History.

Design, construction and launch.

Following the failure of the Phase 3A launcher, design studies were undertaken and construction started for two successor satellites, that became AO-10 (Phase 3B) and AO-13 (Phase 3C) respectively.  After the launch of AO-13, design commenced for a Phase 4 satellite. This idea was later shelved, and design of Phase 3D (on-orbit name: AO-40) was undertaken under direction of the project team based in Germany, involving amateur radio payloads from many countries in Europe.  Assembly was done at AMSAT's Spacecraft Integration Facility in the 'Free Trade Zone Building' at the Orlando International Airport, Orlando, Florida from 1994 to 2000.  It was launched on 16 November 2000, on an Ariane 5 launch vehicle from Kourou, in French Guiana, and reported cost was 4.5 Million USD.

Operational problems.

On 13 December 2000 at 11:23 UTC, transmissions from AO-40 ceased during the exercising of its 400 newton motor. The Command Team were able to infer that there had been an explosion caused by pressure in the propellant pipes caused by malfunction of the control valves. A protective cap that was supposed to be removed from the motor before launch, was left in place. This error occurred because of a difference between the venting mechanism of the 400N motor used in AO-13 and the one in AO-40, complicated by a misunderstanding between the propulsion team and the engine manufacturer. When the motor was fired, pressure built up where it shouldn't, and destructive failure occurred. The loss of the motor caused AO-40 to be left in an equatorial orbit that the satellite was not designed for.  As a result of this incident several pieces of radio equipment no longer functioned or were not able to be commissioned. Following strenuous efforts by the Command Team, signals were restored on 25 December 2000 at 2145 UTC when Command Team member Ian Ashley (amateur radio call sign ZL1AOX) of New Zealand successfully sent a'reset' signal to the satellite. Onboard cameras were used to establish the attitude of the satellite, and the magnetorquer system was used to spin-stabilize the satellite.  During June 2001, gas from the arcjet thruster was vented during apogee to raise perigee and stabilize the orbit of the satellite. Because of issues with the initial 400N burn, the apogee of the spacecraft was considerably higher than initially designed, but this was not a major issue. Subsequently, the communication packages and cameras were gradually re-activated.

Failure.

On 25 January 2004, telemetry from the main battery was observed to go to an extremely low voltage by Stacey Mills (amateur radio call sign W4SM), a member of the Command Team. This caused the onboard Internal Housekeeping Unit (IHU) computer to cut power to the transponder payloads. Earlier in the same orbit the progressive drop in voltage caused the auxiliary battery to come online in parallel with the main battery. However the auxiliary battery was not being maintained in a charged state. Tying the two batteries in parallel did not result in an obvious change in voltage, but meant that the auxiliary battery could not be tested independently. Many attempts were made to disconnect the main battery, but insufficient voltage was available to drive the relays. It is possible that one day an open-circuit failure may occur in the main battery, in which case the spacecraft may come to life again via the auxiliary batteries. However, for reasons discussed below this is highly unlikely. The command team believes that the main battery failure was probably a consequence of damage done during the initial explosive event, and it is likely that similar damage was done to the auxiliary battery, making an eventual recovery of AO-40 unlikely. It is clear that the initial explosion blew open the end of the spacecraft to which the omni antennas were attached. This exposed the underlying batteries to major fluctuations in temperature and the explosion itself may have caused physical damage to the cells.  Following this final failure, the new keplerian elements have persistently shown an increase in orbital period corresponding to an increase in the semi-major axis of AO-40's orbit by approximately 2.7 km. Assuming AO-40 had a mass of 400 kg, this change required approximately 160,000 joules of energy directed along the velocity vector of the orbit. Since an explosion would be unlikely to focus its energy so precisely, it is likely that a considerably larger explosion occurred synchronous with the final battery failure. The source of this energy release is unknown, but it strongly suggests that recovery will not occur. (W4SM)  On 9 March 2004, Colin Hurst (amateur radio call sign VK5HI) of Australia, a member of the command team, heard a change in the level of radio noise at the expected beacon frequency during the period 0310 to 0320 UTC (orbit 1541).  All telemetry captured by the command team, and its network of helpers, is archived on the web at the AMSAT website.

AMSAT-OSCAR-40, also known as AO-40 or simply OSCAR 40, was the on-orbit designation of an amateur radio satellite of the OSCAR series. Prior to launch, the spacecraft was known as Phase 3D or "P3D". AO-40 was built by AMSAT.


Presidential candidacy.

Abu Ismail applied to be a candidate for the Egyptian presidential election of May 2012. As of early April 2012, he was considered one of the front-runners, and enjoyed notable displays of popular support.  In foreign policy, Abu Ismail is in favor of ending the 1979 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty and has spoken of Iran as a successful model of independence from the United States. His domestic agenda includes veiling women and segregating them from men in the workplace.  On 4 April 2012, the "New York Times" reported that according to Californian government documents Abu Ismail's deceased mother held U.S. citizenship, which would make him ineligible for the presidency under the Egyptian constitution. He has denied this, stating that she only held a green card. On 5 April, the Interior Ministry confirmed his mother's U.S. citizenship, prompting rallies by thousands of his supporters. In response to a case taken by Abu Ismail, the administrative court ruled against the losing party, the Ministry of the Interior, to pay the expenses of litigation and ordered it to issue the would-be candidate with a document stating that his mother never had held any other citizenship rather than the Egyptian since the ministry couldn't prove otherwise. The electoral commission, whose decisions are immune from judicial review, nonetheless disqualified him on 14 April.

Controversies.

In 2009 Al-Nas TV show hosted by himself (translated by MEMRI), Abu Ismail calls for boycott of Pepsi (and other American drinks including Coca-Cola), declared the "PEPSI" name is an abbreviation, and stands for "Pay Every Penny Saving Israel".  In 2013, Abu Ismail was charged with forging official documents during his application to run for president. He was also charged with inciting murder and defamation of police officers.  In 2014, Abu Ismail was jailed for insulting a judge and refusing to recognise the court during his trial for submitting forged papers to the election committee.

Flag Party founder.

He had reportedly been in talks to form a party that would join in a political alliance with the recently formed Homeland Party; however, he instead formed the Nation Alliance in early March 2013.

Hazem Salah Abu Ismail (; ) is an Egyptian lawyer and Salafi Islamist politician. He has been described by The Economist as a "populist Salafist."


Contributions to Mineralogy and Crystallography.

The origins of geometric crystallography (the field concerned with the structures of crystalline solids), for which Hessel's work was noteworthy, can be traced back to eighteenth and nineteenth century mineralogy. Hessel also made contributions to classical mineralogy (the field concerned with the chemical compositions and physical properties of minerals), as well.

Derivation of the Crystal Classes.

In 1830, Hessel proved that, as a consequence of Haüy’s law of rational intercepts, morphological forms can combine to give exactly 32 kinds of crystal symmetry in Euclidean space, since only two-, three-, four-, and six-fold rotation axes can occur. A crystal form here denotes a set of symmetrically equivalent planes with Miller indices enclosed in braces, {"hkl"}; form does not mean "shape". For example, a cube-shaped crystal of fluorite (referred to as "Flussspath" by Hessel) has six equivalent faces. The entire set is denoted as {100}. The indices for each of the individual six faces are enclosed by parentheses and these are designated: (010), (001), (100), (010), (001), and (100). The cube belongs to the isometric or tessular class, as do an octahedron and tetrahedron. The essential symmetry elements of the isometric class is the existence of a set of three 4-fold, four 3-fold, and six 2-fold rotation axes. In the earlier classification schemes by the German mineralogists Christian Samuel Weiss (1780 - 1856) and Friedrich Mohs (1773 - 1839) the isometric class had been designated sphäroedrisch (spheroidal) and tessularisch (tesseral), respectively. As of Hessel's time, not all of the 32 possible symmetries had actually been observed in real crystals.  Hessel's work originally appeared in 1830 as an article in "Gehler’s Physikalische Wörterbuch" (Gehler's Physics Dictionary). It went unnoticed until it was republished in 1897 as part of a collection of papers on crystallography in "Oswald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften" (Ostwald's Classics of the Exact Sciences). Prior to this posthumous re-publication of Hessel's investigations, similar findings had been reported by the French scientist Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) in "Extrait J. Math., Pures et Applique ́es" (in 1849) and by the Russian crystallographer in 1867.  All three derivations (Hessel's, Bravais', and Gadolin's), which established a small finite number of possible crystal symmetries from first principles, were based on external crystal morphology rather than a crystal's internal structural arrangement (i.e. lattice symmetry). However, the 32 classes of crystal symmetry are one-and-the-same as the 32 crystallographic point groups. After seminal work on space lattices by Leonhard Sohncke (1842-1897), Arthur Moritz Schönflies (1853–1928), Evgraf Stepanovich Fedorov (1853–1919), and William Barlow (1845–1934), the connection between space lattices and the external morphology of crystals was espoused by Paul Niggli (1888 - 1953), particularly in his 1928 "Kristallographische und Strukturtheoretische Grundbegriffe". For example, the repetition, or translation (physics), of a lattice plane produces a stack of parallel planes, the last member of which may be manifested morphologically as one of the external faces of the crystal.  Briefly, a crystal is similar to three-dimensional wallpaper, in that it is an endless repetition of some motif (a group of atoms or molecules). The motif is created by point group operations, while the wallpaper, which is called the space lattice, is generated by translation of the motif with or without rotation or reflection. The symmetry of the motif is the true point group symmetry of the crystal and it causes the symmetry of the external forms. Specifically, the crystal's external morphological symmetry must conform to the angular components of the space group symmetry operations, without the translational components. Under favorable circumstances, point groups (but not space groups) can be determined solely by examination of the crystal morphology, without the need for analysis of an X-ray diffraction pattern. This is not always possible because, of the many forms normally apparent or expected in a typical crystal specimen, some forms may be absent or show unequal development. The word habit is used to describe the overall external shape of a crystal specimen, which depends on the relative sizes of the faces of the various forms present. In general, a substance may crystallize in different habits because the growth rates of the various faces need not be the same.

Exceptions to Euler's Formula for Convex Polyhedra.

