Biography.

Representative of the so-called "Generation of the 50s", a term suggested by Lafourcade himself in 1954 to describe authors born between 1920 and 1934 who began to flourish in the 1950s and broke apart in content and style from the previous regional style known as "Criollismo"; and more widely within the "boom generation" in Latin America, also known as Latin American Boom, a generation of writers who produced an explosion of works in the mid 20th century and decades that followed, which included five Nobel Prize winners Miguel Ángel Asturias (Guatemala) in 1967, Pablo Neruda (Chile) in 1971, Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia) in 1982, Octavio Paz (Mexico) in 1990, and Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru) in 2010, and several other influential intellectual authors such as Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar in Argentina.

Writing.

As a writer, Lafourcade has published at least 24 novels (over 30 by some accounts) and over a dozen anthologies and collections of short stories and essays. His novel "Palomita Blanca" (1971) sold over a million copies, making it one of the all-time best sellers in Chile. This novel was translated to several languages and brought to the screen by Chilean-French director Raúl Ruiz. Lafourcade's latest novel, "El Inesperado" (2004), imagines the life of French poet Arthur Rimbaud in Africa, and though a work of fiction, it is inspired by the letters of the poet and three years of additional research. The novel was launched on 20 October 2004, matching the 150th anniversary of the birth the poet.  Other titles include (not an exhaustive list): "Pena de Muerte" (1952), "Para Subir al Cielo" (1959), "la Fiesta del Rey Acab" (1959), "El principe y las Ovejas" (1961), "Invencion a Dos Voces" (1963), "Novela de Navidad" (1965), "Pronombres Personales" (1967), "Frecuencia Modulada" (1968), "En el Fondo" (1973), "Salvador Allende" (1973), "Variaciones sobre el tema de Nastasia Filippovna y el Principe Mishkin" (1974), "Tres Terroristas" (1977), "Buddha y los Chocolates Envenenados" (1977), "Adios al Führer" (1982), "El Gran Taimado" (1984), "Los Hijos del Arco Iris" (1985), "Las Senales van Hacia el Sur" (1988), "Pepita de Oro" (1989), "Hoy Esta Solo mi Corazon" (1990), "Mano Bendita" (1993), and "Cristianas Viejas y Limpias" (1997).  Lafourcade has been the recipient of various literary awards in his country, such as the prestigious Municipal Prize, the Gabriela Mistral Prize and the Maria Luisa Bombal Prize, awarded to the best novel of the year.

Journalism.

Self-described as "a sentimental anarchist and catholic in a state of wilderness", it is as a journalist and critic that Lafourcade is best known. For years he has written an editorial for the newspaper "El Mercurio" (the largest in the country), focusing on literature but with incursions into politics, cultural issues and subjects of impact upon the nation. Some of his most critical articles, written in an often mordant style, have produced the ire of dictators and politicians in Chile and other Latin American countries and occasionally generated diplomatic apologies.  He has appeared in numerous television programs, both as guest and as part of recurring panels of cultural critics. His ironic and often sarcastic style as well as his impudent way of offering opinions on just about everything and everybody has more than once produced a commotion in the country, making "Lafourcade" a household name in Chile. Numerous anecdotes surround his name, including engaging in a fist fight with another journalist during a live television program. For some time he wrote a gastronomic review under the name of "Conde de Lafourchette" ("fourchette" meaning "fork" in French) in the journal "El Mercurio", where he gave his uncensored opinion about restaurants and their food, reason for which he is feared by restaurant owners across the country. Allegedly, waiters are instructed to call upon the owner or general manager as soon as they see Lafourcade walking in. In 1997 he published the book "La cocina erótica del conde Lafourchette (The Erotic Cuisine of Count Lafourchette)".  He has publicly declared himself an "unrelenting enemy of ignorance and incompetence." He is believed to have just as many enemies as he has friends, to the point that for years rumors circulated of a group of people gathering signatures to "expel Lafourcade from Chile".

Personal life.

According to public records, Lafourcade was married three times: with Chilean-born Canadian artist Maria Luisa Segnoret; with Chilean writer and journalist Marcela Godoy Divin; and recently with Chilean painter Rossana Pizarro Garcia, with whom he has reportedly lived for nearly 20 years now. He also had a long relationship with Chilean writer and journalist Marta Blanco, with whom he lived together for seven years and were assumed to be married. He is the father of three children, Dominique, Octavio, and Nicole.  Lafourcade is part of a family of writers and musicians, where his cultural influence is undeniable. Octavio is a classical musician (lute and guitar), member of the group of ancient Spanish music "Capella de Ministrers". His daughter Nicole is a poet and literary translator, member of Café Literarte. His brother Gaston Lafourcade is a musician (harpsichord) and instructor at the Universidad Autonoma de México; and his niece, Natalia Lafourcade (Gaston's daughter), born in Mexico, has become a famous rock pop star.

Enrique Eduardo Lafourcade Valdenegro (14 October 1927 – 29 July 2019) was a Chilean writer, critic and journalist from Santiago.


History.

Liberal Party 1905–1921.

The Liberal party got its start in power in Alberta when Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier appointed Alexander Rutherford, a prominent liberal and former elected NWT Assembly member, as interim premier in 1905. He and other Liberals organized the province's first election.  Rutherford's Liberal party was elected, with a majority of the popular vote and a majority of seats in the Legislative Assembly in the province's first election, the 1905 Alberta election. The north-central constituency boundaries radiated out from Edmonton and some say this was a case of gerrymandered electoral boundaries. Rutherford emerged from the March 1909 election leading another formidable majority, that clearly reflected the broad popular support he and his government enjoyed. He would resign as premier 14 months later, in May 1910, after his government was implicated in the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway scandal.  Arthur Sifton replaced Rutherford as premier. Shortly before the 1913 election Sifton's Liberals jammed through a controversial bill greatly expanding the size of the legislative assembly. The bill was once again said to gerrymander boundaries in Liberals' favor, although the Liberals again received more votes than any other party in the 1913 election. The press and opposition would term his reign as premier "Siftonism" implying that his reign was a disease on Alberta. Sifton only lasted one term as premier as he left to pursue a career in federal politics.  Charles Stewart replaced Sifton and held the Liberal government through the lackluster 1917 election which 11 MLAs serving in the armed forces were automatically re-elected. The elected opposition was the strongest so far in the province's 12-year history. The Conservatives, which formed the official opposition with 19 seats, slightly more than one-third of the seats in the Assembly, expressed hopes they had the upper hand on the waning Liberal government. Both would be surprised by the United Farmers who routed the Liberals and Conservatives in rural areas to form the government in the 1921 election.

United Farmers 1921–1935.

Alberta's second dynasty was the United Farmers of Alberta, a farmers' movement organization, formed in 1909 as a lobby group, whose political wing rose from a minor party named the Alberta Non-Partisan League, formed in 1916. Henry Wise Wood led the party at the time of the 1921 election, although he did not run himself. The loosely organized farmer candidates running in rural constituencies captured a majority of the seats. The party was allied with Labour candidates, so it did not contest urban ridings, aside from one in Edmonton. Wood did not want the job as premier so the farmers were forced to shop around. UFA lawyer John Brownlee was asked first but declined. UFA executive member Herbert Greenfield, the second choice, became the new premier, although he too had not run in the election so had to await success in a by-election to take his seat. Greenfield resigned four years later because he was often absent due to illness and lost much of his energy due to the death of his wife shortly after the election.  John Brownlee, who had previously been offered the job, succeeded Greenfield. Brownlee's reign as government leader was troubled by the onset of the Great Depression. He resigned in scandal after he was accused of sexual acts with a minor in the Attorney General's office. This and another scandalous divorce by UFA MLA Oran McPherson, speaker of the Legislative Assembly, gave the United Farmers an image of moral decay. In 1934 Richard Reid replaced Brownlee but served as premier for less than two years, leading the United Farmers government into total defeat at the hands of the new Social Credit party.

Social Credit 1935–1971.

Albertans turned away from the United Farmers government and began to follow evangelical radio preacher William Aberhart, known as Bible Bill. The Social Credit party had been founded in 1932. Voters flocked to the radical monetary reforms proposed by Aberhart and British SC theorist Clifford Douglas, looking for an escape to the Great Depression. Social Credit was elected with a majority (54 percent of the vote) in the 1935 election completely wiping out the United Farmers representation (although the UFA did receive 11 percent of the vote). Aberhart had difficulty implementing the Social Credit theory and his popularity began to decline. His government almost fell during a 1936 caucus rebellion, in which his own MLAs forced him to promise to try to reform the banking system. But it rebounded and in the 1940 election it garnered more votes than any other party and also captured a large majority of the seats. Aberhart died in 1943; he is the only premier to die in office in Alberta's history.  Ernest Manning succeeded Aberhart as premier. Under Manning, Social Credit moved away from the monetary theory of Douglas and towards traditional conservatism. Manning led the party through seven-straight massive majorities, (although in 1955 his government received barely more seats than Aberhart had received in 1940, due to a strong but short-lived Liberal drive). After 24 years as premier, Manning resigned in 1967.  Harry Strom, a long time cabinet minister, replaced Manning and led the party to defeat in the 1971 election at the hands of the Progressive Conservatives under Peter Lougheed. Strom and his government looked old and tired and out of touch compared to the new Progressive Conservatives.

Progressive Conservative 1971–2015.

