Methods.

Nurseries grow plants in open fields, on container fields, in tunnels or greenhouses. In open fields, nurseries grow decorative trees, shrubs and herbaceous perennials. On a containerfield nurseries grow small trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, usually destined for sales in garden centers. These have proper ventilation, sunlight etc. Plants may be grown by seed(s). The most common method is by cutting plants/plant cuttings. These can be taken from shoot tips or from roots etc. By these methods plants are grown in nurseries and gardens

Conditioning.

With the objective of fitting planting stock more ably to withstand stresses after outplanting, various nursery treatmens have been attempted or developed and applied to nursery stock. Buse and Day (1989), for instance, studied the effect of conditioning of white spruce and black spruce transplants on their morphology, physiology, and subsequent performance after outplanting. Root pruning, wrenching, and fertilization with potassium at 375 kg/ha were the treatments applied. Root pruning and wrenching modified stock in the nursery by decreasing height, root collar diameter, shoot:root ratio, and bud size, but did not improve survival or growth after planting. Fertilization reduced root growth in black spruce but not of white spruce.

Hardening off, frost hardiness.

Seedlings vary in their susceptibility to injury from frost. Damage can be catastrophic if "unhardened" seedlings are exposed to frost. Frost hardiness may be defined as the minimum temperature at which a certain percentage of a random seedling population will survive or will sustain a given level of damage (Siminovitch 1963, Timmis and Worrall 1975). The term LT (lethal temperature for 50% of a population) is commonly used. Determination of frost hardiness in Ontario is based on electrolyte leakage from mainstem terminal tips 2 cm to 3 cm long in weekly samplings (Colombo and Hickie 1987). The tips are frozen then thawed, immersed in distilled water, the electrical conductivity of which depends on the degree to which cell membranes have been ruptured by freezing releasing electrolyte. A −15 °C frost hardiness level has been used to determine the readiness of container stock to be moved outside from the greenhouse, and −40 °C has been the level determining readiness for frozen storage (Colombo 1997).  In an earlier technique, potted seedlings were placed in a freezer chest and cooled to some level for some specific duration; a few days after removal, seedlings were assessed for damage using various criteria, including odour, general visual appearance, and examination of cambial tissue (Ritchie 1982).  Stock for fall planting must be properly hardened-off. Conifer seedlings are considered to be hardened off when the terminal buds have formed and the stem and root tissues have ceased growth. Other characteristics that in some species indicate dormancy are color and stiffness of the needles, but these are not apparent in white spruce.

Forest tree nurseries.

Whether in the forest or in the nursery, seedling growth is fundamentally influenced by soil fertility, but nursery soil fertility is readily amenable to amelioration, much more so than is forest soil.  Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are regularly supplied as fertilizers, and calcium and magnesium are supplied occasionally. Applications of fertilizer nitrogen do not build up in the soil to develop any appreciable storehouse of available nitrogen for future crops. Phosphorus and potassium, however, can be accumulated as a storehouse available for extended periods.  Fertilization permits seedling growth to continue longer through the growing season than unfertilized stock; fertilized white spruce attained twice the height of unfertilized. High fertility in the rooting medium favours shoot growth over root growth, and can produce top-heavy seedlings ill-suited to the rigors of the outplant site. Nutrients in oversupply can reduce growth or the uptake of other nutrients. As well, an excess of nutrient ions can prolong or weaken growth to interfere with the necessary development of dormancy and hardening of tissues in time to withstand winter weather.

Stock types, sizes and lots.

Nursery stock size typically follows the normal curve when lifted for planting stock. The runts at the lower end of the scale are usually culled to an arbitrary limit, but, especially among bareroot stock, the range in size is commonly considerable. Dobbs (1976) and McMinn (1985a) examined how the performance of 2+0 bareroot white spruce related to differences in initial size of planting stock. The stock was regraded into large, medium, and small fractions according to fresh weight. The small fraction (20% of the original stock) had barely one-quarter of the dry matter mass of the large fraction at the time of outplanting. Ten years later, in the blade-scarified site, seedlings of the large fraction had almost 50% greater stem volume than had seedlings of the small fraction. Without site preparation, large stock were more than twice the size of small stock after 10 years.  Similar results were obtained with regraded 2+1 transplants sampled to determine root growth capacity. The large stock had higher RGC as well as greater mass than the small stock fraction.  The value of large size at the time of planting is especially apparent when outplants face strong competition from other vegetation, although high initial mass does not guarantee success. That the growth potential of planting stock depends on much more than size seems clear from the indifferent success of the transplanting of small 2+0 seedlings for use as 2+1 "reclaim" transplants. The size of bareroot white spruce seedlings and transplants also had a major influence on field performance.  The field performance among various stock types in Ontario plantations was examined by Paterson and Hutchison (1989): the white spruce stock types were 2+0, 1.5+0.5, 1.5+1.5, and 3+0. The nursery stock was grown at Midhurst Forest Tree Nursery, and carefully handled through lifting on 3 lift dates, packing, and hot-planting into cultivated weed-free loam. After 7 years, overall survival was 97%, with no significant differences in survival among stock types. The 1.5+1.5 stock with a mean height of 234 cm was significantly taller by 18% to 25% than the other stock types. The 1.5+1.5 stock also had significantly greater dbh than the other stock types by 30-43%. The best stock type was 57 cm taller and 1 cm greater in dbh than the poorest. Lifting date had no significant effect on growth or survival.  High elevation sites in British Columbia's southern mountains are characterized by a short growing season, low air and soil temperatures, severe winters, and deep snow. The survival and growth of Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir outplanted in 3 silvicultural trials on such sites in gaps of various sizes were compared by Lajzerowicz et al. (2006). Survival after 5 or 6 years decreased with smaller gaps. Height and diameter also decreased with decreasing size of gap; mean heights were 50 cm to 78 cm after 6 years, in line with height expectations for Engelmann spruce in a high-elevation planting study in southeastern British Columbia. In the larger gaps (≥1.0 ha), height increment by year 6 was ranging from 10 cm to 20 cm. Lajzerrowicz et al. Concluded that plantings of conifers in clearcuts at high elevations in the southern mountains of British Columbia are likely to be successful, even close to timberline; and group selection silvicultural systems based on gaps 0.1 ha or larger are also likely to succeed. Gaps smaller than 0.1 ha do not provide suitable conditions for obtaining adequate survival or for growth of outplanted conifers.

Planting stock.

