 BC by the Oxhöft (Oksywie) culture, and at the beginning of the first millennium by the Willenberg (Wielbark) Culture.  While the Jastorf culture is usually associated with Germanic peoples, the ethnic category of the Lusatian culture and its successors is debated. Veneti, Germanic peoples (Goths, Rugians, and Gepids) and possibly Slavs are assumed to have been the bearers of these cultures or parts thereof.  Beginning in the 3rd century, many settlements were abandoned, marking the beginning of the Migration Period in Pomerania. It is assumed that Burgundians, Goths and Gepids with parts of the Rugians left Pomerania during that stage, while some Veneti, Vidivarii and other, Germanic groups remained, and formed the Gustow, Debczyn and late Willenberg cultures, which existed in Pomerania until the 6th century.

Early Middle Ages.

The southward movement of Germanic tribes and Veneti during the Migration Period had left Pomerania largely depopulated by the 7th century. Between 650 and 850 AD, West Slavic tribes settled in Pomerania. These tribes were collectively known as "Pomeranians" between the Oder and Vistula rivers, or as "Veleti" (later "Liuticians") west of the Oder. A distinct tribe, the Rani, was based on the island of Rügen and the adjacent mainland. In the 8th and 9th centuries, Slavic-Scandinavian emporia were set up along the coastline as powerful centres of craft and trade.  In 936, the Holy Roman Empire set up the Billung and Northern marches in Western Pomerania, divided by the Peene. The Liutician federation, in an uprising of 983, managed to regain independence, but broke apart in the course of the 11th century because of internal conflicts. Meanwhile, Polish Piasts managed to acquire parts of eastern Pomerania during the late 960s, where the Diocese of Kołobrzeg was installed in 1000 AD. The Pomeranians regained independence during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005.  During the first half of the 11th century, the Liuticians participated in the Holy Roman Empire's wars against Piast Poland. The alliance broke off when Poland was defeated, and the Liutician federation broke apart in 1057 during a civil war. The Liutician capital was destroyed by the Germans in 1068/69, making way for the subsequent eastward expansion of their western neighbour, the Obodrite state. In 1093, the Luticians, Pomeranians and Rani had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.

High Middle Ages.

The early 12th century, Obodrite, Polish, Saxon, and Danish conquests resulted in vassalage and Christianization of the formerly pagan and independent Pomeranian tribes. Local dynasties ruled the Principality of Rügen (House of Wizlaw), the Duchy of Pomerania (House of Pomerania), the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the House of Pomerania), and the duchies in Pomerelia (Samborides). Monasteries were founded at Grobe, Kolbatz, Gramzow, and Belbuck which supported Pomerania's Christianization and advanced German settlements.  The dukes of Pomerania expanded their realm into Circipania and Uckermark to the Southwest, and competed with the Margraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of her territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp, which changed hands numerous times.  Throughout the High Middle Ages, a large influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, and Low German language turned the area west of the Oder into a German one (Ostsiedlung). The Wends, who during the Early Middle Ages had belonged to the Slavic Rani, Lutician and Pomeranian tribes, were assimilated by the German Pomeranians. To the east of the Oder these development occurred later; in the area from Szczecin eastward, the number of German settlers in the 12th century was still insignificant. The Kashubians descendants of Slavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas in Pomerelia.  The conversion of Pomerania to Christianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts of Absalon and Otto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and by the assimilatory power of the Christian settlers. A Pomeranian diocese was set up in Wolin, the see was later moved to Cammin.

Late Middle Ages.

The towns of the Hanseatic League were acting as quasi autonomous political and military entities. The Duchy of Pomerania gained the Principality of Rugia after two wars with Mecklenburg, the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp and the Lauenburg and Bütow Land. Pomerelia was integrated into the Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights after the Teutonic takeover of Danzig in 1308, and became a part of Royal Prussia in 1466.  The Duchy of Pomerania was internally fragmented into Pomerania-Wolgast, -Stettin, -Barth, and -Stolp. The dukes were in continuous warfare with the Margraviate of Brandenburg due to Uckermark and Neumark border disputes and disputes over formal overlordship of Pomerania.  In 1478, the duchy was reunited under the rule of Bogislaw X, when most of the other dukes had died of the plague.