Following the work of the Swiss mathematician Simon Antoine Jean L'Huilier (1750 - 1840), Hessel also gave specific examples of compound crystals (aka double crystals) for which Euler's formula for convex polyhedra failed. In this case, the sum of the valence (degree) and the number of faces does not equal two plus the number of edges (V + F ≠ E + 2). Such exceptions can occur when a polyhedron possesses internal cavities, which, in turn, occur when one crystal encapsulates another. Hessel found this to be true with lead sulfide crystals inside calcium fluoride crystals. Hessel also found Euler's formula disobeyed with interconnected polyhedra, for example, where an edge or vertex is shared by more than two faces (e.g. as in edge-sharing and vertex-sharing tetrahedra).

Feldspar Composition.

In the field of classical mineralogy, Hessel showed that the plagioclase feldspars could be considered solid solutions of albite and anorthite. His analysis was published in 1826 ("Taschenbuch für die gesammte Mineralogie", 20 [1826], 289–333) but, as with his work on the crystal classes, it did not garner much attention among his contemporaries. Rather, the theory of the composition of these feldspars was subsequently credited to Gustav Tschermak (1836 - 1927) in 1865.

Early life and education.

Little is documented about Hessel's early life. He was a student at the Realschule in Nuremberg and subsequently studied science and medicine at Erlangen and Würzburg. After receiving his PhD in mineralogy under Karl C. von Leonhard (1779–1862), Hessel went to the University of Marburg as an associate professor of mineralogy and became full professor in 1825. He remained there until his death. Hessel was also a Marburg city council member and was named an honorary citizen of Marburg on November 9, 1840.

External links.

Complete Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography," Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008. (http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830901983.html)

Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel (27 April 1796 – 3 June 1872) was a German physician (MD, University of Würzburg, 1817) and professor of mineralogy (PhD, University of Heidelberg, 1821) at the University of Marburg.


Background.

The Diocese of Münster was one of the largest and most important ecclesial territories in the northwest German area. In the Late Middle Ages the bishop's thrones in the region were predominantly filled by members of comital families or the families of hereditary noblemen ("Edelherren"). These families, like the counts of the Mark, attempted to secure episcopal seats for their sons. Even less powerful families took the opportunity to increase their influence, at least occasionally, over an ecclesial territory. To this group belonged the lords of Lippe, who occupied the bishop's throne in Paderborn several times. The counts of Hoya were successful in the Bishopric of Osnabrück. In the Bishopric of Minden this was true of the houses of Diepholz and Schaumburg. In the mid-15th century, however, the counts of Moers were foremost in this regard. Especially after Dietrich of Moers had become Archbishop of Cologne, the family was able to secure the majority of the bishop's seats in the northwest German area. Their main rival in the Bishopric of Münster was the Hoya family.  Internally, some of the prince-bishops, most recently Otto IV of Hoya (r. 1392–1424), had expanded their territory and got rid of smaller internal lordships. By contrast it was clear that the bishops in the 13th and 14th centuries had largely lost control of their capital, Münster. The city acted independently almost as if it were a rich imperially immediate city. In addition, the "Stände" (estates), the cathedral chapter, knights and towns had gained influence and sharply reduced the power of the bishops.  After the death of Bishop Otto IV, Dietrich of Moers succeeded in getting his brother, Henry II of Moers, into the Münster bishopric against the will of the city of Münster. After the archbishop, due to internal diocesan disputes, had secured the Bishopric of Osnabrück for Eric of Hoya (German: "Erich von Hoya"), he placed Henry there as administrator. He oriented his policy sharply towards his brother's interests and supported him strongly during the Feud of Soest. The House of Hoya, who also held the bishoprics of Verden and Minden, saw the counts of Moers as intruders in their own area of interest. Apart from the Archdiocese of Cologne, Münster and Osnabrück, the House of Moers ruled Paderborn and parts of the Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht. The warlike stance of Henry in supporting his brother did not help the diocese, rather it resulted in a sharp increase in its debt and a decline in prosperity.  In addition to the two main rivals for the episcopacy, there were other contenders. The town of Osnabrück strongly supported Conrad of Diepholz (German: "Konrad von Diepholz", Dutch: "Koenraad van Diepholt"). He was the cathedral provost ("Dompropst") in Osnabrück and a nephew of the Prince-Bishop of Utrecht, Rudolf of Diepholz (Dutch: "Rudolf van Diepholt"). He supported the candidacy, but arrived too late to actively promote his nephew.

Start of the conflict.

Within the diocese, the estates were in open revolt by Henry's death. From now on, the aspirations of the House of Moers ran into resistance. Despite that, Dietrich did everything possible to continue to occupy Münster with a member of his family. As a successor he had provided his brother Walram of Moers (Dutch: "Walraven van Meurs"), but this brought him into conflict with the House of Hoya. John of Hoya had not forgotten that Dietrich of Moers was exchanged for members of his family. In particular, he had not forgotten his own six years imprisonment in connection with the fighting around Osnabrück. He wanted to make his brother, Eric of Hoya, successor.  Dietrich of Moers gave away large bribes to win a majority in the cathedral chapter for his brother. He had, until recently been a supporter of the Council of Basel, before he changed sides to the Roman curia. Dietrich succeeded in getting the majority of the cathedral chapter on side at a meeting in Hausdülmen on 15 July 1450. But John of Hoya campaigned for his brother, Eric. He won over the citizens of the city of Münster and the nobility to his cause. Within the city he was mainly supported by the guilds and the commoners, while the hereditary patricians on the council did not want confrontation.  John of Hoya was elected by the secular estates as the diocesan administrator ("Stiftsverweser"). He was to officiate until the Pope had appointed a bishop acceptable to both citizens and lords. In a letter to the Pope they explained their reasons for this unusual procedure were that Walram was allegedly responsible for two murders as well as other crimes in the past. By contrast, Eric of Hoya had led a supposedly blameless life and had had an academic education. A minority of thirteen canons and all the clergy of the city supported this position. In Osnabrück, John of Hoya, succeeded his brother Albert of Hoya to become the administrator. Thus, the position of the family was further strengthened in the battle for the Diocese of Münster.  As administrator, John of Hoya brought most of Münster's royal castles ("Landesburgen") under his control. In order to reduce his own costs as far as possible, he seized the estates of the bishop and income of the cathedral canons ("Domherren"). In addition, he introduced an excise duty on trade goods. The supporters of Walram in the cathedral chapter were prepared to negotiate in this eventuality. An agreement was reached that the Hoyas largely honoured, according to which at the next "Landtag" all the estates would appeal to the Pope to award the office of bishop to Eric of Hoya. In return the canons were guaranteed their former rights and income. The "Landtag" approved this arrangement. In January 1451, John of Hoya captured Dülmen Castle which had opposed him. Meanwhile, in ignorance of the unanimous support of the estates for Hoya, Pope Pope Nicholas V had appointed Walram of Moers as bishop. The town of responded to this by asking for a legal opinion from the University of Erfurt. Their judgement was that the estates did not have to accept the decision of the Pope because the Pope would not have known of Walram's unsuitability for the post.  The Hoya family were also supported by the Duchy of Cleves. Duke John of Cleves hoped thereby to weaken the power of the Archbishop of Cologne. On 11 June 1451, the Treaty of Haus Dülmen was signed, sealing an alliance between Cleves and John of Hoya. As a reward for his support in the battle against Walram of Moers Cleves was given the estates of Dülmen and Stromberg. Cleves was not just a valuable military ally. Also important was his advocacy through Philip of Burgundy, an uncle of the duke, in Rome. Following the signing of the treaty, Cleves declared war on Walram of Moers.  On the same day news arrived in Münster that Emperor Frederick III had conferred the regalia on Walram. After Walram had also received Papal confirmation, he removed several of his opponents from their high church offices and had the supporters of his opponent placed under a Papally-ordained interdict. Those affected appealed again to the University of Erfurt. The university judged the measures taken by Walram and the Archbishop of Cologne to be invalid. Philip of Burgundy intervened on behalf of the Hoya faction, writing a letter to Rome. Before taking any further steps, Rome decided to wait and see what position Nicholas of Cusa would take in this case.

Outbreak of fighting.

Meanwhile, in the diocese, the feud broke out in the form of smaller operations. Most of the upper diocese was subsequently dominated by the Hoya faction; Walram only possessed the area around Ahaus, Vreden and Ottenstein.  Nicholas of Cusa was probably expected to instruct the Pope to replace both the earlier episcopal candidates with Conrad of Diepholz. Nicholas of Cusa, however, expressed opposition to the Hoyas. With the fall of Vreden, Walram also lost his last town in the Diocese of Moers. He notified Cusa on 21 January 1452 of his willingness to renounce the bishopric, provided it was possible to remove keep the Hoyas out and to make Conrad of Diepholz bishop instead.  The latter was supported "inter alia" by his uncle, Bishop Rudolf of Utrecht. From now on the Hoyas encountered increasingly strong military action, for example at the Siege of Ahaus. At the start of 1452 a mercenary arm defeated Hoya and the Münster troops and took large numbers of prisoners. On 2 February the supporters of Diepholz declared a feud against their opponents. Walram pledged the latter the remaining settlements he owned - Ahaus and Ottenstein - to Rudolf of Utrecht. In the diocese itself, sympathy grew for Conrad of Diepholz, whose candidature appeared to be an increasingly attractive alternative to the former aspirants. The estates sought therefore, on 6 October 1452 in Coesfeld, to reach a compromise, in order to get rid of both Walram of Moers and Eric of Hoya. All episcopal decisions since the death of Bishop Henry were declared null and void. In any case, these peace attempts failed. One reason was probably that John of Cleves continued to support Eric of Hoya.  John of Hoya, who had previously left the town, returned to Münster. Supported by the lower levels of the town of Münster, John of Hoya transferred the diocesan regency in 1453 "de jure" to his brother Eric, so that the latter could prove himself as regent. Although the mayors of the towns opposed this, they eventually had to accept it under pressure from their townsfolk. Eric of Hoya was thereupon rendered homage in all the towns.

Spread of the conflict.