Planting stock, "seedlings, transplants, cuttings, and occasionally wildings, for use in planting out," is nursery stock that has been made ready for outplanting.The amount of seed used in white spruce seedling production and direct seeding varies with method.  A working definition of planting stock quality was accepted at the 1979 IUFRO "Workshop on Techniques for Evaluating Planting Stock Quality" in New Zealand: "The quality of planting stock is the degree to which that stock realizes the objectives of management (to the end of the rotation or achievement of specified sought benefits) at minimum cost. Quality is fitness for purpose." Clear expression of objectives is therefore prerequisite to any determination of planting stock quality. Not only does performance have to be determined, but performance has to be rated against the objectives of management. Planting stock is produced in order to give effect to the forest policy of the organization.  A distinction needs to be made between "planting stock quality" and "planting stock performance potential" (PSPP). The actual performance of any given batch of outplanted planting stock is determined only in part by the kind and condition, i.e., the intrinsic PSPP, of the planting stock.  The PSPP is impossible to estimate reliably by eye because outward appearance, especially of stock withdrawn from refrigerated storage, can deceive even experienced foresters, who would be offended if their ability were questioned to recognize good planting stock when they saw it. Prior to Wakeley's (1954) demonstration of the importance of the physiological state of planting stock in determining the ability of the stock to perform after outplanting, and to a considerable extent even afterwards, morphological appearance has generally served as the basis for estimating the quality of planting stock. Gradually, however, a realization developed that more was involved. Tucker et al. (1968), for instance, after assessing 10-year survival data from several experimental white spruce plantations in Manitoba noted that "Perhaps the most important point revealed here is that certain lots of transplants performed better than others", even though all transplants were handled and planted with care. The intuitive "stock that looks good must be good" is a persuasive, but potentially dangerous maxim. That greatest of teachers, Bitter Experience, has often enough demonstrated the fallibility of such assessment, even though the corollary "stock that looks bad must be bad" is likely to be well founded. The physiological qualities of planting stock are hidden from the eye and must be revealed by testing. The potential for survival and growth of a batch of planting stock may be estimated from various features, morphological and physiological, of the stock or a sample thereof.  The size and shape and general appearance of a seedling can nevertheless give useful indications of PSPP. In low-stress outplanting situations, and with a minimized handling and lifting-planting cycle, a system based on specification for nursery stock and minimum morphological standards for acceptable seedlings works tolerably well. In certain circumstances, benefits often accrue from the use of large planting stock of highly ranked morphological grades. Length of leading shoot, diameter of stem, volume of root system, shoot:root ratios, and height:diameter ratios have been correlated with performance under specific site and planting conditions. However, the concept that larger is better negates the underlying complexities. Schmidt-Vogt (1980), for instance, found that whereas mortality among large outplants is greater than among small in the year of planting, mortality in subsequent growing seasons is higher among small outplants than among large. Much of the literature on comparative seedling performance is clouded by uncertainty as to whether the stocks being compared share the same physiological condition; differences invalidate such comparisons.  Height and root-collar diameter are generally accepted as the most useful morphological criteria and are often the only ones used in specifying standards.Quantification of root system morphology is difficult but can be done, e.g. by using the photometric rhizometer to determine intercept area, or volume by displacement or gravimetric methods.  Planting stock is always subject to a variety of conditions that are never optimal "in toto". The effect of sub-optimal conditions is to induce stress in the plants. The nursery manager aims, and is normally able to avoid stresses greater than moderate, i.e., restricting stresses to levels that can be tolerated by the plants without incurring serious damage. The adoption of nursery regimes to equip planting stock with characteristics conferring increased ability to withstand outplanting stresses, by managing stress levels in the nursery to "condition" planting stock to increase tolerance to various post-planting environmental stresses, has become widespread, particularly with containerized stock.  Outplanted stock that is unable to tolerate high temperatures occurring at soil surfaces will fail to establish on many forest sites, even in the far north. Factors affecting heat tolerance were investigated by Colombo et al. (1995); the production and roles of heat shock proteins (HSPs) are important in this regard. HSPs, present constitutively in black spruce and many other, perhaps most, higher plants are important both for normal cell functioning and in a stress response mechanism following exposure to high, non-lethal temperature. In black spruce at least, there is an association between HSPs and increased levels of heat tolerance. Investigation of the diurnal variability in heat tolerance of roots and shoots in black spruce seedlings 14 to 16 weeks old found in all 4 trials that shoot heat tolerance was significantly greater in the afternoon than in the morning. The trend in root heat tolerance was similar to that found in the shoots; root systems exposed to 47 °C for 15 minutes in the afternoon averaged 75 new roots after a 2-week growth period, whereas only 28 new roots developed in root systems similarly exposed in the morning. HSP was detected in black spruce nuclear, mitochondrial, microsomal, and soluble protein fractions, while HSP was observed only in the soluble protein fraction. Seedlings exhibited constitutive synthesis of HSP at 26 °C in all except the nuclear membrane fraction in the morning; HSP levels at 26 °C in the afternoon were higher than in the morning in the mitochondrial and microsomal protein factions. Heat shock affected the abundance of HSPs depending on protein fraction and time of day. Without heat shock, nuclear membrane-bound HSP was absent from plants in the morning and only weakly present in the afternoon, and heat shock increased the abundance of nuclear membrane. Heat shock also affected the abundance of HSP in the afternoon, and caused HSP to appear in the morning. In the mitochondrial and microsomal protein fractions, an afternoon heat shock reduced HSP, whereas a morning heat shock increased HSP in the mitochondrial but decreased it in the microsomal fraction. Heat shock increased soluble HSP levels in both the morning and afternoon. In all instances, shoot and root heat tolerances were significantly greater in the afternoon than in the morning.  Planting stock continues to respire during storage even if frozen. Temperature is the major factor controlling the rate, and care must be taken to avoid overheating. Navratil (1982) found that closed containers in cold storage averaged internal temperatures 1.5 °C to 2.0 °C above the nominal storage temperature. Depletion of reserves can be estimated from the decrease in dry weight. Cold-stored 3+0 white spruce nursery stock in northern Ontario had lost 9% to 16% of dry weight after 40 days of storage. Carbohydrates can also be determined directly.  The propensity of a root system to develop new roots or extend existing roots cannot be determined by eye, yet it is the factor that makes or breaks the outcome of an outplanting operation. The post-planting development of roots or root systems of coniferous planting stock is determined by many factors, some physiological, some environmental. Unsatisfactory rates of post-planting survival unrelated to the morphology of the stock, led to attempts to test the physiological condition of planting stock, particularly to quantify the propensity to produce new root growth. New root growth can be assumed to be necessary for successful establishment of stock after planting, but although the thesis that RGC is positively related to field performance would seem to be reasonable, supporting evidence has been meager.  The physiological condition of seedlings is reflected by changes in root activity. This is helpful in determining the readiness of stock for lifting and storing and also for outplanting after storage. Navratil (1982) reported a virtually perfect (R2 = 0.99) linear relationship in the frequency of 3+0 white spruce white root tips longer than 10 mm with time in the fall at Pine Ridge Forest Nursery, Alberta, decreasing during a 3-week period to zero on October 13 in 1982.Root regenerating research with white spruce in Canada (Hambly 1973, Day and MacGillivray 1975, Day and Breunig 1997) followed similar lines to that of Stone's (1955) pioneering work in California.  Simpson and Ritchie (1997) debated the proposition that root growth potential of planting stock predicts field performance; their conclusion was that root growth potential, as a surrogate for seedling vigor, can predict field performance, but only under such situations as site conditions permit. Survival after planting is only partly a function of an outplant's ability to initiate roots in test conditions; root growth capacity is not the sole predictor of plantation performance.  Some major problems militate against greater use of RGC in forestry, including: unstandardized techniques; unstandardized quantification; uncertain correlation between quantified RGC and field performance; variability within given, nominally identical, kinds of planting stock; and the irrelevance of RGC test values determined on a sub-sample of a parent population that subsequently, before it is planted, undergoes any substantive physiological or physical change. In its present form, RGC testing is silviculturally useful chiefly as a means of detecting planting stock that, while visually unimpaired, is moribund.  Seedling moisture content can be increased or decreased in storage, depending on various factors including especially the type of container and the kind and amount of moisture-retaining material present. When seedlings exceed 20 bars PMS in storage, survival after outplanting becomes problematical. The Relative Moisture Content of stock lifted during dry conditions can be increased gradually when stored in appropriate conditions. White spruce (3+0) packed in Kraft bags in northern Ontario increased RMC by 20% to 36% within 40 days.  Bareroot 1.5+1.5 white spruce were taken from cold storage and planted early in May on a clear-felled boreal forest site in northeastern Ontario. Similar plants were potted and kept in a greenhouse. In outplanted trees, maximum stomatal conductances (g) were initially low (<0.01 cm/s), and initial base xylem pressure potentials (PSIb) were -2.0 MPa. During the growing season, g increased to about 0.20 cm/s and PSIb to -1.0 MPa. Minimum xylem pressure potential (PSIm) was initially -2.5 MPa, increasing to -2.0 MPa on day 40, and about -1.6 MPa by day 110. During the first half of the growing season, PSIm was below turgor loss point. The osmotic potential at turgor loss point decreased after planting to -2.3 MPa 28 days later. In the greenhouse, minimum values of PSIT were -2.5 MPa (in the first day after planting. the maximum bulk modulus of elasticity was greater in white spruce than in similarly treated jack pine and showed greater seasonal changes. Relative water content (RWC) at turgor loss was 80-87%. Available turgor (TA), defined as the integral of turgor over the range of RWC between PSIb and xylem pressure potential at the turgor loss point) was 4.0% for white spruce at the beginning of the season compared with 7.9% for jack pine, but for the rest of the season TA for jack pine was only 2%, to 3% that of white spruce. Diurnal turgor (Td), the integral of turgor over the range of RWC between PSIb and PSIm, as a percentage of TA was higher in field-planted white spruce than jack pine until the end of the season.  The stomata of both white and black spruce were more sensitive to atmospheric evaporative demands and plant moisture stress during the first growing season after outplanting on 2 boreal sites in northern Ontario than were jack pine stomata, physiological differences that favoured growth and establishment being more in jack pine than in the spruces.  With black spruce and jack pine, but not with white spruce, Grossnickle and Blake's (1987) findings warrant mention in relation to the bareroot-containerized debate. During the first growing season after outplanting, containerized seedlings of both species had greater needle conductance than bareroot seedlings over a range of absolute humidity deficits. Needle conductance of containerized seedlings of both species remained high during periods of high absolute humidity deficits and increasing plant moisture stress. Bareroot outplants of both species had a greater early season resistance to water-flow through the soil–plant–atmosphere continuum (SPAC) than had containerized outplants. Resistance to water flow through the SPAC decreased in bareroot stock of both species as the season progressed, and was comparable to containerized seedlings 9 to 14 weeks after planting. Bareroot black spruce had greater new-root development than containerized stock throughout the growing season.  The greater efficiency of water use in newly transplanted 3-year-old white spruce seedlings under low levels of absolute humidity difference in water-stressed plants immediately after planting helps explain the commonly observed favourable response of young outplants to the nursing effect of a partial canopy. Silvicultural treatments promoting higher humidity levels at the planting microsite should improve white spruce seedling photosynthesis immediately after planting.

Stock types (Seedling nomenclature).

Planting stock is grown under many diverse nursery culture regimes, in facilities ranging from sophisticated computerized greenhouses to open compounds. Types of stock include bareroot seedlings and transplants, and various kinds of containerized stock. For simplicity, both container-grown and bareroot stock are generally referred to as seedlings, and transplants are nursery stock that have been lifted and transplanted into another nursery bed, usually at wider spacing. The size and physiological character of stock vary with the length of growing period and with growing conditions. Until the technology of raising containerized nursery stock bourgeoned in the second half of the twentieth- century, bareroot planting stock classified by its age in years was the norm.

Classification by age.