Early Modern Age.

Throughout this time, Pomerelia was within Royal Prussia, a part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with considerable autonomy. In the late 18th century, it became a part of Prussia.  The Duchy of Pomerania was fragmented into Pomerania-Stettin (Farther Pomerania) and Pomerania-Wolgast (Western Pomerania) in 1532, underwent Protestant Reformation in 1534, and was even further fragmented in 1569. In 1627, the Thirty Years' War reached the duchy. Since the Treaty of Stettin (1630), it was under Swedish control. In the midst of the war, the last duke Bogislaw XIV died without an issue. Garrison, plunder, numerous battles, famine and diseases left two thirds of the population dead and most of the country ravaged. In the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, the Swedish Empire and Brandenburg-Prussia agreed on a partition of the duchy, which came into effect after the Treaty of Stettin (1653). Western Pomerania became Swedish Pomerania, a Swedish dominion, while Farther Pomerania became a Brandenburg-Prussian province.  A series of wars affected Pomerania in the following centuries. As a consequence, most of the formerly free peasants became serfs of the nobles. Brandenburg-Prussia was able to integrate southern Swedish Pomerania into her Pomeranian province during the Great Northern War, which was confirmed in the Treaty of Stockholm in 1720. In the 18th century, Prussia rebuild and colonised her war-torn Pomeranian province.

Modern Age.

From the Napoleonic Wars to World War I, Pomerania was administered by the Kingdom of Prussia as the Province of Pomerania (Western and Farther Pomerania) and West Prussia (Pomerelia).  The Province of Pomerania was created from the Province of Pomerania (1653–1815) (Farther Pomerania and southern Vorpommern) and Swedish Pomerania (northern Vorpommern), and the districts of Schivelbein and Dramburg, formerly belonging to the Neumark. While in the Kingdom of Prussia, the province was heavily influenced by the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg and Otto von Bismarck. The industrial revolution had an impact primarily on the Stettin area and the infrastructure, while most of the province retained a rural and agricultural character. Since 1850, the net migration rate was negative, Pomeranians emigrated primarily to Berlin, the West German industrial regions and overseas. Also, more than 100,000 Kashubian Poles emigrated from Pomerania between 1855 and 1900, for economic and social reasons, in what is called the Kashubian diaspora. In areas where Polish population lived along with Germans a virtual apartheid existed, with bans on Polish language and religious discrimination, besides attempts to colonize the areas with Germans Prussian Settlement Commission introduced 154,000 German colonists before World War I, which were also located in Pomerania.  After the First World War, the Pomeranian Voivodeship of the Second Polish Republic was established from the bulk of West Prussia. Poland became a democracy and introduced women's right to vote already in 1918  The German minority in Poland moved in large numbers to Germany, mostly on free will and due to their economic situation Poland build a large Baltic port at the site of the former village Gdynia. The Danzig (Gdańsk) area became the city state Free City of Danzig.  In the Province of Pomerania, that after the Kaiser's abdication was part of the Free State of Prussia within the Weimar Republic, democracy and the women's right to vote were introduced. The economic situation worsened due to the consequences of World War I and worldwide recession. As in the Kingdom of Prussia before, Pomerania was a stronghold of the nationalistic and anti-SemiticDNVP also in the Weimar Republic. The government of the state of Prussia, of which Pomerania was a province, was between 1920 and 1932 led by the Social Democrats, Otto Braun being Prussian minister-president almost continuously during this time. In contrast to its pre-war authoritarianism, Prussia was a pillar of democracy in the Weimar Republic.

Nazi era.

