Publication history.

From her initial appearance as the White Queen of the Hellfire Club, Frost appeared as an X-Men villain over the years. Emma Frost first appeared in the famous storyline "The Dark Phoenix Saga", in "The Uncanny X-Men" #129 (January 1980). The character was created by writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne. Claremont was inspired to create the Hellfire Club after seeing the episode "A Touch of Brimstone" from the television show "The Avengers", where spy duo John Steed and Emma Peel infiltrate a criminal, hedonistic, underground society. Emma Frost was specifically inspired by Emma Peel, played by actress Diana Rigg, who famously dons a provocative corset, collar, and boots and becomes the "Queen of Sin".  After The Dark Phoenix saga, Emma Frost frequently appeared in other storylines in "Uncanny X-Men" and the original volume of the "New Mutants" alongside her Hellions.  In March 1986, Tom DeFalco, Mary Wilshire, and Steve Leialoha were the creative team for the four issue "Firestar" miniseries, where Emma predominantly appeared alongside her Hellions. This series showcased Frost as the main villain as she attempted to turn Angelica Jones into her own personal weapon.  After recovering from a coma and aiming to redeem herself upon the knowledge that her Hellions had been slaughtered, Frost played a pivotal role in the Phalanx Covenant, which saw her team up with Banshee, Jubilee, and Sabretooth in an attempt to save the next generation of mutants. This led to her becoming a main character of the spin-off series "Generation X" which began in November 1994 under the creative eyes of Scott Lobdell, Chris Bachalo, and Mark Buckingham. The series ended after over 75 issues (and several one-shots and miniseries) with Brian Wood, Ron Lim, Sandu Florea, and Randy Elliott ending the series. The series offered glimpses into her past before her days in the Hellfire Club, as well as introducing her sisters Adrienne and Cordelia.  After the series ended and all the X-Titles were revamped, in 2001 Frost appeared in "New X-Men" as a teacher for the mutant population of Genosha, which was then controlled by Magneto. After a Sentinel strike leveled the island nation, the X-Men found Frost amidst the rubble with a "secondary mutation" which hardened her skin to a diamond-like density. Using Frost as a character was suggested to writer Grant Morrison on his website by a fan. While Morrison initially had no plans to use her, the death of the character Colossus left Morrison with an opening. He created Emma's secondary mutation – a super strong diamond form – as a replacement for Colossus' powers and added her to the cast. Subsequently, Frost joined the X-Men. This would lead to her instigating an affair with fellow X-Man Cyclops, who was having marital difficulties with Jean Grey. This series also provided further glimpses into her past, introducing her father Winston Frost and her brother Christian.  In August 2003, writer Karl Bollers penned an ongoing series showcasing her origins titled "Emma Frost". The series, which lasted for 18 issues, began during her days as a private school student and ended before her days as a Hellfire Club member. It expanded on the role of her father Winston and her brother Christian, also exploring the early days of her two sisters. Later Marvel issues would expand Emma's character history by depicting her as having past romantic histories with prominent Marvel characters, such as Iron Man and Prince Namor.  Under Joss Whedon and John Cassaday, Emma was featured in the third volume of "Astonishing X-Men". She was a major character in the ongoing series, specifically during its third arc, "Torn," in which the authenticity of her allegiance to the X-Men was explored. She also frequently made guest appearances in other Marvel titles, "New X-Men" in particular.

Fictional character biography.

Early life.

Emma Frost was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the wealthy Winston and Hazel Frost. She is the third of four children: her siblings are named Christian, Adrienne, and Cordelia. Winston is cold, ruthless, and domineering, often imposing impossibly high standards on his children, while Hazel abuses prescription drugs to cope with the tensions of her household. Emma obtains no emotional support from her parents or her sisters, but gets along with her brother Christian.  At her school, Frost is ruthlessly bullied by her peers but finds support in teacher, Ian Kendall. When her telepathic powers manifest, Frost is able to read the minds of others and glean information. Frost becomes a tutor to the other students and Ian recommends her to be a teacher, something Frost's father refuses. On her way home from school one day, Frost's car breaks down and Ian gives her a ride home. After reading his thoughts and learning that he thinks she is beautiful and intelligent, Frost kisses him. Her sister Adrienne records it and her father uses the evidence to get Ian fired. Frost begins to fight back by blackmailing her father. Intrigued by her

White Queen of the Hellfire Club.

As White Queen of the Hellfire Club, Frost held many titles, one of which was Chairman of the Board and CEO of Frost International, which helps to fund the activities of the Lords Cardinal. Frost also becomes the Chairman of the Board of Trustees and headmistress of the Massachusetts Academy, a school for mutants which serves as a counterpoint to Charles Xavier's School for Gifted Youngsters. Frost and the Club's agents later attempted to recruit Kitty Pryde for the Massachusetts Academy, and capture (and

The Hellions.

During her time with the Hellfire Club, Frost continues to run the Massachusetts Academy and mentors the mutant team known as the Hellions. Frost attempts to recruit several gifted youngsters to her cause: Firestar, Doug Ramsey and again Kitty Pryde, all of which result in altercations. Alongside the Hellions, Frost encounters the Hellions' rival team, Xavier's New Mutants, several times. When the New Mutants are

Losing the Hellions.

When the time traveling mutant Trevor Fitzroy unleashes the mutant-hunting robots called the Sentinels on Frost and her Hellions, Frost places herself in a psychic coma in order to survive the ordeal. Her

Generation X.

Frost later teams up with the X-Men to defeat the Phalanx, and in the process, rescue a select group of teenage mutants who become a superhero team known as Generation X, to whom Frost and Banshee become mentors at the reopened Massachusetts Academy. After Frost's business ventures take a bad turn,

Joining and leading the X-Men.

In dealing with the emotional fallout from the murder of her sister, Frost travels to the mutant haven island of Genosha, where she teaches at a mutant school until a genocidal Sentinel attack kills most of the island's inhabitants; Frost survives due to the sudden manifestation of her secondary mutation: the power to transform herself into a flexible, near-invulnerable, diamond-like substance. After being rescued Frost joins the X-Men and takes on a teaching position at Xavier Institute. She mentors a group of

Decimation.

Following the "Decimation" storyline, the student population drastically decreases,

Phoenix Warsong.

During the 2006 miniseries "", it is revealed that Frost's ova are the genetic templates used to clone thousands of identical female telepaths, five of which had become the Stepford Cuckoos. The encapsulated

Astonishing X-Men.

In the series "Astonishing X-Men", a flashback shows that Frost's survival of the destruction of Genosha was due to Cassandra Nova creating Frost's secondary mutation as part of a scheme to infiltrate the X-Men as a sleeper agent. A guilt ridden Frost creates psychic manifestations of a new Hellfire Club and proceeds to take down the X-Men one by one by showing them their deepest fears. Later on it is revealed that Frost's survivor's guilt is being exacerbated by Cassandra Nova who had placed a glimmer of her mind in Frost's before being

Civil War.

During the 2006–2007 storyline "Civil War", Frost, during a conversation with Iron Man, announces that the Xavier Institute

Messiah Complex.

During the 2007–2008 storyline "", Frost is part of the team that investigates the detection of a new mutant in Alaska. She also defends the X-Men from the Marauders and the telepathy of Sinister and Exodus. Frost is last seen with

Divided We Stand.

In the 2008 storyline "", Frost and Scott vacation in the Savage Land but soon leave to answer a distress call by Archangel from San Francisco. The couple saves San Francisco from an out of

Manifest Destiny.

In the 2008–2009 storyline "", a new anti-mutant group calling themselves the "Hellfire Cult" appears in the Bay Area, committing various anti-mutant hate crimes. They are led by Frost's former pupil, Empath, as well as a mysterious red-haired dominatrix telepath who calls herself the Red Queen. After Empath discloses his experience of lusting after Frost during his days at the Massachusetts Academy, the dominatrix takes on Frost's appearance. While investigating the Hellfire Cult's base, Cyclops is seduced by the Red Queen. Later while at a Dazzler concert, Scott reveals that the Red

Secret Invasion.

In the 2008 storyline "Secret Invasion", Frost is seen fighting the Skrulls in San Francisco during the invasion. There, the Skrulls set up a telepathy-blocking "wall" throughout the globe. Emma channels the Cuckoos' telepathy into her own using Cerebra in an attempt to locate the source of the psi-blockade but

Dark Reign.

In the 2008–2009 storyline "Dark Reign", Frost, after waking from a vision about the Sentry, is invited to join Norman Osborn's Cabal. At the meeting, it is revealed that she and Prince Namor share a romantic history. During her days as the White Queen, Sebastian Shaw sent Frost to convince Namor to join the Hellfire Club. Instead, Namor took her to his kingdom and they began a relationship. Believing Frost to have betrayed him for Namor, Shaw sent a reprogrammed sentinel to Atlantis, attacking the two and destroying the kingdom. When Namor confronted Shaw for his treachery, Sage took

Sisterhood of Mutants.

The Red Queen, along with her magically-powered Sisterhood of Mutants attack the X-Men with the end goal of locating Jean Grey's corpse. Lady Mastermind ambushes Frost nullifying her mind with

Dark X-Men.

Frost is appointed by Norman Osborn to lead his new team of "Dark X-Men". Each member is hand-picked by Norman but Frost has Namor added to the team for her own reasons. The team debuts to the public as the official "X-Men" maintaining high public approval through Osborn's careful media strategy. They oust the original X-Men, portraying them as a dangerous militia. Meanwhile, Frost discovers that Osborn is working with the Dark Beast, torturing apprehended mutants and feeding their powers into a machine that empowers Weapon Omega. Cyclops sends X-Force on a strategic evacuation of the mutant prisoners, resulting in a planned confrontation with the Dark X-Men. As the teams prepare to face off, Frost then

Necrosha.

Frost, Sebastian Shaw and Donald Pierce are targeted by Selene for betraying her years ago in her plan to ascend to godhood. Additionally, Selene is also angry over Frost using the Black Queen moniker when she was leading the Dark X-Men. She resurrects the Hellions and sends them to attack and taunt Frost. Their appearance

Second Coming.

During the events of the 2010 "" storyline, Frost acts as moral support to Scott as well as the prime means of communication between Scott and his Alpha Roster of X-Men. When Rogue becomes aware that she has an empathic connection to Hope, she contacts Frost for help, Frost finds that the bond is not telepathic in nature. Along with all the other telepaths among the X-Men, Frost is affected by the psionic backlash when Bastion

Avengers vs. X-Men.