The number of years spent in the nursery seedbed by any particular lot of planting stock is indicated by the 1st of a series of numbers. The 2nd number indicates the years subsequently spent in the transplant line, and a zero is shown if indeed there has been no transplanting. A 3rd number, if any, would indicate the years subsequently spent after a second lifting and transplanting. The numbers are sometimes separated by dashes, but separation by plus sign is more logical inasmuch as the sum of the individual numbers gives the age of the planting stock. Thus 2+0 is 2-year-old seedling planting stock that has not been transplanted, and Candy's (1929) white spruce 2+2+3 stock had spent 2 years in the seedbed, 2 years in transplant lines, and another 3 years in transplant lines after a second transplanting. Variations have included such self-explanatory combinations, such as 11⁄2+11⁄2, etc.  The class of planting stock to use on a particular site is generally selected on the basis of historical record of survival, growth, and total cost of surviving trees. In the Lake States, Kittredge concluded that good stock of 2+1 white spruce was the smallest size likely to succeed and was better than larger and more expensive stock when judged by final cost of surviving trees.

Classification by seedling description code.

Because age alone is an inadequate descriptor of planting stock, various codes have been developed to describe such components of stock characteristics as height, stem diameter, and shoot:root ratio. A description code may include an indication of the intended planting season.

Physiological characteristics.

Neither age classification nor seedling description code indicate the physiological condition of planting stock, though rigid adherence to a given cultural regime together with observation of performance over a number of years of planting can produce stock suitable for performing on a "same again" basis.

Classification by system.

Planting stock is raised under a variety of systems, but these have devolved generally into 2 main groupings: bareroot and containerized. Manuals specifically for the production of bareroot and containerized nursery stock are valuable resources for the nursery manager. As well, a lot of good information about nursery stock specific to regional jurisdictions is well presented by Cleary et al. (1978) for Oregon, Lavender et al. (1990) for British Columbia, and Wagner and Colombo (2001) for Ontario.

References.

Preparation and care of paddy nursery== External links ==

A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to a desired age. They include retail nurseries which sell to the general public, wholesale nurseries which sell only to businesses such as other nurseries and to commercial gardeners, and private nurseries which supply the needs of institutions or private estates.


History.

Formation and early days (1981–1982).

The Long Ryders' roots can be traced back to 1960s garage rock revivalist the Unclaimed, who formed in Los Angeles in 1979. After one EP, Kentucky-born guitarist and vocalist Sid Griffin and Kansas-born bassist Barry Shank left the Unclaimed in November 1981 with intentions to form a new band. Griffin: "I had this idea of what would happen if the top of the band, the guitars and the vocals were very West Coast [1960s], punchy and beautiful, but the bass and drums were as aggressive as a punk band. Early rehearsals included Unclaimed drummer Matt Roberts and future Dream Syndicate guitarist Steve Wynn. Drummer Greg Sowders, a native of Los Angeles, had met Griffin through a mutual friend and joined the band in February 1982 after an informal audition. The band rehearsed shortly as a trio before guitarist and vocalist Stephen McCarthy completed the lineup after answering a musicians wanted ad in March. Originally from Virginia, McCarthy had recently moved to Los Angeles and was looking for something "a bit rockier" after playing in country and western bands in New York and Nashville. They soon settled on the name the Long Ryders, named after the Walter Hill film "the Long Riders". The band wrote a letter to actor Stacy Keach, who had starred in and produced the film, asking for his approval to use the name. Keach was "honored" but had suggested a different spelling for legal reasons. The band then decided on the "y" spelling as an homage to the Byrds.  The Long Ryders were initially linked with the neo-psychedelia of Los Angeles' Paisley Underground scene, but McCarthy's arrival soon brought a country element to the band. Griffin: "His Clarence White-style country guitar-playing gave us a direction that nobody else had." Shank left the band in August 1982 to go back to college and was replaced by British expat Des Brewer. Later in the year, the new lineup entered producer Ethan James' Radio Tokyo Studio in Venice, California to record a three-track demo. Two of the tracks, "Still Get By" and "And She Rides", later appeared on the various artists compilation albums "The Radio Tokyo Tapes" and "The Rebel Kind - A Collection of Contemporary Garage and Psychedelic Bands" in 1983.

"10-5-60" and "Native Sons" (1983–1984).

In September 1983, PVC Records issued the band's self-funded "10-5-60" EP, which was produced by former Sparks guitarist Earle Mankey at his home studio in California. Griffin was working for PVC's parent label Jem Records, an import and distribution label, who agreed to take on distribution. Griffin: "I got us on the in-house label, and they did it as a favour.... it did really well, and they couldn't believe it". The EP showed a strong 1960s influence, from garage rock and psychedelia to Byrdsian folk and country rock. It was well received by critics, prompting the band to tour the US. Brewer, who was not committed to touring, left after the EP's release and was replaced by Don McCall, who only lasted 3 months before he was asked to leave. "His playing and my drumming never quite clicked," Sowders explained. Tom Stevens from Indiana became the band's new bassist in January 1984, after recommendations from mutual friends. "I didn’t even have to formally audition," Stevens said. "The Long Ryders had gigs coming up in the San Francisco area and needed someone quickly."  In the spring of 1984, the Long Ryders signed with Los Angeles-based independent record label Frontier Records and recorded their first full length album, "Native Sons", at A&M Studios in Los Angeles in early summer. They chose veteran producer Henry Lewy (Joni Mitchell, the Flying Burrito Brothers) to co-produce the album. Musically, the band had toned down the psychedelia, emphasizing country and rock and roll. The album featured former Byrd Gene Clark adding vocals to the song "Ivory Tower". "Gene was someone we all really admired," Sowders said. "He was around in LA, and we all knew him." Released in October 1984, "Native Sons" became the number 4 album on the college radio and Indie charts in the US and received positive critical reviews. The band's take on American musical traditions was especially a success with critics in the UK, where the "Melody Maker" called it "a modern American classic". Upon release in the UK in March 1985, it was distributed by Zippo Records, who also released "I Had a Dream" as a UK-only single. The album and the single reached number 1 and 4 on the UK Indie Chart, respectively.

"State of Our Union" (1985–1986).

Following the success of "Native Sons", the Long Ryders decided to reissue the "10-5-60" EP as a full-length album, retitled "5 by 5" with five new studio tracks. The band entered A&M Studios in February 1985 with engineer and co-producer Paul McKenna and recorded at least six tracks: "Time Keeps Travelling", "The Trip", "Sandwich Man", "As God Is My Witness", the Flamin' Groovies' "I Can’t Hide", and Bob Dylan's "Masters of War". The planned album, however, was abandoned when the band would sign a new record deal and prepare to record their next proper album later in the year. Most of the tracks were later included as bonus tracks on future compilation albums and on reissues of "Native Sons" and "10-5-60". "I Can’t Hide" was released as a flexi disc in 1986 under the moniker the Spinning Wighats and given away free with "the Bob" magazine.  After touring the US for much of 1984, the Long Ryders embarked on their first international tour to Europe in March and April 1985. "Upon our arrival in the UK," Stevens said, "we were greeted with sold out shows, amazing crowd receptions, the cover of "NME", and literally twelve record companies at our London hotel door after our second London show." Island Records UK signed the band in late spring and the band returned to the US to write and demo new songs. Released in September 1985, their first major label album, "State of Our Union", was recorded in England at Chipping Norton Studios and produced by Will Birch, formerly of British bands the Kursaal Flyers and the Records. The album was a success at college and alternative radio stations in the US, but its more prominent rock sound didn't please UK critics as much as "Native Sons". "State of Our Union" reached number 66 on the UK Albums Chart as well as number 2 on the UK Country Chart. The single "Looking for Lewis and Clark" peaked at number 59 on the UK Singles Chart but was never released commercially in the US. The album sold well in the UK, where "Looking for Lewis and Clark" gained the band much wider exposure. "State of Our Union" quickly became the band's biggest selling album, and the band was soon more popular in Europe than in the US, where they failed to break out of the college radio market.  In spring 1986, the Long Ryders were widely criticized for doing a TV commercial in the US for Miller Beer. Fans, critics and certain areas of the music community were outraged and accused the band of selling out. "The Long Ryders doing the Miller Beer ad killed us in the USA. It killed us stone dead. We went from hot to cold in about three weeks," Griffin said. "The Blasters, Los Lobos and X all did beer commercials too, but only us and the Del Fuegos got ripped for it." The band was not getting much airplay on regular commercial radio stations in the US and hoped that a beer commercial would provide them a much-needed exposure. Also, the band was not making any money touring. "To this day the only money the Long Ryders has ever seen is from that beer commercial," Griffin said in 2016. The band, however, continued to tour, building on their success in Europe. In Spain, they headlined in front of 100,000 people at a Barcelona festival in September 1986 which was broadcast live on national radio. Griffin: "Probably the highest of the high points. Graham Parker and the Shot, Wilson Pickett – they were both opening for us that day. I nearly fainted."

"Two-Fisted Tales" and break-up (1987).