This pitched the conflict into a new phase. Rudolf of Utrecht declared a feud against the town of Münster and its three allies on 7 July 1453. He succeeded in capturing the town of Vreden which, shortly thereafter was retaken by John of Hoya. Rudolf of Utrecht took advantage of disputes in the enemy camp and took a number of towns. Against the background of the triumphant advance of his opponent, in 1454 John of Hoya forced the re-election of the town council in Münster which was sympathetic to his cause. The majority of the council came from the guilds and the common people, only a few hereditary patricians ("Erbmänner") were represented. In Münster resistance to the harsh rule of the Hoyas started to increase. Moreover, in October 1454, the Hansetag demanded the restoration of the old council constitution.  The allies around Walram of Moers and the Bishop of Utrecht managed to obtain assurances from the Pope, that all complaints from the opposite side to the Pope about spiritual penalties imposed by Walram were invalid. Those who aligned themselves with Walram were assured that they would receive absolution from any excommunication. Coesfeld was the first town to take advantage of the offer. This became the Walram's residence.  Because John of Cleves was temporarily unable to provide support due to his wedding, John of Hoya turned to Duke Frederick of Brunswick-Lüneburg with a request for assistance. With his help John of Hoya attacked, plundering and destroying, the area of Coesfeld and the County of Bentheim, which supported his enemies. Walram and Dietrich initially lacked the means to defend themselves against it. In July, a body of troops belonging to the archbishop arrived in Dülmen. Through a tactical mistake by Count John of Hoya, Duke Frederick's troops were alone when an allied army led by Dietrich of Moers, Walram of Moers, Rudolf of Utrecht, Bernard II of Bentheim, Bernard of Lippe and Conrad of Diepholz attacked and inflicted a crushing defeat on their opponents in the Battle of Varlar. The Duke was captured. One more vigorous attack might have brought total success, but the allies were hampered by internal disputes.

Minor war and more negotiations.

John of Hoya noticed that the mood in Münster was turning against him. He offered to transfer all the towns and castles to Cleves. But John of Cleves now had other plans. He wanted to give the diocese to Simon of Lippe, while Eric of Hoya was to get the Diocese of Osnabrück. He thus hoped that this would help to expel Bishop Rudolf from Utrecht. A short time later the latter died after he had ceded his rights to Ahaus and Ottenstein to Conrad of Diepholz. With his death, the allies of the House of Moers and Conrad of Diepholz lost their strongest supporter. The latter became Bishop of Osnabrück, but did not give up his aim of becoming the bishop in Münster as well.  In the Diocese of Münster, Walram of Moers continued to be opposed by John of Hoya. However, Dietrich of Moers did not pursue the matter with any great effort. So the fighting continued in the form of a minor war. In addition, negotiations took place which led to no result. One major success in early 1456 was the conquest of Coesfeld by John of Hoya. Then, in October 1456, Walram of Moers died in Arnhem. John of Hoya now relied on the support of the Duke of Burgundy. On behalf of Eric of Hoya he appealed for support to Pope Callistus III, who was hoping that Burgundy would help him win the Ottoman Wars. The strong support of Philip of Burgundy for Hoya's cause meant that the towns now aligned themselves more firmly on the side of John of Hoya than they had in recent years. Eric of Hoya was proposed as bishop by two of the canons. However, the majority of the canons chose Conrad of Diepholz. Both sides asked Rome for a decision.  John of Hoya sought to strengthen his position in Münster by obtained citizenship in early 1457 and joining the Blacksmiths' Guild. A short time later he was elected to the Council. However, the Pope decided upon John of Palatinate-Simmern, who had been totally uninvolved in the previous disputes. John of Hoya looked in vain to the support of Cleves and Burgundy once more. But even Conrad of Diepholz's aspiration to maintain his position failed.

Outcome and aftermath.

On 23 October 1457 the Treaty of Kranenburg was signed that ended the conflict. It stipulated that Eric of Hoya should receive a lifetime income equivalent to that of the Cologne provost office. The city of Münster undertook to recognize the new bishop, to allow him to enter the town and to pay homage to him. In return, the new bishop agreed to recognize the existing privileges of the town. The new bishop also recognized the enfeoffment of the estates of Dülmen and Stromberg to the Duke of Cleves. The latter also received compensation of 11,000 Rhenish guilders. In early November, the new bishop arrived in Münster, swore the oath of office and the electoral capitulation.  Earlier, John of Hoya had secretly left the town. Eric of Hoya died in 1458. Bevergern Castle which had been enfeoffed to him was returned to the diocese. After the peace treaty, life in the diocese quickly returned to normal. The dominant position that the patrician's ("Erbmänner") had long held on Münster's town council was broken, as the guilds secured the right to be represented by their members. The "Erbmänner" only had half of the Council. In the end it was clear that the diocese had just become an object in the power game between noble families. The Emperor and Pope had lost any real influence. In the era of Henry and Walrams of Moers, some of the bishops had virtually lost any sense of their calling in faith to serve God and neighbour, but were simply out for themselves.

The Münster Diocesan Feud (), or simply Münster Feud, was a dispute that took place between 1450 and 1457 over the appointment to the bishop's throne in Münster, and hence the rule of the diocese. The cause was the death of the previous prince-bishop, Henry II of Moers. The opposing candidates were his brother Walram of Moers, Eric of Hoya, and Conrad of Diepholz. They were supported by their families with Count John of Hoya, Archbishop Dietrich II of Moers and Prince-Bishop Rudolf of Diepholz at their respective heads. In addition, there were also external allies. Within the diocese the "Stände", namely the cathedral chapter and the town of Münster, played an independent role at times. In the end neither candidate was able to succeed to the office.


Mechanisms of membrane translocation.

Cell-penetrating peptides are of different sizes, amino acid sequences, and charges but all CPPs have one distinct characteristic, which is the ability to translocate the plasma membrane and facilitate the delivery of various molecular cargoes to the cytoplasm or an organelle. There has been no real consensus as to the mechanism of CPP translocation, but the theories of CPP translocation can be classified into three main entry mechanisms: direct penetration in the membrane, endocytosis-mediated entry, and translocation through the formation of a transitory structure. CPP transduction is an area of ongoing research.  Cell-penetrating peptides (CPP) are able to transport different types of cargo molecules across plasma membrane; thus, they act as molecular delivery vehicles. They have numerous applications in medicine as drug delivery agents in the treatment of different diseases including cancer and virus inhibitors, as well as contrast agents for cell labeling. Examples of the latter include acting as a carrier for GFP, MRI contrast agents, or quantum dots.

Direct penetration.

The majority of early research suggested that the translocation of polycationic CPPs across biological membranes occurred via an energy-independent cellular process. It was believed that translocation could progress at 4C and most likely involved a direct electrostatic interaction with negatively charged phospholipids. Researchers proposed several models in attempts to elucidate the biophysical mechanism of this energy-independent process. Although CPPs promote direct effects on the biophysical properties of pure membrane systems, the identification of fixation artifacts when using fluorescent labeled probe CPPs caused a reevaluation of CPP-import mechanisms. These studies promoted endocytosis as the translocation pathway. An example of direct penetration has been proposed for TAT. The first step in this proposed model is an interaction with the unfolded fusion protein (TAT) and the membrane through electrostatic interactions, which disrupt the membrane enough to allow the fusion protein to cross the membrane. After internalization, the fusion protein refolds due the chaperone system. This mechanism was not agreed upon, and other mechanisms involving clathrin-dependent endocytosis have been suggested.  Many more detailed methods of CPP uptake have been proposed including transient pore formation. This mechanism involves strong interactions between cell-penetrating peptides and the phosphate groups on both sides of the lipid bilayer, the insertion of positively charged arginine side-chains that nucleate the formation of a transient pore, followed by the translocation of cell-penetrating peptides by diffusing on the pore surface. This mechanism explains how key ingredients, such as the cooperation among the peptides, the large positive charge, and specifically the guanidinium groups, contribute to the uptake. The proposed mechanism also illustrates the importance of membrane fluctuations. Indeed, mechanisms that involve large fluctuations of the membrane structure, such as transient pores and the insertion of charged amino acid side-chains, may be common and perhaps central to the functions of many membrane protein functions.

Endocytosis-mediated translocation.

Endocytosis is the second mechanism liable for cellular internalization. Endocytosis is the process of cellular ingestion by which the plasma membrane folds inward to bring substances into the cell. During this process cells absorb material from the outside of the cell by imbibing it with their cell membrane. The classification of cellular localization using fluorescence or by endocytosis inhibitors is the basis of most examination. However, the procedure used during preparation of these samples creates questionable information regarding endocytosis. Moreover, studies show that cellular entry of penetratin by endocytosis is an energy-dependent process. This process is initiated by polyarginines interacting with heparan sulphates that promote endocytosis. Research has shown that TAT is internalized through a form of endocytosis called macropinocytosis.  Studies have illustrated that endocytosis is involved in the internalization of CPPs, but it has been suggested that different mechanisms could transpire at the same time. This is established by the behavior reported for penetratin and transportan wherein both membrane translocation and endocytosis occur concurrently.

Translocation through the formation of a transitory structure.

The third mechanism responsible for the translocation is based on the formation of the inverted micelles. Inverted micelles are aggregates of colloidal surfactants in which the polar groups are concentrated in the interior and the lipophilic groups extend outward into the solvent. According to this model, a penetratin dimer combines with the negatively charged phospholipids, thus generating the formation of an inverted micelle inside of the lipid bilayer. The structure of the inverted micelles permits the peptide to remain in a hydrophilic environment.  The last mechanism implied that internalization occurs by peptides that belong to the family of primary amphipathic peptides, MPG and Pep-1. Two very similar models have been proposed based on physicochemical studies, consisting of circular dichroism, Fourier transform infrared, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. These models are associated with electrophysiological measurements and investigations that have the ability to mimic model membranes such as monolayer at the air-water interface. The structure giving rise to the pores is the major difference between the proposed MPG and Pep-1 model. In the MPG model, the pore is formed by a b-barrel structure, whereas the Pep-1 is associated with helices. In addition, strong hydrophobic phospholipid-peptide interactions have been discovered in both models. In the two peptide models, the folded parts of the carrier molecule correlate to the hydrophobic domain, although the rest of the molecule remains unstructured.  Cell-penetrating peptide facilitated translocation is a topic of great debate. Evidence has been presented that translocation could use several different pathways for uptake. In addition, the mechanism of translocation can be dependent on whether the peptide is free or attached to cargo. The quantitative uptake of free or CPP connected to cargo can differ greatly but studies have not proven whether this change is a result of translocation efficiency or the difference in translocation pathway. It is probable that the results indicate that several CPP mechanisms are in competition and that several pathways contribute to CPP internalization.

Applications.

CPP mediated delivery of nucleic acids.