In the 2012 storyline "Avengers vs. X-Men", Frost is one of the five X-Men taken over by the power of the Phoenix Force after it is fractured by Iron Man. Under its influence, she finds and kills a man who committed

All-New X-Men.

Frost is rescued from prison by Cyclops and Magneto, but it is revealed that her time as a Phoenix has rendered her telepathy erratic at best. Despite her resentment of

All-New, All-Different Marvel.

Following "Secret Wars" and the restoration of Earth-616 prior to the Incursions, Emma Frost is among a small team of X-Men who come into contact with the Terrigen mists at Muir Island, where they found Jamie Madrox dead on the facility grounds. Discovering that the Terrigen Mist cloud was toxic to mutants Scott and Emma formulate a plan to extinguish one of the Inhumans' Terrigen cloud. And while they are

Inhumans vs. X-Men.

Over the next eight months since Cyclops' death, Emma started to train and improving her time to turn into her diamond form. She also seems to be traumatized from the death of Scott and began to believe her own lie that Black Bolt was the one who actually killed him. Emma wasted no time and began to prepare for a war with the Inhumans by making alliances with various teams of X-Men, with the last being Storm's X-Haven. She declares war on the Inhumans when Beast reports that the Terrigen cloud will soon saturate and

Secret Empire.

During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Emma Frost is revealed to be the true leader of the mutant nation in New Tian, which is somewhere in California, following Hydra's takeover of the United States. She is using Xorn as her puppet ruler and controlling him with her telepathy. A flashback showed that Emma Frost claimed a Cosmic Cube fragment from an unconscious Shang-Chi.

Becoming Black King.

Later Emma approached Iceman in order to request his help to save her brother Christian from their abusive father, however as they arrive at the Frost Mansion, they find that Christian is perfectly fine. In fact, he seems healthy and happy. Emma maintains her suspicions, which are ultimately confirmed when she finds the dead body of her father. It turns out that Christian is also a mutant, whose powers include, besides telepathy and telekinesis, the ability to perform astral projections. Thus, after killing his own father, Christian made an astral projection

Powers and abilities.

Emma Frost is a mutant of enormous telepathic ability, and is also capable of transforming into an organic diamond state with enhanced strength and durability which suppresses her telepathy. Additionally Frost has been a host to the Phoenix Force and was classified as an Omega-level mutant when she went to shut down the Avengers Academy as one of the Phoenix Five.

Telepathy.

Frost has been classified as an "Omega-Class telepath", capable of extraordinary psionic feats, including the telepathic standards of: broadcasting and receiving thoughts, mind-control, altering perceptions and memories, psychic shielding, astral projection, mind switching, brain engram modification, mental sedation, and induction of mental pain via touch. She is also able to boost or activate a mutant's

Diamond form.

At the moment of the destruction of Genosha, Frost manifested a secondary mutation giving her the ability to transform her body into organic diamond. In this form, Frost is translucent and retains mobility while being nigh invulnerable, and able to support incredible amounts of weight.  Emma's diamond body is virtually tireless, as she does not produce fatigue poisons and has no need for water or food. She is also numbed from emotion, pain and empathy, impervious to cold, and resistant to heat in

Innate traits and expertise.

Frost has a gifted intellect with college degrees in multiple fields, including a Bachelor of Science in Education with a minor in Business Administration from the prominent Marvel Universe's Empire State University. A superb businesswoman, Emma Frost for many years was founder and CEO of Frost Enterprises, a major multinational conglomerate headquartered in New York City that rivaled Stark Enterprises and Worthington Industries and specialized in shipping, aerospace engineering and new technology R&D.  Frost is also a highly capable planner,

Telekinetic potential.

On occasion, it has been hinted that Frost is also a latent telekinetic. Jean Grey's displaced psyche was able to use Frost's brain to generate a telekinetic force field and fly. During the

Resources and anonymity.

Frost possesses vast wealth as the owner of several multibillion-dollar conglomerates; Frost International, Frost Enterprises and Meridian Enterprises. Additionally, Frost has also made investments in oil companies, Stark Industries, Wakandan Airways, Ben Nishmura's gamma research, Reed Richards' patent for unstable molecules and Cummings Aeronautics helicarrier project. Furthermore, as CEO of Frost International, Frost has access to various technologies either designed by herself, or made through acquisitions of corporations such

Attire and paraphernalia.

Frost regards her revealing attire as battle armour which may give her a psychological edge against any opponent. Additionally, Frost considers high-heeled footwear as vital to her

Other versions.

In addition to her mainstream incarnation, Emma Frost has been depicted in other fictional universes.

Age of Apocalypse.

In the "Age of Apocalypse" storyline, Emma Frost never joined the Hellfire Club and is a member of the Human High Council. She had the portions of her brain that granted her telepathy removed in order

Age of Ultron.

Emma Frost appears in Age of Ultron as one of the few superpowered humans hiding in the tunnels beneath Central Park. She mourns Cyclops's death and helps Iron Man examine Spider-Man and Hawkeye for nanotechnology which may have been secretly been inserted by Ultron, and is present when the team makes a plan to have one person get captured in order to find Ultron on the inside.  She

Age of X.

In the "Age of X" reality, Emma Frost is shown as

Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows.

In the pages of "Amazing Spider-Man: Renew Your Vows", Emma Frost appears as a member of the Brotherhood of Mutants. Magneto brought her in

Days of Future Past.

In this reality, Emma was the former White Queen of the Hellfire Club, but retreated to a technological base off the coast of India after a majority of the mutant population was wiped out. She sold her telepathic abilities in services of mutant leaders and

Earth-889.

In Earth-889, a steampunk era, Emmeline Frost leads the "X-Society" which consists of herself, Scott, Beast, and Logan. The X-Society is heralded as a society of adventurers and called upon by the New Albion (an antiquated name for California) police to assist and investigate various occurrences. Emma consistently refuses Scott's proposals of marriage citing class differences and her desire to avoid "tedious scandal". During an investigation of parallel events of those in "Astonishing X-Men"'s Earth-616, the X-Society pursue Subject X, who causes the Hindenburg disaster and the X-Society are blamed for the deaths of its passengers. In response, the government places the X-Society under house arrest, causing Emma to consider moving

Exiles.

In a reality visited by the Exiles, Warlock's techno-organic virus and the Legacy virus interacted in a way to cause 75% of the population to turn into techno-organic beings known as

House of M.

When the Scarlet Witch changes reality into one where mutants are the dominant species ruled by the House of M, Emma Frost is a child therapist (one of her clients being Franklin Richards who was traumatized after his family died in a spaceship crash)

Marvel Adventures.

Emma Frost appears in "Marvel Adventures Spider-Man" #53 as the best friend of mutant Sophia Sanduval, also known as Chat, and mostly uses her powers for personal gains. She is also one of the few people who knows Peter Parker's identity as Spider-Man and grows interested in him. She uses her telepathic powers and briefly takes on the alias "The Silencer" to see what Peter is capable of. Chat begins dating Peter afterward. After Chat discovers Emma's schemes,

Marvel Noir.

In the Marvel Noir universe, Emma is the warden of Genosha Bay, a 1930s prison where the world's most dangerous sociopaths are held without trial or

New Exiles.

After the New Exiles land on the world of warring empires, they encounter Dame

Old Man Logan.

In a reality where villains have won and divided up America amongst themselves, Emma Frost marries Doctor Doom in order to ensure the survival of her species. Together with Doctor Doom, they rule a sector of what once was the United States of America called Doom's

Secret Wars.

An alternate version of Emma, dubbed "Boss Frost", appears

Powerless.

In a reality without superpowers or superheroes, Emma Frost appears as one of William

Prelude to Deadpool Corps.

Deadpool visits a world where Emma Frost runs an orphanage for girls that includes child versions of Jean Grey and Rogue. Here

Ruins.

In a world where "everything that can go wrong will go wrong", Emma Frost is the high priestess/manageress

Ultimate Marvel.

In the "Ultimate Marvel" series, Emma Frost is a former student, and girlfriend, of Professor Charles Xavier, in charge of the Academy of Tomorrow and secretly part of the Hellfire Club which is trying to separate the Phoenix from Jean. This version of Emma

What If? Astonishing X-Men.

In the 2010 "What If? Astonishing X-Men" one-shot "What if Ord resurrected Jean Grey instead of Colossus?", Jean Grey's resurrection causes friction with Emma, who believes her presence and history with the Phoenix will ensure the X-Men's demise. The two women discover that the Breakworld has predicted Phoenix will destroy their planet. Under the deception of the psychic remnant of Cassandra Nova, Emma extracts hidden vestiges of the Phoenix Force from the remaining Stepford Cuckoos, killing them

X-Campus.

A teenaged version of Emma appears as Sebastian Shaw's girlfriend and one

Young X-Men "End of Days".

In a dystopic future depicted in the final two issues of "Young X-Men", an aged Emma Frost (now going by the codename "Diamondheart") is one of only four remaining mutants on "Xaviera", a former mutant safe-haven independent state and utopia.

Reception.

Emma Frost has gained popularity over time.

Depictions of women's sexuality in comics.

The character's sexualized depiction and often antagonistic personality are also frequently cited as her most recognizable and appealing character attributes. Within analysis of sexualized depictions of women in comics, Emma Frost is often described as an exception to criticisms of over-sexualization of

Emma Grace Frost is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics, most commonly in association with the X-Men. The character first appeared in "The Uncanny X-Men" #129 (January 1980), and was created by writer Chris Claremont and artist/co-writer John Byrne. Emma Frost, also known as the White Queen, has evolved from a supervillain and foe of the X-Men, to becoming a superhero and one of the X-Men's most central members and leaders, until the events of "Inhumans vs. X-Men".


Plot.

On the first day of a new school term, high school student Akane Motomiya, her classmate Tenma Morimura, and their underclass friend Shimon Nagareyama are sucked into a mysterious old well. When they awake, they are in, another world that resembles Kyoto during the Heian Period. According to the young scion of the, Fujihime, Akane is the who has come to save Kyō from the ambitions of the. In this task, Akane has the help of eight beautiful and single men known as the, and her friends Tenma and Shimon number among them. Initially, Akane is bewildered by her new circumstances, but she gradually comes to face up to her own destiny and understand the world of Kyō.

Gameplay.

