History.

Pakistan and Germany have enjoyed warm friendly relations since the establishment of their diplomatic ties in 1951. Pakistan was one of the first Asian countries to establish relations with Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany). These relations are based on shared values of democracy, pluralism, respect for human rights, cultural and religious diversity and economic liberalism. Ever since their inception in 1951, Pakistan-Germany relations have been on an upward trajectory.

Relations during cold war:1950s–1990s.

The bilateral relationships were succeeded by historical relations in the 1940s, during the British Raj, and finally restored in the 1950s after the establishment of both the countries in the late 1940s. Both, West and East Germany had tilted toward forming alliance with India in the 1950s.  Although Pakistan's relations with West-Germany was relatively healthy and based on mutual cooperation; the relations with East-Germany was deteriorated. In contrast, East-Germany maintained strong relations with East-Pakistan in the 1950s.  In 1961, President Ayub Khan paid a first state visit to West Germany, meeting with German president Heinrich Lübke and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer. During this time, Germany partnered with Pakistan to launched industrial development program; hence becoming one of the first economic partner of Germany.  In the 1960s, West Germany started a prolonged and heavy industrial programmes to aid Pakistan in its industrialization growth. West Germany idealized Pakistan as "an example of successful development policy in the developing country.". Although, Germany retained neutrality policy during the 1971 war of India and Pakistan; East Germany became the third country in the world, and the first country in Europe, to officially recognized Bangladesh in 1972 after its succeeded independence in 1971. In the 1970s, Pakistan normalized its relations with East-Germany and Soviet bloc.

Cultural Relations.

Since they established diplomatic relations, Germany and Pakistan have both enjoyed extremely closed and cordial relationships. Before the re-unification of Germany, Pakistan maintained warm and cordial relationships with both East-Germany and West-Germany. Germany is home to 35,081 Pakistani immigrants and around more than 1200 Germans currently reside in Pakistan, mostly residing in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Germany maintains a healthy diplomatic presence in the country, with an embassy in Islamabad, a consulate in Karachi and honorary-consulates in Lahore, Peshawar, and Quetta. Germany also is one of the countries playing a vital and influential role in Pakistan's current political events, others being Saudi Arabia, China, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

Archaeology.

German archaeologists have been active in Pakistan for decades. Since 1979, for example, the project Rock Carvings and Inscriptions along the Karakorum Highway has been conducted with the support of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. German researchers regularly travel to Gilgit-Baltistan as part of this project.  For a number of years, the Federal Foreign Office has been funding cultural preservation projects in Pakistan. The main projects in recent years include the restoration of the Lahore Fort frescoes and a historical Amburiq Mosque in Gulabpur, Baltistan. In 2010 and 2011, the Federal Foreign Office provided funding to renovate and restore traditional residential buildings in Lahore's historical Old City in cooperation with the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF). The two projects received the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Award for Cultural Heritage Conservation in 2010 and 2014, respectively. Since 2017, a project has been underway to restore part of the Lahore Fort frescoes – also in cooperation with the AKF. This project is scheduled to continue through 2018.

Goethe-Institut.

The main institution promoting bilateral cultural relations is the Goethe-Institut in Karachi. In the building housing the Goethe-Institut, which is from the Bauhaus era and classified as an historical monument, numerous cultural events are held in addition to the language courses. Another institution active in cultural cooperation is the Goethe-Institut-affiliated Annemarie Schimmel House in Lahore, which also offers language courses and a cultural programme.

Broadcasting.

There has long been close cooperation in training between German broadcaster Deutsche Welle (DW) and the Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC). Deutsche Welle has its own office in Islamabad.

Diplomatic Relations.

Pak-Germany Strategic Dialogue.

In January 2011, Germany and Pakistan agreed on initiating Pak-Germany Strategic Dialogue on yearly basis to enhance defense, economy, education, energy, investment and infrastructure. Four rounds of Strategic Dialogue have taken place with last one in November 2018, at Islamabad.

Economic Relations.

Pakistan was one of the first countries with which Germany began development cooperation. The German-Pakistan development partnership was launched in 1961, the year the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) was founded.  In 1963, the Ayub Khan-led government gave $25 million (Compensating for Inflation, that would be more than $250 million in 2018.) loan to Germany(West Germany) for a period of 20 years.  With trade investment exceeding € 2.3 billion. Germany is now Pakistan's fourth largest trade partner.  Germany has provided a total of around 3 billion euros to Pakistan since 1961. That makes Germany the fourth largest bilateral donor.  German multinational companies based in Karachi are:  The following bilateral agreements are in place between Germany and The following bilateral agreements are in place between Germany and Pakistan:  In the 1990s, Germany and Pakistan sought a business alliance, known as the Pakistan German Business Forum. It was formed in 1997 with the humble initiatives of the German ambassador to Pakistan. Commercial trade between Islamabad and Berlin has also been very essential in recent years, as Germany is Pakistan's fourth largest trade partner. In 2000, Germany became one of Pakistan's most important allies surrounding the war in North-West Pakistan between Pakistan and the Taliban. In recent years, the Germany—Pakistan trade and science relations have developed greatly with Germany investing in and trading with Pakistan. Germany is actively involved in Pakistan's socio-economic development and is an active member of the Friends of Democratic Pakistan Forum.  Pakistan and Germany also enjoy good economic relations. Germany is the sixth largest importer of Pakistan goods. Pakistan's main exports to Germany are textiles and leather goods, while Germany's main exports to Pakistan are machinery and chemical products. Furthermore, around 30 German companies are operating in Pakistan – not only large firms but also small and medium-sized enterprises.  On August, 2014 German Ambassador in Pakistan Dr Cyrill Nunn informed Finance Minister Senator Ishaq Dar in order to foster economic energies German businessmen were launching ‘Pakistan Gate’ in Berlin on August 24, 2014 which would provide business contacts between the two countries.

China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC).

In November 2018, Pakistan proposed China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) partnership to Germany. Pakistan offered German companies to invest in the Special Economic Zones (SEZs) of CPEC, the landmark framework of regional connectivity seen as a game-changer for the region.

Business.

Pakistan German Business Forum (PGBF).

In 1997, the Pakistan German Business Forum (PGBF) was founded. Since then it has been engaged in becoming a central instrument for the promotion and expansion of bilateral economic relations between Germany and Pakistan.

In 2014, Pakistan was included in the European Union's Generalized System of Preferences (GSP+). This gives Pakistan's export sector better access to the European market for various products, in particular textiles. Within the EU, Germany had spoken in favour of admitting Pakistan to the system.

Energy.

Germany has been supporting Pakistan in energy sector for decades. Germany has helped to build a whole generation of hydro-electric power plants by providing reduced-interest loans. Further plants are either already under construction or are in the planning stage.  German commitment in Pakistan in recent years has already brought sustainable results in the development of hydropower. German expertise is widely recognised in the country. German bank KfW co-funded both Pakistan's hydropower projects Tarbela Dam and Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project. Together with European partners, KfW is currently involved in the construction of another two hydropower plants. Thanks to many years of solid cooperation, KfW can also influence the structures of the Pakistani energy supply system. It played an instrumental role in instigating a reorganisation of the state-run energy utility WAPDA.

In November 2014, the German and Pakistan governments concluded an agreement to create a Pakistan-German Renewable Energy Forum (PGREF). The Forum is to be launched in Lahore in 2016. It will serve as a point of contact in Pakistan for the German energy sector, for associations and for non-governmental organisations. In the longer term, it is to provide training and information and facilitate cooperation between partners from Germany and Pakistan.

Education Relations.

Germany is one of the most popular study destinations for young Pakistanis. Germany and Pakistan have 32 cooperation arrangements between German and Pakistan universities. Every year, hundreds of Pakistanis go to Germany and thus to the heart of Europe to study or to do their doctorate. In 2018 there are currently 4100 Pakistan students and doctoral candidates living in Germany.  The academic cooperation and research exchange dates back to the 1930s, when many scientists (who opted to join Pakistan) worked with Germany. In 1960, following the start of the German—Pakistan cooperation, the world acclaimed Institute of Physics (IoP) was built at the University of Islamabad. Germany also sent its scientists to interact with Pakistan's scientists, contributing to the rise of physics in Pakistan. Germany also helped Pakistan to participate in CERN projects and supported Pakistan in numerous occasions for Pakistan's observant status in CERN. Germany also allowed hundreds of Pakistan's physicists and mathematicians to conduct their research in DESY. Ayub Khan, then-Chief Martial Law Administrator, built strategic ties with East and West Germany.  in 1907, Pakistan's intellectual father Muhammad Iqbal spent several months studying in Germany: in Heidelberg, the national poet learned German and studied philosophy as well as literature. His poem “Darye Naika Ke Kinare Par” (Greeting to the Neckar) as well as a commemorative plaque in this popular German university town are reminders of his time there. “My stay in Heidelberg was like a beautiful dream”, stated Iqbal.