Nucleic acid-based macromolecules such as siRNA, antisense oligonucleotide, decoy DNA, and plasmid have been realized as promising biological and pharmacological therapeutics in regulation of gene expression. However, unlike other small-molecular drugs, their development and applications are limited by high molecular weight and negative charges, which results in poor uptake efficiency and low cellular traffic. To overcome these problems, several different delivery systems have been developed, including CPP-nucleic acid conjugate, which is a very powerful tool.

Formation of CPP-nucleic acid complexes.

Most CPP-nucleic acid complexes that have been proposed so far are formed through covalent bonding. A range of CPP-nucleic acid complexes have been synthesized through different chemistries that are either stable or cleavable linkages. And the most widely used method in publication is cleavable disulfide linkages through total stepwise solid-phase synthesis or solution-phase or solid-phase fragment coupling. Some other strategies like stable amide, thiazolidine, oxime and hydrazine linkage have also been developed. However, those covalent linking methods are limited by the concern that the synthetic covalent bond between CPP and nucleic acid may alter the biological activity of the latter. Thus, a new non-covalent strategy requiring no chemical modification with short amphipathic CPPs, like MPG and Pep-1 as carriers has been successfully applied for delivery of cargoes. These non-covalent conjugates are formed through either electrostatic or hydrophobic interactions. With this method, cargoes such as nucleic acids and proteins could be efficiently delivered while maintaining full biological activity.

For siRNA delivery.

Short interfering RNA (siRNA) is a very powerful new tool that can interfere with and silence the expression of specific disease gene. To improve cellular uptake of siRNA, CPP strategies have been applied to facilitate the delivery of siRNA into cells through either covalent or non-covalent linkages. In one study, siRNA is covalently linked to transportan and penetratin by disulfide-linkage at 5'-end of the sense strands of siRNA to target luciferase or eGFP mRNA reporters. In another study, TAT-siRNA conjugate through a stable thiomaleimide linkage at 3'-end of siRNA was delivered into HeLa cells for eGFP gene silencing.  However, non-covalent strategies appear to be better for siRNA delivery with a more significant biological response. In one study, MPG/siRNA complexes formed through stable non-covalent strategy showed successful introduction of siRNA into cultured cells and induced robust regulation of target mRNA. Furthermore, MPG/siRNA complexes have also been applied for delivery of siRNA "in vivo" into mouse blastocytes for gene regulation. MPG forms highly stable complexes with siRNA with a low degradation rate and can be easily functionalized for specific targeting, which are major advantages compared with the covalent CPP technology.

New substrate design for siRNA delivery.

siRNA cell delivery represent a valuable tool for treatment of cancer disease, viral infections and genetic disorders. However, classical strategies involve covalent linking of cargo molecules and CPPs, which does not provide efficient protection of siRNA molecules "in vivo"; thus results reported in literature are not consistent. Recently, non-covalent strategies have been successfully reported. Secondary amphipathic peptides based on aromatic tryptophan and arginine residues linked with lysine as spacer have been reported under the name of CADY. CADY contains a short peptide sequence of 20 amino acids, with the sequence “Ac-GLWRALWRLLRSLWRLLWRA-cysteamide."  This peptide is able to self-assemble in a helical shape with hydrophilic and hydrophobic residues on different side of the molecule, it has two different orientations of the surface that represent the lowest energy and it is able to form complexes with siRNA at different molar ratio varying from 1:1 to 80:1. CADY is able to form a shield around siRNA molecule protecting it from biodegradative processes that may occur before cellular penetration occurs. These types of substrates may present important applications "in vivo".

For antisense oligomer delivery.

Antisense oligonucleotides (asONs) have been used in basic research and are being developed as possible medical treatments. CPP strategies have been developed to deliver antisense oligomers such as PNA and PMO into cells. Overcoming the repulsion by the cell membrane of negative-charged ONs and the degradation of asONs by enzymes, CPPs increase asONs bioavailability. Two types of neutral ON analogues, peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO or Morpholino) are becoming dominant in this area. PNA has been conjugated with various CPPs either through disulfide linkages or through stable amide bonds. For example, antisense activity within cells that blocked expression of the galanin receptor was observed when a 21-mer PNA was coupled to the penetratin. Results on antiviral activity with PNA targeting HIV-1 have also been reported through disulfide linkage with TAT. CPP-PMO conjugates have also been successfully used to inhibit the replication of several viruses such as SARS and influenza and attachment of CPPs has improved the efficacy of splice-modifying Morpholinos in development for treatment of Duchenne muscular dystrophy

For decoy DNA delivery.

Decoy DNA is an exogenous double-strand DNA (dsDNA), which can mimic a promoter sequence that can inhibit the activity of a specific transcription factor. But dsDNA has the same problem as other therapeutics, poor bioavailability. In one study, CPPs TP and TP10 were coupled to NFкB decoy DNA, which blocked the effect of interleukin-1-induced NFкB activation and IL-6 gene expression. In another study, TP10 coupled Myc decoy DNA decreased proliferative capacity of N2a cells.

For plasmid delivery.

Individual genes can be inserted into specific sites on plasmids, and recombinant plasmids can be introduced into living cells. A method using macro-branched TAT has been proposed for plasmid DNA delivery into various cell lines and showed significant transfection capabilities. Multimers of TAT have been found to increase transfection efficiency of plasmid DNA by 6-8 times more than poly-L-arginine or mutant TAT2-M1, and by 390 times compared with the standard vectors.

CPP mediated delivery of proteins.

The development of therapeutic proteins that has presented a valuable method to treat diseases is limited by low efficiency of traditional delivery methods. The evaluation of cytosolic delivery of CPP linked proteins has been found to be prone to artifacts and therefore requires the use of evaluation methods that distinguish true cytosolic delivery from cell surface attached or endosomally entrapped CPP-proteins. Recently, several methods using CPPS as vehicles to deliver biologically active, full-length proteins into living cells and animals have been reported.  Several groups have successfully delivered CPP fused proteins "in vitro". TAT was able to deliver different proteins, such as horseradish peroxidase and RNase A across cell membrane into the cytoplasm in different cell lines "in vitro". The size range of proteins with effective delivery is from 30kDa to 120-150kDa. In one study, TAT-fused proteins are rapidly internalized by lipid raft−dependent macropinocytosis using a transducible TAT−Cre recombinase reporter assay on live cells. In another study, a TAT-fused protein was delivered into mitochondria of breast cancer cells and decreased the survival of breast cancer cells, which showed capability of TAT-fusion proteins to modulate mitochondrial function and cell survival. Moreover, cR10, a cyclic poly-arginine CPP, enabled the endocytose independent transduction of antigen binding proteins through the cellular membrane with immediate bioavailability. Thereby, the authors of the study were able to deliver fluorescent antigen binding proteins into cells facilitating live-cell immunostaining. However, very few in vivo studies have succeeded. In one study, in vivo delivery of TAT- or penetratin-crosslinked Fab fragments yielded varied organ distributions and an overall increase in organ retention, which showed tissue localization.  A non-covalent method that forms CPP/protein complexes has also been developed to address the limitations in covalent methods, such as chemical modification before crosslinking, and denaturation of proteins before delivery. In one study, a short amphipathic peptide carrier, Pep-1, and protein complexes have proven effective for delivery. It was shown that Pep-1 could facilitate rapid cellular uptake of various peptides, proteins, and even full-length antibodies with high efficiency and less toxicity. This approach has greatly simplified the formulation of reagents.

As contrast agents transporters.

CPPs found applications as transporters of contrast agents across plasma membranes. These contrast agents are able to label the tumor cells, making the compounds important tools in cancer diagnosis; they are also used in "in vivo" and "in vitro" cellular experiments. The most important classes of CPP are isolated from viruses, such as TAT (transactivated-transcription) derived from HIV-1, penetratin, and transportan. The most widely used CPPs are based on TAT derivatives. TAT is an arginine-rich CPP. Several improvements for this substrate includes the usage of unnatural β or γ amino acids. This strategy offers multiple advantages, such resistance to proteolytic degradation, a natural degradation process by which peptide bonds are hydrolyzed to amino acids. Unnatural acid insertion in the peptide chain has multiple advantages. It facilitates the formation of stable foldamers with distinct secondary structure. β-Peptides are conformationally more stable in aqueous solution than naturally occurring peptides, especially for small chains. The secondary structure is reinforced by the presence of a rigid β-amino acid, which contains cyclohexane or cyclopentane fragments. These fragments generate a more rigid structure and influence the opening angle of the foldamer. These features are very important for new peptide design. Helical β-peptides mimic antimicrobial activities of host defense peptides. This feature requires the orientation of cationic –hydrophilic on one side, and hydrophobic residues on the other side of the helix. The attachment of fluorescent group on one head of the molecule confers contrast properties. A new strategy to enhance the cellular up-take capacity of CPP is based on association of polycationic and polyanionic domains that are separated by a linker. Cellular association of polycationic residues (polyarginine) with negatively charged membrane cells is effectively blocked by the presence of polyanionic residue (poly-glutamic acid) and the linker, which confer the proper distance between these two charged residues in order to maximize their interaction. These peptides adopt hairpin structure, confirmed by overhauser effect correlation for proton-proton proximities of the two charged moieties. At this stage only the linker is exposed to protease hydrolysis "in vivo" applications. The linker hydrolysis occur and the two charged fragments experience more conformational freedom. In the absence of linker, the cationic peptide can interact more efficient with the target cell and cellular uptake occurs before proteolysis. This strategy found applications in labeling tumor cells "in vivo". Tumor cells were marked in minutes. Linker degradation can be predicted by the amount of D-aminoacids (the unnatural isomer) incorporated in the peptide chain, this restricts "in vivo" proteolysis to the central linker.

Contrast agents as cargo molecules.

Quantum dots.

