Location and population.

Exact population data of the Kharchins in China is difficult to obtain because there was a great immigration of the Kharchins for Jindandao ethnic conflict during the late Qing dynasty, and that the former Josotu league was divided after the Qing dynasty and now belongs to the present three different provinces: Inner Mongolia, Liaoning and Heibei. However, there are Liaoning's ethnic Mongols with over 600,000 population and Heibei's ethnic Mongols with over 100,000 population, both of whom are mainly originated from the Kharchins except the smaller Mongol groups with Chahar, Barga, Oirad or other ethnic origins.

Brief history.

The term Kharchin first appeared in the history of the Yuan dynasty. In the early 13th century, the Kipchaks and the Qanqlis surrendered to the Mongol Empire. Because they were famous for distilling khara-airag (black kumis), they were called Kharachin by the Mongols. Those Turkic peoples formed the kheshig in the Yuan dynasty after 1270. Because they formed a minority of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, they quickly assimilated with the Mongols and other groups.  By 15th century the Kharchins had formed part of Yungshiyebu tümen, inhabiting Chahar territory. In 1389 the Ming dynasty established the Doyin Uriankhain Guard in modern-day Inner Mongolia. After 1448 they resettled much closer to the Ming border. Around 1600 Kharchins moving east merged with the Doyin Uriankhai Mongols. They submitted to the Qing dynasty in 1626, and was organized into three Kharchin banners in Josogtu league, each ruled by a ruler of the Uriankhai lineage.  In the early 20th century, Prince Gungsangnorbu of the right Kharchin expanded modern education among the Mongols. The Kharchins dominated Republic of China's Mongol bureaucracy at the time. After 1945 the People's Republic of China set up new Kharchin banners outside Inner Mongolia. In 1955 the Right Kharachin (Kharchin) banner was transferred to Inner Mongolia as Kharchin banner while their central banner was abolished. The Kharchin left banner became an autonomous country in 1957.

Ethnic origins.

According to a Kharchin folk legend, the Kharchin Mongols are originated from the three sub-groups: the Bornuud, the Sharnuud and the Harnuud. Bor means "brown" in Mongolian, and Borjigin is the family name of Genghis Khan, the Bornuud Kharchin should refer to the Yünshebü tümen (and Mongoljin-Tümed tümen) led by the successors of Genghis Khan. Shar means "yellow" in Mongolian and the Uriankhai were often called as the Yellow-head Uriankhai by other Mongols, the Sharnuud Kharchin should refer to the Doyan Uriankhai led by the famous Uriankhai general Zelme and his successors. Khar means "black" in Mongolian, and the Khitans were often named as Khara Khitans by themselves and others, the Kharnuud Kharchin should refer to the descendants of the Khitan Liao dynasty, consisted of the aboriginal Khitans and a few absorbed ethnic groups such as Jurchen and Han Chinese.  Kharchin historian Lomi gave another different explanation for the Bornuud and the Sharnuud, the Sharnuud were people of Genghis Khan and the Bornuud were people of General Zelme according to his book "The History of Borjigits" (mongɣul-un borǰigid obuɣ-un teüke) written in 1732. There is an analysis on the Kharchin's three ethnic origins. The ethnic origins of the eastern Tümed and Mongoljin will be discussed about under the topic of the Mongoljin-Tümed tümen.

Yunshebu Tümen.

The Yunsheebuu Tümen consisted of the three sub-tribes: Kharchin, Asud and Yunsheebuu itself. It was one of the right wing of the eastern Mongols ruled by Dayan Khan and his successors. The Yunsheebuu Tümen or its original tribal alliance was the largest and the most powerful one among the eastern Mongol tribes before Dayan Khan regained the golden family's ruling power on the Mongols.  Many famous chief leaders of the court of the Northern Yuan dynasty based in Mongolia, such as the Asud's Arugtai Tayisi, the Kharchin's Bolai Tayisi, the Bekrin's Begersen Tayisi and Ismail Tayisi, Oirad's Ibarai Tayisi, were also the chieftains of the Yunsheebuu Tümen or its original tribes, and they depended on the power of Yunsheebuu to achieve their political aspiration. The Yunsheebuu Tümen during the rule of Begersen Tayisi consisted of at least ten sub-tribes: Asud, Kharchin, Sharnud, Tav Aimag, Dalandaganad, Khonghutan, Shibaguchin, Nomochin, Buryat and Barga.  Asud, Kharchin and Sharnud were known as the Huuchin or old Kharchin, who were the core tribes of the Yunsheebuu Tümen. The Asuds originated from the Yuan Empire's royal guard troops of the Alans, the Asud's Arugtai Tayisi could be recognized as the first leader of the Yunsheebuu-Kharchin tribal alliance and one of the most important leaders during the Northern Yuan dynasty.  The Kharchin originated from the Kipchak guard troops served in Khanbalik or Dadu (today's Beijing, great capital of Yuan empire) and other Chinese areas, and also the Kipchak royal horse herder groups in the present Khovd Province and its neighborhood areas of Mongolia. The Kipchaks got the name of Kharchin because their horse herders were famous for their tribute of horse milk wine to Yuan emperors, the Kharchin originally means people who brew black horse milk wine. Some scholars also argue that the Kharchins were originated at least partly from the Khalaj of the historical Khorasan area in today's Iran and Afghanistan, who were a sub-group of the Oghuz or Arghu Turks. The Kharchin's Bolai Tayisi was the successor of Arugtai Tayisi, he recovered the power of the eastern Mongols against the Oirads.  There are no the exact clues for the origins of the Sharnuud yet, but Yunsheebuu Tümen's Sharnuud should not be simply considered as yellow-head Uriankhai or others, while there are so many tribes like Uriankhai, Naiman and Buryat, that consisted of such a clan of the Sharnuud, even some of the Mongolized Uighurs were named as the Sharnuud too. The name of Sharnuud may suggest their non-Mongoloid physical characters, Yunsheebuu's Sharnuud seems some European looking group followed with the Alans and Kipchaks to serve for the Yuan court in Khanbalik (Dadu).  Shibaguchin and Nomochin were the original tribes of the Yunsheebuu before the Kharchin allied with them and adopted its name. The Shibaguchins were people who raised hawks as their occupation for the Mongol nobles. Numan means arch in Mongolian, the Nomochins were the royal arch artisans. Both Shibaguchins and Nomochins had multi-ethnic origins, they were served for the Yuan emperors when they went for hunting to the Tsagan Nuur moving imperial palace of Yuan empire's upper capital Xanadu (Kaiping), located in the present Plain Blue Banner, Shilingol League, Inner Mongolia. Yuan court set up Yunxufu to administer the moving imperial palace, It's believed that Shibaguchin and Nomochin adopted Yunsheebuu, the Yunxufu's alternative name in Mongolian, as their common tribal name after they evolved as a nomadic tribe on the steppes.  Buryat and Barga, as a part of the Yunsheebuu Tümen, were different from their cousins in Siberian forest, Their ancestors immigrated from the forest to the western Mongolia steppes, and joined the Oirad alliance. It is surmised that Buryat and Barga were probably led by an important Oirad Chieftain Aragtemür. He ever struggled against Esen Khaan and defeated him finally. However, Bolai Tayisi defeated him later and absorbed his people of the Buryat and Barga into the Kharchins. It is also possible that Bekrin's Begersen Tayisi or Oirad's Ibalai Tayisi brought them into the Yunsheebuu.  Tav Aimag that means five tribes, were known as Jalair, Hongirad, Ihires, Manggud and Urugud, who immigrated from northern Mongolia to the Khitan steppes, the present Southeastern Inner Mongolia. But they retreated to the north steppes after the Yuan Empire lost its rule on China. Hongirad and Ikhires were categorized as Darligin Mongols, Manggud and Urugud were categorized as Nirun Mongols, Jalair was a Mongolian speaking tribe. The Tav Aimag were led by the Urugud's Orchuu to join the Kharchin, and he became the successor of Bolai tayisi after whom was defeated by the Onligud's Morihai Tayisi. Orchuu led the whole tribal alliance to immigrate to the southwestern Inner Mongolia, and they began to be considered as a branch of the right wing of the eastern Mongols.  Dalandaganad and Khonghutan were surmised as people of Bayanmönkh Jinong (assistant Khaan), who was father of Dayan Khan. Orchuu's daughter Sikher Taikhu was a queen of Bayanmönkh Jinong and the mother of Dayan Khan. The Bekrin's Begersen Tayisi immigrated from Uighurstan to Southwestern Mongolia, he defeated Orchuu there and became the leader of the Yungsiyebu Tümen. Begersen Tayisi also urged Manduul Khan to defeat and kill Bayanmönkh Jinong later, then the Dalandaganad and Khonghutan were absorbed as a part of the Yungsiyebu Tümen, and Begersen's cousin Ismail Tayisi married Queen Sikher Taikhu. Dayan Khan was saved by the Dalandaganad, and adopted by Queen Mandukhai of Manduul Khan later. The Dalandaganad were the descendants of the Tanggud (Тангуд), and the Khonghutans were a branch of the Nirun Mongols.  Bekrin originally inhabited in the Hami mountain area of the Uighurstan and its neighborhood areas. Mongols called them "Uigurd", and considered them as the Mongolized Uighurs, however the original Bekrins seemed different compared to the real Uighurs. The Bekrins were one of the most important ethnic origins of the Yunsheebuu although Bekrin wasn’t listed as one of Yunsheebuu ten tribes during the time of Begersen tayisi. Some scholars considered the alliance between the Asud's Arugtai Tayisi and the Bekrin's Öljei Khan (the descendant of Ögedei Khan) as the basis of the Yunsheebuu Tümen. When Begersen Tayisi and Abarai Tayisi conquered the Yunsheebuu subsequently, they brought many more Bekrins into the Yunsheebuu Tümen.

Doyan Uriankhai.