Vocational Training.

Germany is helping Pakistan to fundamentally reform its vocational training system in cooperation with the Netherlands, Norway and the EU. German Corporation for International Cooperation (GIZ) has been commissioned by the German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) to advise Pakistan's National Vocational and Technical Training Commission and vocational training agencies at provincial level on how vocational training can be better aligned with the needs of the labour market. More than 100 vocational careers advice and job centres have been established throughout the country. Uniform standards and material for examinations have been developed for nearly 60 vocational profiles in agriculture, energy and services; 87,000 young people have completed a training programme; 4,000 vocational training instructors have already been trained, with at least that many set to receive training in the near future.

Germany-Pakistan Training Initiative (GPATI).

In June 2013, 13 German multinational and Pakistani national companies on Thursday formally launched the Germany-Pakistan Training Initiative (GPATI), a new skills development project aiming at equipping young Pakistani men and women with employable skills.

Political Relations.

The Friedrich Ebert Foundation, the Friedrich Naumann Foundation, the Heinrich Böll Foundation, the Hanns Seidel Foundation and the Konrad Adenauer Foundation have all seconded staff to Pakistan and run their own offices there, and in some cases have done so for decades. They support projects in areas including the strengthening of democratic institutions, human rights and the advancement of women, climate change, deradicalisation, regional cooperation and the media.

Rescue & Relief Work.

To mitigate the effects of the flood disaster in Pakistan in late summer 2014, the German Government provided a total of more than 6 million euros in assistance. In 2015 and 2016, the total amount of the federal budgetary allocations for humanitarian aid projects in Pakistan exceeded 11 million euros. The relief measures are implemented by German non-governmental organisations and international organisations such as the United Nations Refugee Agency and the World Food Programme.

Security Relations.

During the 1970s, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto took extensive initiatives to strengthen Pakistan's ties with Germany. Under Bhutto, the military academies of each country signed a strategic and military training pact. German military officials and cadets frequently visit the Pakistan military academy and Pakistanis visit Germany in return. In the 1980s, the Germany—Pakistan relations saw a military alliance and supported each other while running clandestine operations against the Soviet Union's presence in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.  The Pakistani Chief of Army Staff General Raheel Sharif visited Germany on the invitation of his counterpart German Inspector of the Army Lieutenant General Jörg Vollmer, from 19 June to 22 June 2016. On arrival at the Ministry of Defence, a contingent of German Army presented Guard of Honor to COAS followed by wreath-laying at Ministry of Defence War Memorial. Besides holding meeting with his German counterpart, the COAS also had detailed meetings with German Minister of Defence Ursula von der Leyen and German Foreign Minister.

Perception on relations.

In 2012, the relations had been down and cooled when Pakistan's police detained three alleged German intelligence agents near the Afghan border. All three agents were interrogated by the FIA agents before being deported from the country with "Persona non grata" after Germany loaded a protest. In March 2013, German media reported that German intelligence agencies arrested an alleged Pakistani agent working on obtained sensitive data information on drones; no other details were provided.

References.

German–Pakistani relations ( ) are the diplomatic and bilateral relations between Germany and Pakistan. Succeeded by the historical British Raj strong ties in the 1910s–40s, the relations were fully established in the 1950s, which were primarily based on mutual friendship, cultural, and mutual cooperation in social, education, and economic developments. Relations with Pakistan were first established by West-Germany and later on by East Germany with East-Pakistan, also in the 1950s.


Career.

Kalpana began her career as a child artist in the film "Vidarunna Mottukal". After making her debut as a mainstream actor in the 1980 film "Pokkuveyil", directed by G. Aravindan, she went on to star in several critically acclaimed films and her portrayals as a comedian were appreciated by critics. Her Tamil debut was through the 1985 released successful film "Chinna Veedu", opposite K. Bhagyaraj. Her other memorable films include "Sathi Leelavathi" (1995) and "Kaliveedu" (1996). She performed in a music album with Usha Uthup. She has published her memoirs, "Njan Kalpana". Kalpana has sung a song in the movie "Kudumbakodathi", along with K.S. Chithra, in which she appeared as a Telugu speaking character. She had an inevitable presence in stage shows. She was the chairperson of "Janaseva Shishu Bhavan" and assistant chairperson of "Street Birds" and a strong promoter of "Kudumbasree".She was the brand ambassador of "Leo Natura".

Personal life.

Kalpana was born to theater artists Chavara V.P. Nair and Vijayalakshmi. Actresses Kalaranjini and Urvashi are her sisters. She married Malayalam film director Anil Kumar in 1998 and got divorced in 2012. They have one daughter, Sreemayi Anil.

Death.

Kalpana went to Hyderabad for the shooting of the movie "Oopiri". On 25 January 2016, she was found unconscious in her hotel room by a roomboy who knocked the door around several times, but it didn't open. He forcefully opened the door and found her unconscious. She was immediately taken to the hospital by the crew members, but died on the way. Doctors confirmed that she died of heart attack. Postmortem was conducted and her body was flown to her native place on 26 January 2016. The funeral took place on the same day.

Television.

Kalpana hosted several talk shows and interviews on Malayalam TV Channels. She frequently appeared as Judge in Asianet's Comedy Reality show "Vodafone Comedy Stars". Kalpana's last talk show was also on Asianet. It was telecasted a few days before her demise. She has appeared in many advertisements also including "Mega Water Tank", "Nana", "Raidco Family Products", "Karunya Lottery Ticket", "Kerala Samsthana Saksharatha Mission" etc.

Kalpana Priyadarshini (13 October 1965 – 25 January 2016), better known mononymously as Kalpana, was an Indian film actress who has appeared in South Indian films, predominantly in Malayalam and Tamil films. Kalpana has acted in over 300 films in various South Indian languages.


History.

The name "Day's Lock" comes from the Day family, local Catholic yeomen since the 17th century. During the 16th century, there was a flash lock here. The pound lock was staked out in August 1788. It was judged best to build it on the Oxfordshire bank provided the existing weir owner would "remove his bucks"(eel traps). In 1865 it was reported to be in utter ruin and dangerous, but reconstruction did not take place until 1871. In 1882 a bell push to summon the keeper was installed, there being no lock keeper's house at that time. The lock house was not built until 1928 when it was erected on Lock House Island next to Little Wittenham Bridge.

Access to the lock.

A short way downstream of the lock is Little Wittenham Bridge which spans the river in two sections with an island between. Using this, the lock is a short walk from Little Wittenham where is a car park near St Peter's Church. The lock is a little further to walk to from Dorchester.

Reach above the lock.

On the eastern bank to the north-east is the historic town of Dorchester with its ancient Abbey. The river follows a long bend round to Clifton Hampden. Here it goes under Clifton Hampden Bridge and past the historic Barley Mow public house, as mentioned in the book, "Three Men in a Boat". After the bridge and before Clifton lock, the river divides between the old river course, past Long Wittenham; with the navigation following the Clifton Cut. The river meander is now a weirstream and has almost no public footpath access.  The Thames Path follows the western/southern bank to Clifton Hampden Bridge, where it crosses to the opposite northern bank to continue to Clifton Lock.  There are navigation transit markers upstream of the lock to allow boats to check their speed. A powered boat should take more than one minute to pass between the markers.

Day's Lock is a lock on the River Thames near Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, England on the Dorchester side of the river.


Series overview.

Following open auditions held between October to December 2015, including an additional one on 10 January 2016, the Judges' auditions took place between January and February 2016, within Liverpool, Birmingham, and London. There were no major incidents amongst the judging panel that forced them to be absent, although Simon Cowell arrived late for the London auditions on 23 January - David Walliams's mother, Kathleen Williams, who was attending these, stood in for him for a number of auditions until he arrived.  Of the participants that took part, only forty-five made it into the five live semi-finals - of these acts, singer Beau Dermott, gospel choir 100 Voices of Gospel, singer Jasmine Elcock, singing duo Anne & Ian Marshall, and dance troupe Boogie Storm, each received a golden buzzer during their auditions - with nine appearing in each one, and twelve of these acts making it into the live final; the Judges' Wildcard was dancing duo Shannon & Peter, who lost the Judges' vote in the second semi-final, while the Public Wildcard was dog act Trip Hazard, who lost the Judges' vote in the final semi-final.  The following below lists the results of each participant's overall performance in this series:

Semi-finals summary.