Quantum dots (QD) represent a relative new class of fluorescent probes that have superior optical properties than classical organic dyes based on fluorescent groups. The main advantages of QD include high quantum yields, broad absorption spectra, size-tunable emission spectra, and good resistance to chemical and photochemical degradation. In vivo tests have shown that several positively charged peptides (based on guanidine residues) are able to cross cell membranes and to promote cellular uptake of attached molecules including quantum dots. QD properties can be easily modified by changing the organic substrates linked to them, offering a versatile biological tool as cell markers. Research is in progress to optimize the methodologies for the intracellular delivery of QD and QD bioconjugates, and characterization of long-term in vivo photophysical properties.  Quantum dots are colloidal nanocrystals, based on a cadmium-selenium (CdSe) core covered with a zinc-sulfur (ZnS) layer. This substrate has been used intensively as a cellular marker because CdSe emits in the visible domain and is an excellent contrast agent, while the ZnS layer protects the core from oxidation and also the leeching of CdSe into the surrounding solution. This strategy also improves the photo-luminescence yield. The properties can be tuned by the thickness of the ZnS protective layers. Colloidal QD emission can be modulated from UV-Vis to the infrared by using different types of coating agents, such as ZnS, CdS, ZnSe, CdTe and PbSe. The properties of quantum dots can be also tuned by the synthetic scheme, high temperature solvent/ligand mixtures that influence the nanocrystal properties. High-quality QD contrast agents are obtained at elevated temperatures; however, because they have lower water solubility, their usage as cell markers is limited. Further functionalization with hydrophilic ligands is required.  The advantages of QD are represented by their fast action; they are able to label a target tissue or cell in seconds. In vivo studies show that QD are able to selectively label cancer cells, and they accumulate at tumor sites. Tumor cells labeled with QD can be tracked with multiphoton microscopy as they invade lung tissue. In both studies, spectral imaging and autofluorescent subtraction allowed multicolour in vivo visualization of cells and tissues. A major drawback of QD is their relatively high toxicity. Functionalizations with different substrates that increase bioaffinity and decrease toxicity are in progress. For instance, sulfur from the QD shell is able to form reversible disulfide bonds with a wide class of organic compounds.

Magnetic resonance imaging.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a powerful tool for disease diagnosis such as cancer metastasis and inflammation, using different metal chelates. Metal chelates increase the contrast signal between normal and diseased tissues by catalyzing the relaxation of water protons in their proximities. Typical examples are Gd3+ low-molecular-weight chelates, and superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO). "In vivo" administration of these agents allows the labeling of tumor cells; or cells can be labeled "in vitro" with contrast agents and then they can be injected and monitored "in vivo" by using MRI techniques.  SPIO nanoparticles confer high sensitivity in MRI but they have lower affinity for cells; they work at high concentrations. Functionalizations of these compounds using dendrimeric guanidines showed similar activities as TAT-based CPPs but higher toxicity. New substrates based on dendrons with hydroxyl or amine peripheries show low toxicity. Applications of SPIO includes cell labeling "in vivo"; due to low toxicity, they are clinically approved for use in liver, spleen, and gastrointestinal imaging.  The presence of octamer arginine residues allows cell membrane transduction of various cargo molecules including peptides, DNA, siRNA, and contrast agents. However, the ability of cross membrane is not unidirectional; arginine-based CPPs are able to enter-exit the cell membrane, displaying an overall decreasing concentration of contrast agent and a decrease of magnetic resonance (MR) signal in time. This limits their application "in vivo". To solve this problem, contrast agents with disulfide, reversible bond between metal chelate and transduction moiety enhance the cell-associated retention. The disulfide bond is reduced by the target cell environment and the metal chelate remains trapped in the cytoplasm, increasing the retention time of chelate in the target cell.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are short peptides that facilitate cellular intake and uptake of molecules ranging from nanosize particles to small chemical compounds to large fragments of DNA. The "cargo" is associated with the peptides either through chemical linkage via covalent bonds or through non-covalent interactions.


Playing career.

Undrafted, after playing junior hockey in the AJHL for the Camrose Kodiaks, Connolly attended the University of Minnesota-Duluth in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. Named to the WCHA All-Rookie Team after the 2008-09 season, Connolly remained on a point-per-game average through his sophomore season. In his Junior year, he led the Bulldogs with 54 points in 42 game en route to the NCAA Championship and a WCHA First All-Star Team selection.  On April 13, 2011, shortly after his team won the Championship, Connolly signed a three-year entry-level contract with the San Jose Sharks of the National Hockey League.  In his first professional season in 2011–12, Connolly was assigned to the Sharks American Hockey League affiliate, the Worcester Sharks. He led Worcester rookies with 30 points in 40 games before he was dealt by San Jose at the trade deadline on February 27, 2012, to the Colorado Avalanche, along with Jamie McGinn and Michael Sgarbossa in exchange for Daniel Winnik, TJ Galiardi and a seventh round selection. He was then assigned to the Avalanche's AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters. After two games with the Monsters, Connolly was unexpectedly recalled by the Avalanche and made his NHL debut against the Minnesota Wild in a 2-0 victory on March 4, 2012.  After off-season knee surgery, Connolly missed the start of the 2012–13 season with the Lake Erie Monsters. As a result, Connolly struggled offensively upon his return until the latter portion of the season to contribute with 9 goals for 23 points in 65 games. His rights were not retained by Colorado and he was released as a free agent at the conclusion of his contract.  On July 18, 2013, Connolly was signed to his first European contract, on a one-year deal with German club, Augsburger Panther. In his first European season in 2013–14, Connolly quickly adapted to the larger ice and cemented his position as center on the top scoring line for Augsburg. Despite missing out on the post-season, Connolly lead the team with 28 assists and placed second in points with 42 to re-sign to a one-year extension on February 23, 2014.  In the following 2014–15 season, Connolly was limited to 22 games due to a cruciate ligament injury, and was unable to reproduce his initial success in the DEL. After finishing with 11 points, Connolly left as a free agent and signed a one-year contract with fellow DEL club, the Straubing Tigers on March 26, 2015.

Michael Brian Connolly (born July 3, 1989) is a Canadian professional ice hockey forward for the Straubing Tigers of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). Connolly has previously played in the National Hockey League for the Colorado Avalanche.


The critical parameter: Schottky barrier height.

Whether a given metal-semiconductor junction is an ohmic contact or a Schottky barrier depends on the Schottky barrier height, Φ, of the junction. For a sufficiently large Schottky barrier height, where Φ is significantly higher than the thermal energy "kT", the semiconductor is depleted near the metal and behaves as a Schottky barrier. For lower Schottky barrier heights, the semiconductor is not depleted and instead forms an ohmic contact to the metal.  The Schottky barrier height is defined differently for n-type and p-type semiconductors (being measured from the conduction band edge and valence band edge, respectively). The alignment of the semiconductor's bands near the junction is typically independent of the semiconductor's doping level, so the "n"-type and "p"-type Schottky barrier heights are ideally related to each other by: where "E" is the semiconductor's band gap.  In practice, the Schottky barrier height is not precisely constant across the interface, and varies over the interfacial surface.

Schottky–Mott rule and Fermi level pinning.

The Schottky–Mott rule of Schottky barrier formation predicts the Schottky barrier height based on the vacuum work function of the metal relative to the vacuum electron affinity (or vacuum ionization energy) of the semiconductor: This model is derived based on the thought experiment of bringing together the two materials in vacuum, and is closely related in logic to Anderson's rule for semiconductor-semiconductor junctions. Different semiconductors respect the Schottky–Mott rule to varying degrees.  Although the Schottky–Mott model correctly predicted the existence of band bending in the semiconductor, it was found experimentally that it would give grossly incorrect predictions for the height of the Schottky barrier. A phenomenon referred to as "Fermi level pinning" caused some point of the band gap, at which finite DOS exists, to be locked (pinned) to the Fermi level. This made the Schottky barrier height almost completely insensitive to the metal's work function: where "E" is the size of band gap in the semiconductor.  It was noted in 1947 by John Bardeen that the Fermi level pinning phenomenon would naturally arise if there were chargeable states in the semiconductor right at the interface, with energies inside the semiconductor's gap. These would either be induced during the direct chemical bonding of the metal and semiconductor (metal-induced gap states) or be already present in the semiconductor–vacuum surface (surface states). These highly dense surface states would be able to absorb a large quantity of charge donated from the metal, effectively shielding the semiconductor from the details of the metal. As a result, the semiconductor's bands would necessarily align to a location relative to the surface states which are in turn pinned to the Fermi level (due to their high density), all without influence from the metal.  The Fermi level pinning effect is strong in many commercially important semiconductors (Si, Ge, GaAs), and thus can be very frustrating for the design of semiconductor devices. For example, nearly all metals form a significant Schottky barrier to "n"-type germanium and an ohmic contact to "p"-type germanium, since the valence band edge is strongly pinned to the metal's Fermi level. The solution to this inflexibility requires additional processing steps such as adding an intermediate insulating layer to unpin the bands. (In the case of germanium, germanium nitride has been used)

History.