The fourth government of Alberta was first led by Peter Lougheed, defeating the 36-year reign of Social Credit in 1971.  Peter Lougheed served as premier, winning four elections, until 1985 when he retired from public office. Some of Lougheed's notable accomplishments were the limited Alberta Bill of Rights, and the Heritage Trust Fund.  Don Getty, one of Lougheed's long-time cabinet ministers, returned to politics to win the leadership of the party. Getty's premiership was endorsed by a win in the 1986 general election that saw the NDP climb to 16 seats as the official opposition. Getty's reign became very unpopular as he led Alberta into large deficit spending, and marked an era of big government that, some said, the province could not afford. In the 1989 election he was defeated in his Edmonton-Whitemud riding, while his party still won a majority. He sat in the gallery as an unelected Premier until he won a seat in a by-election in Stettler. His refusal to leave as premier helped Laurence Decore's Liberals skyrocket in popularity. Getty resigned and was replaced in a bitter leadership battle by Ralph Klein.  Ralph Klein, the former mayor of Calgary, led the party into the 1993 election, promising a new era of debt reduction and fiscal accountability. He walked away with a slim majority. Ralph Klein's folksy appeal helped the Progressive Conservatives renew themselves. He led the party through two elections, gaining in popularity each time. The price of oil rebounded and the government, despite low rates of taxes on the wealthy and corporations, was showing a surplus of $3 billion every year. In early 2004, Klein announced that the Alberta debt had been paid in full. He was rewarded by voters in the 2004 election, despite running a campaign with no new policies. His party lost a number of seats to the Liberals, and during the campaign he stated this would be his last election. In 2006 at a Progressive Conservative convention delegates forced him to pick a retirement date by giving him relatively low numbers in a leadership review.  Ed Stelmach succeeded Klein as premier, following his win of the leadership of the Alberta Progressive Conservative party in 2006. He won the 2008 provincial election, but, troubled by dissension within his party as well as lagging in polls behind the upstart Wildrose Party, resigned as the party celebrated its 40 years in power in 2011.  Alison Redford subsequently was elected party leader and became the first female Premier of Alberta. Despite strong opposition from the Wildrose Party that most polls and media predicted would end the PC's 41-year dynasty, Redford and the PC party won re-election in April 2012, making Redford Alberta's first elected female premier. Due to a steep decline in approval ratings and a spending controversy, Alison Redford announced her resignation on March 19, 2014, as premier of Alberta, effective March 23.  Alberta Deputy Premier Dave Hancock was selected as premier and interim party leader by the Progressive Conservative caucus on March 20, 2014, and became premier on March 23, 2014.  Jim Prentice was elected as the permanent leader of the PC Party on September 6, 2014 and succeeded Hancock as premier on September 15, 2014. He turned the government around on a number of crucial issues, cancelling the closure of the Michener Centre, for example. He was elected to the constituency of Calgary-Foothill in an October 27, 2014 by-election, as the PC Party won the four by-elections held that day while the rival Wildrose Party did very poorly. Less than two months later, most of the Wildrose Party caucus—including leader Danielle Smith, crossed the floor to sit with the PC Party. However, Prentice government's popularity dropped sharply by spring 2015, due to a budget that was unpopular among the political spectrum, with the collapse in PC support also attributed to falling oil prices and the past scandals under the Redford government. Prentice had over a year before he was obliged to dissolve the legislature, nonetheless he decided to call a snap election. On May 5, 2015, the PC Party's 44 straight years of government ended as they lost 60 seats in the Legislature to fall to third place in the legislature, while the NDP won a majority government over the resurgent Wildrose Party which finished second and become the Official Opposition. Prentice resigned as party leader and as an MLA, leaving the PC Party with only 9 seats.

New Democratic Party 2015–2019.

Rachel Notley was appointed and sworn in as premier on May 24, 2015, following her party's having won a strong majority in the 2015 general election, with 54 out of 87 seats in the Legislature. The NDP's surprise victory was attributed to the unpopularity of the Prentice government's budget, a strong performance by Notley in the leaders' debates, and splitting of the right-wing vote between the PC and Wildrose Parties. On May 22, 2015, Notley suspended a caucus member, leaving her party with 53 out of 87 seats, which did not change the balance of power in the legislature. The NDP held 52 seats at the time of the legislature's dissolution in March 2019, and were defeated in the ensuing general election on April 16, 2019, making it the first one-term government in provincial history.

United Conservative Party 2019–present.

On April 16, 2019, Jason Kenney successfully led the United Conservative Party to a majority government in the 2019 Alberta general election, defeating the incumbent government led by Rachel Notley of the New Democratic Party with 63 seats and 54.88% of the popular vote and securing only the fifth change of government in Alberta's political history. Kenney, a former federal cabinet minister, had entered provincial politics to become PC Party leader where he led its merger with Wildrose, and then won the leadership of the newly combined party, the UCP.

List of premiers.

Premiers of the North-West Territories Premiers of Alberta

Longest and shortest terms.

Ernest Manning is the longest serving Premier at 25 years and 7 months. Dave Hancock served the shortest term with just short of 6 months in office as Premier.

Living former premiers.

, four former premiers are alive, the oldest being Ed Stelmach (2006–2011, born 1951). The most recently former premier to die was Jim Prentice (2014–2015), on October 13, 2016.

The list of premiers of Alberta consists of the 18 leaders of government of the Canadian province of Alberta since it was created in 1905. Three were Liberal, three were United Farmers of Alberta, three were Social Credit, one was New Democrat, and seven were Progressive Conservative. The current Premier of Alberta is Jason Kenney.


Game Story.

Card game/Nintendo DS game.

Dr. Spike Taylor was on a paleontology mission in Africa with his son Max and his friend Rex. Max discovers stone slabs and finds dinosaurs are calling them for help. An evil organization called the "Alpha Gang", led by the nefarious Dr. Z, traveled back in time to hunt down the dinosaurs and use them to take over the world. It is up to Max and Rex to travel around the world, defeating Dr. Z and the Alpha Gang while hunting down the dinosaurs (Later, the story varies as the arcade game machine keeps on upgrading).

Anime Story.

First season.

Max Taylor is the son of paleontologist Dr. Spike Taylor. After falling out of bed early one morning and witnessing a meteor fall from the sky, Max sets out with his friends Rex Owen and Zoe Drake into a forest where the meteor had crashed. They find stones with the symbols for lightning, wind, and grass on them and a card with a picture of a Triceratops on it. The Triceratops that is later named Chomp is accidentally activated when Max rubs the card on the stone. The D-Team meet their new enemies in the Alpha Gang consisting of Dr. Z, Ursula, Zander, Ed, Seth, Laura, Rod, Helga, and the Alpha Droids. The Alpha Gang plans to obtain the Dinosaur Cards that were lost when their time machine exploded and stranded them in the present. Rex activated a Carnotaurus card which was named Ace and Zoe activated a Parasaurolophus which was named Paris. The D-Team and Alpha Gang often clash for possession of dinosaurs that are activated when their cards are activated. In the finale, Seth turns on his comrades with his Black Tyrannosaurus which is ultimately defeated. Seth attempts to bring Chomp back to the past which fails and Seth is sent into the past alone. The D-Team surrender their dinosaurs to Rex's original parents, with many tears.

Second season.

In the second series, the Alpha Gang and the Ancients return. While the parents are talking, they are kidnapped by Gavro, a member of the Spectral Space Pirates. This causes the Alpha Gang and D-Team to join forces against the Space Pirates in their plot to obtain cosmic jewels known as the Cosmos Stones. Seth later returns as an ally to the Spectral Space Pirates after they saved him from the time portal. Spectre, the leader of the Space Pirates, provides the dinosaur cards. In episode 75, Seth seems to become a traitor as he appeals to the D-Team for help saying that they forced him to help them. However, it was really a trick to get the two Cosmos Stones in D-Team's control, despite the fact that he attacks and defeats his comrades two episodes later. In the end although the Spectral Space Pirates manage to catch all seven Cosmos Stones, Seth and the Pterosaur defeat the Black Pterosaur. Rex, his parents, and the Alpha Gang leave to their own time as the Spectral Space Pirates are floating around in a pod.

Gameplay.

There are different cards to collect and use in order to play Dinosaur King. The barcodes are located on the long edges of the cards for the player to scan them in the machine. There are four types of cards used in this game; "Dinosaur", "move", "character" and "super move" cards.

Media.

The series was adapted into an anime television series,, which is made by Sunrise and premiered on TV Asahi on February 4, 2007. In 2008, an English adaptation aired on the 4Kids TV block on Fox, but moved to The CW's The CW4Kids block on September 6, 2008. Reruns of the series began airing on KidsClick from February 5, 2018 to August 24, 2018. Distribution of the series was first handed to Shout! Factory for three 5-episode DVD volumes from September 23, 2008 to June 30, 2009. On September 24, 2018, Discotek Media announced its license and has released the series on two SD Blu-ray sets for each season on November 27, 2018.  A video game based on the series was released by Sega for the Nintendo DS on September 23, 2008.  The "Dinosaur King" Trading Card game was released in the fall of 2008 by the Upper Deck Company. Although the play mechanism follows the arcade game cards to some extent, they are not meant to be mixed. The manga was released by Shogakukan.

In the fall of 2008, Upper Deck Company released a "Dinosaur King" Trading Card Game. This card game is not to be confused with the cards used for the arcade machines.


History.

The roots of Akan chieftaincy are known, although written sources are scarce. When the Akan were settling in Bonoman, in the period before 1300, Bonos had already long used the chieftaincy system. The paramount chief held a position that can be compared to that of an absolutist king.  When the Republic of Ghana was founded in 1957, it was agreed that the chieftaincy system should be respected.

Present time.

Chieftaincy is officially accepted. Politicians ask chiefs for advice because usually they are closer to the people. The highest committee is the National House of Chiefs in Kumasi. There are also Regional Houses of Chiefs. In case of problems between the chiefs, the House of Chiefs has a legal function to adjudicate in such matters.

Hierarchy.

Within the Akan ethnic group there are different tribes, such as the Bono, Ashanti, Akyem, Kwahu, Akwapim, Assin, or the Fante. The highest rank among the Ashantis is that of the Asantehene, the paramount chief of all paramount chiefs.  Ranked below the Asantehene are the paramount chiefs, the chiefs and the sub-chiefs. A sub-chief can be compared to the mayor of a town, except that his office is hereditary as opposed to elective. The chiefs have their own territories, and apart from overseeing them, they have a function at the courts of their paramount chiefs as their ministers. Most of the functions are traditional, while some have been created recently:  A chief arbitrates and decides political and economic questions in his area. When he is installed, he receives a stool name. Usually, all chiefs who belong to a reigning lineage have the same name – an ordinal being added to distinguish between all of them.

"Omanhene".

The English translation of the title Omanhene is King. In rare cases, Queens themselves would be kings, a prime example being Okyenhene Nana Afia Dokuaa. This and the position of Obaapanin or Queen are the only ones that are obtained through descent from the ruling clan.

"Krontihene".

The Krontihene is caretaker of the land and second-in-command after the Omanhene.