Semi-final 1 (22 May).

Guest Performers, Results Show: Cast of "" ("I Want You Back" / "The Love You Save" / "Get Ready" / "Dancing in the Street")

Semi-final 2 (23 May).

Guest Performers, Results Show: OneRepublic ("Wherever I Go")

Semi-final 3 (24 May).

Guest Performer, Results Show: Nick Jonas ("Jealous" / "Close")

Semi-final 4 (25 May).

Guest Performers, Results Show: Jules, Matisse & Friends

Semi-final 5 (26 May).

Guest Performers, Results Show: Fifth Harmony ("Work from Home")

Final (28 May).

Guest Performers, Results Show: Katherine Jenkins ("Land of Hope and Glory" / "Rule, Britannia!"), Clean Bandit & Louisa Johnson ("Tears"), Jamie Raven, Attraction, Diversity, Ashleigh and Pudsey, Kieran Gaffney, George Sampson, Old Men Grooving, Jon Clegg, Stavros Flatley, Collabro and Spelbound

Ratings.

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Controversies.

"Puppies Got Talent" stunt  Production staff faced criticism during the tenth series from Simon Cowell, for the use of dalmatian puppies for a segment that was aired as a live episode of "Britain's Got More Talent". Staff had designed the segment to involve the sister show's host Stephen Mulhern holding a quiz with the judges, asking them questions and awarding them a puppy for each correct answer they gave. Because of his work in charities that fought against animal cruelty, Cowell became concerned over the welfare of the animals, forcing him to use a commercial break to speak with the owner of the puppies. Although no official investigation was launched behind the stunt, Mulhern was forced to apologise for the use of the stunt, while Cowell made it clear to the producers that such a stunt would not be repeated on the programme in the future.

The tenth series of Britain's Got Talent, a British talent competition series, began broadcasting in the UK during 2016, from 9 April to 28 May on ITV. To celebrate ten years of the show, the final featured a special performance entitled "Best of Britain’s Got Talent", which featured several partipicants who had appeared on the show during the previous nine series, including Ashleigh and Pudsey, Attraction, Diversity, Jon Clegg, Stavros Flatley, Collabro and Spelbound. It was the last series to have its live episodes broadcast at The Fountain Studios, before its closure after the series had ended.


Biography.

Born in March 1973, Bergvall grew up in the suburbs of Stockholm. His formal education included the film program at Södra Latin Gymnasium in Stockholm, Sweden, as well as Kulturama's program for film studies, also in Stockholm.  Bergvall got his start in television news and documentary work, working professionally as a cinematographer and editor even before graduating high school. After freelancing for local and national TV networks, he transitioned to international work as a documentary filmmaker and producer in the 1990s, working on assignment from numerous European networks in Israel, the Palestinian territories, Afghanistan, Bosnia, Croatia, and other hotspots.  Bergvall followed this documentary stint with more scripted television work, winning numerous awards for writing, cinematography, editing, and overall production in the corporate and commercial world, most notably through the Golden Slate Awards (a.k.a. Guldklappan).  In 1997, Bergvall partnered with Simon Sandquist to produce and direct the short film "Victor". Bergvall's first effort for the big screen afforded him numerous accolades, including a 1999 Academy Award nomination.  In 2002, Bergvall and Sandquist partnered again to direct the theatrical feature "Den osynlige" (a.k.a. The Invisible). The film received awards and accolades in eight international festivals. It was also sold to Spyglass and in partnership with Disney became the first film in a wave of English-language remakes of Swedish films, "The Invisible".  Bergvall has since been attached to several high-profile projects at various Hollywood studios, including Fear Itself at Intermedia, Books of Magic at Warner Brothers, The Imagined at Fox, Trap Door at New Line Cinema, and more.  Bergvall's first English language feature was "Possession" (a.k.a. "Addicted"), produced by Vertigo and Spitfire Entertainment, released by Yari Film Group and 20th Century Fox, and starring Sarah Michelle Gellar.  As a writer, Bergvall also adapted, with Sandquist, the British novel series "Tunnels" by Roderick Gordon and Brian Williams for Relativity. In 2013 he partnered with Converge Studios and music producing duo Rock Mafia to create Fly or Die, a New Media TV show set in the world of music and initially released through BitTorrent.  Bergvall is currently leading the charge in the emerging field of StoryTech as Partner and Chief Story Officer with Shareability, the world's first true StoryTech company.

Joel Bergvall is a Swedish-born filmmaker known for his Academy Award nomination for the short film "Victor" (1999), the thriller "Den osynlige" (a.k.a. The Invisible, 2002) and screenplay adaption of "Tunnels", the British novel series by Roderick Gordon and Brian Williams.


Origins.

Þangbrandr's origins are uncertain. According to some sources, he was the son of an otherwise unknown Vilbaldus, count of Saxony or of Bremen. But he is also said to be Flemish. He may have been a clerk to the bishop of Bremen. However that may be, his name seems to be of German origin, and may come from Old High German "*Dankbrant".

Encounter with Óláfr.

The Bishop of Bremen was invited to England by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and Þangbrandr went with him. In England, Þangbrandr was offered a shield with a crucified Christ drawn on it. When they returned to Saxony they met Óláfr, who saw Þangbrandr's shield and was pleased with it. The Þangbrandr gave Óláfr the shield and, in return, the king promised to help and protect him in case he would need it.

Mission in Norway.

After fighting over a woman with one of the Emperor's men and killing him, Þangbrandr was forced to flee from the land. He joined Óláfr in England, who took him into his service. When Óláfr came back in Norway, Þangbrandr was put in charge of baptizing the people in Hordaland. But he soon fell short of money and began to rob those who were still pagans.

Mission in Iceland.

As a penance, Óláfr sent him to Iceland, where Þorvaldr Kodránsson and Stefnir Þórgilsson's missions had failed.  Þangbrandr's mission began in 997. He first succeeded in converting Sídu-Hallr Þorsteinsson. He travelled around the country and several other prominent Icelanders agreed to be baptized or at least to receive "prima signatio". But he had more opponents than followers. The difficulties he came up against are especially described in "Brennu-Njáls saga" in a "lively, although probably exaggerated" manner. He was challenged to a duel by Þorkell whom he defeated, although he carried a crucifix rather than a shield. Some of his enemies paid a sorcerer to get rid of him. The sorcerer made a sacrifice and the ground opened up under Þangbrandr. His horse was swallowed up but he escaped. The priest killed the skald Vetrliði Sumarliðason who had composed defamatory verses ("níð") about him. He also killed another skald, Þorvaldr veili, who had gathered a troop to slay him. Steinunn, Hofgarða-Refr's mother, preached the old faith to him, trying to demonstrate the superiority of Thor over Christ ("Hast thou heard," she said, "how Thor challenged Christ to single combat, and how he did not dare to fight with Thor?"). Þangbrandr then caused the death of a berserker. He was eventually outlawed because of the men he had killed.  After two years in Iceland, he went back to Norway and explained he had failed:  When Óláfr learned that, he got angry and threatened to hurt or kill all the pagan Icelanders who were in town at that time. But Gizurr the White Teitsson and Hjalti Skeggjason, who had been converted by Þangbrandr, talked him out of it. They explained that Þangbrandr had failed because he had proceeded with violence and murders and they committed themselves to preaching Christian faith in Iceland. The conversion of Iceland was eventually decided at the next "Alþing" (in 999 or 1000—see Christianisation of Iceland).

Þangbrandr was a missionary sent to Iceland by king of Norway Óláfr Tryggvason to convert the inhabitants to Christianity. Snorri Sturluson described him as follows:


Education.

Chang earned his bachelor's degree in civil engineering from National Taiwan University in 1976. In 1977, he finished his master's degree in civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University. In 1981, He received a doctoral degree in civil and environmental engineering from Cornell University.

Early career.

Upon graduation, Chang returned to Taiwan to serve as a lecturer, associate professor and finally, professor in the Department of Civil Engineering of National Taiwan University from 1981 to 1990. He was the Director for National Center for High-Performance Computing from 1991 to 1997. From 1998 to 2000, he was the Director of the Department of Planning and Evaluation of National Science Council. Between 2000 and 2010, he worked for Acer Inc. as Vice President of the e-Enabling Service Business Group, and between 2010 and 2012, he worked for Google as the Director of Google's hardware operations in Asia.

Political career.