In 1389, the Ming dynasty formed three guards for Mongol chiefs on the eastern slopes of the Khinggan. The Uriankhai clan formed the Doyin Guard (Doyan in Chinese language) on the Chaor River.  The core branch of the Doyan Uriankhai were people of the "uls" (kingdom) of King Eljitai, who was a son of Genghis Khan's younger brother Khajiun. According to Rashid al-Din, there were three larger tribes of the Naimans, the Tatars, the Uriankhai, and some unknown smaller ones in Eljitai Uls. An Uriankhai chieftain Chaurkhan (Чаурхан) who was cousin of General Zelme (Зэлмэ) and Subedei (Сүбэдэй), was appointed to be the chief general of Eljitai Uls by Genghis Khan. It was recorded that his troop consisted of 2000 Oirads soldiers. In 1280s, Eljitai's successors with other Mongol nobles led a rebellion against Khubilai Khaan, but it was finally repressed soon and those nobles were punished cruelly by Khubilai Khaan. The family of Eljitai lost their rule on their people after the rebellion, while the Uriankhai nobles controlled the ruling power on Uljitai Uls gradually. After Khubilai Khaan defeated Khaidu Khaan, the grandson of Ögedei Khaan, the Kyrgyz, the Ursuud (Урсууд) and the Khabkhanas (Хабханас) of Khaidu's Khanate, were compelled to immigrate to Uljitai Uls and joined the Doyan Uriankhai. A group of the Uriankhai was also appointed to guide the altar of Queen Hoelun, the mother of Chinggis Khaan. They seemed different from the Uriankhai of Uljitai Uls at first, but for unknown reasons they immigrated from the Uls of Queen Hoelun and her youngest son Temüge to join the Doyan Uriankhai and guarded the altar of Queen Hoelun in Ekh Doyan Öndör Mountain area, located in the today's Jalaid banner, Xing’an league, Inner Mongolia. We also noticed that almost all of Uriankhai families among the Kharchins claimed they were descendants of General Zelme but not Chaurkhan, that maybe suggested there is a larger population of the Uriankhai from Temüge Uls to join the Original Uriankhai tribe in Eljitai Uls.  Uriankhai had at least the two branches of the forest Uriankhai and the steppe Uriankhai during the time of Chinggis Khaan. The forest Uriankhai were appointed to guide Chinggis Khaan's mausoleum in the Burkhan mountain area and known as the Burkhan Uriankhai later, while a group of the steppe Uriankhai, known as Doyan Uriankhai, were appointed to guide the Queen Hoelun's altar on the Doyan mountain. There is no exact evidence about that the forest Uriankhai spoke Mongolian or Turkic yet, but the steppe Uriankhai had been categorized as a group of the Darligin Mongols after they immigrated from Siberian forest to the steppes. The two branches of the Uriankhai had a great influence on the later history of the Mongols after Yuan dynasty, A group of the Burkhan Uriankhai was probably one of the core ethnic origin of the Ordos Mongols of the right wing ruled by Jinong (assistance Khaan), and most of the Burkhan Uriankhai evolved as the Uriankhai Tümen of the left wing during the time of Dayan Khaan. After this tümen was destroyed, some of them fled to the north and maybe had the ethnic links with Tannu Uriankhai and Altai Uriankhai. The Doyan Uriankhai were conquered and absorbed by the Chakhar and the Inner Halha in the north, and by the Kharchins and the eastern Tümed and the Mongoljin in the south. The Zaruud (Зарууд) known as one of the Inner Khalkh were people of Doyan Uriankhai's Bagasun Tabunang (Багасун-Табунанг) who married Dayan Khaan's only daughter. Esen Khaan of the Choros (Чорос) Oirad also claimed him as the seventh generation offspring of Uriankhai General Zelme according to some historical resources.  Kyrgyz, Ursuud and Khabkhanas were originally the inhabitants of the Siberian forest (taiga). The Kyrgyz was a Turkic group who ever established the great Kyrgyz Khanate based on the former Uighur Khanate in the present north Mongolia, and their nomadic kingdom was destroyed by the Khitans a century later. Some of them immigrated back to their original homeland in the Siberia forest, and some leave there and were known as the Naimans and/or others on the later history. The Kyrgyz were absorbed into Doyan Uriankhai. There were also the Kherenugud (Xэрэнугуд), the Mongolized Kyrgyz tribes among the Oirds and the Ar Khalkh (Outer Khalkh). The Ursuud who were famous for their traditional medicine, and the Khabkhanas were the neighbors of the Kyrgyz. We have no the clues about their ethnic origins yet.  Naiman and Tatar were the main five tribes on the Mongol steppes during the time of Chinggis Khaan. The Naimans were surmised to have the ethnic links with people of the Kyrgyz Khanate in the north Mongolia. There was a Naiman tribe known as one of the eight aimags of the Tsakhar Tümen, their descendants inhabit in the present Naiman Banner, Tongliao, Inner Mongolia. Haichid, Hailasud, Garhata, Shiranud, Narad, Marud, Nuled and other family names of the Mongols were considered to link with the Naimans. The Tatars were a Mongolic tribe inhabited in the eastern Mongolia, there were the six sub-groups of the Tatars consisted of the Tutukliut, the Alji, the Chagan, the Kui, the Tarat, the Burqui according to Rashid al-Din. The Tsagan Tatars were also known as one of the eight aimags of the Tsakhar Tümen, and there are Tsagan Tatar, Alji and other family names originated from the Tatars among the Mongols today. The Naiman and Tsagan Tatar were probably absorbed by the Tsahar from the north branch of the Doyan Uriankhai like the Zaruud absorbed by the Inner Khalkh.

Descendants of the Liao dynasty.

The land inhabited by the Kharchins was also the homeland of the Khitans, a famous Mongolic group in the eastern Mongolia. According to Rashid al-Din, there were 10 thousands families of the Khara-Khitans, the western branch of the Khitans, in Mongolian Khanate which consisted of 93 thousands families in total during the time of Chinggis Khaan. The nomadic Khitans of their original homeland were recognized officially as the Mongols during Yuan dynasty too, Tav Aimags consisted of Jalair, Hongirad, Ikhires, Manggud and Urugud, led by General Muhulai to immigrate to the land of the Khitans and mixed with them. Doyan Uriankhai followed the Tav Aimags to immigrate to the Khitan steppes and became the lords of this land during the Northern Yuan dynasty, thus, the nomadic Khitans were absorbed by the Mongols gradually and didn’t exist as an independent ethnic group except that the Daur, a small modern Mongolic group, claimed their Khitan ethnic Origin.  The Khitan as a large ancient nation had a multi-origins too. The Khitan's cousin tribe, the Kumoci, were conquered and absorbed by the Khitans after they raised to the power. Both Khitan and Kumuci were originated from the Yuwen tribe of the Xianbei. The Yuwen was originally a Southern Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) who immigrated from the present Southwestern Inner Mongolia to the eastern steppes inhabited by the Xianbei (and Wuhuan) and mixed with them there, that was similar to what happened to Yunsheebuu and Doyan Uriankhai later. The Tiele (the original Turks) of the northern steppes were also absorbed into the Khitans in part. The Khitans were categorized as the two groups of the Yelu who were the original Khitans and the royal family of Liao dynasty, and the Xiao who were originated from the two Shenmi (Yishiyi and Boli), the branches of the Tiele, and they were the tribes of the Khitan's queens. There were the eight Khitan's ancient tribes recorded by Chinese: Xiwandan, Hedahe, Fufuyu, Xiling, Rilian, Pijie, Li, Tuliuyu. And the Kumoci consisted of the five ancient tribes: Ruhuzhu, Mohefu, Qigu, Mukun, Shide.  It is also worthy to mention that a group of the Komuci who immigrated to the west after the Liao dynasty was destroyed by the Jurchens, were probably the ancestors of the royal family of the Kipchaks whom the Kharchin's Kipchaks were originated from.

The Kharchin (Харчин, ᠬᠠᠷᠠᠴᠢᠨ, qaračin) is a subgroup of the Mongols residing mainly (and originally) in North-western Liaoning and Chifeng, Inner Mongolia. There are Khalkha-Kharchin Mongols in Dorno-Gobi Province (Kharchin Örtöö was part of the province during Qing rule) and in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.


History.

The project was first announced by UK Prime Minister David Cameron in December 2012. The Government set up a new company Genomics England to oversee the project with the plan to focus on rare diseases, cancer and infectious diseases announced by Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt in July 2013. The project was also made possible by the National Institute for Health Research, NHS England, Public Health England and Health Education England. In 2015 Northern Ireland and Scotland also joined the project with plans to start work the following year. In 2016, the Welsh government issued a statement of intent and is considering participating in the 100,000 Genomes Project.  The initial participants were recruited from Cambridge University Hospitals, University College London Partners and Newcastle upon Tyne NHS Foundation Trust. The following medical centres joined the project a short time later: Central Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Great Ormond Street Hospital, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and Oxford University Hospitals NHS Trust.  In September 2015, Genomics England announced it had contracted with interpretation partners Congenica and Omicia. This is in addition to ongoing work with sequencing partner Illumina.  As of 1 October 2018, the 100,000 Genomes Project had completed the sequencing of 87,231 whole genomes in England and results are in the process of being returned to NHS GMCs and ultimately back to participants; the first diagnoses from the Project were returned to patients in spring 2015 and over 2,000 families' results have been returned to the NHS in the rare disease programme to date (July 2017).  In December 2018, the full 100,000 genomes milestone was reached.  A 2019 review identified the initiative as an 'exemplar' in involving the public in genomic research.

NHS Genomic Medicine Centres.

Following the pilot studies, NHS England ran a tender to appoint NHS Genomic Medicine Centres with responsibility for recruiting suitable patients, gaining their consent to participate in the project and taking samples for whole genome sequencing by Illumina (company). The successful bidders designated as NHS Genomic Medicine Centres are:  In December 2015, two new NHS Genomic Medicine Centres were announced by NHS England: There are now 13 designated NHS Genomic Medicine Centres (GMCs) across the country.  In 2017, Northern Ireland and Scotland began recruiting participants for the project and Wales aims to begin in 2017–18.

Research.