"Harukanaru Toki no Naka de" places the player in the role of a girl who is surrounded by attractive young men, and gives her the option of trying to win the heart of one and live happily ever after. The heroine must also fight evil with the help of the attractive young men. The result is a hybrid game with a visual novel–like interaction mode, a simple role-playing video game battle mode, and a board game–like map.  "Haruka" is made up of ten chapters, eight of which involve the core gameplay. These chapters take place over a two-week period and involve traveling around the Kyō map, searching for various key items. Kyō is made up of roughly 20 areas and it is possible to visit three in one day. However, most areas are possessed by vengeful ghosts that must be dispelled before you can enter, and fighting them consumes one of the three visit chances.  "Haruka"'s battle system is limited in comparison to most CRPGs of its day. The maximum party size is 3 characters, but only Akane is under the direct control of the player. Though Akane can attack and defend, her other abilities – the use of healing items and spells, and the ability to encourage her comrades, are more useful. There is no magic point system as such. Casting spells is based on the morale of the Hachiyō members and the number of elemental cards Akane has. Furthermore, there is no experience system and the character's hit points are refilled automatically between fights. The main reward for fighting, besides gaining entrance to a given area, is the chance to gain the trust of Hachiyō. The greater a Hachiyō member's rapport with Akane, the more effective he will be in battle.

Themes.

The world of "Harukanaru Toki no Naka de" is based on the height of the Heian Period of Japanese history, and many aspects of Heian culture, as described in the great literature of the time, are depicted in the game.

Releases.

All titles developed by Ruby Party and published by Koei / Koei Tecmo unless noted. List does not include limited editions, classic, or treasure box releases.

Other "Haruka" video games.

Adaptations.

Manga.

The first "Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time" game was adapted into a manga series serialized in the Japanese manga magazine "LaLa DX". The series was also printed in volumes published by Hakusensha. The manga was illustrated by Tohko Mizuno, who was also the game's character designer.  The manga series was licensed in English by Viz Media as "Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time" for serialization in their Shojo Beat magazine as well as tankōbon releases. The Japanese and English editions of the manga both were collected in 17 volumes.  The sixth video game series received a manga adaptation in Kodansha's "Aria" magazine by the game's character designer Tohko Mizuno in 2015.

Anime.

There have been multiple anime adaptations of "Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time". The first OVA was directed by Iku Suzuki and produced by Zexcs. It was released in 2002 in two episodes and was based on the first video game. "Ajisai Yumegatari" describes briefly Akane's coming to Kyou and her involvement with the Hachiyou.  An anime television series called "Harukanaru Toki no Naka de Hachiyō Shō" was produced by Yumeta Company and adapted Mizuno's manga adaptation of the story line of the first game. It was directed by Aki Tsunaki, and aired from 2004 to 2005 for 26 episodes. It was dubbed and released in English as "Haruka: Beyond the Stream of Time: A Tale of the Eight Guardians". The anime series was followed by two OVA episodes "Ten" and "Chi". On August 19, 2006, a feature film titled was released.  Other "Haruka" installments received OVA adaptations. was produced by Yumeta Company and was released in three episodes from 2003 to 2005, covering the storyline of the second installment of the video game franchise. The third installment received several OVAs: was released on December 28, 2007 by Yumeta Company and was directed by Toshiya Shinohara. It was released as a single OVA with a bonus "Onsen Chibi special". On January 3, 2010, a sequel was released. It was directed by Shigeru Kimiya.

Movie.

A live action movie was also released in early 2008 in Japan.

Other games.

The Koei Tecmo crossover game "Warriors All-Stars" is the first title featuring "Haruka" series elements to appear in an official release outside of Japan. The game features many characters from across Koei Tecmo's history of games, including the "Haruka" series itself, with characters from the sixth entry, Hajime Arima and Darius, included as playable. Arima is available as one of the initial playable characters, while Darius can only be unlocked under certain conditions.

Reception.

On release, "Famitsu" magazine scored the Game Boy Advance version of the game a 31 out of 40.  The manga adaptation was generally received poorly, with reviewers recommending other fantasy manga such as "Inuyasha" or "Fushigi Yuugi" instead. One reviewer said, "Looking past the fact that the plot is blatant rip-off of Fushigi Yûgi, Haruka is so poorly written as to be almost incomprehensible to anyone who hasn’t played the game." Another stated that "The very ending of the [last] volume, and thereby the series as a whole, suffers from a lack of explanation", but did offer praise for the art, saying "Mizuno's drawings really are a pleasure to look at."

Because of "Harukanaru Toki no Naka de"s success, the game has given rise to a franchise including several sequels, numerous drama and music CDs, a manga series, two OAVs, a movie, and an anime television series, and a live-action theatrical.


Explanation of the novel's title.

The title is a reference to a passage from John Milton's "Paradise Lost":  Innumerable force of Spirits armed, That durst dislike his reign, and, me preferring, His utmost power with adverse power opposed In dubious battle on the plains of Heaven And shook his throne. What though the field be lost? All is not lost—the unconquerable will, And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield: And what is else not to be overcome?

Plot summary.

"In Dubious Battle" deals with a fruit-workers' strike in a California valley and the attempts of labor unions to organize, lead, and provide for the striking pickers.  Jim Nolan meets Harry Nilson who initiates Jim's application process to become the newest member of the Party. Mac "Doc" McLeod, the Party organizer, tells Jim they will go to the Torgas Valley (a composite location) in an attempt to rouse the two thousand fruit pickers against the Growers' Association, and to encourage the strike to spillover into the cotton fields in Tandale.  Momentum for strike action builds after old Dan breaks two rungs out of a ladder and falls. London becomes chairman of a committee of seven men, while Mac convinces Alfred Anderson's father, Al, to loan five acres as a base for the fruit pickers in exchange for them picking his crop for free. Doc Burton is hired by Mac to maintain the sanitation of the strikers' camp, so as to prevent it from being disbanded by the Red Cross.  The course of the strike is recounted in some detail, including the politics of the local growers, the support by Al through his little luncheonette, the "sweet-talking" of some locals in order to garner food and other help for the pickers, and personal crises and tragedies in individual cases. Mac emerges as a heroic but quite single-minded figure; Jim's occasional doubts are presented as well.  Jim joins Sam in a picket as they go after some'scabs' in the apple orchard. Sam's pickets violently injure them. In the aftermath, Jim is injured by a high-powered bullet but manages to limp back to the camp relatively unscathed. While out on the road Dakin, the leader of the pickers, is ambushed by a vigilante group at gunpoint. This is disrupted by the arrival of traffic cops whose presence calms Dakin. As Jim learns of Dakin's whereabouts, Mac tells him they cannot delay Joy's funeral, as his death––or the grisly manner of it––has now become the animating impulse to undergird the strike. As the book ends, Mac is continuing to rouse and motivate the picketers, in spite of seemingly hopeless odds.

Literary significance and criticism.

On publication, "New York Times" reviewer Fred T. March compared it to the "genial gusto" of the "picaresque" "Tortilla Flat". He commented that "You would never know that "In Dubious Battle" was by the same John Steinbeck if the publishers did not tell you so." He called it "courageous and desperately honest," "the best labor and strike novel to come out of our contemporary economic and social unrest," and "such a novel as Sinclair Lewis at his best might have done had he gone on with his projected labor novel..."  In 1943, with Steinbeck now famous, Carlos Baker "revalued" the novel. He opened by saying "Among Steinbeck's best novels, the least known is probably "In Dubious Battle."" Steinbeck, he said, "is supremely interested in what happens to men's minds and hearts when they function, not as responsible, self-governing individuals, but as members of a group... Biologists have a word for this very important problem; they call it bionomics, or ecology." He said that "Steinbeck's bionomic interest is visible in all that he has done, from "Tortilla Flat", in the middle Thirties, through his semi-biological "Sea of Cortez," to his latest communiqués as a war correspondent in England." He characterized "In Dubious Battle" as "an attempt to study a typical mid-depression strike in bionomic terms."  In 1958, critic Alfred Kazin referred to "In Dubious Battle" and "The Grapes of Wrath" as "his most powerful books," contrasting them with "Cannery Row" and "The Wayward Bus". President Barack Obama told the "New York Times" that it was his favorite book by Steinbeck.  The novel likely recounts a fruit worker strike that occurred in Tulare County, California.

Film adaptation.

On January 30, 2015, it was announced that James Franco would direct and star in a film version of the novel. The screenplay was written by Matt Rager and will be produced by AMBI Productions, Rabbit Bandini Productions, and That's Hollywood Productions. The film stars Nat Wolff in the lead role, along with Josh Hutcherson, Bryan Cranston, Robert Duvall, Ed Harris, Selena Gomez, and others. Principal photography began on March 19, 2015 in Atlanta and Bostwick, Georgia. Additional footage was shot in orchards West of Yakima, Washington September 27 and 28, 2015. The film was released in theaters in the United States on February 17, 2017.

In Dubious Battle is a novel by John Steinbeck, written in 1936. The central figure of the story is an activist attempting to organize abused laborers in order to gain fair wages and working conditions.


Biography.

Peter van Dievoet was born into the Van Dievoet family in Brussels and baptised at the Saint Gudula collegiate (now a cathedral) on 29 June 1661. He was born from the second marriage of Gilles van Dievoet, bourgeois of Brussels, to Gertrude Zeevaert. Gilles van Dievoet (? - † before 1672) had a previous marriage with Catherine Slachmeulder, with whom he had among others: Philippe van Dievoet, goldsmith of King Louis XIV.  Peter Van Dievoet was therefore fatherless around the age of twelve or thirteen. His mother later remarried, and died on 22 July 1705.  After some time in Brussels, he moved to England where he was a regular visitor to the studio of Grinling Gibbons. In 1686, he cast and made the statue of James II for St. James's Park in London, now in Trafalgar Square. He returned to Brussels due to the Glorious Revolution of 1688.  In 1695 he was master of the "Quatre-Couronnés" at Brussels, the guild of stonemasons and sculptors. He was an acclaimed sculptor and was involved in the construction of the new Grand-Place in its baroque style.  He was a member (one of "The Eight") then a judge (or "Dean") of the Drapery Court of Brussels from 1713 to 1723.

Time in London.