Chang was appointed as a Minister without Portfolio of the Executive Yuan in 2012. On March 3, 2014, the National Science Council was upgraded to the Ministry of Science and Technology, and Chang served as its first minister. On December 8, 2014, at a reformation of the Executive Yuan after the ruling Kuomintang lost the local elections, Chang became the Vice Premier. On January 16, 2016 after the defeat of the KMT, President Ma appointed Chang as the Premier to serve the remain four months during the period of transition of power, Chang became the first nonpartisan Premier of the Republic of China.

2020 presidential campaign.

Chang announced his independent candidacy for the 2020 Taiwan presidential election on 17 February 2019. Chang later joined the presidential campaign of Kuomintang candidate Han Kuo-yu as an adviser without halting his own campaign. In August 2019, Han formed a national policy advisory group headed by Chang. Chang's selection as the Kuomintang's 2020 Taiwan presidential election vice presidential candidate was announced on 11 November 2019. ! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" rowspan= 2 colspan=2 | Party! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" colspan=2 | Candidate! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" rowspan= 2 | Votes! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:center;" rowspan= 2 colspan=2| Percentage! colspan="4" style="text-align:right;" |Total! style="text-align:right;" |14,300,940! style="text-align:right;" colspan=2|100%

Chang San-cheng or Simon Chang () (born 24 June 1954) is a Taiwan politician who was Premier of the Republic of China from 1 February 2016 until 20 May 2016, appointed by President Ma Ying-jeou. Before assuming the Premiership, he had served as Vice Premier from 8 December 2014. Chang is the first nonpartisan Premier of the Republic of China.


Mythology.

Melanthius provides the best goats of the herd for a feast for the suitors of Penelope. He serves the suitors at the dining table, pouring them wine or lighting a fire in the hall upon their order. He is apparently favored by many of them: Eurymachus is said to like him best of all, and he is allowed to have meals in the same dining hall with the suitors.  Odysseus, disguised as a beggar and accompanied by Eumaeus, encounters Melanthius on his way into town, by the fountain dedicated to the nymphs. Melanthius immediately taunts Odysseus and proceeds to kick him on the hip, unaware that he is really dishonoring his master, causing Odysseus to consider attacking him. Later, when Odysseus is brought in front of the suitors, Melanthius asserts that he knows nothing of the stranger and that Eumaeus alone is responsible for bringing him in. His speech results in the suitors' rebuking Eumaeus.  Early in the battle with the suitors, Eumaeus and Philoetius catch Melanthius trying to steal more weapons and armour for the suitors. On the orders of Odysseus, they bind him and string him up from the rafters, where he is mocked by Eumaeus. When the battle is won, Telemachus (the son of Odysseus), Eumaeus, and Philoetius hang the twelve unfaithful maidservants, which include Melanthius's sister, Melantho, before turning their attention to Melanthius. They take him to the inner court, chop off his nose and ears with a sword, pull off his genitals to feed to the dogs, and then, in their fury, chop off his hands and feet.

Melanthius (), the son of Dolius, is a minor, yet important character in Homer's "Odyssey": Odysseus's disloyal goatherd. In contrast, Odysseus's cowherd Philoetius and swineherd Eumaeus have both remained loyal to Odysseus during his twenty years of wanderings, as have Melanthius's father and six brothers.


Stenhousemuir.

McNair began his career at Stenhousemuir. He played at inside right and was a regular goalscorer, helping the club win the Scottish Qualifying Cup in 1901 and 1902. He also played in the Stenhousemuir team that reached the Scottish Cup semi-final in 1903, losing 4–1 to Rangers.

Celtic.

In May 1904, McNair signed for Celtic. He initially played in a variety of positions, but when right-back Donnie McLeod left in 1908, McNair made that position his own. He was an integral part of the Celtic side spearheaded by Jimmy Quinn that won six successive league championships from 1904–05 to 1909–10. McNair had exceptional positional sense and ability to anticipate his opponents' moves. He was a precise tackler and had confidence in his ability to dribble the ball out of his own penalty area rather than rashly boot it forward. He was a calm and composed personality, and his demeanour earned him the nickname 'The Icicle'. Willie Maley, the Celtic manager, described McNair as ""The coolest, most intelligent player I have ever seen."" In his 21 years at Celtic McNair played a total of 641 games for the club in major competitions, winning the league championship 12 times and the Scottish Cup six times. He played his last game on 18 April 1925, a 1–1 draw with Queen's Park. He was 41 years old and is the oldest player ever to play for Celtic. McNair's appearances, trophy and caps totals might have been even higher had it not been for the interruption of World War I when the League continued but the Cup and internationals were suspended, considering that his success at club level and selection for Scotland continued after the conflict.  He received a benefit match in 1921, in which a combined Rangers/Celtic team played against a Scottish League team (the league also selected Celtic players John McFarlane and Tully Craig, who scored all their team's goals in a 3–1 win).

Later years.

McNair became manager of Dundee in June 1925. His first two seasons saw Dundee finish mid-table and then fifth. However, after a poor start to season 1927–28, McNair left Dens Park in October 1927. He then left full-time participation in football to become a stockbroker, but still kept some involvement in the game by working as a referee supervisor.

Honours.

Celtic

Alexander McNair (26 December 1883 – 18 November 1951) was a Scottish football player and manager. He played as a defender for Celtic and represented the Scotland national team in 15 official internationals between 1906 and 1920. McNair also represented the Scottish League XI 15 times. He then managed Dundee from 1925 until 1927.


Biography.

Kemper grew up in Volendam and lives in Amsterdam. She studied sports management and had a part-time job with her uncle and aunt behind the counter of a fish shop in Almere.  She is an athlete at AV Edam. That was also Kemper's reason for following her studies in sports and marketing management.

BNN.

"Sterretje Gezocht".

When Geraldine saw the call for the BNN programme "Sterretje Gezocht", she immediately registered. Her dream was therefore to become a VJ at TMF or a presenter at BNN.  A total of about eight thousand women registered. In the end Kemper managed to become the new star of BNN after eight weeks. She defeated Fleur in the final with 60% of the jury points and 60% of the votes of the audience. That meant that she got a role in the soap opera "Onderweg naar Morgen" and became a presenter of "Try Before You Die". In addition, Valerio Zeno announced during the final that the winner would immediately start the day after the finale as the presenter of "Spuiten en Slikken Zomertour"; Geraldine replaced Zarayda Groenhart for one episode.

"Try Before you Die".

In 2009 she made her appearance in season 5 of "Try Before You Die", in the company of Steyn de Leeuwe, Valerio Zeno, Filemon Wesselink, Nicolette Kluijver, Dennis Storm, Zarayda Groenhart and Sander Lantinga. In the challenge she tackled challenges like: "participating in the tough guy challenge", "French kissing with an elderly man", "taking pictures in Volendam clothing" and "making the biggest crop circle".  In 2011 she presented "Try Before You Die 2".

"Spuiten en Slikken".

At the last moment Kemper was allowed to make one episode of "Spuiten en Slikken Zomertour" as reporter. By the departure of Filemon Wesselink from "Spuiten en Slikken", Nicolette Kluijver and Zarayda Groenhart were given Filemon's place and a place was released. Kemper, who therefore already replaced one episode for Groenhart, belonged from season 9 to the regular squad of "Spuiten en Slikken". In "Spuiten en Slikken" she does the experiments, called Gerries Eerste Keer. From 2014 she also takes on the general presentation, together with Tim Hofman.

"3 op Reis".

Since 2012 she also presents "3 op Reis". She attracted the Caribbean and a road trip through Europe. She also presented "3 op Reis Summertime".

101 TV.

Kemper has also been presenting Trick Mania on 101 TV since 2009. On the internet platform of BNN 101 she presented "Repo" and "Lekker Langzaam".

"Jan vs Geraldine".

From 2015, Kemper was seen with Jan Versteegh in the programme Jan vs Geraldine, an expansion on the BNN series "Versus".

RTL.

In 2019 it was announced that Kemper would be moving to RTL, where she is going to be a presenter for "Expeditie Robinson Videoland" and "The Voice of Holland"

Other television appearances.

Kemper participated in Expeditie Robinson 2013, in which she played the final together with former judoka Edith Bosch and dancer Anna-Alicia Sklias. Bosch finished first. In the week before Christmas she was one of the sleeping guests in the Glass House of "3FM Serious Request".

Geraldine Jane Kemper (born in Volendam, 26 January 1990) is a Dutch television presenter originally from BNN. She won her job as a presenter with this public broadcaster through the television programme "Sterretje Gezocht". In 2015 and 2016 Kemper was nominated for the Zilveren Televizier-Ster Vrouw. In 2019 it has been announced Kemper will transfer to RTL.


Early life.