The Genomics England Clinical Interpretation Partnership (GeCIP) includes 2,500 UK and international clinicians and scientists from approximately 300 institutions in 24 countries. There are plans to increase this number. Researchers are organised in "domains" formed around particular conditions, cancer types and research areas such as Machine Learning and Health Economics. The partnership is integrated with the NHS and the aims include improving the use of genotype and phenotype data in healthcare, and providing a platform for genomic research collaborations to add to the knowledge base for genetic disorders.

Industrial partnerships.

From 2015 to 2017, 13 companies joined to form a pre-competitive industry trial, named the Genomics Expert Network for Enterprises (GENE) Consortium. This trial aimed to bring industry expertise into the 100,000 Genomes Project to identify potential benefits for patients, as the private sector is involved in developing new medicines and diagnostics for the NHS.

The 100,000 Genomes Project is a UK Government project that is sequencing whole genomes from National Health Service patients. The project is focusing on rare diseases, some common types of cancer, and infectious diseases. Participants give consent for their genome data to be linked to information about their medical condition and health records. The medical and genomic data is shared with researchers, to improve knowledge of the causes, treatment and care of diseases.


Storylines.

The card consisted of eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show, that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed villains, heroes, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches, with results predetermined by WWE's writers on the SmackDown brand. Storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television show "SmackDown Live".  At SummerSlam, AJ Styles defeated John Cena. Styles went on to win the WWE World Championship at Backlash, when he defeated Dean Ambrose after a low blow and a Styles Clash. Two days later on "SmackDown", Cena demanded a rematch against Styles in an attempt to become a 16-time world champion, equaling the record set by Ric Flair, while Ambrose invoked his rematch clause against Styles. SmackDown Commissioner Shane McMahon scheduled a triple threat match between Styles, Cena, and Ambrose for the title at No Mercy. Later that night, Ambrose and Cena defeated Styles and Intercontinental Champion The Miz. Afterwards, Ambrose attacked Cena with Dirty Deeds. The following week, Ambrose defeated Cena with a roll-up. After the match, Styles attacked Cena and Ambrose, which prompted SmackDown General Manager Daniel Bryan to schedule Styles to defend his title against Ambrose the following week on "SmackDown", after which, Ambrose attacked Styles with Dirty Deeds. On the September 27 episode of "SmackDown", after a distraction from Cena, Styles retained the title against Ambrose. After the match, Cena attacked Ambrose and Styles each with an Attitude Adjustment. On October 9, the day of the event, WWE announced that, due to No Mercy airing simultaneously with the second United States presidential debate, the world championship triple threat match would begin the pay-per-view portion of the event.  At Backlash, Becky Lynch defeated Alexa Bliss, Carmella, Naomi, Natalya, and Nikki Bella in a six-pack elimination challenge to become the inaugural SmackDown Women's Champion. On the September 13 episode of "SmackDown", Alexa won a fatal five-way match by defeating Carmella, Nikki Bella, Natalya, and Naomi to receive a title opportunity against Lynch at No Mercy. The following week, Alexa attacked Becky during their contract signing. On October 8, it was revealed by the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" that Becky Lynch would not compete at No Mercy due to an out-of-ring injury.  At Backlash, Heath Slater and Rhyno defeated The Usos in a tag team tournament final to become the inaugural SmackDown Tag Team Champions, which also earned Slater a SmackDown contract in the process. On the September 20 episode of "SmackDown", The Usos defeated American Alpha to earn a rematch against Slater and Rhyno for the titles at No Mercy.  At Backlash, The Miz defeated Dolph Ziggler to retain the Intercontinental Championship when Maryse sprayed pepper spray in Ziggler's face. Two weeks later, Miz again defeated Ziggler in a title match after himself using the spray on Ziggler. The next week, Ziggler put his career on the line if Miz gave him one more title shot; The Miz agreed to the match, to take place at No Mercy. The next week on "SmackDown", Miz showed a video package highlighting Ziggler's most embarrassing moments in his career, including his days as a member of the Spirit Squad. Miz then introduced fellow Spirit Squad members, Mikey and Kenny, who first cheered and mocked Dolph before attacking him. Ziggler then fought off Mikey and Kenny, before Miz fled.  At Backlash, Bray Wyatt attacked Randy Orton backstage, leaving him unable to compete and winning their match by forfeit. In the following weeks, the two continued to taunt each other, including segments in which either wrestler went looking for the other backstage. On September 28, a match between the two was scheduled for No Mercy.  On the August 23 episode of "SmackDown", Carmella attacked Nikki Bella before their scheduled match, then afterwards on "Talking Smack", and again during a match on the October 4 episode of "SmackDown". Subsequently, a match between the two was scheduled for No Mercy.  On August 16, Curt Hawkins began to appear in a series of vignettes similar to Chuck Norris facts, signalling his return to WWE on the SmackDown brand. In the last vignette, he revealed that he would be "stepping into the ring" at No Mercy.  On the September 13 episode of "SmackDown", Jack Swagger appeared and confronted Baron Corbin. On the October 4 episode, Swagger defeated Corbin in controversial fashion. The referee called for the bell, believing Corbin had indicated submission, when he was in fact reaching for the rope to break the Patriot Lock applied by Swagger. The following day, a match between the two was scheduled for No Mercy.  On October 9, a match between The Hype Bros and American Alpha against The Ascension and The Vaudevillains was scheduled for the No Mercy Kickoff pre-show.

Event.

Pre-show.

During the No Mercy Kickoff pre-show, Curt Hawkins made his WWE return. As advertised, he stepped into the ring. However, he did not compete, but announced that his first match would take place on the following episode of "SmackDown".  After this, Shane McMahon and Daniel Bryan informed Alexa Bliss that for medical reasons, Becky Lynch would not be able to compete, that the scheduled title match would be postponed to the November 8 episode of "SmackDown", and that Alexa would face a different opponent later in the night.  Also during the pre-show, The Hype Bros (Mojo Rawley and Zack Ryder) and American Alpha (Chad Gable and Jason Jordan) faced The Ascension (Konnor and Viktor) and The Vaudevillains (Simon Gotch and Aiden English). Jason Jordan won the match for his team by pinning Aiden English after performing Grand Amplitude.

Main show.

The actual pay-per-view opened with the advertised main event, which was the triple threat match in which AJ Styles defended the WWE World Championship against Dean Ambrose and John Cena. During the match, Cena executed an "Attitude Adjustment" on Ambrose for a near-fall. Cena applied the "STF" on Ambrose, who did not submit. Styles performed a "Springboard 450 Splash" on Ambrose for a near-fall. Styles executed a "Styles Clash" on Ambrose, which was followed by Cena applying the "STF" on Styles, but Ambrose broke the hold. Later, Ambrose applied the "Calf Crusher" and Cena applied the "STF" on Styles simultaneously; Styles submitted, but the referee continued the match as two participants cannot submit another one at the same time. Ambrose executed "Dirty Deeds" on Cena, but Styles voided the pinfall by pulling the referee out of the ring. In the end, Cena executed a Super "Attitude Adjustment" on Ambrose, but Styles hit Cena with a chair and pinned him to retain the title.  Next, Nikki Bella faced Carmella. The end came when Nikki executed a "Rack Attack 2.0" on Carmella to win the match.  After that, Heath Slater and Rhyno defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The Usos (Jey and Jimmy Uso). The match ended when Rhyno executed a "Gore" on Jey to retain the titles.  In the fourth match, Jack Swagger faced Baron Corbin. In the end, Swagger applied the "Patriot Lock" on Corbin, but Corbin reached the ring apron, forcing Swagger to break the hold, and poked Swagger's eye. Corbin performed the "End of Days" on Swagger to win the match.  Next, Dolph Ziggler challenged The Miz for the Intercontinental Championship in a title vs. career match. During the match, Miz applied the "Figure Four Leglock", but Ziggler touched the ropes, forcing Miz to break the hold. Ziggler executed a "Zig Zag" on Miz for a near-fall. After Maryse blinded Ziggler with pepper spray, Miz executed a "Skull Crushing Finale", but Ziggler placed his foot on the bottom rope to void the pinfall. The Spirit Squad (Mikey and Kenny) appeared to distract Ziggler, but Ziggler knocked Mikey off the ring apron with a Superkick. Miz performed another "Skull Crushing Finale" on Ziggler for a near-fall. The referee ejected Maryse, Mikey, and Kenny from ringside. Ziggler executed a Superkick on Miz to win the title and save his career.  After that, Alexa Bliss came out. Earlier in the night, SmackDown Women's Champion Becky Lynch had been declared unable to compete. Alexa complained about her title opportunity being postponed only for her replacement opponent, Naomi, to interrupt her. In the end, Alexa applied a Cross Armbar, but Naomi shifted her weight to pin Alexa and win the match.  In the final match, Randy Orton fought Bray Wyatt. During the match, Orton attempted an "RKO" on Wyatt, but Wyatt countered by throwing Orton over the broadcast table. Wyatt attempted "Sister Abigail" on Orton, but Orton countered with an "RKO" attempt, only for Wyatt to counter into a Uranage Slam for a near-fall. Outside the ring, Wyatt draped Orton over the steel steps and attempted a Running Senton, but Orton rolled off and Wyatt crashed onto the steps. In the climax, Orton executed an Elevated DDT on Wyatt and attempted an "RKO", but the lights went out and a returning Luke Harper appeared in the ring, distracting Orton. Wyatt executed "Sister Abigail" on Orton to win the match.

Aftermath.

On the following "SmackDown", Shane McMahon and Daniel Bryan challenged Raw to three traditional Survivor Series elimination matches – involving each brand's best five male wrestlers, best five female wrestlers, and best five tag teams, respectively, to which Raw Commissioner Stephanie McMahon accepted. Focus then shifted on determining which wrestlers would represent Team SmackDown for the three teams at Survivor Series the following month. Also during this time, Dean Ambrose became the number one contender against AJ Styles for the WWE World Championship at SmackDown's next pay-per-view,, in a Tables, Ladders, and Chairs match. and Randy Orton joined The Wyatt Family in a "if you can't beat them, join them" scenario.  Dolph Ziggler offered The Miz a rematch for the Intercontinental Championship, but The Miz refused. Ziggler then made an open challenge to any Raw wrestler to face Ziggler for the title at Survivor Series. In response and thanks to Miz's wife Maryse, Miz got a rematch for the title before Survivor Series. Also, due to SmackDown defending their Intercontinental title against a wrestler from Raw, Daniel Bryan came to negotiations with Raw's General Manager Mick Foley to have Raw's WWE Cruiserweight Championship defended against a SmackDown wrestler. Bryan chose Kalisto and revealed that if Kalisto won, the entire cruiserweight division would come to SmackDown.