The Long Ryders had ended 1986 by recording their second Island album, "Two-Fisted Tales", in November and December at A&M and Eldorado Studios in Hollywood with producer Ed Stasium (the Ramones, Soul Asylum, the Smithereens, Living Colour). It was mixed in February 1987 at Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas and features guest appearances by David Hidalgo of Los Lobos and Debbi and Vicki Peterson of the Bangles. On the album, the Long Ryders moved further away from their country rock origins towards a more college rock direction, but were still rooted in traditional Americana music. The finished album was delivered to Island in March, but the release was delayed for two months. "Tom Waits was selling better than Island expected, U2 were still shifting units, and so we were told to wait", Griffin said. In the two years since the Long Ryders signed with Island, several key employees had left the label's A&R department, and the new team showed little interest in the band and the release of "Two-Fisted Tales". In the meantime, the band were offered to open for U2 on the North American leg of their Joshua Tree tour in April and May. But since "Two-Fisted Tales" was delayed, the Long Ryders declined, hoping to join the U2 tour later on. Griffin: "We never did get to open for U2 at all, not even once. So this was a major opportunity blown, no question about it, and a fairly big regret of mine."  The album was finally released in June and despite its first single, a cover of NRBQ’s "I Want You Bad", getting radio airplay, neither single nor album charted. The lack of commercial success and label support as well as a relentless touring schedule began to take its toll on the band. After a European tour, Stevens left the band to be replaced by the band's guitar tech, Larry Chatman, for a US tour that followed immediately. Griffin: "He went on the road with us and learned while driving across the country and in motel rooms at night. We never had a formal rehearsal." In 2013, Stevens explained his reasons for leaving: "The spring 1987 tour of Europe was a nightmare. Despite a major label "deal," we were broke, and I found myself having to find another source of income so that my growing family could eat and have a roof over their heads. In June 1987, when the other Long Ryders insisted upon doing a U.S. tour that was expected to lose five figures, I announced that I was leaving the band."  In August, McCarthy announced to the band that he would be leaving at the end of the US tour. "It was a dead end," he said in 1988. "I don’t regret a day I played in the Long Ryders, but it was futile. I quit before it got to the point of beating each other on stage." Even though Island offered Griffin and Sowders the opportunity to record a third album for the label, they decided not to continue as the Long Ryders without McCarthy. The band did not officially break up until late 1987.  "Our signing with Island in 1985 worked well for the first few months," Stevens said in 2009. "Then our A&R guy got the axe at year's end [and] the new UK regime hated us. Island U.S. was also fairly useless.... we never seemed to be a big concern for any of them. Between that and the slow shift that started in 1986 to hair metal, the terrain got so creepy and hard to navigate that it put a strain on us as a band, from which we could not recover."

Post break-up.

In 1989, the Long Ryders fan club released the authorized C90 audio cassette compilation "Metallic B.O.", which contained previously unreleased live recordings and studio outtakes. The tape was subsequently edited down for CD reissue by Overground Records in 1990. Two live albums and two compilation albums were released in the 1990s and 2000s. "BBC Radio One Live in Concert" (1994) and "" (2003) contain live recordings from 1985 and 1987, while "" (1998) and "The Best of the Long Ryders" (2004) collect tracks spanning the band's career from 1983 to 1987, including B-sides, demos and live recordings.  Griffin, who relocated to London, kept busy as a solo artist and bandleader (the Coal Porters, Western Electric), and as a music journalist and author. Since 1994, he has run his own label, the London-based Prima Records. The label is primarily, but not exclusively, an outlet for Griffin's solo projects, and releases by the Long Ryders and the Coal Porters. He wrote several books, including "Gram Parsons: A Music Biography" (1985), "Million Dollar Bash: Bob Dylan, The Band & the Basement Tapes" (2007) and "Shelter from the Storm: Bob Dylan's Rolling Thunder Years" (2010). The second volume was reissued in 2014 to coincide with the release of "", a six-CD collection to which Griffin contributed liner notes.  McCarthy, after a stint leading his own band, Walker Stories, and appearing on the 1990 multi-artist album "True Voices" in a duet with Carla Olson on the Tom Jans song "Loving Arms," returned home to Richmond, Virginia; he played in the indie supergroup Gutterball with Steve Wynn and fellow Richmondites Bryan Harvey and Johnny Hott of House of Freaks, and in 2001 began playing with the Jayhawks. Stevens returned to his native Indiana, earned a degree in computer science and released solo albums. Additionally, Sowders, who was briefly married to singer Lucinda Williams, went to work in music publishing. Brewer continued to play the Los Angeles circuit, first accompanying various female singer-songwriters, and then moving on to the old-school country band, the Misbegotten Cowboys. Original bassist Shank holds a Ph.D. in American studies and is a professor at Ohio State University. He is the author of several books, including "Dissonant Identities: The Rock 'n' Roll Scene in Austin, Texas" (1994), "A Token of My Affection: Greeting Cards and American Business Culture" (2004), and "The Political Force of Musical Beauty" (2014).

Reunion (2004–2018).

In 2003, a European booking agent approached the band about putting together a Long Ryders reunion for shows in the UK, Spain and the Netherlands in the summer of 2004, including a performance at the Glastonbury Festival. "I never thought the Long Ryders would play together again.", Griffin said in 2004. "I'd had offers before to tour as 'Sid Griffin and the Long Ryders', a kind of karaoke version of the Long Ryders playing Long Ryders songs... But this offer was to get all the originals together, so I passed it along.... I thought if we don’t do it now we [are] never going to do it." A live album entitled "State of Our Reunion" resulted from the reunion tour. The band played their first live dates in the US in more than 20 years when they played two shows at the EARL in Atlanta, Georgia in January 2009. "Just some crazy guy with money," Griffin said. In January 2014, the Long Ryders played their first show in Los Angeles in 27 years at the one-off Earle Mankey Appreciation Night concert at the Troubadour. A five date Spanish tour followed in December.  In January 2016, Cherry Red Records released a Long Ryders box set, "Final Wild Songs", composed of all the material from their three full-length albums, their one EP, various demos and rarities, and a previously unavailable 15-song performance from a Benelux radio appearance in March 1985. "Mojo" magazine, in its February 2016 issue, gave the collection a lead review, saying, "They unwittingly invented Americana, but seldom receive credit for it. This 4-CD box set puts the record straight." The band subsequently played 12 dates on the Continent and in the UK in April and May, and 4 East Coast dates in the US in November.  In 2017, Griffin, McCarthy, Sowders and Stevens recorded the first new material for the Long Ryders since 1987. McCarthy: "The band played a number of shows in 2016 and we felt it would be worthwhile to try and write/record some new material." McCarthy and Sowders recorded their parts for a few new songs with engineer and co-producer Adrian Olsen at his Montrose Recording studio in Virginia, while Griffin and Stevens recorded remotely from London and Indiana. A single from these recordings, "Bear in the Woods," was released on April 17, 2017 in time for a 4 date Californian tour in late April.  In November 2018, Cherry Red Records released three-CD box set editions of the band's albums "State of Our Union" and "Two-Fisted Tales", also announcing that a new album from the band would be released in 2019 on Cherry Red Records in the UK and Omnivore Recordings in North America.

"Psychedelic Country Soul" (2019–present).

On February 15, 2019 the Long Ryders released "Psychedelic Country Soul", the band's first album of new material in 32 years. The opening track, "Greenville", premiered on the "Billboard" website. The album was produced by Ed Stasium at Dr. Dre's Record One studio in Los Angeles and features members of the Bangles on harmony vocals and Dave Pearlman (Dan Fogelberg, Phil Everly, Hoyt Axton) on pedal steel guitar. The "LA Times" said of the album, "The record sounds fantastic", whilst "Mojo" wrote, ""Psychedelic Country Soul" puts them right back at the top of a world they helped create." The Long Ryders announced a series of tour dates in 2019 to support the album's release. It was the band's most extensive tour since the 1980s with 43 dates in Europe and North America. Sowders, who was unavailable for the October/November dates in Europe, was temporarily replaced by Simon Hancock. Between January 29 and February 3, 2020, the band participated in the Outlaw Country Cruise music festival, a 5-night boat cruise from Miami, Florida to Falmouth, Jamaica with over 30 artists including Lucinda Williams, the Mavericks and Steve Earle and the Dukes.  McCarthy contributed to Carla Olson's 2020 album, "Have Harmony, Will Travel 2", where he plays guitar and duets with Olson on "Timber, I'm Falling In Love", originally a No. 1 hit for Patty Loveless on Billboard's Hot Country Singles and Tracks chart in 1989. He also appears on Olson's "Americana Railroad" album in the autumn of 2020.

The Long Ryders are an American alternative country and Paisley Underground band, principally active between 1982 and 1987, who have periodically regrouped for brief reunions (2004, 2009, 2014, 2016). In 2019 they released a new studio album – their first in 32 years – and announced a series of tour dates to follow.


History and context.

Because of sodomy laws and threat of prosecution due to the criminalization of homosexuality, LGBT slang has served as an argot or cant, a secret language and a way for the LGBT community to communicate with each other publicly without revealing their sexual orientation to others. Since the advent of queer studies in universities, LGBT slang and argot has become a subject of academic research among linguistic anthropology scholars.  During the first seven decades of the 20th century, a specific form of Polari was developed by gay men and lesbians in urban centres of the United Kingdom within established LGBT communities. Although there are differences, contemporary British gay slang has adopted many Polari words. The 1964 legislative report "Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida" contains an extensive appendix documenting and defining the homosexual slang in the United States at that time. SCRUFF launched a gay-slang dictionary app in 2014, which includes commonly used slang in the United States from the gay community. Specialized dictionaries that record LGBT slang have been found to revolve heavily around sexual matters.  Slang is ephemeral. Terms used in one generation may pass out of usage in another. For example, in the 1960s and 1970s, the terms "cottage" (chiefly British) and "tearoom" (chiefly American) were used to denote public toilets used for sex. By 1999, this terminology had fallen out of use to the point of being greatly unrecognizable by members of the LGBT community at large.  Many terms that originated as gay slang have become part of the popular lexicon. For example, the word "drag" was popularized by Hubert Selby Jr. in his book "Last Exit to Brooklyn". "Drag" has been traced back by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to the late 19th Century. Conversely, words such as "banjee", while well-established in a subset of gay society, have never made the transition to popular use. Conversations between gay men have been found to use more slang and fewer commonly known terms about sexual behavior than conversations between straight men.