Krotoski was born a U.S. citizen in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia but spent her early years in New Orleans, Louisiana. Her parents, Wojciech Antoni "Al" Krotoski (1937–2016) and his then-wife Danuta (née Gwozdziowski), were Polish-American scientists who played a key role in revealing hypnozoites as the true mechanism of malarial relapse.

Education.

Krotoski graduated with a BA in psychology from Oberlin College in Ohio in 1996. After moving to the UK and becoming a television presenter, she returned to university to study social psychology at the University of Surrey, where she completed an MSc in 2004 and a PhD in 2009. Her PhD thesis on social influence in Second Life examined "how information spreads around the social networks of the World Wide Web."

Career.

From 1999 to 2001 she co-presented Channel 4's late evening video gaming review show, "Bits" with Emily Booth and Emily Newton Dunn.  In 2006, she contributed to the United Kingdom's Department for Education and Skills and the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA) collaboration, "Unlimited Learning: The role of computer and video games in curriculum-based education". In 2004, she wrote ELSPA's "Chicks and Joysticks: An exploration of women and gaming".  In September 2006 she was named one of the games industry's 100 most influential women by NextGen.biz and in November 2006 she was named one of the "Top Ten Girl Geeks" by CNET, two spots behind fictional character Lisa Simpson.  In February 2010, she presented "The Virtual Revolution" for BBC Two. This TV documentary series was described by the BBC as charting "two decades of profound change since the invention of the World Wide Web, weighing up the huge benefits and the unforeseen downsides." She also presented an accompanying four-part podcast series on the BBC World Service.  As of November 2010, she was Researcher in Residence at the British Library and curator of the Growing Knowledge digital exhibition at the library, and a visiting fellow at the London School of Economics.  Since 2011, she has presented the BBC Radio 4 series "Digital Human", which examines the relationship between human behaviour and the use of the World Wide Web.  On 4 July 2013 her book, "Untangling the Web" was published. It was based on "thirteen years of research" concurrently with her previous activities. It received reviews in the journal "Nature" and The Observer.

Personal life.

Krotoski married Ben Hammersley in April 2014; their daughter was born in September 2014.

Aleksandra Krystyna Theresa "Aleks" Krotoski (born 22 October 1974) is a Polish-American broadcaster, journalist and social psychologist, resident of the United Kingdom who writes about technology and interactivity. She presents "The Guardian" podcast Tech Weekly and contributes to guardian.co.uk. She formerly contributed occasional stories to "The Guardian"'s now defunct Online print section (which was later renamed Technology), and was one of the core contributor's to the Guardian's original Gamesblog.


Early life.

Harry was born in New York City, as the son of German immigrants. His father, Ernst Henrich, was a hotelkeeper at Fraunces Tavern. At age sixteen, Harry won his first rowing race around Ellis Island. At eighteen, he gained fame as the best all-around athlete in New York. He was educated at the Mechanics Institute School and graduated in 1854.  Harry enlisted in the Union Army in May 1861 and fought in the Civil War. He was the unofficial boxing champion of his regiment. Harry was wounded in the foot at the Battle of Antietam in 1862, and he almost lost a leg when he was shot at the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House in 1864. After he recovered, Harry left the army to focus on athletics. In 1876, he wed Mary Carroll, an exceptional swimmer and weightlifter and one of the first women to ride a bicycle in the United States.

Career.

Harry was the first recorded national winner of the 100 yard dash in America in 1871. In 1873, he won the gymnastic and all-around athletic title. Harry was the first recorded national shot put champion in 1876. In 1878, he was the first heavyweight boxing champion in America, recording the first official knockout at Madison Square Garden. Harry was considered one of the strongest men of his time.  Harry, his longtime friend William Buckingham Curtis, and John C. Babcock were the three principal founders of the New York Athletic Club (N.Y.A.C.) in 1868. Harry was the first Treasurer of the club, and he was captain of the N.Y.A.C. track team in 1873. In 1878, Harry and Curtis helped found the Amateur Athletic Union, which eventually became the U.S. Olympic Committee.  Around 1880, Harry and Curtis also started the Fresh Air Club, encouraging open river ice skating and strenuous multiple-day hiking excursions. The Fresh Air Club was incorporated in 1890, making it the oldest walking club in New York., and Harry served as President of the club in 1900.  In 1900, Harry was elected as President of the National Skating Association, a forerunner to US Speedskating. He was a judge and referee in the 1904 St. Louis Olympics. In 1912, Harry carried the American flag as the only invited guest to accompany the American athletes into the Stadium at the Stockholm Olympic Games. After returning from Stockholm, Harry marched in the Welcome Home Parade as an honored guest and the oldest athletic champion in America.  The "Buermeyer 500" race was created in New York City in 1915 to commemorate him as one of the city’s most recognized athletes, and the race was held annually for over 40 years after his death. In his honor, the N.Y.A.C. for several years held an annual "Buermeyer Cup", where a trophy was awarded to the best gunner at 50 targets scratch.

Henry Ernest (Harry) Buermeyer II (August 19, 1839 – October 10, 1922) was an American athlete in the late 1800s and is considered a "father of American athletics" due to his major contributions towards the growth of amateur sports throughout North America. James Edward Sullivan described him as “one of the strongest athletes the world ever had”. After being wounded in the legs twice in the Civil War, Harry won numerous national championships in swimming, running, shot put, and boxing, and he was an avid rower and weightlifter throughout his life.


Early life and education.

Scharff went to school in Lübeck, Germany and moved to Marburg, Germany, to study biology in 1979. She went on to study experimental neurobiology and neuroethology at Adelphi university in New York with Carol Diakow. From 1984, she worked with Fernando Nottebohm at Rockefeller university where she earned her degree of Ph.D. Studying bird song, the researchers were involved in a series of studies that showed the generation of new neurons in the adult brain. These findings contradicted the then-established view that the brain was equipped with a fixed number of neurons at the time of birth. She moved to Paris in 1991, where she worked at the Institut d'Embryology Cellulaire et Moléculaire. She returned to New York as a Postdoctoral Associate to work with Nottebohm again in 1994. She was a group leader at the Max Planck institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin from 2001 to 2005 before she became a professor at the Free University of Berlin in 2005.

Work.

Scharff studies birdsong in canaries and zebra finches. Here, her work is concerned with mechanisms of learning in acoustic communication and the neural pathways that control it. Further, her work focusses on the control of neuronal regeneration and replacement in adult birds. She was also involved in the decoding of the zebra finch genome. Her research suggested an important role of the gene FOXP2 in sound learning in both birds and humans, leading to a potential better understanding of hereditary disorders of speech.  Since 2012, Scharff is a member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Personal life.

Scharff has two daughters with microbiologist Arturo Zychlinsky.

Constance Scharff, Ph.D., (born 1959) is a German zoologist and neuroethologist and Professor at the Free University of Berlin. She is particularly notable for her research on birdsong, neurogenesis and regeneration.


Anatolia.

Beyliks were small Turkish principalities (or petty kingdoms) governed by Beys, which were founded across Anatolia at the end of the 11th century in a first period, and more extensively during the decline of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum during the second half of the 13th century.  The Ottoman Empire quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II re-incorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a space of around 25 years. The final blow for the Karamanids was struck by Mehmed II who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered territories of Ramadanids and Dulkadirids in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluks, and his son Süleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks became the basis for administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.

England.

Before the Kingdom of England was established as a united entity, there were various kingdoms in the area—of which the main seven were known as the heptarchy. These were Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria (which also extended into present-day Scotland and originally formed from the earlier kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia), East Anglia (formed from the union of the early kingdoms of Suffolk and Norfolk), Sussex, Kent, and Essex. Other small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms existed at various points, including Hwicce, Lindsey (which survived as the Parts of Lindsey, Lincolnshire) and the Wihtwara (Isle of Wight). These are commonly referred to as "petty kingdoms".  During the 9th and 10th centuries the Norse also established the Kingdom of Jórvík centred around York, and the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw (aka Danish Mercia). They also controlled the Kingdom of East Anglia during this period.  Prior to the arrival of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes (the later Anglo-Saxons) what is now England was ruled by numerous Brittonic kings, which are discussed under Wales below.

Iberian peninsula.

The taifa were the various Islamic petty kingdoms that existed in Iberia after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031.  There were various Christian petty kingdoms as well on the peninsula that, in the Middle Ages, consolidated into the modern states of Spain and Portugal. Over time, these consolidated into two "Crowns" that were themselves unified in the late 15th and early 16th centuries to the unified Kingdom of Spain,  These include:  The Kingdom of Portugal remained independent throughout most of the period of consolidation, except for a period of 60 years (1580-1640) when it was part of the Iberian Union.

Ireland.