No Mercy (2016) was a professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event and WWE Network event produced by WWE for the SmackDown brand. It took place on October 9, 2016, at the Golden 1 Center in Sacramento, California. This was the 12th event in the No Mercy chronology and the first since 2008.


Description.

The genus "Obama" is characterized by having a leaf-shaped body. Most species are about long, but some may reach over. The hundreds of eyes distributed along the body are of two types: monolobulated, which are simple and circular, and trilobulated, which have three lobes.  The copulatory apparatus of "Obama" has a protrusible penis occupying the entire male atrium or most of it. Morphologically the genus can be divided in two subgroups depending on the shape of the penis papilla, which may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The group with an asymmetrical penis papilla includes 10 species ("O. anthropophilla", "O. carbayoi", "O. carrierei", "O. decidualis", "O. josefi", "O. ladislavii", "O. marmorata", "O. nungara", "O. otavioi" and "O. ruiva") and seems to form a monophyletic clade within "Obama". On the other hand, the group with a symmetrical penis papilla is paraphyletic, indicating that this is the ancestral state within the genus.

Etymology.

The name "Obama" is formed by a composition of the Tupi words "oba" (leaf) and "ma" (animal), being a reference to the body shape of species in this genus.

Species.

There are 41 species assigned to the genus "Obama":

Phylogeny.

The genus "Obama" was erected after a study of molecular phylogeny with the subfamily Geoplaninae revealed that the genus "Geoplana", originally containing more than a hundred species, was polyphyletic. One of the monophyletic clades revealed by the study was separate from "Geoplana" as the new genus "Obama". All species within the new genus share a similar morphology, including the leaf-shaped body, the presence of a permanent penis papilla, ovovitelline ducts entering the female atrium dorsally and dorsal eyes of two types: mono- and trilobulated.  The sister-group of "Obama" seems to be the genus "Cratera", which has a very similar appearance but lacks trilobulated eyes.  The following phylogenetic tree shows the relationship of several species of "Obama" after several molecular studies:

Obama is a genus of land planarians from South America. It contains several species adapted to human-disturbed environments, including the only invasive land planarian native to the Neotropical realm, "Obama nungara", which has been accidentally introduced in Europe.


History.

The predecessor of the Single Top 100 started on 23 May 1969 as the "Hilversum 3 Top 30". Originally it was broadcast by the VPRO and ever since December 1970 by the NOS. It was presented by Willem van Kooten. In 1971 Felix Meurders hosted the radio show. He renamed it the "Daverende Dertig". In June 1974 the "Nationale Hitparade" became the official chart of Hilversum 3. It was a top 30 until the number of entries was extended to 50 in June 1978. The TROS took over the programme in 1985. AVRO's popular music chart television programme "TopPop" used the chart from 1974 to 1978 and from 1981 to 1986. The "Nationale Hitparade" became a top 100 in 1987. In February 1993 it was followed by the "Mega Top 50" and in 1997 by the "Mega Top 100". The "Mega Top 50" should not be mixed up with the current 3FM Mega Top 50, which is a different chart, not being solely based on record sales.  Throughout the years, the chart has had several names and lengths:  The "Single Top 100" and predecessors have never had any rules which prevented records from rising in the chart after having dropped. Re-entries occur frequently. The first record that got up again to number 1 was "Soley soley" by Middle of the Road late 1971. "Geef mij je angst" by Guus Meeuwis (in 2005) and 4 Minutes by Madonna featuring Justin Timberlake and Timbaland (in 2008) rose 3 times to number one. "Blijf bij mij" by André Hazes and Gerard Joling even rose 4 times to the top position in 2007.

Year-end charts.

Year-end charts of the Single Top 100 and predecessors were compiled from 1970 until 1978 by adding up points. From 1978 onwards they have been compiled on the basis of record sales.

The Dutch Single Top 100 is a Dutch chart, based on official physical single sales, legal downloads and since July 2013 streaming and composed by Dutch Charts. It is one of the three official charts, the other two being the Dutch Top 40 and the Mega Top 50. The difference is that these charts also include airplay data. The list is especially intended for the music industry and those who take an interest in charts. In Dutch TV programmes the "Single Top 100" is often cited, although it has not been broadcast since December 2006.


Background.

On 6 April 1812, the Siege of Badajoz ended when the Anglo-Portuguese army under the Arthur Wellesley, Earl of Wellington stormed and captured the fortress. The 5,000-man French-Hessian garrison was all killed or captured, while the Allies suffered 4,100 casualties. The capture of Badajoz opened a major invasion route from Portugal into Spain. In 1812, Napoleon became preoccupied with his impending French invasion of Russia. The emperor handed control in Spain to his brother King Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jean-Baptiste Jourdan. In May 1812 there were 230,000 French troops in Spain, which Napoleon believed to be an adequate force. Yet half of the total was tied down east of Madrid. Marshal Jean de Dieu Soult's Army of the South had one corps involved in the Siege of Cádiz, a second corps under d'Erlon watching Badajoz, and the remainder occupying Andalusia. To the north, Marshal Auguste de Marmont's Army of Portugal had 52,000 men, but only 35,000 were available after subtracting garrisons. Joseph and Jourdan had 18,000 troops in a central reserve near Madrid.  In May 1812, Hill conducted a successful raid which resulted in the Battle of Almaraz and the destruction of a French bridge across the Tagus River. This limited French communication between Marmont and Soult to the bridge at Toledo. Meanwhile, British engineers led by Henry Sturgeon repaired the broken Alcántara Bridge; this permitted the Allies to transfer troops between the northern and southern sectors two weeks faster than the French were able to. Wellington took 48,000 troops to the northern sector to operate against Marmont, leaving 18,000 with Hill to face d'Erlon's corps. Hill had the British 2nd Infantry Division, John Hamilton's Portuguese Division, three Portuguese infantry regiments at Badajoz, and two British and one Portuguese cavalry brigades under Sir William Erskine, 2nd Baronet. Hill commanded about 7,500 British and 11,000 Portuguese. There were also 4,000 Spanish soldiers under Conde de Penne Villemur and Pablo Morillo.  D'Erlon led a corps of 12,000 French soldiers, including the infantry divisions of d'Erlon and Augustin Darricau and the cavalry brigades of Lallemand and André Thomas Perreimond. D'Erlon's own division was camped at Azuaga and Fuente Obejuna while Darricau's division was out of supporting distance to the north at Zalamea de la Serena. Wellington desired that d'Erlon's force be prevented from reinforcing Marmont. The British commander planned to have Hill and Spanish leader Francisco Ballesteros make alternate threats against Soult's army. If the French tried to press Hill, Ballesteros would move against Seville. If the French concentrated to crush Ballesteros, Hill would push forward. In the event, Ballesteros moved too quickly. The Spaniard decided to strike Nicolas François Conroux's 4,500 troops. On 1 June 1812 in the Second Battle of Bornos, Conroux's men were surprised but they rallied and drove off the 8,500 Spanish troops with 1,500 casualties and four guns. French losses were 400–600 men.

Battle.

When he heard the news of Bornos, Soult sent six infantry battalions and two cavalry regiments to help hunt down Ballesteros. This caused the Spanish general and his soldiers to take refuge under the guns of Gibraltar. Soult wished to smash Ballesteros or capture Tarifa, but when Hill began to advance, the French marshal had to drop his plans. On 7 June, Hill shifted his headquarters to Fuente del Maestre and on 9 June to Zafra. On 11 June, in a reconnaissance in force, Villemur's Spanish cavalry moved from Llerena toward Azuaga while Slade's brigade moved from Llera toward Maguilla. After several hours, Slade's brigade began to bump into French dragoon outposts, which were driven back. Soon afterward, the British dragoons encountered the main body of Lallemand's brigade arrayed in battle order.  Lallemand's 700-strong brigade consisted of the 17th and 27th Dragoon Regiments. Slade commanded about 700 sabres from the 1st "Royal" Dragoon and 3rd Dragoon Guards Regiments. The British may have had a slight numerical advantage. Lallemand retreated to the outskirts of Maguilla where he determined to fight. Slade immediately ordered a charge, with the 1st Dragoons in the first line and the 3rd Dragoon Guards in the second. The French dragoons were completely broken and the British took about 100 prisoners. Instead of reforming his brigade, Slade plunged after the fleeing French, "each regiment vying with the other which should most distinguish itself", as he later proudly reported.  The reckless pursuit continued for several miles beyond Maguilla. Suddenly, there was a cry among the British dragoons, "Look to your right!" Lallemand had held a squadron in reserve, and now this small, but compact force crashed into the disorderly clump of British horsemen. Seeing this sudden turn of events, the main body of Lallemand's dragoons turned on their adversaries and forced them to retreat. It soon became a panicky flight of several miles, despite the appeals of Slade and his officers. The flight ended near Valencia de las Torres, a village about from Maguilla when both sides had exhausted their horses. Slade finally got his survivors into formation and withdrew beyond Llera.  The British lost 22 killed, 26 wounded, and 118 captured, with most of the captured being wounded. Lallemand reported losing 51 killed and wounded, including one officer killed and four wounded. Most of the French who were captured at the beginning of the action escaped. Despite his defeat, Slade reported, "Nothing could exceed the gallantry displayed by both officers and men on this occasion, in which Colonels Calcraft and Clinton, commanding the two regiments, distinguished themselves, as well as all the other officers present".

Commentary.

This was not the only occasion when Wellington's cavalry charged out of control. As examples, historian Charles Oman cited the 20th Light Dragoons at the Battle of Vimeiro, the 23rd Light Dragoons at the Battle of Talavera, and the 13th Light Dragoons at the Battle of Campo Maior. After the battle, a very irritated Wellington wrote to Hill:

Aftermath.