"Ankobeahene".

"Ankobea" means one who stays at home or does not go anywhere. The Ankobeahene is the caretaker of the palace.

"Obaatan".

Obaatan means "parent" and is a female role. Her symbol is the egg, out of which all other chiefs came. She is Omanhene's counsellor. When Omanhene's stool is vacant, Obaatan suggests the next incumbent. She is expected to consider all factors such as the character of the available candidates, their royal descent and their contribution to the royal family. Mostly the lineage and order of birth is given a paramount consideration in the selection process. Although found in other traditions, the position of Obaatan does not fit into the Akan chieftaincy structure proper. The one who suggests and nominates the Omanhene amongst the Akans is the Obaahemaa (or Queen mother).

"Tufohene".

The "warlord" is the head of all the Asafo companies (or head of the gunners). Tufohene translates loosely in Akan as 'the chief of the gunners',.

"Asafohene".

The Asafohene is the head of a single Asafo company.

"Manwerehene".

The head of the interior.

"Sanaahene".

The head of the treasury.

"Adontehene".

There are four positions describing military flanks. The Adontehene is the one who goes in front of the army.

"Nkyidomhene".

He collects the soldiers who are left behind and sends them back to the army. During Odambea, the Nkyidom always sits in the last palanquin.

"Nifahene".

The Nifahene holds the right flank of the army's formation.

"Benkumhene".

The Benkumhene holds the left flank of the army's formation (also in modern governance known as the left wing).

"Akyempimhene".

If there is anything to distribute or to share, the Akyempimhene (or vice-king) has to do it. He is the first son of the king. He also protects the king, his father, with each king deciding whether to give the title to his literal son or to a close favourite. He also enjoys the authority of arriving in a palanquin after the Asantehene is seated; he alone has that authority to do so. He is also the head of all the Kumasi royals. Otumfuo Opoku Ware (Katakyie) created this title. Usually the first sons of the kings are the ones that ascend this stool. He is also the head of the Kyidom clan (Fekuo). Due to the matrilineal system of inheritance, sons do not automatically succeed their fathers as kings. Kings are by and large selected from among the sons of the deceased king's close female relations. This title is therefore a convenient means of ennobling a king's son without upsetting the royal succession.

"Mankrado".

The Mankrado's function is purification. He puts leaves into water, then sprinkles it over the Omanhene. He also always has salt in his pocket so that he can make things taste better for the Omanhene.

"Guantuahene".

The title of the Guantuahene is a comparatively recent innovation. The Guantoahene is the one to whom people can turn for shelter and mercy.

"Nsumankwahene".

The Nsumankwahene watches the oracle. This title is also a relatively recent creation. The Nsumankwahene is a spiritual head of the community/communities. In the past it was the chief priest who performed this role.

"Nkosuohene".

The Nkosuohene is responsible for the development of the region. The Nkosuohene was created to honor someone who does not have to be a member of a royal family. Created by the Ashanti, a small number of selected foreigners have been honored with this title which appreciates the contribution of non-royals.

Entourage.

"Okomfo".

The most important person in the chief's entourage is the priest or priestess ("Okomfo"). Traditionally, the priest tells the chief when it is time to start a war or to marry, for example.

Stool Wife.

There is also a stool wife. No matter whether a chief is married or not, when installed, he will be married to a very young girl. Having a stool wife is obligatory, and polygamy is still legal in Ghana. Today, the symbolic act of marriage is sufficient, however. During parades, a stool wife sits in front of the chief.

"Okyeame".

A chief has one or more linguists ("Okyeame"). A chief never talks in public, but conveys messages through his linguist, who is also responsible for the pouring of libations.

Queen Mother.

The title of Queen mother can relate to the rank of a paramount queen, a queen or a sub-queen. The Akan honorific is the same as for the men, "Nana". When using English, Ghanaians often say "queen mother". This woman is not necessarily the respective chief's mother, although she is usually related to him. Her role in the system is to have an eye on the social conditions, and a personally capable Queen mother has been known to equal or even surpass a reigning chief in terms of power and prestige. A good example of this happening is the case of Queen Yaa Asantewaa. The Queen mother (or "Ohemaa") is expected to nominate someone to the position of the chief if it should become vacant. In some areas, this function is performed by the "Abusuapanyin" (or head of the clan) in consultation with other family members instead.

Regalia.

Personal ornaments.

On special occasions, chiefs wear the traditional cloth, which is a six-yard-long piece of fabric, wrapped around the body and worn as a toga. Female chiefs wear two pieces of fabric that can be of different designs.  The jewellery is very ample and used to be made of gold. Nowadays, most chiefs wear imitation gold. The head-dress usually takes the form of a crown. It can be made of metal or of black velvet, ornamented with metal. Chiefs have traditional sandals, and the wearing of sandals is symbolic for them. When a chief abdicates, he takes off his sandals.

Fly-whisk ("Bodua").

When riding in a palanquin, chiefs hold a fly-whisk in one hand and a ceremonial sword in the other. The fly-whisk is made of animal hair.

Sword ("Afena").

The ceremonial short sword is used for animal sacrifice. The chief touches the animal's throat symbolically with his sword before someone else cuts it with a sharp knife.

Palanquin ("Apakan").

During a durbar, which is a special parade, some chiefs are carried in a palanquin. Subchiefs have to walk. The palanquins can have the form of a chair or of a bed.

Stool ("Dwa").

Instead of a throne, Akan chiefs traditionally sit on a stool. When they die, their stools are painted black and stored in a sacred room. This sacred room is called "Nkonwafie" (stool house). If the deceased chief was the first to have sat on that stool, the person's name becomes the first I. Whoever sits on that stool in the future would be called by the first chief's name but would have II attached. The name becomes the new chief's stool name.

Umbrella ("Bamkyim").

Very large umbrellas made of silk and other rich fabrics are used to shade a chief and show from afar that a chief is approaching.

Sources.

As there is not much written information, oral sources have to be quoted:

In many parts of West Africa, there is an old chieftaincy tradition, and the Akan people have developed their own hierarchy, which exists alongside the democratic structure of the country. The Akan word for the ruler or one of his various courtiers is "Nana" (). In colonial times, Europeans translated it as "chief", but that is not an exact equivalent. Other sources speak of "kings", which is also not entirely correct, especially in the case of the said courtiers. The term "chief" has become common even among modern Ghanaians, though it would be more correct to use the expression "Nana" without translation wherever possible.


Concept.

Masaki Kajishima and Hiroki Hayashi, who both worked on the "Bubblegum Crisis" OVAs, cite the show as being the inspiration for "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki". In an interview with AIC, Hayashi described "Bubblegum Crisis" as "a pretty gloomy anime. Serious fighting, complicated human relationships, and dark Mega Tokyo." They thought it would be fun to create some comedy episodes with ideas like the girls going to the hot springs, but it was rejected by the sponsors. He also said that there was a trend to have a bunch of characters of one gender and a single one of the other gender, and asked what if Mackey (Sylia's brother) was a main character, reversing the "Bubblegum" scenario. This became the basis for "Tenchi Muyo!".  In designing Ryoko, Kajishima and Hayashi were inspired by the American sitcom "I Dream of Jeannie" and wanted to use her in their works. In the first episode, Tenchi would open the sealed cave, which was a reference to the Jeannie's bottle, and a "cute witch" would jump out. Hayashi said that Tenchi is "sort of" based on Mackey, and that after Tenchi and Ryoko, the other girls were designed to be characters to balance the picture in the very early concepts of the series, and that they are original characters.

Media.

OVA.

The first OVA was titled "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki" and was created by Masaki Kajishima. The series was divided into 4 OVAs. The fourth OVA released its last episode on September 13, 2017.

Manga.

Hitoshi Okuda wrote two manga series based on the OVA series. The first manga is titled and was published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Dragon Comic Jr. magazine from December 16, 1994 to June 9, 2000. The series was collected into 12 tankōbon volumes. The second series titled was also published by Kadokawa Shoten and serialized in Dragon Comic Age magazine from July 26, 2000 to December 9, 2005. The series was collected into 10 tankōbon volumes.

TV series.

After the first OVA series aired, AIC began looking into TV adaptations beyond the "Mihoshi Special". In 1995, a 26-episode anime television series was created by Hiroshi Negishi, animated by AIC and produced by Pioneer. It was loosely based on the first six episodes of the OVA series and the "Mihoshi Special". Two years later, another AIC production followed suit called, which aired through 1997 and also ran 26 episodes. It borrowed characters and some plot devices from the previous incarnations, but with a noticeable art shift and very different concepts, such as centering on Tenchi's high school and being a priest in Tokyo. The most recent series aired in October 2014. The series commemorated the 20th anniversary of the franchise and was sponsored by the city of Takahashi, Okayama.

Films.

An anime film titled "", created by Hiroshi Negishi, is a continuation of the "Tenchi Universe" TV series. A second film, "", was adapted from a novel written by Naoko Hasegawa. The third film, titled "Tenchi Forever! The Movie", is the sequel to "Tenchi Muyo in Love" and was adapted into a manga titled "Tenchi Muyo! In Love 2: Eternal Memory".

Novels.

Kajishima has written several books based on the franchise, including the ongoing "Tenchi Muyo! GXP: Galaxy Police Transporter" novel series, the novels "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Jurai", "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Yosho", and "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Washu", and recently, the "Paradise Wars" spinoff. There are also a number of dōjinshi by and interviews with Kajishima, as well as a companion book, "101 Questions and Answers of Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Oh-Ki". Naoko Hasegawa wrote a series of thirteen light novels continuing from the first OVA series, starting with "One Visitor After Another: Hexagram Of Love" in 1993.  Seven Seas Entertainment has licensed the light novels "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Jurai", "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Yosho", "Shin Tenchi Muyo! Washu" for a North American release.

Video games.

Numerous video games have been released based on the franchise, such as "Tenchi Muyo! Game Hen" for the Super Famicom.

Radio.

A radio drama was released titled "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki Manatsu no Carnival".

Stage play.