Other languages.

African languages.

"Gayle" (or "Gail") is a gay argot or cant slang used primarily by English- and Afrikaans-speakers in urban South Africa. It is similar in some respects to Polari in the United Kingdom, from which some of its lexical items have been borrowed.  "IsiNgqumo" (or "IsiGqumo") is an argot used by gays and lesbians of South Africa and Zimbabwe who speak Bantu languages. IsiNgqumo developed during the 1980s. It has not been as thoroughly researched or documented as Gayle.

Indonesian.

"Bahasa Binan" (or "bahasa Béncong") is a distinctive Indonesian speech variety originating from the gay community. It has several regular patterns of word formation, well-documented in both speech and writing.

Japanese.

Although many slang words used in modern Japan are loanwords from American English, many native Japanese slang words remain in Japan's LGBT community.

Tagalog.

"Swardspeak" (also known as "gayspeak" or "gay lingo") is an argot or cant slang derived from Taglish (Tagalog–English code-switching) and used by LGBT people in the Philippines. It deliberately transforms or creates words that resemble words from other languages, particularly English, Japanese, Chinese, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and German. It is colorful, witty, and humorous, with vocabularies derived from popular culture and regional variations.

Turkish.

Lubunca has been used by the LGBT community in Turkey since the Ottoman era.

LGBT slang, LGBT speak, or gay slang is a set of slang lexicon used predominantly among LGBT people. It has been used in various languages since the early 20th century as a means by which members of the LGBT community identify themselves and speak in code with brevity and speed to others.


History.

The title of the ruler of Bourbonnais between 913 and 1327, was Sire de Bourbon (or Seigneur de Bourbon).  The first lord of Bourbonnais known by name was Adhémar (or ). Aymon's father was Aymar (894-953), sire of Souvigny, his only son with Ermengarde. Aymar lived during the reign of Charles the Simple who, in 913, gave him fiefs on the Allier River in which would become Bourbonnais. He acquired the castle of Bourbon (today Bourbon-l'Archambault). Almost all early lords took the name d'Archambaud, after the palace, but later the family became known as the "House of Bourbon".  The first House of Bourbon ended in 1196, with the death of Archambault VII, who had only one heir, Mathilde of Bourbon. She married Guy II of Dampierre, who added Montlucon to the possessions of the lords of Bourbon. The second house of Bourbon started in 1218, with Archambault VIII, son of Guy II and Mahaut, and brother of William II of Dampierre. He was followed by his son Archambaut IX, who died in Cyprus in 1249, during a crusade. The House of Burgundy then acquired Bourbonnais.  In 1272, Beatrice of Burgundy (1258-1310), Lady of Bourbon, married Robert de France (1256-1318), Count of Clermont, son of king Louis IX (Saint-Louis). Thus began the long-lasting House of Bourbon, which would provide the kings of France from Henry IV in 1589 to Louis-Phillipe in 1848, when France abolished its monarchy.  The Bourbons had concluded an alliance with the royal power. They put their forces at the service of the king, thus benefitting from the geographic position of Bourbonnais, located between the royal domains and the duchies of Aquitaine and Auvergne. This alliance, as well as the marriage of Béatrix de Bourgogne and Robert de France, aided the rise and prosperity of the province. In 1327, King Charles ("le Bel") elevated Bourbonnais to the status of a duchy.

Bourbonnais was a historic province in the centre of France that corresponds to the modern "département" of Allier, along with part of the "département" of Cher. Its capital was Moulins.


Biography.

Travis Stewart was born on March 4, 1982 in Eden, North Carolina. He was exposed to a wide range of musical influences in his childhood. His grandfather played pedal steel for a country band, and gave Stewart his first guitar. His first recordings were made at his grandparents' house, around the age of 5 or 6. His parents kept a house full of instruments, and a singer-songwriter cousin continually exposed him to new sounds and ideas. He fostered an interest with polyrhythms while playing marching snare in his high school band, and the djembe in an African ensemble. Stewart played in two local alternative bands, before turning more towards electronic music around the time of 8th grade. Using handed down computers, he began to produce his own music, and connected with a community of likeminded musicians over the internet. He started the Machinedrum project during his final two years of high school, between 1998 and 1999. After graduation, he attended Full Sail University in Florida to study audio engineering. In 2001, at the age of 19, he released his first record as Machinedrum, Now You Know, on Merck Records.  Following college, Stewart moved to New York City and got involved with Brooklyn-based boutique label Normrex, and has since collaborated with such people as Tiombe Lockhart, Theophilus London, Jesse Boykins III, Azealia Banks, and Mickey Factz among others. For Theophilus London, Stewart produced the Jam Mixtape and mixed This Charming Mixtape. For Azealia Banks, he produced the tracks Barbie Shit, L8R, and Fantasea among others. From 2001–2010, Stewart is credited for having released 8 albums, 20 remixes, and numerous mixes, singles, and EPs.  Stewart's collaboration with Praveen Sharma, known as Sepalcure, began after the two had collaborated on parties Percussion Lab and Cassette NYC, then decided to record music together, which gained the attention of Hotflush records, who signed the duo. Pitchfork Magazine considered their self-titled LP one of 2011's Top 50 albums, and the song "Pencil Pimp," made the list of 2011's Top 100 Tracks. In 2010, Stewart and Sharma wrote and performed the song "Outside The Lines" for the film Black Swan. Also in 2010, Stewart signed to LuckyMe records and released the Many Faces EP, followed by the "Alarma" single in 2011 and the SXLND EP in 2012. In 2011, Stewart released the album Room(s), on Planet Mu. The album was made mostly on the road, with Stewart limited to his laptop and headphones. In 2013, Stewart signed to Ninja Tune and announced his debut LP for the label, "Vapor City, "would be released later that year. His single "She Died There" was featured in the video game Grand Theft Auto V on the fictional radio station "FlyLo FM."  As a performer, Stewart has played such venues as the Sydney Opera House, the Nokia Theater in New York City, the Sonar Music Festival '11 and '12 in Barcelona, and SXSW.  Stewart currently resides in the Kreuzberg district of Berlin.

Travis Stewart (born March 4, 1982), better known as Machinedrum, is an American electronic music producer and performer from North Carolina. He is also known as Syndrone and Tstewart. He is one half of Sepalcure, with Praveen Sharma, one half of Jets, with Jimmy Edgar, as well as half of Dream Continuum, with Jim Coles, a.k.a. Om Unit.


Biography.

Early life.

Bollardière was born in 1907 in Brittany, into a family with a tradition of military service, particularly in the French colonial empire: he was part of the fourth generation of his family to enlist, alongside his brother, who was killed in the Rif War after their father had moved the family to Morocco in 1916. In 1927, Jacques enrolled at the Military Academy of Saint-Cyr; he graduated in 1930 and due to insubordination, it was only with the rank of sergeant. (Saint-Cyr cadets normally graduate as commissioned officers, with the rank of sous-lieutenant). He disliked the authoritarianism he encountered at Saint-Cyr: he later considered this attitude to be key to his decision to join the French Resistance whilst many of his former classmates served Vichy France. He was quickly promoted to sous-lieutenant and to lieutenant in 1932.  He joined the French Foreign Legion in February 1935 and was posted to Algeria until 1940.

Second World War.

In February 1940, Bollardière was assigned to the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade, and promoted to captain. He took part in the Battles of Narvik, and was back in Brest on the 13th of June. Seeing the debacle of the French armies, he crossed the Channel on a fishing boat and was among the very first to join Charles de Gaulle (the momentous rallying call that founded the Fighting French was broadcast on the 18th of that month); the Vichy regime sentenced him to death.  Bollardière fought in Gabon, and in Eritrea during the East African Campaign. Leading a 90-man strong party, he managed to seize and occupy an Italian fort in Massawa, taking over 300 prisoners. He was made a Compagnon de la Libération for this action.  Promoted to commandant (Major) in 1941, he took part in the capture of Damascus that summer. The following year, he took part in the Battle of Bir Hakeim, and the First Battle of El Alamein. He was severely wounded by a mine.  In October 1943, he volunteered for Special Forces training and was put on a parachute-training course. On 12 April 1944, Bollardière was parachuted in France to take a command of the maquis in Ardennes ("Maquis des Manises"), under the "nom de guerre" "Prisme". His maquis units engaged German troops and sustained heavy casualties, but made a successful link with the advancing Allied ground forces. In September 1944, Bollardière returned to England.  He was then posted to the Airborne Forces and joined the "Red Berets" of the 3e "Régiment de Chasseurs Parachutistes" (Parachute Light Infantry), which was part of the Special Air Service Brigade. He parachuted into Holland, subsequently making his way to Germany following their defeat in 1945.

Indochina war.