The action at Maguilla had no effect on the campaign. D'Erlon retreated before Hill's advance, while sending a message to Soult that his 6,000 men were beset by 30,000 Allies. In fact, d'Erlon neglected to count Darricau's force, which was under his orders. He believed Hill's corps included the 7th Infantry Division, which was actually with Wellington in the north. Soult, who credited Hill with a more realistic 15,000 Anglo-Portuguese and 5,000 Spaniards, sent d'Erlon a 6,000-man infantry division under Pierre Barrois and a 2,200-strong cavalry division under Pierre Benoît Soult. Marshal Soult ordered d'Erlon to force Hill to fight a battle, or at least prevent him from sending reinforcements to Wellington. Barrois left Seville on 16 June and joined d'Erlon's force on 19 June at Bienvenida. With his own division and Darricau's, d'Erlon had about 18,000 troops.  When Hill heard about Barrois' reinforcement, he withdrew to the old battlefield of La Albuera. The 19,000 Anglo-Portuguese arrived there and entrenched themselves on 21 June. Hill expected to be attacked because the Allies had intercepted messages from King Joseph demanding that d'Erlon assault his foe. Actually, Soult routinely ignored instructions from Madrid and his lieutenant made excuses for not obeying Joseph's orders. From 21 June to 2 July the two opposing forces stood motionless, facing each other. The Anglo-Portuguese soldiers had to endure the stench of the hundreds of imperfectly buried corpses from the Battle of Albuera the previous year. On 1 July, Pierre Soult directed a cavalry reconnaissance of the Allied position, with Louis Ernest Joseph Sparre's brigade on the right, Gilbert Julian Vinot's brigade in the center and Lallemand's brigade on the left. Lallemand routed Villemur's cavalry from Santa Marta with substantial losses. The other two brigades skirmished with the Allied cavalry screen. D'Erlon reported to Soult that Hill had 25,000 infantry, 3,000 cavalry, and plenty of artillery; he believed it would be foolhardy to attack.  Hill broke the deadlock by advancing on 2 July. He expected a battle near Fuente del Maestre on 4 July, but the French withdrew when their left flank was threatened. On 7 July, d'Erlon abandoned a strong position at Valencia de las Torres when Hill again turned his left flank. At this point, d'Erlon was at Azuaga and both armies were in the same positions they were on 19 June, before Hill withdrew to La Albuera. The French commander sent Darricau to Zalamea with the cavalry of Vinot and Sparre. On 27 July, Vinot's cavalry raided Mérida from which they carried off food supplies. Curiously, both Hill and d'Erlon were satisfied that they had contained the enemy. Soult received news of Marmont's decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamanca on 12 August. The evacuation of Andalusia soon began. Hill found d'Erlon's lines empty on 26 August. Hill did not pursue because Wellington summoned him to join the main Allied army. D'Erlon joined Soult's main column at Córdoba on 30 August. Soon, the south of Spain was free from French occupation.

In the Battle of Maguilla (11 June 1812) a British cavalry brigade led by Major General John Slade attacked a similar-sized French cavalry brigade commanded by General of Brigade Charles Lallemand. The British dragoons scored an initial success, routing the French dragoons and capturing a number of them. The British troopers recklessly galloped after their foes, losing all order. At length, the French reserve squadron charged into the British, followed by the French main body which rallied. With the tables turned, the French dragoons chased the British until the horses of both sides were too exhausted for the battle to continue. The action took place during the Peninsular War, near Maguilla, Spain, a distance of northeast of Llerena.


Demographics.

As of the 2010 census, there were 53,743 people, 22,435 households, and 13,595 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,174.2 people per square mile (1,225.4/km2). There were 22,573 housing units at an average density of 1,327.1 per square mile (512.4/km2). 64% housing units were owner-occupied and 35% of housing units were renter-occupied. The racial makeup of the city was 84.7% White, 3.1% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 5.5% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.1% of the population.  There were 22,028 households out of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 26.8% were non-families, 37% of which were non-family households with residents over 65 years of age. 30.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 3.08.  In the city, the population was spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 32.7% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $68,665, and the median income for a family was $52,083. Males had a median income of $42,497 versus $35,963 for females. The per capita income for was $24,976. About 9.1% of families and 9.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.3% of those under age 18 and 9.4% of those age 65 or over.  Weymouth has the 10th highest Irish population in the United States, at 33%. As "white flight" occurred in inner-city Boston exacerbated by the start of the cross-district busing program, in the 1960s and 70s thousands of white (predominantly of Irish descent) Bostonians moved to middle/working class suburbs such as Weymouth and Quincy. The blue collar city culture (example: The Boston accent) of places like South Boston and Dorchester is prevalent in the neighborhoods of Weymouth. Weymouth has colloquially been referred to as "Suburban Southie" and "Southie on the South Shore" due to the high influx of South Boston residents and Irish Catholic culture in the town. This trend continues in a different way again today as some longtime South Boston residents are now being priced out due to gentrification. Many are moving out to the more affordable towns on the South Shore.

Demographic breakdown by ZIP code.

Income.

Data is from the 2009–2013 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates.

Geography.

Weymouth is located at (42.206458, −70.945919).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 21.6 square miles (56.0 km2), of which 17.0 square miles (44.1 km2) is land and 4.6 square miles (11.9 km2) (21.29%) is water.  Weymouth contains the Weymouth Back River and the Weymouth Fore River; its surroundings, formerly industrial, are now set aside as parks and natural areas including Webb Memorial State Park. There are many streets named after people and trees.  Weymouth residents often designate which of four 'districts' they live in.  Weymouth is bordered on the north by Hingham Bay and Boston Harbor. Weymouth's territory includes Grape Island, Slate Island, and Sheep Island, all part of the Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area. Weymouth is bordered on the west by Quincy, Braintree, and Holbrook. It is bordered on the south by Abington and Rockland. Weymouth is bordered on the east by Hingham.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Weymouth has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Transportation.

Weymouth is served by several MBTA Bus routes as well as three MBTA Commuter Rail stations: two on the Greenbush Line, at Weymouth Landing and near Jackson Square, and one on the Old Colony Line at South Weymouth. Numbered routes that pass through Weymouth include Massachusetts Routes 3, 3A, 18, 53, 58 and 139.

Government.

Weymouth was founded in 1635, from the territory known as Wessagusett which was described in 1622—just two years after the Pilgrims landed in Plymouth. Weymouth held the distinction of having the oldest continuous town meeting form of government, for 365 years. In 1999, Weymouth residents voted to change to a city form of government. David M. Madden was elected as the city's first mayor and took office in 2000.  On July 10, 2007, Mayor David M. Madden announced he would not seek reelection. In 2008, Susan Kay was elected as the new mayor of Weymouth.  On November 3, 2015, Republican state senator Robert L. Hedlund was elected as the new mayor of Weymouth, succeeding long-incumbent mayor Susan M. Kay. Hedlund assumed office on January 4, 2016.  Weymouth is one of the few places in the United States where self-service gas stations are illegal. The ban was introduced in 1977.

Education.

Weymouth High School is the only high school in Weymouth. Prior to 2005, grades eight and nine were housed in Weymouth Junior High while grades ten, eleven, and twelve comprised the High School. This changed with the construction of a new wing on the Junior High building in South Weymouth, which subsequently became the new Weymouth High School housing grades nine through twelve. The old Weymouth High School in East Weymouth was converted into the Maria Weston Chapman Middle School. More than 2,000 students attend the high school. A brand new athletic surface was completed in 2005, giving Weymouth High School an artificial turf field and a track surface.  In 2008 "Boston Magazine" ranked Weymouth High School eighth among Boston-area high schools in academic performance and eighteenth in cost efficiency.  There is one Weymouth Middle School in East Weymouth. There are two campuses and are down the street from each other. The campuses are called Chapman Campus and Adams Campus.  Abigail Adams Middle School has now been set for 5th and 6th grades and Maria Weston Chapman Middle School 7th and 8th grades in 2010. With Chapman going to be rebuilt within the next few years due to poor upkeep of the current school.  There are eight primary schools and one early childhood center, five of which are named after Weymouth's Congressional Medal of Honor recipients.  There is one Public Charter School which Weymouth is associated to  In addition, there are five private schools in Weymouth.

History.

A failed colony.

Weymouth was settled in 1622 as Wessagusset Colony founded by Thomas Weston, who had been the main financial backer of Plymouth Colony. The settlement was a failure, as the 60 men from London were ill-prepared for the hardships required for survival. They also may have lacked the motivation of the Pilgrims, as this colony was purely economic in motivation and the men had not brought their families.  By winter, poor planning and bad management led to supplies running out, and the Plymouth colonists had little to share. The situation grew desperate and Weymouth men began to sell their clothes, hire themselves out as laborers, and even steal from the local Massachusett Indians. The Indians were soon taunting the Weymouth men and robbing them of what little food they gathered clamming and foraging in the woods. By now, many in the colony were starving or ill, and law and order had broken down. The lowest point came when a settler was accused of stealing supplies from the Massachusetts, and the Massachusett leaders demanded the thief's execution; the Weymouth men complied, but legend has it that they may have executed a dying, sick settler instead.  By April 1623, word came of conflict between American Indians and the Virginia colonists, and tension increased between the Wessagusset colonists and the Indians. Massachusetts and other tribes began plotting to attack and destroy what was left of the floundering colony and the more successful Plymouth Colony. Wampanoag Chief Massasoit heard about the plot but soon and fell ill and nearly died. A party from the Plymouth Colony came to his village and nursed him back to health, and he warned them of the plot. Governor William Bradford decided to preempt the planned attack, and sent Myles Standish to Weymouth with the Plymouth militia and their Indian guide Hobbamock to end the threat. Using the promise of a meal of pork, Standish lured five of the more bellicose Massachusett Indians inside the stockade, including Wituwamat, a large man who had belittled Standish because he was short and had bragged about murdering a number of French shipwreck survivors. Once inside, there was a brief struggle and the Indian leaders were killed.  Ten of the original 60 colonists starved to death and two others were killed in conflicts with the Indians. Forty-five colonists joined Plymouth or went north to Maine, and from there most returned to England. Three men who had left the colony to live among the Indians as laborers could not be warned in time and were subsequently killed by them after Standish had released the women and children.  Robert Gorges attempted to form a colony at the site later that year as the center of a more royalist and Anglican system of government for New England. He brought William Morrell as religious leader and expected Governor Bradford to acknowledge his supremacy and act as his agent. Within weeks, the New England winter caused Gorges to leave with most of the settlers. Those who remained formed the nucleus of the permanent settlement. and the oldest in what would become Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1630, it was officially incorporated into the Massachusetts Bay Colony; the name was changed to Weymouth in 1635 with the addition of 100 families under the leadership of Joseph Hull. These groups experienced some difficulty integrating together, especially due to conflicting pressures from the Puritans of Boston and the Pilgrims of Plymouth, but Weymouth was a stable and prominent town with its current boundaries by 1635. It was included as part of Suffolk County when it was formed on May 10, 1643. The oldest surviving house in Weymouth is the Bickman House (ca. 1650) located at 84 Sea Street.