According to Edmond Marchal, his most important works are in England and are "among the best of that time".  Peter Van Dievoet worked in London in the studio of Quaker sculptor Grinling Gibbons for almost eight years, from 1680 to 1688.  His English production (mainly sculptures) remains poorly known because little research has been done to find and inventory it. George Vertue mentions him only as statuary.  The same George Vertue (1684-1756), who had found an agreement and a receipt of payment for this work, attributes to him, in collaboration with a certain Laurens of Mechelen, the bronze statue of James II (1686) in the courtyard of Whitehall, currently in Trafalgar Square.  Margaret Whinney notes that this statue does not have an English but rather a continental character and gives it the same attribution: two Flemings, Laurens of Mechelen and Dievot of Brussels (sic), were employed to model and make it. This attribution is repeated by Sir Lionel Henri Cust: Dyvoet (sic)... and Laurens... who executed the statue of James II at Whitehall.  The fore-mentioned "Laurens" is identified by Paul-Eugène Claessens as the sculptor Laurence Vander Meulen from Mechlin.

Time in Brussels.

Having returned to his hometown around 1689, Van Dievoet had to meet the requirements of the corporate institution and enrol in the corporation of the Quatre-Couronnés, the Guild of the stonemasons, of which he was officially received as master in 1695. It is at this date that his work in Brussels begins. That same year, Brussels was destroyed by the French bombardment.  Already during his lifetime, Peter Van Dievoet was considered a renowned sculptor.  Long after his death, a report of the magistrates of Brussels to Charles-Alexandre of Lorraine, dated 27 September 1771, quotes Peter Van Dievoet in a list of "very remarkable Brussels sculptors".  From his Brussels work, we still know only of the pieces mentioned by Guillaume Des Marez, while waiting for other "discoveries" or authentications. He is mainly known there for his realisations and conceptions of many of the houses of the famous Grand Place.  The following are his work as described by Des Marez.

Wood carving.

Peter van Dievoet is also the author of finely chiseled woodcarvings, as shown, for example, by the extremely elaborate lime-wood ornamentation of festoons and fruits, which is preserved at the Royal Museums of Art and History of Brussels.  He also carved out of wood, « keerses » which are richly decorated emblems, used for celebrations, for the tailors' guild.

The House of the White Lamb.

The sculptures on the facade of the 1696-built House of the White Lamb (Maison de l'Agneau Blanc) on the Marché aux Herbes are the work of Van Dievoet,

The Grand Place.

Van Dievoet sculpted the facades of the following houses on the Grand Place: "La Maison du Sac" (Grand Place, number 4), "La Maison du Cornet" (number 6), "La Maison de l'Arbre d'Or" or the House of Brewers (number 10), "La Maison de la Chaloupe d'Or" (number 24-25).  He was also the architect for "Le Heaume" (number 34).

Public functions.

Peter continued his career by exercising public functions. From 1713 to 1723, between ages 52 and 62, he was one of The Eight and then Dean (judge) of the Drapery Court, an old Brussels institution that can be compared to a chamber of commerce, and whose members were called the "brothers of the Guild".  At the end of this term, from 1723 to 1724, between ages 62 and 63, he became a member of the magistrate by becoming a Councilor of the City of Brussels. After that, he left public life. A pious man, he had been, until the end of his life, a "marguillier" (churchwarden) of the Sainte-Gudula collegiate, now a cathedral. He died in Brussels on 2 March 1729, at 68.

Peter van Dievoet (; French: Pierre, Dutch: Peeter, Latin: Petrus; 16611729) was a sculptor, statuary, wood carver, and designer of ornamental architectural features from Brussels.


PCI Graphics/AGP Graphics/Gigabit Ethernet.

The original Power Mac G4 was introduced at the Seybold conference in San Francisco on August 31, 1999. There were two variants, officially titled Power Mac G4 (AGP Graphics) with, and configurations available, and Power Mac G4 (PCI Graphics), with and configurations. Colloquially, this generation of Power Mac is referred to as "Graphite", owing to the colors of the case being similar to the iMac G3 Graphite.  Apple originally planned to ship the configuration in October 1999, but they were forced to postpone this because of poor yield of the CPUs. In response, Apple reduced the clock speed of the processor in each configuration by (making the options, and ), which caused some controversy because they did not lower the original prices.  The early (later ) PCI-based version used a motherboard identical to the one used in Power Macintosh G3 (Blue and White) computers including the use of Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) processors sockets (minus the ADB port), in a "graphite" colored case and with the new Motorola PowerPC 7400 (G4) CPU. The higher-speed models, code name "Sawtooth", used a greatly modified motherboard design with AGP 2x graphics (replacing the PCI slot).  The PCI variant was discontinued at the end of 1999.  The machines featured DVD-ROM drives as standard. The and versions had Zip drives as standard equipment, and as an option on the Sawtooth. This series had a system bus and four PC100 SDRAM slots for up to of RAM ( under Mac OS 9). The AGP Power Macs were the first to include an AirPort slot and DVI video port. The computers could house a total of three hard drives, two 128 GB ATA hard drives and up to a single 20GB SCSI hard drive, with the installation of a SCSI card.  The version was reintroduced on February 16, 2000, accompanied by and models. DVD-RAM and Zip drives featured on these later and versions and were an option on the 400 MHz.  The Power Mac G4 (Gigabit Ethernet) model was introduced at Macworld Expo New York on July 19, 2000; the new revision included dual-processor and versions, and a low-end single CPU model. It was also the first personal computer to include gigabit Ethernet as standard. Most people saw this revision as a stopgap release, because higher clocked G4s were not available; the G4’s Motorola XPC107 “Grackle” PCI/Memory controller prevented the G4 from hitting speeds higher than. The dual models featured DVD-RAM optical drive. Zip drives were optional on all models. These models also introduced Apple's proprietary Apple Display Connector video port.

Digital Audio/Quicksilver.

A new line with a revamped motherboard but the familiar "Graphite" case debuted on January 9, 2001. Known officially as the Power Mac G4 (Digital Audio), it is in effect a Quicksilver design inside the Graphite enclosure. Motorola had added a seventh pipeline stage in the new PowerPC G4 design to achieve faster clock frequencies. New features included a fourth PCI slot, a 133 MHz system bus, an improved 4X AGP slot, and a new "digital audio" Tripath Class T amplifier sound system. The models were offered in,, dual, and configurations, the latter two using a newer PowerPC 7450 processor. The number of RAM slots was reduced to three, accommodating up to 1.5 Gigabytes of PC133 SDRAM.  The model was the first Macintosh to include a built-in DVD-R or Apple-branded SuperDrive, the rest of the line became the first Macs to ship with CD-RW drives. This was also the first series of Macs to include an Nvidia graphics card, the GeForce 2MX.  At Macworld Expo New York on July 18, 2001, a new line debuted featuring a cosmetically redesigned case known as Quicksilver, and various upgrades to the specifications. It was available in, and dual configurations. The model was notable for not having a level three cache. The SuperDrive was offered on the mid-range model, and UltraATA/100 hard drives were offered on all models. The internal speaker received an upgrade, using a Harman/Kardon speaker.  Quicksilver received criticism in MacWorld's review for removing the "eject" button and the manual eject pinhole, as well as the pass-through monitor power plug, and for the base specification of RAM as being insufficient for running Mac OS X.  Updated Quicksilver machines, officially named Power Mac G4 (QuickSilver 2002), were introduced on January 28, 2002 with, and dual configurations. This was the first Mac to reach. Again, the low end model did not include any level three cache. The graphics in this series were provided by an Nvidia GeForce4 MX400 card. Some of these models have ATA controllers with 48 bit LBA for hard drives larger than 128 GB.

Mirrored Drive Doors/FW800.

Another generation of Apple Power Mac G4s, officially named "Mirrored Drive Doors" (MDD), was introduced on August 13, 2002, featuring both a new Xserve-derived DDR motherboard architecture and a new case design. All models were available in dual processor configurations running at, or. As with the Xserves, the PowerPC 7455 CPU used does not have a DDR frontside bus, meaning the CPU could only use at most 50% of the new system's theoretical memory bandwidth, providing no improvement over previous models. The rest was available to the graphics card and I/O systems. A single processor model would be the last Power Mac G4 the company offered to the public after the announcement of the new Power Mac G5, introduced in June 2003.  The last real update to the Power Mac G4 line was on January 28, 2003 offering dual 1.42 GHz PowerPC 7455 processors, with features not seen in previous DDR models: built-in FireWire 800 connector, optional integrated Bluetooth, and optional integrated AirPort Extreme. These were also the first Power Macs that could not boot into Mac OS 9.  With the launch of the Power Mac G5 on June 23, 2003, Apple re-introduced the August 2002 Power Mac G4 because of perceived demand for Mac OS 9 machines. Between that, its low price-tag, and the delayed availability of Power Mac G5s, it proved a strong seller for a relatively short time. Production stopped on June 27, 2004 and the remaining inventory was liquidated, ending the 20-year legacy of Classic Mac OS support with its discontinuation.

The Power Mac G4 is a series of personal computers designed, manufactured, and sold by Apple Computer, Inc. from 1999 to 2004 as part of the Power Macintosh line. Built around the PowerPC G4 series of microprocessors, the Power Mac G4 was marketed by Apple as the first "personal supercomputers", reaching speeds of 4 to 20 gigaFLOPS. This was the first existing Macintosh product to be officially shortened as "Mac", and is the last Mac able to boot into classic Mac OS.


Louise de Bourbon, Duchess of Montpensier

Inheritance.

The eldest daughter of Gilbert, Count of Montpensier, and Clara Gonzaga, her paternal grandparents were Louis I, Count of Montpensier and Gabriele de La Tour d'Auvergne. Her maternal grandparents were Federico I Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua and Margaret of Bavaria. Her five younger siblings included Charles III, Duke of Bourbon. He was killed in battle in May 1527 when he led the Imperial troops sent by Emperor Charles V against Pope Clement VII in what became the Sack of Rome.  By dint of her three brothers having died childless, Louise became the heiress to the county of Montpensier and the dauphinate of Auvergne. The estates, however, had been sequestered by the French King Francis I (at the instigation of his mother, Louise of Savoy) when her brother Charles, Duke of Bourbon and Constable of France formed an alliance with Charles V. After the Duke's death at the siege of Rome, his fiefs were confiscated by the King. On 17 May 1530, she became the "suo jure" Duchess of Châtellerault, Countess of Forez, Baroness de Beaujeu, which had formed part of her brother Charles' inheritance, however the titles were revoked by the King in January 1532. Eventually some of her late brother's inheritance was restored to her. In February 1538, Louise was invested as Duchess of Montpensier, Dauphine of Auvergne, Baroness de La Tour and de la Bussière by King Francis.