The earliest known kingdoms or tribes in Ireland are referred to in Ptolemy's "Geography", written in the 2nd century. He names the Vennicni, Rhobogdi, Erdini, Magnatae, Autini, Gangani, Vellabori, Darini, Voluntii (identified as the Ulaid nation or Uluti tribe), Eblani, Cauci, Menapii, Coriondi and Brigantes tribes and kingdoms.  Irish medieval pseudohistory gives a seemingly idealized division of kingdoms. The island is traditionally divided into five provinces or "fifths" (Old Irish ', Modern Irish '), four of which survive today:'(Ulster, modern Irish ') in the north,'(Connacht) in the west,'(Munster, modern Irish ') in the south west, and'(Leinster, modern Irish ') in the south east. The fifth kingdom, (whose name has survived in the modern counties of Meath and Westmeath, modern Irish'and ") in the centre/east, ceased to exist in the Middle Ages.  At various points in history there existed a High King of Ireland, who ruled over the other kings as suzerain, much like the British High Kings and Anglo-Saxon Bretwalda. There also existed Kings of Tara who did not rule all of Ireland but were recognised as holding positions of authority over the other kings. These two titles were not mutually exclusive and were often held by the same individual.  Each of the kings of these kingdoms (titled'or 'king of over-kings') was himself an over-king of several regional kings (titled'or '), who in turn ruled over several ', whose rulers held the title'or '. The territories and hierarchy of all of these constantly shifted as old dynasties died and new ones formed, and as lower kings took higher positions. Many of these " survived as later Irish baronies.  Several of the regional kings were at various points independent of their provincial over-king and indeed rivalled them in power and territory.'was originally part of Connacht but much of it lay in what is today Ulster. It later split into East and West Bréifne.'(Oriel) and'(also known as the Northern Uí Néill, in contrast to the Southern Uí Néill who ruled ';'or ', both meaning "the North"; '; and Tyrone/') were nominally part of '.'(Ossory) was originally part of ', but lay between'and'and was controlled by both at various points. Dál Riata was also an Irish (sub-)kingdom, which mostly lay in modern Argyll and Bute in Scotland but originated in and initially extended into north-eastern Ireland and was (nominally) subject to '. In the 12th century Munster was split into two smaller over-kingdoms:'(Desmond, literally South Munster) and'(Thomond, literally North Munster).  In addition to the Irish petty kingdoms, there was a Norse presence on the island from the 9th century. They conquered Dublin, where they established the Kingdom of Dublin (Old Norse: ', Old Irish: '), which at various points was closely tied with the Norse Kingdom of Jórvík which was centred on modern York, England. The Norse also controlled several other coastal settlements, including Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick.

Nepal.

Before the unification of Nepal by the Shah Dynasty there were dozens of petty kingdoms. The Karnali region was called the Baise Rajya (, i.e. 22 Kingdoms, and the Gandaki region to the east was called Chaubisi rajya (), i.e. 24 Kingdoms.

Norway.

The petty kingdoms of Norway numbered at least 28:

Serbia.

Medieval Serbia comprised, at various time periods, smaller kingdoms of Rascia, Zeta (Dioclea, corresponding to portions of contemporary Montenegro), Syrmia and the duchy of Hum (roughly corresponding to present-day Herzegovina and some of its surroundings).

Scotland.

There were many petty kingdoms in Scotland before its unification. They can be grouped by language:

Sweden.

According to the Norse sagas, and modern history, Sweden was divided into more-or-less independent units in some areas corresponding to the folklands and the modern traditional provinces. According to the sagas, the folklands and provinces of eastern Svealand were united under the Swedish king at Gamla Uppsala. Moreover, the domains of this king could also include parts of Götaland and even southern Norway. This probably reflects the volatile politics of Iron Age Scandinavia. The province of Småland once consisted of several petty kingdoms; indeed, the name Småland means small lands/countries.

Wales.

Rarely has the country of Wales formed one cohesive kingdom. For the greater part of its history, Wales evolved into four kingdoms, or principalities, following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century. Mountainous terrain, forested river valleys, and remote upland moors contributed to a strong sense of localism and autonomy, though the Welsh people shared a deeply felt sentiment of nationality, as reflected in Welsh law codified in the 10th century. According to historian Professor John Davies, there are four geographic regions more or less equal in terms of resources and population, from which four principalities emerged: Ynys Môn for Gwynedd, the Severn river valley for Powys, the Vale for Glamorgan and the lands up to the Wye (Morgannwg), and the Ystrad Tywi (Valley of the Tywi) for Deheubarth. Rhodri the Great inherited Gwynedd from his father and Powys through his mother, and married Angharad of Seisyllwg (Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire) and ruling there by right of his wife. Rhodri exerted great influence in the rest of Wales as well, and after his death his realms were divided amongst his sons. Nevertheless, the House of Aberffraw of Gwynedd, as the senior line descendants of Rhodri the Great, claimed overlordship over the whole of Wales, though they would encounter resistance by junior dynasts of Dinefwr. It would not be until the 1216 Council of Aberdyfi that the Aberffraw line under Llywelyn the Great would be able to secure their position as Prince of the Welsh.

Hen Ogledd.

There existed other Brittonic petty kingdoms outside modern Wales and the North West of England. These are collectively known as "" or 'the Old North'. With the exception of "Ystrad Clut", which became part of Scotland in around the 11th century, most of these had been absorbed into Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by the 8th century.

A petty kingdom is a kingdom described as minor or "petty" by contrast to an empire or unified kingdom that either preceded or succeeded it (e.g. the numerous kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England unified into the Kingdom of England in the 10th century, or the numerous Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland as the Kingdom of Ireland in the 16th century). Alternatively, a petty kingdom would be a minor kingdom in the immediate vicinity of larger kingdoms, such as the medieval Kingdom of Mann and the Isles relative to the kingdoms of Scotland or England or the Viking kingdoms of Scandinavia.


Early life.

Born on 27 February 1918 in Edgecliff, New South Wales, Martin left Australia for the United Kingdom in 1939. He intended to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, but instead volunteered to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) on 28 August 1940.

Military career.

Second World War.

Martin commenced his operational career with No. 455 Squadron RAAF in October 1941, flying the Handley Page Hampden. In February 1942, he captained the first all-Australian crewed bombing sortie against Germany. Martin soon acquired a reputation for low-level flying in order to avoid anti-aircraft fire and fighters. After 13 operations, he and his crew joined No. 50 Squadron RAF. Flying Hampdens, Avro Manchesters, and finally Avro Lancasters, they completed their tour in October 1942, Martin being awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC).  Martin's penchant for low flying contributed to his selection in March 1943 for assignment to the newly formed No. 617 Squadron under Wing Commander Guy Gibson. Martin took part in the "Dambusters" raid on the night of 16/17 May 1943. He piloted the Lancaster bomber AJ-P "Popsie" (officially known as AJ-P "Peter") in the first formation, which was assigned to attack the Möhne Dam in Western Germany. Martin's plane was hit by anti-aircraft fire during the attack, but he successfully accomplished the bombing run and returned. He was awarded a Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his actions. Martin was considered one of the best pilots in the squadron and was known for his dry jokes and constant good humour that he exhibited at all times, even when he was under considerable pressure.  Following Gibson's retirement from operations and the immediate loss in action of his successor, Squadron Leader George Holden, Martin assumed temporary command of No. 617 Squadron. Later, under the command of Wing Commander Leonard Cheshire, Martin participated in various pin-point attacks on targets in France, Italy and Germany, often employing the new Tallboy bomb as seen in Operation Garlic. In February 1944, during an attack on the Anthéor railway Viaduct in the French Riviera, Martin's Lancaster was hit by flak, knocking out the two port engines and killing the bomb aimer Bob Hay, while wounding another crew member. Martin could not make the return trip to England, and flew on south toward an RAF base at Corsica before diverting further to the United States Army Air Forces base at Sardinia. The mission was Martin's 49th sortie flying a heavy bomber.  When Martin returned to England he was transferred out of No. 617 Squadron and placed in No. 100 Group's No. 515 Squadron, flying the de Havilland Mosquito on serrate night fighter missions in support of Bomber Command aircraft. By late 1944, Martin had flown another 34 operations, where he claimed two aircraft shot down, and three destroyed (and one damaged) on the ground.

Post-war.