Bollardière was in command of a paratrooper demi-brigade at the outbreak of the First Indochina War. He took part in commando actions in Laos, Cambodia and Tonkin. He subsequently said that having initially understood the Indochina War as an action to restore legitimate French rule in the area after the Japanese occupation, he came to draw parallels between the anti-colonialist forces he was fighting against and the "maquis" group he led during the Second World War.

Algerian War.

From October 1953, Bollardière taught paratrooper strategy and tactics at the Paris "École de Guerre", the prestigious school for staff officers.  At the outbreak of the Algerian War, in July 1956, Bollardière was put in command of two brigades in the Algerian Atlas Mountains. He was promoted to général de brigade in December, becoming the youngest general of the French army of the time. His philosophy of "pacification" was significantly different from that of the violent counterinsurgency strategy used by the bulk of French forces, instead attempting to built relationships between the "Pied-Noirs" and the Arab-Berber population, eschewing racial profiling of indigenous people, and initiating work projects to benefit the local community. This distinct approach was noticed by opposing forces: Mohammed Lebjaoui, a member of the, later said that for him and other leaders in the National Liberation Front, "General de Bollardière always represented in the fight, as an enemy, the honor of the French uniform and flag. He was the only general in the French army in Algeria who compelled and deserved our respect".  In opposition to government policy regarding usage of torture among French units, after the escalation in the violation of human rights during the Battle of Algiers, Bollardière requested to be relieved of command, and returned to France in January 1957. He was sentenced to 60 days of fortress arrest at La Courneuve for "bringing the army into disrepute" by publicly supporting "L'Express" editor Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber's coverage of the war. The only military officer to support him was captain Pierre Dabezies (1925–2002), a left-wing Gaullist who would later lead the 11e Choc elite troop and get close to the socialist Jean-Pierre Chevènement. Bollardière was later assigned to French Equatorial Africa and Germany.  He resigned from the Army after the Algiers putsch, as he was not able to obtain a command in Algeria.

Retirement and pacifist activism.

After his withdrawal from active service, Bollardière retired to his native Brittany, joining a naval construction firm in Lorient. After initially taking to his new work with enthusiasm, he quickly became disillusioned after witnessing the alienation of workers' labour, noting that whilst hierarchies in the army had not presented a barrier to good relationships between men of different ranks, in the industrial workplace relations between workers and management were characterised by class conflict. He was driven to study this topic, drawing on Catholic social teaching to consider how this could be remedied. However, despite attempts at reforming workplace relations, he left after two and a half years, convinced that the industrial environment was inherently dehumanising.  Bollardière became a pacifist after a talk by the writer in Lorient, on 23 October 1970. He subsequently co-founded the, an organisation promoting the principles of non-violence. He was president of the association "Logement et Promotion Sociale" between 1968 and 1978, focusing on public housing with a particular concentration on immigrants from southern Europe and Africa. He was also involved in adult education and the Breton regionalist movement, believing that the decline of Breton culture and the area's economic underdevelopment were both linked to the centralisation of the French state. In July 1973, he was arrested by the French Navy during protests against nuclear trials in Mururoa, along with journalist Brice Lalonde, priest Jean Toulat and Jean-Marie Muller. The Council of Ministers, then headed by Georges Pompidou, removed him from the army as a disciplinary measure and gave him a pension - up to this point, he had still formally been a general, albeit not serving. The group responded to their detention by going on hunger strike: after five days, Bollardière started suffering from hypertension and was moved to hospital for treatment. Following the incident he returned his Legion of Honour to the French government in protest. He was also a supporter of the successful Fight for the Larzac, which protested against the expansion of a French army camp on the Larzac plateau, a project which was cancelled by François Mitterrand when he was elected President of France in 1981.  Jacques Paris Bollardière died on 22 February 1986 at his residence Vieux-Talhouët and was buried in Vannes, Brittany.

Further reading.

Aussaresses, General Paul, "The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955-1957". (New York: Enigma Books, 2010).

Jacques Pâris de Bollardière (16 December 1907 in Châteaubriant, Loire-Atlantique – 22 February 1986) was a French Army general, famous for his non-violent positions during the 1960s.


Gameplay.

In most "Tetris" titles, a player's score is incremented as a result of completing "lines", where a row of brick pieces that is without gaps is removed from the 2D playing field. This both earns points and removes the completed row, making room for further pieces. However, in "Tetrisphere", the goal is instead to remove bricks by forcing three of the same type of piece to touch as a result of a "drop". A drop is achieved when any brick falls, either as a direct result of the player releasing the currently held brick or when the brick which supports it from below is removed by any method. When three bricks of the same type touch, this triggers a "reaction". When a reaction occurs, the three bricks will glow brightly and implode, removing themselves from the field of play. Any other same-shaped blocks which are touching that reaction will also be removed in a chain reaction. For example, if a player has lines of nested "Z" pieces, and then drops another "Z" directly on top of one of the nested "Z"s, the one which was dropped will cause the piece below to implode, in turn causing all identical pieces touching that piece to explode, and so on. The only exception is that the pieces involved (including the original three) must abide by the rules which dictate which pieces are "touching". For example, any two matching pieces which are stacked must be exactly on top of each other, if they are both to be removed. Laterally, each piece obeys the rules specific to its shape. As an illustration of this point, "O" pieces (a 2x2 square, colored blue) and "I" pieces (a 3x1 or 1x3 rectangle, colored green or yellow) must have full contact on one side with one full side of another piece of the same shape, but all other pieces are considered "touching" if any part of them is in contact with another of the same shape.  There is a penalty incurred each time a player drops a brick without starting a reaction. The player may be penalized three times during a given play period, after which the round ends. While the player is scrutinizing the playfield, searching for likely reactions, a blue timer slowly counts down. When the timer reaches zero, a new yellow timer starts and the player begins to move towards the sphere at an increasingly fast pace (moving back to the default position for each piece dropped). That timer may also expire, causing a new and final red timer to begin, which moves the player towards the playfield even faster than the yellow timer. There is no penalty if the final timer reaches zero, but if the player gets too close to the playfield, the piece is dropped, causing a penalty if there is no reaction. The timer is slightly refilled for every piece removed and is reset to a full blue timer when a penalty is incurred. Removing 20 or more pieces will provide access to progressively more powerful assistive (or "magic") devices such as sticks of dynamite or rockets, that the player may employ at any time to remove large sections of the surface. Each type of explosive has its own pattern of removal, area of effect, and drawbacks. This also multiplies the player's score for each piece removed.  There are several modes of play available in "Tetrisphere". The foremost single-player mode is "Rescue", which challenges the player to free a robot from the core of a sphere. As levels increase, the number of layers, size of the trapped robots, and types of pieces present increase. "Hide and Seek" has the same objective, and consists of a mix of different challenges, such as exposing a picture imprinted on the sphere's core. The "Puzzle" mode removes the drop timer, the combo weapons, and the infinite and random natures of the pieces supplied to the player. Instead, players must remove all blocks from the surface of the globe, given a finite number of sliding moves and drops of select pieces. The "Vs. CPU" and the two-player "Vs. Player" feature split-screen race to reveal a number of core squares. "Time-Trial" and "Practice" modes, as well as a training tutorial, are also available. Finally, a hidden "Lines" mode exists, where pieces cannot be dropped. Instead, blocks implode by themselves if three of the same type are lined up with each other.

Development.

"Tetrisphere" was developed by H2O Entertainment, a game development company founded by Christopher Bailey, Michael Tam and Stephen Shatford, which was based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The project originally started as an Atari Jaguar game entitled "Phear" and was on display for playing at Atari Corporation's booth during the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in 1995, featuring gameplay similar to the "Tower" challenges found in the "Hide and Seek" mode of "Tetrisphere", however, it involved the player in creating a hole of a specific size (3x2 for example) on the center of the sphere's core in order to progress into the next level. Nintendo reportedly secured the rights to "Phear" after seeing the game showcased at Winter CES '95, and it was announced as a Nintendo 64 game at Nintendo Space World that same year. H2O, which had completed a reverse takeover with Canadian Entech Resources Inc., began working exclusively for Nintendo during the game's development.  Around the time the company went public, Nintendo announced that "Tetrisphere" would be released in October 1996, boosting the company's stock. This didn't work for the partners in H20, though. "That was the first they had heard of the release date," the "Canadian Business" magazine said. The company strove to finish the game by October, but that wasn't found to be feasible. The delay significantly hurt H20's stock. "In terms of credibility and how investors perceived us, it really hurt us," partner Michaal Tam said. Once the planned release date had passed, Nintendo assigned six employees (approximately half a department) to the team.  Nintendo also imposed strict conditions upon the developer. "We weren't able to disclose any information," H2O developer Michael Tam said.  The game was developed on Silicon Graphics Indy, Indigo and O2 workstations. The music was composed in FastTracker 2 on a Pentium PC. The graphics were created with SoftImage running on Indigo and O2 workstations. The game was written in the C programming language and compiled to target 'Ultra64' development boxes for testing and bug tracking.  Senior developers improved the engine so that only part of the sphere is visible at any time, thus reducing the render load on the N64 hardware. The framerate was increased, allowing for a two-player mode not present in the first version.  Stephen Shatford was the Sr. Game Designer and "Tetris" creator Alexey Pajitnov contributed to the game's design while working at Microsoft. The North American release of "Tetrisphere" was ultimately delayed until August 1997, when it became the first puzzle game available on the Nintendo 64.  The techno-style soundtrack for "Tetrisphere" was composed by Neil Voss. He began the project as a freelancer when it was on the Jaguar, then signed on as an audio director when it moved to the Nintendo 64. Voss was the sole producer, composer, and sound engineer, but had help from in-house programmer David Pridie and staff from Silicon Graphics. Beginning with a cyberpunk style, the team transitioned to the techno genre due to the "uniqueness" of "Tetrisphere" as a puzzle game. Voss explained that "Tetrisphere" features only stereophonic sound because "[...] for a game where the action is all around you, it could enhance gameplay and the immersive experience." Voss was also able to simulate surround sound.  The composer frequently used samples during production, specifically in the tracks "Extol", "Martist", and "Hallucid"; for instance, "Extol" uses a chorus of Balinese singers from a stock sample CD. The song titles were chosen as they would be if released on an album. Voss elaborated, "'Azule Lux' was supposed to be 'blue light' relating to one of the level backgrounds that impressed me visually. 'Snowy Mushrooms' is a drug reference and equally a reference to Nintendo's penchant for mushroom imagery. 'Phony' is because I felt that track was too close to Liam Howlett's (of the Prodigy) (me being phony). 'Extol' means to praise, which I felt was appropriate... Things like that."