On AnimeJapan 2019, it was announced on AIC Rights' booth that a stage play based on the first season of Ryo-Ohki was in development, scheduled to premiere in 2019. On May 17th, the cast and staff was announced, with Kazuhiro Igarashi writing the script and Kazuma Sato starring as Tenchi Masaki. It ran from July 17th to the 21st on the Shinjukumura Live venue, in Tokyo.

Spin-offs.

The first Tenchi spinoff is the "Magical Girl Pretty Sammy" series, a magical girl series where Sasami is the lead character. The first use of Pretty Sammy was in the "Tenchi Muyo! Sound File", a Japanese-only music video release. The same animation was used in the ending of the "Tenchi Muyo! Mihoshi Special". In 1995, a three episode "Pretty Sammy" OVA series began, where Sasami, who is known as Sasami Kawai, magically becomes Pretty Sammy. The second "Pretty Sammy" series is a TV series, which came out in 1996, also known as "Magical Project S". This series is in a separate continuity from the OVA series. Pretty Sammy also appears in the "Mihoshi Special" toward the end of Mihoshi's story, and in an alternate reality sequence in the "Tenchi Universe" series.  Also created by Masaki Kajishima, the 1997 OVA series "Photon: The Idiot Adventures" is related to the "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki" universe, or more specifically, its recent installment, "Tenchi Muyo! War on Geminar". "Tenchi Muyo! War on Geminar" copies a number of elements from "Photon: The Idiot Adventures", such as Koros, Aho energy, having a princess named Lashara, and a young hero with such strong superhuman abilities he's practically invincible.  The 1999 series "Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure" is related to the "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki" universe, due to the blatant use of the "Lighthawk Wings" associated with the Jurai dynasty in "Tenchi Muyo". The creator of both "Dual!" and "Tenchi Muyo!", Masaki Kajishima, confirmed that "Dual!" does relate to "Tenchi Muyo!", and is in fact an alternate version of the "Tenchi Muyo!" universe. Guardians of Order published a line of English-language "Tenchi Muyo" role-playing game books based on the various series in the Tenchi franchise starting in 2000.  "Tenchi Muyo! GXP" was released in Japan in 2001. The series takes place during the Kajishima version of the OVA continuity, and is set a year after the events of the third OVA series (despite being released first chronologically). The main character is Seina Yamada, a friend of Tenchi Masaki who accidentally joined the Galaxy Police. Many characters from "Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-ohki" make appearances in this series, including the use of Seiryo Tennan as a major character and a full-fledged "Tenchi Muyo!" crossover in episode 17.  "Battle Programmer Shirase" is a 2003 spin-off of the "Pretty Sammy" OVA and TV series, keeping the character Misao Amano from "Pretty Sammy", and with the main character Akira Shirase, Misao's great-uncle; however, it bears little in common with either "Pretty Sammy" series because it has neither magic, nor Sasami, nor Misao's alter ego Pixy Misa.  "" aired in Japan in 2006. The third spin-off featuring Sasami (known here as Sasami Iwakura) as the main character.  The most recent "Tenchi" spin-off series is called "Tenchi Muyo! War on Geminar" (aka "Isekai no Seikishi Monogatari") which follows the tale of Tenchi's half-brother Kenshi Masaki as he finds himself in a foreign world that uses humanoid machines to fight their wars.

A fourth OVA series was produced in Japan, with the first collection released on November 30, 2016. The following episodes were planned to be released with an interval of three months each, and the final part of the series arrived August 30, 2017.


Nilov Monastery.

The island is the home of Nilov Monastery, which was founded by Saint Nilus in 1594, and previously welcomed up to 40,000 pilgrims each year. Most of the buildings of the monastery were built in the 18th and 19th Centuries in a neoclassical style. Today the monastery complex remains one of the most impressive ensembles of Neoclassical architecture in Eastern Europe. Some of its churches date back to the 17th century. A graceful embankment was completed by 1812, and a large cathedral was built in 1821-25. The construction of the causeway to the island was completed in 1812. The Nilov Monastery was one of the largest and wealthiest monasteries in the Russian Empire.

Origin of name.

Regarding the name of the island - "Stolobny" - there are two versions. At first, it got its name because of its shape, like a pole, and the second, is that there was an ancient pagan temple that included a sacrificial post. In 1515 the Rev. Nil (Neil in English) Krypetsky worked as a lumberjack. He lived alone, ate grass and acorns, all the time spent in prayer. According to legend, one day robbers went to Rev. Nil, and decided to kill him. However, he prayed silently, went out to them with an icon of the Blessed Virgin. The robbers, dreaming that the Rev. was defended by many armed men, fell at his feet, repented and begged forgiveness.  Gradually the fame of the hermit spread through the local villages. People began coming to him, asking prayers and teachings. In 1528, tired of all the attention, he moved to a new location - the island of Stolobny at Lake Seliger, near Ostashkov. The first year he lived in a dugout, then built a hut and a chapel for prayers. According to legend, the devil repeatedly sent different calamities against the hermit - fires, even robbers tried to throw his cell in the lake. However, Rev. Nil was adamant, overcoming all attacks by prayer and faith.  Rev. Nil lived on the island a total of 27 years before his death, and he bequeathed to build a monastery on this site, which was later made. Nil died in 1555 and was buried on Stolobny. In 1594, with the permission of the Patriarch Job, a monastic cloister opened on the island. Thus began the history of monastery Nilo - Stolobensky. The founder of the monastery was a monk Herman.

History.

In 1919, after the October Revolution, the monastery was confiscated. It was closed in 1927 by the Soviet government and subsequently used for various purposes. From 1927 to 1939 there was a work camp for underage criminals.  In the period 1939 to 1941, during the first years of World War II, the monastery was a prisoner of war camp of the Russian secret service NKVD, which held approximately 7,000 Polish prisoners of war who had been taken captive by the Soviet Union following the Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939. Almost all of the prisoners were subsequently executed in April 1940 in Kalinin (now Tver) and then buried in mass graves in Mednoye, an act which became known as the Katyn Massacre. Amongst those killed were Polish officers, lawyers, policemen, teachers, doctors, and other members of the intelligentsia.  From 1941 to 1945 there was a hospital in the building complex, and again from 1945 to 1960, a camp for minors and orphans. From 1960 to 1971 the monastery was used as a retirement home, and from 1971 to 1990 a hostel for tourists.

Current status.

After 1990, the complex was given back to the Russian Orthodox Church, and in 1995 it opened again as a functioning monastery, which it still is today.

Stolobny Island is an island on Lake Seliger in the Tver Oblast of Russia, about north of the town of Ostashkov.


Climate.

Local topography and regional weather patterns make the Spring Mountain District the coolest and wettest appellation within the Napa Valley. These same factors create a diurnal fluctuation in temperature in the summertime that differs from other regions of the Napa Valley. Spring Mountain is only to the east of the Pacific Ocean. The coastal waters of northern California are strongly influenced by the California Current, an icy flow of water that originates near the Aleutian Islands. This cold current moderates the summer weather in the coastal valleys of Northern California.  Lying between the Spring Mountain appellation and the cold ocean current is a gap in the coastal mountains between Bodega and Tomales Bay and extending through the Santa Rosa Plain. Summer heat in the interior of California creates a low pressure area that draws cold air from the coast through this coastal gap and across the broad Santa Rosa plain. This on-shore air movement is bumped north by Sonoma Mountain pushing the cold air flow towards Santa Rosa Creek, the Northern Mayacamas Mountains, and directly at the Spring Mountain District AVA. The ridge of the Spring Mountain District is lower than Bald Mountain to its south and Diamond Mountain to its north. This lower ridgeline allows the cool, moist coastal air to enter the Napa Valley spilling down over forest and the vineyards that lie on the slopes of Spring Mountain and moderating peak daily temperatures.  A typical summer afternoon on Spring Mountain is cool, sometimes with "waterfalls" of fog tumbling over the western ridge and down through the canyons of the district. Into the evening, the cool air settles to the valley floor creating a cover of fog and warm air is lifted to the higher elevations. Nighttime temperature rise from this effect. Mornings warm more quickly on Spring Mountain than on the valley floor as most of the district lies above the morning fog line. The overall effect of this is moderately warm peak daily temperatures and moderately warm nighttime temperatures which keeps sugar accumulation in the berry in pace with flavor development.  The topography of the Spring Mountain District AVA also influences in the vineyards on the valley floor below it. While much of the Napa Valley depends on cooling from the San Pablo Bay, the vineyards in and around Saint Helena benefit from this second and direct source of coastal cooling that comes through the Spring Mountain District AVA. Also moderating summer temperatures in the appellation is the altitude of the vineyards; generally they are cooler at higher elevations. A final moderating influence is the district's predominantly eastern exposure which shades the district from the harsh afternoon sun. The topography influences climate over the entire year. Spring Mountain District AVA receives to more annual rainfall than the Napa Valley floor or the eastern slopes of the valley. Total precipitation can range as high as to in some of the wettest years.

Soils.

Soil depths vary, but tend to be deeper than in nearby mountain terrain and shallower than on the valley floor. The region contains mostly residual upland soils with only a few areas of alluvial soils at the lower elevations. The soils are derived almost equally from Franciscan sedimentary rocks (sandstone and conglomerates) and Sonoma volcanic formations which are predominantly composed of Andesite. This equal mix of sedimentary and volcanic rocky soils distinguishes the region from adjacent mountain areas. To the north, in the Diamond Mountain area, soils are almost entirely of volcanic origin. To the south, in the Mount Veeder area, soils are primarily sedimentary.

Wine Production.

About 90% of the wine produced in the Spring Mountain District AVA is red. The predominating grape variety is Cabernet Sauvignon followed by Merlot. In addition to the other Bordelaise grape varieties of Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot and Malbec, a few sites favor and support small plantings of Zinfandel, Syrah, Petite Sirah and on the coolest sites, even a little Pinot noir. Of the whites over half is Chardonnay. The other significant plantings of white grapes in the AVA are Sauvignon blanc and White Riesling.

History.