The rectification property of metal–semiconductor contacts was discovered by Ferdinand Braun in 1874 using mercury metal contacted with copper sulfide and iron sulfide semiconductors. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose applied for a US patent for a metal-semiconductor diode in 1901. This patent was awarded in 1904. G.W. Pickard received a patent in 1906 on a point-contact rectifier using silicon. In 1907, George W. Pierce published a paper in Physical Review showing rectification properties of diodes made by sputtering many metals on many semiconductors. The use of the metal–semiconductor diode rectifier was proposed by Lilienfeld in 1926 in the first of his three transistor patents as the gate of the metal–semiconductor field effect transistors. The theory of the field-effect transistor using a metal/semiconductor gate was advanced by William Shockley in 1939.  The earliest metal–semiconductor diodes in electronics application occurred around 1900, when the cat's whisker rectifiers were used in receivers. They consisted of pointed tungsten wire (in the shape of a cat's whisker) whose tip or point was pressed against the surface of a galena (lead sulfide) crystal. The first large area rectifier appeared around 1926 which consisted of a copper(I) oxide semiconductor thermally grown on a copper substrate. Subsequently, selenium films were evaporated onto large metal substrates to form the rectifying diodes. These selenium rectifiers were used (and are still used) to convert alternating current to direct current in electrical power applications. During 1925–1940, diodes consisting of a pointed tungsten metal wire in contact with a silicon crystal base, were fabricated in laboratories to detect microwaves in the UHF range. A World War II program to manufacture high-purity silicon as the crystal base for the point-contact rectifier was suggested by Frederick Seitz in 1942 and successfully undertaken by the Experimental Station of the E. I du Pont de Nemours Company.  The first theory that predicted the correct direction of rectification of the metal–semiconductor junction was given by Nevill Mott in 1939. He found the solution for both the diffusion and drift currents of the majority carriers through the semiconductor surface space charge layer which has been known since about 1948 as the Mott barrier. Walter H. Schottky and Spenke extended Mott's theory by including a donor ion whose density is spatially constant through the semiconductor surface layer. This changed the constant electric field assumed by Mott to a linearly decaying electric field. This semiconductor space-charge layer under the metal is known as the Schottky barrier. A similar theory was also proposed by Davydov in 1939. Although it gives the correct direction of rectification, it has also been proven that the Mott theory and its Schottky-Davydov extension gives the wrong current limiting mechanism and wrong current-voltage formulae in silicon metal/semiconductor diode rectifiers. The correct theory was developed by Hans Bethe and reported by him in a M.I.T. Radiation Laboratory Report dated November 23, 1942. In Bethe's theory, the current is limited by thermionic emission of electrons over the metal–semiconductor potential barrier. Thus, the appropriate name for the metal–semiconductor diode should be the Bethe diode, instead of the Schottky diode, since the Schottky theory does not predict the modern metal–semiconductor diode characteristics correctly.  If a metal-semiconductor junction is formed by placing a droplet of mercury, as Braun did, onto a semiconductor, e.g.silicon, to form a Schottky barrier in a Schottky diode electrical setup – electrowetting can be observed, where the droplet spreads out with increasing voltage. Depending on the doping type and density in the semiconductor, the droplet spreading depends on the magnitude and sign of the voltage applied to the mercury droplet. This effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’, effectively linking electrowetting and semiconductor effects.  The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, and presented in 1960. They extended their work on MOS technology to do pioneering work on hot carrier devices, which used what would later be called a Schottky barrier. The Schottky diode, also known as the Schottky-barrier diode, was theorized for years, but was first practically realized as a result of the work of Atalla and Kahng during 19601961. They published their results in 1962 and called their device the "hot electron" triode structure with semiconductor-metal emitter. It was one of the first metal-base transistors. Atalla continued research on Schottky diodes with Robert J. Archer at HP Associates. They developed high vacuum metal film deposition technology, and fabricated stable evaporated/sputtered contacts, publishing their results in January 1963. Their work was a breakthrough in metal–semiconductor junction and Schottky barrier research, as it overcame most of the fabrication problems inherent in point-contact diodes and made it possible to build practical Schottky diodes.

In solid-state physics, a metal–semiconductor (M–S) junction is a type of electrical junction in which a metal comes in close contact with a semiconductor material. It is the oldest practical semiconductor device. M–S junctions can either be rectifying or non-rectifying. The rectifying metal–semiconductor junction forms a Schottky barrier, making a device known as a Schottky diode, while the non-rectifying junction is called an ohmic contact. (In contrast, a rectifying semiconductor–semiconductor junction, the most common semiconductor device today, is known as a p–n junction.)


History.

K-tel was founded by Philip Kives, a demonstration salesman from Oungre, Saskatchewan, Canada. Kives had worked at a number of jobs as a young man, including selling cookware door-to-door and in a department store, and as a pitch-man on the Boardwalk in Atlantic City.  Back in Canada, in 1962 he used his own money and his fast-talking demonstration style to create a new kind of television advertisement. His first product was a Teflon-coated frying pan. He made a deal with the Eaton's department store to carry the product and with a local television station to air the commercials on a per-inquiry basis with a guaranteed minimum.  Kives bought and marketed a number of products from Seymour Popeil, father of Ronco founder Ron Popeil, including the Dial-O-Matic and Veg-O-Matic food slicers and the Feather Touch knife. In August 1965, he began selling the Feather Touch Knife in Australia and by Christmas had sold 1 million knives. Kives later began sourcing his own products, including the Miracle Brush, which sold 28 million units.  K-tel was formally incorporated in 1968, with Kives as CEO. The company operated profitably during the 1970s, and expanded both through acquisitions in its core area of business and diversification into other areas. Kives' cousin Raymond Kives worked as president of the K-tel US division from 1967 to 1977, and the K-tel Europe division from 1977 to 1984.  In the five years prior to 1981, K-tel sold more than $150 million in LPs in 34 countries. Its sales increased from $23 million in 1971 to $178 million in 1981. The company diversified, forming subsidiaries in areas such as real estate and oil exploration and also acquired rival Candlelite Records in 1980. K-tel lost $15.9 million when Candlelite’s customers refused to pay for their shipments.  The failure of this and several other high-risk ventures forced the publicly traded U.S. entity, K-tel International, to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in 1984. In 1986, the Bank of Montreal foreclosed on the K-tel Canadian subsidiary, at the same time as the US Chapter 11 filing.Advised by Minneapolis-based Sullivan Associates, K-tel negotiated settlements with banks and other preferred and unsecured creditors. Six years later, after all the legal battles, a settlement was reached with the Bank of Montreal, and in 1991, Kives got his Canadian company back.  In 1993, K-Tel earned a $2.7 million profit on sales of $56 million, and in 1994, ranked #7 on "BusinessWeek"’s annual Hot Growth List. Mickey Elfenbein, Kives' nephew, was appointed CEO of the K-Tel International division in 1993 until the late 1990s. K-tel increased its worldwide sales, primarily of music-related products, and had a successful NASDAQ IPO trading under the symbol KTEL.

Music business.

In 1966, Philip Kives released the company's first compilation album, a collection of 25 country songs entitled "25 Country Hits." Every copy was sold. The idea of compilation albums was new, and the venture's unexpected success led to further releases. K-Tel's second release, "25 Polka Greats", sold 1.5 million copies in the United States  K-tel recruited Australian Don Reedman (twin brother of Peter Reedman, who was already working in the Australian office) to set up the UK-based division of K-tel Records in the early 1970s. Ian Howard was the Managing Director of operations.  The company built the business of releasing compilation albums that combined material from a number of popular artists onto a single theme album using the tag line "20 Original Hits! 20 Original Stars!". The company negotiated directly with artists and labels for the rights to reproduce their original recordings, in the process also securing a long-term asset through adding those recordings to their catalog.  While most of the compilation albums relied on the pop charts of the day, there were some that focused on hits from a specific genre. Examples include:  The company also created original records, including the Grammy-nominated "Hooked on Classics" series of classical recordings with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra.

Films.

In 1970 the company briefly began distributing foreign films in the U.S., beginning with "Mr. Superinvisible". They produced their own "Pardon My Blooper" film, based on one of their records.

Dot-com bubble's effects on K-tel.

In mid-April 1998, during the dot-com bubble, news that the company was expanding its business to the Internet sent the thinly traded stock shooting from about $3 to over $7 in one day (3:1 split adjusted). The short interest of the stock swelled. The price of the stock peaked at about $34 in early May, and began to decline, reaching $12 in November and eventually pennies. The sudden upswing was fueled mainly by a large short squeeze. Traders with short positions either "bought in" or were forced to cover positions at very high prices because of the great losses.  In 2007, Philip Kives took K-tel private again. The company completed a 1-for-5000 reverse split on July 18, 2007, reducing the number of public shareholders to under 300 and allowing the company to delist. It changed its symbol to KTLI and moved from the NASDAQ to the over-the-counter market.

K-tel today.

The company now earns profits from its catalog of "Billboard"-charting hits, by the original artists, particularly songs from the 1950s through the 1980s. Tracks include "The Twist" by Chubby Checker, "What I Like About You" by The Romantics, "Tutti Frutti" by Little Richard, "Surfin’ Bird" by The Trashmen, and "Help Me Make It Through The Night" by Sammi Smith.  K-tel distributes more than 200,000 songs worldwide per year on digital platforms, including Amazon, Spotify and iTunes, and licenses songs from its catalog for use in commercials (e.g., Nike, Fiat, Coke and KFC), films (e.g., "Spider-Man", "The Dallas Buyers Club" and "Hotel Transylvania 2") and television programs (e.g., "Ray Donovan", "Breaking Bad", "Californication", "Mad Men" and "Transparent").  K-tel has also produced "Mini Pop Kids", a series of recordings in which a group of children aged 9 to 13 sing current, family-friendly pop hits. The series sold millions of copies when it was originally distributed in the 1980s. K-tel brought the series back in 2004, and has continued to produce recordings. The latest album, "Mini Pop Kids 15", reached #1 on the iTunes Kids Chart. The series is promoted by a touring group that performs shows across Canada.  Company founder Phillip Kives died in Winnipeg on April 27, 2016.

Effect on popular culture.

K-tel helped define the way people purchased music in the 1960s and 1970s. In 2013, Forbes wrote a piece on K-tel, entitled "K-Tel Records: The Spotify of the 70s", pointing out that the way people discovered new music in the 70s was through K-tel compilations, in the same way that Spotify playlists are now used to find related artists.  In 2013, Dave Grohl, the front man of The Foo Fighters, gave a keynote speech at SXSW, praising K-tel for exposing him to music early in his life, specifically "Frankenstein" by The Edgar Winter Group: "Grohl told the crowd earnestly that the song's inclusion on a 1975 K-tel Records "Blockbuster" compilation – the first album that he ever owned – was "the record that changed my life."  K-tel infomercials were spoofed on late night television, leading to skits such as Dave Thomas's character Harvey K-Tel pitching "Stairways to Heaven" and "50 Psalms by 50 Stars" on SCTV, Dan Aykroyd’s "Bass-o-Matic" "Saturday Night Live" performance, and "The Simpsons" cartoon series, where the fictional B-movie actor Troy McClure promotes widgets on a show called "I Can’t Believe They Invented It!".

K-tel International is a company which specialized in selling consumer products through infomercials and live demonstration. Its products include compilation music albums, including "The Super Hits" series, "The Dynamic Hits" series and "The Number One Hits" series and consumer products, including the Record Selector, the Veg-O-Matic, the Miracle Brush, and the Feather Touch Knife. The company has sold more than half a billion units worldwide.


History.