Post-colonization.

Weymouth was heavily involved in the shoemaking industry from the first years of the 18th century right through to 1973, when the Stetson Shoe Company closed its doors. The building is currently being used for medical offices.  The original town hall was destroyed by fire in 1914 and was replaced in 1928 with a town hall that is a replica of the old Massachusetts State House in Boston. In May 2018, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker designated a tract of land near Lakeview Manor and the eastern and northern borders of Whitman's Pond as an "opportunity zone" under the Congressional Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017.

Points of interest.

Parks.

Weymouth has 43 parks, playgrounds, memorials, recreation areas and facilities:

Weymouth is a city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, one of 13 Massachusetts municipalities with city forms of government while retaining "town of" in their official names, it is named after Weymouth, Dorset, a coastal town in England, and is the second-oldest settlement in Massachusetts only to Plymouth, Massachusetts. It is one of the South Shore's more affordable towns and offers a short commute into Boston, MBTA bus and rail service, and a town beach.


History.

Many Serbs moved to Szeged in the centuries after the Battle of Kosovo. After the restoration of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć in 1557, Szeged became the county town of the Eparchy of Bačka. A wooden Serbian church was built in the city at the beginning of the 16th century, but was destroyed by fire when the Turkish army was expelled.  After the liberation of Szeged from the Ottoman Empire in 1686, Serbs moved to the region in greater numbers. In Szeged, they mostly lived in the Palánk and Upper Town areas. A draft of Csongrád County from 1720 shows that out of 404 buildings, 40 were in Serbian possession. The city's second Serbian Orthodox church, dedicated to Saint Nicholas, was built from stone in the Palánk in 1690. It stood for only 25 years before it was demolished in 1715 to rebuild the city's castle.  The third Orthodox church, a small structure, was built in 1725 at the site of the contemporary church. The fourth, dedicated to the archangels Gabriel and Michael, stood in the Upper Town. Its deed of foundation is from 1727, but it is more likely that it was built during the Turkish occupation or after the liberation of Szeged. It was attended by Greeks as well as Serbs, and remained in regular use until 1848. After that, community members began to join the present-day Church of St. Nicholas instead. The previous church was heavily damaged in a flood in 1879 and was soon destroyed.  The fifth church, today's Church of St. Nicholas, was built rapidly near the site of the third one, behind Votive Church in Dóm Square. The building was designed by Jovan Dobić, and two German masters from Pest, a tinsmith and a carpenter, built the tower. A painter from Buda, Mihailo Sokolović, decorated it with gold and paintings.  Bishop Arsenije Radojević of Szeged, Novi Sad and Eger gave his blessing for the church in 1775, but it is not known exactly when the builders got permission to begin construction. The base was consecrated on 11 July 1778, and a lead tablet recording this event was built into the basement of the church, with a paper copy filed in the church's historical archive. The nave was completed in 1780, and the tower in 1781; during the building of the tower, another lead plaque was built into the church, also with a paper copy for the archive. The five bells were consecrated in 1781. The interior took longer to finish, and it was not until 1805 that Bishop Jovan Jovanović sanctified the church.

Iconostasis.

The iconostasis, which divides the altar from the nave, is the most ornate part of the church. Designed in the rococo style, it consists of 74 icons. The upper part was made by unknown artists. The lower part was originally made for Szeged's third church by Jovan Popović, a Serbian Baroque artist, as recorded in a contract from 7 June 1761. The numbers "1761" are also written on the icon depicting the Temptation of Christ.  The two side doors in the iconostasis, called the Deacon's Doors, are for those who help in the liturgy. The left (northern) door depicts Moses, and the right (southern) door shows his brother, Aaron. Above Moses, there is a depiction of Melchizedek's sacrifice; above Aaron is a depiction of Abraham's sacrifice.  At the center is the King's Door, used by the priests. At the top, Gabriel is shown with a lily in his hands, next to the Virgin Mary. This is a depiction of the Annunciation, in which Gabriel informed Mary that she would give birth to Jesus. Below are the Four Evangelists: Matthew with an angel, John with a hawk, Luke with a bull and Mark with a lion. A snake, symbolizing the bronze snake from the Bible, is depicted climbing up the door. Above the door, an eye in a triangle represents the eye of God.  To the right (south) of the King's Door is an icon of Jesus Christ, and to the left is one of the Virgin Mary and the baby Jesus. Next to the icon of Jesus Christ is one of John the Baptist, and next to the Virgin Mary's icon is one of Saint Nicholas, the patron of the church. It is usual for these four icons, known as the throne icons, to be the most decorated in Orthodox churches. Hanging in front of the throne icons are four lanterns from Mount Athos and from Russia, decorated with the images of the crucified Jesus, Saint George and detailed plant motifs. The Last Supper is depicted above the King's Door. At the bottom, between the throne icons, there are two smaller icons: the Flight into Egypt between Saint Nicholas and the Virgin Mary, and the Temptation of Christ between Jesus and John the Baptist. The holiday icons—one large icon surrounded by eight smaller ones—are above the throne icons. The Transfiguration of Jesus is on the left (north) side. Around it, moving counterclockwise, are icons showing the Epiphany, Palm Sunday (Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem), the Presentation of Jesus at the Temple, the Annunciation, the birth of John the Baptist, the Circumcision of Christ, the Dormition of the Mother of God, and the Presentation of Mary at the Temple. The Resurrection of Jesus is depicted on the right (south) side, and counterclockwise around it are the Birth of Christ, the beheading of John the Baptist, the protection of the Virgin Mary, the stoning of Saint Stephen, the resurrection of Lazarus of Bethany, the Pentecost and the Visitation.  The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, illustrated as a dove, are painted below the red frame, and the Evangelists are depicted in red and blue around them. Other icons show the Apostles and the Church Fathers. In the lunette above the red stave is a crucifix; on the left, the Virgin Mary and John the Apostle can be seen at Jesus' feet. The rest of the icons depict the prophets from the Old Testament, and at the top of the wall, the Last Judgment is painted.  The church sustained heavy damage in the flood of 1879, and was renovated from 1880–81. During the renovation, the little-known Slovak artist Jan Hodina painted a fresco on the ceiling depicting the creation of the world.

The Church of St. Nicholas (known locally as the Serbian Orthodox Church; ), is a Serbian Orthodox church in Szeged, Hungary.


History.

The palace was commissioned by Sir Thomas Maitland, the British Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. It served as the High Commissioner's residence, but was also the home of the Ionian Senate and the Order of St Michael and St George. The foundation stone was laid on St. George's day in 1819, and it was completed in 1824. The location is between the old town of Corfu and the Venetian-era Old Fortress.  The palace was designed in the Greek Revival style of neoclassical architecture, and it was the first building of that style to be constructed on Greek territory. It was designed by the British architect George Whitmore, who was a Colonel and later a Major-General in the Royal Engineers. The building primarily consists of limestone imported from Malta, and Maltese workers were employed in its construction. The sculptural elements of the palace are the work of the Maltese sculptors Vincenzo and Ferdinando Dimech, as well as the Corfiot sculptor Pavlos Prosalentis.  After the union of Corfu with the Kingdom of Greece in 1864, the palace served as a Royal residence until the Second World War. It survived the Italian bombardment of Corfu City during the Corfu Incident in 1923, but suffered greater damage from its use as a temporary housing for the refugees from Epirus during the Greek Civil War (1946–1949). The Greek state was only able to restore the palace interiors in 1954 with the help of a private trust organised by Sir Charles Peake, the then British Ambassador to Greece. Up to 1967, the Greek king occasionally used the palace on state occasions while in residence at his nearby villa, Mon Repos.  Today the palace houses the Museum of Asian art of Corfu. The collection of the museum started in 1927 and consists mostly of donations, the largest being from Gregorios Manos with 10,500 pieces.  The two gateways which flank the palace are the gate of St. Michael and the gate of St. George. The state rooms consist of a grand staircase, a rotunda in the centre leading to two large rooms, the Throne Room and the state dining room. The Palace was renovated for the European Union Summit meeting in 1994.

Gardens.

The palace gardens, complete with old Venetian stone aquariums, exotic trees and flowers, overlook the bay through old Venetian fortifications and turrets. The local sea baths are at the foot of the fortifications surrounding the gardens. A café on the grounds includes its own art gallery, with exhibitions of both local and international artists. It is locally known as the Art Café. From the same spot, the viewer can observe ships passing through the narrow channel of the historic Vido island (Βίδο Κέρκυρας) to the north, on their way to Corfu harbour (Νέο Λιμάνι), with high speed retractable aerofoil ferries from Igoumenitsa cutting across the panorama. A wrought-iron aerial staircase is also to be found, closed to garden visitors, descending to the sea from the gardens, and formerly used by the Greek Royal Family as a shortcut to the baths. Following the end of the Greek monarchy, the old Royal Gardens are now known as the "Garden of the People" (Ο Κήπος του Λαού).