In 1933, the Province of Pomerania like all of Germany came under control of the Nazi regime. During the following years, the Nazis led by Gauleiter Franz Schwede-Coburg manifested their power by Gleichschaltung and repression of their opponents. Pomerelia then formed the Polish Corridor of the Second Polish Republic. Concerning Pomerania, Nazi diplomacy aimed at incorporation of the Free City of Danzig and a transit route through the corridor, which was rejected by the Polish government.  In 1939, the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland. Inhabitants of the region from all ethnic backgrounds were subject to numerous atrocities by Nazi Germany forces, of which the most affected were Polish and Jewish civilians. Pomerelia was made part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia. The Nazis set up concentration camps, ethnically cleansed Poles and Jews, and systematically exterminated Poles, Roma and the Jews. In Pomerania Albert Forster was directly responsible for extermination of non-Germans in Danzig-West Prussia. He personally believed in the need to engage in genocide of Poles and stated that "We have to exterminate this nation, starting from the cradle" and declared that Poles and Jews were not human.  Around 70 camps were set up for Polish populations in Pomerania where they were subjected to murder, torture and in case of women and girls, rape before executions Between 10 and 15 September Forster organised a meeting of top Nazi officials in his region and ordered the immediate removal of all "dangerous" Poles, all Jews and Polish clergy In some cases Forster ordered executions himself. On 19 October he reprimanded Nazi officials in the city of Grudziadz for not "spilling enough Polish blood"

Communist era and recent history.

In 1945, Pomerania was taken by the Red Army and Polish Armed Forces in the East during the East Pomeranian Offensive and the Battle of Berlin. After the post-war border changes, the German population that had not yet fled was expelled from what in Poland was propagated to be recovered territory. The area east of the Oder and the Szczecin (former Stettin) area was resettled primarily with Poles, who themselves were expelled from Eastern Poland that was re-attached to the USSR. Most of the German cultural heritage of the region was destroyed. Most of Western Pomerania stayed with Germany and was merged into Mecklenburg.  With the consolidation of Communism in East Germany and Poland, Pomerania was part of the Eastern Bloc. In the 1980s, the Solidarnosc movement in Gdańsk (Danzig) and the Wende movement in East Germany forced the Communists out of power and led to the establishment of democracy in both the Polish and German part of Pomerania.

Further reading.

English:  German and Polish:  Polish:  German:

The history of Pomerania starts shortly before 1000 AD with ongoing conquests by newly arrived Polans rulers. Before that the area was recorded nearly 2000 years ago as Germania, and in modern-day times Pomerania is split between Germany and Poland. The name "Pomerania" comes from the Slavic "po more", which means "Land at the Sea".


History.

In 1999, Brooks and his production company Red Strokes Entertainment, with Paramount Pictures, began to develop a movie in which Brooks would star. "The Lamb" was to have revolved around Chris Gaines, a fictional rock singer and his emotionally conflicted life as a musician in the public eye. To create buzz for the project, Brooks took on the identity of Gaines in the October 1999 album "Garth Brooks in... The Life of Chris Gaines", which was intended as a "pre-soundtrack" to the film. The project – a departure from Brooks' usual material – was intended to represent the "greatest hits" of Gaines' entire career, spanning several decades of supposed recordings. Although Brooks himself developed the Gaines character and backstory, he did not write any of the songs on the album.  To promote the album's release, Brooks appeared as Gaines in a television "mockumentary" for the VH1 series "Behind the Music" and as the musical guest on an episode of "Saturday Night Live", which he hosted as himself.  The album – and Brooks' promotion of it – received a lukewarm reception. The album received mixed reviews, and Brooks' fans responded with general confusion as to the purpose of the project. Although the album made it to No. 2 on the "Billboard" 200, expectations had been higher and retail stores began heavily discounting their oversupply. Less than expected sales of the album (more than two million) and no further developments in the production of the film as a result brought the project to an indefinite hiatus in February 2001, and the Gaines character quickly faded into obscurity.  Despite the less than spectacular response to the project, Brooks gained his first – and, to date, only – Billboard Hot 100 Top 40 single with "Lost in You", the first single from the album. Critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic speculated that the alternate persona and elaborate marketing scheme backfired, writing, "When Brooks' new persona and his album were revealed to the public, they were unforgiving – they didn't think he was playing a role, they simply thought he'd lost his mind." However, Erlewine gave the album a 3-out-of-5 stars rating and in the same review later wrote: "Judged as Brooks' first pop album, it's pretty good, and if it had been released that way, it likely would have been embraced by a wide audience."

Chris Gaines was a one-off fictional rock persona created as an alter ego for Garth Brooks to explore musical styles far removed from his success as a country singer.