Marriages and children.

In 1499, Louise married her first husband, Andre III de Chauvigny, prince of Deols and vicomte de Brosse (d.1503). The marriage was childless.  She married secondly on 21 March 1504, her cousin Louis de Bourbon, Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon, by whom she had three children:  Louise died on 5 July 1561. She was buried at, Champigny-sur-Veude in Touraine. Her eldest son Louis succeeded her as Duke of Montpensier.  Through her daughter Suzanne, Louise was an ancestress of King Louis XV of France. Through her granddaughter Charlotte of Bourbon, Louise was an ancestress of the House of Hanover, which reigned in Great Britain from 1714 to 1901, and from which descends the current British Royal Family.

Louise de Bourbon (1482 – 15 July 1561) was the Duchess of Montpensier, suo jure from February 1538 to 1561. She was the great great great grandmother of "La Grande Mademoiselle".


Origins.

Abu Musab al-Zarqawi was a Jordanian Jihadist who traveled to Afghanistan to fight in the Soviet–Afghan War, but arrived after the departure of the Soviet troops and soon returned to his homeland. He eventually returned to Afghanistan, where he ran an Islamic militant training camp near Herat.  A report released by the Washington Institute for Near East Policy in mid-2014 describes al-Zarqawi, with Jordanian and other Sunni Jihadist militants, as starting JTJ in 1999 in Afghanistan with its training camp in Herat, and with "a small amount of seed money" from bin Laden "which continued until 9/11".

Ideology and motivation.

Al-Zarqawi's interpretation of Islamic takfir—accusing other Muslims of heresy and thereby justifying his killing—was extreme, which caused friction between him and bin Laden. On his first meeting with bin Laden in 1999, al-Zarqawi reportedly declared: "Shiites should be executed".  Al-Zarqawi's political motives included what he considered the British Mandate for Palestine as a "gift to the Jews so they can rape the land and humiliate our people", the United Nation's support for American "oppressors of Iraq", and the "humiliation [of] our [Muslim] nation".

History.

In Jordan (1999–2001).

Al-Zarqawi started JTJ with the intention of overthrowing the 'apostate' Kingdom of Jordan, which he considered to be un-Islamic. After toppling Jordan's monarchy, presumably he would turn to the rest of the Levant.  For these purposes he developed numerous contacts and affiliates in several countries. His network may have been involved in the late 1999 plot to bomb the Millennium celebrations in the United States and Jordan.

In Jordan and Iraq (2001–2002).

Following the 2001 US-led invasion of Afghanistan, al-Zarqawi moved to Iraq, where he reportedly received medical treatment in Baghdad for an injured leg.  Al-Zarqawi was in Baghdad from May until late November 2002, when he traveled to Iran and northeastern Iraq. The United States 2006 Senate Report on Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq concluded: "Postwar information indicates that Saddam Hussein attempted, unsuccessfully, to locate and capture al-Zarqawi and that the regime did not have a relationship with, harbor, or turn a blind eye toward al-Zarqawi."  Al-Zarqawi and his operatives are held responsible by the United States for the assassination of US diplomat Laurence Foley in Jordan in October 2002.

Involvement in the Iraq War (2003–2004).

Following the US invasion of Iraq and the ensuing insurgency, Jama'at became a decentralized militant network fighting against the coalition forces and their Iraqi allies. Jama'at included a growing number of foreign fighters and a considerable Iraqi membership, including remnants of Ansar al-Islam.  Many foreign fighters arriving in Iraq were not initially associated with Jama'at, but once they were in the country they became dependent on al-Zarqawi's local contacts.  Jama'at's tactics included suicide bombings, often using car bombs, kidnappings, the planting of improvised explosive devices, attacks using rocket-propelled grenades, small arms and mortars, and beheading Iraqi and foreign hostages and distributing video recordings of these acts on the Internet.  The group targeted Iraqi security forces and those assisting the occupation, Iraqi interim officials, Iraqi Shia and Kurdish political and religious figures and institutions, Shia civilians, foreign civilian contractors, United Nations and humanitarian workers, and also Sunni Muslim civilians.

Pledge of allegiance to al-Qaeda.

On 17 October 2004, al-Zarqawi pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda network, and the group became known as Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn (commonly known as al-Qaeda in Iraq). Al-Zarqawi died in a US targeted airstrike in June 2006.

Activities.

Attacks.

After the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq and the establishment of a governing Provisional Authority, an insurgency quickly emerged. Dozens of insurgent attacks were claimed by, or attributed to, JTJ in the following months:

Inciting sectarian violence.

Alleged sectarian attacks by the organization included the Imam Ali Mosque bombing in 2003 and the 2004 Day of Ashura bombings (Ashoura massacre) and Karbala and Najaf bombings in 2004. These were precursors to a more widespread campaign of sectarian violence after the organization transitioned to become al-Qaida in Iraq, with Al-Zarqawi purportedly declaring an all-out war on Shias,<ref name="NYTimes09/15"></ref> while claiming responsibility for the Shia mosque bombings.  The Turkish translator Aytullah Gezmen was also abducted by Jama'at, but released after "repenting."

U.S. fighting Jama'at.

In September 2004, the U.S. conducted many airstrikes targeting Al-Zarqawi, calling the hunt for Al-Zarqawi its "highest priority".

Legacy.

The group pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda network in a letter in October 2004 and changed its name to "Tanzim Qaidat al-Jihad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn".  That same month, the group, now popularly referred to as al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), kidnapped and killed Japanese citizen Shosei Koda. In November, al-Zarqawi's network was the main target of the US Operation Phantom Fury in Fallujah, but its leadership managed to escape the American siege and subsequent storming of the city.  The Lebanese-Palestinian militant group Fatah al-Islam, which was defeated by Lebanese government forces during the 2007 Lebanon conflict, was linked to AQI and led by al-Zarqawi's former companion who had fought alongside him in Iraq.  The group may have been linked to the little-known group called "Tawhid and Jihad in Syria", and may have influenced the Palestinian resistance group in Gaza called Tawhid and Jihad Brigades.

External links.

Damn

Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad (), which may be abbreviated as JTJ or Jama'at, was a militant Jihadist group. It was founded in Jordan in 1999 and was led by Jordanian national Abu Musab al-Zarqawi for the entirety of its existence. During the Iraqi insurgency (2003–11), the group became a decentralized network with foreign fighters and a considerable Iraqi membership.


History.

The tower stands on an old area in the center of the city called "Le Marchix". This old medieval quarter had been considered dirty and dangerous long before the 1943 American bombing which considerably damaged it.  During the post-war redevelopment, the construction of two important modernist buildings along Place de Bretagne, housing the Treasury General, the Social Security building and the main post office inspired officials to build a skyscraper nearby. Tour Bretagne was meant to represent the economic power of the city and to display it to the world.  In 1966, with the encouragement of the people of Nantes, a group called SELA (Société d'Equipement de Loire Atlantique) was put in charge of developing the project. SELA asked Claude Devorsine, a forgotten architect today, and Marcel André, an engineering advisor, to bring the project to reality. In 1968, the plan was to construct a six story parking garage at the base of the tower, completed with a gas station, which the cars could access via an exterior ramp. The next three levels were to be a shopping mall with space for 25 boutiques and a restaurant. The offices would occupy the rest of floors except for the top floor, which would house a restaurant that would give panoramic views of the surrounding area. The work began on September 30, 1971 and was to be finished by summer 1974. However, the construction is protracted by a number of delays, mainly due to an unforeseen number of changes to the plans during construction. Finally, after five years of work, the tower was opened in 1976.  Once completed, the tower was a failure. Ten years had been necessary to plan and build it and mentalities had changed since the 1960s. The building was then seen as a symbol of an inhuman urbanism focused on profit and as an architectural error distorting the traditional cityscape.  It was an economic failure as well, remaining mostly empty for a long time, in part due to the high rent. The restaurant on the 29th floor was soon closed due to technical problems and free visits to the observation deck were stopped after frequent suicides. Furthermore, no businesses opened at the base of the tower as had been initially envisioned. To utilize the of office space, the city government decided to move a part of its administrative offices to the tower.

Technical details.

The tower, which measures, has eight elevators, seven escalators and a water tank on the roof that can hold. Due to change in plans, the building now has seven levels of parking, three "ground floors", a "level zero" (which is situated above street level) and 29 floors of offices topped by a few floors containing machinery. The Tax Bureau, Nantes Metrocenter, and the offices of the city Employment Bureau occupy three-quarters of the buildings floorspace. Nearly 800 people work in the tower each day. The tower is managed by a group of co-owners composed of mainly banks but also the city government.

The tower today.

By the end of the 20th century, the inhabitants of Nantes, after long lamenting the tower's rigid and monolithic presence, have begun to begrudgingly accept the tower. One can see the gradual acceptance of the tower as it has begun to appear on a number of post cards, once thought unimaginable, and is mentioned on leaflets distributed by the tourism office.  The 32nd floor terrace was reopened on June 15, 2012 after being closed for more than 10 years. Fully refurbished and secured, it hosts a restaurant and its layout suggests a huge bird's nest, hence the restaurant's name, "Le Nid" ("The Nest"). The terrace gives a full 360-degree view on the city and its surroundings.

Tour Bretagne ("Brittany Tower" in English) opened on November 18, 1976 at 17:00, is a 37-story skyscraper situated in downtown Nantes between a main thoroughfare, Cours des 50 Otages, and Place Bretagne ("Brittany square").


Campaigns.

1791 to 1797.