After the war, Martin attended a course at the RAF Staff College in Haifa and in 1945 joined the headquarters staff of No. 100 Group. He broke the speed record for flying from London to Cape Town, completing the 6,717 mile journey in a time of 21 hours, 31 minutes in a Mosquito, for which he won the Oswald Watt Gold Medal and the Britannia Trophy. In 1947 he flew the meteorological Mosquito for the first transatlantic jet crossing in support of No. 54 Squadron's de Havilland Vampires.  Martin was appointed to a succession of staff jobs: Air Attache, Tel Aviv in 1952; Operation Plans Division in 1955; and Group Captain — Electronic Warfare, HQ Signals Command in 1959, before becoming Aide-de-camp to the Queen in 1964. He then served for three years from 1967 to 1970 as Air Officer Commanding No. 38 Group. In 1970 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief RAF Germany and finally, in 1973, Air Member for Personnel.

Later life.

After retiring from the RAF on 31 October 1974, Martin worked for aircraft manufacturer Hawker Siddeley as an advisor. Sir Harold Martin died at his home in London on 3 November 1988, and is buried at Gunnersbury Cemetery. M

Air Marshal Sir Harold Brownlow Morgan "Micky" Martin, (27 February 1918 – 3 November 1988) was an Australian bomber pilot and senior commander in the Royal Air Force (RAF). He took part in Operation Chastise, the RAF's "Dambusters" raid in 1943, and was described by journalist Sir Max Hastings as "one of the three great bomber pilots of the war". He rose to become a senior officer in the RAF, commanding RAF Germany and later serving as Air Member for Personnel, a member of the Air Council, the RAF's controlling body.


History.

The early motte and bailey castle was built on a cliff overlooking a ford on the River Wye in 1070 by William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford, on a wasteland formerly occupied by Browning. The castle was intended to provide protection for a planned Norman settlement above the River Wye of quite a substantial size, with c. 200 plots being intended, running uphill for half a mile towards Llanfair, where the church was sited on the hilltop. St Mary's church remains today, much altered in the Victorian era. The position of the castle as adjacent to the River Wye enabled the seasonal flooding of the river to fill the flood plain around the castle, forming a shallow lake or marsh with the assistance of a dam on the western or upstream side of the site, acting as a further form of defence.  After FitzOsbern was slain in battle at Flanders, the castle passed to his son, Roger de Breteuil, 2nd Earl of Hereford. Roger forfeited his lands for rebellion against the King in 1075, and the castle was granted to Ralph Tosny who held it directly from the Crown, and it was the Tosnys who rebuilt the castle in stone (in a manner much resembling the Tosny's Conches Castle in Normandy). As the bulk of Ralph's time was spent in Normandy, the castle was rented to Gilbert, Sheriff of Hereford for 60 shillings.  After the marriage of Ralph's daughter, Margaret de Tosny, to Walter Fitz Richard, Walter became steward of the lands and estate, later claiming them for himself and taking the name of Walter de Clifford sometime before 1162. It was Walter's daughter, Rosamund Clifford (known for her beauty as the Fair Rosamund), who became famous as the mistress of Henry II, which she remained until her death in 1176 or 1177 when she was buried at Godstow in Oxfordshire. A property near the castle is called Rosamund House today, and one of the surviving towers is known as "Rosamund's Tower."  In 1233 Walter's grandson, Walter de Clifford (died 1263), rebelled against the autocratic rule of King Henry III. In early September the king came and besieged Clifford castle, forcing the garrison to surrender after just a few days. Walter Clifford then made his peace with the Crown and led his troops against Prince Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, his father-in-law. Walter's volte-face was doubly dishonourable, as Prince Llywelyn had just entered the field to fight the king in support of Walter. Twenty years later Walter nearly rebelled again, when, in a fit of anger, he forced a royal messenger to eat a royal writ, together with the royal wax seal the size of a dinner plate. For this Walter lost many of his Marcher Lord privileges.  Walter had no male heir and so Clifford fell to his daughter, Matilda Clifford (widow of the Earl of Salisbury) some time in the 1260s. It was during the Second Barons' War when John Giffard of Brimpsfield took the castle, whereupon kidnapped, raped, and forcibly married Matilda. Though Giffard was fined, Matilda declined any further action and chose to accept her erstwhile abductor as her husband, and they lived together in the Clifford estate until Giffard's death in 1299, whereupon the King granted Clifford to the Mortimers of Wigmore.

Ruination.

After the Welsh had been successfully conquered, Clifford Castle diminished in value considerably, and was allowed to deteriorate. Though the castle was garrisoned against the rebellion of Owain Glyndŵr in 1402, it saw no further use. The damage it received during the uprising was left unrepaired, and the castle abandoned and allowed to fall into ruin, with much of the stone pillaged for the older properties seen in the village today; large dressed stone blocks can be seen in numerous garden walls.

Excavations.

1920s.

O. Trumper, the then owner of the site, carried out a series of excavations between 1925 and 1928, which were successful in revealing the bases of twin towers either side of the castle entrance, and a large building (containing an annexe and bailey) to the east of the castle. Evidence was also discovered for a southern tower, guardroom and portcullis, alongside a section of the curtain wall. Findings from the excavations of this period unrelated to the castle included a boar's tusk, wolf vertebra, and a Roman brooch.

1950s.

Between 1950 and 1953 a further series of excavations were embarked on, discoveries from which included the foundations of a tower on the motte, alongside a further sections of curtain wall. A complete excavation of the barbican was undertaken, and evidence of a roadway uncovered. Findings from these excavations included pottery and iron, arrowheads, a knife, a bullet mould, a key, iron nails and a bridle bit.

Modern ruin.

The castle is currently on the English Heritage Heritage At Risk Register 2010. The present owners are working closely with English Heritage to implement a maintenance policy, followed by a program of works to stabilise the current structure and prevent further decay. This work has now been completed and images can be seen at www.cliffordcastle.org  Clifford castle now consists of a great motte as constructed by the men of William Fitz Osbern in the late 1060s. This was later sub-divided and the eastern part was crowned by an ovoid shell keep with five D-shaped towers in its circuit. Its north wall appears to overlie part of William Fitz Osbern’s original hall. To the east of the motte is the castle bailey. Most of the walls of this structure have disappeared, but centrally are the remains of a great twin-towered gatehouse probably of the mid-thirteenth century. To the west of the castle is a broken earthwork dam which would have flooded the valley to the south of the castle. With the River Wye to the north the fortress would have been surrounded by water on all sides except for the east. As such it would have been a very difficult fortress to take by storm. Clifford Castle is within the grounds of a family home and has limited public access on dates published on the Clifford Castle website.  A branch of Great Western Railway ran just to the north of the castle, between the castle and the river. The next station to the north on this line was nearby in Clifford, and the next station to the south was Hay-on-Wye railway station. This station was also the terminus of the Great Western line—beyond the station the line was the Golden Valley Railway. The Great Western named one of its Castle class locomotives after Clifford Castle. Locomotive 5071 was built in June 1938, but in September 1940 it was renamed Spitfire. In May 1946, a new build locomotive, 5098, was named after the castle.

Clifford Castle is a ruined castle in the village of Clifford which lies 2.5 miles to the north east of Hay-on-Wye in the Wye Valley in Herefordshire, England (). It was the "caput" of the feudal barony of Clifford, a Marcher Lordship (owing allegiance directly to the King, but separate from the rest of the kingdom).The castle stands in the grounds of a private house and is only open to the public on certain days of the year (including Heritage Open Days listed in the Contact section at www.cliffordcastle.org).


Architecture.

Clun Castle is located on a bend in the River Clun, overlooking the small town of Clun and its church (on the other side of the river). The river provides natural defences from the north and west, whilst the main keep of the castle stands upon a large motte or mound. Most historians conclude that this is primarily a natural elevation of rock, which has then been cut and scarped into its current, although others argue that it is mostly artificial. Three similar, but less dramatic mounds around the main motte provide the basic structure for the castle defences.  The remains of the tall, four-storey rectangular great keep are still standing on the north side of the motte. In large part this a typical late Norman keep, wide, similar to those locally at Alberbury, Bridgnorth and Hopton, featuring pilaster buttresses and round-headed Norman windows. Unusually the keep is off-centre, probably to allow the foundations greater reach and avoid placing excessive pressure on the motte – a similar design can be found at Guildford Castle. The ground floor was used for storage, with the upper three storeys for the family's residential use. Each floor had its own large fireplace and five windows. The great keep appears powerful, but was built as a compromise between security and comfort – the building has relatively few arrowslits – many of the externally visible arrowslits are fakes and the building as a whole could easily have been undermined.  On the highest point of the main motte are the remains of one wall of what appears to have been an earlier small square keep, probably dating from the 11th or 12th centuries. The remains of a bridge, linking the main motte with the south-west mound, can just be seen to the south of this; this bridge would have formed the main route to the town. South of the bridge is the site of the gatehouse, while the foundations of a great round tower can be seen to the south-west. Along the west front are the remains of two solid turrets, built in possible imitation of Château Gaillard. A number of domestic buildings once stood inside the main bailey, including a grange, a stable and a bakehouse. The earthworks of two further bailey walls can be seen on the east side of the castle.  The surrounding grounds around Clun Castle have been extensively developed in the past and a pleasure garden can still be made out in the field beyond the River Clun to the west. To the north-east lies the remains of a fish pond, with a sluice connecting this to the river.