Early on, the name Spring Mountain was used in a regional context and did not refer to the name of a peak or prominent point, rather than a particularly verdant area with numerous springs, and drained by several small streams. The appellation was among the first locations in Napa Valley to receive recognition as a grape growing region.  While grapes may have been grown in the area as early as the American Civil War, the first documented planting is that of Charles Lemme, who cultivated the La Perla Vineyard just south of York Creek in 1874. Steady growth followed. In the 1880s, Jacob and Frederick Beringer, who had already opened their historic winery near St. Helena, planted a vineyard on Spring Mountain. Later in the decade, Fortune Chevalier, a Frenchman who had come to San Francisco during the Gold Rush, planted and built a stone winery.  Most notable among the early growers was wealthy San Francisco banker and financier Tiburcio Parrott, who established a vineyard that he named Miravalle and built a Victorian-style home that still stands on the property. In 1893, a local newspaper reported: "Old vineyardists asked him [Parrott] what he expected to do among those hills and rocks, and when told by Mr. Parrott that he expected to raise grapes and produce wine unsurpassed in the world, they laughed at him and told him his hopes would never be realized." Parrott's wines took first place at the San Francisco Midwinter Fair the following year and a gold medal at the World's Fair two years later. The historic La Perla, Chevalier and Miravalle vineyards are now part of Spring Mountain Vineyard.  Grape growing and winemaking declined in Spring Mountain from 1910 to 1940 due to the onset of phylloxera and Prohibition. The first reawakening of viticulture came in 1946, when Fred and Eleanor McCrea planted a small vineyard north of Mill Creek, and then in 1953 founded a legendary winery called Stony Hill. The resurgence began in earnest in the late 1960s and 1970s — with the founding of several wineries, including Ritchie Creek, Yverdon, Spring Mountain Vineyard, Smith-Madrone and Robert Keenan. The name Spring Mountain was first used as an origin on Cabernet Sauvignon wines produced by Ritchie Creek in the late 1970s.

The Spring Mountain District AVA is an American Viticultural Area located in the Napa Valley AVA in California. Spring Mountain District AVA was officially established as an American Viticulture Area in 1993. Encompassed within its bounds are about, of which about are planted to vineyards. Given the small crop yields on hillsides, the region represents less than 2% of Napa Valley wine. Currently the region has just over 30 winegrowers.


Early life.

Rye was born in Benton County, Tennessee, the son of Wayne Rye, a merchant, and Elizabeth (Atchison) Rye. He was educated at local schools, and read law under his uncle, Colonel Tom Morris, in nearby Charlotte, Tennessee. In 1884, after his admission to the bar, he moved to Camden, Tennessee, to practice law. During the 1890s, he served as circuit master of Camden's chancery court, and worked for several years as a pension agent in Washington, D. C. In 1902, Rye moved to Paris, Tennessee, where he established a law partnership with W.W. Farquard.  Rye served as District Attorney for the Thirteenth Judicial District from 1910 to 1914. He quickly gained a reputation as the state's most "stringent" law enforcement agent, and was described as a "terror to the bootleggers and dispensers of whisky."

Governor.

In the early 1910s, the state Democratic Party was divided over the issue of prohibition. One faction, known as the "Independent Democrats," wanted the state's Four Mile Law (which banned the sale of liquor within four miles of any school) to apply statewide, while the other faction, known as the "Regular Democrats," wanted the state's larger cities to be exempt from the law. In 1910, the Independent Democrats fled the party and formed a coalition, known as the "Fusionists," with Republicans, helping to elect Governor Ben W. Hooper.  At its May convention in 1914, the Democratic Party added statewide prohibition to the party's platform, all but ending the rift between Regular and Independent Democratics. Rye, well known among supporters of prohibition, received the endorsements of Senator Luke Lea and former Governor Malcolm R. Patterson, and was nominated as the party's candidate. With the party once again unified, Rye defeated Hooper 137,656 votes to 116,667. Hooper accused Memphis political boss E.H. Crump of fixing the vote in Shelby County, but no investigation was launched.  During his first term, Rye enacted the so-called "Ouster Law," which allowed for the removal of public officials for incompetence or unwillingness to enforce the law. This law was aimed primarily at Crump, who as Mayor of Memphis had refused to enforce prohibition in the city. The state attorney general filed a suit removing Crump in October 1915. When the Tennessee Supreme Court upheld the action, the Rye administration proceeded to purge any official who refused to enforce prohibition, among them District Attorney Newton Estes and Judge Jesse Edgington of Memphis, as well as several officials in Nashville (including Mayor Hilary Howse) and Knoxville.  Rye's administration created the State Highway Department (the modern Tennessee Department of Transportation) in 1915. He signed legislation requiring automobile registration, and implemented a state highway tax to match federal funding. In April 1915, Rye attended a meeting of the Dixie Highway Association, where he helped set the route of the Dixie Highway, an early tourist road connecting the Midwestern states with Florida.  In March 1915, Rye signed legislation chartering Tennessee Polytechnic Institute (modern Tennessee Technological University) in Cookeville. During his tenure, he expanded the state's Board of Education, and implemented a tax to support schools.  In the governor's race of 1916, Republicans nominated John W. Overall, a U.S. marshal from Liberty, Tennessee. Rye defeated Overall by a vote of 146,758 to 117,817.  During Rye's second term, the United States entered World War I. Over 80,000 Tennesseans entered the United States Armed Forces, and more of them were deployed overseas than ever before in Tennessee history. The number of Tennesseans was the most ever serving actively in the military up to that time except for the number serving in Confederate forces during the Civil War.  In 1917, Rye enacted legislation that implemented a primary for selecting candidates for state offices from the Democratic and Republican parties (candidates were previously selected by delegates at party conventions). The debate over primaries had divided the Democratic Party since the 1910 elections.

Later life.

At the end of his second term, Rye did not seek reelection. He instead ran for the U.S. Senate seat held by John K. Shields. Shields, who had been elected to the seat by the state legislature prior to the passage of the 17th Amendment (which established direct election of senators), had angered President Woodrow Wilson by opposing the League of Nations, and Wilson threatened to endorse Rye. Senator Kenneth McKellar convinced the president to withhold his endorsement in return for Shields' support for the League, however, and Shields defeated Rye for the nomination.  After losing the Senate nomination, Rye returned to Paris to practice law. In 1922, he was appointed chancellor (judge) of the state's Eighth Judicial District. He remained in this position for nearly two decades.  Rye died in Paris on September 12, 1953, and was buried in the city's Maplewood Cemetery. At the time of his death, he became the second longest-lived governor in Tennessee history at the age of 90 years and 3 months. Governor John I. Cox was the longest at 90 years, 9 months. In April 2018, Winfield Dunn (b. July 1927) broke Cox's longevity record and as of July 2019, has surpassed his 92nd birthday, and now Rye is the third longest-lived governor in state history.

Family.

Rye was descended from Irish immigrants. He married Bettie Arnold in 1887. They had a daughter, Nell, and a son, Paul.

Thomas Clarke Rye (June 2, 1863September 12, 1953) was an American politician who served as Governor of Tennessee from 1915 to 1919. An ardent supporter of prohibition of alcoholic beverages, he helped reunify the state's Democratic Party, which had been divided over the issue for nearly a decade. Rye is perhaps best remembered for enacting the "Ouster Law," which was aimed at curbing the power of political boss E. H. Crump.


Education and early career.

Martin Rapaport began his work in diamonds as a cleaver and rough sorter in Antwerp, Belgium. He began brokering rough and polished diamonds in New York City in 1975. In 1978, he created the Rapaport Price List, which some say is not reflective of true prices. He has since created many businesses relating to the diamond industry that eponymously bear his name. He launched the electronic trading network for called RapNet in 1980 and several diamond-related news sources in print and web formats.  He is a member of several non-profit and diamond-industry-related organizations, including the Jewelers for Children Charity Fund, the Diamond Manufacturers and Importers Association of America and the Jewelers Vigilance Committee. Following personal visits to Sierra Leone in the early 2000s, Rapaport advocated more for a Kimberley Process and launched Rapaport Fair Trade.

The price list.

He is considered controversial by many within the diamond industry for publishing the Rapaport Diamond Report in the late 1970s, which has become the "de facto" standard baseline for pricing wholesale polished diamonds. His guide is cited as being the chief reason diamonds cost significantly less than what they used to during the commodities boom of that time.

Activities.

Martin Rapaport's impact within the industry is largely controversial because his commercial price guides have made manipulation of prices much more difficult for the diamond industry, and are considered a step toward commoditizing diamonds. This is an affront to all the industry represents, with efforts to sell diamonds as something as unique as a snowflake, and of eternal value, hence the De Beers' sales pitch "A Diamond Is Forever". It is no coincidence either, that Rapaport has largely played a maverick role in issues such as conflict diamonds, synthetic diamonds, diamond treatments, and Fair-Trade diamond issues, or has often been an unlikely ally to NGOs.  The Rapaport Diamond Corporation has been criticized for publishing wholesale price guides for diamonds whilst allegedly simultaneously trading in diamonds directly to consumers (thereby possibly cutting out the wholesalers who subscribe to the Rapaport Diamond Corporation's services).

Pricing.

Diamonds as a commodity.

Rapaport originally tried in 1982 by filing out a contract proposal to the New York Mercantile Exchange to create a diamond commodity market. The effort failed, he claimed, because the "diamond industry didn't want price transparency."  He is currently writing a new proposal and believes it will only be a matter of time before the idea succeeds, as long as a sufficient criteria of standardization is created. Rapaport says diamonds are "definitely a commodity."  You buy and sell them for cash. They're a natural resource with limited supply; they're well defined; they're certified; they're analyzed, graded, tradable around the world.  Neil D. Reiff writes that Rapaport is "destroying" the diamond industry with trying to commoditize diamonds, and his price guide no longer reflects the wholesale value of diamonds as they are sold, but influences what those prices are before they go to market. Rapaport counters that diamonds are not unique, as De Beers marketing claims, and are subject to the same laws of supply and demand as anything else. A New York Times report in 2012 cited Rapaport among a list of other major industry players like Edahn Golan and companies like IDEX who are countering the argument that diamonds have too many characteristic differences to be traded in a standardized commodity market.

Price manipulation.

Dating back to the genesis of his price guide, Rapaport has been an outspoken critic of De Beers, and what he believes is an effort to manipulate diamond prices. He recently made a reference to the negative unintended consequences of the corporation's practice of trying to control supply of diamonds in the market:  The diamond pipeline is stuffed like a goose and there's some indigestion.  In reference to the possibility large companies might dictate prices in the future, Mr. Rapaport stated:  There are powerful companies involved in diamonds and real concerns about price manipulation, but it is supply and demand that will determine price. If I think the prices on the exchange are not fair, I will walk away from this project.