Hobbs' Angel of Death was formed in January 1987 in Melbourne, initially as a solo project for ex-Tyrus guitarist Peter Hobbs. With the help of ex-Nothing Sacred members, Karl Lean (bass guitar), Sham Littleman (drums) and Mark Woolley (guitar), the band recorded two demos, "Angel of Death" and "Virgin Metal Invasion from Down Under", that attracted interest from overseas labels. They are one of the first Australian groups to perform European style thrash metal.  Although playing traditional style thrash metal, Hobbs described his band's sound as "virgin metal" – a pure form of metal music.  In February and March 1988, they were at Musiclab studios in Berlin to record their debut self-titled album, "Hobbs' Angel of Death". Produced by Harris Johns, it was released in July on German label Steamhammer Records, and "became a best-seller in Europe". The line-up for the album was Hobbs and Woolley with Philip Gresik on bass guitar and Darren McMaster-Smith on drums. In 1989, Hobbs and Woolley with Bruno Canziani (drums) and Dave Frew (bass guitar) began touring. Frew and Canziani were two thirds of the band Rampage, who disbanded in 1988 due to singer-guitarist George Mitrov having converted to Christianity and denouncing metal music as "demonic".  A second album, "Inheritance" was released in 1995, but failed to repeat the success of its predecessor and was an Australia-only release. It was difficult to obtain outside Australia and the band had "emerged from the darkness with a poorly produced second" album. Hobbs' Angel of Death broke up soon after its release.  In 2002, Hobbs reformed the band and released a compilation album of two early demos. The band played a European tour including an appearance at Wacken Festival, and shows with German thrash group Destruction and black metallers Mayhem. In July 2003, keyboardist Talie Helene, despite never having recorded nor played live with Hobbs' Angel of Death, left to form her own band, Stone Maiden. Remaining members were Hobbs, Canziani and Frew.  In 2011, Hobbs' Angel of Death returned to the live scene supporting Forbidden in Sydney on their Australian tour, and playing a small number of live shows before embarking on several European tours throughout 2012 and 2013. In August 2014, Peter Hobbs made an appearance in the Australian metal documentary "Metal Down Under". Hobbs Angel of Death toured the US later in the year.  Hobbs' Angel of Death released their third album "Heaven Bled" in 2016, and continued to tour Europe. However, in 2018 further touring was cancelled due to Peter Hobbs' health issues. The band did not play again until 2019, performing at Heathen Fest in Southern New South Wales. This show would be Peter Hobbs' final live appearance.  On 21 October 2019, Peter Hobbs died at the age of 58. A tribute concert in Hobbs' memory was organised in Melbourne on November 29. The concert consisted of a live performance of Hobbs' material from both Tyrus and Angel of Death by former bandmates and friends.

Members.

Final lineup  Past  Track listing  Track listing  Track listing

Hobbs' Angel of Death were an Australian thrash metal band that began in 1987 in Melbourne, and are one of the first Australian groups to perform in that genre. They released two studio albums, "Hobbs' Angel of Death" (1988) and "Inheritance" (1995) before disbanding in 1996. They reformed in 2002 and released a compilation album, "Hobbs' Satan's Crusade" (2003), and a third album "Heaven Bled" (2016).


Overview.

The site consists of multiple elements covering a broad range of time. There are remains of houses and potential cloth and iron processing sites. There are multiple stone chambers currently believed to be root cellars, two of which are completely intact. Says Connecticut State Archaeologist Nicholas Bellantoni, "The thing that's unique at Gungywamp is that there are so many of them."  One of these "root cellars", also known as the "calendar chamber", has an astronomical feature where an inner alcove is illuminated during the equinoxes by the alignment of a hole in the west wall, through which the sun shines upon a lighter stone on the opposite side, radiating illumination within the smaller, beehive shaped chamber.  Somewhat removed from the structures, there is a stone circle, actually consisting of two circles of stones, one within the other, over ten feet in diameter. The outermost ring is made up of twelve stones worked to be curved. Archaeologists who have studied it consider it to have been a mill. The archaeologist Ken Feder notes that unlike European stone circles the stones are recumbent and not upright and identifies it as a bark mill used to extract tannin for leather making. Walking in a circle animals would pull the mill wheel between the double circle of stones." Other researchers have hypothesized it is a Native American built structure.  Even farther away there is a row of low standing stones, lined up in a north-south facing, one of which features an etched image of a bird with outstretched wings.

Etymology.

The origin and meaning of the name is uncertain. According to The Hartford Courant, researchers have "associated the name, 'Gungywamp' with ancient Gaelic, Mohegan, Pequot, and Algonquin" and could mean anything from "church of the people", "place of ledges", "swampy place"; or "all powerful" and "white," respectively.

Artifacts.

Native American artifacts include arrowheads, stone flakes and pottery fragments. Colonial artifacts include pottery, china, buttons, coins, bottle and window glass, utensils, tobacco pipes, bricks and animal bones. There have been no artifacts found associated with the stone chambers to give any indication of their purpose.

Stone chambers.

The specific function and temporal origin of the stone chambers have yet to be definitively established. Colonial era root cellars constructed by Euro-Americans is currently considered to be the strongest possibility. Other possibilities include construction by slaves in colonial times, or by Native Americans such as the Pequot or Mohegan tribes. It has been suggested that the site could be one of the ceremonial stone landscapes described by USET, United South and Eastern Tribes, Inc., in their resolution on sacred ceremonial stone landscapes. However, the site is most known among the general public due to the suggestion, originally made in the 1960s, that the stone chambers share similarities with structures from Medieval Ireland. This has been taken by some to indicate that Irish monks, or Culdees, were involved, and that therefore the site contains evidence of pre-Columbian European settlement of the Americas.

North complex.

This area lacks stone chambers but it contains some interesting structures. One is a low earthen berm with a rectangular shape. When James Whittall, Jr. excavated the berm, he found stumps of posts on three sides indicating a Native American lodge built of saplings. Associated with the lodge were two hearths. Nearby is an elongated cairn in the shape of a boat (narrow at the tips and wide in the middle). On top of this cairn were three short standing stones. In the same general area there is a group of nineteen cairns built on the ground. More cairns were built on top of boulders scattered about the area. There were also three standing stones in the area.

Virtual tour.

An online virtual tour can be viewed at the Denison Pequotsepos Nature Center web site.

Secrets of the Underground.

The television show "Secrets of the Underground" explores the Irish connection with biologist Rob Nelson. He uses Polynomial texture mapping to look at the rock carvings.

Recent events.

In 2018 the deed to 270 acres of the original 400-acre parcel was transferred to the State of Connecticut. Discussions are in progress on how to allow legal access to the property while preserving the archaeological sites.

Gungywamp is an archaeological site in Groton, Connecticut, United States, consisting of artifacts dating from 2000-770 BC, a stone circle, and the remains of both Native American and colonial structures. Among multiple structural remains, of note is a stone chamber featuring an astronomical alignment during the equinoxes. Besides containing beehive chambers and petroglyphs, the Gungywamp site has a double circle of stones near its center, just north of two stone chambers. Two concentric circles of large quarried stones - 21 large slabs laid end to end are at the center of the site.


History.

Opened in 1925, Stateville was built to accommodate 1,506 inmates. Parts of the prison were designed according to the panopticon concept proposed by the British philosopher and prison reformer, Jeremy Bentham. Stateville's "F-House" cellhouse, commonly known as a "roundhouse", has a panopticon layout which features an armed tower in the center of an open area surrounded by several tiers of cells. F-House was the only remaining "roundhouse" still in use in the United States in the 1990s. It was closed in late 2016 but the structure will remain standing due to its historical significance. A duplicate of the prison, the Presidio Modelo, opened in Cuba in 1936, but has since been abandoned.  In 2009 a 40-year-old man from Chicago, Richard Conner, murdered a 37-year-old Will County man named Jameson Leezer, who had originated from Lisle and Bolingbrook. Both were inmates placed in the same solitary confinement cell together. The killing made the state of Illinois change its rules in housing two prisoners together during solitary confinement; the prison authorities now must take into account both inmates' histories of violence.

Execution site.

Stateville Correctional Center was one of three sites in which executions were carried out by electrocution in Illinois. Between 1928 and 1962, the electric chair was used 13 times at Stateville, including the state's first electrocutions on December 15, 1928 of three convicted murderers.  The state's other electrocutions were carried out at the Menard Correctional Center in Chester and at the Cook County Jail in Chicago.  Stateville Correctional Center conducted 11 executions by lethal injection between 1990 when executions resumed in Illinois and 1998 when the state's execution chamber was relocated southwest to the Tamms Correctional Center in Tamms, Illinois.  On March 9, 2011, Governor Pat Quinn signed into law legislation ending the death penalty in the state of Illinois.

Current use.

Today the prison holds an average of over 3,500, at an annual cost of over $32,000 per prisoner.  Stateville's 1,300 employees make it a Level 1 facility; the highest of eight security level designations. There is also a minimum security unit commonly referred to as the Stateville Farm, which is a Level 7 facility, located within the new Northern Reception Center, located just south of the main facility. The Northern Reception Center (NRC), accepts incoming prisoners from the county jails in the northern two-thirds of the state.  Stateville is located two miles (3 km) north of Joliet, Illinois (16830 IL Route 53 Crest Hill, IL 60403; (815) 727-3607), on a site of over, of which are surrounded by a concrete perimeter with 10 wall towers. Stateville is often confused with the former Joliet Correctional Center, which closed in 2002. Located in the nearby city of Joliet, the former Joliet Prison is much older and smaller. It is located about southeast of Stateville on the corner of Woodruff Rd. and Collins St., across the Illinois and Michigan Canal.

Stateville Correctional Center (SCC) is a maximum security state prison for men in Crest Hill, Illinois, United States, near Chicago. It is a part of the Illinois Department of Corrections.


Personal life.

Ballard was born in Leeds, England on 27 June 1971. During his childhood he lived in Punjab, India (1973–1975) and Islamabad, Pakistan (1984–1985). He married Heather Stacey on 28 September 2002 and has two children, Adam and Lucas. He attends the Portobello and Musselburgh Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends.

Education.

He attended Lawnswood Comprehensive school in Leeds before going on to the University of Edinburgh, where he graduated with an MA (Hons) in Economic and Social History. He is a life member of the Edinburgh University Union, part of the Edinburgh University Students Association (EUSA). In February 2006 he was elected Rector of the University of Edinburgh.

Career outside politics.

Between 1994 and 1998 he worked for European Youth Forest Action (now European Youth For Action) in Edinburgh and Amsterdam. After this until 2001 he worked as editor of the journal Reforesting Scotland before setting up an environmental communications consultancy company that ran until 2003. After the 2007 election, Ballard became head of communications at the Scottish Council for Voluntary Organisations, before moving to become Assistant Director of Barnardo's in Scotland, then Director of Strategy at Chest Heart and Stroke Scotland and then Head of Save the Children in Scotland. He currently works for the children's charity Children 1st.