Reception.

"Tetrisphere" received "favorable" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings based on nine reviews. Critics widely praised the innovative design, numerous and engrossing modes of play, and funky soundtrack with the ability for the player to select which track is played. Jer Horwitz wrote in "GameSpot" that "Tetrisphere" "is precisely the sort of game that the Nintendo 64 really needs, offering revolutionary gameplay, impressive long-term value, and a set of visual effects that go above and beyond what Sony's PlayStation can handle."  The graphics were also generally well-regarded. Horwitz, who saw the game's demo as "Phear" at the Consumer Electronics Show, was particularly impressed with how much the graphics had been improved over the original Jaguar version, noting the smooth spheres and moving 3D backgrounds. "Next Generation" dissented with the majority, stating that "Graphically, "Tetrisphere" doesn't live up to most other Nintendo 64 games - the most obvious flaw is an annoying pop-up as the player rotates the globe."  Though they agreed that it is innovative, critics had varying experiences with the gameplay. "Next Generation" and "GamePro" both said the gameplay's complexity and unprecedented mechanics make it difficult to learn, but ultimately more rewarding. "GamePro" said that "it actually requires a completely new mental discipline - which is just what the aging Tetris franchise needs." "GameSpot" and Shawn Smith and Crispin Boyer of "Electronic Gaming Monthly" both contended that while mastery of the game is a challenge, "Tetrisphere" is enjoyable even without learning the nuances of its strategy. Smith and Boyer's co-reviewer Dan Hsu instead said that mastering the game is impossible, since its 3D nature makes it impractical to get a full view of the field under the time constraints, and that tackling the puzzles blindly is boring. "IGN"s Doug Perry simply commented that "Puzzler fanatics, however, may want to steer clear of this game for fear of permanent addiction."  The game was distributed for sale among a network of 17,000 retailers in North America and Europe. Despite little advertising in the United States, "Tetrisphere" managed to sell 335,000 copies in the region between its August release date and December 31, 1997. Out of 42 titles, "Tetrisphere" ranked at number 27 in terms of sales for Nintendo games in 1997. H2O Entertainment announced that the game had sold 430,000 copies worldwide as of March 31, 1998.  "Nintendo Power" ranked "Tetrisphere" at number 50 on its list of "100 Best Nintendo Games of All Time" in September 1997. The magazine also gave it an award for "Best Soundtrack" for its annual awards for that year. IGN considered the game's soundtrack to be the fourth best of any N64 game.

Tetrisphere is a falling block puzzle video game for the Nintendo 64 (N64) console. Developed by Canadian company H2O Entertainment, a nearly complete version of the game was originally slated for release on the Atari Jaguar in early 1995. After Nintendo obtained its publishing rights, "Tetrisphere" was reworked for the N64 and released on the platform in North America on August 11, 1997, and the PAL regions in February 1998.


Satellite bands.

In 2007, it was announced Secret Chiefs 3 has always been a general name for seven different bands, each representing a different aspect of Spruance's musical and philosophical interests. The seven bands are Electromagnetic Azoth, UR, Ishraqiyun, Traditionalists, Holy Vehm, FORMS, and NT Fan. Spruance has stated that the sound collages of Electromagnetic Azoth serve as the center of Secret Chiefs 3.  The albums "Book of Horizons" (2004) and "Satellite Supersonic Vol. 1" (2010) were conceived as compilation albums featuring the satellite bands under their own names. All bands have appeared on at least one of these albums. Some satellite bands have also released records on their own. So far, five of the satellite bands have had tracks featured across a series of six 7" singles and Traditionalists and Ishraqiyun have delivered full-length albums.

Band members.

Spruance formed the band in the mid-1990s with fellow Mr. Bungle members Trevor Dunn on bass and Danny Heifetz on drums. Some of the many musicians who have since recorded or toured with SC3 include violinist Eyvind Kang, percussionist William Winant, drummer Ches Smith, bassist Shahzad Ismaily, former Mr. Bungle member Clinton "Bär" McKinnon, and Estradasphere members Timb Harris, Jason Schimmel, and Tim Smolens. Musicians tend to float in and out of SC3, so the concept of "current" and "former" members isn't entirely applicable. Below is a list of past and present members, guests and collaborators:

Discography.

This is a list of all releases by SC3 and the satellite bands. The column "artist" states under what name the recording is released, not who is credited with the individual songs. Some releases, like the album "Book of Horizons", are noteworthy in this regard because they are released under the name Secret Chiefs 3, but the tracks they contain are each credited to a satellite band, giving the release the appearance of a compilation album.

Secret Chiefs 3 (or SC3) is an avant-garde group led by guitarist/composer Trey Spruance (formerly of Mr. Bungle and Faith No More). Their studio recordings and tours have featured different line-ups, as the group performs a wide range of musical styles, mostly instrumental, including surf rock, Persian, Arab, Indian, death metal, film music, electronic music, and various others.


Major religious divisions.

Dar al-Islam.

Dar al-Islam ( literally "house/abode of Islam"; or Dar as-Salam, "house/abode of Peace"; or Dar al-Tawhid, "house/abode of monotheism") is a term used by Muslim scholars to refer to those countries where Muslims can practice their religion as the ruling sect. It is the area of the world under the rule of Islam, literally, "the home of Islam." These are usually Islamic cultures wherein Muslims represent the majority of the population, and so the government promises them a privileged status. Most "Dar al-Islam" areas are surrounded by other Islamic societies to ensure public protection.  Some modern Muslim scholars believe that the labeling of a country or place as being a part of "Dar al-Islam" revolves around the question of religious security. This means that if a Muslim practises Islam freely in his place of abode, even though that place happens to be secular or un-Islamic, then he will be considered as living in the "Dar al-Islam". Yet, the majority opinion, which relies on tradition, claims that only countries ruled by Sharia can be considered true "abodes of peace."  "Dar al-Islam", or house/abode of Submission, is also known and referred to as "Dar al-Salam", or house/abode of Peace. The term appears in the Quran in 10.25 and 6.127 as a name of Paradise.  According to Abu Hanifa, considered to be the originator of the concept, the requirements for a country to be part of "Dar al-Islam" are:

Dar al-Harb.

Dar al-Harb ( "house of war"). Dar al-Harb is a term classically referring to those countries which do not have a treaty of nonaggression or peace with Muslims (those that do are called Dar al-'Ahd or Dar al-Sulh).  According to Majid Khadduri, the fundamental distinction between "Dar al-Islam" and "Dar al-Harb" was introduced after the defeat of the Umayyad Caliphate at the Battle of Tours in 732 which prevented the expansion of Islam to the north, while at the same time the expansion of the caliphate to the east had been halted.  Wahbah al-Zuhayli argues that the concept of Dar al-Harb is mostly historical: "The existence of Dār al-Islām and Dār al-Ḥarb in contemporary times is rare or extremely limited. This is because Islamic countries have joined the United Nations covenant that stipulates that the relationship between nations is peace and not war. Therefore non-Muslim countries are Dār al-‘Ahd..."

Dar al-'Ahd, Dar al-Sulh.

Dar al-'Ahd ( "house of truce") or Dar al-Sulh ( "house of conciliation/treaty") are terms used for territories that have a treaty of non-aggression or peace with Muslims.  This designation can be found in the Quran, where Muslims are directed on how they should act in war:  "Excepting those who join a people between whom and you there is a treaty, or such as come to you with hearts reluctant to fight you, or to fight their own people. Had Allah wished, He would have imposed them upon you, and then they would have surely fought you. So if they keep out of your way and do not fight you, and offer you peace, then Allah does not allow you any course [of action] against them." Quran 4:90

The Arabic singular form "dar" (), translated literally, may mean "house", "abode", "structure", "place", "land", or "country". In Islamic jurisprudence it often refers to a part of the world.


History.