Diamonds as an investment.

Rapaport has spoken at length about diamonds as an investment. In 2008 while speaking to the Guardian, he cited diamonds' durability even during the 2008 financial crisis because "there is so much new wealth around the globe and wives want in on the action - and if they can't get their hands on big stones, then the price will only go up." As recently as Summer 2012, he has referred to the investment market as very good because of low prices for the stones and high, rising demand out of emerging markets in China and India.  Rapaport argues that diamonds are indeed a commodity, against detractors who would say each stone has to be evaluated individually based on a list of different factors.

European Commission.

Martin Rapaport submitted papers in 2002 and in 2005 criticizing the European Commission's handling of investigations of collusion between De Beers and Russia's state owned diamond cartel, ALROSA. He alleged the European body ignored evidence that ALROSA was selling diamonds to De Beers at prices 8 to 20 percent below market value, and was aiding and abetting unethical and illegal business practices.

Synthetics.

This view of diamonds also carries over to the discussion of synthetic diamonds. While he does not believe they will be as valuable as diamonds mined from the earth, he believes that synthetics are yet another commodity that jewelers can sell for whatever value the marketplace deems their worth, but that consumers are always going to want full disclosure that a diamond they are buying is coming from a lab, rather than mined from the ground The concern in the industry today is what if, just what if there is a way to synthesise diamonds that are non-detectable from natural diamonds? What if technology uses the ability to make this synthetic diamond and no one knows this is synthetic?"

Conflict diamonds.

Rapaport has traveled extensively to Sierra Leone, since 2000, long before mainstream media, Hollywood or the diamond industry took an interest in the civil war there, or the role diamonds played in it. NGO Global Witness made Rapaport aware of the situation and invited him to visit. This early trip is featured in the 3 hour Canadian documentary "Diamond Road" directed by Nisha Pahuja, produced by Kensington Communications (Canada). After returning, he wrote and published "Guilt Trip" which was quoted in the United States Congressional Record:  Hundreds of millions of dollars of Sierra Leone diamonds are being traded on the world markets without any benefit going to the government or people of Sierra Leone. The real problem facing Sierra Leone is not merely how to share diamond resources among warring factions, but how to stop the illegal diamond industry from stealing the country's resources. But it goes beyond that. The bastards are not just stealing Sierra Leone's diamonds, they are trading them for guns. Guns which are used to kill people to keep the war going... The real challenge facing Sierra Leone and the world diamond trade, is how to stop this horrific murderous cycle of illegal diamond activity.

Kimberley Process Certification Scheme.

Martin is a key member of the Kimberley Process Plenary, the cooperative United Nations / diamond industry partnership to self-regulate the end to conflict diamonds.  Martin has been cited as a technical asset to the process by the South African government, and has advocated the need for better price transparency as a means of keeping the industry honest.

Fair Trade Diamonds.

He has long since been an advocate of finding an equitable solution to exploitation of West African labor, and has tried to build mining collectives in Sierra Leone and create a place in the market for what he calls "Fair Trade Diamonds" that would be certified as guilt and exploitation-free.

International Diamond Conference.

Rapaport annually addresses ethical dilemmas within the industry at the Rapaport International Diamond Conference, where he invites Non-Governmental organizations such as Global Witness and Amnesty International to meet with diamond industry leaders.

Artisanal diggers.

Under his plan, diggers in West Africa will register and be invited to bring diamonds to a public auction. Rapaport says he will pay 5% more than the gems' market value. After independent monitors ensure that diggers are paid about a third of the purchase price, a "development diamond" label will be applied before gems are shipped to jewelers.  Rapaport, in cooperation with the U.S. Agency for International Development and Global Witness invested $60,000 of his own money to create four alluvial mining cooperatives in Sierra Leone, but ultimately sees "Fair-Trade" diamonds as the solutions to West Africa's woes.

Critics.

African People's Solidarity Committee.

Groups such as the African People's Solidarity Committee, who protested at the 2007 Rapaport International Diamond Conference in New York, say that "all diamonds are blood diamonds" and that Rapaport's efforts to help artisanal miners is nothing more than a public relations ploy: The African People's Solidarity Committee rejects this public relations ploy. They are calling for nothing less than all of Africa's resources under the control of the African working class itself. Africa is the richest continent on earth. Africans don't need charity; they need control over their own land.

Charles Wyndham.

Charles Wyndham, owner of PolishedPrices, Rapaport's main competitor in diamond pricing, is often very critical of Martin Rapaport's prices and personality, often referring to him as "Boney", a comparison to Napoleon Bonaparte. Wyndham refers to Martin Rapaport nearly weekly, and criticizes his diamond prices as being too low, having a flawed or arbitrary methodology or too much like Wyndham's own prices. He has also accused Rapaport of having a monopoly on diamond grading with GIA.

Chaim Even-Zohar.

Chaim Even-Zohar, an (now retired) analyst for diamondintelligence.com, a diamond industry news rival to Rapaport's own Rapaport News, is also a frequent critic of Martin Rapaport. Even-Zohar singled Martin out in his editorial about a corruption scandal within the Gemological Institute of America (GIA), where graders were caught giving a pair of diamond earrings intended for a Saudi royal a higher grade than they warranted.  Even-Zohar made note of Rapaport's silence in the case, noting the close relationship Rapaport has with the laboratory, and the exclusive access his customers (diamond traders who use Rapaport's RAPNET trading platform) enjoy with the lab as a consequence. Chaim Even-Zohar even went so far as to say that Martin Rapaport's silence about the case was hypocritical, and undermined the credibility of his trade publications, especially in light of him being an outspoken proponent of transparency.

References.

Pricescope should not be mentioned as a references-They are biased  Correction regarding "Reference #7" and our article entitled The Rap Trap. Our article is not "critical" of Martin Rapaport's Diamond Price Report, but rather of the manner in which some retail jewelers use the contents of the report to mislead consumers.

Martin Rapaport is chairman of the Rapaport Group, founder of the Rapaport Diamond Report and the RapNet online diamond trading network. Rapaport has been called a "maverick" within the diamond industry, and is often recognized for his signature bow tie. Rapoport was an early proponent of the Kimberley Process aimed at limiting the number of "conflict diamonds" in worldwide circulation.


Overview.

Flexity trams and LRVs usually belong to one of six standard models. Manufactured from corrosion-resistant carbon steel and featuring driver's cabs made with glass-reinforced plastic, they have a modular design that is customizable to meet specific operators' demands, including a variety of track gauges and voltages. The modules can also be replaced easily in case of damage.  Flexity trams can be built for both bi-directional and uni-directional systems. A low-floor design with multi-purpose areas is standard on most models, allowing easy access to the vehicles for wheelchair users. There are also high-floor configurations for Flexity LRVs, and can be designed for tram-train operations.

Flexity 2.

As Bombardier's premium tram model, the Flexity 2 tram is a 100% low-floor vehicle with improved corrosion resistance, impact protection, energy efficiency, and a more spacious interior resulting from the reduction of its sidewall widths. It is also compatible with Bombardier's PRIMOVE conductive battery charging system. These vehicles are currently used in Blackpool,, Basel, and Antwerp, among others.

Flexity Classic.

Being of a traditional appearance but with the same design features and technology as other vehicles, the 70% low floor Flexity Classic requires comparatively less maintenance compared to other Flexity tram models. They are primarily focused on providing high-capacity public transport in densely spaced urban areas. These vehicles are currently used in Adelaide, Dresden, Essen, Frankfurt and Kassel, among others.

Flexity Outlook.

With a 100% low floor, the Flexity Outlook range encompasses two different designs: the Eurotram and Cityrunner. Eurotram was originally conceived by Socimi of Italy as a distinctive, train-like tramcar with large windows and modules with both powered and unpowered bogies. Cityrunner has a more conventional appearance, but highly customizable and is future proof with its easily repairable modules. These vehicles are currently used in Strasbourg, Porto, Brussels, and Marseille, among others.

Flexity Swift.

Designed as a bi-directional low or high-floor light rail vehicle, the Flexity Swift was conceived for use on high-speed interurban railways and light metros, with different body lengths and the ability to form multiple unit sets and be constructed to meet high crashworthiness standards. These vehicles are currently used in Cologne, Minneapolis, London, and Manchester, among others.

Flexity Link.

The Flexity Link tram-train has dual voltage capabilities and is compatible with mainline railway regulations (e.g. BOStrab) that permit operation on both urban tram networks and mainline railways, reducing transport infrastructure costs. Although this particular model is only used in Saarbrücken, a recent order has been made for dual-voltage Flexity Swift vehicles in Karlsruhe, where the tram-train concept was pioneered.

Flexity Freedom.

The Flexity Freedom is targeted at the North American market. Like the rest of Bombardier's Flexity models, it is locally made out of 100% low-floor modules, and features the same multiple unit capability as the Flexity Swift, with air conditioning and an easily configurable interior layout. Designed for the Transit City network in Toronto, Kitchener-Waterloo and other LRT projects in Ontario, the model has been selected for Edmonton's Valley Line and is being marketed by Bombardier for future orders within North America.

Customized solutions.

Variants of Bombardier's Flexity trams and streetcars have been specially designed for use in certain cities, such as Berlin, Vienna, and Toronto.

Berlin.

The Flexity Berlin was developed for the Berlin tram network, and is based on the older Incentro model developed by Adtranz. With a full 100% low floor interior, both uni-directional and bi-directional versions are used with either five or seven sections.

Vienna.

The Flexity Wien was developed for the Vienna tram network. Derived from the Flexity Berlin with elements of the Flexity 2 line, it is a five-section, 100% low-floor, uni-directional tram with a floor height of 215 millimeters, permitting sidewalk-level boarding in line with the Siemens ULF.

Toronto.

A derivative of the Flexity Outlook was created for the Toronto streetcar system to replace the aging CLRVs and ALRVs built by UTDC. It is five-section, air-conditioned, built to the TTC's unique track gauge of TTC gauge, and fully compatible with the existing network.

Other models.