At the creation of the Army of the North on 14 December 1791, the government of the First French Republic appointed Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, as its commander. Rochambeau was replaced in May 1792, and he retired from service. The suspicious government of the First French Republic later charged him with treason and he barely escaped execution. In 1792-1794, the guillotine awaited military commanders who either failed, belonged to the nobility, or displayed insufficient revolutionary zeal. In the Army of the North these unfortunates included Nicolas Luckner, Adam Custine, and Jean Houchard.  Under Charles François Dumouriez, the Army of the North helped blunt the Prussian invasion at the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792. It also made up a large part of Dumouriez's expedition into the Austrian Netherlands which resulted in victory at the Battle of Jemappes on 6 November 1792.  On 18 March 1793, the Austrians defeated Dumouriez at the Battle of Neerwinden. Auguste Dampierre was killed in battle on 8 May at the Battle of Raismes near Valenciennes. Under François Joseph Drouot de Lamarche, the army lost again at the Battle of Famars on 23 May. Charles Edward Jennings de Kilmaine skirmished with the Coalition army at Caesar's Camp near Cambrai on 7 August. Houchard won the Battle of Hondshoote in September, forcing the English to raise the Siege of Dunkirk. Nevertheless, the government arrested Houchard for not following up his victory and executed him. Jean-Baptiste Jourdan won the Battle of Wattignies in October.  On 17–18 May 1794, the Army of the North won a victory at the Battle of Tourcoing while under the temporary leadership of Joseph Souham. The right wing of the army fought under Jourdan in an important victory at the Battle of Fleurus on 26 June. Soon after this, the Allied position in Flanders collapsed, leading to Austria's loss of Belgium and the extinction of the Dutch Republic in the winter of 1794-1795. During this period, the army was engaged in mopping up operations and sieges. On 25 October 1797, the Army of the North officially ceased to exist and its troops became an army of occupation in the newly created Batavian Republic.  The Army of the North's commanders are listed as follows.

1811 to 1813.

The Army of the North in Spain formed in January 1811 and included soldiers from the Imperial Guard. Its duties included holding cities and fortresses in northern Spain, fighting guerillas, and keeping the roads to France clear. On 3–5 May 1811, about 1,600 cavalry and six artillery pieces belonging to the army fought at the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro. The Spanish beat a 1,500-man detachment on 23 June at Cogorderos in León (province). This action prevented the army from helping in the fight against Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington's Anglo-Portuguese Army. Only 800 men fought at the Battle of Vitoria in June 1813. After the disastrous defeat at Vitoria, the Army of the North became part of the reorganized Army of Spain. Its commanders were as follows.

1815.

This name was also given to the force commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. At its height, including reserves, it numbered 130,000 strong and consisted of many veterans from previous campaigns. In terms of quality it was the best army Napoleon had commanded since 1812 when he had led his Grande Armée (Grand Army) to disaster in Russia. It also fielded proportionally more artillery (344 pieces) and significantly more cavalry, than had French armies in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814. Its left and right wings ("Aile Gauche" and "Aile Droite") were under the independent command of Marshals Ney and Grouchy respectively, when Napoleon himself was not present to direct them.  This "Armée du Nord" is often mistakenly regarded as separate from "Armée de la Réserve" (Reserve Army), which it fought beside during the 1815 campaign. In fact the "Armée de la Réserve" was simply a large corps of the "Armée du Nord" that remained under Napoleon's direct command.  For more detailed organizational details on this "Armée du Nord", see Order of Battle of the Waterloo Campaign.

1870-1871.

During the Franco-Prussian War a new Army of the North was created under Louis Faidherbe to try to break the Siege of Paris from the North. The army had achieved several small victories at towns such as Ham, La Hallue, and Amiens and was protected by the belt of fortresses in northern France, allowing Faidherbe's men to launch quick attacks against isolated Prussian units, then retreat behind the fortresses. Despite access to the armaments factories of Lille, the Army of the North suffered from severe supply difficulties, which depressed morale. In January 1871, Léon Gambetta forced Faidherbe to march his army beyond the fortresses and engage the Prussians in open battle. The army was severely weakened by low morale, supply problems, the terrible winter weather and low troop quality, whilst general Faidherbe was unable to command due to his poor health, the result of decades of campaigning in West Africa. At the Battle of St. Quentin, the Army of the North suffered a crushing defeat and was scattered, releasing thousands of Prussian soldiers to be relocated to the East.

The Army of the North or Armée du Nord is a name given to several historical units of the French Army. The first was one of the French Revolutionary Armies that fought with distinction against the First Coalition from 1792 to 1795. Others existed during the Peninsular War, the Hundred Days and the Franco-Prussian War.


Synopsis.

Viewers enter the Imagination Institute's theater for the Inventor of the Year Award Ceremony, in which professor Wayne Szalinski is receiving the award. Attendees are asked to don their "safety goggles" (3D glasses) in preparation for the scientific demonstrations. The show opens with the crew of the show searching for Wayne, when he suddenly flies on stage miniaturized and in a transportation device called a Hoverpod.  He accidentally drops the control box which sends him and the machine flying off behind the stage out of control. Then the show starts with Christie Smithers introducing Dr. Nigel Channing. Dr. Channing welcomes the audience and introduces Wayne. The Hoverpod comes back and destroys the neon "Inventor of the Year Award" sign over the audience (at first only some letters are knocked out, leaving "NERD" spelled diagonally). Dr. Channing attempts to introduce Diane, Wayne's wife, but she says that she has to go and help find Wayne. She takes Quark, the family's dog with her. Dr. Channing then introduces Wayne's sons, Nick and Adam. Nick, Wayne's oldest son, has a pet snake named Gigabyte around his neck, because he didn't want to leave him in their van.  Nick then demonstrates his father's Dimensional Duplicator, a copy machine, to kill time while the crew searches for him. Wayne's youngest son, Adam, puts his pet mouse, Photon, in the copy machine and quickly multiplies into hundreds of copies. This does not go smoothly, and the audience ends up screaming with the loose mice running under their seats (which is really leg ticklers underneath the seats). To scare the mice away, Nick decides to use Wayne's Holo Pet Generator, which first takes the form of a cat, which then transforms into a lion, by accidentally giving the machine too much power, in the audience's faces. While the demonstrations go away, Wayne manages to use his shrinking machine to return himself back to normal size. He brings out the machine to demonstrate its uses by shrinking a family's luggage, saving space and money when traveling, hoping they will fit comfortably in the palm of his hand.  Unfortunately, the machine goes out of control and shrinks the audience (plus Nick, who pushes Dr. Channing out of the way of the machine's electrobeam). Wayne inspects Nick and the audience and, after making sure they're okay, says the machine blew a fuse. He says that he's got some spare parts in his office to fix the machine (or so he hopes). Diane enters the room asking Wayne if everything is ok. Wayne responds with, "Honey, I shrunk the audience!" The viewers are then antagonized by obstacles such as Diane fainting upon seeing the tiny people and Nick, and Adam taking a picture of them with a blinding flash and picking up the theater so he can "show the little people to Mommy." The whole room is lifted right off its construction for a minute or two before Diane (who regained consciousness) and Channing persuade Adam to put the theater back where he found it. Then Gigabyte, much larger than the miniature audience, nearly eats them (as he had not yet been fed that day). Quark then chases him away with a few barks. Luckily, Wayne fixes the machine just in the nick of time and returns the audience and Nick back to normal size, but Quark is momentarily affected by the beam and then runs backstage out of sight.  Wayne accepts his award and begins his speech, but he is interrupted by Nick warning of a "big, humongous problem." Diane then says, "Wayne, you didn't!" He then responds with, "Honey, I did! I blew up the dog!" The now giant Quark walks out onto the stage and the curtain closes while viewers hear the Imagination Institute's crew trying to stop him from crushing the place. He then finds his way through the curtain and sneezes on the audience for the finale (which triggers hidden water sprayers in the back of the seats). Diane then says, "Bad boy Quark! You know better than that!" As they leave, the audience can hear the commotion from backstage continue.

Honey, I Shrunk the Audience (known as MicroAdventure! in Tokyo Disneyland) was a 4D film spin-off of the "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" film series that was shown at several Disney theme parks. The audience wore 3D glasses, and the gimbal-mounted theater would shake and rock, creating the illusion of moving along with the characters in the film.


Geography.

The river begins at above sea level at the northwestern edge of the Massif Central mountains, south of Saint-Germain-les-Belles in the Haute-Vienne department. The river runs in a generally southwestern direction, passing through the Corrèze and Dordogne departments. It flows into the river Isle in Bassillac. Near Cubjac, at the Moulin de Soucis, part of its water is diverged to the Isle.

Communes.

The river passes through the following communes:

Hydrology.

Like most of the rivers that rise in the heights of Limousin, the Auvézère is a water-rich river. Its flow has been observed during the period of 27 years (between 1982 and 2008) at Le Change, just upstream of its confluence with the Isle. The mean annual flow at this station was 8.52 m3/s. The Auvézère is a seasonal river with the highest flows during winter and early spring. The median flows between December and April lie between 12.2 and 16.8 m3/s. In spring the flow rapidly decreases to 4.62 m3/s in June. The lowest flow is observed in August: 1.87 m3/s. The lowest three-day average flow is only 0.22 m3/s. The highest calculated flow is 250 m3/s, and the highest observed flow at Le Change was 182 m3/s on January 7, 1982.  The Auvézère is not as water-rich as other rivers of the basin of the Dordogne, that drain more eastern areas of the Massif Central. The surface runoff of the Auvézère basin is 310 mm per year, which is close to the French average, but much less than that of the Dordogne (623 mm in Bergerac) and the Vézère (590 mm in Montignac). The specific flow of the Auvézère is 9.8 litre per second per square kilometre basin.

The Auvézère (Occitan dialect: "Auvesera") is a 112 km long river in the regions Limousin and Aquitaine, France. It is a tributary of the river Isle, which is itself a tributary of the Dordogne.


Introduction.

People may not be fully aware of the relationship between their mental and emotional wellbeing and the environment. It was first commonly used by psychologist Erik Erikson in his description of the stages of psychosocial development. Mary Richmond, pioneer of American social work regarded there to be a linear relationship between cause and effect in a diagnostic process. In 1941 Gordon Hamilton renamed the 1917 concept of "social diagnosis" as "psychosocial study". Psychosocial study was further developed by Hollis in 1964 with emphasis in treatment model. It is contrasted with diverse social psychology, which attempts to explain social patterns within the individual. Problems that occur in one's psychosocial functioning can be referred to as "psychosocial dysfunction" or "psychosocial morbidity." This refers to the lack of development or diverse atrophy of the psychosocial self, often occurring alongside other dysfunctions that may be physical, emotional, or cognitive in nature. Adolph Meyer in the late 1800s stated "We cannot understand the individual presentation of mental illness, [and perpetuating factors] without knowing how that person functions in the environment," psychosocial assessment stems from this idea.  Scholarly societies in this field bring together researchers, academics and practitioners who are interested in contributing to the development of this inter/trans-disciplinary field of study. There are organisations such as Transcultural Psychosocial Organization (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), Association for Psychosocial Studies, etc.

Psychosocial assessment and intervention.