The Palace of St. Michael and St. George () is a palace in Corfu City on the island of Corfu, Greece. Commissioned by Sir Thomas Maitland, it originally served as the residence of the British Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. It was built between 1819 and 1824, to a neoclassical design of Colonel George Whitmore.


Plot.

In 1878, British explorer, Sir Hubert Warrington (Douglas Kennedy) is held prisoner in an old fortress on the Nile. A despotic Hindu (James Lanphier) keeps him captive, as Sir Hubert discovered the hidden tomb where Cleopatra's treasure is buried.  Sir Hubert refuses to disclose the exact location of the jewels, resisting the Hindu's many painful tortures. The Hindu goes to England and tricks the Royal Geographical Society in London into organizing a rescue mission. Included in the expedition is Sir Hubert's fiancée, Ellen Burton (Mala Powers), whom the Hindu plans to torture until Sir Hubert agrees to talk.  A young explorer, Dr. Joseph Faraday (Marshall Thompson), convinces the Royal Geographical Society that the trip should be made by balloon. With Ellen and the Hindu, the group set out for Egypt. After several adventures, including their temporary capture by cannibals and an attack by huge condors, the trio arrive at the Nile fortress where Sir Hubert is held captive. Prior to landing a tear in the balloon makes the party jettison all their ballast and belongings, with Faraday jumping into the water to lighten the load.  Upon the pair's arrival, the Hindu has Ellen tortured on a stretching rack, but Sir Hubert still refuses to divulge his secret. Faraday, who has swam ashore and has eluded the Hindu's native helpers and his captive gorillas, rescues them, but Sir Hubert dies trying to load the balloon with chests of treasure. Faraday and Ellen make their escape but in order to keep the balloon aloft, they are forced to jettison the gold and jewels. Ellen, however, in love with Faraday, saves one diamond for a wedding ring.

Production.

Nathan Juran agreed to make the film with the working title of "Cleopatra and the Cyclops". because he had a percentage of the profits. It was produced by the Woolner brothers who had directed the director on "Attack of the 50 Foot Woman".  "I wanted to become independent of the major studios," said Juran. "I was always looking for a small entrepreneur with whom I could grow as a partner in the company. I thought it might have worked out with the Woolners, but they were just the wrong people for me. They were real schlock guys. I owned one quarter of "Lost Balloon" but they stole all the money."  In May 1960, the Woolners signed Marshall Thompson and James Lanphier to star in the film. Lanphier was taking part under a three picture contract with the Woolners, the other films of which were to be "Adventures of Captain Kidd" and "Thunder Over San Juan".  "Flight of the Lost Balloon" was shot over 10 days from May to June 1961 in Puerto Rico. Shooting was extremely difficult as there were no studio facilities.

Reception.

As a promotional gimmick people who bought tickets for "Flight of the Lost Balloon" were given a "motion sickness pill".Film reviewer John L. Scott, writing for the "Los Angeles Times" said, "I could hardly wait to escape".

Flight of the Lost Balloon is a 1961 film produced, written and directed by Nathan Juran and stars Mala Powers and Marshall Thompson. The film was inspired by Jules Verne's 1863 novel "Five Weeks in a Balloon" and beat the major Irwin Allen film release of the book to the cinemas.


Early life.

Hawley was born and raised in New York City, New York. His mother, Louise Armstrong, was a non-fiction writer and activist, and his maternal grandmother was a playwright. His father, Tom Hawley, was a businessman. He has a twin brother, Alexi, who is a writer for the television show "The Following" and the creator of "State of Affairs".  Hawley graduated from Sarah Lawrence College with a degree in political science in 1989. He worked for the Legal Aid Society in New York City, dealing with cases involving child abuse and neglect. He later moved to San Francisco. He worked in computer programming at law firms and as a paralegal.

Career.

Books.

He has published five novels: "A Conspiracy of Tall Men" (1998), "Other People's Weddings" (2004), "The Punch" (2008), "The Good Father" (2012), and "Before the Fall" (2016).

Television.

Hawley was a writer and producer on the first three seasons of the television series "Bones" (2005–2008). He was also creator and executive producer of "The Unusuals" (2009) and "My Generation" (2010).  Hawley is the creator, primary writer, and executive producer of the FX anthology television series "Fargo" (2014), based on the Coen brothers' 1996 film of the same name. On August 25, 2014, "Fargo" won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries, along with 17 additional nominations at the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards. In total, the series has been nominated for 113 awards since its premiere, winning 32 of them. The third season of "Fargo" premiered on April 19, 2017.  In December 2015, Hawley extended his production deal with FX. He wrote and served as executive producer for "Legion", an FX television series based on the Marvel comic book character. Hawley will also write and executive produce a limited series adaptation of Kurt Vonnegut's "Cat's Cradle" for FX. He will executive produce, but not write for, two additional adaptations for FX: "Hellhound on His Trail", based on the book of the same name, and "The Hot Rock", also based on a book.

Film.

Hawley wrote the original screenplay for the film "The Alibi" (2006).  In September 2014, it was announced that Hawley had signed a deal with Universal Pictures to script an untitled project for their upcoming Dark Universe. Sony Pictures has acquired the rights to Hawley's latest novel, "Before the Fall", with him writing the screenplay. On July 20, 2017, Hawley announced at Comic Con that he is writing and directing a "Doctor Doom" movie with 20th Century Fox.  In 2019, he made his feature film directorial debut with "Lucy in the Sky", a drama film starring Natalie Portman as an astronaut, for Fox Searchlight. He has also been set to direct "Man Alive", from a sci-fi spec script by first-time screenwriter Joe Greenberg.  In November 2019, it was announced that Hawley would be writing and directing the fourth installment in the rebooted "Star Trek" franchise.

Personal life.

Hawley resides in Austin, Texas and Los Angeles, California, with his wife, Kyle Hawley, and their two children. He was previously married to Beth Weintraub.

Noah Hawley (born ) is an American television writer and producer, screenwriter, and bestselling author, known for creating and writing the FX television series "Fargo" (2014–present) and "Legion" (2017–2019). Hawley earlier worked on the television series "Bones" (2005–2008), "The Unusuals" (2009), and "My Generation" (2010).


Design.

German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. "U-640" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Brown, Boveri & Cie GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to.  The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. "U-640" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and one twin C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history.

The boat's career began with training at 5th U-boat Flotilla on 17 September 1942, followed by active service on 1 May 1943 as part of the 6th Flotilla.  In 1 patrol she sank no ships.

Wolfpacks.

"U-640" took part in one wolfpack, namely

Fate.

There are discrepancies between the fate of "U-640" and, which was sunk in the same vicinity around the same time. Paul Kemp’s book attributes the sinking of British freighter "Aymeric" to "U-640", and then subsequently sunk by on the 17 May 1943, whereas UBoat.net attributes this success and fate to "U-657".  Uboat.net states that "U-640" was sunk on 14 May 1943 in the Atlantic Ocean in position, by depth charges from a US Catalina of VP-84. All hands were lost.

German submarine "U-640" was a Type VIIC U-boat built for Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" for service during World War II. She was laid down on 30 October 1941 by Blohm & Voss, Hamburg as yard number 616, launched on 23 July 1942 and commissioned on 17 September 1942 under "Oberleutnant zur See" Karl-Heinz Nagel.


Early life.

Nirmala Sitharaman was born in a Tamil family in Madurai, Tamil Nadu, to Savitri and Narayanan Sitharaman. She had her schooling from Madras and Tiruchirappalli. She obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics at the Seethalakshmi Ramaswami College, Tiruchirapalli in 1980, Master of Arts degree in economics and M.Phil. from Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi in 1984. She then enrolled for a Ph.D. in Economics with a focus on Indo-Europe trade; but a move to London after her husband secured a scholarship in London School of Economics left her unable to complete the degree.

Political career.

Sitharaman joined the BJP in 2006 and was appointed as a spokesperson for the party in 2010. In 2014, she was inducted into Narendra Modi's cabinet as a junior minister and in June 2014, she was elected as a Rajya Sabha Member from Andhra Pradesh.  In May 2016, she was one of the 12 candidates nominated by the BJP to contest the Rajya Sabha elections due on 11 June 2016. She successfully contested her seat from Karnataka.

Union Cabinet Minister.

Union Defence Minister.

On 3 September 2017, she was appointed as Minister of Defence, being only the second woman after Indira Gandhi to hold the post, but the first full-time female defence minister.

Union Finance Minister.

On 31 May 2019, Nirmala Sitharaman was appointed as the finance and corporate affairs minister. She is India's first full-time female finance minister. She presented her maiden budget in the Indian parliament on 5 July 2019. Sitharaman presented the Union Budget 2020–21 on 1 Feb 2020. During the COVID-19 pandemic in India she was made in-charge of the COVID-19 Economic Response Task Force.

Non-political career.

Nirmala Sitharaman worked as a salesperson at Habitat, a home decor store in London's Regent Street. She has served as an assistant to Economist in the Agricultural Engineers Association in the UK. During her stay in the UK, she has also served as a Senior Manager (R&D) for PWC and briefly at the BBC World Service.  She has also served as a member of National Commission for Women. In 2017, she was one of the founding directors of Pranava in Hyderabad.

Awards and honors.

The Jawaharlal Nehru University conferred her the Distinguished Alumni Award in 2019. Forbes Magazine has ranked her 34th among the 100 most powerful women in the world in 2019.

Personal life.

Sitharaman met her husband Parakala Prabhakar who is from Narsapuram, Andhra Pradesh, while studying at the Jawaharlal Nehru University. While Nirmala leaned towards the BJP, her husband was from a Congress family. They married in 1986, and have a daughter. Prabhakar served as a communications advisor to the Andhra Pradesh Chief Minister, Chandrababu Naidu.

Nirmala Sitharaman (born 18 August 1959) is an Indian politician serving as the current Minister of Finance and Corporate Affairs of India. She is a member of the Rajya Sabha, upper house of the Indian Parliament, since 2014. Sitharaman formerly served as the Defence Minister of India, thereby becoming India's second female defence minister and also the second female finance minister after Indira Gandhi, and first full-time female Finance Minister. She has served as the Minister of State for Finance and Corporate Affairs under the Ministry of Finance and the Minister for Commerce and Industry with independent charge. Prior to that, she served as a national spokesperson for the BJP.