Bombardier has also manufactured other models of tram which they do not place in the Flexity family, including the Cobra for Zürich and the Incentro for Nantes and Nottingham. These models are no longer in production and have been succeeded by Flexity vehicles.

Bombardier Flexity is a family of modern trams, streetcars and light rail vehicles manufactured by Bombardier Transportation. As of 2015, more than 3,500 Flexity vehicles are in operation around the world in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and North America in 100 cities among 20 countries internationally. Production of the vehicles is done at Bombardier's global production plants and by local manufacturers worldwide through technology transfer agreements.


Early life.

McLaughlin was born in White Plains, New York, where her father was mayor. She was educated at Middlebury College and after studying drama began performing in Broadway and Off-Broadway productions.

Career.

McLaughlin made her television debut in 1959, with regular role of Eileen Seaton on the NBC daytime soap opera, "Young Doctor Malone". In 1961, she moved to Hollywood and began appearing with guest starring roles on anthology dramas "The Twilight Zone", "Studio One" and "Kraft Television Theatre".

"General Hospital".

From 1963-91, McLaughlin starred in the soap opera "General Hospital" as Nurse Jessie Brewer. She was cast as one of the original leading actresses on the series. Registered nurse Jessie Brewer spoke the opening line of the premiere episode, "Seventh floor, nurses station", a phrase that became a staple in the show's early years. The series' original premise centered around the drama of Brewer and Dr. Steve Hardy's personal lives and experiences at General Hospital.

Awards.

In 1974, McLaughlin earned a nomination for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama for her role. She became the first and only actress nominated for a Golden Globe Award for a role on the daytime soap.  Her character in "General Hospital" was seen less and less during the 1980s. Although she wanted the steady work and to keep her job, her failing health made it difficult. She was eventually demoted to day-player status, but still retained her billing at the top of the cast crawl, behind only John Beradino as Dr. Steve Hardy. Towards the end of her life, she was only shown on the serial a few times a year, with her last appearance on the show aired on February 13, 1991 when Jessie attended the funeral of a character named Dawn Winthrop. On April 26, 1991, McLaughlin died of cancer, aged 62. She is interred next to Jeffrey Hunter in the Glen Haven Memorial Park cemetery in Sylmar, California.  After her death, co-star John Beradino announced at the end of a "General Hospital" episode that McLaughlin had died. However, the character Jessie Brewer was never written out of or referred to; she simply disappeared without explanation. Not until years later, during an anniversary episode, did Dr. Steve Hardy mention that Jessie had died.

Personal life.

McLaughlin was married to actor Robert Lansing from 1956–68, with whom she had a son. After their divorce, she married actor Jeffrey Hunter in February 1969. Three months after the marriage, Hunter died of a cerebral hemorrhage on May 27, aged 42.  McLaughlin's daughter Mary Ann Anderson wrote and published "Portrait of a Soap Star: The Emily McLaughlin Story."

Emily McLaughlin (December 1, 1928 – April 26, 1991) was an American actress known for her long-standing role as original character Nurse Jessie Brewer on the ABC daytime soap opera "General Hospital", from 1963 until 1991.


In Douai, Rome and Rheims.

Born in Staffordshire in 1560, Gifford was the son of a recusant Catholic landowner and former Member of Parliament, John Giffard of Chillington Hall. In 1577, he entered Cardinal Allen's English College at Douai, hoping to become a missionary priest. Two years later, he transferred to the English College at Rome. He was expelled from there, but was offered a second chance by Allen, and in 1582, he returned to Allen's college, which was now based at Rheims. He left again, returned to England, and went back to France, and from there to Rome. In October 1583, he returned to Rheims, and Allen, despite some doubts, readmitted him to the college. Gifford was ordained as a deacon in 1585.

Double agent.

It was around this time that Gifford became friendly with John Savage, a student and former soldier who was involved in a plot to assassinate Queen Elizabeth and put Mary, Queen of Scots, on the throne. According to Savage's confession in English State Papers, Savage had agreed in the presence of Gilbert Gifford, William Gifford (Gilbert's cousin) and Christopher Hodgson (Gilbert's close friend) to carry out this assassination. In October 1585 Gifford left Rheims again and went to Paris, where he met Thomas Morgan, an agent of Mary, and Charles Paget, another conspirator in the plot to assassinate the Queen. In December he crossed over to the port of Rye in England, where he was arrested and brought to London for questioning by Sir Francis Walsingham, head of the Queen's security forces.  In the course of the interrogation, or beforehand, Gifford agreed to act as double agent. Walsingham gave him the code name No. 4. He used several aliases, such as Colerdin, Pietro and Cornelys. He visited Mary, Queen of Scots, during her imprisonment in Chartley Hall in Staffordshire. He quickly gained her trust and took the role of smuggling encrypted letters to and from her, concealing them in beer barrels. The letters were secretly handed to Walsingham and decoded, and led to the arrest and execution of Anthony Babington and the other conspirators, as well as to the execution of Queen Mary.

Fateful flight to France.

Knowing that the Babington Plot would fail, Gifford departed for France without Walsingham's permission. In a letter dated 2 August 1586, Walsingham wrote: "Sorry I am that Gilbert Gifford is absent. I marvel greatly how this humour of estranging himself cometh upon him." He was ordained as a priest in Rheims in March 1587. At least nominally a Catholic, Gifford opposed both the Jesuits and the proposed Spanish invasion.  In late 1587 in Paris, he was arrested in a brothel, being found in bed with a woman and a male servant of the Earl of Essex. Initially placed in the Bishop's prison, his captors considered sending him back to Walsingham. Eventually he was transferred to the Bastille to await trial. A record of his interrogation shows that he tried to implicate Morgan and Paget in double dealings. In August 1589 he was brought before the court and sentenced to twenty year's imprisonment for acting against the interests of the Catholic Church. At that time Paris was in the control of the Catholic League, which had risen against the French King. While in prison his health deteriorated. At the Battle of Ivry in March 1590 the army of the League was annihilated, and the King marched towards Paris, determined to starve the capital into submission. The siege lasted until August and caused a famine. Gifford died a few months later, in November 1590.

Assessment.

While Gifford is universally acknowledged as a double agent, his ultimate loyalties are often perceived to be in favour of Walsingham and Queen Elizabeth, rather than Mary, Queen of Scots. This supposition sits uneasily with the facts of his Catholicism, his flight from England when the Babington Plot was thwarted, and Walsingham's disapproval of his emigration. The English ambassador in Paris, Sir Edward Stafford went through Gifford's papers after his arrest in 1587 and concluded that: "He had showed himself to be the most notable double, treble villain that ever lived." One historian has suggested that in fact Gifford was working for the assassination of Elizabeth.

Gilbert Gifford (c. November 1560–November 1590) was a double agent who worked for Sir Francis Walsingham and played a role in the uncovering of the Babington Plot. Shortly before his death in Paris, he was ordained as a Catholic priest in Rheims. His true allegiances, whether to Queen Elizabeth I or to Mary, Queen of Scots, and the Catholic cause – are unclear.


Ecology.

The dense mountain forest sits at an altitude of between above sea level, and has a mean annual rainfall of. In addition to rainfall, Cal Madow receives additional precipitation in the form of fog and winter rains, which sustain isolated forests of juniperus, buxus and others. Mist also appears to be important in the distribution of juniperus ("dayib"), one of the species locals use for timber. For timber production, the buxus ("dhoqos"), buxus and celtis ("boodaar") poles are cut from living trees in the evergreen forest. The discovery of the locust bean ("ceratonia"), lavenders and many other plant species has emphasized the many links the Cal Madow highlands have with the Mediterranean region. The Lamadaya waterfalls has one of the best-known sceneries in Cal Madow.  Despite the current changes in land use, Cal Madow has internationally valuable unexploited mineral deposits and unique natural habitats. It is considered a key area for oil exploration, and has a petroleum system identical to, and formerly contiguous with, those within the Republic of Yemen. Florally, Cal Madow has approximately 1,000 plant species, 200 of which are only found on this mountain range. The flora of Somalila, much of which constitutes unique genetic resources, contains more than 3000 species of vascular plants, and is thus much richer than that of the Sahel region in general. Of the 156 plant families observed in Somalia, about 21% are restricted to the northern part of the country, while 11% are found in the south. Somalia houses a greater number of endemic plant species, many of which grow in the northern and eastern regions, notably in Cal Madow. Most of these species are herbs not found anywhere else in the world.  Cal Madow and adjacent areas also have richer fauna than many other parts of Horn of Africa, and harbor some of the rarest and most localized of Somali endemic animal species. Here, Warsangli linnet ("Carduelis johannis"), pigeons ("acanthus olivae") and golden-winged grosbeaks can be observed, as can antelopes such as the beira ("dorcatragus megalotis"), and different subspecies of gazelles.

Botanical survey.

In January 1995, a team of botanists led by Dr. Mats Thulin of Uppsala University in Sweden visited the Cal Madow range on behalf of the Flora Somalia Project based in Uppsala. The study they conducted under the guidance of Somali Prof. Ahmed Warfa (Department of Botany and Range, Somali National University) constituted the most extensive botanical survey ever done in the area, with about eight new species of plant discovered in the process.  Furthermore, the area houses an important germplasm, which requires protection from overexploitation and destruction by humans. On the basis of the recent botanical survey in Cal Madow, the team recommended that the local forest should be conserved as a national monument, as it plays an important role in the mountain range's ecosystem and represents a valuable natural resource.  In addition, the forests offer unique opportunities for education and research. The agricultural benefit of clearing the forests, on the other hand, are negligible. The development of a wildlife reserve in these areas is under way and implemented by ECOTERRA Intl. together with the Calmadow Trust. International support should encourage the development of a study center, which would increase awareness of the value of the forest and provide long-term employment benefits. Some of the degraded forest areas could thereby be brought to a more natural state, while other areas would be developed for timber, fuelwood and honey production. Improved in the efficiency of the present farming, education and medical facilities are also crucial to the success of the proposed wildlife reserve.

Threats.