Psychosocial assessment considers several key areas related to psychological, biological, and social functioning and the availability of supports. It is a systematic inquiry that arises from the introduction of dynamic interaction; it is an ongoing process that continues throughout a treatment, and is characterized by the circularity of cause-effect/effect-cause. In assessment the clinician/health care professional identifies the problem with the client, takes stock of the resources that are available for dealing with it, and considers the ways in which it might be solved from an educated hypothesis formed by data collection. This hypothesis is tentative in nature and goes through a process of elimination, refinement, or reconstruction in the light of newly obtained data.  There are five internal steps in assessment:  Assessment includes psychiatric, psychological and social functioning, risks posed to the individual and others, problems required to address from any co-morbidity, personal circumstances including family or other carers. Other factors are the person's housing, financial and occupational status, and physical needs. Assessments when categorized, it particularly includes Life history of the client that include data collection of living situation and finances, social history and supports, family history, coping skills, religious/cultural factors, trauma from systemic issues or abuse and medico-legal factors (assessment of the client’s awareness of legal documents, surrogate decision-making, power of attorney and consent). Components include: the resource assessment of psycho-spiritual strengths; substance abuse; coping mechanisms, styles and patterns (individual, family level, workplace, and use of social support systems); sleeping pattern; needs and impacts of the problem etc. Advanced clinicians incorporate individual scales, batteries and testing instruments in their assessments. In the late 1980s Hans Eysenck, in an issue of Psychological Inquiry, raised controversies on then assessment methods and it gave way to comprehensive Bio-Psycho-Social assessment. This theoretical model sees behavior as a function of biological factors, psychological issues and the social context. Qualified healthcare professionals conduct the physiological part of these assessments. This thrust on biology expands the field of approach for the client, with the client, through the interaction of these disciplines in a domain were mental illnesses are physical, just as physical conditions have mental components. Likewise, the emotional is both psychological and physical.  The clinician’s comprehension and set of judgments about the client's situation, the assessment through a theory of each case, predicts the intervention. Hence a good psychosocial assessment leads to a good psychosocial intervention that aims to reduce complaints and improve functioning related to mental disorders and/or social problems (e.g., problems with personal relationships, work, or school) by addressing the different psychological and social factors influencing the individual. For example, a psychosocial intervention for an older adult client with a mental disorder might include psychotherapy and a referral to a psychiatrist while also addressing the caregiver's needs in an effort to reduce stress for the entire family system as a method of improving the client's quality of life. Treatment for psychosocial disorders in a medical model usually only involve using drugs and talk therapy.

Psychosocial adaptation and support.

Psychosocial adaptation is a process a person experiences in order to achieve good fitness in person-environment congruence known as adjustment, a state of wisdom oriented activities and psychosocial equilibrium. Psychosocial support is the provision of psychological and social resources to a person by a supporter intended for the benefit of the receiver's ability to cope with problems faced. The allocentric principle within social relationships that promote health and well-being moves individuals to aid victims of terminal illness, disaster, war, catastrophe or violence to foster resilience of communities and individuals. It aims at easing resumption of normal life, facilitating affected people's participation to their convalescence and preventing pathological consequences of potentially traumatic situations. This might extend in forms of informational and instrumental support.

The psychosocial approach looks at individuals in the context of the combined influence that psychological factors and the surrounding social environment have on their physical and mental wellness and their ability to function. This approach is used in a broad range of helping professions in health and social care settings as well as by medical and social science researchers.


History.

17th century.

In April 1633, Sir John Hepburn was granted a warrant by Charles I to recruit 1200 Scots for service with the French army in the 1618-1648 Thirty Years War. The nucleus came from Hepburn's previous regiment, which fought with the Swedes from 1625 until August 1632, when Hepburn quarrelled with Gustavus Adolphus. It absorbed other Scottish units in the Swedish army, as well as those already with the French and by 1635 totalled around 8,000 men.  Sir John was killed in 1636 and succeeded as Colonel by his brother George, then, after his death in 1637, Lord James Douglas; following the custom of the time, the unit became known as the Régiment de Douglas. James died

18th century.

During the War of the Spanish Succession, the regiment served under Marlborough at Schellenberg, Blenheim, Ramillies and Oudenarde. At Malplaquet in 1709, its members included William Hiseland, an 89 year old reputed to be the last serving veteran of the First English Civil War.  Both battalions spent 1715 to 1742 in Ireland, but after this were normally separated. The 1st was based in Flanders during the War of the Austrian Succession, where it fought at Fontenoy in 1745. After returning from

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.

The 1st Battalion had returned to the West Indies as a garrison in 1790, and served there until 1797, with a brief period of combat in the Haitian Revolution. The West Indies were hotbeds of disease, and the battalion lost more than half its strength to disease in this period. It was reformed from militia volunteers in Ireland in 1798: This year saw a major rebellion erupt in Ireland after years of simmering tension. The Lothian Fencibles fought with distinction at the Battle of Vinegar Hill,

19th century.

The 1st battalion was sent to Ireland after the end of the Napoleonic wars, and stationed there from 1816 until 1825, when it was moved to the West Indies, where it remained until 1835. The 2nd battalion, however, had a more active time; based in India, it was involved in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, where it fought at the Battle of Nagpore (1817) and Battle of Mahidpur (1818), and in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–26. It moved to Scotland in 1830, and to Canada in 1836, where it was involved in the Rebellions of

First World War (1914–1919).

At the outbreak of the First World War, the 1st was in India, and returned to the UK in November; the 2nd was immediately deployed with the British Expeditionary Force, arriving in France on 14 August and seeing action on the afternoon of the 23rd. The Special Reserve had been mobilised, with the 3rd Battalion activated at Weymouth, and all seven battalions of the Territorial Force had mobilised and raised an additional second-line battalion by the end of 1914. A further seven battalions of the New Army were formed in 1914, including two Pals battalions By the end of 1914, the regiment stood at a strength of 24 battalions; another six Territorial battalions and three New Army battalions (one of bantams) were formed in 1915. In 1916, one service and one reserve battalion were formed by merging depleted Territorial battalions, and in 1917 a labour battalion was formed. In total, the Royal Scots raised some thirty-five battalions of infantry and over 100,000 men during the course of the First World War, of which fifteen

Inter-war period (1919–1939).

The regiment was reduced sharply in size following the Armistice; during 1919, the 3rd Battalion disbanded, as did all bar one of the Territorial battalions (the one exception being the 2/10th, which was finally disbanded in February 1920).  In September 1919, the 1st Battalion again embarked for imperial service, taking up garrison duties in Rangoon, and in August 1920 the 2nd Battalion was sent to Ireland for service in what would later become the Anglo-Irish War; they would remain there until January 1922.  When the Territorial Force was reconstituted as the Territorial Army in 1920, all seven Territorial battalions of the regiment were reconstituted. At the beginning of 1921, the regiment was formally retitled The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), and comprised two regular battalions, one Supplementary Reserve battalion, and four battalions of the newly renamed Territorial Army, all four of which were activated during the 1921 coal strike. In January 1922, reductions in the military led to the amalgamation of the Territorial component into two battalions. The three

Second World War (1939–1945).

At the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the 1st Battalion, Royal Scots was at Aldershot as part of 4th Infantry Brigade, alongside the 1st Border Regiment and 2nd Royal Norfolk Regiment, 2nd Infantry Division; accordingly, it deployed to France with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). It moved to Lecelles in September, and in May 1940 moved into Belgium during the Battle of France. The BEF were heavily hit by the German Army's breakthrough, however, and fell back towards the coast; the battalion was deployed at Le Paradis, near Béthune, on 25 May to protect the flanks of the Dunkirk evacuation. After being heavily hit by armoured attacks, the battalion ceased fighting on the afternoon of 27 May. The adjacent unit, the 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolks, had almost one hundred men taken prisoner and later shot by their captors in the "Le Paradis massacre". Recent research has suggested

Post-war period (1945–2004).

In February 1949, the 2nd Battalion disbanded, leaving the regiment with only a single regular battalion for the first time since the 17th century.  The 7th/9th (Highlanders) and 8th Battalions were reconstituted in the Territorial Army in 1947. Both battalions remained until 1961, when the latter was absorbed and the single battalion retitled the 8th/9th Battalion. In 1967 this was disbanded and reconstituted as two separate companies, A Company (The Royal Scots) of the 52nd Lowland Volunteers, and A Company (8th/9th Royal Scots) of The

Restructuring of the Infantry (2004–2006).

Until 2004, the Royal Scots had been one of five line infantry regiments never to be amalgamated in its entire history, a claim shared by The Green Howards, The Cheshire Regiment, The Royal Welch Fusiliers and The King's Own Scottish Borderers. When five Scottish regiments were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland on 28 March 2006, the Royal Scots Battalion and the King's Own Scottish Borderers Battalion initially maintained their identities as separate battalions.  However almost immediately the

Regimental museum.

The Museum of the Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) and the Royal Regiment of Scotland is located in Edinburgh Castle. Operating

Battle honours.

The regiment's battle

Regimental Colonels.

Colonels of

Victoria Cross.

Victoria Crosses awarded

Nicknames.

The regiment is known by the nickname "Pontius Pilate's Bodyguard" which apparently was the result of a 17th-century boasting contest with the French "Régiment de Picardie" regarding the respective seniority of each regiment.  "Picardie", the senior French infantry regiment, was formed in 1562, whereas the Scots had been raised in 1625 as Hepburn's Regiment and only entered French service in 1635 but, it is said, claimed a lineage from Scots

Football.

The football team of the 1st Battalion was a member

Uniform.

White facings on a red coat were worn until "royal blue" distinctions were adopted in the early 18th century. The Scottish thistle of St Andrew featured on belt-plates and other parts of the uniform. The standard red/scarlet and blue uniform of most line infantry regiments was retained until "Lowland" dress was adopted in 1881. For the RS this included a scarlet doublet, tartan trews and (from 1904) a dark blue Kilmarnock bonnet with diced band, scarlet toorie and black-cock feather. This continued as the regimental full dress until 1939, although worn only to a limited extent after 1914. The No. 1 Dress worn during the final decades of the regiment's separate existence consisted of a dark blue bonnet with regimental dicing, dark blue doublet, and Hunting Stewart tartan trews.

The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment), once known as the Royal Regiment of Foot, was the oldest and most senior infantry regiment of the line of the British Army, having been raised in 1633 during the reign of Charles I of Scotland. The regiment existed continuously until 2006, when it amalgamated with the King's Own Scottish Borderers to become the Royal Scots Borderers, which merged with the Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment), the Black Watch, the Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland.