Political career.

He joined the youth wing of the Labour Party when he was 15 and remained a member until 1991. At this point he became involved in the Scottish Green Party's student movement. He ran as a candidate for this party in the 1995 council elections, the 1999 Scottish Parliamentary election and a 2001 council by-election. He was first elected in the 2003 Holyrood election, as the second Green MSP in the Lothians.  He was a member of the Scottish Parliament "Finance Committee" and was also substitute member of the Enterprise and Culture Committee. He committed substantial time to promoting social enterprises and co-operatives, as a Green alternative to the current system. He also used the position to call for sustainable procurement guidelines, support ethical investment campaigns, and make the case for Scottish utilities being in public ownership.  As the Green speaker on Transport, Mark Ballard supported campaigns against the Dalkeith by-pass and the M74, for the trams in Edinburgh and for a better and cheaper public transport system. As a Lothians MSP he helped raise awareness of community initiatives such as the campaign to resist a huge superstore development in Portobello, supporting the calls for congestion charging in Edinburgh, assisting universities wanting to make the switch to Fairtrade and opposing tuition fees for students. The latter in particular helped him win support amongst Edinburgh's student community.

Campaigning work.

He has also been involved in direct action campaigning, most notably against British nuclear weapons on the River Clyde at Faslane, against the release of Genetically modified organisms and motorway construction through the group Earth First!. He has been arrested at Faslane several times, as part of the CND 'Big Blockade', most recently in August 2004. He was involved in a long-running court case over the destruction of a field of rapeseed at the Roslin Institute near Dalkeith in 1999. [Although initially found guilty of "wilfully and recklessly" destroying plants belonging to Monsanto Company, all charges were quashed due to a delay in the hearing of the appeal, which Mr Ballard claimed was because the Crown was unable to provide relevant evidence.  He holds membership of a large number of organisations listed in his Register of Interest as Friends of the Earth, Sustrans, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Democratic Left Scotland, Reforesting Scotland, Water of Leith Conservation Trust, Friends of Inverleith Park, SSPCA, Advocates for Animals and Scottish Education and Action for Development. Until 2005 he was also an unpaid director of UK charity Seeds for Change, treasurer of the Scottish Environmental Festivals association and is on the editorial board of the Scottish Left Review, a bi-monthly cross-party journal of the Scottish left.

Rector of the University of Edinburgh.

In February 2006 he stood for election as Rector the University of Edinburgh standing against MP Boris Johnson, pro-Palestine journalist John Pilger and former "Scotsman" editor Magnus Linklater. The election received a high level of publicity mostly due to Boris Johnson's candidature.  The election took place on the 15/16 February 2006, with a turn out of almost 8000. A system of Single Transferable Vote was used. In the final round Mark Ballard received 3,597 votes against Magnus Linklater's 3,052 and was elected.  He was formally installed on 9 June 2006 in a ceremony in the University's Old College. Present at this ceremony were the Chancellor of the University, HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, the University Vice-Chancellor and Principal, Professor Timothy O'Shea, and Mark Ballard's predecessor as Rector, Labour MP Tam Dalyell. In this capacity he continues to work on issues of concern to students and university staff, including playing a prominent role in the movement which led to the complete abolishing of student tuition fees in Scotland in 2008.  He was succeeded as Rector in 2009 by journalist Iain Macwhirter, whose campaign drew on many of Ballard's supporters.

Mark Ballard (born 27 June 1971) is a former Member of the Scottish Parliament for the Lothians region between 2003 and 2007 representing the Scottish Green Party, was Lord Rector of the University of Edinburgh between 2006 and 2009, and co-convener of the Edinburgh Green Party from 2007–10. He now works for the children's charity Children 1st.


Personal life.

Robert was born in Kristiania to engineer Ole Christian Olstad and Helene Elisabet Svensson. He was married to actress Randi Brænne, and a brother-in-law of Berit Brænne. Originally born Olstad, his second name Robert was upgraded to surname after an initiative from Chat Noir manager Johan Henrik Wiers-Jenssen.

Career.

Robert made his stage debut at Carl Johan Teatret in 1939. From 1941 he performed at the revue stage Chat Noir, and then at Centralteatret from 1944 to 1958. He was assigned with the Nationaltheatret from 1958 yo 1962, and after a period at Oslo Nye Teater, again at Nationaltheatret from 1968 to 1988. At Nationaltheatret he played in comedies by Ludvig Holberg, Molière and Noël Coward. Among his Ibsen characters were "Krogstad" in "A Doll's House", "Manders" in "Ghosts", and "Begriffenfeldt" and "the button-molder" in "Peer Gynt". He was awarded the Norwegian Theatre Critics Award in 1974 for the character "Gustav" in Strindberg's "Creditors". He participated in thirteen films, including "Trine" from 1952, "På solsiden" from 1956, "Fjols til fjells" from 1957, "Freske fraspark" from 1963, and several of the "Olsenbanden" movies. He played the title role in the Norwegian version of the audio play series "Dickie Dick Dickens", aired by Radioteatret. He voiced the pupped character "Reodor Felgen" in "The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix" from 1975. Among his song recordings are "På sykkeltur" from 1954, Thorbjørn Egner's children song "Bamsens Fødselsdag" from 1952, and Finn Bø's revue song "Gutten som har vaska seg".

Frank Robert (né Frank Robert Olstad; 12 October 1918 – 13 July 2007) was a Norwegian singer, dancer and actor. He is particularly remembered for playing the title character in the popular audio play "Dickie Dick Dickens".


Synthesis.

Classically, periodate was most commonly produced in the form of sodium hydrogen periodate (NaHIO). This is commercially available, but can also be produced by the oxidation of iodates with chlorine and sodium hydroxide. Or, similarly, from iodides by oxidation with bromine and sodium hydroxide:  Modern industrial scale production involves the electrochemical oxidation of iodates, on a PbO anode, with the following standard electrode potential:  Metaperiodates are typically prepared by the dehydration of sodium hydrogen periodate with nitric acid, or by dehydrating orthoperiodic acid by heating it to 100 °C under vacuum.  They can also be generated directly from iodates by treatment with other strong oxidizing agents such as hypochlorites:

Forms and interconversion.

Periodate can exist in a variety of forms in aqueous media, with pH being a controlling factor. Orthoperiodate has a number of acid dissociation constants.  The ortho- and metaperiodate forms also exist in equilibrium.  For this reason orthoperiodate is sometimes referred to as the dihydrate of metaperiodate, written ; however, this description is not strictly accurate as X-ray crystallography of HIO shows 5 equivalent I–OH groups.  At extremes of pH additional species can form. Under basic conditions a dehydration reaction can take place to form the diperiodate (sometimes referred to as mesoperiodate).  Under strongly acid conditions periodic acid can be protonated to give the "orthoperiodonium" cation.

Structure and bonding.

In both the ortho- and metaperiodate the iodine is hypervalent, as it forms more bonds than would classically be allowed. This has been explained in terms of dative bonds, confirming the absence of double bonding in these molecules.  Exact structures vary depending on counter ions, however on average orthoperiodates adopt a slightly deformed octahedral geometry with X-ray diffraction showing I–O bond lengths of 1.89 Å. Metaperiodates adopt a distorted tetrahedral geometry with an average I–O distance of 1.78 Å.

Reactions.

Cleavage reactions.

Periodates can cleave carbon–carbon bonds on a variety of 1,2-difunctionalised alkanes. The most common example of this is diol cleavage, which was also the first to be discovered (Malaprade reaction). In addition to diols, periodates can cleave 1,2-hydroxy ketones, 1,2-diketones, α-keto acids, α-hydroxy acids, amino acids, 1,2-amino alcohols, 1,2-diamines, and epoxides to give aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids.  Alkenes can also be oxidised and cleaved in the Lemieux–Johnson oxidation. This uses a catalytic loading of osmium tetroxide which is regenerated in situ by the periodate. The overall process is equivalent to that of ozonolysis.  Cleavage reactions proceed via a cyclic intermediate called a periodate ester. The formation of this may be affected by pH and temperature but is most strongly effected by the geometry of the substrate, with "cis"-diols reacting significantly faster than "trans"-diols. The reactions are exothermic and are typically performed at 0 °C. As periodate salts are only readily soluble in water reactions are generally performed in aqueous media. Where solubility is an issue periodic acid may be used, as this is soluble in alcohols; phase transfer catalysts are also effective in biphasic reaction mixtures. In extreme cases the periodate may be exchanged for lead tetraacetate which reacts in a similar manner and is soluble in organic solvents (Criegee oxidation).  Periodate cleavage is often utilized in molecular biochemistry for the purposes of modifying saccharide rings, as many five- and six-membered sugars have vicinal diols. Historically it was also used to determine the structure of monosaccharides.  Periodate cleavage may be performed on an industrial scale to form dialdehyde starch which has uses in paper production.

Oxidation reactions.

Periodates are powerful oxidising agents. They can oxidise catechol to 1,2-benzoquinone and hydroquinone to 1,4-benzoquinone. Sulfides can be effectively oxidised to sulfoxides. Periodates are sufficiently powerful to generate other strong inorganic oxidisers such as permanganate, osmium tetroxide and ruthenium tetroxide.

Niche uses.

Periodates are highly selective etchants for certain ruthenium-based oxides.  Several staining agents use in microscopy are based around periodate (e.g. periodic acid–Schiff stain and Jones' stain)  Periodates have also been used as oxidising agents for use in pyrotechnics. In 2013 the US Army announced that it would replace the environmentally harmful chemicals barium nitrate and potassium perchlorate with sodium metaperiodate for use in their tracer ammunition.

Other oxyanions.

Periodate is part of a series of oxyanions in which iodine can assume oxidation states of −1, +1, +3, +5, or +7. A number of neutral iodine oxides are also known.

Periodate is an anion composed of iodine and oxygen. It is one of a number of oxyanions of iodine and is the highest in the series, with iodine existing in oxidation state +7. Unlike other perhalogenates, such as perchlorate, it can exist in two forms: metaperiodate and orthoperiodate. In this regard it is comparable to the tellurate ion from the adjacent group. It can combine with a number of counter ions to form periodates, which may also be regarded as the salts of periodic acid.