The company was co-founded in 1969 by Jean Coutu and Louis Michaud, as a pharmacy in the east end of Montreal.  The company became incorporated in 1973 under the name Services Farmico, enticed by the five branches already set up in Montreal. The name was changed 13 years later to its current name, the Jean Coutu Group (PJC) Inc., and was put on the stock exchange. In 1982 it entered the New Brunswick market and then the Ontario market in 1983. Beginning in 1987, the company began a series of acquisitions that continues. Over the past 20 years, the Jean Coutu Group has acquired Cadieux drugstores, twelve Cloutier Pharmacy outlets, sixteen Douglas Drug Inc. outlets, 221 outlets of the Brooks Drug Store, Rite Aid drugstores, retail properties, eight Mayrand drugstores, 19 Cumberland stores, and many more in the United States. The Jean Coutu Group was the first in Canada to set up an online service that allows customers to refill their prescriptions, then a year later expanded this concept by having the same system but that could be done over the telephone. Some of the titles this corporation has earned include "Canada’s Most Respected Corporations", and "The Most Admired Company in Quebec", which it has won seven times.  With the majority of its franchises in Quebec, it is the province from which it receives most of its revenue, although it has also gotten a great deal of profit from the United States. The main competition are Loblaws and Shoppers Drug Mart, Wal-Mart, Familiprix, Brunet, and Uniprix.  Since the end of the 1980s, the corporation has merged and acquired much of its competition. It has become one of the leading companies in Quebec and has been growing throughout the other provinces and into the United States because of its successful integration of acquisitions. There are many different trademarks and they are continuously increasing due to these mergers. Jean Coutu is a public company and is listed under PJC.A.TO. on the Toronto Stock Exchange.  In May 2013, Jean Coutu announced that it would move its head office from Longueuil to Varennes, because the present head office is too small. At a cost of $190 million, the new building will be near Autoroute 30 and it will be ready for 2016.  In September 2017, Jean Coutu announced it was in talks to be acquired by Metro Inc, a Canadian supermarket chain, for approximately C$4.50bn. The deal closed in May 2018.

Jean Coutu Group USA.

Coutu's U.S. subsidiary, Warwick, Rhode Island-based Jean Coutu Group (PJC) USA Inc., operated primarily along the east coast, under the Brooks Pharmacy banner in New England and Eckerd Pharmacy from Upstate New York and Pennsylvania south to Georgia. The U.S. operations were sold off in a deal with Rite Aid. Coutu had purchased Brooks in 1994 from the now-defunct Revco drug chain. (Revco had acquired Brooks a few months earlier as part of its acquisition of Hook's-SupeRx, Inc, once a large operator of several pharmacy chains.)  In mid-2004, Coutu acquired more than half of the Eckerd store network (mainly units along the eastern seaboard) from department store retailer J.C. Penney. It continued to operate those stores under the Eckerd name. (The remainder of Eckerd's stores were sold to CVS/pharmacy.) From 1999 to 2004 the chain was the second fastest-growing retailer in the world. On August 24, 2006, Rite Aid announced that it would acquire 1,858 Jean Coutu's Eckerd and Brooks U.S. operations for $1.45bn in cash and issuing stock, giving Jean Coutu a 32% equity stake in Rite Aid. Rite Aid announced the acquisition completed on June 4, 2007.  In July 2013, Coutu proceeded to the sale of its last shares of Rite Aid that it held. Jean Coutu no longer holds any shares of Rite Aid.

The Jean Coutu Group (PJC) Inc. is a Canadian drugstore chain headquartered in Varennes, Quebec. Since 2017, the main distribution warehouse is located in Varennes, Quebec (after Longueuil 1976-2015), though there is also a large distribution warehouse in Hawkesbury, Ontario, since 2005. It has more than 400 franchised locations in New Brunswick, Ontario and Quebec under the PJC Jean Coutu, PJC Clinique, and PJC Santé banners. The company was once the third largest distributor and retailer of pharmaceuticals and related products in North America, with nearly 2,200 drug stores. Its American stores have been sold to Rite Aid.


Biography.

Early life.

Cheng was born in Fujian in November 18, 1906 and grew up with an interest in the local birds. His mother died of tuberculosis when he was very young and he was taken care of mostly by his grandmother. His father was one of the few Chinese with a higher education and knew English. His father taught him to speak English. As a young boy he was weak and his father encouraged the boy to take up sports. Cheng hiked in the mountains, played tennis and even became a champion 100 m sprinter. His early naturalist interests were in the nature of culinary objects. He collected fish, wild fruit and vegetables which his grandmother cooked. He went to the high school at Fuzhou and sought admission to the Fujian Christian University at the age of 15 which required him to undergo a special test. The English professor of biology there asked the applicants about which vegetable had the highest vitamins and he was the only one to come up with the answer as tomato. Tomatoes were then unheard of in China but Cheng had read about them, leading to his being admitted. He graduated in 1926 after seven semesters after which he wished to move to the United States.

USA.

An uncle who was a doctor in Fuzhou funded Cheng's travel and he chose the University of Michigan as a cousin studied there. He studied under Peter Olas Okkelberg and received a doctorate in 1930 for his thesis on "The Germ Cell history of "Rana cantabrigensis" Baird". He also received a Sigma Xi golden Key award. While in the US he had visited the natural history of the museum and had wondered about a golden pheasant specimen. He wondered why all the species in China in recent times were described by non-Chinese. He also knew of 3000 year old classical Chinese literature which had described a 100 bird species. He chose to return to China and rejected offers to work in the United States.

China.

Returning to China in 1930 he joined the Fujian Christian University and later founded the China Zoological Society and headed the department of biology at Fuzhou. In 1938 his university moved to Shao-wu due to the threat of the Japanese invasion. He moved to the US in April 1945 to work on Chinese ornithology, examining specimens in museums and universities across America. He returned to Fuzhou in September 1946. In 1947 he was forced to move to Nanjing due to civil war between Maoists and the Kuomintang. In 1948 many university staff fled to Taiwan and Cheng also considered it. He however asked around and was told that the communist party needed scientists. He then remained and joined the Communist Party. In 1950 he moved to Beijing and became a curator of birds at the Academia Sinica and founded the Peking Natural History Museum in 1951. He was the first director of the scientific publications office. He translated Joachim Steinbacher's book on bird migration and ornithology into Chinese. From 1955 to 1957 he worked along with Soviet and East German ornithologists in expeditions and studies in southern Yunnan and northeastern China.

Cultural Revolution.

In 1958 Cheng's work in China was interrupted by a campaign to eradicate sparrows (along with mice, flies and mosquitoes). Cheng was, for ecological reasons, against the campaign from the start but it was only in 1959 that he could influence a decision against the killing of sparrows. He travelled to East Germany in May 1957 and worked with Erwin Stresemann examining specimens from the Chinese region. He was also able to meet other ornithologist like L A Portenko, Charles Vaurie, and Gunther Niethammer in meetings that Stresemann called as the "Atlantic Pacific Conference". He was however not allowed to attend evening parties at Stresemann's home in West Berlin due to instructions from the Chinese embassy in East Germany. Cheng was made a foreign correspondent of the German Ornithologists' Society through the nomination of Stresemann. Cheng returned to China with stays in Leningrad and Moscow. Returning to China he was faced by Mao's Cultural Revolution.  Scientific work came to a halt and a slogan was that "the more knowledge you possess, the more you are a revolutionary". Cheng was declared a criminal as he had opposed Chairman Mao's campaign against sparrows. He was told that "birds are public animals of capitalism" and had to wear a badge that read "reactionary" and made to undergo an examination of his supposed ornithological training apart from being forced to sweep the corridors and clean toilets. The test was given by a committee and he was asked to identify a bird made up of parts from multiple species. After failing the "test", his salary was reduced to a bare minimum. In August 1966 he was kept in isolation in a cowshed for six months and his house was searched by Red Guards who confiscated all his belongings including a typewriter that he valued the most. The Academia Sinica was occupied by the Red Guards from 1967 until 1968 when Mao ordered their removal. Peace returned only in the 1970s and his work on the birds of China was sent for publication after having been rejected once earlier. It was published in 1978, but dated as 1976, and he was forced to include a long quotation from Mao, who had since died. After Mao's death, Cheng was invited to an international symposium of the World Pheasant Association in November 1978. He also spent two months in England during which time he met Sir Peter Scott and G.V.T.Matthews. He served as a professor at the Beijing Normal University and in 1987 he and his colleagues published a "Synopsis of the Avifauna of China". He also edited the "Fauna Sinica", "Aves" volumes from 1970 to 1980. He worked on bird conservation and worked on international collaboration for the protection of migratory species.

Personal life.

Cheng met Chen Jia-jang (Lydia) while playing tennis and married her in 1942. In 1992 the couple celebrated their golden anniversary with Cheng gifting the golden key from Michigan to his wife and receiving in turn a gift of a golden pencil.

Honours.

Cheng died from a heart attack in 1998. Several species have been named in his honour including Cheng's jird ("Meriones chengi") Wang, 1964. Pamela Rasmussen named the Sichuan bush warbler ("Locustella chengi") discovered in 2015 after Professor Cheng.

Tso-hsin Cheng (郑作新 also transcribed as Zheng Zuoxin) (18 November 1906 – 27 June 1998) was a Chinese ornithologist known for his seminal work on the birds of China and mentoring a generation of researchers. Educated in the United States, he chose to stay in China after the Second World War though many of his academic colleagues moved to Taiwan. He was severely punished during the Cultural Revolution despite being a member of the Communist Party.