Early life.

Viner was born to a Jewish family in 1892 in Montreal, Quebec, to Romanian immigrant parents. He earned his undergraduate degree at McGill University in 1914. He received a PhD at Harvard University, where he wrote his dissertation, under trade economist Frank W. Taussig.

Academic career.

Viner was a professor at the University of Chicago from 1916 to 1917 and from 1919 to 1946. At various times, Viner also taught at Stanford and Yale Universities and twice went to the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1946 he left for Princeton University, where he remained until his retirement, in 1960. He was also a member of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton from 1947 to 1948 and a permanent member there from 1950 to 1970. Nobel laureate Milton Friedman studied under Viner while he was at the University of Chicago.

Public service.

Viner played a role in government, most notably as an advisor to Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. during the administration of Franklin Roosevelt. During World War II, he served as co-rapporteur to the economic and financial group of the Council on Foreign Relations' "War and Peace Studies" project, along with Harvard economist Alvin Hansen.

Work.

Economics.

Viner was a noted opponent of John Maynard Keynes during the Great Depression. While he agreed with the policies of government spending pushed by Keynes, Viner argued that Keynes's analysis was flawed and would not stand in the long run.  Known for his economic modeling of the firm, including the long- and the short-run cost curves, his work is still used today.  Viner is further known for having added the terms "trade creation" and "trade diversion" to the canon of economics in 1950. He also made important contributions to the theory of international trade and to the history of economic thought. While he was at Chicago, Viner co-edited the "Journal of Political Economy" with Frank Knight.  His work, "Studies in the Theory of International Trade" (1937), discusses the history of economic thought and is a historical source for the Bullionist controversy in 19th-century Britain.

Atomic bomb.

Viner spoke at the Conference on Atomic Energy Control in 1945, stating "that the atomic bomb was the cheapest way yet devised of killing human beings" and that atomic bombs "will be peacemaking in effect," perhaps making him the founder of nuclear deterrence.

Jacob Viner (; May 3, 1892 – September 12, 1970) was a Canadian economist and is considered with Frank Knight and Henry Simons to be one of the "inspiring" mentors of the early Chicago School of Economics in the 1930s: he was one of the leading figures of the Chicago faculty. Paul Samuelson named Viner (along with Harry Gunnison Brown, Allyn Abbott Young, Henry Ludwell Moore, Frank Knight, Wesley Clair Mitchell, and Henry Schultz) as one of the several "American saints in economics" born after 1860.


Origins - Hurricane.

Formerly known as Hurricane Hydrocarbons Ltd. the company was founded in 1981 and initially operated in Western Canada. It changed to a more international focus and grew after making several major oil and gas finds in Southern Kazakhstan, in 1991 becoming a partner in a JV to develop the Kyzylkiya, Aryskum, Maibulak and South Kumkol fields.  In 1996 it purchased Yuzhneftegaz from the Kazakh government, making it one of the largest players in the country.  However the company ran into severe problems in the late 1990s. All the company's oil went through refineries owned by Central Asian Industrial Holdings N.V. (CAIH), a Dutch-registered offshore affiliate of Kazkommertsbank (KKB) Kazakhstan's leading banking group, which used their monopoly to charge high prices. At the same time oil prices plunged. In 1999 the company was forced into receivership and almost broken up.  The company was saved by Bernard Isautier, a board member who had long been involved in the Canadian oil industry and in Central Asia. He became CEO and negotiated a merger with Central Asian Industrial Holdings N.V. From mid-October 1999 to 2000 Hurricane acquired 88.4% of OJSC Shymkentnefteorgsintez (now PetroKazakhstan Oil Products LLP) which owns the 160,000 bpd Shymkent Oil Refinery, the most modern of the country's three refineries (commissioned 1985). In doing so Isautier put 30% of Hurricane's stock in CAIH's hands. This eventually made the investors in both companies very wealthy, especially Isautier who had demanded no salary and was at first only paid in stock options. The rapid increase in the stock's value made Isautier by far the most generously compensated executive in Canada in 2004.

Renamed PetroKazakhstan.

In 2003 Hurricane was renamed PetroKazakhstan to reflect that its entire operations are in that country.  In the following years Hurricane/PetroKazakhstan saw considerable conflict with the government of Kazakhstan, including a fine for anti-competitive behaviour and protests of its environmental and labour record reportedly organized by government agents. In June 2005 PetroKazakhstan announced that it had been approached for a possible takeover or merger, sending stock prices up significantly. The most frequently mentioned possible suitor was a branch of India's ONGC. The stock quickly fell back down when the government of Kazakhstan announced that it would demand the right to acquire PetroKazakhstan prior to any merger, in part because India would have to export their oil through Russia, thus increasing Kazakhstan’s dependence on Russia.

CNPC and PetroChina.

On 21 August 2005 China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), agreed to buy the company for US$4.18 billion via CNPC International Ltd. (CNPCI), a 100% subsidiary of China National Oil & Gas Exploration and Development Corp. (CNODC). This made the PetroKazakhstan deal the largest overseas acquisition by a Chinese company. PetroKazakhstan was delisted in Kazakhstan, Toronto, New York, London and Frankfurt Stock Exchanges.  As part of the deal with CNPC, on 15 October 2005, according to the "Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan On Subsoil Use", CNPC agreed to sell back 33% of the shares of PetroKazakhstan Inc. to KazMunaiGas (KMG), a transaction which was completed on 5 July 2006. Further on 6 July 2007 KMG bought back a 50% share in PetroKazakhstan subsidiary PetroKazakhstan Oil Products LLP [PKOP) thereby allowing the Kazakh government to regain an equal share of the nation's most modern oil refinery.  In 2006 CNPC transferred its remaining 67% of shares to China Petroleum Engineering & Construction Company (CPECC), a 50/50 joint venture with its own listed subsidiary PetroChina, who currently manage and operate the company.

PetroKazakhstan is a Canadian oil company, based in Calgary, Alberta, that has all of its business focused on Kazakhstan where it had some of oil and of natural gas reserves (January 2005 estimate) in the Turgai basin region. These are the second largest Kazakhstani proven reserves after ChevronTexaco's TengizChevroil. Estimated production is of oil per day. In 2005, PetroKazakhstan was acquired by China National Petroleum Corporation and then in 2006 transferred to PetroChina.


Early life.

Abubakar was born on 13 June 1942 to his father Abubakar Jibrin and his mother Fatikande Mohammed, in Minna, Niger State, Nigeria.  From 1950-1956 he attended Minna Native Authority Primary school. From 1957-1962, he had his secondary school education at Government College, Bida, Niger state. From January to October 1963 he studied at Kaduna Technical College.

Military career.

Air force career.

Abubakar is a member of the pioneering sets of officer cadets who enlisted into the Nigerian Air force on 3 October 1963. From 1964- 1966, he was flown to Uetersen, West Germany with a team of officer cadets, for Basic and Advance Military Training. When he returned to Nigeria in 1966 he was seconded to the Nigeria Army.

Army career.

After joining the army in 1966 as an officer cadet, Abubakar attended the emergency combatant short service course two. In October 1967, Abubakar was commissioned second lieutenant, infantry division, Nigerian army. From 1967-1968, Abubakar was general staff officer two, second garrison, and commanding officer, 92 infantry battalion from 1969-1974. Between 1974 and 1975, he was made brigade major, 7th infantry brigade. In 1975 he served as commanding officer, 84 infantry battalion. In 1978-1979, Abubakar was commanding officer for the 145 infantry battalion (NIBATT II), United Nations Interim force, Lebanon.  In 1979 he was made assistant adjutant general 3rd Infantry division, Nigeria. From 1980-1982, Abubakar was chief instructor at the Nigerian Defence Academy. In 1982 he was appointed as the colonel of administration and quartering, 1st mechanised division. A position he held up until 1984. From 1985-1986, Abubakar was the commander 3rd mechanised brigade. He served as the military secretary of the army, 1986–1988. Abubakar was made general officer commanding 1st mechanised division 1990-1991. Between 1991-1993, he was the principal staff officer, as the army chief of plan and policy, Defence Headquarters.  From 1993-1998, General Sani Abacha appointed Abubakar as the Chief of Defence Staff. Upon Abacha’s death on 8 June 1998, Abubakar took power as the military president of Nigeria and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces on 9 June 1998.

Presidency.

Military.

Nigeria had been ruled by military leaders since Muhammadu Buhari seized power from Shehu Shagari in a 1983 coup. Although democratic elections had been held in 1993, they were annulled by General Ibrahim Babangida. Reported to have had an initial reluctance to accepting the position, Abubakar was sworn in as president on 9 June 1998 after the unexpected death of Abacha. He declared a weeklong period of national mourning.

Politics.

A few days after assuming office, Abubakar promised to hold elections within a year and transfer power to an elected president. He established the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), appointing former Supreme Court Justice Ephraim Akpata as chairman. The INEC held a series of elections first for Local Government Areas in December 1998, then for State Assemblies and Governors, National Assemblies and finally for the President on 27 February 1999. Although efforts were made to ensure that the elections were free and fair, there were widespread irregularities that drew criticism from foreign observers.

Transfer of power.

Surprising some critics of the country's military, In May 1999 General Abubakar, handed over power to the newly elected civilian president, Olusegun Obasanjo and retired from the army.

Legacy.

Abubakar's legacy is mixed. A lecture circuit at Chicago State University in Chicago, Illinois, United States featuring him encountered opposition, because he had supported Abacha's government. (Abacha's administration was notorious for its human rights abuses). He was also sued in that country by other Nigerians who claimed he was responsible for the death of 1993 president-elect Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola, who died in custody after being prevented by the military from taking office, and for the violation of the rights of others during his administration. Abubakar helped in the Liberian peace movement by presiding over the 2003 peace talks between Charles Taylor and the opposing rebels. This is seen in the movie "Pray the Devil Back to Hell".

Personal life.

Abubakar is married to Fati and they have six children together.

Awards.

Abudulsalami Abubakar has received several awards and medals. In alphabetical order they include:

General Abdulsalami Abubakar (; born June 13, 1942) is a Nigerian statesman and military general who served as the "de facto" President of Nigeria from 1998 to 1999. He was also Chief of Defence Staff between 1993 to 1998. He succeeded General Sani Abacha upon his death.