Cal Madow's environment has suffered greatly in recent years along with its ecology, much of which is unique to it. Only a fraction of the flora remains, and its distribution remains sparse and unprotected. Although local knowledge of natural resources endemic to the area is great, agricultural and social projects as well as United Nations and foreign-aided development schemes usually failed to consider or make use of this insight. However since 1989, in the core zone of the "Juniperus procera" mountainous forest, ECOTERRA Intl, based on a request of the late Sultan of the Warsangeli clan, Suldan Abdisallam, renewed by his successor, Suldan Said, maintains a low key environmental awareness and nature protection programme through local groups. In addition, the growing of drought-resistant Rye and permaculture have been introduced to the local farmers by the organization.  Detailed further conservation studies of the Cal Madow mountain range are needed to ascertain the present status of these areas, and to provide guidelines for and highlight the benefits of sustainable agricultural practices in the face of scarce forest resources. With a lack of proper utilization and conservation, the local plant life is threatened and therefore so is the wildlife which depends on it. The numerous plants indigenous to Cal Madow ensure that a proper study and assessment would yield benefits both to the region's human inhabitants and medical science in general.

Cal Madow (also Calmadow, Al Madow, Al Medu, or Al Mado; ; ) is a mountain range in Somalia. It stretches across an area between the west of Bosaso, Somalia, to northwest of Erigavo. Its peak sits at almost in Shimbiris, northwest of Erigavo. Cal Madow was a tourist destination in the late 1980s. The local population of the Sanaag region is primarily responsible for preserving the habitat, which continues to face the risk of deforestation.


Mechanisms.

Reperfusion of ischemic tissues is often associated with microvascular injury, particularly due to increased permeability of capillaries and arterioles that lead to an increase of diffusion and fluid filtration across the tissues. Activated endothelial cells produce more reactive oxygen species but less nitric oxide following reperfusion, and the imbalance results in a subsequent inflammatory response. The inflammatory response is partially responsible for the damage of reperfusion injury. White blood cells, carried to the area by the newly returning blood, release a host of inflammatory factors such as interleukins as well as free radicals in response to tissue damage. The restored blood flow reintroduces oxygen within cells that damages cellular proteins, DNA, and the plasma membrane. Damage to the cell's membrane may in turn cause the release of more free radicals. Such reactive species may also act indirectly in redox signaling to turn on apoptosis. White blood cells may also bind to the endothelium of small capillaries, obstructing them and leading to more ischemia. Another hypothesis would be that normally, tissues contain free radical scavengers to avoid damage by oxidizing species normally contained in the blood. Ischemic tissue would have decreased function of these scavengers because of cell injury. Once blood flow is reestablished, oxygen species contained in the blood will damage the ischemic tissue because the function of the scavengers is decreased.  Reperfusion injury plays a major part in the biochemistry of hypoxic brain injury in stroke. Similar failure processes are involved in brain failure following reversal of cardiac arrest; control of these processes is the subject of ongoing research. Repeated bouts of ischemia and reperfusion injury also are thought to be a factor leading to the formation and failure to heal of chronic wounds such as pressure sores and diabetic foot ulcer. Continuous pressure limits blood supply and causes ischemia, and the inflammation occurs during reperfusion. As this process is repeated, it eventually damages tissue enough to cause a wound.  In prolonged ischemia (60 minutes or more), hypoxanthine is formed as a breakdown product of ATP metabolism. The enzyme "xanthine dehydrogenase" acts in reverse, that is as a "xanthine oxidase" as a result of the higher availability of oxygen. This oxidation results in molecular oxygen being converted into highly reactive superoxide and hydroxyl radicals. Xanthine oxidase also produces uric acid, which may act as both a prooxidant and as a scavenger of reactive species such as peroxynitrite. Excessive nitric oxide produced during reperfusion reacts with superoxide to produce the potent reactive species peroxynitrite. Such radicals and reactive oxygen species attack cell membrane lipids, proteins, and glycosaminoglycans, causing further damage. They may also initiate specific biological processes by redox signaling.  Reperfusion can cause hyperkalemia.  Reperfusion injury is a primary concern in liver transplantation surgery.

Treatment.

A study of aortic cross-clamping, a common procedure in cardiac surgery, demonstrated a strong potential benefit with further research ongoing.

Therapeutic hypothermia.

An intriguing area of research demonstrates the ability of a reduction in body temperature to limit ischemic injuries. This procedure is called therapeutic hypothermia, and it has been shown by a number of large, high-quality randomised trials to significantly improve survival and reduce brain damage after birth asphyxia in newborn infants, almost doubling the chance of normal survival. For a full review see Hypothermia therapy for neonatal encephalopathy.  However, the therapeutic effect of hypothermia does not confine itself to metabolism and membrane stability. Another school of thought focuses on hypothermia's ability to prevent the injuries that occur after circulation returns to the brain, or what is termed reperfusion injuries. In fact an individual suffering from an ischemic insult continues suffering injuries well after circulation is restored. In rats it has been shown that neurons often die a full 24 hours after blood flow returns. Some theorize that this delayed reaction derives from the various inflammatory immune responses that occur during reperfusion. These inflammatory responses cause intracranial pressure, pressure which leads to cell injury and in some situations cell death. Hypothermia has been shown to help moderate intracranial pressure and therefore to minimize the harmful effect of a patient's inflammatory immune responses during reperfusion. Beyond this, reperfusion also increases free radical production. Hypothermia too has been shown to minimize a patient's production of deadly free radicals during reperfusion. Many now suspect it is because hypothermia reduces both intracranial pressure and free radical production that hypothermia improves patient outcome following a blockage of blood flow to the brain.

Hydrogen sulfide treatment.

There are some preliminary studies in mice that seem to indicate that treatment with hydrogen sulfide (HS) can have a protective effect against reperfusion injury.

Cyclosporin.

In addition to its well-known immunosuppressive capabilities, the one-time administration of cyclosporin at the time of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been found to deliver a 40 percent reduction in infarct size in a small group proof of concept study of human patients with reperfusion injury published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2008.  Cyclosporin has been confirmed in studies to inhibit the actions of cyclophilin D, a protein which is induced by excessive intracellular calcium flow to interact with other pore components and help open the MPT pore. Inhibiting cyclophilin D has been shown to prevent the opening of the MPT pore and protect the mitochondria and cellular energy production from excessive calcium inflows.  However, the studies CIRCUS and CYCLE (published in September 2015 and February 2016 respectively) looked at the use of cyclosporin as a one time IV dose given right before perfusion therapy (PCI). Both studies found there is no statistical difference in outcome with cyclosporin administration. Research is ongoing.  Reperfusion leads to biochemical imbalances within the cell that lead to cell death and increased infarct size. More specifically, calcium overload and excessive production of reactive oxygen species in the first few minutes after reperfusion set off a cascade of biochemical changes that result in the opening of the so-called mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPT pore) in the mitochondrial membrane of cardiac cells.  The opening of the MPT pore leads to the inrush of water into the mitochondria, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction and collapse. Upon collapse, the calcium is then released to overwhelm the next mitochondria in a cascading series of events that cause mitochondrial energy production supporting the cell to be reduced or stopped completely. The cessation of energy production results in cellular death. Protecting mitochondria is a viable cardioprotective strategy.  In 2008, an editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine called for more studies to determine if cyclosporin can become a treatment to ameliorate reperfusion injury by protecting mitochondria. To that end, in 2011 the researchers involved in the original 2008 NEJM study initiated a phase III clinical study of reperfusion injury in 1000 myocardial infarction patients in centers throughout Europe. Results of that study were announced in 2015 and indicated that "intravenous ciclosporin did not result in better clinical outcomes than those with placebo and did not prevent adverse left ventricular remodeling at 1 year". This same process of mitochondrial destruction through the opening of the MPT pore is implicated in making traumatic brain injuries much worse. Ciclosporin is currently in a phase II/III (adaptive) clinical study in Europe to determine its ability to ameliorate neuronal cellular damage in traumatic brain injury.

TRO40303.

TRO40303 is a new cardioprotective compound that was shown to inhibit the MPT pore and reduce infarct size after ischemia-reperfusion. It was developed by Trophos company and currently is in Phase I clinical trial.

Stem cell therapy.

Recent investigations suggest a possible beneficial effect of mesenchymal stem cells on heart and kidney reperfusion injury.

Superoxide dismutase.

Superoxide dismutase is an effective anti-oxidant enzyme which converts superoxide anions to water and hydrogen peroxide. Recent researches have shown significant therapeutic effects on pre-clinical models of reperfusion injury after ischemic stroke.

Metformin.

A series of 2009 studies published in the Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology suggest that Metformin may prevent cardiac reperfusion injury by inhibition of Mitochondrial Complex I and the opening of MPT pore and in rats.

Cannabinoids.

A study published in 2012 show that the synthetic analogue of the phytocannabinoid Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), Δ-Tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ-THCV) and its metabolite 11-OH-Δ-THCV, prevent hepatic ischaemia/reperfusion injury by decreasing oxidative stress and inflammatory responses through cannabinoid CB2 receptors and thereby decrease tissue injury and inflammation with a protective effect against liver damage. Pretreatment with a CB2 receptor antagonist attenuated the protective effects of Δ-THCV, while a CB1 antagonist tended to enhance it.  An earlier study published in 2011 found, that Cannabidiol (CBD) also protects against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury by attenuating inflammatory signaling and response of oxidative and nitrative stress, and thereby cell death and tissue injury, but independent from classical CB1 and CB2 receptors.

Reperfusion protection in obligate hibernators.

Obligatory hibernators such as the ground squirrels show resistance to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in liver, heart, and small intestine during the hibernation season when there is a switch from carbohydrate metabolism to lipid metabolism for cellular energy supply. This metabolic switch limits anaerobic metabolism and the formation of lactate, a herald of poor prognosis and multi-organ failure (MOF) after I/R injury. In addition, the increase in lipid metabolism generates ketone bodies and activates peroxisome proliferating-activated receptors (PPARs), both of which have been shown to be protective against I/R injury.

Reperfusion injury, sometimes called ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) or reoxygenation injury, is the tissue damage caused when blood supply returns to tissue ("re-" + "perfusion") after a period of ischemia or lack of oxygen (anoxia or hypoxia). The absence of oxygen and nutrients from blood during the ischemic period creates a condition in which the restoration of circulation results in inflammation and oxidative damage through the induction of oxidative stress rather than (or along with) restoration of normal function.