Mammaliaformes in life.

Early mammaliaforms were generally shrew-like in appearance and size, and most of their distinguishing characteristics were internal. In particular, the structure of the mammaliaform (and mammal) jaw and the arrangement of teeth are nearly unique. Instead of having many teeth that are frequently replaced, mammals have one set of baby teeth and later one set of adult teeth that fit together precisely. This is thought to aid in the grinding of food to make it quicker to digest. Warm-blooded animals require more calories than those that are cold-blooded, so speeding up the pace of digestion is a necessity. The drawback to the fixed dentition is that worn teeth cannot be replaced, as was possible for the reptilian ancestors of mammaliaforms. To compensate, mammals developed prismatic enamel, characterized by crystallite discontinuities that helped spread out the force of the bite.  Lactation, along with other characteristically mammalian features, is also thought to characterize the Mammaliaformes, but these traits are difficult to study in the fossil record. Evidence of lactation is present in morganucodontans, via tooth replacement patterns. Combined with the more basal tritylodontids that also display evidence of lactation, this seems to imply that milk is an ancestral characteristic in this group. However, the fairly derived "Sinoconodon" appears to have uniquely discarded milk altogether. Prior to hatching, the milk glands would provide moisture to the leathery eggs, a situation still found in monotremes.  The early mammaliaforms did have a harderian gland. In modern mammals, this is used for cleaning the fur, indicating that they, contrary to their Cynodont ancestors, had a furry covering. An insulative covering is necessary to keep a homeothermic animal warm if it is very small, less than 5 cm (1.97 in) long; The 3.2 cm (1.35 in) "Hadrocodium" must have had fur, therefore, but the 10 cm (3.94 in) "Morganucodon" might not have needed it. The docodont "Castorocauda", further removed from crown group mammals than "Hadrocodium", had two layers of fur, guard hairs and underfur, as do mammals today.  It is possible that early mammaliaforms had "vibrissae"; Tritheledontidae, a group of Cynodonts, probably had whiskers. A common ancestor of all therian mammals did so. Indeed, some humans even still develop vestigial vibrissal muscles in the upper lip. Thus, it is possible that the development of the whisker sensory system played an important role in mammalian development, more generally.  Like monotremes today, the legs of early mammaliaforms were somewhat sprawling, giving a rather "reptilian" type of gait. However, there was a general tendency to have more erect forelimbs, forms like eutriconodonts even having a fundamentally modern forelimb anatomy while the hindlimbs remained "primitive"; this tendency is in some effect still seen in modern therian mammals, which often have more sprawling hindlimbs. In some forms, the hind feet likely bore a spur similar to those found in the platypus and echidnas. Such a spur would have been connected to a venom gland for protection or mating competition.  "Hadrocodium" lacks the multiple bones in its lower jaw seen in reptiles. These are still retained, however, in earlier mammaliaforms.  With the possible exception of "Megazostrodon" and "Erythrotherium" (as well as placental mammals), all mammaliforms possess epipubic bones, a possibly synapomorphy with tritylodontids, which also have them. These pelvic bones strengthen the torso and support abdominal and hindlimb musculature. They, however, prevent the expansion of the abdomen, and so force species that possess them to either give birth to larval young (as in modern marsupials), or produce minuscule eggs that hatch into larval young (as in modern monotremes). Most mammaliforms, therefore, probably had the same constraints, and some species could have borne pouches.

Phylogeny.

The cladogram below follows the analysis of Luo and colleagues in 2015. Cladogram based on Rougier et al. (1996) with "Tikitherium" included following Luo and Martin (2007).

Mammaliaformes ("mammal-shaped") is a clade that contains the crown group mammals and their closest extinct relatives; the group radiated from earlier probainognathian cynodonts. It is defined as the clade originating from the most recent common ancestor of Morganucodonta and the crown group mammals; the latter is the clade originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant Monotremata, Marsupialia, and Placentalia. Besides Morganucodonta and the crown group mammals, Mammaliaformes includes Docodonta and "Hadrocodium" as well as the Triassic "Tikitherium", the earliest known member of the group.


Career.

In 2001, she won the U-12 Girls section of the World Youth Chess Championship in Spain.  A notable game occurred in the World Team Chess Championship, held in Beersheba, Israel on October–November 2005, where Shen - then rated 2326 - managed to defeat 2652-rated Russian GM Sergei Rublevsky.  In the May–June 2006 37th Chess Olympiad in Turin she was part of the Chinese team that came third in the women's section.  In October 2006, she won the Girls' World Junior Championship in Yerevan, Armenia.  In May 2007, she was part of the Chinese team that won the first Women's World Team Chess Championship in Yekaterinburg, Russia.  In the Russian Team Championship Shen plays for the women's team of "ACADEMY Tomsk" on Board 2.  In August–September 2008 at the Women's World Chess Championship in Nalchik she was knocked out in the fourth round 0.0-2.0 by Humpy Koneru.  In September 2008, she competed in the 5th China-Russia Match in Ningbo where she scored the highest in the women's category with 4.0/5 and had a performance rating of 2706.  On 6 June 2009, she won the women's Chinese Chess Championship in Xinghua with 9 points out of 11 games.  In March 2014 she came second in the women's Chinese Chess Championship, behind Ju Wenjun.  She competed in the Women's World Chess Championship 2015, in which she was knocked out in the second round by Alexandra Kosteniuk, after defeating Alina Kashlinskaya in the first one.  In March 2015 she was part of the Chinese team that came third in the Women's World Team Chess Championship in Chengdu, China.  In May 2015 she came second in the women's Chinese Chess Championship, behind Tan Zhongyi.  In July 2015 she was the top scorer with 4/5 in the women's section of the 9th China-Russia Match in Ningbo, China.

Shen Yang (; born January 23, 1989 in Nanjing, Jiangsu) is a Chinese chess player who holds the titles of International master and Woman Grandmaster.


Early life and marriage.

Alwina Gossauer was born in Rapperswil, where her parents operated a business and where she spent her childhood. At the age of 18, Gossauer married Johann Kölla, who worked as a saddler. They lived in Zürich, and in 1864 her husband learned to make photographs. In the attic of their house at "Napfgasse" near Neumarkt, Zürich, they set up one of the first photography studios in Zürich. In the same year, Kölla was sentenced to a fine of one month in prison because he had "photographed nude dames". Shortly after, the family moved to Rapperswil where Kölla bought an inn at the Rapperswil railway station, and again, set up a studio. Alwina learned photography by working in the atelier, and started photographing in 1865. In 1868 Kölla committed an offense of making counterfeit bank bills and was sentenced to eighteen months in prison and 10 years banishment from the Canton of St. Gallen. From the bankruptcy of her husband, Alwina saved a portion of household effects and the valuable photographic equipment.

Photographer and businesswomen.

Under the name "Alwina Kölla-Gossauer" she published a newspaper advertisement in June 1868 which announced the continuation of the joint business. She rented the house "Kunstgüetli" on "Seequai", at the pier of the present Zürichsee-Schifffahrtsgesellschaft (ZSG) probably to benefit from the excursion traffic and increasing tourism. There, she set up the photography studio "Photographie A. Gossauer", using her unmarried name The family lived on the first floor, and on the ground floor the customers were served. From this point, Alwina led the business successfully as a freelance photographer and businesswoman, initially under the name of her husband, "Kölla", later under her unmarried name "Gossauer". Her field of activity were classic portrait photography, landscape photography and commissioned works for books, newspapers and magazines.  After serving his prison sentence, her husband tried again as a photographer, on the other side of the "Seedamm" between the upper and Zürichsee, he established a studio on Richterswil lake shore in the Canton of Zürich, to comply with the condition of the ten-year deportation from the Canton of St. Gallen. His wife loaned him photographic equipment, and also due the local separation, their relationship deteriorated rapidly. In 1871 Alwina Gossauer filed for divorce against the will of her husband; the court decided in her favour. Their five children – aged between one and eleven – were attributed to her, and Alwina reverted to her maiden name Gossauer and added, as it was customary, the words "divorced Koella" (German: "geschiedene Koella"). Kölla did not pay alimony, sold his studio in Richterswil and the photographic equipment loaned from his wife, and in vain Alwina sued her ex-husband in the civil courts. Meanwhile, Kölla "made himself scarce", as noted in the court records, and migrated finally to America around 1868.

Late years.

In the 1870s, the divorce was expensive and forfeited Gossauer's independence: as it was customary at that times, a legal guardian was assigned, and every contract had to be confirmed by the custodian. Nevertheless, in his annual reports the custodian also mentioned Gossauer's business acumen, her eagerness, that she was able to earn money and to find her own living without having to take any financial help. Around the 1890s and 1900s, Gossauer used a folding camera type "Engel-Feitknecht" for reportages and landscape photography. Alfred Engel Feitknecht was the designer of the camera made in Switzerland; between 1878 and 1894 about 6000 cameras were produced.  In 1892 Gossauer was able to fulfil a long-cherished wish, thanks to her successful work as a photographer and businesswoman: at the "Obere Bahnhofstrasse" lane she bought land and built a three-storey commercial and residential building. On the top floor, she established a modern photography studio with a glass roof, and a large sign in capital letters wore the name of her business: "Photographie A. Gossauer".

Death and aftermath.

Jean Kölla, Gossauer's son, learned his mother's photographic craft, just as her daughter Alwina (1862–1946), who remained unmarried, ran the business under the name of her mother until the 1920s. Her son Albert did not train as a photographer, but later worked together with his brother Jean. The youngest daughter Caroline married the photographer Karl Stalder; in 1920 they ran her mother's business in Rapperswil under the name "K. Stalder-Kölla" until the 1940s. "Alwina Gossauer was a fighter," the pastor said in 1926 at her grave.

Alwina Gossauer (1841–1926) was a Swiss photographer and businesswoman. Born and raised in Rapperswil, as an adult she made Rapperswil again her home and became one of the first women professional photographers in Switzerland.