History.

11th–12th centuries.

Before the Norman invasion, the manor of Clun was owned by Eadric the Wild. The area around Clun was rugged, thinly populated and covered in extensive forests in early medieval times. Clun Castle was originally established by Robert de Say, also known as Picot, an early Norman baron who seized the territory from Edric; Robert built a substantial motte castle with two baileys. Robert held the castle and district from the Earl of Shrewsbury until 1102. After the Shrewsbury rebellion of that year, Robert and his descendants held their castle directly from the Crown.  Picot's daughter married the local Welsh lord, Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. In 1109 Cadwgan was forced out of Powys and it is possible that he lived at Clun Castle during this time. The couple had a son, Henry de Say, who inherited the castle in 1098, with his son, Helias de Say controlling the castle until his death in 1165. Under Helias, the barony of Say was divided in two, with Helias' daughter Isabella de Say receiving an expanded estate centred on Clun, and the more easterly elements of the de Say land, including the future Stokesay Castle, being given to Theodoric de Say.  At around the same time, Henry I established a new castle-guard system at Clun, probably in response to the succession of Welsh attacks in the decades following the rebellion of Gruffudd ap Cynan in 1094. Under the castle-guard system, protecting Clun Castle was undertaken by knights from a group of fiefs stretching eastwards away from Clun and the Welsh frontier, linked in many cases by the old Roman road running alongside the river Clun. Each knight had to conduct forty days of military service each year, probably being called up in a crisis rather than maintaining a constant guard, and were supplemented when required by additional mounted or infantry sergeants. Henry II continued the royal focus on Clun as the regional centre for protecting the border, investing heavily in the castle during 1160–64. The castle could also draw on Welsh feudal service, with twenty-five local Welsh settlements owing the castle military duty.  The area surrounding the castle was now declared a Marcher Barony, known in the 13th century as the Honour of Clun, which meant it was governed by its own, rather than English law, and the Marcher Lord who controlled this section of the Welsh Marches. In particular, the lord of Clun Castle was known for having the right to execute criminals on his own behalf, rather than as the representative of the king; criminals would be taken from as far as Shrewsbury for this punishment to be carried out.  Isabella married William Fitz Alan, the lord of Oswestry. William was another powerful regional lord, and was appointed the High Sheriff of Shropshire by Adeliza of Louvain, the second wife of Henry I. After Henry I's death during the Anarchy, in which England was split between the rival claimants of King Stephen and the Empress Matilda, William declared for the Empress Maud and in 1138 held Shrewsbury Castle for four weeks against Stephen. William escaped before the fall of the city, spending the next fifteen years in exile before the return of Henry II in 1153.  Isabella married twice more after William's death, with her husbands Geoffrey de Vere and William Botorel being lords of Clun Castle by virtue of marriage, but on her death in 1199 the castle passed to her son from her first marriage, the second William Fitz Alan. In doing so, Isabella created the combined lordship of neighbouring Oswestry and Clun, the beginnings of what would become a powerful noble family. William built the tall, off-centre Norman keep that dominates the site today, blending a defensive fortification with the beginnings of a more luxurious style of living. William had been with King Richard I during the building of Château Gaillard in Normandy and it would seem that the distinctive circular towers William built to defend the new keep at Clun were based on those at Gaillard. The result was echoed in Shropshire, on a smaller scale, in the fortified tower-houses at Upper Millichope and Wattlesborough, whilst several generations later the trend would result in Stokesay Castle.

13th century.

In the 13th century, Shropshire was in the front line of attempts by Prince Llywelyn the Great to reassert the power of the Welsh principality, aided by the difficult relations that King John enjoyed with the local barons. For many years there was an erroneous story that in 1196 the castle was besieged by the Welsh under Prince Rhys ap Gruffydd, a Prince of the Welsh Kingdom of Deheubarth. This story is a confusion of Colwyn Castle in Radnorshire, which was attacked in 1196, and the Welsh rendition of Clun, "Colunwy".  William died in 1210, leaving the castle to his eldest son, another William Fitz Alan. King John, however, demanded a huge fee of 10,000 marks for William to inherit his lands; unable to pay, Clun Castle was assigned to Thomas de Eardington instead. William died shortly afterwards at Easter, 1215, and his brother, John Fitz Alan, a close friend of Llywelyn the Great, promptly took up arms against the king, immediately seizing Clun and Oswestry from royal control. In 1216, King John responded militarily, his forces attacking and burning Oswestry town, before besieging and taking Clun Castle in a surprise attack. John came to an understanding with King John's successor, Henry III in 1217 after finally paying a fine of 10,000 marks.  In 1233–34 during the conflict between King Henry III, the Earl Marshal, and Llywelyn the Great, suspicions were raised again over the loyalty of John Fitzalan, and Clun Castle was garrisoned with royal troops in 1233 to ensure its continued reliability as a key fortress. The castle successfully resisted the attack by Llywelyn that year, although Clun itself was destroyed.  In 1244 John FitzAlan inherited the castle from his father; John also became the "de jure" Earl of Arundel. The Welsh border situation was still unsettled, and security grew significantly worse in the next few years, as the Welsh prince Llywelyn up Gruffudd conducted numerous raids into English territories. John's son, another John Fitzalan inherited the castle, marrying Isabella, one of the neighbouring and powerful Mortimer family. In 1272 John died leaving a young son, Richard; during his minority the castle was controlled by Roger Mortimer of Wigmore. A group of commissioners, called in to examine the castle as part of the inquest, noted that the castle was described as "small but strongly built", but in some need of repair, with the bridge and the roof of one of the towers needing particular work.

14th–17th centuries.

The invasion of North Wales by Edward I in the 1280s significantly reduced the threat of Welsh invasion and the long-term requirements for strong military fortifications such as Clun Castle. Meanwhile, the FitzAlan family had acquired Arundel Castle by marriage in 1243; their new castle proved to be a much more amenable location for the Earls of Arundel and became their primary residence. By the 14th century Clun Castle had been transformed into a hunting lodge complete with pleasure gardens by the FitzAlan family, who kept a large horse stud at the castle, along with their collections at Chirk and Holt castles.  Richard II made an attempt to break the power of the Arundel family in the area, removing Clun Castle from the Fitz Alan family with the execution of Richard FitzAlan in 1397, granting it to the Duke of York with the intent that it became part of the Earldom of Chester; with the fall of Richard II and the return to favour of Thomas FitzAlan, the castle was restored to the family. There was a resurgence of interest in Clun Castle during the Glyndŵr Rising of 1400–15, with Thomas playing a key role in suppressing the revolt; the castle was refortified and saw some service against the Welsh rebels led by Owain Glyndŵr.  By the 16th century, the antiquarian John Leland observed the increasingly ruined nature of Clun Castle. Philip Howard, the 20th earl of Arundel, died in 1595 whilst under attainment, and James I gave Clun Castle to Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton. The castle was abandoned by the time of the English Civil War of 1642–46 and saw no military action; it was slighted by Parliament, however, in 1646 to prevent any possible use as a fortress. The castle passed through several hands in the coming years, including a period in which it was owned by Clive of India. The 19th century author Sir Walter Scott used Clun Castle as the model for the castle "Guarde Doleureuse" in his medieval novel "The Betrothed" in 1825.

Today.

In 1894, the site was purchased by the Duke of Norfolk, a descendant of the original FitzAlan family. The Duke undertook a programme of conservation on the castle, stabilising its condition. The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument. The site is open to the public, managed by English Heritage.

Clun Castle is a ruined castle in the small town of Clun, Shropshire. Clun Castle was established by the Norman lord Robert de Say after the Norman invasion of England and went on to become an important Marcher lord castle in the 12th century, with an extensive castle-guard system. Owned for many years by the Fitzalan family, Clun played a key part in protecting the region from Welsh attack until it was gradually abandoned as a property in favour of the more luxurious Arundel Castle. The Fitzalans converted Clun Castle into a hunting lodge in the 14th century, complete with pleasure gardens, but by the 16th century the castle was largely ruined. Slighted in 1646 after the English Civil War, Clun remained in poor condition until renovation work in the 1890s.